B 3 33fl

m

BJOLOGY

LJBRARY

G

THE

SYDENHAM SOCIETY,

INSTITUTED

MDCCCXLIlt

LONDON

MDCCCLVII.

MANUAL

OF

ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE PARASITES

ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE" PARASITES

HUMAN BODY,

A MANUAL

OF THEDl

NATURAL HISTORY, DIAGNOSIS, AND TREATMENT.

BY

DR. FREDERICK KUCHENMEISTER,

YSICIANTO HIS SEBENE HIGHNESS THE DUKE OP SAXE MEININGEN; CORRESPONDING MEMBER
OF THE ISIS SOCIETY AND OF THE NATURAL HISTORY AND MEDICAL SOCIETY OF
DRESDEN; THE IMPERIAL SOCIETY OF PHYSICIANS AT VIENNA^ ETC. ETC.

•

TRANSLATED FROM THE SECOND GERMAN EDITION, BY

EDWIN LANKESTER, M.D., F.R.S.

VOL. II.

ANIMAL PARASITES WITH STRIPED MUSCULAR
FIBRES AND VEGETABLE PARASITES.

WITH SIX CQPPEB.-PLATES, >, » "

LONDON:

PRINTED FOR THE SYDENHAM SOCIETY.

MDCCC LVII.

[The riyht of Reproduction and Translation, is reserved.]

PRINTED BY J. E. ADLAK1),
BAHTHOLOMEW CLOSE.

RArtY
G

CONTENTS OF VOLUME II.

ANIMAL PARASITES.

Second Group — Parasites with distinctly striated muscular fibres

First Principal Division— ARTICULATA . . . . . 1

First Class— ARACHNIDA . . . . . .3

First Order — ACARINA . . . . . 5

First Family — LINGUATULINA, PENTASTOMA . . .6

Linguatula (Pentastomum) constricta . . 8

Linguatulaferox, Pentastomum denticulatum . . .11

Second Family — SIMONIDA . - . , . 14

Acarus Folliculorum, Pimple mite . . . .15

Third Family — ACARIDA, true Itch-mites . . 19

Acarus Scabiei, the Itch-mite . . . . .19

Mites accidentally transferred from Animals to Man . • ." . 50

Sarcoptes Catorum . . . . . .51

Sarcoptes Canis . . . . . 51

Sarcoptes Equi . . . . . .52

Sarcoptes Bovis . . . . . 55

Sarcoptes Ovis . . . . . .56

Family of the Ticks — IXODIDA . . . 59

Ixodes Ricinus . . . . % .60

locodes marginatus . . . . .60

Ixodes Americanus . . . . 60

Argas Persicus . . . . . .61

Family of the GAMASIDA, Beetle-lice . . . 62

Sub-family — DERMANYSSUS

Dermanyssus Avium . . . . . .62

Mite described by Busk . . . . 64

Mite in Prurigo senilis . . . . .64

Cheese-mites, &c. . . . . 65

Family of the Grass and Plant -mites — ORIBATIDA = LEPTUS . . 65

Sub-family — LEPTUS . . . . . .66

Leptus aulumnalis, Bete rouge of Martinique . . 66

240064

viii CONTENTS.

PAGE

Fourth Class of the ARTICULAT A— INSECTA, the Insects . 68

First sub-class — Insects without a metamorphosis = AMETABOLA . . 75

First and only Order — APTERA, Wingless Insects . . .75

First Family — PEDICULIDA, Lice . . . 76

Pediculus Capitis, the common Touse . .76

Pediculus Vestimenti, the body-louse . . 81

Second Family — PHTHIRIUS, Crab-louse . . . .82

Phthirius Pubis, the common crab-louse . . 82

Second Sub-class — Insects with an incomplete metamorphosis = HEMIMETABOLA 84

Order — K.HYNGOTA = HEMIPTERA. . . . 84

Fifth Family — GEOCERES, Land-bugs . . . .85

Third Sub-family — ACANTHIDA, Soft-bugs . . 85

Acanthia lectularia, the common Bed-bug . . .85

Third Sub-class — Insects with a complete metamorphosis = HOLOMETABOLA . 87

Order — DlPTEEA two-winged flies . . . . .87

Sub-order — APHANIPTERA

First and only Family — PULICIDA, the Fleas . . 88

Pulex irritans, the common flea . . . .89

Pulex penetrans, the land-flea . . . . . 91

Sub-Order — BRACHYCERA, true Flies . . . . -92

Family of Bot-flies— (ESTRIDEA . . . . . 92

Family of the Flies— Muse ID A . . . . .95

Anthomycida, Flower-flies . . . . . . 95

Creophila, Flesh-flies . . . . .96

Musca vomitoria, the great Blue-bottle . . . . 97

Musca carnaria, the common Flesh-fly . . . 98

The larvae of Musca domestica and M. stabulans . . . 98

Sub-Order— NEMOCERA. . . . . . .99

Tipulida, Gnats . . . . 99

Simulida, Mosquitos ..... 99

Doubtful Parasites . . . . . . . 100

Dactylius aculeatus . . . . .100

Spiroptera Hominis . . . . . . 100

Diceras rude . . . . . .100

Diacanthus polycephalus . . . . . ' . 100

CONTENTS. . ix

PAGE

Sagittula Hominis . . . . . . ' 100

Ascnris alata . . . . . . 100

Tipula oleracea . . . . . .100

Filaria hominis bronchialis . . . . 100

Hexathyridium venarum ..... 100

Polystoma pinguicola . . . . . 100

Ery stalls tenax . . . . . .101

Ptinusfur . . . . . . 101

Clerus formicarius , . . . . .101

Articulata inflicting wounds on man . . . . 102

The scorpions . . . . . . 102

The true house-spiders . . . . . 102

The hunting spiders . . . . . 102

The bees, wasps, and hornets . . . . 103

Snakes, toads, and frogs . . . . . 104

Gordius aquations . . . . . .105

Hcemopsis vorax . , . . . 105

Bombyx processioned, the Processionary Caterpillar . . . 105

VEGETABLE PARASITES.

GENERAL PART . . . . . . 113

SPECIAL PART . . . . . . .119

A. ALGJS

General Remarks . . . . . . . 119

i. Cryptococcus Cerevisia, ferment or yeast-fungus . . . 120

Cholera fungus . . . . . 211

ii. Merismopadia Ventriculi — Sarcina Ventriculi . . . 124

in. Leptothrix buccalis . . . . . 129

iv. Leptomitus urophilus ..... 131

v Leptomitus Hannoverii . . . . . . 132

vi. Leptomitus Epidermidis ..... 132

vn. Leptomitus Uteri . . . . . . 133

vin. Leptomitus Mud uterini . . . . .133

ix. Leptomitus Oculi . . . . . . 134

x. Oscillaria Intestini . . . . .136

B. FUNGI.

General Remarks . . . . . . 137

TRICHOPHYT^E.

i. Trichophyton tonsurans, Malmsten = Fungus of Porrigo . .140

Trychomyces tonsurans . . . . . 140

liar. Mycoderma Plicce. Potonicce . . . .147

lib. Trichophyton sporuloides . . . . 148

Appendix ..... 149

in. Trichophyton (?) Ulcerum . 152

CONTENTS.

MlCROSPORE^E.

iv. Microsporon Audouini = Fungus of Porrigo decalvans , ,153

v. Microsporon mentagrophytes, Fungus of Mentagra . . .155

vi. Microsporen furfur = Mycoderma Eickstaedtii, Fungus of Pityriasis

versicolor . . . . . .158

vn. Achorion Schoenleinii = Fungus Poriginis, Fungus of Favus . 162
Appendix . " . . . . . .187

Literature . . . . . 189

vin. Oidium albicans, Fungus of Thrush . . . .190

Experimental Appendix . . . . 217

Berg's experiments on the growth of the Thrush-Fungus . 217

Parasites resembling the Thrush-Fungus . . . 223

ix. Bennett's Fungus of the lungs .... 224

x. Aspergilli species . . . . . 225

Fungus in external ear ..... 225

xi. Aspergilli species . . . . . . 226

Fungus in external ear ..... 226

xn. Aspergilli (?) species, Nail-Fungus .... 227

TRICHOSPOREI . . . . . . 231

CRYPTOSPOREI ..... 231

xin. Mucor mucedo . . . . . . 23 1

xiv. Puccinia Favi ...... 232

PSEUDO-PARASITES. Belonging to the Class of Algae and Fungi . 234

Vegetable parasite from the Vagina . . . 235
Author's experiments on the parasiticidal effects of various urgently

recommended remedies . . . . 236

Conclusion . . . . . .241

TRANSLATOR'S APPENDIX.
Appendix A.

i. Note by Mr. Busk on a Case of Tick in the Sole of the Foot . . 242

ii. Note on the Tampan from Dr. Livingston's work on South Africa . 243

in. Figure of Acarus Scabiei and its mandibles . . . 244

Appendix B.

i. Note on Brachycera by the Author .... 245

ii. Case of Living Animals parasitic on the Human Body, by Dr. Green . 249
in. Description of Larva, &c. found on the Human Body, by Dr. Arthur

Farre . , . . . , 252

Appendix C.

i. Notes by Author ...... 256

n. On a Conferva found in the Intestines, by Dr. Arthur Farre . . 265

in. On the Husks Oatmeal in the Human Intestines, by Dr. H. Munroe . 269

iv. On a Fungus in the Human Ear, by Mr. Grove . . . 270

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

ANIMAL PARASITES.

PLATE (TAB.) VIII.
(This Plate, and the explanation of the figures 1 to 10, are given in the first volume.)

Fig. 11 — 13. Linguatula ferox = Pentastomum denticulatum (Zenker's), completed

according to my comparative examination.
,, 11. Linguatula ferox (complete).

a. Glutinous oral ring.
,, 11. b. Apparatus of hooks at rest,
y. Covering of the point.

c. Intestine.

d. Clearer spot, possibly an opening on the abdominal surface.

e. Anus.

/. Rows of hooks.
g. Rows of pores between the last.
„ 12. Isolated apparatus of hooks.

a. The peculiar claw or hook.

b. Chitinous base which bears this hook.

c. Thread or flap which supports the covering of the point d.

«. Hypomochlion of the base of the hook a, by which it is balanced in the

fork b.

/3. Free end of the base of the hook.
y. The base of the hook, which, in gliding in and out, presses away the

covering of the point.
,, 13. Hook apparatus in action. The covering of the point d has lost the point of the

hook a.

,, 17. Linguatula (Pentastomum) constricta (of Siebold), after Bruner.
,, 18. The same, after more recent drawings, by Bilharz.
„ 19. An isolated hook of this animal, after the same.
,, 20. Magnified view of his head cut off, with the mouth and its four hooks, after

the same.

Figs. 14 — 16. Acarus folliculorum.
Fig. 14. A young, six-legged animal, after Simon.
„ 15. An eight-legged specimen, after Simon.

rt, a. Papillae on the side of the mouth b.

c. The feet with three bristles or claws delineated on the free ends.

xii EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Fig. 16. Still more mature, eight-legged example. The bases supporting the feet and
the hook in the centre of the free ends of the feet. The two side-hooks
of Simon are not true bristles or hooks, but the projecting points of the half
moon-shaped free ends of the feet, as is still more clearly represented in
fig. 16' a.

'PLATE ix.

Figs. 1 — 7. Itch mites, after Gudden.
Fig. 1. Female viewed from the back.
,, 2. „ „ abdomen.

,, 3. Male viewed from the abdomen.

„ 4. Group of mites, with eggs in various stages of development.
,, 5. Cast-off skin, remaining behind in a passage after the first moulting.
„ 6. Six-legged mite, as, in order to moult, it conceals itself in its gallery, and draws

near to it masses of particles and repairs itself in quiet.
„ 7. Eight-legged mite, which has just moulted in the gallery.
„ 8. Lepius autumnalis, after a drawing kindly given to me by Prof. Leuckart.
„ 9. Male louse from the head, writh the system of tracheae and the respiratory

stigmata.

Fig. 9 a. Termination of the head and working apparatus.
,, 9 b. An isolated and magnified antenna.
„ 10. Female body louse.
,, 11. Its masticatory apparatus.

„ 12. Egg of a louse, found on the hair of a Peruvian mummy. The cover has unfor-
tunately been neglected to be drawn. The description of the cover of the egg
of this louse is found in the text in the place relating to it.

„ 13. Female louse, with the system of trachea, and the two muscles moving the
hooks of the second and third pairs of feet at a, which give the last joints
the appearance of a bell.
„ 14. Head of the flea.

„ 15. His double, at first spirally wound-up penis.
Figs. 16—18. Larvae of the Gad-Fly of Cervus Capreolus.
Fig. 16. The same larva seen from the abdominal side, and magnified, a, kind of

depression, in which the anal aperture opens.

b. The four bundles of muscles which shine through the body of the larva, and
ce, two small brown valves.

„ 17. The same, seen from behind. On the head is seen two small, scarcely per-
ceptible dark brown hooks, also the fine prickles on the segments, and a dark
spot on the rounded-off back part of the tail.
„ 18. A piece of a trachea with the little valve still fastened on it.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. xiii

VEGETABLE PARASITES.

PLATE (TAB.) l.—ALGJE.

Fig. 1. Cryptococcus Cerevisia, discharged from the stomach of a patient during
vomiting.

a, 6, c. Young germs adhering to the mother-cells.
d, e. Particularly distinct nucleus, or the internal vesicle.
/. The same from beer.
ff. The same from diabetic urine. (Robin.)

,, I'. Cryptococcus guttulatus, from the intestinal canal of graminivora, sometimes
found in the human intestines.

a. An isolated specimen.

b. Two associated cells.

c. A large cell, with a small one on its side.

d. e. Larger and more advanced stages. (Robin.)

,, 2. Merismopcedia Ventriculi = Sarcina, discharged by vomiting.

a. Prismatic al or cubical masses, divided by four furrows.

d. The same united by means of amorphous connective substance.

g. The same, representing an irregular mass.

h. Ditto, but with cells which only show two divisions.

i. Round or oval isolated cells, with 2 or 3 granules.

I, m, n, o. Without a nucleus.

p, s, v. Coloured masses, q, with ovoid elongated cells 1

k, y. Blood coloured cells, with mixed substances J Robm-
„ 3. Leptothrix buccalis. In the scraped-off coat of the tongue, bodies commonly

found with a central epithelial substance (epithelial processes) from the papillae

of the tongue, with enveloping granular masses and thread-shaped fungi on

the periphery. (Wedl.)
„ 4. Leptothrix buccalis, with oral mucus from the coating of the tongue, with

epithelial cells (a), mucus globules (i), granules and elements of Algae (c).

The same free in saliva (h, h}.
,, 5. Leptothrix buccalis. From the ordinary coating of the tongue.

a. Thallus of bundles of filaments.

b. Bundle of filamentous fungi themselves; amongst both, fine root-shaped
corpuscles without transverse partitions.

,, 6. Larger bundle of this plant from the tartar of the teeth, implanted in fine

granular masses («). A little full of roots with fine corpuscles (6). (Fig. 4 — 6

after Robin.)
„ 7. Leptomitus Hannoveri, from ulcerated mucous membrane of the oesophagus, and

from typhus patients. (Robin.)
„ 8. Ramifications of the same.
,, 9. Leptomitus of Gubler, from a severe shot-wound in the palm of the hand.

a b, d. Single or ramified, articulated filaments.

c. c. Spores always associated in two. (Robin.)

xiv EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Fig. 10. Leptomitus Uteri of Lebert.

a, a. Mycelium tubes without partition-walls.
h, h, h. With partition-walls.
e, e. Fine granules in the interior of the cells.
*> d>f> 9- Spores in various conditions.

PLATE {TAB.) II.— A. ALG^E.

,, 1. Wilkinson's Alga.

a, a. Two primary filaments, which divide into secondary ones.

c. A flask-shaped swelling on the one end of the filament.
c'. The same in the middle of the filament. (Sporangium ?)

d. Round bodies with broken secondary filaments.
,, 2 and 3. Hannover's Algae in the eye.

a. Corpuscles with and without nuclei after treatment with acetic acid.
a'. Corpuscle with a smaller nucleus proceeding from it.

b. The filaments treated with acetic acid, their outline resembles certain fresh-

water Algae.

B. FUNGI.

„ 1. Malmsten's Trichophyton tonmrans. Hair covered with spores.

„ 2. The same, isolated rows of spores.

„ 3. Hair with spores from a Plica Polonica.

a. Spores breaking out from the hair.

b. The same enlarged. (Gunsburg.)

,, 4. Hair-root with the fungus, of which some break through the hair. (Gunsburg.)
,, 5. Contour of the hair with the fungus a, and breaking up of the hair b. (Gunsburg.)

c. Spores on the epithelium cells.
6. Hair after Hebra-Wedl much split up.

a. Spores with bright granules, in groups on the hair.

b. Shorter, bifurcating Thallus thread.

,, 7. Champignon des ulceres from Lebert, found in a crust of pus.

a, a. Small sporules.

b, b. Sporules with granules.

c, c. Rows of spores.

e. e. Molecular granules. (Lebert, Atlas XXII, fig. 7.)

PLATE (TAB.) III.

1. Microsporon mentayrophytes, after Gudden-Beyer. Slender filaments, with spores

variously arranged.

2. Ditto, thicker threads, with partition-wall.

3. Ditto, more enlarged, without partition-walls.

4. Microspor on furfur, after Wedl.

a. Spores with bright oily nuclei.

b. Projecting from a longer process, two spores melting away.

c. An accumulated group of spores.

d. d. Spores arranged like a rosary for a shorter extent.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. xv

Fig. 5. Hair with Favus Fungus : Achorion Schonleinii.

a, b. Groups of spores projecting on the surface of the hair.

e, e, i. Rows of spores, which anastomose or appear 'bri the surface of the hair.

d. Special forms of spore.

e,f. Spores on the hroken-up root of the hair.

g, h. Broken-up root of the end of the hair with spores amongst the lamellae.
„ 6. Crust of skin taken from the neighbourhood of a favus crust.

a. Opening in the skin of a sebaceous gland, or of a fine hair-follicle.

£,/. Spores adhering to the lamellae of the skin.
», 7. Favus crust of the natural size.

a. Small favi, four in number, each penetrated by a hair.

6. The same seen from beneath.

e. A crust with concentric layers penetrated by three hairs.
d. The same seen from beneath. (Fig. 5 — 7 after Robin.)

„ 8. Network of threads of the thallus of achorion, after Wedl.

,, 9. The same spores in various forms, after Wedl.

„ 10. a, b, c. Various thallus threads, after the same.

,, 11 a. Transverse section through the middle of a small crust of favus, four times

magnified.
b. Spores germinating on an apple. (Remak.)

PLATE (TAB.) IV.

1. A hair from a favus treated with alkali, and with gas in the interior.

2. The same with thallus threads (450.) (Wedl.)

3. Thrush-fungus = Oidium albicans.

a. Fragment of a separated thrush layer implanted in masses of epithelium.

b. Spores.

d. Thallus threads with partition-walls.

e. The free end of a thallus thread somewhat swollen.

g. The same as before with constrictions, without partition-walls.

4. Part of an aphthous crust cut off on the third day of the disease, formed of epithelial

cells and masses of spores proceeding from a single thallus.

5. Perfectly developed thallus threads of Oidium, with partition-walls and

constrictions (a, a), which at the end of the tubes become coarser (£), with fine
granulations (c), and in parts ramifications (d), and with small fresh branches.
The origin of the thallus is situated sometimes in a spore heap (b~), and begins
from an elongated spore (g}, the free end is sometimes swollen (i) and pre-
viously notched (£). Spores, which germinated on a piece of aphthous mem-
brane preserved on a moistened glass (h).

6. Ends of perfectly developed thallus threads (460).

7. The same under a higher magnifier (780).

8. Filaments with granulating cells (a), and without granulations (£, c), from the

aphthous membrane of an adult. (Fig. 3 — 8, after Robin and Wedl.)

xvi EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE (TAB.) V.

Fig. 1. Wedl's fungus, from the vomited matters of Dr. Herzfelder's patient.

a. Thicker thallus threads.

b. Thinner thallus threads,

c. Three threads proceeding from one cell.

d. e,f. Club-shaped primary cells with thallus threads.

g. Stretched cells of a thallus thread, with nuclei inside towards the junction

of the articulations.
„ 2. Bennet's fungus, from the expectoration in a case of pneumothorax.

a. Branches with spores.

b. Articulated spores.

c. Spores of various forms.

d. Granulated mother-soil.

,, 3. Mayer's fungus, from the external ear.

a. Simple, not swollen, internally granulated filaments.

b. Developed fungus, with spores on its capitulum.
,, 4. Meissner's nail-fungus.

«. The claw-like, curved, degenerated nail.
, 4'. a. Articulated filaments.

b. Sporangia.

c. Spores.

,, 5. Mucor mucedo. Observed by Sluyter in a cavity in the lungs.
,, 6. Puccinia Favi (Ardsten), after Robin.

a, d. Normal forms.

&. Mass enveloping the fungus,

ff, h. Abnormal forms.

Jc. Puccinia Virgaurea.
„ 7. Fungus of fityriasis versicolor treated with concentrated sulphuric acid and

Syrupus Rubi Idcei.

„ 7'. Copy of the termination of a filament, after Gudden.
,, 8. Parasite found upon the inflamed vagina of a diphtheritic female, by Professor

Greuser (sent by Dr. Zenker, of Dresden). The spores and articulated filaments

are represented.

Tab.

"«&> * ***£©

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o

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,

J ;III

Tab III

Fig. a

Fig.

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FIG 6

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C Loeisl sc

ANIMAL PARASITES.

SECOND GROUP.

PARASITES WITH DISTINCT TRANSVERSELY STRIATED MUSCULAR

FIBRES.

First principal Division— ARTICULATA.

The articulate or jointed animals may be described after
C. Vogt.

Articulata sunt animalia typum bilateralem quoad corporis
siructuram sequentia ; symmetricam organorum positionem stride
observantia ; organa motoria articulata et ex cams interneque
musculosis articulis formata, exhibentia, inque static embryonali
vitellum, embryonis medulla abdominali ex diametro oppositum
prabentia, ita ut embryo vitellum superficie dorsali tangat.
, The Articulata exhibit the following peculiarities :

1. The greatest symmetry in the arrangement of the lateral and
median organs.

2. A transverse division of the body into several rings or zonites,
which in type stand near the Annelidous worms.

3. A dissimilar segmentation in different regions of the body,
which allows us to distinguish, sometimes head, thorax, and
abdomen, sometimes only an abdomen and a head and thorax
fused together (CephaJothorax, in spiders and crabs), sometimes
only a body amalgamated into a single piece (mites).

4. A knotted nervous cord laid upon the inner wall (not at the
back as in the Vertebrata) which forms an oesophageal ring by

1

TAEASITES.

commissures with the cephalic ganglion. The more distinctly
the articulation is marked, the more regular is the formation of
ganglia; the more indistinct the former, the greater is the
fusion of the ganglia into larger masses.

5. A tolerably complicated motor system. — In the first place, a
firm, hard skin, which forms hollow rings or tubes, in the interior
of which the muscles are attached. Here, therefore, we have
the organs of motion inclosed in the interior of the levers to be
moved, whilst in the Vertebrata the muscles are fixed on the
outside of the framework. And whilst in the lower animals we
neither meet with articulated limbs nor with levers united by
articulations, here we meet with limbs which consist of joints
united by articulations (generally ball and socket or hinge
joints), and serve in part for all sorts of movements upon the
earth (hopping, running, springing), in water (swimming), and in
the air (flying), in part for nutritive purposes, for the capture of
prey and as assistants in mastication, and partly for the perception
of the impressions of the senses. They allow the recognition of
the following individual parts :

a. The antenna. — They are sometimes double (an anterior
inner and posterior outer), and sometimes single on each
side, or apparently entirely deficient from being converted into
biting or raptorial organs. They stand before and over the
mouth upon the forehead ; lower down in embryos, and only
advancing upwards by degrees. They are divided into the
shaft (scapus), which is usually composed of several joints, and
the flagellum.

b. The oral organs, which serve for piercing the prey, for
mastication, and closing the mouth, lie round the latter, and
consist originally of four pairs of lateral jaws, the first of which
is always, and the last generally, fused together into an oper-
culum-like lip. In them the following individual parts may
usually be distinguished : a, an upper lip (labrum) ; j3, a pair of
upper jaws or mandibles (mandibula) , sharp, simple, consisting of
a single powerful piece; -y, a pair of lower jaws or maxilla
(maxillae, mdchoires), which usually consist of a shaft or body
(stipes), a lobe, destined either for mastication or concealment, and
an external feeler or palpus; S, a very composite lower lip
(labium) .

c. The masticating feet or foot-jaws (pates-mdchoires), which
form a transition between the organs of motion and nutri-

ARACHNIDA. 3

tion, are wanting in the Insects; they occur ^principally in
animals with a cephalothorax, and are in three pairs.

d. The true legs = feet (pedes) at least in three pairs, con-
sisting of a globular or cylindrical hip-joint (coxa}; the trochanter,
which is immoveably soldered to this; the thigh (femur], the
shank (tibia), and the multi-articulate /O0/ (tarsus).

e. The false ventral or abdominal feet (pedes spurii, fausses-
pattes) on the segments of the abdomen, behind the true legs.
They are wanting in the Arachnida and Insects.

/. In the higher species, the jointed appendages upon the
hack, the wings. Cilia are entirely deficient.

6. A peculiar course of development. — A clear distinction is
produced between the yelk and the germ-foundation from which
the embryo is formed, which is turned with its back towards the
yelk, and not with its ventral surface as in the Vertebrata, and
the organs of which are developed from the ventral side and
finally close towards the back.

The Articulata are divided into four classes : I, Crustacea ;
II, Myriapoda ; III, Arachnida; and, IV, Insecta, of which we
are only interested in the last two.

A. Class I. ARACHNIDA.

Arachnida sunt Articulata inprimis cephalothoracica / in cepha-
lothorace, non in abdomine pedes, plerumque 8, gerentia et antennis
veris, quarum functiones per mandibulas aut forcipes venenatorias
exhibentur, carentia.

We find only a cephalothorax with four, rarely with three
segments, or a single fused mass with oral organs ; with four
pairs of legs on the middle of the body; with the anus and
sexual orifice on the abdomen.

In detail the Arachnida consist of the following parts :

1. The skin consists of a soft, coriaceous, rarely brittle, exten-
sible, but not contractile, chitinous mass. It is rarely naked,
generally hairy, bristly, scaly, or furnished with jointed appen-
dages, and also with pigment-granules or vesicles.

2. The legs consist of a roundish coxa with a short trochanter,
a powerful femur, a long tibia, and generally a two-jointed
tarsus, with or without claws. In the mites, the sections are
generally of equal size ; in the weaving spiders, the tarsal joints

4 ANIMAL PARASITES.

are extremely numerous. The hinder three pairs are usually
similar ; the anterior is rather a foot-jaw. The last tarsal joint
bears one or two claws, or a pedunculate adhesive lobe fin the mites),
or internally a sort of comb or a series of bristles (weaving spiders).

3. The oral organs vary greatly. The principal weapons are
the antenneal jaws, which are of the form of a knife, dagger, or
scissors, or furnished with a thick process with a sharp claw.
Behind these are the scissor-like or many-jointed maxilla, with
very slightly developed palpi at the base, and, beside these, soft,
puffed, sucking lips. In the mites, these oral organs stand upon
an elongated proboscis with a thick base.

4. The nervous system in the majority is much fused together.
The mites have only a ventral ganglion with a simple cesophageal
band, and without cephalic ganglia; the spiders have a cephalic
ganglion, an enormous thoracic ganglion, and a ventral ganglion,
which is usually small, but rarely deficient ; the scorpions have a
ventral chain of ganglia.

5. The organs of the senses usually consist only of simple
eyes, to the number of 2 — 5, seated laterally or in groups upon
the cephalothorax or upon the back. The optic nerve is dilated
into the form of a beaker, and surrounded by dark pigment
membrane; the vitreous body is globular, and the cornea roundish.
Some of them are blind. The true spiders appear to possess the
senses of hearing and smelling.

6. The intestine is divided into a thin, horny, subsequently
muscular, oesophagus, and a straight intestine, opening behind,
without a stomach (scorpions and Crustacea) ; or the same parts
occur with a stomach and all sorts of csecal appendages, which often
distribute themselves through the whole body, even into the palpi
and claws (the other Arachnida) ; salivary glands, a liver, in the
form of a granular coat of the intestine, or large lobate masses,
and urinary organs, as thin branched tubes, are present.

7. The organs of respiration are wanting in many of the lower
forms ; in the higher ones they are delicate branched air-tubes,
with stigmata arranged in pairs, or flat air-sacs, which receive
the air through an opening in the belly, and in their interior
contain a number of plates, like the leaves of a book (that is to
say, a series of compressed tracheal stems).

8. The circulatory organs present a tubular, many-chambered
heart, from which arteries are given off; they only occur where
the respiratory organs are developed.

ACARINA. 5

_

9. The venomous organs, which are rarely deficient here, are

pairs of twisted glandular tubes, which lie and open in the claws
of the anteuneal jaws in the head, and only in the caudal style
of the scorpions. Probably only the wounds of scorpions are
fatal to man ; the utmost that any other Arachnidan can do is to
produce a little fever or local irritation, as for example, the
Tarantula and Malmignatte.

10. The sexual organs in the female are racemose or tubular
ovarian sacs, lying anteriorly in the abdomen, with short oviducts
opening into the vagina, and at the orifice of this, with two
horny seminal pouches and an ovipositor. The sexual organs of
the male are still very little known. The testes are convoluted,
glandular cseca, or racemose vesicles, which open at the extremity
of the abdomen. The mites and geometric spiders have a long,
horny penis, spines, and a clasping apparatus. In the true spiders
the palpi are thickened, and have a spiral thread and horny
pieces (hooks, cups, or saucers) in and upon them, with which
the males take up the semen and put it into the vagina.

11. Some mites and scorpions are viviparous; the other
Arachriida lay roundish and often large eggs, with a germinal
vesicle and simple germinal spot when within the oviduct. The
germ-stratum gradually grows backwards over the yelk. The
higher species change their skins without any metamorphosis ;
the lower ones with a simultaneous metamorphosis. Here the
feet are at first undeveloped, without joints, or in smaller number
(two or three pairs in mites), elongated, and swollen at the anterior
part in the form of a button. After the first moulting the missing
pair of feet makes its appearance. The young of the water mites
pass into a pupa state during the moulting. Linguatulce lose
their feet in the later period of their life.

The Arachnida are divided into, 1, the Spider-like, in which there
is always a distinct separation of the abdomen from the cepha-
lothorax, or even of the head from the thorax and a coecal
intestine ; the skin is soft ; and, 2, the Crustacea-like with the
skin hard, shield-like ; the intestine straight ; the palpi generally
nipper-like.

Order I. ACARINA (Mites}.

Acarina sunt animalia parasitica, minima, simplicissima ; capite,
thorace, et abdomine in unlearn massam confusis ; pedibus in statu

6 ANIMAL PARASITES.

immature 6, in maturo 8 articulatis, formd diver sis simis, abdomini
insertis, aut nullis (in Linguatulis maturis sine pedibus, in imma-
turis vero cum pedum incremcnto) ; cute magis minusve molli,
tantum in Oribatidis (plant-mites) fragili, dura et fere vitrea ;
organis mauducatoriis formatis ex proboscide inter dum articulata,
re- et pro-tractili, in qua aculei 2 acuti et gladiformes reconditi
sunt ; tubo intestinali proboscidem secuto, appendicibus multis et
lateralibus instructo ; oculis 2 in anteriore cephalothorace, aut
nullis (in Acaris sub cute parasitantibus) ; organis antennaeformibus
binis ad utrumque proboscidis latus, plerumque ex 5 articulis com-
positis, et formd variantibus (exc. in Hydrachnidis aculei- aut
ancorce-formibus, aut valvaformibus, dentatis in Ixodidis, aut fusi-
formibus in Oribatidis, aut setosis in Bdellidis et Opilionidis. fyc.) ;
organis respiratoriis tubulosis, ramificatos fasciculos formantibus et
ex stigmatibus 2 lateralibus, quce plerumque interpedes posita sunt,
exortis ; in inferioribus Acarinorum familiis nullis ; corde nullo.
Parasita rarissime vivipara, plerumque ovipara ; in juvenili statu
6 pedibus instrucla, ex quo in maturum statum 8 pedibus ornatum,
tempore quodam in otio, sive nutrimento, et interdum in tenebris et
cystidibus quibusdam peracto, transeunt.

First Family — LINGUATULIDA = PENTASTOMA.

Synon : Tcsnia ; Distoma et Porocephalus ; Tetragulus ; Echi-
norhynchus ; Halysis ; Prionoderma ; Polystoma et Pentastoma ;
Monostomum.

From these names it will be seen at once \vhat various places
in the system have been assigned to this worm. Kudolphi re-
garded them mostly as Trematoda; Diesing places them with the
worms, as Acanthotheca. We pass over his views, which have
been completely refuted by Van Beneden, and refer them, with
the latter, to the Articulata, on account of their transversely
striated muscles.

Animalia solitaria, alia mascula, alia feminea ovipara. Corpus
vermiforme, elongatum, depressum vel teretiusculum, ex articulis
permultis compositum, Iceve vel fimbriatum seu aculeatum ; caput
corpore continuum, fere cephalothoracicum ; os anticum, chitinosum,
ad cujus utrumque latus hamuli bini aut semilunares, aut ungui-
formes, simplices aut magis compositi, in exemplaribus juvenilibus
ad pedes breves, fere inarticulatos affixi, in exemplaribus maturis

LINGUATULIDA. 7

t V

in rimas (quas Diesing injuria bothria rim&formia uniserialia

nominal) retractiles, ita ut ad cutem abdominalem ipsam affixi sint ;
prattrea stigmatum series inter annulos vel inter fimbriarum series
in cute (respiratoria organa). Tractus intestinalis simplex, hinc
ore, illinc ano terminatus. Systema nervosum constans ex ganglio
pectoralij sen subcesophageo, crasso ; annulo cesophageo complete ;
interdum 4 gangliis abdominalibus, ex 2 filis nervosis parallelis,
catenam nervosam articulatorum exhibentibus exortis. Systema
vasorum ex Diesingio adest. Penis filiformis, simplex infra os
ex Diesingio, duplex in superficie abdominali (ex aliis) ; testiculus
simplex ; ductus deferentes 2. Apertura feminea in apice caudali,
vesiculis copulatoriis magnis, spermatozoidia gerentibus.

Embryones Crustaceis Lernaidis (ex. c. Anchorellis, aut Pycno-
gonis] aut rectius Acaris similes.

For the last reason I have, with Vogt, referred the Linguatula
to the Acarina ; Van Beneden places them close to the Acarus
folliculorum, as the lowest section of the Arachnida, but not both
in one and the same order.

To me it has long appeared as though the Acarus folliculorum
was a Linguatula, a view, however, which was combated by Van
Beneden, when I asked for his opinion on the subject. Be this
as it may, the relationship between the Linguatulce and the Acarus
folliculorum is extremely close.

As I refer the Acarus folliculorum to the order Acarina, I will
do the same with the Linguatulce, which, as the figure shows, are
very similar to the Acarus folliculorum, even in the annulation
of the abdomen, and, with Vogt, treat the two close together as
nearly allied families.

Deceived by the roundish appearance of the foot-claws, which
in certain positions almost form a closed chitinous ring, which
certainly, on a superficial glance, has nearly the aspect of a mouth,
and by the mobility of these ring-claws, people took these four
feet for the same number of oral orifices, so that counting in
the true mouth, five such openings were obtained, and the animal
received the name of Pentastomum. Reckoning Bilharz's species,
we are now acquainted with thirteen in all. Their number,
however, would be still further reduced, if Lingualula senata, den-
ticulata, emarginata, and tcenio'ides belong to one species. In the
mature fully developed state, these animals live in the frontal
sinuses and lungs of Mammalia, or in the lungs of various lizards
and snakes, but in the immature and encysted state in the

8 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

interior of very various parenchymatous organs, perhaps to
undergo a change of skin there, but perhaps also to be swallowed
in the encysted state by other animals, in the lungs or frontal
sinuses of which they first attain their maturity, as Gurlt and
myself suppose. For instance, Linguatula denticulata, which,
perhaps, having immigrated mechanically into the nose of the dog
which devoured the rabbit or other herbivorous animal infested by
it, might become converted into L. tanioides. The entire cycle of
existence of any species is still very imperfectly known, notwith-
standing the endeavours of Van Beneden, who has done such
high service with regard to the development and systematic
position of these animals, and the good anatomical descrip-
tions of Diesing. Very recently it has also been found that
man harbours such Linguatula ; but if, with Leuckart we
regard those parasites observed in 1610 by Fulvius Angelianus
and Vincentius Alsarius, which were expelled from the nose of a
patient by sneezing, as a Linguatula, and not as the larva of a
Oestrus, with the exception of this case, these animals have not
been found free in the air-passages of the human subject, but in
other places, either in the encysted state, or enclosed in
cavities of the human body. We also know at present, both of
the Linguatula ferox found by Zenker, and of the Linguatula con-
stricta of Pruner and Bilharz, that in districts where Linguatulcs
occurred in the human subject, the same two species also occurred
in herbivorous domestic animals, or other indigenous Herbivora
(as, for example, the giraffe).

1 . Linguatula constricta ?, (Pentastomum constrictum ?
Von Siebold = Bilharz). (Tab. VIII, figs. 17—20.)

Corpus elongatum, cylindricum, annulato-constrictum, antrorsum
rotundatum, apice caudali conico-obtusum, ventre planiusculum,
cutis non aculeata. Long. 6"' ', Latit. 1 '". Habitat in hepati
hominis nigritae.

Pruner found these parasites twice in negroes, on the hinder
surface of the liver, on the mucous membrane of the small in-
testine (?), and on the mesenteric folds, in the form of white,
chondroma-like, transparent, circular projections ; or, in one case
(in which he probably had to do with a fresh immigration and fresh

LINGUATULA CONSTBICTA. 9

exudation) in the form of a larger, active vesicle, of the size of a
kreutzer. Once the animal had slipped out of its vesicle and
towards the duodenum. The tissue of the vesicle was elastic
and strong, analogous to the serous membranes. On cutting the
vesicle, the animal sprang easily out of it, and lived for five
hours in water. According to Primer, the animal, in its perfectly
extended state, is fully V long and %!" broad, cylindrical on the
back, flat on the ventral surface, obtuse in front and pointed
behind. Even with the naked eye, Pruner detected four pro-
trusible and retractile hooks, which, under the microscope, are of a
golden-yellow colour. The body was white, composed of rings,
and the intestine yellowish green. Oti the notches between
the segments, on the ventral surface, there were two rows
of openings (stigmata}. Moreover, Pruner saw, close to the in-
testine, two milky coils, on the left side in front, a projectile,
bipartite, cylindrical organ, and on the lower surface of the in-
testine a delicate white filament, none of which he knew exactly
what to make of. In the collection of Pathological Anatomy at
Bologna, also, Pruner found two similar parasites obtained from
the human liver.

Bilharz repeatedly found the animal encysted iii the livers of
negroes. Here and there, under the coatings of the liver, he met
with capsules of the size of a grain of millet, which were filled
with calcareous contents, and only two (?) colossal hooks. Very
recently, Bilharz again found specimens of this parasite in
the liver of a negro, encysted in the liver, of which he sent one
capsule with the animal to Von Siebold. Its form and size agree
with Prunar's figure. The capsule is firmly amalgamated with
the parenchyma of the liver, consists of ligamentous tissue of its
host, and is attached so closely to the animal, that, as Pruner said,
the form of the animal is printed in it. The animal is at
the utmost ft" long and V" broad, as Pruner has represented
it ; it is cylindrical, with a sole in the middle of the
ventral side, conical behind, obtusely rounded off in front,
flattened from above downwards, separated from the trunk
by a neck-like constriction, and strongly ringed. Oil the
trunk the segments form broad bands, and are separated from
each other by strong constrictions. Anteriorly, the latter gradually
become smaller and shallower, but extend even up to the head.
Small warts make their appearance on the periphery of the head.
The hooks are similar, strong, not unlike the thorns of rose-bushes,

10 ANIMAL PARASITES.

cat's claws, hollow internally, and of a yellowish colour.
Although cut out, the animals lived nearly a whole day, and crept
about, extending and contracting themselves. At the conclusion
of this latest report, Von Siebold says that he has found every-
thing as Bilharz described it.

This unfortunate parasite, in the short time that we have been
acquainted with it, has seen a great variety of fates, and although
one would have supposed that it would have been exactly investi-
gated when it came under the hands of a Von Siebold (and Von
Siebold established a new species upon it), yet its description by
Bilharz and Von Siebold is extraordinarily defective, so that the
note of interrogation which I have placed after constrict a, will
appear perfectly just to the unprejudiced, for whom alone I write.
As regards Pruner, in the first place, he has been brought in a
manner to a recantation with respect to the statement of size
(fully V}. And yet I believe that Pruner has given the size
correctly. In his recantation, he has forgotten that his parasite
had lain in water, as may be seen clearly in his account. In
this it was considerably dilated, and he only measured the parasite
in. this swollen state. Hence the different statements of this
author at different times as to the size of the worm.

Von Siebold founds the distinct species, and his assertion that
we have not to do here with a Linguatula ferox sen Pentastomum
denticulatum (which is the second species of Zenker, without any
dispute, and was recognised as such, not only by Zenker and
myself, but also by Van Beneden), upon the circumstance that
Linguatula ferox is spined, acute at the extremity of the abdomen,
and smaller, but that L. constricta is not spined, obtuse at the
end of the abdomen, and larger. I also regard it as possible, nay,
even probable, that there is a peculiar species of Linguatula in
the South, which also attacks men ; that we have to do with a
peculiar immature and young state of another Linguatula. But
if Herr Von Siebold wishes that the unprejudiced inquirer may
form an opinion for himself, he should at least take care that the
opinion that a Linguatula ferox is referred to, should not, first of
all, be smuggled in under his shield. " Those are certainly my
hooks" (Das sindja mdne Hakeri) cried Bilharz, on reading Kauff-
marm's dissertation upon Pentastomum denticulatum, as Von
Siebold tells us in emphasised print. But then Von Siebold
might have stated, or have got himself informed by his pupil
Bilharz — 1, how large the hooks are} upon which we have no

LINGUATULA FE110X. ]1

information, and the number of which we only know from the
figure; 2, whether the hooks have an apparatus of support, such
as the apparatus described by me, and afterwards by Zenker, in
the Linguatula ferox of the rabbit, and clearly recognised by Van
Beneden ; 3, whether the points of the hooks have or have not
a cover ? From these points alone can we obtain distinctions
adapted for the determination of species. If Von Siebold had
enlightened us in this fashion, he would have spared the careful
Zenker his doubts, and himself that invidious remark at page 331
of the seventh volume of his ' Zeitschrift:*

2. Linguatula ferox = Pentastomum denlicutatum (Zenker),
emarginatum, senatum et tcenioides aliorum.

(Tab, VIII. figs. 11—13.)

Corpus obovato-elongatum, retrorsum attenuatum, apice caudali
inter dum emarginatum, venire nunc panum, nunc concavum, dor so
convexiusculum, 70 — 80 annuorum et fimbriarum seriebus ; caput
rotundatum ; os ellipticum chitinosum, cujus ad latus utrumquepar
unum magnorum aculeorum, qui in cute abdominali chitinoso ap-
paratu quodam (stylo retrorsum curvato, antrorsumfarcatim distante
et apice chitinoso cavo} qui mucrones hamuli quieti tegit] affixi sunt.
Longit. ad 1-J'", latit. antrorsum i'", retrorsum ~" . Habitat in
hepate (et quidem inprimis in superficie anteriore lobuli sinistri,
rarius in lobulo dextro], rarius porro in renibus, in mesenterio, in
tela submucosa duodeni et in tunica mucosa intestini tenuis, hominum
qui Europam mediam incolunt.

The species here referred to was very exactly described by
Zenker, who first found it in the human subject, and every one
who knows how to determine the Linguatula will see that in
Zenker's case young Linguatula feroces are referred to. These
Linguatulce are common to man and our herbivorous domestic
animals, and if the opinions of Gurlt and myself prove to be
correct, they are the immature descendants of the Linguatula
tcenio'ides inhabiting the frontal cavities of the dog, which we
regard as synonymous with Linguatula denticulata, emarginata,
and serrata, and only as different grades of development of the
same species. They may reach the closed cavities of the bodies of
men in exactly the same way as in the Herbivora.

Hitherto Zenker has found the animal only inclosed in a firm,
even cartilaginous, fibrous capsule, loosely attached to the peri-

13 ANIMAL PARASITES.

toneal coat and readily detached, which forms a small longish
knot, ] — li"' Par. = 2J — 3'37 millim. in length, imbedded hori-
zontally or perpendicularly in the liver, and projecting a little
beyond its level. The animal, which measures about 3'2 millim.
= 1*4'17"' Par. in length, has usually a lunate curved form in the
human subject; it is calcified, and of a yellow colour, and adheres
so firmly to the capsule, that the animal can only be freed from
it uninjured, with great difficulty, as Van Beneden found mother
Lingua tnl&. The animal is usually found on its side ; its convex
margin represents the back, its concave one the belly ; the head,
O76 mill, in breadth, as well as the tail, which diminishes
towards the extremity to a breadth of O15 mill., are both
rounded off. Constrictions are exhibited at the margins, pro-
bably caused by death. The body is about 0'84 mill, in breadth.
The deposition of calcareous matter takes place in the interior of
the body after death ; by the application of muriatic acid and
moderate pressure, the animal becomes transparent, with evolution
of carbonic acid.

The skin, which in the uninjured animal brown and opaque,
and in separate fragments colourless, limpid, and homogeneous,
is beset throughout with series of spines running round the
animal (60 — 80 in all), each of which bears about 160 acute,
slender, conical, flexible, glassy spines, directed backwards, and of
different lengths in different parts, but on an average about
0-02 — 3 mill, long. In the free space of about 0 07 mill., between
two rows of spines, we see at somewhat wider intervals rows of
small, dark rings with double outlines = spiracles = Stigmata
respiratoria (Diesing), so that two stigmata occur for 3 — 4 spines.

Of internal organization nothing can be detected from the cal-
cification of the animal. The most important point is the
knowledge of the apparatus of hooks, which I first detected in
the Linguatula ftrooc of the ruminants, and Zenker afterwards
again found upon his preparations, which Van Beneden also can
confirm as regards Zenker's preparations.

In the middle of the forehead, and near its anterior margin,
there is, in the first place, a yellowish chitinous oval ring, of
about the form of uninjured eggs of Tcenia dispar ; at each side
of the oral ring lies a pair of yellowish, rather large, strongly
curved hooks, recognisable even by the common lens, which
resemble the claws of large tapeworms, such as T&nia crassicollis,
if imagined without stems, and the bases of which are broad,

LINGUATULA FEROX. ]3

obtuse angled and emarginate. From this point they narrow
rapidly towards the apex. They exhibit double contours,, are
hollow internally, and lie for the most part in an inversion of the
ventral skin. Each of these hooks is borne by a peculiar chiti-
nous apparatus of support. The latter consists of a sort of furrow
or fork, the stem of which is bent in the form of a hook, becomes
constantly more diminished and curved posteriorly and towards
the free apex, but widens anteriorly. This broader portion divides
into two sections uniting at an acute angle. The portion turned
from the ventral side and directed outwards, divides into two
broad, forked lamella^ which receive the base of the true claw
between them, and allow it to swing. The massive portion of the
stem directed upwards and inwards ceases at this point at the same
level with the lamellae of the fork, and becomes converted, as it
appears to me, into a very thin filament, which, as it were, furnishes
the skeleton or point of support for two lateral lobes, which are
nothing but two lobes of the ventral skin. These lobes are pro-
duced by the impression which the convexity of the hook-
apparatus forms from the ventral skin towards the dorsal and into
the ventral skin. They are only the mechanical consequences of
this impression, and assist in forming the anterior part of those
peculiar structures, which the authors describe as cleft-like open-
ings, and which have led to their being confounded with a mouth.
Whether this delicate chitinous threader ridge is really there, or,
as Zenker, for example, thinks is not present, others may decide;
it is not indispensably necessary, for the convexity of the hook
itself might certainly hold the skin upright and stiffen it in the
median line of the lobes. Quite in front, and at the point where
the sides of the lobes of skin again unite with the flat tissue of
the ventral skin, there is a small chitinous structure, which, so to
speak, looks like a three-cornered hat in minima. This little
body has a cavity which is directed downwards and outwards, and
a closed convexity or cover which is turned -towards the ventral
membrane. In front there is a little beak, exactly like the
anterior handle of a three-cornered hat. This little beak usually
stands straight out and downwards ; by force and strong pressure
it may acquire all sorts of different forms, and, for example, bend
into a hook. I have formerly given this last-mentioned structure
the name of the " Navicula ;" J. Miiller, when I explained to him
the mechanism of the movements of the hooks of Linguatula, gave
it the very characteristic name of the "point-cover" (Spitzendecker).

14 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

This very point-cover lias its own history, so many erroneous inter-
pretations has it received. It has usually been regarded as a
hook, which may easily happen, when the point is bent back and
the mechanism of its movement is unknown. Hence all authors had
hitherto described the point-covers as " the small hooks of the
Pentastoma." According as the authors saw all the four point-
covers, or only some of them, they speak of two, three, or four
small hooks. The mistake is explained as soon as one sees a
living animal. The hooks swing with their base in the fork, and
when in movement, press back the lobes of skin with the hinder-
most point on the lower extremity of the true convexity of the
hook. At the same time the point of the hook escapes downwards
from the cavity of the point-cover. If the hook returns again to
a state of repose, the lobes of the ventral skin again apply them-
selves more closely to the whole hinder surface of the hook, the
point glides back into the cavity of the little point-cover, and is
completely covered by it. With this mechanism the chitinous
thread or ridge in the middle between the lobes of skin would be
very well adapted to facilitate the play of the hooks, by stiffening
the lobes, and, as it were, forming a firm channel for them.

The measurements of the hooks are as follows, according to
Zenker :

Distance between the point of the hook (a) and the foremost
point of the base (b) swinging in the fork, 0-042'" = 0'095 mill.

Distance between the hook-point (a) and the hinder extremity
of the emarginate basal portion of the hook (c) 0-083'"=0-188
mill.

Distance from b — c = 0'055'" == O124 mill.

Distance between the point b, and the hinder convex extremity
of the hook, in a straight line, 0'059//x = 0-133 mill.

This parasite is not very rare amongst us, as Zenker found it
thirty times in two hundred dissections.

Second Family — SIMONIDA (Vogt).

Corpus vermiculare, delate proficiscenle diminutum ; cephalo-
thorace laliore et molli ; pedes breves Iruncique, mediano aculeo
majore armati, in statu immaluriore pedibus 6, in maluriore 8 ;
organa manducaloria roslellum parvulum medianum, duabus laminis
gladiformibus acutis armalum, palpisque 2 brevibus, duos articulos
exhibentibus conicisque mstructum prcebenlia.

ACARUS FOLLICULORUM. 15

Acarus folliculorum (Simon, V. Siebold). Pimple mite.
(Tab. VIII. figs. 14—16.)

Synonyma: Dernodex folliculorum, Owen; Macrogaster platypus,
Miescber ; Simonea folliculorum, Gervais ; Entozoon, afterwards
Steazoon folliculorum, Wilson ; Comedonenmilbe.

According to Von Siebold the name of Acarus is to be retained
for it in preference,, as there are also long-tailed Acari, for
example, that discovered by Duges in small, pouch-like galls of
the leaves of the lime.

Signa generis. Longit. ~" . Organis generationis omnino ignotis;
evolutions imperfectissime cognita. Species vivipara (Wedl). ?
Habitat : in capillorum folllculis glandulisque sebaceis humanis et
saniset&gre intumidis, imprimis in tola pilis majoribus car ente facie,
prceterea etiam in reliquis corporis regionibus, ex. c., in pectore,
dor so, fyc.

According to Schonleiti there is a notice of a mite living in
pimples as early as 1682 (' Act. Erudit./ p. 317) ; but according
to Schonlein and Remak, the figure given by Bonanni agrees
better with the so-called Erdl's mite, or more correctly the bird-
mite, which will be hereafter referred to. The true pimple-mite
was found by Henle and Gustav Simon in 1842, almost simul-
taneously and independently of each other. Henle found them
in the hair-follicles of the external ear, but took the tail for the
head, and the feet for sucking discs composed of pads. Simon
found them in the pustules of acne, and described them correctly.

With a very variable form the mite is O085 — O125'" in length,
and 0'020'" in breadth. On the head there are two lateral two-
jointed palpi, a tubular proboscis, and a triangular biting organ
composed of two fine acute bristles or saws. The head and thorax
pass immediately into each other (cephalothoraoe). The short,
conical, three-jointed feet are articulated to a chitinous longitu-
dinal ridge of the belly by a chitinous stalk, and are, as it were,
borne by this stalk, which runs towards the anterior side of the
foot, and thence sends a chitinous branch backwards and round
the base of the foot. That these horizontal stalks run round the
whole anterior part of the body, as Simon thinks, I have never
observed, but I think they belong to the base of the foot. The
terminal joint of the anterior feet, according to Miescber, has
four, that of the hinder feet five processes. Simon describes each

16 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

terminal joint as bearing three claws at its extremity ; a long one
arid two shorter. Wedl could not quite make out these extremi-
ties. If we make use of the assistance of varying illumination
of the preparation, we see, as I think, only a single hooked claw,
of a very delicate kind, projecting "from the centre of the foot.
On the sides of the anterior free margin of the foot we see a pair
of straight, acute processes, which are certainly not horny claws,
but only membranous projections of the extremity of the foot,
which probably 'even change their form in different move-
ments. With transmitted light the larger claw may be traced
distinctly as a lighter streak, a certain distance up into the
substance of the last joint of the foot, whilst the two apparent
lateral spines retain the colour of the mass of the foot itself. The
free-standing central claw apparently may be erected and somewhat
curled. Thus if we employ coloured oils (for example, Macassar
oil) in the examination, all the oil is sometimes displaced at this
spot during the movement of the foot, and a small round surface
is produced, which appears to adhere to the extremity of the foot
like a little sucking pit — an illusion which has already frequently
occurred.

We meet with the animal in several forms.

First form. — The abdomen is about three times as long as the
anterior part of the body ; the tail notched like a file. The
contents are finely granular, brown or blackish by transmitted
light ; we also see transparent, irregular, round, oval or quadran-
gular spots (fat-drops or epithelium). Some observers say they
have distinguished an oesophagus, intestine, and liver. This form
must certainly be one more approaching to maturity.

Second form. — The abdomen is considerably abreviated, until
at last it is scarcely larger than the cephalothorax, and when
regarded by itself forms a conical body, pointed towards the
caudal extremity, on which the rudiments of segments or trans-
verse rings may be distinguished. This form has always eight
legs. There is no doubt that it is the nearest to maturity. But
whether the appendage in question at last falls away entirely or
not, is at present still a matter of dispute. For my own part, it
appears to me improbable that it should be altogether thrown off.
Moreover, in one case, I found this form particularly plentiful,
whilst Simon mentions the first form as the most abundant ;
circumstances which probably vary according to the season, the
duration of the disorder, &c.

ACARUS FOLLICULORUM. 17

Third form. — It has only three pairs of feet, is narrower than
the other forms, the transverse rings in the abdomen are wanting,
and the contents are paler, and less in quantity ; in other
respects it resembles the first form. This younger grade is cer-
tainly converted into a higher form by a change of skin.

With these forms there also occurs in the follicles of the skin
a cordate body, which Simon regards as an empty egg-shell, and
Wedl as a very young animal. The latter appears to suppose that
this very young animal occurs already in the anterior part of the
belly of the mother, and that he was able to observe the develop-
ment of the six-legged form from this structure, its middle and
hinder part diminishing in breadth, and becoming elongated,
when oval organs and pad-like elevations (feet) grew forth.
Gruby states that he has found the same species of this family of
Acari upon the dog, after an experiment on the transference of
the human Acarus to that animal, and at the same time observed,
that in the course of two years these mites had increased so
enormously that they occupied every cutaneous follicle, and the
dog became in consequence quite naked ; statements which have
been already doubted justly by Simon and Wedl. Oschatz found
a similar Acarus in the glands of the eyelids of a sheep. It was,
however, broader generally, and especially in front.

Symptomatology. — Even Simon admits the possibility that this
animal, innocent as it is in general, may, by excessive increase,
become the cause of morbid beauty-spots (pimples and acne
pustules). Very recently Remak has narrated the case of a healthy
tradesman, twenty-six years old, who travelled a great deal, arid
had suffered for three years disfiguring acne on the chin, nose,
and forehead, as well as on the back. On account of a sore on
the glans penis, which was observed about a year after this erup-
tion, but soon disappeared without leaving a scar, the patient had
subsequently been dosed with mercury, Zittmann's decoction, cod-
liver oil, and many other things, without these remedies or the
prescribed water-cure having any influence upon the disorder. At
length, after long seeking, Remak found the mite, but with great
difficulty,, namely, by entirely removing the pustules, and dragging
the Simoniaii mite from their bottom, sometimes from a depth
of nearly a line. From this case it appears that in particular
cases the mite may become the true cause of pathological condi-
tions.

Diagnosis. — In living persons, especially if fat, as well as iii

2

18 ANIMAL PAKASITES.

dead bodies, the contents of one or several vesicles may be pressed
out by placing the nails npon the skin about 2 — 3 lines apart,
and then moving them towards each other. By this manoeuvre
the contents of the glands often issue in long rolls. Others use
hard instruments for this purpose* such as the handles of lancets ;
Simon employed a hair pin, or a thin bent sound.1 With this
pressure is to be applied in the neighbourhood of the vesicle. I
prefer the former process, because the person to be examined may
perfectly well apply the pressure with his own nails, and the sur-
geon keeps his hands free for the collection of the masses pressed
out. We usually find an Acarus when we spread these masses
upon a glass, facilitate their diffusion by a gentle pressure, and
add a drop of (red) Macassar oil. Frequently, however, the
result is negative, especially with enormously developed vesicles,
and I have sometimes only attained my object by again pressing
the spot which has been pressed once already. In the sebaceous
matter which then issued, and which was collected with a knife,
I found the animals very easily. In dead subjects I have also
evacuated them by pressure, but here the animal often retires
very deep, and nearly to the origin of the follicle. In such cases
we can frequently only obtain the animal by cutting through the
skin. In the nose and other parts which cover, open cavities in
corpses, we may, in case of need, introduce a broad, firm instru-
ment, such as a spatula, into the cavity, and press a glass plate
against it from without, so as to collect the sebaceous matter at
once upon the glass. The collection of the animals is most easily
effected in fat people. But this probably varies according to the
general faculty of the skin, to give up the contents of the cuta-
neous follicles with greater or less ease on pressure. If there is
difficulty, the outer covering of the pustules may be first of all
pricked, or removed by the knife. We shall then find that the
animals occur in extreme abundance, and that authors like Wilson,
according to whom but few men are free from the mites, are in
the right.

Mode of life of the mites. — They occur sometimes singly, some-
times several, sometimes many (13) together in one hair-follicle.
In hair-follicles into which small sebaceous glands open, the
animals lie close to the hair; in the large composite sebaceous
glands, into which small hair-follicles open, they take up their

1 Hebra makes use of a rather wide watch-key, the opening of which he places on
the most prominent spot and then presses.

AC ARID A. 39

position in the efferent duct of the gland, commonly"nearer to
the outlet of the duct than at the bottom, except when found in
corpses, The abdomen is usually directed towards the orifice and
the head towards the bottom of the gland ; rarely the reverse.
They continue to live for a considerable time in fatty oils,
\vhether they are taken from living or dead subjects. If the
animals be still, this is only a sort of apparent death, and they
again become lively by the application of a gentle heat. Even
the warmth diffused by a study lamp excites them to give renewed
signs of life. This is also probably the reason why it is so diffi-
cult to make permanent preparations of them. For in oily
media they at last creep entirely away under the varnish, &c.
In general their motions are sluggish.

Therapeutics. — According to Remak, the eruption improved by
a mixture of equal parts of spirits of camphor and oil of turpen-
tine ; but young mites were still found in four weeks, and in three
years the disease was as bad as ever. A popular remedy, a very
dear one certainly, is essential oil of cinnamon. The most ra-
tional thing would be to apply Durand's gall-stone mixture
(OL Terebinthina and Mth. Sulfur.} externally, after the sebaceous
matter has been squeezed out.

Family of the true Itch-mites. ACARTDA.

Animalia, mimina, caeca, mollia, non colorata, globiformia, aut in
cute animalium cuniculos agentes, et uti videtur vemnata, quorum
morsu pustulosum exanthema efflorescit, aut in materiis veyetabilibus
aut animalibus putrescentibus viventia. Pedibus 8,injuventute 6,
brevibus, difformibus, crassius articulatis, a chitinosa machina, ad
abdomen affixa, portatis et a linea mediana extrinsecus distantibus,
qui in articulo libero et extreme aut unguiculis aut aroliis in stylo
quodam affixis aut capillis mobilibus armati sunt ; rostello longo,
crasso, conico ; maxillis crassis, ex forficum forma ; palpis parvis
cum rostello coalitis. Species plerumque ovipar<B. Mares minor es
et tenuiores ; pedibus posterioribus usque aroliis armati. Femincs
mojores et crassiores, pedibus posterioribus interdum carentes.

1. Acarus Scabiei. The Itch-mite. (Tab. IX, figs. 1 — 6.

Synon. Sar copies Hominis sen Scabiei ; Cheyletes Scabiei.
Animalia cuniculos in cute humana agentia, setosa et spi-

20 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

nosa ; corpore in una massa rotunda coalito ; pedibus crassis,
brevilms, quorum anteriores in uiroque genere arolia, quorum par
tertium in utroque genere longam setam, quorum par quartum
in maribus arolia, in feminis set as gerit ; dor so limarum dentibus,
in plures ordines redactis, armato*; organis manducatoriis generis.
Animalia vernationem ante maturitatem ter exuentia. Mares
omnino tenuiores, minus asperi, machind pedum chitinosa in pedi-
bus posterioribus inter se juncta ; femince majores, asperiores,
machina pedum posteriorum inter se juncta. Species ovipara.

There is no doubt that the itch was known to, and much
dreaded by, the ancient Greeks and Romans. "VVe might cer-
tainly think that Aristotle in the fifth book of his Historia
Animalium, cap. 31, knew the mites by the eruption of pustules,
as he there says, "the lice (00ap£g) are produced from the
flesh ; when the lice have remained longer upon the skin (orav
/Lit\\(t)(fivt but not, as the Leyden edition translates it, quibus
futuris] small pustules, as it were, sprout forth, from which, when
pricked, the lice issue/' But as, even with great un cleanliness,
lice do not form pustules, or bury themselves beneath the skin, I
refer this observation rather to those cases of so-called phthiriasis,
which, as we shall hereafter mention, Fuchs has indicated as pro-
duced by mites, unless, perhaps, we are to suppose, from the
following passage in Avenzoar, who also still calls the mites lice,
that with Aristotle, as with Avenzoar, itch-mites were understood
by the lice being under the skin. Avenzoar in the twelth century
appears first with certainty to have recognised the mites (Soa.b)
as the cause of the itch. "Syrones," says he " sunt pedicilli
subter manuum crurumque et pedum cutem serpentes, et pustulas
ibidem excitantes, aqua plenas, tarn parva animalcula, ut vix visu
perspicaci discerni queant." Although, in accordance with the
defective entomological knowledge of his period, he may have
regarded the animals in question as a species of louse, he cer-
tainly meant thereby quite a different animal from the head-
louse, and recognised the mite as the cause. Through the whole
of the middle ages the knowledge of this mite was now maintained.
Scaliger writes in his epistle against Cardanus in 1557 : " De
Acaro senibus Aristotelico recto eum cum Garapate compa-
rasti. At quare longo minoris animalis oblitus es? Pedi-
cellum Piceni, Scirum Taurini, Brigantem Vascones vocant.
Nempe admirabile est. Et forma nulla expressa, praeterquam
globi. Vix oculis capitur magnitude. Tarn pussillum est, ut

ACAKUS SCABIEI. 21

non atomis constare, sed ipsurn esse una ex Epicirfi atomis
videatur. Ita sub cute habitat, ut actis cuniculis urat. Ex-
tractus acu, super ungue positus, ita demurn sese movet, si solis
calore adjuvetur. Altero ungue pressus baud sine sono crepat,
aqueumque virus reddit." Joubert, who probably only re-
produces Scaliger, in 1580 refers to the itch-mite as a small
species of louse (Syro), which, like the mole under the earth,
produces passages under the skin, and thus causes a troublesome
itching. Aldrovandi (lib. v, ' De Insectis/ cap. iv, p. 215, article
Genus differentia) in 1623, also gives a sort of paraphrase of
Scaliger; he thinks the mites are destitute of feet (which, ac-
cording to him, had been incorrectly said by Mercurialis of the
crab-louse, but which might have been said with greater justice
of the itch-mite), describes them as concealed beneath the skin,
and explains the popular name Pellicelli, " quod inter pelliculam
et cutem serpant " (as he afterwards adds, "clam erodendo, et
molestissimum excitando pruritum), sinuantes sibi velut cunicu-
los, seu vesiculas non suppurantes, quas si quis perforet, exeunt albi,
adeotamenparvi utvix deprehendi oculispossint; non tamen fugiunt
acriorem visum in loco maxime lucido." He also states that the
extracted animals, when crushed between the nails, burst with a
noise. He then continues : " Minimi, quos Cyrones et Pedicellos
nominari diximus, manuum ac pedum digitos potissimum inficiunt,
inter cutem et cuticulam, ova Papilionum quodammodo sua figura
semulantur : sunt enim rotundi, exigui, subcandidi." I have re-
produced this passage exactly, because the Englishman Moufet
(1631) is usually cited as being the best acquainted with this mite
of any one in the middle ages, of whom, however, I must assume
that he was much less acquainted with this animal than the
Pontifex maximus of natural history at the commencement of the
17th century, Aldrovandi, and moreover, that he was the first to
introduce the unfortunate confusion with the cheese-mite. Mar-
tiny quotes the passage from Moufet's ' Insectorum Theatrum/
Londini, 1634, p. 266, as follows : " Syro (apud Germauos ' Seu-
ren')animalculurn est omnium minutissimum, solens innasci caseo et
cerse et cuti item humanse. Syrouibus nulla forma expressa prseter
quam globuli vix oculis capitur; magnitudo tarn pusilla, ut non
atomis constare ipsum, sed unum ex atomis Epicureis dixeris . . ,
Ita sub cute habitat et actis cuniculis pruritum maximum loco
ingenerat, prsecipue manibus vel aliis partibus. Hos peculiariter
vulgus acicula extrahit ; sed cum non simul tollatur causa, eorum

22 ANIMAL PARASITES.

fomes, perseverat affectio. Itaque prsestat unguento vel fotu eos
occidere, quo simul tollatur pruritus ille infestissimus."

It is not easy for an author to arrive at such unmerited
honour as Moufet, who has copied what is good in this descrip-
tion, and added what is bad ; for example, even the statement
that the cause of disease cannot be removed with the needle.1 —
After these authors, as Marti ny states, we have to mention par-
ticularly as writers upon the Sarcoptes — Hauptmann, of Dres-
den (' Uralter Wolkensteinischer warmer Bade und Wasserchatz/
Leipzig, 1657, and a letter to P. Kircher, who thought he had
seen the animals in the plague-boils, and figured them with six
feet and four hooks) ; Hafenreffer (( Nosodochium, cutis aflfectus/
Ulm, 1660); and Redi, who in 1683 described and figured the
mites very well after a letter of Bonomo's, which was afterwards
claimed by Lanzoni for himself (' Osservazioni intorno a pellicelli
del corpo umano, dal G. C. Bonomo, Fiorcnze'), and was inserted in
the ' Miscellanea naturae curiosorum/ translated into Latin in
1691, but subsequently confounded with a letter of Cestoni to
Vallisneri in 1710, and arranged in the ' Collection Academique/
The itch-mite is also referred to in the 'Acta Eruditorum/
1682, and the ( Philosophical Transactions' for 1703. Linne,
whose scholar, Nyander, describes the actions of the mite very
well in his dissertation", 'Exanthemata viva, Upsal, 1757, accord-
ing to the opinion of most people never saw it, but mistook the

1 A fundamental confusion prevails here, because one has copied from the other
without criticism. In the fifth book of his ' Historia Animalium,' cap. 31 , Aristotle treats
of the lice of men and animals, even those of the fishes and also of the ticks (Ixodidae},
and states that the ass is without either lice or ticks. In the thirty-second chapter he
no longer treats of lice, hut of the moths, Acari, the paper-mite, &c. Aldrovandi, on
his part, has fallen into an error, in appending the Aristotelian Yearns immediately to
the Scirrones, the true human itch-mites, merely on account of their smallness. In a
remarkable manner Aldrovandi also allows the Aristotelian Icarus to he an animal
living in wax, probably misled by the edition which he used, and which was probably
the Leyden edition of 1590 also used by me. In this, in the text edited by Theodor
Gaza, stands xrii iv xrjpy yi vtrai, whilst we should read with Sylburg, lv rvp<£ = in
caseo. The Aristotelian Icarus is nothing but the common cheese-mite. The case
of Aldrovandi, who refrained from giving an opinion upon the Icarus in wax,
because he found no Icarus in wax in Italy, is the case also with us in Germany, and
will be the case with everyone everywhere. I have inquired about wax-mites from a
well-informed artisan, now seventy years of age, who has been in contact with wax from
his youth, but he assures me that he had never seen or heard of such a thing. Then to
make the confusion complete, Moufet mixes all together, and describes the mite as living
in cheese and wax, but at the same time also in the human skin.

ACARUS SCAB1EI. 23

meal-mite for this animal, and regarded it as a variety of the
cheese- arid meal-mite, as Acarus liumanus subcutaneus et scabiei
Geoffroy and De Geer regarded it as a distinct species ; Mor-
gagni, Fabricius (who saw it amongst the Greenlanders,) and
Wichmarm were very well acquainted with it ; but as it is diffi-
cult to find, it was for a long time forgotten, until at last the
Parisian student Gales, in 1812, was the occasion of attention
being again paid to it, by the famous substitution of the cheese-
mite for the true mite (' Essai sur le diagnostic de la Gale, sur
ses causes et consequences medicales et pratiques & deduire des
vraies notions de cette maladie/ Paris). His figures resemble
De Geer's figures of the cheese-mite. In 1834, following the
Corsican Renucci, Raspail at last succeeded in finding the true
mite and detecting the mistake of Gales, so that the renewed
knowledge of the mite dates from Raspail, although he could
not prevent Lareille from uniting the itch-mite and the cheese-
mite in Cuvier's f Regne Animal/ or Lamarck and Nitzsch from
expressing the opinion that two species of mites might perhaps
occur in the itch. Since this time the knowledge of the mite
has been gradually advanced, especially by Eichstadt, who was
not acquainted with the male, by Hebra and Gudden, also
through Kramer, of Gottingen, in 1846, who first distinguished
the male from the female, and later above all by Bourguignon,
who first gave a good description of the male, which was dis-
covered by Languetin.

In this historical statement I have followed Martiny and my
own studies, but departed essentially from Gudden, who ascribes
Cestoni's letter to Bonomo, makes it to have been directed to
Redi instead of Vallisneri, and altogether sums up the history
very superficially in these words : " If we add thereto (Cestoi's
letter) from recent times, the works of Eichstadt and Hebra,
and perhaps also those of Bourguignon, we have got together
the best of the literature upon this subject/' In details I shall
follow the treatment and arrangement of the subject according
to Hebra, Schinzinger, and Gudden, with reference to my own
observations.

Habitation of the mites and the mode of finding them. — Even
Nyander says in his dissertation : " Acarus sub ipsa pustula
minime quserendus est, sed longius recessit ; sequendo rugam
cuticulae observatur; in ipsa pustula progeniem deposuit, quam
scalpendo offringimus et disseminamus, ita cogente natura."
According to Gudden we find the mites and their egg-passages

24 ANIMAL PAEAS1TES.

on almost all parts of the body, and not only on the hands, the
male organs of generation, and the nipples of women, if we only
search for it carefully everywhere. Nevertheless, the hands pre-
sent peculiarly favorable conditions for the discovery of the galle-
ries, because these become more slwongly marked in consequence
of the collection of dirt in their air-holes; and they are also
usually more numerous on the hands, and on the organs most fre-
quently touched by them, such as the male generative organs, or
the female breasts. Nevertheless, there are cases in which, whilst
the trunk is covered with passages, the hands are quite free from
them ; as is the case, for example, with those who, like painters
and lacquerers, soil their hands daily with fats and oils of all
kinds. According to Gudden, the hands of such individuals
especially remain unattacked, in whom the hands are always cold,
as, for instance, in potters, or those who have always wet, cold
hands, such as washerwomen. In individuals suffering from
habitual cold feet, who can only get warm with difficulty even in
bed, the whole body except the feet may be covered with mites.
For it is a fact abundantly proved by experience, that the mite
becomes more active at all times and in all places when warmed
(for instance, in the warm bed, by staying in the sun or at the
stove, by dancing, or heating movements or beverages in the
winter), but becomes more sluggish in the cold ; so that the
patient may diminish the troublesome itching immediately and in
a short time by leaving his bed in the winter, if he does not
sleep in a heated room. For all these reasons the mites do not
like the face, which is usually kept bare even in bed, and exposed
to the cold ; but they nevertheless nestle in it perfectly well in little
babies, which are completely packed up in bed. Mites were also
found in the face of a man who used to sleep upon his left side
and draw the bed-clothes carefully up to his chin ; but only in
the left cheek which was kept warm.

At the moment of penetration it gives the mites the greatest trou-
ble to pierce through the uppermost horny layer of the epidermis;
and this the greater, the thicker, firmer, and coarser the uppermost
epidermal layer is. They effect this penetration in a nearly perpen-
dicular direction, placing themselves upon their anterior feet, and
supporting the body with their long posterior seta3. For the
boring in itself they require from ten to thirty minutes. For these
reasons the mites in general prefer the delicate, less firm, and
thinner spots of the body ; and therefore the space between the
fingers, the outside of the hand, the inner surface of the wrist,

ACAEUS SCAB1EI. 25

the inner surfaces of the limbs, the entrance to the ^axillae, the
abdomen, the anal cleft, the scrotum, the penis, the nipples, the
cavity of hair-follicles, &c. When they have got under the epi-
dermis, the boring goes on more rapidly. The hinder part of
the animals sinks, and the mite penetrates in an obliquely
pierced passage towards the cutis. The knowledge of this
direction is of importance for the discovery of the mites in their
galleries.

Various methods have been employed for the detection of the
mites. The best is that of Eichstadt and Hebra, which Gudden
has only modified in one point. To examine places in the skin
on which points, papillae, vesicles, or passages occur, the skin is
raised, if possible, into a fold, and the epidermis, with the super-
ficial layer of the cutis, is removed from it, according to Eichstadt
and Hebra, with a pair of scissors, but to suit the surface; and,
according to Gudden, with the rapid stroke of a fine sharp
knife, which certainly gives some pain, but not so much as the
removal with the scissors, and does not leave such a bad wound.
Eichstadt rubbed green soap into the spot selected for inci-
sion on the previous day, in order to produce a slight inflamma-
tion and exudation, which somewhat elevate the gallery and
facilitate the excision. The fragment of skin thus removed is
carefully spread, with the inner surface upwards, upon a glass
plate, and the preparation is allowed to dry slowly, but not to
become brittle; it is then turned over, laid in concentrated
mastic varnish, and after getting rid, as far as possible, of inju-
rious air-vesicles by gentle pressure, or, when this is of no use,
by leaving the preparation for twenty-four hours in the varnish,
it is put under the microscope. The outlines of the gallery are
certainly thus rendered almost transparent and extremely deli-
cate, but particularly easy to recognise where they contain a mite,
or a few balls of excrement. In short, in this way we contrive
to observe the entire natural history of the mite at one glance.
Still more easy, and in ordinary cases sufficient for the diagnosis,
is the method already described by Aldrovandi, Nyander, Bate-
man, and Wichrnann, and again introduced into science by
Henucci, who learnt it from the Corsican women. With the
naked eye or with the lens (Schinzinger), we examine a large pas-
sage, and pierce it carefully from the side at the end, where a
whitish point shines through, with a cataract needle, a lancet,
or a common needle, remove the covering from the passage, and

26 ANIMAL PARASITES.

thus get below the mite, which is exposed, and lift this out.
Many have acquired great expertness in this process.

The males can only be found with the lens. According to
Worms they are always in the vicinity of the galleries, and
shine, as brown points, through 0the skin, which only exhibits
slight traces of reaction. Here we must choose the removal of
such points with the knife.

The young mites are usually found only in fresh vesicles, as
they readily emigrate ; but mites engaged in the change of skin
often occur in the papillae and vesicles which have already
attained a further development. If we wish to search for these
little pale creatures, great care is required, and we must have
good magnifying glasses attached to the eyes. The object is
better attained in this case by the removal of the vesicle, espe-
cially if we examine the vesicles starting up after a thorough
washing with soap (Eichstadt), or, what is better, with oil of tur-
pentine. The mites remain dead on the spot where they lie,
and the reaction subsequently produced shows their position. In
vesicles (that is to say, the anterior extremities or heads of the
galleries) or in true pustules, we either find no mites at all, or
only dead ones.

The course of the disease, from the moment of the immigra-
tion of the mite into the skin up to its height, has certainly
been best elucidated by Gudden, by his inoculation experi-
ments.

If a female, a male, or a young animal, gets upon the warm,
uninfected skin, the little animals, and especially the males, run
quickly about, according to Worms, passing over a space of two
centimetres in a minute, then stop, turn round, run further, and
either bite in immediately, or quit the spot and commence afresh
in another place. These manoeuvres may be traced with the
naked eye or with the lens, when a specimen of one of the above-
mentioned degrees of development is placed upon the outer
lateral surface of the hand, of which the mites are particularly
fond, and where they may be easily isolated. If the animals
run away from it they are brought back with the needle, or if
they will not bite in at all, they are removed altogether. The
mites bore, as already stated, perpendicularly into the epi-
dermis, and when they have pierced this layer, they penetrate
obliquely into the cutis, never below this, as under the lowest
stratum of the epidermis, they find their principal food. If they

ACARUS SCABIEI. 27

arrive by tliis means a little later at the level of t]^e nervous
papillae, they attack these directly or indirectly, and produce a
fine, pricking pain, which is either repeated or remains quiet for
a considerable time, and which we denominate biting. The
deeper the bite goes, the more abundantly does the exudation
pour itself out in consequence of the reaction between the cutis
and the youngest laminae of the epidermis ; this elevates the mite,
and also occurs in its stomach as a colourless paste. In general, the
more abundant the nutritive material furnished to the mites, the
less do they penetrate, and the less do they plague with biting.
The younger the mite is, the younger is the epidermis which it
requires for its nourishment, and therefore the young penetrate
most deeply, irritate, gnaw, bite, and produce the strongest reaction
and exudation. Young mites, however, when they find a suffi-
ciency of nourishment, remain more at the surface; older mites,
also, in one and the same gallery, sometimes go deeper, probably
when there is a deficiency of nourishment for them, and even
have blood in their stomachs. Here and there, in the larger
galleries, when laid bare and rendered transparent, there is an
extensive exudation ; but when the mite remains at the sur-
face, no exudation is produced. Where the epidermis is very thin,
as, for example, on the generative organs, the mites pass deeper
towards the cutis, in order to bore into it, by which the
exudation becomes rich in fibrine and traces of blood. Besides
the shooting and evanescent sensations of pain, little is ob-
served at first externally of the mites which have immigrated
into the epidermis. They remain in the galleries, advance
further in a horizontal direction, or wander out and enter afresh
at another place. The most restless are the six-legged young
before they change their skins, and the maturer males, which
rarely remain in the same place longer than one to three days ;
and the galleries of which, therefore, are seldom ]'" in length.
Fecundated females bore further in their galleries, just as females
after the third change of skin, usually make themselves a long
passage.

But \vhether the mites remain or emigrate, wherever their bite
goes deeper, there is always formed an exudation in the course of
a short time in the normal skin ; and this, usually on the second
day, elevates the epidermis with the gallery of the mite into a
papilla or vesicle. From the fifth day the vesicle begins to dry up
slowly ; the epidermis scales drop off, and the itch-process has been

28 ANIMAL PARASITES.

gone through in that place. The mechanical injury done to the
skin by the mite, does not, however, appear to be the cause of the
eruption of the itch ; but, according to Gudden, this is to be found
in the circumstance that the mites, like other parasites, emit an
irritating fluid with their bite. Gudden supports this view by the
fact that we may penetrate beneath the skin with a needle, and
rub cinnabar into a canal thus formed and yet produce no itch-
like eruption, whilst by dropping in tincture of cantharides on
the mass formed of triturated mites, a little pain is produced at
first, and in the course of a day or two a slight exudation. More
remote proofs of this supposition may also be found, in my opi-
nion, in the phenomena following experiments in inoculation with
the matter of smallpox and syphilis.

From Gudden's experiment of the transference of a mature,
impregnated female upon the healthy skin of an individual, the
following was ascertained as to the time of the process of develop-
ment. The mite dug its gallery and deposited its eggs. On the
ninth and tenth days, the individual experienced distinct gnawing
and pricking on particular parts of the hand, readily distinguishable
from the imaginary itching hitherto felt over the whole body, of
which the person had complained. Vesicles and papillae now rose
immediately, and these gradually diffused themselves in increasing
numbers along the arm ; from some of the vesicles which were just
rising Gudden was able to extract the rnite with the needle, and
in others, when the mite was already gone, he could detect the
gallery. The latter appears rounded off at the end, but sharply
bitten out at its entrance, and has, although only when superficially
examined, an accidental similarity with hair-follicles destitute of
hair, with the convolutions of sudorific canals, or especially with
the epidermic hoods of the cutaneous papillse.

By experiments carried on simultaneously on distant parts of
the body, as well as in fresh cases of infection with itch, we may
perceive that every egg-gallery becomes the centre of a circle of the
disease, from which the young brood diffuses itself in radiating
galleries. When the disorder has lasted longer, the separate cir-
cles certainly become mixed, and it is then impossible to discover
them.

The galleries vary greatly in size, and may be distinguished into
the long-known larger ones, which are recognisable by the naked
eye, scarcely raised above the level of the skin, and sensible to the
finger, and the smaller ones, which are scarcely visible. The larger

ACAKUS SCABIEI. 29

galleries are burrowed out by females after the tliird chnfige of skin,
and by fecundated females; the longest (up to i" or more in
length) are for egg-galleries. The burrows of the young mites
are shorter, at the utmost \r" in length, and pass obliquely from
the epidermis to the cutis ; the shortest galleries (mere holes)
are those of the males. The burrow of the galleries corresponds
with the breadth of their inhabitants ; old galleries become nar-
rower by their walls approaching each other more towards the
entrance. The direction of the galleries, which is probably deter-
mined by the direction and depth of the furrows of the epidermis,
varies ; it is sometimes straight, sometimes tortuous, sometimes
angular, sometimes bent and looped, so that the gallery intersects
itself. The entrance is generally free ; in the case of males before
copulation, sometimes covered with fragments of epidermis ; its
margins are sharply bitten out ; when the galleries are not too
long it serves at the same time as a means of egress. Galleries
after the third change of skin have a separate egress. The im-
pregnated females leave their galleries no more ; they constantly
burrow further onwards and die in its blind extremity. The
males also appear to die after copulation in the last gallery which
they have excavated. The larger galleries on the hand form
blackish punctured lines (which is due to the lodgement of dirt);
on the body these lines are whitish. The latter colour is due to
dried epidermic scales, but the points are round or cleft-like aper-
tures in the upper wall of the gallery (air-holes and apertures of
egress for the brood), which are never wanting in large galleries,
and which stand at equal or unequal distances apart. In the gal-
leries we often see cast skins and balls of excrement, longitudinally
rounded, slightly tubercular, dark-yellow or dark-brown bodies, of
about yj'" in length, and often caked together (Eichstadt), which
vary according to the size of the animal, and represent its excrement.
These would be the primary objective phenomena, which, how-
ever, very rarely occur alone, as Baum, Eichstadt, and Gudden
have seen, when all reaction and exudation keeps away. According
to the variable irritability and reaction of the skin, various
secondary objective phenomena associate themselves herewith, or
the immigration of the mite combines with other accidental cuta-
neous diseases of the individual. If certain cutaneous diseases
are endemic anywhere, a peculiar external form may, as it were, be
impressed there endemically upon the itch. As regards the former,
we must refer particularly to the quantity of exudation and the

30 ANIMAL PARASITES.

resistance of the skin. When the quantity of exudation is small,
and the resistance of the epidermis strong, we meet with papillae,
and the formation of vesicles is hardly attained ; if the contrary
be the case, the progress is more rapid, and the papilla then occurs
only as a transition state. The quantity of the exudation is de-
termined by the depth of the bite, and by the local reactive power
of the organism ; the resistance of the epidermis by the delicacy
of its uppermost layer, and by the firmness of its adhesion to
the rete Malpighii, which varies in different places. Thus on the
hair-follicles, to which the mites willingly attach their galleries,
on the extremities (with the exception of the hands), and on the
trunk, we usually find only papillae, on account of the firm adhesion
of the epidermis to the rete Malpighii; between the fingers we
generally meet with vesicles^ but on the penis only with points
with a fibrinous layer of exudation, the epidermis indeed being very
delicate, but the rete Malpighii very imperfectly developed. By
gradually increasing pressure we may press the exudation up in
the skin, and convert papillae into pustules. These are therefore
no internal differences in the disease, but only accidental ones ;
the only characteristic mark is the gallery of the mite.

Frequently the exudation after each bite is tolerably abundant,
fluid, and purulent, forming large pustules ; at other times
it is in small quantity, more consistent, and causes the cutis
to swell more, so that the place where the mite sits is surrounded
by a wall -like circle of injection, although no vesicle is perceptible.
The latter, as is well known, has led to the admission of a Prurigo
sine papulis. From all this it appears that the eruption and
number of mites generally stand in a certain relation one to
another, and that, in the examination of individual cases, we must
not leave unnoticed the difference in the reaction of the cutis.
Particular mention is due here to the so-called Norwegian itch
(in the distinct Bergenstift). Its cause, according to Hebra, is not,
as he at first supposed, to be found in a peculiar Acarus, but in
the ordinary Acarus Scabiei. According to Boeck, who first
treated of this itch, and Hebra, the peculiarity of this form con-
sists in the formation, according to circumstances, upon larger or
smaller spaces of the body, of several yellowish, dingy-white, scaly,
scabs, from a line to an inch in thickness, or of callous masses, even
with a greenish tinge (epidermal swellings), which sometimes
coalesce, and sometimes not. Such wheals even extend to the
face. When the nails participate in the process, they appear un-

ACAEUS SCABIEI. 31

even, rise up, ana become inflated. No one would liavp supposed
that we had to do here with the common itch, if the mites had not
been found in it. With regard to the progress of the disease,
Boeck states, that the disorder commences with the formation of
red spots upon the hands and feet ; the epidermis then becomes
covered with scales, and afterwards with thick crusts, first on the
extremities, then on the buttocks, on the face, the hairy scalp and
the neck, and at the same time the nails begin to degenerate. The
crusts can be removed by baths, when the skin appears red
beneath them and is quickly regenerated. Lastly, there is
found upon the palms of the hands and soles of the feet, on the
flexures of the thighs and legs, on the buttocks and elbows,
on the hairy scalp and the neck, firmly adhering crusts of 2 — 3"'
in thickness, of a dingy grayish-green colour, and as hard as bark,
rendering the extension of the fingers impossible, and the skin
beneath them inflamed and moist. The nails formed are an uneven,
cartilaginous, yellowish-brown mass; the hairs fall out upon the
detachment of the crusts, and bald places remain. The rest of
the skin is inflamed, and exhibits brownish-red round spots on the
lower extremities, and separate vesicles on the forearms.

Under the microscope, rnites, mites' eggs, and excrement, im-
bedded in epidermic layers, were met with on all the affected parts,
but no galleries were found, and the eggs were therefore found
without order in the mounds of epidermis and in the callous
thickenings — crusts of the epidermis — inhabited by the mites
instead of galleries. All the patients in the same ward, as well
as the nurse, were infected with ordinary pustular itch, although
here also no galleries were to be found. Subsequent investigations
made the last result doubtful, and above all, the observations upon
the Continent have diffused light over this disease.

In his first report (' Wiener Med. Wochenschrift/ xlviii, 1852),
Hebra thought that the great uncleanliness, the phlegm, and the
indifference to diseases displayed by the Norwegians, were the
causes of this form, by allowing the mites to accumulate in masses
upon the body, constantly seeking new and more convenient
places, and hence even reaching the face. But, according to him,
even the migration to spots which mites do not usually attack, would
not suffice, if room were not given, by the accumulation of epi-
dermis, for the mites and their eggs, in the formation of the
wheals, which only consist of an agglutination of these three
structures with plastic, hardened lymph. In the January number

32 , ANIMAL PARASITES.

of the same journal, for the year 1853, Hebra also reports that in
one of the most intense cases of the disease, Boeck only met with
single living mites. This appears to me to show that the pro-
duction of this form of the disease is determined, not alone by the
number of the mites, but by a certain disposition of the skin, caused
by bad management, or by endemic influences and climate, or com-
municated by diseases (local or general), and which consists in the
separation of the plastic lymph in large masses. If the manage-
ment of the skin in certain districts be particularly bad, and a
tendency to plastic cutaneous diseases be also indigenous there
(we may refer to the Radesyge in Norway,) the disease may pro-
bably become endemic, whilst in other districts it only occurs
isolated in particular cases. Fuchs is probably of the same opinion,
when he recommends that those individuals who suffer from
psoriasis or from squamose cutaneous eruptions, should be infected
with itch-mites, a recommendation which is certainly worthy of
consideration for the elucidation of this subject. For the views
just expressed, notwithstanding the shortness of our acquaintance
with the existence of this disease, we already find, in praxi, various
vouchers from the most different countries. Thus, in one case,
Fuchs saw pustular itch and the ordinary itch-mites and their
galleries upon the whole body, whilst on the elbows and knees he
found large scaly crusts (epidermic laminse laid over one another,
with immense numbers of mites, with their excrements and eggs),
which Hebra and Boeck declared to be identical with the crusts
common in Norway. In a second case, which had existed for
fourteen years, the pustular itch appeared all over the body,
but on the upper-arm, the upper part of the body, and
especially on the elbows and knees, nay, in the face, there were
crusts of the size of four- to eight-groschen pieces. Rigler, of Con-
stantinople, saw these crusts all over the body of a Jew boy, with
the exception of the upper-arm, the axillae, the hairy scalp, and the
back of the chest. Hebra himself saw these crusts developed in
the palms of the hands of a syphilitic patient, whilst on the rest
of the body all forms of itch occurred. Biichner, of Tubingen,
lastly, describes a case which I reproduce here, from No. 4 of the
f Deutsche Klinik/ for 1855, as being peculiarly instructive with
regard to this form. The skin of the whole trunk, especially on
the right side, was of a dark-red colour in spots, covered on the
back with ragged epidermis in the act of being thrown off; it was
also thickened on most parts of the trunk, uneven, and in places

ACAEUS SCABIEI. 33

forming hard knots. The entire right arm, especially^the fore-
arm and hand, appeared enlarged and thickened about one half, as
in elephantiasis, unyielding, covered with knot-like elevations, and
on the back of the arm with bran-like scales. Immobility and
thickening of all the fingers, want of strength, weight, insensi-
bility, and uselessness of the right arm, with violent pain in it,
followed. The entire inflamed cutaneous surface of the trunk and
arm secreted a pale greenish, tenacious fluid, which left stiffened
spots in the linen. The skin of the scrotum, also, as well as that of
the lower extremities, presented the commencement of degeneration,
although only in a moderate degree. The patient experienced a
troublesome biting and itching over the whole body, especially at
night ; from this the insensible right arm only remained free. In
a few days, galleries and Acari were found. The introduction of
treatment for the itch removed the itching, the moisture, and the
eruption. The limbs acquired a normal epidermis, diminished in
bulk and increased in mobility, so that a complete cure may be
hoped for.

After this digression we return to the description of the
disease in its ordinary course, and have still to speak of the
subjective phenomena, consisting in the sensation of biting and
itching, which lead to scratching, which again, as a fresh irri-
tation, increases the objective symptoms, renders the exudation
more abundant, distends the papillae and vesicles, removes larger
galleries from their positions, or, when the inflammation penetrates
more deeply into the cutis, produces red spaces round the pustules,
and even patches of inflammation under the galleries. In a still
higher degree, scratching leads to loss of blood, in consequence of
the bursting of blood-vessels which are at the bottom of the
exudation, to the desiccation of the latter into small, reddish -
brown, hard crusts, or small sores covered with scabs ; but very
reckless scratching produces furunculi and larger ulcers, which
are seen particularly upon those places which the hands can
easily reach (Hebra), whilst in cripples, who cannot scratch
themselves, and individuals who are confined in a strait-jacket,
or those who can command themselves sufficiently not to scratch,
they are wanting.

Description of the Itch-mites.

1. The adult female mite is visible with the naked eye, and
forms a roundish, dimly-shining, grayish-white corpuscle, ~ — J"'

3

34 ANIMAL PARASITES.

in length, aud £ — J"' in breadth, with hairs and bristles ; under
the microscope, a truncated, tortoise-like oval, notched before arid
behind, flat on the belly and convex on the back. The skin
breaks with difficulty, and exhibits irregular segments, with margins
lying over one another posteriorly, which form a system of
parallel lines. On the back we see small, transparent cones,
or, more correctly, teeth, in several rows, which I have indicated
in the mite of the cat as file-teeth for boring the galleries, and also
near these some long, thin hairs, and on each side ten peculiar,
truncated, hollow processes, which are moveable, according to
Eichstadt, and of which the three anterior are shorter and thicker ;
the seven posterior, arranged in two rows, are longer, and,
according to Gudden, open at their extremity, but form little
rings at their base, in the cavity of which they are inserted with
a short stalk. It appears to me to be an optical illusion to
suppose them to be open. What purpose they serve, I do not
know; but they may, perhaps, be employed as organs of touch.

The feet are supported by a yellow, chitinous framework,
attached to the belly. For the first pair of feet of the female
there is a single massive bearer (band or stalk), the common
simple stem of which runs in a straight line almost from the
middle of the animal towards the head. At a short distance from
the head this stem divides into a fork, and then forms a sort of
triangular framework for each separate basal joint of the first
pair of anterior feet. On each side of this straight stem, and
nearly in the same level with its hinder extremity, there originate
two massive bands (stems or bearers), convex towards the median
line of the animal, and concave externally, which bear the same
triangular framework at their anterior extremity, for the basal
joint of the foot of the second pair.

The two hinder pairs of feet are also supported by a particular
horny framework. The third pair of feet is attached by a more
bowed stem, concave internally, convex outwardly, and furnished
on the outside with a small tubercular spine; from this the
triangular framework of the basal joint of these feet originates.
The last (fourth) pair of feet exhibits a short and straighter stem,
which runs obliquely from within outwards. It is characteristic
of the mature female that there is no transverse band between
the posterior pairs of feet. It would deprive the eggs of the
space necessary for their evolution, and render the extension of
the belly difficult or impossible. Each of the four anterior feet

ACAEUS SCABIEI. 35

consists of four more or less distinct joints, on tlie foremost of
•which there is a hollow, moveable staff, permeated by a sinew,
with a sucking cup also perforated in the centre, which is extended
flat at the moment of adhesion, and collapses longitudinally,
when the animal lets go its hold. At the same time there are
some hairs upon the foot which become strong bristles quite
anteriorly at the origin of the staff, on the inside of which a
sort of short, sharp claw shows itself. The hinder feet are shorter
and weaker, and at the same time less clothed with hairs on the
side. Instead of the staves with their sucking discs, they have a
long bristle, the third pair a longer one than the fourth, and on
the inside of this bristle a much smaller bristle or claw. At the
base of all the feet there is a powerful, readily recognisable,
transversely striated muscular structure.

The head, which is to a certain extent retractile, consists of
two valvular upper-lips, which are firmly coalescent with the
slightly toothed jaws ; of two jointed maxilla, which are arranged
in the manner of a grating, and saw in a horizontal direction
upwards and downwards ; and of the more massive, immoveable
lower-lips, which are coalescent beneath, and stand out from each
other in the form of a channel above. It has eight fine, inar-
ticulate filaments or hairs (four lateral and four directed forwards),
arid on each side a vesicular, globular dilatation, which, according
to Gudden, probably produces an acrid secretion, which causes the
formation of eruptions. The eyes are wanting. After the head
follows the oesophagus, with the muscles of the jaws originating
from it, and after this a lobate stomach, which is seen most dis-
tinctly when it is full of blood, or when the animal is made to
swallow oil (for which I regard coloured oils, as, for instance,
Macassar oil, as the best adapted), and from the lowest angle of
which originates the extremely delicate and slightly curved
intestine, which can only be traced in parts when in the full
state. The latter opens into the anus, that is, into a longitudinal
cleft at the posterior margin of the animal, between the larger
orifices of the vagina, through which mature eggs may be passed
out by a gentle pressure. Tracheae are wanting. If the mite
be laid upon its back and covered with a thin glass, we may,
according to Gudden, simultaneously with a movement of the
jaws, see air enter in small vesicles into a narrow air -sac, which
extends below the oesophagus and stomach, beyond the middle of
the ventral surface. But whether this is actually the way in

36 ANIMAL PARASITES.

which the mites breathe is very doubtful, as most of the
Arachnida respire through an aperture in the anterior part of the
belly. In point of fact, a small, round aperture, surrounded by
a horny ring, does exist in the middle of the anterior part of the
belly, just behind the end of tke stem which supports the first
pair of feet. That this may serve as the opening of the respi-
ratory sac is very probable. This supposition acquires still
further confirmation from the circumstance that when mites are
forcibly pressed, a small air-vesicle collects at this spot, and
therefore on the ventral surface of the mite, which can only be
got rid of with difficulty. The nervous and circulatory systems
are wanting. The animal contains numerous fat- drops. The
ovary exhibits one large egg, ripe for laying, of ^" in length and
3y"' in breadth, and also several oval eggs of various sizes, of
which one female lays more than fifty. They strongly refract
the light, lie with their longitudinal diameter in the transverse
diameter of the gallery, on the hands in rows of 2 — 6, on the
body in uninterrupted rows of as many as twenty-one close together.
The greater number of the eggs in a gallery of this kind are
already burst and collapsed at one end. Fresh eggs have
amorphous contents, and pass through an ordinary process of
segmentation and development up to fully developed young
moving in the interior of the shell. In making their escape they
extend the bristles, which are at first crossed upon the belly,
against the bottom of the shell and burst it.

The young mite either quits the parent gallery through one of
the air holes soon after its exclusion, or eats its way deeper into
the bottom of the passage, producing phenomena of reaction, or
digs a lateral gallery for itself to the outside, and then burrows
in again at a greater or less distance. The mite is now about
T'?'" in length, and hexapod.

The male, which is extremely small, lives in small galleries, or,
more correctly, in small holes, and appears to die soon after
copulation. It is about half the length of the female. The
anterior feet resemble those of the female, except that they
approach more nearly to the hinder feet than in the latter. The
horny frameworks and supports of the individual hinder feet are
certainly similar in structure in the two sexes, but in the male
they are not free as in the female, but inserted into a slightly
sigmoid transverse band, running across the body of the mite,
from the central point of which issues an apparatus also of a

ACARUS SCABIEI. 37

chitinous nature, which has the appearance of the vertical section
of a bell, and is destined to support the powerful penis which is
obtusely rounded at its apex, but perforated through the middle.
The third pair of feet is otherwise exactly similar to that of the
female, but the fourth pair resembles the anterior feet in being
furnished with a stalked sucking-cup. In other respects the
males exactly resemble the females.

Bourguignon describes the male sexual organs as follows :
On the surface of the abdomen, between the epimera of the
hinder legs (i. e., between the comb-like processes which pass
from the coxa of the hinder legs in a bent form forwards and
outwards), there are the four following sections of structures,
which are wanting in the female : 1. A portion placed between
the epimera of the last pair of feet, broader at its anterior
extremity, narrower behind, then again broader, and soon dividing
into two branches running backwards. 2. A portion enclosed
in front by branches of the first portion, which has a glandular
body at its central point, and thence also divides into two
branches, which are at first parallel with those of 1, but after-
wards intersect them externally. 3. A portion enclosed by 2,
also divided into two branches running backwards, and with a
glandular body upon its median line. 4. A portion usually
originating in the abdomen, upon and below the plane of this
apparatus, and only visible after the destruction of the mite,
namely, a filiform structure, uncoiling posteriorly, the penis,
which protrudes from its sheath at a little distance from the
orifice of the rectum. (See also Kramer, ' Illustrirte Med.
Zeitung/ iii, No. 10.)

The male has also a sucking-cup on the fourth pair of feet
instead of a hair, and the epimera of his hinder feet are united
by a transverse band. Bourguignon here states that the third
and fourth hinder feet of each side are only united by a band,
but that the transverse band is wanting, in which he is wrong.
In the male, also, the horny appendages of various sizes and
thicknesses on the dorsal shield are wanting, which, according to
Bourguignon, prevent retrogression and facilitate progression.
The male is never whitish, shining, thick, and globular, but blackish,
flattened, with a retreating angle at the level of the hind legs; and,
lastly, much stronger and more active than the female. The
hexapod form exhibits no sexual distinction. The male digs his cave
in 10 — 15 minutes without any pain to his host. Bourguigiioii

38 ANIMAL PARASITES.

is in the wrong when he says that it never makes itself a gallery.
According to Bourguignon, the greater activity of the male is
effected by the suckers upon the fourth pair of feet, which I
cannot agree to, any more than the statement that the male quits
his dwelling every twenty-four hpurs, and goes upon the quest at
night like all wandering mites. This takes place under the
influence of warmth (vide infra) whether by day or night, as is
also confirmed by Hebra.

Before becoming mature males and females, the young mites,
like all Arachnida, pass through a sort of moulting. Previous to
this change of skin, they always contract all the moveable parts
of the body, resign themselves to repose, and remain benumbed
and stiff in the hindermost blind extremity of the gallery. The
contents of their body form an amorphous mass, as in the egg,
during its segmentation. We usually count three such changes of
skin. From the first moult the hexapod mite comes forth with
eight legs ; everything else, even the processes, remains the same
in all stages. Before each change of skin the skeleton of the
mite is darker and harder, the head and extremities are smaller
in proportion to the body, and the whole animal in better con-
dition and fatter. After this change the skeleton is softer and
paler, the head and extremities larger in proportion to the body,
and the animal is not so fat.

Besides this change of skin, the octopod mite undergoes a
further moulting, from which it issues again without sexual
organs, which it only obtains after the third change of skin.
Older females, which have remained unimpregnated, wander out
of their passages, shrivel up, and take up a position as before
moulting. Whether these pass through another change of skin
is unknown.

The cast skins remain lying rolled up together in the passages.
After the first and second changes the female mites wander out
and bore themselves new galleries, but after the third, they mine
further on in the gallery in which they have changed their skin,
until they are sought out by the male. The size of a female
mite in its first change of skin is y1/", in the second I"' '} and in
the third £'" ; the males are proportionately smaller.

The act of copulation was seen by Worms, who states with
regard to the males in general, that they like to be in the vicinity
of the galleries of mature females. The male creeps, as in the
lice, under the belly of the female in such a manner that the

ACARUS SCABTET. 39

two ventral surfaces are in contact, the dorsal surface of the
female touching the corresponding spot of the upper, and that
of the male the lower wall of the canal. To judge from cor-
responding proceedings in other mites, however, the male only
passes with a small portion of his abdomen under the end of the
belly of the female, and would have no hold during the act itself,
if the female did not embrace the male with the long bristles of
her hinder feet, and the male the female with the bristles of his
third pair of feet, and at the same time attach himself firmly to
the ventral surface of the female with the sucking cups of his last
pair of feet. The males never penetrate into the galleries of
impregnated, egg-laying females, as is shown by the unbroken
series of the eggs.

Of the duration of the life of the mites in their particular
stages of development, Gudden gives the following calculation :
The hatching time of the eggs lasts about eight days ; on the
seventeenth day after transference hexapod broods in the act of
moulting are found, in forty-three days female mites after their
last change of skin, and in forty-eight days the first egg-gallery
with eggs. We may therefore reckon somewhat in this manner :
eight days, hatching time of the eggs ; duration of each change
of skin six days, interval between them five days ; which gives as
the commencement of the first change of skin about the four-
teenth day, of the second the twenty-fifth day, of the third the
thirty-sixth day, and of the oviposition the beginning of the
seventh week. If the males die soon after copulation, they would
attain an age of about six weeks.

Mode of infection of itch. — Gudden first discussed this
question rationally in accordance with the desire of wandering at
the different periods of life. The most restless are the males
seeking after females, and next to these the young ; these, there-
fore, are the most easily transferred ; lastly, just fertilised females
after the third change of skin, which wander out of their old
passages, in order to dig new ones for themselves, in which to
lay their eggs. Females already engaged in oviposition, or near
it, can rarely, if ever, be the cause of itch, as they never leave
their galleries again. It is only in deep-seated itch that these
last may perhaps be transferred from one place to another on the
body of the same individual. Hebra and Gudden do not coin-
cide with the opinion defended by Von Liebig and Bourguignon,
that the itch-mites are nocturnal predaceous animals ; they regard
the wanderings of the mites as solely arid wholly dependent upon

40 ANIMAL PAKASITES.

warmth, as I myself had previously stated in Giinsburg's ' Zeits-
chrift.-' Dancing, the long junction of the heated hands of the
dancers in warm ball-rooms (but not every simple contact of the
hands), the carrying of young children by itchy nurses (when the
latter lay their bare hands upon the nates of the children),
sleeping with itchy subjects, or taking possession of their beds
whilst still warm, and putting on clothes and linen which they
have just worn, are the principal agents of infection. In general,
however, there is too much fear of wearing clothes which have
been long left off by the patients. Even the greatest cleanliness
is no protection against the itch, of which I am one of the most
convincing examples, as notwithstanding my daily custom of
washing my body morning and evening with soap and water, I
was infected when a lad of seventeen on a holiday journey
towards home.

The summer alone perhaps furnishes no favorable momentum
for the infection ; but this is perhaps only apparent, because
common people prefer going into the hospital in the idle time, as
Schinzinger has already mentioned. Men are affected much
more than women, on account of their occupation (in the propor-
tion of 12 to 1). The seat of the disease also varies according
to the sex. Men are very soon and readily affected on the penis ;
women rarely in the generae organtivs ; but the itch is very easily
communicated from infected nurses to the genitalia of children
in arms. The more delicate the skin, the more is it disposed to
infection. Whether a certain degree of hairiness facilitates the
transfer, as mites willingly climb upon hairs, is a question still
undecided, the investigation of which I have already suggested, and
in favour of which the more frequent occurrence in men is an
argument. Schinzinger, Hebra, &c., have prepared the following
table according to trades, descending from the most favorable
occupations to those less favorable : tailors, shoemakers, joiners,
male and female servants, day labourers, and factory labourers
(the last three denominations in pretty equal numbers), girls of
the town, bricklayers, book-binders, paper-hangers, bakers, hat-
makers, tanners, whilst the soap-boilers, according to Schinzinger,
are quite free, and it is well known that potters are very rarely
attacked.

The geographical distribution of the itch is universal, in south
and north, in inland districts, and on the sea coasts (Greenland,
the coasts of Schleswig-Holstein in the last war), and both in
the Old and New worlds.

ACA1UJS SCABIEI. 41

The diagnosis is possible in all cases with a lens/ and the
microscope, but without them completely impossible in many
cases, or a mere piece of luck, which a conscientious surgeon
should never allow to have any dominion over him in cases where
he has the means of a diagnosis. Suspicion is excited in dirty
cases, by nocturnal itching, increased by warmth, with eruption
of vesicles and papillae. The diagnosis is founded upon the de-
tection of the gallery of the mite with the balls of excrement, eggs,
or remains of the mites, by the aid of the microscope. By the latter,
and by this alone, even those cases are recognised in which
it does not come to reaction, or in which the formation of galleries
retrogrades, as is sometimes the case in the so-called Norwegian
itch.

Therapeutics. — The only indication is that of killing the mites,
as there can hardly be cases of spontaneous cure. The attempt
at attaining this object by internal remedies is mere folly. Such a
process is only introduced now-a-days by quacks, ignoramuses, or
pick-pockets, and should be punished by the authorities on account
of the infection to which others are exposed by such a treatment
of the disorder. The destruction of the mites is the first and
principal object of the treatment, and that remedy is the most
deserving of recommendation which causes their death with the
greatest rapidity, and with the least inconvenience to the patient.
We need never despair of this destruction and the cure pro-
duced thereby. Even very old cases rapidly yield to treatment.
But if in a particular case we should be in dread because the
long existence of the disease has led to habitual secretions, of the
sudden suppression of which by the rapid cure we are frightened,
it is only necessary to maintain a fontanelle or an artificial sore
for some time, and allow this to heal up slowly. Usually, how-
ever, this is quite unnecessary. (See Langenbeck, ' Bericht der
24 Versammlung der Naturforscher zu Kiel/ p. 161.)

The remedies fall into three series :

1 . Those which remove the mites mechanically, to which I have
given the name of Itch-mite-combs (Kratzmilbenkamme], a series
of remedies, with regard to which I have been so misunderstood
by Gudden, that I cannot but think that he has not read my
essay, referred to by him, upon the testing of the rapidity of the
remedies as regards the destruction of the mites;

2. The remedies which have a chemico -physiological action
upon the mites and kill them (Antisarcoptica);

42 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

3. Combinations of the first and second methods.

I. Remedies which re-move the mites mechanically (Milben-
k'dmme), and methods founded upon them.

a. Picking off the mites. — This plan is still in use in Corsica ;
very deserving of recommendation*according to Hartwiz and Walz,
with the large mange-mites of animals (e.g. horse-mites), and
also effected by Konig with the Sarcoptes hominis, and recom-
mended by Schiuzinger for those perfectly fresh cases in which
only a few galleries are found. To effect this picking (especially
in the latter case) we have simply to cut out or slit up the entire
passage, capture the mite, and then apply caustic to the place.
In general, however, this method is too tedious, and in old cases
even dangerous as a point of medical police, from the prolonged
danger of infection.

b. Rubbing off the mites with charcoal, chalk, brick-dust, fine
sand, pumice-stone, fyc. — This plan is too tedious alone, and
allows too much chance of diffusion ; in combination with other
methods it is deserving of consideration.

c. The removal of the passages with their inhabitants (mature
mites, brood, and eggs) by the cutaneous inflammation produced by
soft soap. — This method is especially represented by the old,
English, Yezinian method, which has hitherto been the one
most in use. In this the patient is treated with soft soap
from top to toe, with the exception of the penis, which is care-
fully protected by cloths ; this treatment is continued for eight
days, during which he is kept at a temperature of 100° F. (30° R.).
He is then laid naked between woollen blankets until the in-
flamed epidermis breaks off in fragments. Circumstances enough
to render it desirable to do away with this method are to be
found in the great inconvenience which it inflicts upon the
patient, the troublesome eczema which is scarcely ever absent,
the injurious employment of the method only in the summer
time, the long duration of the treatment itself, which is still
further prolonged by the frequent relapses (caused, according to
Volz, by the penis, a principal seat of the mites, remaining
entirely out of treatment, and thus furnishing a fresh source of
infection), in the great expense caused by the soft soap, the
heating, arid the purchase of the blankets, in the impossibility
of applying the method out of the house of the patient, and in
the disgusting nature of the method itself.

ACAKUS SCABJEI. 43

d. The removal of the mites by the external application of
Sulphur-remedies, known even to Celsus, which, from my experi-
ments in killing the mites, I cannot reckon amongst the anti-
sarcoptica, as mites lived for days in such remedies as the simple
ointment of flowers of sulphur. That they cure the itch, there is
no doubt. They can therefore only act by the production of
cutaneous inflammation, like soft-soap, and consequently also
belong to the "Milbenkammen." The methods here coming
before us are various, partly simple, partly complicated, as every
one will see from what follows, and every one may select his
remedy accordingly. Here belong :

a. Horn's method, recently praised by Jenni, of Glarus. — 1 part
of flowers of sulphur and 2 parts of soft soap diluted with soap
and water and rubbed in. Soap baths are also prescribed. In
very inveterate cases Horn gives baths of sulphuret of potassium,
an ointment of iodide of sulphur (12 grains to 1 ounce of lard),
and purgatives.

j3. The method of Tilly of Courtrai. — 100 parts of flowers of
sulphur and 150 parts of lard are heated until the sulphur is
completely melted, and then 150 parts of black pitch, and 100
parts of soap are added. First of all a bath of one hour is given,
then the ointment is rubbed in three times a day for two days,
and on the third day a tepid soap-bath. No subsequent diseases
were observed.

•y. Hebra's method, of which the one just mentioned only ap-
pears to be a modification. The patients are first of all washed
at the ordinary temperature of the sick-room, and then every
evening and morning, for two days, rubbed with an ointment com-
posed of sulphur, pitch, lard, and a little pounded chalk, but only on
the places where the galleries of mites and vesicles occur (therefore,
particularly on the hands, feet, penis, breasts, navel, and buttocks.)
The sheet is then drawn close up under the arms, and the hands
rolled up in it, so that the patient may not transfer the ointment
to other parts of the body. On the third day the patient washes
himself in his room with tepid soap and water, in order to avoid
the eczema, which otherwise easily follows the bath, He then
takes a bath, is watched for a day or two, and discharged if no
fresh erruptions occur. The process is cheap, certain, and
tolerably short. The principal point consists in avoiding the
eczema, which is not very difficult, according to Schinzinger, and
was also managed formerly by Hebra. To me, the rolling up in

44 ANIMAL PARASITES.

the sheet seems too complicated, and if the greatest care is not
taken, insecure. A sort of sack tied round the neck, trousers or
strait-jacket, or wrapping the sheet up to the neck, and putting
on linen sleeves sewed up at the fingers, appear to me to be more

advisable.

•

II. For ages, as at the present day, all sorts of acrid, caustic,
and poisonous materials, out of the vegetable, mineral, and animal
kingdoms (the urine of men, horses, &c.), have been prescribed
with the view of killing the mites. We can hardly expect much
from the latter, as the animals live a long time, even in concen-
trated solutions of the soaps. Hence, also, washing with com-
mon soaps (Schinzinger) can hardly do anything, even in slight
cases, as I know from my own experience. Little is also to be
expected from washing with sulphide of magnesium (Van den
Corput). From my experiments, as also from those of previous
authors, such as Albin Gras and Hertwig, the essential oils, such
as oil of turpentine, anise, and rosemary, are to be preferred to
everything, as rapidly destructive remedies against horse- and cat-
mites. In the presence of Professors Kobett and Hecker, and of
Prosector Maier, Schinzinger, confirmed my statements with
regard to the oils of anise and rosemary upon the mites of the
human subject. The mites die within sixteen minutes in oil of
anise ; still earlier in oil of rosemary. At Berlin it has been urged
against oil of anise that it excites too violent inflammation ; an
objection which it certainly does not merit, as is proved by the
observations made, shortly after the war in Schleswig-Holstein, at
Travemunde, where the remedy became again quite a popular
one, upon the recommendation of the bath-surgeon at that place,
Dr. Liebholt, who advised it in consequence of my memoir, and was
further confirmed by the observations made by Dr. Mittrich and
myself at the same place, and by those of Dr. Schinzinger. If
the charge of extravagance has been made against the remedy
(and an esteemed hospital surgeon let me know by a patient sent
to him, that my itch-medicine might be good, but that it was
enormously dear, as he had employed oil which cost, I think,
several dollars in a single cure), that is not my fault. I have
recommended essential oil at 6d. to lOd. per drachm, a clear proof
that I did not refer to a perfectly pure, expensive, essential oil.
For the cure it is sufficient to add to olive oil or almond oil a few
drops of the strongest essential oil, and to mix them with the

ACARUS SCABIEI. 45

assistance of a gentle heat, for the purpose of obtaining a better
diffusion. In consequence of my statement regarding oil of anise,
Jaime, of Berthelsdorf, brought rosemary oil, which does not
smell so strongly, into use. Its efficacy against the mites has
been confirmed both by Schinzinger and myself. I do not know
how it is that Schinzinger finds fault with the remedy because
it has an unpleasant odour, and acts injuriously upon the
lungs and chest. The former I have not found to be the case,
and the latter may be avoided, by allowing the patient to move
about for a little while in the open air or at an open window.
But however this may be, both oil of anise and oil of rosemary
are good destroyers of mites (not " Milbenkamme," as I have
said, according to Gudden), and 1 am firmly convinced that they
will gain friends. All that is necessary is to give a bath, and
have the patient rubbed in the bath on the affected spots and
over the whole body with the coarsest pumice-stone soap, in order
to tear open the galleries and pustules, and then, after good and
sufficient drying,, to rub in the oil; or the skin may be rubbed
with the pumice-stone soap without a preliminary bath, and after-
wards with the oil. From my observations, also, no further dis-
infection of the linen is necessary, as any mites which may exist
in the clothes are also killed by the oil. As the eggs require
eight days for their development, I advise, in order to avoid
relapses, that during the first 8 — 14 days the oil should be
rubbed in from time to time every five or eight days. (See Volz
upon Upmann's method.)

Very recently the oil of turpentine, which was also tested by
me as a mite-killer, has been brought into use by Upmann, in
the Military Hospital at Karlsruhe. He lets the itch patients
bathe, and then for five days rubs oil of turpentine twice a day
into the whole body (which is superfluous according to Volz, as a
single rubbing is sufficient to kill the mites), bathes them again
on the seventh and eighth days, and eight days afterwards makes
them show themselves again in the hospital, and rubs them again
with turpentine. The itching and irritation of the skin usually
cease after the first two rubbings in ; the galleries are uninjured,
their vicinity reddened, and the mites dead. As troublesome
secondary cutaneous eruptions often follow, and the passages
never go away entirely, but only dry up, we have no positive cer-
tainty that a cure has been effected. At the same time the oil
of turpentine cannot destroy the power of development in the

46 ANIMAL PARASITES.

eggs, but only suspends it, and hence relapses occur after six,
eight, or even twelve weeks. According to Volz, it would be
rational to effect a rubbing on the first, tenth, and twentieth days,
and to take baths in the intervals, as in this way any brood ex-
cluded subsequently would be killed, and their development to
maturity prevented. In general, *this process is not adapted for a
hospital treatment, but furnishes a good preliminary treatment.

The oils here referred to are interesting in a physiological
point of view, as they prove that the mites must possess a respi-
ratory organ, through which their poisonous action upon the
animals is communicated.

Solutions of Delphinine have not proved to be Antisarcoptica
with me. Nor do I expect anything from the Tinctura Staphis-
agrise, nor from the powder of the seeds of the same remedy,
notwithstanding Bourguignon's recommendation, as the mites do
not certainly die in them.

With the action of the Tinctura Tabaci, and of the solution or ex-
tract of the so-called insect-powder (see Lice), I am unacquainted.

I now come to the method which is at present most widely
and generally diffused, Hardy's rapid cure and its modifications,
which I place here, because the principal agent in it is certainly,
as Volz first stated, the carbonate of potash, or the alkaline
sulphuret which may be formed, in which the mites soon (within
a quarter of an hour) become pale and transparent, and die.

The method introduced by Bazin and Hardy is only a repe-
tition of that employed by Bourdin, as early as 1812, at the hos-
pital of St. Louis, in which Helmericlr's ointment, which still main-
tained its ground at this hospital, plays a principal part. Bourdin
first of all gave a purifying bath, and at the same time had soft
soap rubbed into the whole body for half an hour; 2dly, on the next
day he had the whole body rubbed three times with Helmerich's
alkaline sulphur-ointment (8 parts of lard, 2 of sulphur, 4 of car-
bonate of potash) ; and 3dly, on the second day he gave a purifying
bath of soap, after which the patient was discharged as cured. Hardy
abridged this process essentially. After the rubbing in of soft
soap for half an hour, the patient goes into the bath, where he
is again rubbed for an hour with soft soap, and after the bath for
half an hour with Ilelmerich^s ointment. In this way, according
to Volz, 3 — 4 ounces of ointment and a pound of soft soap are
used to one patient. Unfortunately, this method affords no pro-
tection against relapses, produces extensive eczema, and even

ACAEUS SCABIEL 47

febrile eruptions of vesicles and pustules. Hence the medical
profession was divided into two great camps, one of the opponents
of this method (Hebra, for example), and the other of its sup-
porters (Volz, &c.), who, recognising its great value, endeavoured
to improve it by modifications. We must, at the same time, take
into consideration that this method cannot be equally well
carried out anywhere. It appears to be best adapted for strictly
disciplined military hospitals. In the French regimental hospitals
the patients are rubbed in the bath for three quarters of an hour
with seventy grammes of soft soap, and after the bath for a quarter
of an hour with Helmerich's ointment ; this is repeated in a few
hours, and followed by a cleansing bath.

Hardy's rapid cure experienced a modification from Fronmiiller,
of Fiirth, who first introduced it into Germany. According to
him, sulphur is the principal agent in Helmericlr's ointment;
whilst Volz, supported by my experiments, considers the carbonate
of potash as the principal agent. The former says that the com-
mon English itch-ointment may also he employed in the rapid
cure. The principal point is that the rubbings in should be
effected with perseverance, energy, and with especial stress upon the
favorite habitations of the mites, for which purpose the patient
must be assisted by the nurse. Fronmiiller allows the ointment
to remain adhering to the skin for an hour, during which the
patient may remain sitting in a woollen coverlet. Then follows
the cleansing bath and the dismissal. Any patches of eczema
heal of themselves within forty-eight hours. As, according to
Fischer, of Cologne, Fronmiiller's method does not furnish suffi-
ciently good results, he recommends the following method, which
is also extolled by Keyl, and less celebrated by Schillingen (who
once saw a relapse after it, and once agitation and fainting during
the treatment). 1, a short soaping with ^ij of green soap; 2, a
bath for an hour at 27°— 28° K,. (92°— 96° F.) ; 3, after careful
drying, rubbing in with caustic potash (^/3 of potash is heated
with ^iv — vj of water, and rubbed with a ball of tow into the
whole body of the patient, with the exception of the face, and
especially into the extremities, for J — f of an hour, by gloved
nurses) ; 4, a short soaping in a tepid bath ; and, 5, general cold
shower bath. Kiichler, of Darmstadt, praises this process.

Lastly, one of the warmest defenders of the quick cure is Volz,
who saw no relapse in thirty-two cases. According to him, the
action of the treatment upon the skin is as follows : — Most of

48 ANIMAL PARASITES.

the vesicles are deprived of their epidermis, the folds of the skin
and galleries of the mites are filled with sulphur, the cutaneous
inflammation here and in the vicinity, however, is but small, and
on the third day the vesicles, as well as the inflamed passages, are
dried up. Volz, however, only Allows his patients to bathe on
the fourth day, by which means the passages of the mites are
completely thrown off, and are then got rid of. The first rubbing
in only serves to cleanse the skin, but does not kill the mites ;
this is only effected by the alkaline sulphur ointment, in which
the mite becomes quite transparent within a quarter of an hour,
swells up, and dies. The crystalline sulphur destroys the passages,
the ointment causes them to be thrown off', by which means the
dead rnites with their eggs are got rid off; of the latter we do
not know whether or not they lose their germinative faculty with
the ointment. However, even Hardy did not employ his method
in those cases in which the itch is complicated with inflammatory
eruptions. In these cases Hardy and Gibert resort to the Tinct.
Tabaci and Staphisagr. diluted to one half, and belonging, ac-
cording to their views, to No. 2.

The Belgian rapid cure, so-called by me, because it is intro-
duced into the Belgian army, consists in a similar process. The
patient is first rubbed for an hour with soft soap, then for another
hour and a half in the bath, and after the bath with 60 — 90
grammes of the cheap sulphide of calcium. The latter remedy
is also recommended by Piorgey. I place this method in this
position for the same reason as Hardy's.

III. Methods combined from 1 and 2. — Here belongs the
method of Hardy, just referred to, in part, and that described by
Schiuzinger in his ' Habilitationsschrift/ which is made use of at
the Surgical Hospital in Freiburg. If there are galleries in the
ordinary places, the patient or the nurse is instructed to rub these
places three times a day, for one or two days, with an ointment
of green soap, pounded chalk and water, without observing any
particular precautions with the sheet (Hebra) in lying down in
bed. The chalk tears open the passages, knots, and vesicles, but
the soap causes the passages to be thrown off by inflammation
and formation of exudation. On the third day follows a bath.
After this, the places where the mites lay are rubbed with
^ — 1 drachm of oil of anise, and 5J of alcohol, which produces a
fleeting pain for a few minutes.

ACAEUS SCABTET. 49

If the individuals be dirty, the skin callous, and the^case old,
a bath is given, in which the patient washes himself with soft
soap, by which the skin becomes softer, and the galleries more
visible. Then follows the treatment just described, with the
precaution of telling the patient and the nurse the places which
are particularly inhabited by the mites, and which, therefore, are
to be specially rubbed. In all cases the penis must be rubbed
in with soap, but the flexures of the arms and lower extremities
should be left free, as here the soap readily produces eczema.
After the completion of the treatment, a fresh examination is
necessary in order to see whether all the passages, nodules, and
lumps are destroyed. Should this not be the case, and should
new passages with fresh excoriations be produced, the repetition
of the treatment is necessary.

If the patient comes under treatment with eczemata, sores, or
excoriations, these often remain long after the extermination of
the prurigo, which usually takes place within two or three days.
They are to be treated with cold poultices, solutions of corrosive
sublimate, &c.

I think, however, that if we modified Hardy's rapid cure by
adding about 5J of oil of anise to Helmerich's ointment, we
should attain more certain results, and thus avoid relapses ; the
latter especially, by giving the patient, on his dismissal, a portion
of oil of anise or rosemary, to rub in every eight or ten days for
about four weeks upon the places most affected, or where any
itching may occur, or vesicles make their appearance. In order
to avoid relapses, it is always advisable to disinfect the linen.
The body-linen (shirts, drawers, and stockings) should be boiled,
washed, and dried, during the three days' treatment in the hospi-
tal. The other clothes (coats, trowsers, hats, and caps), and also
the portemonnaies or purses, with the money in it, and in the
case of journeymen artisans, even the knapsack, should be dis-
infected either with fumes of sulphurous acid (which, it is
remarkable, is still the case in the French army, although the
colours of the clothes, or even the clothes themselves, readily suf-
fer injury by this means, and smell of sulphur long afterwards),
or by a degree of heat which does not attack the clothes, but
destroys the mites (according to Fischer, 90° C. = 194° F.) For
this purpose the louse-oven or any baker's oven is well adapted.
The disinfection by heat is generally introduced into the Belgian
army. Or the clothes may be boiled in steam. Some, as Volz,

4

50 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

think it is sufficient to beat the clothes heartily, to brush
them in particular places (cuffs, button-holes, and pocket-holes)
with soap and water, and sprinkle them with turpentine, which
immediately kills the mites. According to Volz the mite can
only live one or two days out of the body ; according to others
it may live three weeks. How long the eggs retain their power
of development out of the body is unknown.

Shall I say one word upon the retrocession of itch, and the
diseases supposed to be produced thereby ? Shall I trace this
unlucky theory of the otherwise so meritorious Autenrieth from
its origin to the time when Hahnemann and his disciples pub-
lished a caricature of these views in their psoradic theories ?
The mainstay of this absurdity is now broken, and I pass it over.
I may be allowed, however, to mention one case as an example of
the mode in which this subject is sometimes treated. Joachim
relates : " A girl, eighteen years old, ^vas rubbed with ointment
for the itch, and confined in a hot oven for an hour and a half,
upon which she became blind. By means of sulphur and deriva-
tives applied to the skin, the itch returned again, and the power
of sight in five weeks.-" In this case who would not seek the
cause of the blindness rather in the heat of the oven than in the
retrocession of the itch ? I would not advise Herr Joachim to
make the experiment, whether he would not also become blind,
after supporting the heat of an oven for an hour and a half, with
a healthy body, whether anointed or not !

MlTES ACCIDENTALLY TRANSFERRED FROM ANIMALS TO MAN.

Although a short time ago Bourguignon left the transfer-
ability of the mange-mites to man as undecided, we, in Ger-
many, have long been convinced, by the thorough-going experi-
ments of Hering, Hertwig, and others, that such transfer does
take place — that passages are actually bored, and itch-like erup-
tions produced, in the human skin by these animals. In general,
however, these eruptions only last as long as the individual life
of the mites transferred. Upon this point, nevertheless, the
accounts of observers still vary, some extending the period of its
visit to two or three weeks, and others to six weeks and more.
It does not appear possible for these animals to pass through
their whole development upon the human subject. And if this
is the case, I believe it only takes place in those species of mites

MITES OF LOWER ANIMALS. 51

which resemble the true Sarcoptes Hominis in structure, and
only differ from it in size. In this case we must beware of
errors which may easily be produced by our not noticing the
constant fresh, perhaps daily, infection taking place during the
long contact of mangy animals with the same human individual;
and supposing, from the long duration of the animal-mange upon
the man, thus caused, that the specimens of the mite found have
grown large upon the man, whilst they have probably, in gene-
ral, only been transferred to him a short time before. What
has been said of the possibility of a development of the mites
of animals through their particular phases upon the human body,
applies especially and perhaps solely to —

1. The true Sarcoptes of the cats, which, however, may also
be transferred to dogs, hyaenas, bears, sheep, apes, and Guinea-
pigs, as well as to men. It is well known that the true Sarcoptes
Catorum, the male of which I figured formerly in Giinsburg's
{ Zeitschrift/ is only about one half smaller than the Sarcoptes
Hominis. I omit to reproduce the figure here. It is only
necessary to look at the figure of Sarcoptes Hominis, and
imagine the animal smaller and more delicate. The size of
the female of this Sarcoptes is only 0*05 — O06'" in length,
and 0'05'" in breadth, so that the body of the animal appears
almost circular. It is only furnished with weak hairs; its feet
are delicate, but distinctly jointed in the same way as those of Sar-
coptes Hominis ; the four anterior feet in both sexes are furnished
with suckers ; in the female the two posterior pairs are each pro-
vided with a long bristle, and without a sucker ; in the male the
third pair with a hair, and the last with a sucking cup on each
foot. Recently Bourguignon has described the transfer of the
mite of the lion to man, and vice versa. This mite is said to be
larger than the cat-mite, and exactly like that of the human
subject. It now becomes a question whether the mites of the
cat, lion, and human subject are not perfectly identical, and only
attain a different size according to the animal which they inhabit.

2. Sarcoptes Canis. — Even Sauvages (' Nosologia/ Amstelod.,
1763, ii, p. 464) and Viborg speak of a Scabies canina —
dog's itch, in the human subject; and Hertwig saw two boys
infected by a mangy dog. The dog's mite has a great similarity
to the horse-mite, except that the former is smaller and has far
stronger hairs, which even appear plumose, on the sides of its
body.

52 ANIMAL PAKASITES.

3 a. Sarcoptes Equi (figs. 1 and 2). — The males of this pretty
large species, which is visible with the naked eye, are about ^"
in length and breadth, resembling a square, notched at its four
angles ; arched on the back and belly, tolerably thick ; the body
covered with alternate furrows and raised lines, running trans-
versely on the back and on the abdomen in a semicircular form,
or even longitudinally, by which the skin acquires the appearance
of shagreened leather (like morocco leather).

Fig. 1.

a, the head ; I — &, the anterior feet ; e — c, the sucking disc or sucking lamina on the
last joint ; e — e, the outer,/—/; the inner posterior feet.

On the back we see some small tubercles, and towards the
front a long, stiff hair. On each side of the body, at the com-
mencement of its posterior third, there also stand a long and a
short hair. According to Raspail and Hertwig there only ap-
pears to be a chitinous framework for the two anterior pairs of
feet, at least it is not referred to for the posterior feet.

The head is conical or proboscidiform ; its length is one third
of that of the body, and its thickness not very considerable.
Above the proboscis, two nipper-like moveable spines lie horizon-
tally and close together. Between the proboscis and the spines,
a very thin, capillary organ sometimes projects. Close to the
origin of the spines, there is on each side a fine, stiff hair ;
behind this a second ; and then a round point, with a dark out-

MITES OF LOWER ANIMALS. 53

line, which is regarded as the eye. Then follows the ne,ck, with
several red points on the ventral side.

The anterior feet, which are as long as the breadth of the
animal, diminish in size towards their free extremities. Each
foot has four joints. Each of the first joints bears a pretty long
hair, the third two shorter ones, and the fourth three hairs, a
sharp, curved, horny claw, and a sucking disc upon a tolerably
long three-jointed stalk, for which reason the feet have been
referred to as composed of six joints. Of the posterior feet of
the male the outer third pair is as long as its body, and as strong
as one of the anterior feet with a sucking lamina. The hairs
with which this pair of feet is beset are extraordinarily long and
strong. The inner (fourth) pair is very short, and weaker than
the third pair, without sucking discs, but furnished with a pair
of long hairs. On the abdomen we find the anus between two
verrucose tubercles, strongly clothed with hair. The male gene-
rative organs also appear to lie in the vicinity of this.

The females, which are far more abundant, only differ from
the males in their size and in the structure of the two posterior
pairs of feet. The female is about one third longer (£'") than the
male. The two posterior pairs of feet are attached to the belly,

Fig. 2.

V

a—f, as in the last figure ; g, the anus.

close together, of equal length and strength, but shorter and
weaker than in the male. The external (third) pair of feet has
two long, terminal hairs, but no sucking disc; the internal

54 ANIMAL PARASITES.

(fourth) pair has the rudiments of a claw, a sucking disc, and a
fine terminal hair at the base of the stalk of the sucking disc.
The hairs and tubercles at the anus are smaller and more rare.
The generative organs are not exactly known.

The colour of the animal is wjritish ; the horny skeleton red-
dish-brown, ferruginous. The eggs are very large, coated with a
sticky mass, and are often carried about by the female between
her legs. The eggs are deposited in small galleries under the
epidermis. The young are very small, but grow very quickly
during the first four days ; and, according to Hertwig, they have
their eight feet at once, but only six according to Hering, so
that they also undergo a change of skin. Their movements
are effected quickly, and by means of the feet provided with
sucking discs. They may be kept alive for three weeks without
nourishment. Wherever they penetrate into the skin, a small, knot-
like elevation is produced, with a small passage, at the extremity
of which the mite sits. The epidermis becomes soft, separates
by exudation from the cutis, and dries, in animals, into scaly
scurfs, which become detached. All these mites produce, in ani-
mals, similar phenomena to those presented by the Norwegian
prurigo in the human subject.

The transference of the mite to man has been proved by
many observers, as, for example, E. Viborg, Sick, Sydow, Osian-
der, Greve, Groguier, and repeatedly by Hertwig, under whose
inspection Schade made the experiment of inoculating himself
with this mite, by placing the mites upon his arm and covering
them with fine paper, the edges of which were fastened down
with court plaister. In five minutes, itching was produced, which
increased and diminished periodically for five days ; in thirty -two
hours the skin exhibited several raised red points of the size of
a pin's head, and near these small passages under the epidermis,
which became gradually more distinctly marked up to the fifth
day, and exhibited small vesicles with a clear fluid. On the
twelfth day the itching had disappeared, and everything dried up
into scabs, beneath which there was a healthy epidermis. Whe-
ther Greve' s observations of the residence of the same individual
mites upon the human skin for three, six, and eight weeks before
healing took place, be an error in the above-mentioned sense, I
am unable to decide. Greve and Hertwig also saw the transfer
of the disease from one man to another, notwithstanding that the
mites do not propagate upon the human body.

MITES OF LOWER ANIMALS.

55

Besides the species of mite just described, a second species has
occurred, according to Hering, in the Fig 3

gangrenous sores of the hoof of a
horse, — namely, Sarcoptes hippopodus
(fig. 3). Hering says of it, that its
body is twice as long as broad, beset all
over with small hairs, like satin ; head
retractile ; proboscis consisting of two
valves moving laterally ; mouth di-
rected rather downwards; close to it
two small palpi; feet eight, five-jointed,
the last joint as long as the four pre-
ceding, with a small sucking disc at
the end, and two small hairs on each
joint. Two pairs of the feet originate
near the head, and two posteriorly on
the belly. On the abdomen a small
prominence, and four long, straight,
plumose bristles; their length 0-16,
their breadth 0-08— O085'". The
three pairs of bristles on the back, and those at the abdomen,
can be raised like the tail of a peacock. The large bristles are
plumose ; the hairs on the joints of the feet diminish in length
towards the extremity of the foot. Only the third joint of the
first pair of feet has a longer hair.

On the human subject this form has not yet been detected
with certainty, but Hering thinks it has some similarity with the
Acarus favorum of Hermann. A peculiar mite was also found in
sores of the foot of a horse.

4. That the Sarcoptes Bovis first observed by Gohier upon
Hungarian oxen in the last French war, also passes over to man
has long been doubted, until Thudichum recently described such
cases with certainty.

A peasant believed he had transferred the mite to his upper
lip from the cattle treated with ointment, by incautiously scratch-
ing under his nose. On the upper lip were produced coalescent,
dark-red scales, vesicles, knots, and pustules elevated above the
skin, of various sizes, but of uniform hardness, which made their
appearance suddenly in the vicinity, and at last occupied the
whole lower part of the face, including the throat. The vesicles,
which were filled with white serum, sat upon a hard, red base ;

56 ANIMAL PARASITES.

some of them had turbid, purulent contents. The pustules were
very small or larger, so that they covered themselves with thick
scabs as large as a kreuzer. They also stood together in groups,
upon a common hardened base and exhibited fistulous passages
with pus, in which the Sarcoptes Bovis were found. Syringing
out the passages, evacuation of fhe matter, and mercurial oint-
ment led to a cure.

The mite itself presents the following peculiarities. It is twice
as long as broad, pointed towards the head, rounded off at the
hinder part. The proboscis consists of two jointed superior valves,
directed straight forwards, of two central, spiniform, thin palpi,
and two inferior valves, curved in the manner of a retort, of which
the right one bears two long bristles. Hering has not seen this
mite.

The eight feet are five-jointed, arranged in two groups. The
two anterior (pairs of) feet originate beneath and close to the
head towards the margins of the body ; the posterior feet behind
the middle of the belly. The first joint, attached to the belly, is
short ; the other four are tolerably equal ; and the last is fur-
nished with a sucking disc. Every foot bears two short hairs on
each joint, but the third joint of the first pair of feet has a
stronger and longer hair. The entire body exhibits a number of
stronger, uniformly distributed, bristles, springing from separate
warts or papillse ; on the abdomen there are twelve large ones,
without reckoning the smaller ones. (See Rubner's Illustrirt.
Zeitung, i, 5, 1852.) The figure of the cast skin of this mite
here given is omitted by me.

5. The Sarcoptis Ovis (figs. 4 and 5), first correctly described
by Walz, is similar to the horse-mite, but smaller (0-16 — O22'"
in length and 0'16 — 0'17'" in breadth), moderately hard; the
male is roundish, the female more oval. Each of the external
posterior feet has two long bristles ; the fourth pair of feet in the
male is rudimentary. The horny framework of the feet is red-
dish-brown. They bore passages beneath the epidermis, from
which the little hexapod brood, which grows quickly and becomes
octopod, issues in from about eleven to sixteen days. This mite
has been seen but rarely upon man ; Hertwig's experiments in
inoculation gave no results.

Apparently very similar to the last-mentioned mite in struc-
ture is the species of Acarus found by Willigk in Favus crusts,
although it approaches the Dermanyssi in the want of bristles

MITES OF LOWEE ANIMALS.

57

at the extremities of the feet, and in the clothing of all the
feet with small hairs. The crusts in which the animal was

Fig. 5.

Fig. 4.

Sarcoptes Ovis.
from above.

Sarcoptes Ovis,
from beneath.

found, had already lain for a long time, and consequently only
dead animals, filled with fat or with Favus-fungi, were seen.
The animal was oval, had a prominent conical head and a
rounded hinder part; it was O116 — O252 mill. = ^V — iV" in
length, and at the lower extremity of the cephalothorax, 0-084 —
0-132 mill, in breadth. The cephalothorax widens behind, and
extends somewhat beyond the abdomen laterally, in the form of
a pilgrim's collar ; the brittle skin exhibits a regular undulatory

58

ANIMAL PARASITES.

Fig. 6.

marking, which rather disappears as the parasite imbibes.
Scattered hairs are to be seen springing from pores or little
warts (fig. 6).

The two posterior pairs of feet spring from the belly close to

each other. Each foot is 0-089 —
0-(T97 mill, in length, and presents
five joints, the shortest of which is
the coxa ; the strongest piece,
which is slightly bowed out late-
rally, and 0*018 mill, in length,
represents the femur, which is fol-
lowed by tibiae, 0-015 in length,
and a very long, conical terminal
joint (tarsus) with a stem and
sucking disc.

The organ of manducation con-
sists of two pairs of nipper-like
chitinous structures, finely denti-
culated anteriorly and interiorly,
and united behind into a ring, so
that an articulation between the
individual lamella of the biting
nippers could not be discovered. Near the biting nippers originates
a three-jointed antenna, and ch>se to and between the anterior feet
some bristle-like hairs. The anus is situated on the abdomen, and
on each side of it two strong hairs. Numerous roundish or oval
eggs; 0-025 — 0*169 mill, in length, filled with brownish granules
(yelk), and long, burst egg-shells were also found. These mites are
certainly supplementary to the Favus. Moreover, Hermann has
already described an Acarus favorum. " Mite ovale, convexe,
pdle, couverte de soies, 4 sur le derriere du dos, dressees en
haul et etalees" Hering compares it with the species of
Sarcoptes mentioned under 3 b.

We have still to refer here to a similar occurrence, namely,
that of the mites in a case of plica polonica. Hessling narrates
(Rubner's ' Illustrirti Med. Zeitung/ i, p. 5, 1852), that, together
with innumerable lice, he accidentally found some mites not pecu-
liarly belonging to the disease. I pass over the first form entirely,
because it is much too imperfectly described, as Hessling only
found fragments of it, which appear to me to look very little like
a mite.

TXODIDA. 59

The form described by him as the second form hag an oval
body, crooked when dead, terminating in a pointed head, without
any neck. The nippers are hollowed out like shells, and strongly
denticulated on both sides; the feet six- jointed, with small, gently
curved claws, and beset, like the body, with longer and shorter
bristles, which towards the end^of the body become elongated
and sit upon small knobs (fig. 7).

Fig. 7.

Fig. 8.

The form described as the third (fig. 8) exhibits a constant
difference in the form of the body and bristles, which are slightly
crooked and uniformly plumose on both sides. The first joint of
the legs is very long. The animal appears to ' me closely to
resemble the cheese-mite. Some kind of strayed mite is certainly
referred to.

Family of the Ticks = IXODIDA.

Acarida magna, plana, in dorso cephalothoracis testa cornea
obtecta, abdomine, si vacuum est, plicato, si sanguine repletum est
valde intumido. Testa respiratoria parvula, orbicularis ; punctum
respiratorium punctiforme, parvulum, rotundum. Pedes breves,
pariter articulati, ad imaginem (< pair is nostri " formati, in apice
unguiculati et arolio, qui stylo caret, armati ; rostellum maximum,
prominens ; palpi vagin&formes, ad rostellum applicati ; labium
protractum, semicanellatum (like a half-canal) denticulatum ;
mandibula breves, crassce, ex 3 articulis composites, in extremo
articulo acuta et denticulatae . Oculi parvuli. Habitant in silvis
et in fructicetis aridis ad gramma, muscos, fyc., siccos, unde ad

60 ANIMAL PARASITES.

cut em hominum, aut animalium pratereuntium et adeo ad cutem
serpentum, festudmum, fyc., transeunt.

1. Ixodes Ricinus, the common Wood-Tick = the Dog's Tick, and
also perhaps the Egyptian Tick (fig. 9.)

Martiny describes it as oval, yellowish blood-red, thorax

darker, abdomen finely hairy, with
FiS- 9- the lateral walls bent upwards. The

females, which are only V" in length,
become of the size of a hazel-nut by
sucking. A good figure of the parts
of the mouth of the Egyptian tick is
given in Poppig's ' Illustrirter Natur-
geschichte/ iv, p. 53, fig. 2845. The
common tick is here represented
after Gurlt. The line at the side in-
dicates the natural size.

2. Ixodes marginatus = the Margined Tick,

According to Martiny, longish, obovate, flat, brown, shining,
with separate short hairs. Female 1'", becoming as large as a
pea by suction.

3. North and South American Ticks = locodes Americanus,
I. ImmanuSy I. crenatus.

They occur in the woods of these countries, frequently in ex-
traordinary quantities, and almost epidemically, and possess
various local names, — for example, wood-louse = Pou de Bois in
Pennsylvania, Nigua in Carthagena, Pique in Peru, and Carabatos
in Brazil, in all parts of which, according to Martiny, they are a
great plague to men and animals. The particular species are
but imperfectly known and distinguished.

All the species are particularly attached to dry, sunny woods,
thickets, or hills, and avail themselves of every opportunity of
getting upon animals. Imperceptibly they immerse their pro-
boscis in the skin, often in very sensitive spots, and often remain
for days hanging to the place where they have bitten in, held fast
by the retroverted teeth of the surfaces and margins of the pro-

IXODIDA. 61

boscis, during whicli, by unceasing sucking, their >flat form
becomes globular, and ten to twenty times its original size. If
they be torn away with violence, the head easily remains sticking,
by which inflammation, pain, and suppuration, lasting even for
months, are produced ; for this reason it is always advisable to
compel them to loosen themselves.

Therapeutics. — The only indication is to cause the voluntary
detachment of the animal. For this purpose Ok en advised the
dropping of a drop of olive oil upon them. But they do not always
let go their hold after this. Ratzeburg recommends rubbing the
animal constantly with the oiled finger, for which a quarter to
half an hour is often required. In his ' Illustrated Natural
History/ Poppig recommends touching them with tobacco oil, oil
of turpentine, or mercurial ointment. The last is superfluous.
The oils just mentioned are certainly sufficient, or still better the
essential oils, such as oil of anise or rosemary. I would, how-
ever, not merely touch the back of the animal, but rather in
preference rub its ventral surface with a feather dipped in the oil,
so as to come as near as possible to the respiratory opening on the
belly, and poison the animal as quickly as possible.

The tick often mentioned as the Argas Persicus, or the poison-
bug of Miana, may also be referred to here. As what has been
narrated of it and its dangerous nature is mere fable, and the
natives take it into their hands quietly and without danger, I
shall only treat of it here en passant. Its bite, like that of all
Ixodida, probably causes considerable pain, and if the head be torn
off and left sticking in the wound, it may also produce malignant
sores. But everything is fable. The bad consequences com-
monly ascribed to it, agree with the symptoms of the putrid fevers
which prevail in hot climates, often endemically in small districts,
and carry off more especially foreigners who have not become
acclimatised, whence it is probable the opinion has arisen that the
mite only injures foreigners.

The Argades are distinguished from Ixodes by their having a
small head, seated on the under side of the fore part of the body,
a very short proboscis, and three-jointed, conical palpi. The
Argas Persicus} which only occurs in Persia, is characterised by
the small, white points which extend over the whole back, and are
the more striking upon its light blood-red colour, because it is
usually larger than the wood-tick (namely 3'"), and has the
anterior legs directed forwards as raptorial arms.

C.2 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

Family of the GAMASIDA = Beetle-lice.

Corpus oblongum, depressum, interdum clypeiforme ; pedes
longitudine varii, articulis inter se cequalibus, in apice libero 2
unguiculis et prccterea arolio armati ± palpi liberi, filiformes, pariter
articulati ; organa manducatoria variantia, mandibulce acres, ad
terebrandum idonece, non uncinatte (vide Ixoda). Animalia cceca,
in avibus, insectis et reptilibus parasita, plerumque nocturna et inter
diem prope ad stabula, receptacula et latebras animalium majorum
viventia. In prima juventute sex, in statu larvarum (Hypopus
veterum] vero 8 pedibus, quorum posteriores minimi et aroliis armati
sunty instructa et mobilia.

Sub-familia — DERMANYSSUS.

Palporum articulus 5 minimus ; rostellum acutum ; mandibulce
feminarum gladiformes, marium forficiformeSj unguicula longis-
sima ; corpus molle ; pedes anteriores longissimi ; coxae continues ;
larvae 6 pedibus instructa.

Dermanyssus Avium (fig. 10).

Oval, broader behind, flat, brownish red, by two lateral coeca ;

thorax with a white V-shaped

f spot, and behind this two pale

waves, a transverse spot and two
points. Length about O30'".

It lives especially in dove-
cotes, fowl-houses, and on the
perches and canes of bird-cages
and aviaries, where it also lays
its eggs, and undergoes its
changes of skin, only attacking
the birds and sucking their blood
at night.

Alt saw these mites upon the
neck and arms of an old cachectic woman. They are white, of
the size of a grain of sand, extremely agile, and slipped out of
little excavations (which even occupied a space of Ij square line),
ran over the skin, and back again into their holes.

DEKMANYSSUS AVTUM. 63

Kirby and Spence, and Alt, denominate the disease produced
thereby acariasis, and think, as it sometimes occurs in genreral dys-
crasic and adynamic tabes, it has to do with those cases of phthi-
riasis, in which the parasites lived not only upon, but in the skin.

To the latter form probably Fuchs' Cnesmus acariasis =
Milben-Hautschabe, amongst the pathognomonic signs of which,
besides derangements in the urinary system and itching in the
skin, is the existence of the parasites in the skin (the so-called
Phthiriasis internet) . Fuchs saw mites like lice produced in the
tissue of the uninjured skin, and form peculiar bursting tumours.
The patient, who was consumptive, complained of itching of the
skin and urinary disturbances, and suffered from ectropium senile
of both eyes, as well as hypopyon of the left eye. Upon the
skin of the neck and back she exhibited numerous, dingy red,
very painful boils, on scratching which small mites, like lice,
crept forth from them in thousands, together with a clear, putres-
cent fluid. We do not know, however, whether these animals
came out of the cutis, or the subcutaneous cellular tissue, nor has
this species of mite been hitherto exactly determined. According
to all experience it cannot be transferred to healthy subjects;
just as Bourguignon asserts, for instance, that the mites of
animals usually attack only sickly individuals of the animals pre-
ferred by them. According to Fuchs, a case of LavaPs and one
of Kurtze's may also belong to this form. The patient always
died in the last stage of consumption.

Bory's case must also probably be referred to this place. A
little while before the death of a dropsical woman, it was observed
that with an improvement, itching also constantly occurred, and
this gradually became stronger, and finally insupportable. When-
ever the woman scratched herself, thousands of little, brownish
animals came forth and crept into the linen ; so that when it was
very warm, she was obliged to change her linen from three to six
times a day, on account of the immense number of animals which
crept forth.

To the section of Dermanyssus Avium Martiny also refers ErdPs
mite in the pimples of the human skin, and regards it as the
male of Alt's mite, from which it is only distinguished by a longer
proboscis, even projecting beyond the palpi (fig. 11). Whether
in ErdFs case we have to do with the true mite of our domestic
birds is uncertain. Simon narrates a case in which the mite
nestled upon the skin of a woman who was otherwise healthy.

ANIMAL PARASITES.

Fig. 11.

She was constant!}' infested
with little louse-like animals,
notwithstanding great cleanli-
ness and many attempts at the
extermination of the mites,
which were recognised by
Erichson as Dermanyssus
Avium. It was found at last
that the woman went several
times daily into the cellar, over
which the hen-roost lay. As
often as this was the case the
fowls flew up into their roosting-
place, and by this means the
woman was sprinkled with mites. The removal of the hen-
roost cured her of her supposed phthiriasis. It would perhaps
be advisable to refer this species of mite to the Acarus nidulans,
of which we find examples amongst sky-larks and small birds, or
perhaps to arrange it with those species of mites which we cer-
tainly sometimes meet with in the hair-follicles, and on the inner
wall of the skins of mice in small nests, and which I have
repeatedly found on the animals of my colony of mice. This mite
has also been found on the skin of the horse (the 'Veterinarian/
Morton and Simonds, 1855, p. 443.)

A mite has also been found by Busk in the matter of peculiar
large sores on the sole of the foot of a negro} The somewhat
mystical account of the case tells us that the negro had worn
the shoes of another negro from Sierra Leone, and that, according
to Stanger, similar animals occur in a river (it must have been a
species of Hydrachna], and according to Murray a peculiar prurigo,
which is difficult to cure, occurs in Sierra Leone, which is perhaps
connected with this mite. As the whole story is suspicious, we
can say but little upon this mite. According to some it is a
Dermanyssus. On the other hand there are also species of
Sarcoptes on animals (dogs and horses), which have a liking for
pus, and if there be any truth in the story it might be a Sar-
coptes. Willan has also described a small parasite in prurigo
senilis ; it was found in great numbers upon the skin and in
the linen of a patient, and was regarded as a flea, and very
indistinctly represented. At last it has been thought that these

1 Appendix A.

OEIBATIDA.

65

parasites are to be regarded as body-lice (perhaps yoinig indivi-
duals). This animal also belongs to the doubtful ones. The

Fig. 12. Fig. 13. Fig. 14.

Cheese-mite,
from beneath.

Cheese-mite,
from above.

Mite from
dried plums.

Fig. 16.

cheese-mites also, as well as
those from dried fruits,
raisins, &c., may produce a
transitory irritation upon the
skin, but no disease (e. g.,
pustules, and other exanthe-
mata; Raspail). Nyander's
intestinal itch (scabies in-
testinorum epidemicd) and his
Acarus dysenteric certainly
belong to mites which already
occurred in the night-chairs,
&c., and which we meet with
in old vessels and in decaying
places (Martiny), or to the mites of raisins or dried fruits, such as
Reinhardt, of Bautzen, found in the vomited matter from a woman
who suffered from cancer of the stomach and ulcus perforans
ventriculi.

Family of the Grass- and Plant-mites = ORIBATIDA (Vogt)
= LEPTUS (Latreille).

Animalia durissima, quasi vitrea ; plerumque sulco transverse
quasi bipartita ; secundum par pedum anteriorum in corporis dimi-

5

66 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

dium posterius retractum ; abdomen etiam testa, in cujtis 2 lacu-
nis porus genitalis et poms ani aperiuntur, obtectum. Pedes
breves validi, unguiculati, pileati, in juventute 6 ; palpi breves et
fusiformes ; mandibulaK 2 ; labia ad forficum moduin instruct a.
Ore/ana manducatoria omnino retracta et occulta. Habitant : in
nidulis inter muscos, quibus pro pabulo utuntur, nisi sanguinem
animalium, tanquam pabulum hauriunt.

Sub-family — LEPTUS = Grass-mites.

Pedes 6 (?) ; corpus molle, intumidam ; palpi magni, liberi ;
rostellum ex mandibulis et labiis compositum ; oculi 2.

Leptus autumnalis. (Tab. IX, fig. 8.)

Rostellum nee setosum} nee denticulatum ; abdomen setosum.
Color e ruber, unde nomen Scabiei inde exorta> {(Rouget. Oculi 2.
Habitat : tempore pr&sertim autumnali in frumentorum stipulis ac
her bis, in arborum (ex. c. Ribes grossularice) foliis et baccis, unde
transit ad manus et corpus non obtectum hominis (ex. c. messo-
ris), quas perforat et per aliquot tempus incolit. Hieme inter
muscos habitare videlur.

Yon Siebold thinks that the hexapod mite is only the young
state of one which becomes octopod after changing its skin, and
which is parasitic during its young state, the mature condition
of which we do not exactly know. One of the first observers of
its wandering upon man appears to have been Janson ; the best
statement, in a practical point of view, has recently been given
by Jahn, of Meningen, upon whose published and epistolary
communications I depend here. In the autumn the mites in
question keep in dry grass, in corn which is ready to cut, and at
the time of the ripening of the gooseberries, upon the gooseberry
bushes. Thence they get upon the skin of men, who brush past
their places of abode. Thus, for example, they settle in masses
upon the stockings of women and children, when they have
visited the gooseberry garden early in the morning, and bore
into the human skin only with the head, in the same way as the
Ixodes. They there form yellowish-red points in the skin, and
may be easily detected by the practised eye, as Professor
Emmerich observed in his own children. By their immigration
they produce little swellings, papulae, impetiginous pustules, or
flat and innocuous sores, upon and in which the yellowish-red
parasite sits in the form of a small point of the size of a pin's

LEPTUS AUTUMNALIS. 67

head. Emmerich never found passages, and their pe'sition was
generally at sm)h a small depth, that with a little practice they
could easily be removed with the finger-nail or a needle, and if
then put upon paper ran about briskly. Sometimes, also, the
animals are seen arranged in the form of a wreath or necklace,
or in masses and troops. The time of their parasitic existence
does not last long. This mite is usually found upon man only
in July and the beginning of August ; subsequently it probably
goes into the moss on the ground, to pass through its further
development there in quiet. For this reason Jahn was unable
to send me specimens of these parasites in September. But I
am none the less grateful to him and Emmerich for the kindness
with which they furnished me with information upon this para-
site, which I have hitherto sought for in vain in this place.

During harvest the mite bores, of ten in immense numbers, into
the skin of the reapers, and, indeed, in the neighbourhood of the
roots of the hairs, producing troublesome itching, inflammation,
swelling, and even fever. On account of the red colour of the
mite, the complaint has been denominated " Rouget."

According to Jahn and Emmerich, the mite which I have
figured upon Plate IX, fig. 8, agrees with that observed by them ;
except that the eyes are wanting, as the drawing, for which I
am indebted to the kindness of Professor Leuckart, represents
the mite from the ventral surface. However, there is a figure
of the mite in Wiegmann.

According to Jahn and Emmerich, the mite rarely lives very
long as a parasite upon the human skin ; even a few days' resi-
dence is a rarity. But when peculiarly unfavorable external
circumstances are in action, and the patients are constantly pass-
ing by those places where the mite is abundant, as, for instance,
the gooseberry gardens, the disorder may last for several weeks
and months, by the chain of consecutive relapses, but never over
the time of harvest.

Diagnosis. — The discovery of the mite upon the body is ren-
dered easy by the colour of the animal. It can then be
taken out of the centre of the swelling with the point of a
needle. To collect them from the gooseberry bushes, it is
only necessary to lay a sheet of white paper under the bushes
upon which the animal is common, and then beat the bushes.

Therapeutics. — The avoidance of the places infested by the mites
is sufficient ; according to Jahn, washing with soap and water,

C8 ANIMAL PARASITES.

or a solution of liver of sulphur, and I think washing with essen-
tial oils, as well as the picking off of the individual red points, as
the animals are not yet capable of propagation.

A similar mite, called " Bete rouge " in Martinique, ac-
cording to Kirby, wounds the soldiers standing in the fields in
that island, and produces such bad sores that even amputations
of the limbs have been obliged to be undertaken ; or, under the
popular name of " doctor," pesters the woodcutters and colo-
nists on the Mosquito Coast and in Honduras Bay.1

FOURTH CLASS OF THE ARTICULATA.

lNSECTA = The Insects.

Articulata antennata, organis respiratoriis perclaris, corporis
regionibus bene distinctis, abdomine sine appendicibus, pedibus 6,
plerumque alata.

The body consists of separate segments, some of which are some-
times entirely or partially amalgamated. However, the head, thorax,
and abdomen are generally clearly distinguishable. The thorax
and abdomen are coalescent only in a few apterous parasites.

1. The head bears the antennas and oral organs, as well as
the eyes ; the three thoracic segments bear the three pairs of
feet on their lower surface, and the wings on their upper; the
very distinctly articulated abdomen never bears feet, but at the
utmost accessory organs of motion, and always the sexual appa-
ratus. The antennae, placed on the front of the head, on the
forehead, or on the sides, have very different forms, which, how-
ever, may be referred to the form of a bristle, or that of a ringed
or jointed club or cone. The external surface of the uniform
antennae is, with the exception of the basal joints, beset
with small pits and pores, the bottom of which is closed with a
delicate, downy skin. The unhomogeneous antennae have
a separate stem or shaft, exactly resembling the skin of the
body, and the above-mentioned pores and pits, which pro-
Jbably have the function of feeling, and perhaps also that of
smell, exist only upon the teeth, laminae, &c. The differences of
the antennae serve for the definition of the groups and species.
The sense of touch is also assisted by the eyes, which are very
rarely wanting. The eyes are, partly simple ocelli (or stemmata)
which usually stand in aggregations or groups upon peculiar

11 See Appendix A.

INSECTS. 69

elevations on the sides of the head, and have a bearer-shaped
retina, surrounded by dark pigment, a roundish lens, and a con-
vex prominent cornea; and partly compound reticulated eyes
(oculi), that is to say, prominent (roundish, reniform, or deeply
notched) projections on the two sides of the head, which in the
males sometimes even meet upon the vertex, sometimes sit upon
immoveable stalks, and possess an immense number (often many
thousands) of facets of equal size, each of which forms, as it were,
the cornea of a minute eye. We also find a pyramidal lens, with
an obtuse apex directed towards the beaker-shaped vitreous body,
an optic nerve dilated like a horn, and a dark pigment, as to the
co-operation of which in the formation of an image we can form no
idea. In some insects we find both simple and compound eyes. Then
two or three ocelli are seated above upon the vertex, and so near
to the cephalic ganglion that their optic nerves only form short
warts. The function of the ocelli is unknown ; but they do not
appear to be organs of distant sight, as some will have it, as their
cornea and lens are always very convex.

The oral organs follow a single fundamental type of structure,
and are sometimes adapted for suction and sometimes for biting.
The manducatory organs consist of — 1, a median upper lip (labrum
= Oberlippe = Lefze) ; 2 of two lateral, generally hook-shaped,
horny mandibles (mandibulae = Oberkiefern = Kinnbacken) ; 3, of
two other lateral jaws (maxilla = Unterkiefern = Kinnaladen)
placed beneath these, usually furnished with jointed appendages,
the so-called maxillary palpi (= palpi maxillares) ; 4, of a lower lip
(labium = Lippe) placed quite beneath, which is also provided
with palpi, the so-called labial palpi (—palpi labiales = Lippen-
tastern), and like the labrum is capable of moving up and down.
The upper lip, which is rarely immoveable, generally moveably
articulated to the lower surface of the head, covers the mandi-
bles from above. The mandibles consist of two hollow, horny
pieces, which are attached by a hinge on each side of the head,
and can only move in opposition to each other. The less solid
nourishment the animal takes, the more insignificant do the
mandibles become, and at last they are entirely wanting in the
suctorial insects. The maxilla are very composite, weaker and
less toothed than the mandibles ; they approach very close to the
labium, or are even coalescent with it, and consist of a shaft or
stalk (stipes), which is composed of a transverse angle (car do),
and the true stalk (stipes), which is often hook-like, hard, and

70 ANIMAL PARASITES.

frequently beset with acute horny teeth, with the lobes (malce]
on the inside, and maxillary palpi (palpi maxillares) on the out-
side; the latter are rarely wanting, usually shorter than the
antennae, longer than the labial palpi, and in the number of
joints strictly fixed in every order of insects.

The maxillae, which are usually clothed with hair internally,
grasp the food firmly. In the sucking insects they are con-
verted into piercing bristles, or into sheathing valves, or into
spirally rolled semi-canals, which form a tube by their contact.

The labium with its palpi usually sits upon the chin (mentwri),
that is to say, a separate plate on which there is a valvular arti-
culation ; it is indented or notched in the middle, or even
divided into two parts, hairy, rarely smooth ; it closes the oral
aperture, and contains a soft membranous process, the tongue,
sometimes with independent processes, the paraglossa. The
labium and tongue sometimes form an open proboscidiform
sheath, sometimes a beak or rostrum, sometimes a sucking pro-
boscis, and sometimes a scooping proboscis. The retrogression
of one of these parts in comparison to the others produces a
great variety in their structure.

2. The chest = thorax, which is usually the largest of the
three divisions of the body, bears three segments — the prothorax
or fore-chest, the mesothorax or middle-chest, and the metatho-
rax or hinder-chest — which are more or less mutually coalescent.
Each of these segments consists of a sternum (or breast-bone),
that is, the lower surface of the chest, and a dorsal surface. If
the prothorax be much developed it is called the corselet (thorax
= Halsschild) ; it never bears wings, but only the first pair of
legs. The mesothorax is most developed where the anterior
wings are the most important organs of flight, in other cases it
is even reduced to a scutellum (or little shield) upon the upper
surface. The metathorax is most developed where the posterior
legs are adapted for leaping, or the posterior wings are the most
essential. The wings are deficient in most of the human para-
sites, for which reason I pass over their structure.

The legs consist of — 1, a hip or coxa, which, with a cylindrical
or elongated head and femoral appendage (=^= trochanter), moves
in the manner of our humerus, by an imperfect ball and socket
joint, or a sort of rolling,in the socket of the segment; 2, of the thigh
( = femur}, articulated by an imperfect ball and socket joint into
the coxa, and is cylindrical, spined, and very thick in the hind legs

INSECTS. 71

of leaping insects ; 3, of the thin, long tibia, united with^the thigh
by a hinge-joint ; and, 4, the foot == tarsus, which is rarely eight-
jointed, usually composed of five joints, with the joints dilated,
beset with balls, brushes, or warts on the lower surface, and
with the last joint furnished with two, or rarely with one,
curved, sharp, horny claw, which is very seldom deficient. The
legs are adapted for digging, leaping, swimming, seizing prey,
walking, or running.

3. The abdomen exhibits a still more distinct annulation than
the head and chest. The rings consist of an upper and lower
arch, which are united at the sides and above and below, and
between the scaly layers of the segments, by elastic skin. The
normal number of abdominal segments appears to be nine ; but
this is often unrecognisable by the sliding of the last segments
into each other. They have no legs, but in some the immove-
able bristles serve as leaping organs.

The skin is of various degrees of hardness, consists of chitine,
which is so difficult to destroy chemically, and often perfectly
homogeneous and structureless, but frequently deposited in strata,
furnished with bristles, hairs, &c., attached more or less firmly
on the outside, and internally with processes for the attachment of
the muscles.

The muscles are transversely striated, like the voluntary muscles
of the higher animals, but in the duration and efficacy of their
action accomplish much more than could be expected from their
mass.

The nervous system consists of a series of ganglia, which is
united by two longitudinal filaments, and always lies upon the
lower integument. In the head there is a brain with the antennal
and optic nerves, which gives off two filaments downwards to form
an oesophageal ring; from this pass off longitudinal filaments,
which are sometimes separated, sometimes more coalescent, in
accordance with the structure of the segments themselves. Besides
the ventral cord there is a separate intestinal nervous system (two
nerves forming a pair and a median one) for the oesophagus and
stomach.

The sense of touch is abundantly provided for by the antenna,
the palpi, the apex of the proboscis, the female ovipositors, and
the tarsi. The organ of taste is unknown, as are also the organs
of hearing, with the exception of the ears of the Orthoptera.

The alimentary canal is always intestiniform, of very various

72 ANIMAL PARASITES.

lengths, and composed of several coats; longer in herbivorous
than in carnivorous species,, without a peritoneum,, and only hejd
in its place by the ramifications of the air-passages. We find a
mouth, a muscular oesophagus, on which is a pharynx which is
usually folded and furnished with racemose or tubular salivary
glands, then around gizzard with horny ridges, bristles, and teeth;
and, in sucking insects, also a sucking stomach hanging by a stalk
near the oesophagus. Upon the gizzard follows the very large
lobate, folded chylific stomach, which is beset, to a greater or less
extent, with short glandules (villi), and into the hinder end of
which the kidneys open ; these are urinary vessels, either csecal,
or passing into each other to form loops, and containing yellowish
or reddish urine, which embrace the intestine. The intestine
presents a narrow ileus, and a cloaciform large intestine, clothed
internally with transparent ridges of glands, and sometimes with
a caecum and a muscular rectum. The anus is situated in the
last segment, sometimes with anal glands with stinking or poison
contents, which also occur at the articulations of the legs (Meloe),
or on the lower surface of the chest (bugs). Connected with the
alimentation are the fat-glands, which are retrograde in the mature
insect.

The circulatory system exhibits a tubular heart or dorsal vessel,
composed of several — usually eight — chambers, furnished with
(sixteen) lateral openings and valves, which acts as a syringe, and
a main artery, passing through the thorax and head, and termi-
nating freely in one or several openings, from which the colour-
less blood, containing only a few colourless corpuscles, is distributed
through wall-less canals in various directions through the body.

The respiratory organ is a system of ramified tracheae, or air-
tubes, running in all directions through the body, even into the
feet, &c., which communicate with the outer world by peculiar
openings, spiracles or stigmata, placed in pairs on the sides of the
body, often differently coloured, surrounded by peculiar horny
rings, and capable of opening and closing by the agency of horny
rings. They carry the air to the freely circulating blood. They
form membranous, double-walled, multifariously branched tubes,
which are kept open by a spiral horny filament laid between them,
and which is only wanting in the smallest ramifications ; in flying
insects they are often dilated into air-sacs (without spiral fila-
ments). These tracheae either present two large wide stems on
each side of the ventral cord, into which the stigmata open and

INSECTS. 73

from which the branches issue, or the air-tubes pass at Qsce from
each stigma to the organs, but even here also form lateral com-
munications.

Reproductive organs. — In all insects sexual reproduction takes
place, with the exception of the nurse-formation occurring in
summer in the Aphides. The females, the sexual organs of which
are sometimes abortive (the so-called neuters), have two ovaries,
short oviducts, and a vagina with peculiar appendages, namely,
the copulative pouch, which receives the seminal filaments from
the penis of the male during copulation, the seminal receptacles,
which often constitute two large spiral tubes, into which the se-
minal filaments afterwards wander, and in which they remain for
months, the cement-organ, that is to say, glands immediately in
front of the sexual aperture, which furnish the external shell of
the egg.

The males have two tubular or racemose testes, two seminal
ducts, often furnished with lateral seminal vesicles, and which
coalesce to form one seminal duct, with the reception of two
glandular tubes. The seminal filaments are usually capillary,
sometimes inclosed in firm sacs (spermatophora). Copulation is
often the principal purpose of these animals. The entrance of the
vagina is frequently beset with horny bands, and other horny
appendages which we denominate the ovipositor} when it is den-
ticulated externally, and intended for boring, it is called the saw,
in a simple and finely pointed form the terebra, and when it
stands in connection with a poison-gland, the sting.

The males are generally smaller, brighter in colour, and fur-
nished with various excrescences, sucking discs, &c. The care of
the eggs is entirely left to the females, and sometimes extends so
far, that the latter assist the brood in their pupation and ex-
clusion.

The eggs, which are of very various forms, but usually oval or
cylindrical, often have different appendages, and are also cemented
together ; a granular yelk, germinal vesicle, and germ-spot are
wanting in the mature eggs. The development in the egg takes
place in accordance with the type described under the Arti-
culata.

1. The creature excluded from the egg is but rarely similar to
its parents in form, &c. ; it generally becomes like its parents only
in consequence of several changes of skin, after the last of which
only it propagates. The envelopes usually burst in the neigh-

74 ANIMAL PARASITES.

bourhood of the neck. These insects are called Ametabola, i. e.,
insects without a metamorphosis — for example, the lice.

2. In a second case, we certainly find the external form pretty
like that of the parents, but the young animals are still destitute
of some organs of the adult, especially the wings. These semi-
larvse, as they are called, only become similar to their parents by
moulting. The state in which only immoveable wing-sheaths
and no moveable wings are presented, has been sometimes called
the pupa. It is essential that these semi-larva? as pupae always
eat and move about. These are the Insect a hemimetdbola, or those
with an imperfect metamorphosis — for example, the bugs.

3, In the third case the young, on their exclusion from the egg,
are quite unlike their parents, and undergo a complete metamor-
phosis through three different, well-defined conditions.

a. Larvae, which eat, grow, and usually change their skins
several times. They have the form of jointed worms ; are foot-
less, or furnished with six legs, and sometimes also with false feet ;
are very soft, sometimes smooth, sometimes with hairs, spines,
horns, or lateral appendages, which assist in walking, or as tufts
of bristles in swimming. The head is sometimes soft, sometimes
horny, and bears the oral organs, which are frequently much re-
duced. Manducatory organs are always present, sucking organs
only in the headless larvse of flies and some Hymenoptera, which
are parasitic in the larva state. In herbivorous larva? the jaws
are broad and toothed within ; in carnivorous larvse they are hook-
shaped, and often perforated to their apex, so that the nourishment
is taken up by this instead of the mouth, which is deficient ; the
upper lip (labrum) is usually wanting ; the maxillse are usually
present, but only conical and without lobes. The lower lip
(labium) is greatly developed in those which spin themselves up,
and bears the opening of the silk-glands. The antennae are retro-
grade or entirely wanting ; the palpi usually small, conical, and
two-jointed. The eyes are few and simple, never compound, and
sometimes entirely deficient.

The intestinal canal is always large and wide, especially in
herbivorous species, filling the entire cavity of the body ; the chyle-
stomach is especially large ; the ileus small. The species which
spin a cocoon have two long tubes (silk-glands), with a sticky
secretion which immediately hardens into threads in the air.
Every cocoon consists only of a single thread. The dorsal vessel
is greatly developed ; the individual ganglia of the ventral cord

WINGLESS INSECTS. 75

much separated. The sexual organs are quite rudimentary, only
the inner germigenous organs being recognisable. In aquatic
larvae, we find breathing tubes in the abdomen or externally "closed
tracheal branchiae. Towards the end of its larval existence, the
insect prepares for its conversion into —

b. The pupa ; it eats no more, evacuates its intestines, seeks a
favorable place for pupation, spins itself an envelope, digs itself a
hole, or conceals itself in putrefying matters, remains still for a
time in the larva skin, and causes this to harden; or this integu-
ment bursts, and the hard pupa comes forth. The form of the
pupa, which often allows the future animal to glimmer through it,
is very various; for example, the cask-like pupae of the Diptera.
Finally, the pupa-case is burst, and the animal comes to light
as —

c. The perfect insect (= imago) to take nourishment again, and
propagate its species. These animals are called insects with a
complete metamorphosis = Holometabola ; for example, the Puli-
cida, or fleas, (Estrida, or gad-flies, and Calypter(B=Creophilce} or
flesh-flies.

The intellectual qualities of some insects stand so high, that
we can hardly speak of them as instinct alone. The account of
the development just given, like all the other general observations
upon insects, from Vogt, furnishes the facts for their classifica-
tion.

First Sub-Class — Insects without a metamorphosis
=• AMETABOLA.

First and only Order — APTERA= Wingless Insects.

Corpus rarissime tripartitum, plerumque abdomine et thorace
coalito. Caput liberum, antennis brevibus, setosis. Stemmata pluria
ad utrumque capitis latus, oculi veri nulli ; organa manducatoria
rudimentaria, suctoria aut manducatoria, maxillis acribus, mandi-
bulis dentatis, s&pissime sine palpis labialibus et maxillaribus ;
pedes aut breves, validi et unguiculati (cursorial feet), aut f/raciles,
longij tenueSj mobiles. Medulla abdominalis generis ; canalis intes-
tinalis brevis, praterea generis ; vasa urinaria 4 ad 6. Tracliearum
2 trunci later ales. Genii alia feminarum ; ovaria pluria, ex 4
aut 5 tubis composita ; oviductus brevis : sine Joculis copiilatoriis

76 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

et apparatibus ovula pariendi peculiaribus. Mares 2 aut pluribus
testiculorum paribus ; pene simplice.

Ovula rotunda, inter dum in capsulas long as invaginata. Em-
bryones parentibus similes.

Of Vogt's four groups — 1, Pediculida; 2, Nirmida; 3, Podtirida;
and 4, Lepismida — only the "first interests us, and if Tri-
chodectes should be transferred to man, also the second.

First Family — Lice = PEDICULIDA.

Corpus planum, pellucidum ; cutis mollis, semipellucida, corio
similis ; caput perclare distinctum, triangular e, globuliforme, aut
ovale ; antennae breves, filiformes, ex 5 articulis cequalibus com-
posite, parum setosa ; stemmata mimina pone antennas ; rostellum
plane retractile, in vagina molli, infra dilatata, in apice uncinulata,
4 setas punctorias, pugionem formantes, conlinente inclusum.
Thorax parvulus, non dare articulatus, foramine 1 respiratorio in
utroque latere inter \, et 2, par pedum ; pedibus 6, brevibus,
validis anterioribus 2 interdum minoribus9 ex brevi, crassa coxa
cum parvulo trochantere, ex magno, piano femore, ex parva tibia
et ex tarso inarticulato cum talo parvulo prominente et uncino
magno compositis ; abdomen magnum a thorace bene distinctum,
prceter in Phthiriis ; articulorum segmentis in margine perclaris 7
ad 9 ; superficie papillosa, aut acinulata (striis irregularibus in-
structa], setosa ; stigmatibus respiratoriis abdominalibus in utroque
latere 6. Genera sejuncta.

From the structure of the eggs Leuckart reckons the lice to
the Hemiptera, which I will not omit to mention here. As, how-
ever, I have commenced with Vogt's classification, I have referred
them to the Apt era.

The Common Louse = Pediculus capitis. (Tab. IX, figs. 9 — 12.)

Synon. : Pediculus humanus, cervicalis.

In this species the thorax is pretty distinct, elongate quadran-
gular, narrower than the abdomen ; the abdomen exhibits seven
segments notched at the margins ; the stigmata, which stand
upon the six anterior segments, are circular, and furnished with
a small opening in the middle. The stigma between the first
and second pairs of feet is often indistinct and resembles a small
papilla. The colour varies, livid or pale gray, and is said to

PEDICULUS CAPITIS. 77

change according to the hair ; all the segments are blapkish on
the margins. In the human louse I have always found the same
transverse ridges on the inner surface of the belly, which are seen
in Trichodectes. All the feet are similar. The last tarsal joint
bears a large claw on its outside, and on its inside two straight,
thick, horny stumps, and a large bristle. The oasophagus is
short ; the longish stomach has two csecal appendages. The
small intestine is only slightly bent into the form of an S, receives
four urinary vessels at its extremity and passes over into the
pyriform large intestine. The most essential points as regards
the sexual relations are as follows :

The males are fewer in number than the females, their last
abdominal segment is prominent and rounded off, furnished on
its dorsal surface with a valvular opening beset with an abundance
of asperities, which serves at the same time as an anal opening and
porus genitalis. There are two pairs of testes and a simple wedge-
shaped penis, which, placed with its base inwards and its apex
outwards, opens upon the back. This organ is described by cer-
tain authors, as a strong muscular member ; to me it appears to
form a hollow chitinous canal, the lateral walls of which are stif-
fened and coloured brown by a strong deposition of the chitine-
mass, whilst the bottom of the channel is formed of thinner, whiter
chitine. The seminal structures are as usual, for example such
as are figured for the Trematoda, but I have never with certainty
found active, isolated filaments in the testes, but more commonly
the stellate bundles.

The females, which are more numerous and larger, appear
deeply notched at the apex of the last abdominal segment and, as
it were, with two lobes, between which is the anal aperture, which
is surrounded by numerous hairs. The two ovaries consist of
five tubes each, collecting into two oviducts and a common vagina,
into which two seminal receptacles open. The vaginal orifice is
situated on the ventral surface, between the penultimate and last
segments. Its lower surface forms a transverse ridge, which is
extended in an arched form across the body, and is beset with
small digitate asperities, arranged in four to six parallel rows, and
their vicinity with small, horny, warty eminences. Hence copu-
lation can only take place, by the female mounting upon the
male.

The eggs of the common head-louse, according to R. Leuckart,
are pyriform and very large, about J'". The posterior pole is pointed,

78 ANIMAL PARASITES.

the anterior truncate and furnished with a flat, round operculum,
which, at the margin, passes over into the side walls almost at a
right angle, and is let into the rest of the chorion by a furrow
which only cuts through its outer strata. The chorion, with
which the delicate vitelline memhrane appears to be firmly amal-
gamated, is very firm and sir/"* in thickness, homogeneous and
structureless, except the operculum, which presents an uneven,
finely granular surface, Swammerdamm's little knobs without any
particular form, to the number of 10 — 14. These little knobs are
cells with delicate membranes, closely approximated, and which are
displaced by the mere pressure of the covering glass and then
form a folded mass ; they are about ~" in diameter and have
the margin of the operculum free. Even Swammerdamm was
acquainted with a white point in the midst of these knobs, which
he described as a small hole. This little hole is the micropyle, a
perpendicular canal of ^" , which is somewhat dilated externally,
and furnished at its margin with a circlet of projecting tubercles,
by which the external aspect of the micropyle is rendered stellate.
Further from this aperture we also perceive a distinct annular
ridge of about —'" in diameter. The posterior pole of the egg is
truncated, striated by longitudinal folds and ridge-like deposits,
and appears to form an adhesive apparatus.

When the eggs are laid, they stick firmly to the human hair,
and are called nits ; in six days they allow the young to escape,
and these are ready to lay eggs again at the age of eighteen days.
A female lays fifty eggs in all.

The diagnosis is easy, because the lice creep about upon the
head, and their eggs are large enough to betray themselves to
the naked eye, especially in dark hair.

The symptoms which they produce are a troublesome itching
upon the skin of the head, which alone they inhabit. Wounding
by lice betrays itself by an eruption, on the apex of which there
is a blood-red crust, which is produced by scratching off the epi-
dermis, which is loosened over a considerable space by reactive
phenomena and by the subsequent emission and drying of a few
drops of blood.

Therapeutics. — When the hair is otherwise healthy and not
too long and thick, careful combing is generally sufficient ; with
care this will effect the object in about eight days, as the
brood escapes in six days and only begins to lay eggs in eighteen
days. But if the hair be very thick, and at the same time long or

PEDICULUS CAPITIS. 79

much matted, as is the case especially in tedious illnesses with
women who wear long hair, we shall attain our object but slowly,
if we do not cut out the hairs beset with nits, or cut off all the
hair, as the animals easily escape the comb. The rubbing in of
mercurial ointment appears to me unadvisable, as we have milder
remedies of more rapid action. The essential oils are worthy of
recommendation, as may be seen in the fact, that those who
employ strongly scented pomatums to the hair are less exposed
to lice and other vermin. But if the lice are present in great
numbers, the cure with the "essential oils is often slow. In
this case it is most advisable, especially when the patients are
lying in bed, to sprinkle the scalp with the Persian insect-
powder (Pyrethrum caucaseum) which is now generally kept
in the apothecaries' shops. In a few hours after this the
itching ceases, because the lice are killed, and sleep, which
was often sought in vain by opiates, returns to the unfortunate
patient. I remember the case of a consumptive patient of good
condition who was near death, and on whom I certainly had no
idea of finding lice. They were developed in very great num-
bers from the heat of the bed. There was a desire to regard
them as Pediculi tabescentium ; but it soon appeared, on closer
examination, that the servant who was most engaged about the
patient, and who was much infested by lice, was the cause of
their production, and the Pediculi tabescentium (from which it
appears that people in good circumstances would rather suffer
than from the common Pediculus capitis) were ordinary head-
lice. Oils employed for several days certainly diminished the
number of the lice; but the insect-powder soon killed them.

The common people formerly made use of the Capuchin powder
and similar remedies against lice. The Capuchin powder consists
of equal parts Semin. Staphisagr., Sem. Cocculi, Semin. Cataputii
(whence, probably, the name). Since an attempt at poisoning
was made with the internal administration of this powder it has
been forbidden in Saxony, and as Capuchin powder is still
constantly required, the apothecaries, instead of it, give any
mixture which they consider to be a remedy for lice. In many
of these the Pyrethr. caucus, has a part. Amongst us the species
of Pyrethrum, even our indigenous species, are gradually becom-
ing used for this purpose.

Besides the head-lice here named, a particular species has been
found, according to Pouchet, on African negroes. This I am

80

ANIMAL PARASITES.

unacquainted with ; but, according to the figure given by
Martiny, it is of a black colour. I have omitted it until we have
more exact investigations of it. Lice are rare, according to
Martius, amongst the Brazilian Indians, and, according to Justin
Goudot, amongst the Indians of Madalena, in Columbia; but,
according to the reports of travellers, lice do occur amongst the
Asiatic and American Indians, as well as amongst the New
Hollanders. We shall probably find these animals often in
great quantities amongst those people who wear long hair and do
not anoint it with scented or stinking oils. In the nits of the
hairs of New Zealanders of the present day, as also in those of
the Peruvian mummies, I have found the dried brood of lice,
which, after treatment with a solution of caustic potash, showed
the six stigmata on each side of the abdomen quite distinctly. I am
indebted for the materials for this investigation to Herr Stieglitz,
who is at present traversing Germany with his cabinet of Peruvian
mummies, which are pronounced to be genuine by connois-
seurs. The'New Zealand head which, in order to interest the less
educated public, is exhibited as that of the murderer of Cook, is
rich in nits, and so is the head of a Peruvian. For the purpose
of comparison I give the following measurements of the claws of
the different nits.

Claws of the nits of
European lice.

Length 0-114 mill. = 0-050'" P.

Breadth at base 0-025 „ =0-011 „
Length of nit 1
to operculum j

0-860

= 0-390

Claws of those Claws of those

of New Zealand. from Peru.

0-172 mill. = 0-075'" P. 0-148 mill. = 0-065"' P.

0-033
1-012

0-014 ,J 0-025 „ =0-011

= 0-450 ,,1-150

= 0-510

From this it appears that, with regard to the size of the eggs
and claws, considerable differences certainly exist, which, perhaps,
may justify the admission of varieties.

Phthiriasis. — Aristotle narrates that the poet Alcmanes and
the Syrian Pherecydes died of phthiriasis; and later authors
report the same of Herod, Sylla, even Plato, Philip II, and
others. This phthiriasis, as we have seen, relates to an excessive
multiplication of mites, Dermanyssi, Nirmida, and common or
body-lice. For the present I join with those who suppose that a
peculiar species. Pediculus tabescentium, does not exist.

PEDICULUS VESTIMENTI. 81

2. The Body-Louse = Pediculus vestimenti. (Tab. IX, fig. 13.)

Synon.: Pediculus humani corporis,humanus. Kleiderlaus, Germ.

Exactly like the preceding in its external form, but larger.
Head exserted, elongated oval ; second joint of the antennae
elongated, the antennae therefore are longer than in 1 ; thorax
distinctly divided into segments; legs longer, more slender, and
with larger claws ; on the inside of the last tarsal joint two horny
stumps and a bristle, as in the common louse. Abdomen with
seven segments, and with six stigmata on the first six segments.
Penis as in 1, but considerably larger, and the asperities about
the genital orifice more striking. Orifice of the vagina with
rows of spines, as in the preceding species. Length f'" — -2"'.
Colour dirty white, blacker on the margins. The principal
distinction between the body-louse and the head-louse lies in the
size ; for even the proboscis only has the hooks at its free
extremity larger than in the head-louse.

Symptoms. — According to Schinzinger this animal produces
its mischief especially on those parts of the skin which correspond
with the folds and seams of the clothing, about the throat, neck,
and round the body where the petticoat or waist-band lie close.
In these seams the animals lay their eggs, and consequently
become most flourishing with those who cannot frequently change
their linen. They only occur upon naked parts of the body, and
day and night produce a constant biting and itching on the
skin, which leads to continual rubbing and scratching. The
external phenomena caused by them resemble those of the
preceding species ; the skin becomes quite red, exhibits the scabs
described, papulae, and even vesicular eruptions where the skin is
very tender.

The treatment is the same as with the preceding, but the cure
is even still easier. A bath, and afterwards putting on new
clothes from head to foot, or.even old ones which have been dis-
infected in an oven as described for the itch-mites, suffices for a
cure. To purify the clothes, the common people bury them in
hay for several weeks. As a boy, I have had the opportunity of
observing this method in the country. The lice certainly did not
return when the clothes remained for fourteen days in the hay;
in this time even the embryos in the nits die or become abortive.
Moreover, it is said that a journey towards the tropics expels
these lice, and that they do not occur in hot countries.

6

82 ANIMAL PAKASITES.

Second Family — Crab-Louse = PHTHIRITJS.

Corporis regiones ad unam fere massam globulosam coalitce,
thorace vix distinguendo, brevi, lato ; abdomine lato et in marginum
utroque later e cum 8 segmentorum imcisionibus ; antennis longioribus;
pedibus incequalibus, anterioribus 2 sine talo et uncino in talum
mobili (pedes ambulatorii) , posterioribus 4 ut in pediculis, cum talo
et uncino in talum mobili (scansorial feet).

1. The common Crab-Louse = Phthirius pubis.

Synon. : Pediculus pubis, inguinalis ; Morpion.

It has a fiddle-shaped head, with a prominent, rounded fore-
head and a broader proboscidal aperture than the common louse,
and a somewhat projecting vertex with waved (buchtig) sides in
the neighbourhood of the antennae ; a rather short, dilated, and
rounded occiput ; very small, somewhat prominent eyes, imme-
diately behind the filiform antennae, which are slightly hairy, fi\7e-
jointed, and gradually diminish in size, with the fourth joint
rather smaller than the third and fifth ; with a very broad and
flat thorax, emarginate at the insertion of the head, with three
pairs of feet and a stigma between each of the first and second
pairs of feet ; and with a flat, cordate abdomen, amalgamated
with the thorax. If we go according to the stigmata, we find
first an apparently simple anterior segment which bears three
stigmata ; we must, therefore, certainly suppose that this segment
consists of three which have become fused together. It is
separated from the following segments by the lateral, verruciform
lobe, which diminishes in a conical form towards its free extremity,
where it is clothed with hair, and exhibits six bristles. This lobe>
which has some similarity with a rudimentary foot, is followed by
three similar ones, each of which bears a stigma and which
becomes longer posteriorly. The second stump bears six bristles
at its free extremity, the third six to eight, and the fourth
always eight to ten. This last lobe is followed by the terminal
segment, which is notched in the female in the same way as in
the common louse. It bears five larger bristles on the hind-
most free apices, and also towards the median line a pair of
very short stumps, and also on the dorsal surface six longer
bristles. Here are placed the vagina and the anus. In the male
the hinder part is rounded. On her ventral surface the female

PHTHIEIUS PUBIS. 83

bears thick, brown, irregularly disposed stumps, and oil her dorsal
surface smaller ones more sparingly distributed. The unequal,
elongated legs are walking feet in front, gradually narrowing to
the cylindrical, unemarginate tibiae, which have a small tooth,
and on the tarsus attached to them a small, nearly straight claw.
But behind they are thick, powerful scansorial feet, the tibise of
which are large, bell-shaped, indented at the extremity, and some-
what in front upon the inside have a large tooth, furnished with
a small, straight, chitinous stump and a bristle ; the tarsus is
long, crooked, one-jointed, horny, and bears a large horny claw,
which turns back upon the tooth of the tibia like a pair of nippers.
This claw is always very massive, but rather blunt than acute
anteriorly and towards the free extremity. It is seen distinctly
that its inner margins are toothed and that it is hollow interiorly.
To the interior of its base there pass two short, strong muscles,
which give the tarsal joint the appearance as if it bore a bell
(without a clapper) in its interior.

The reproductive organs are not quite clear to me, as I
have only been able to examine females. Leuckart says of the
eggs that they are considerably smaller than those of the common
louse ; but, in other respects, exactly similar to them, except
that the annular ridge, which surrounds the infundibular entrance
into the micropylar canal, is very much wider than in the
common louse (—" in diameter), and the operculum presents a
wide lattice work, formed by radiating processes.

The crab-louse lives on the hairy regions of the body, especially
about the pubis, but when it increases excessively, also amongst
the hairs of the chest, the eyebrows, the eyelashes,1 but never in
the head. It bites deeply and firmly into the skin, producing
violent itching, and lives on the human blood. It is transferred
to other individuals by long contact, and by the agency of clothes,
linen, and beds. It is most abundant in the south.

Schultz, with certain classes of people, regard the lice as
beneficial to the animal economy ; carriers cherish them in order
to put one under the prepuce of their horses when they cannot
make water.

Therapeutics. — As the crab-lice are endemic in certain districts,
we must be particularly careful there. The treatment is the same
as with the other lice. I have cured a patient who had long

1 In Dalrymple's ' Pathology of the Human Eye,' London, 1852, is a drawing (PI. VI,
fig. 6) of an eyelid with groups of these lice upon it.

84 ANIMAL PAKAS1TES.

been troubled with these guests, by two rubbings with a few drops
of rosemary oil. According to Martiny rubbing with simple oil
or fat is sufficient. The essential oils are certainly more sure in
their action. The insect-powder is also used against them with

advantage.1

•

Second Sub-Class — Insects with an incomplete metamorphosis
= HEMIMETABOLA.

Order — RHYNGOTA = HEMIPTERA.

Corporis tres regiones bene distinctae ; caput parvum, latum,
triangulare, tenue ; labium (lower lip), transverse articulatum in
rostri vaginam mutatum, quce canalem cavam, et ad anteriorem
partem apertam exhibet ; 4 sette tenues (pugionem formantes) in
rostri vagina inclusce, musculis fusiformibus motce, quarum 2 ex-
teriores, validiores, in apice uncinatce mandibulas, quarum 2 in-
terior es firmius inter se conjunctce maxillas prabent. Labrum (upper
lip) in initio rostri vaginae siium, operculum tenue est} ad linguae
instar formatum. Palpi maxillares et labiales desunt. Antennae
fiiliformes, diver sis simae. Stemmata parvula, rotunda ,prominentia ;
oculi adjutorii nulli. Alee varice, rarissime mullae, uti in Acanthia
lectularia (the bed-bug). Thorax perclaro scuto, inter dum scutello.

Pedes ambulatorii tribus tarsi articulis ; inter dum pedibus an-
terioribus ad raptum, pedibus posterioribus ad natandum idoneis.

Ganglia thoracica 2, inter dum in unum coalita. (Esophagus
augustus, ventriculus chyli amplus, multifariam, tortus, cvjus anterior
pars glandulosa, media intestino similis et posterior torta est. In-
testinum breve, pyriforme. Glandula salivales perclara, sine dubio
venenum parantes, tantum in Ophididis nullce. Canales urinarii 4.
Trachea varice.

Ovaria plerumque 4 — 8 tubi rudiformes ; loculus seminalis
simplex, longus, pyriformis ; loculus copulatorius nullus ; vix organa
ferrumen (cement- organ) parantia.

Testiculi ex numero varii, culeiformes ; ductus deferentes lon-
gissimi ; penis simplex tubulosus.

Ovula larvas, parentibus similes, usque non alatas tenerrime plu-
mosas, vernatione pluries exuta, alarum vaginis aut alis ornatas,
parientia.

Pro nutrimento succis et plantarum et animalium utunlur. Ani-
malia plerumque socialia.

1 The mercurial ointment is a well-known and efficient remedy in this country. — TKANS.

ACANTHIA LECTULARIA. 85

Family 5 — GEOCERES. Land-Bugs.

Corpus latum, planum, parvum ; antennae filiformes aut setosce,
liberce, cylindrice articulates ; capite longiores. Rostrum in capitis
apice incipiens, geniculaturri, usque ad finem thoracis profectum.
Ala 4 varice ; pedes ambulatorii tequales, spinosi. Odore fcetido,
coloribus saepissime perpulchris instruct a. Sub-familite permultae.

Sub-Family 3 — ACANTHIDA = Soft Bugs.

Rostrum three-jointed ; tarsi without arolia.

Body soft ; head and body flat, horizontal, longish ; eyes small,
without ocelli ; rostrum short, concealed beneath the throat ;
antenrise short, clavate, of half the length of the body (not
reaching beyond the breast) ; wings membranous and veined, or
wanting ; prothorax, abdomen, and wing-cases with membranous
processes; legs weak, thin; the anterior sometimes raptorial.

1. The common Bed-Bug (Acanthia lectularia).

Body ferruginous brown, somewhat hairy; head distinctly
separated ; thorax of one joint, with a tubercular pronotum, and
one pair of feet ; on the back with two small tubercles (the rudi-
mentary wings) ; number of ventral segments nine, which run out
in a point behind.

Upon the eggs, Leuckart speaks as follows : " They are elon-
gated (i'"), cylindrical, and of nearly uniform breadth Q'"),
rounded off at the hinder extremity, bent forwards in the direc-
tion of the dorsal surface, and furnished with a flat operculum,
which is surrounded at the margin with an annular screen, and is
incorrectly ascribed by Meissner to the inferior pole of the egg.
Chorion firm, structureless, and smooth ;" whilst De Geer and
Dufour describe it as covered with points. Tubercles only make
their appearance upon and round the margin of the operculum ;
but these, as in the family of the Reduvince, stand on the inner
surface of the egg-membrane. This inner surface is adapted for
the reception of air, in the same way as in the Reduvince, by thin,
perpendicular, separate canals. The surface of the operculum is
covered by a delicate lattice-work, the ridges of which circum-
scribe tolerably regular spaces (^//x), and are most developed

86 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

towards the centre. The'micropyles, 100 in number, and distant
from each other -^" , form extremely narrow canals (jgg/"), which
pass inwards from the screen, open then, and exhibit a longitu-
dinal ridge of ^" on the inner surface of the screen. Externally
these micropylar openings form .clefts, which occur upon the
anterior clavate extremity.

Even in the eleventh century, bugs were naturalised in Stras-
burg, so that they did not come to us from America. Very
plentiful in the north of Russia, they are not found in South
America, New Holland, and Polynesia. They are so difficult to
extirpate because they can bear hunger for years, and also a great
degree of cold. They live on the blood of man, and attack him
particularly at night, after leaving the joints of the woodwork and
walls, the crevices in the paper, and the grooves in the bedsteads,
in which they lay their eggs everywhere ; they also harbour in
clothes.

The wounds produced by their bite are distinguished by the size
of the resulting spots, and by their troublesome itching. In their
centre, also, we may detect a pierced canal, by the aid of the lens.
It is certainly possible that in doubtful cases the diagnosis may
be rendered more certain by the smell, and by the examination
of blood- spots in the bed-linen, from which we might probably
be able to evolve the characteristic odour of bugs by solution in
water and treating with acids, but we get at the bottom of the
affair still better by the examination of the bedsteads, &c.

Treatment. — An immense number of tinctures and secret
remedies are sold against bugs, of which, according to Poppig, no
single one will prove efficacious, although a combination of several
may do so. In this case, also, I have seen very good results
from the Persian insect-powder, the price of which is now greatly
reduced. It is sprinkled in the joints of the woodwork and walls,
the bedsteads, mattresses, &c. It is as well, however, in places
where the bugs are very plentiful, to repeat the sprinkling of the
powder from time to time, and at all events regularly at the
beginning of spring and the approach of autumn, or shortly before
the winter torpidity and at the time of waking therefrom, as in
such places the larvae in the eggs may perhaps escape the action
of the powder. Care should also be taken, that the brood should
be sought out and destroyed wherever they can be got at in their
hiding-places.

DIPTERA. 87

Third Sub-Class — Insects with a complete metamorphosis

= HOLOMETABOLA.

Order — DIPTERA = Two-winged Flies.

Corporis 3 regiones bene distincta, rarissime fere cephalothorax
(Pulicida). Cutis mollis, expansibilis.

Antennae frontales, inter oculos positae, aut corpore breviores,
triarticulatce, tertio articulo latiore, foveoso, et brevi, interdum
articulato, stylo (= bristle), aut corpore longiores (ex sex et ultra
articulis compositae) . Oculi magni, imprimis in maribus, quare in
fronte coaliti, et inter singulas lentes setosi aut stemmata. Interdum
stemmata auxiliatoria 3, aut 2, rarissime nulla.

Organa manducatoria suctoria. Labium mutatum in probosci-
dem, trompe geniculaium, retractilem, in apice latiorem, rotundam,
aut ovalem, sulcis transversis et setis instructam. Os in genu probos-
cidis situm, palpis 2, ex 1 — 2 aut 4 — 5 articulis compositis et
saepe antennceformibus. Maxilla ex 2 setis chitinosis, cum palpis
conjunctis, et mandibulae ex aliis 2 setis, ex maxillarum forma
composites formant haustellum. Labrum in fundo proboscidis,
triangulare, antrorsum acutum, chitinosum aut membranaceum} in
inferiore latere canellatum, linguam brevem, tenuissimam continens,
et interdum in setam, uti maxillae et mandibulce, allongatum. Hypo-
sloma (=lower face) est spatium inter proboscidem et oculos •
mystax (= moustache) sunt buccae setosa in hypostomate pro-
minentes.

Thorax rarissime articulatus, unlearn massam chitinosam 3 lineis
aut sulcis transversis ornatam exhibens, 4 stigmatibus respiratoriis
(2 anterioribus, 2 postertoribus] .

Aloe aut 2 pellucidce, membranaceae, rarissime squamosa,
magnce, longa, versicolores, aut, rarissime vero, minus evolutae aut
omnino nulla. Costa, quas dicunt, aut nervi alarum longitudinales
5, transversa numero minores.

Halteres (= balancers) sunt 2 corpuscula mobilia, stylosa, et
capitulo ornata in posteriore thoracis parte, vibrantia, squamarum
membranacearum (alulets) 2 paribus obtecta.

Pedes longi, tenues. Tarsus constat usque ex 5 articulis, quo-
rum ultimus 2 ungues simplices aut dentatos et inter ungues arolia
(foot-balls = pdottes] 2 ad 3, foveosa aut callosa aerit, et fluidum
glutinosa secernit.

88 ANIMAL PARASITES.

Abdomen tenue, longum, interdum latum aut ovale, clarius
sejunctum a thorace, aut non ; ex 6 — 9 articulis compositum, in
feminis acute finitum, denuo articulatum ei ex telescopii ratione pro-
et retractile.

Nervorum abdominalium systema £n Nemoceris 5 ad 6, in Bra-
chyceris 1 ad 6, in Muscidis, Pupiparis et (Estridis nulla ganglia
abdominalia ; nervorum thoracicorum systema 1 — 3 ganglia sim-
plicibus filis inter se conjuncta exhibens. Organa digestiva sim-
plicia ; oesophagus cum ingluvie et ventriculo, cui ventriculus sucto-
rius stylosus aut vesiculosus adhceret, intestinum tenue et rectum,
latum. Hepar et glandula salivales simplices, tubulosa. Systema
vasculosum tenuissimum ; trachearum 2 trunci cum stigmatibus co-
harentes et 2 vesiculas aereas in capite et abdomine prabentes.

Feminas habent 2 ovaria, ex numerosis tubulis formata ; oviduc-
tus breves ; loculos seminales plures} plerumque 3, vaginam sine
appendice seminali ; interdum larvipara aut foetus usque ad tempus,
ubi in nymphas sese transformarunt, gerentes.

Mares prcebent 2 testiculos, pyriformes, funiculos spermaticos
parvos, penem brevem, a 2 valvulis lateralibus, vaginaformibus,
inclusum.

Larva sine pedibus ; capite aut membranaceo, aut cornea ; cute}
qua in pupce cystam mutatur.

Sub-Order — APHANIPTERA = Hopping Diptera.
First and only Family — The Fleas = PULICIDA.

Caput perparvum, pronatum, stemmatibus lateralibus ; antennis2,
brevibus, claviformibus, cylindricis, ex 4*, secundum Vogt ex tribus
articulis compositis, plerumque in canellam pone oculos retractis ;
proboscide, oris locum tenente} directo sub capite posita, et com-
posita ex labro (i. e., vagina bivalvulare et articulata, cum palpis
5 articulatis] , ex lingua inter labra sita et ex 2 maxillis lateralibus.
Palpi 2 maxillares. Pedes longissimi ; femur crassum ; pedes
posteriores saltatorii. Thorax triarticulatus. Pedes unguiculati ;
abdomen articulatum.. Ovula inter materias vegetabiles putridas
deposita larvas vermiformes, sine pedibus, capite corneo armatas et
inter saliendum ex annuli ratione sese curvantes pariunt, qua post
12 dies capsulas sericatas (silken cocoons) nent, unde post novas
12 dies imagines prodeunt. Stigmata respiratoria 4 (2 in Pro-
thorace ; 2 inter Meso- et Metathoracem) .

PULEX IRRITANS. 89

1. The common Flea = Pulex irritans sive vulgaris.

The head of this reddish-brown animal which is so widely
diffused over the earth, but unknown in Australia, is short,
shield-shaped, formed of one piece, not toothed on the margins;
the antennae are short, and concealed in a pit behind the eyes,
and therefore often overlooked and mistaken. The oral organs
consist of a bristle-like tongue, which is covered by two maxillae
of the form of two sword-blades. These maxillae are covered by
two very narrow mandibles, which lie together to form a sheath,
and are toothed on their convex tipper surface, like files. On the
sides of the proboscis, and somewhat covering the base of the four-
jointed antenna, are two massive brown scales; these are usually
called labial palpi, and probably form a sort of cleft upper lip. The
labium covers the proboscis from beneath, and like the upper lip
appears to be cleft. It is hollow above, acute and hairy in front.
The thorax, which is probably provided with two pairs of stig-
mata, consists of three separate segments, each of which, espe-
cially the third, bears a pair of long legs, well adapted for leaping.
These consist of a strong coxa, with a small trochanter, a strong
thigh and tibia, which are all but slightly hairy internally, and of
five tarsal joints. The first and longest of these is strongly
clothed with hairs internally, without hairs on the outside; the
other smaller joints are strongly hairy on both sides, and the last
bears two claws. The first pair of feet appears almost to stand
on the head.

The abdomen has ten laterally separated segments, laid over each
other like the tiles of a roof, and fringed at the margins. On the
penultimate, or ninth segment, called the pygidium, there are
spinous hairs inserted in little pits (areolce). Each of these areolse
is about 0-012 mill, in breadth, and adorned round the base of the
hair with a circle of ten round, bead-like globules.

Besides its small size, the male is distinguished by the form
of the extremity of his abdomen. The upper end of the pygidium,
namely, projects as a sharp angle, and the last joint is attached
scarcely perceptibly flat to this. By this the end of the abdomen
of the male becomes as if cut off" straight and broader. At the
same time it appears to me that the pygidium is rather less hairy
than in the female, and that the penis is double. At least we
always see two brown spiral fibres in the middle of two more
membranous, transparent structures, which are swollen up into

90 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

the form of a club and clothed with radiating bristles towards the
outside, so that these ends have the appearance of an old German
" morning star " (morgenstern}. On the abdomen the male has
also two roundish valves or clasping organs.

The female is larger, and has the last segment of its abdomen
obtusely conical, and either pointed or rounded off; this is so
amalgamated with the pygidium, that we can scarcely find in it
the projecting angle indicated. The hairs are more numerous,
and reach up to the dorsal surface. On the abdomen it has a
verruciform, fringed lobe.

The copulation takes place belly to belly. The oval white eggs
are pretty large Q'"), barrel-shaped, broad, but slightly arched,
and uniformly flattened at both poles. The vitelline membrane
is as usual, the chorion strong, thick, uneven, scaly, and beset
with innumerable, small, flat, approximated pits.

Leuckart shows that the simple micropyle is wanting in these
eggs, and they are consequently distinguished from the Diptera ;
he states that the micropyles are found in a number of cribriform
apertures, upon a round field of ^'" ', at both poles of the egg. The
upper apertures are larger than the lower ones, and somewhat
more numerous (50 — 60 above, 40 — 45 below). In these the
seminal filaments are found. In profile the micropyles appear as
perpendicular canals, leading straight through the chorion and
vitelline membrane, and dilated in form of a funnel externally.
The eggs are deposited in sweepings, dust, and, in dirty people,
under the nails, especially the toe-nails ; in two days they allow
the escape of apodal larvse, which bear small tufts of hair upon the
segments, and two small hooks upon the last segment ; they move
very briskly, afterwards become reddish, and have a head which is
scaly above, with two short antennae, but without eyes. The pupa
is developed in a small shell.1

Vogt states that only the females bite and suck the blood of
men. The anatomical structure of the head, and especially of the
proboscis, does not justify this supposition, which I, for my own
part, cannot confirm. One day, on my return from my pa-
tients, whilst writing, I felt a pretty sharp bite on the right thigh,
and simultaneously another, but weaker one, on the upper arm.
As I was desirous of making a couple of microscopic preparations
of the oral organs of the flea, I undressed myself, and captured a
female flea on the thigh and a male on the arm. I had felt pain

1 The 'Veterinarian,' London, 1855, p. 335.

PULEX PENETEANS. 91

in both places, and looked after the fleas just at the corresponding
spots. The female had an abundance of blood and blood-corpus-
cles in her; the male had a reddish fluid, as to the presence of
blood-corpuscles in which I was not quite certain. At any rate,
the males can extract a bloody serum from the body.

Some species of fleas of our mammalia also occur temporarily
upon man ; for example, that of the dog, &c. These I pass over,
howe\7er, although they constitute distinct species.

2. The Sand-Flea =. Pulex penetrans.

Synon. : Dermatophilus , Sarcopsylla penetrans, Chique, Cbigue,
Pigue, Funga, Punque, Chigger, Gigger, TschikerTungUa, Attun,
Ton, Nigua, Tunga, Xique, Bicko.

It is smaller than the common flea, and has a proboscis as long
as the body, whilst in the common flea this is at the utmost one sixth
or one fourth of this length. The valves at the extremity of the
male, which only lives in the sand, and does not attack man, are
much elongated ; the impregnated female swells up extraordinarily,
after it has burrowed under the skin of men and animals. The head,
thorax, and feet are only recognised as attached points. According
to the statements of most authors, the animal only lives as far
as 29° of south latitude in the hot countries of South America,
especially in Brazil ; whilst Goudot found it even in the cold
region of New Granada, as far as Bogota. According to the
journals of Count Gortz, besides sand, this flea likes to dwell
in the crevices and joints of pig-styes. Some people suppose that
there are two species. Neither the male nor the unfecundated
female has yet been seen in the skin of man or the domestic ani-
mals. According to A. von Humboldt, it only attacks Euro-
peans and not the aborigines ; Martius says that it is attracted by
the sweat of the negroes.

Martiny gives the following notes upon it from Dobritzhofer.
This animal is so small that it can only be seen by sharp eyes,
with a good light, for which reason the seeking for the flea after
its immigration is generally left to children. It perforates the
skin down to the flesh, and, concealed in its little canal, swells up
into a white, globular vesicle, which in a few days may become
as large as a pea, the pain constantly increasing; this is the ab-
domen of the female filled with eggs, or, more correctly, with
larvse. Neglect of the disorder, or careless rupture of the vesicle,

92 ANIMAL PARASITES.

that is, the abdomen, by which the young are scattered in the
wound, where they then mine fresh passages, leads to bad sores,
to inflammations of the glands of the groin, to mortification, and,
in consequence, to amputation or mutilation of the limbs, or even
to death. The toes are especially attacked by the flea, although
other parts of the body are also visited.

Treatment. — Prophylaxis : Persons who are staying in places
where the flea is endemic, must have their feet examined by
children every two or three days. I think it would be advisable
for residents or travellers in those districts to pour a few drops
of an essential oil (for example, oil of anise or rosemary) now and
then into their stockings or shoes, in order to keep off the insects
by this odour.

Active treatment. — When the animal has once made an en-
trance, the orifice of the canal, which is marked by a red point,
may be sought, the passage widened with a needle, and the flea
drawn out, but without tearing it. With fresh punctures it is
best to wait a day, until the occurrence of the white vesicle, that
is to say, the swelling of the abdomen with the brood, allows the
animal to be more readily detected. Here also I should think
that touching this vesicle with oil of anise would be beneficial and
kill the flea (because the respiratory stigmata are situated upon
the abdomen), or compel it to wander out. The cavity remaining
after extraction is treated like a simple wound. In Brazil they
fill it with oil, snuff, or ashes.1

Sub-Order — BRACHYCERA = True Flies.

Corpus latum} rarissime longum ; caput hemisphaericum aut
ovale, thorace latitudine par ; abdomen amplius ; proboscis aut
brevis, crassa, carnosa, retractils, aut long a, prominens, coriacea.
Antennas in canellam capitis retractiles ad ultimum ex 3 articulis,
quorum 2 parvi et stylosi sunt, tertius vero crassus et globulosus
stylum (bristle) aut palpum habet, composites. Alee rarissime de-
sunt.

Family of Bot-Flies = (ESTRIDEA.

Corpus setosum ; proboscis nulla aut minima ; palpi haud clari ;
antennae brevissima in sulco capitis recondite, tertio articulo globoso

*

1 See Appendix B.

(ESTKIDEA. 93

et in dorso setoso ; squamae halterum permagnce ; alee m quiete ab
abdomine dist antes.

In this division only the eggs and larvae are of interest to us,
and indeed at present only in as far as they belong to species
which live upon the skin, and there form boils. Nothing
certain is known of the occurrence of the larvae of (Estri in the
frontal cavities (cephenemyia ; cephalemyia) , unless the worm of
Fulvius Angelinus, referred to under Linguatula, was such a larva,
which on closer examination always appears more and more impro-
bable to me, even on account of the size of the larva (which
is said to have been as long as the middle finger). I here com-
mence with two cases which appear to me to be as yet the
most certainly proved in Europe.

In the ' Ephemer. natur. curios./ Dec. I, Ann. 2, p. 43,
Schulze gives the following narration, under the title, " Vermium
in vivorum corporibus generatio singularis in oculorum palpebris et
aurium cavitatibus" — Caspar Wendlandt, in Poland, extracted a
white worm from the eyelid of a peasant boy of two years old ;
it was of the size of a caterpillar, with a hardish skin. Around
the eye of the patient there was a considerable red swelling ;
the eyelids were closed, and the pain violent. But after the ex-
traction of the worm, neither matter nor blood flowed out of the
opening in which it made its appearance. (I pass over the ap-
pended fable of the worm's eating almonds.) Dr. Leonhardt, of
Miihlhausen, also saw a worble in the umbilical region of a man.
Unfortunately this case is not sufficiently proved. If I am not
mistaken, a further case is reported incidentally in Iceland by
Torstenson. Unfortunately I cannot find thequotation relating to it.

In the south of America this parasite is by no means rare
upon man. It occurs especially upon the arms, the back, the
abdomen, and the scrotum. A. von Humboldt gave it the name
of (Eestrus humanus. In Guadaloupe and Cayenne the larva is
named Ver macaque, in Trinidad Ver maringouin^ in Minas
Geraes Berne, in New Granada Gusano del monte, and in Peru
Fluff lacura.

As soon as these animals have become so far developed that
they are about to change into pupse, they emigrate, let themselves
drop upon the earth, and then pass through their next two stages.

The surgeon will certainly seek in vain for fluctuation in the

1 Father Guby, ' Supp. Act. Erud.,' torn, i, p. 425, in his ' Report on his Travels/
describes probably this insect.

94 ANIMAL PARASITES.

tumours produced by them, but will find an orifice in the swelling
from which a little moisture constantly oozes, and through which
the hinder part of the (Estrus is kept in communication with the
air. The prognosis is favorable; immediate cure is only possible
by incision and the removal, of the (Estrus.

It has not yet been settled fo what species of (Estrus these
larvae belong, and it has even been supposed, as, for instance,
Humboldt has done, that there is an (Estrus humanus. We are not
at present justified in the latter course. The insect brought by
Schomburgk as the parent of this larva, was a Tabanus (a gad-fly),
and can by no means be connected with the larva. The com-
mon people also still make the mistake of confounding bot-flies
and gad-flies. As the matter stands at present, we can only
assert that in the last-mentioned cases the (Estrus Ovis cannot
come in question, nor the species living in the frontal cavities of
the stag. Neither can we have anything to do with the horse
bot-fly ((Estrus equi). The species which come under considera-
tion here are the (Estrus Bovis, Cervi Capreoli, and Cervi which
live under the skin.

We have here to observe, that the female (Estrus has a horny
ovipositor, which slides out and in like a telescope, and bears five
teeth at the end. On the one hand it has been asserted that
this ovipositor is used as a boring apparatus in burying the eggs
at the moment of laying; on the other, that it has not sufficient
strength for this purpose. Those who hold the latter opinion
think that the eggs are stuck upon the hairs, and that only the
larvae bore under the skin.

The hot of the ox is black, reddish-yellow in front, clothed
with black hairs behind, and becomes an inch long in two
months. The bot of the stag is distinguished from the pre-
ceding by a series of recurved black booklets, which, in conjunc-
tion with the larger horny hooks at the mouth, enable the larva
to hold fast in the tumour. Of the larva of (Estrus Cervi Capreoli,
the last figure has recently been given by Heunig, of Dresden.
Reichenbach, sen., names the (Estrus pictus as its parent. The
larva itself is yellowish-white, 10" long, and has nine segments,
exclusive of the head and tail, like all larvae of (Estrus ; of these,
the first seven are beset on the back with rows of very fine
reddish-brown spines (in ten rows), which, however, only extend
to the fourth segment on the ventral surface. The mouth has
two very small,, blackish-brown, horny hooks ; the dorsal surface

ANTHOMYCIDA. 95

has a brown spot, consisting of nothing but points. 0n the flat-
tened part of the tail, we see two very small, broadly oval,
oblique, dark reddish-brown opercula, much smaller than in
(Eatrus Ovis ; these close the two main tracheae from without.
The surface of the opercula is veined and finely punctured.
Beneath the opercula is the opening of the intestine, which, like
the alimentary canal and stomach, is situated, as in the other
(Estri, in the centre between the tracheae. The eggs of par-
ticular species of (Estrus have opercula.

Sheep, cattle, and horses are only infected in thickets and
woods, where the female (Estri sit, and attack the passing animals.
This is not to be overlooked in the etiology and prophylaxis.

Family of the Flies = MUSCIDA.

From the enormous number of genera (200) we must be con-
tented with having the characters of the Brachycera before us, and
to state the distinctions of the particular genera. For us par-
ticular interest attaches to the flower-flies = Anthomycida, and
the flesh-flies =Calyptera or Creophila.

1. Anthomycida = Flower-Flies.

Squamce sive ailerons (== alulets) halteribus multo minor -es.
Antennas retro repositce tertio articulo oblongo. Oculi fere frontales,
in maribus propinquiores. Corpus longum. Caput hemispharicum.
Larvae 2 unguicules ad os armata, in vegetabilibus putrescentibus
viventeSj sine pedibus.

We know that larvse of Anthomyia scalaris and canicularis
have been met with in the human intestine. They may be
recognised by their maggot-like form, by the plumose lateral
and dorsal spines, and the two separated, stalked breathing tubes
on the last segment of the body. The spinous bristles on the
back and sides are said to produce a very unpleasant itching in
the human rectum. I advise surgeons, in order to obtain speci-
mens of this larva, so as to be able to know what they are about
in case of need, to look after the larvse in the intestines of dogs,
where they occur by no means rarely in autumn and winter.
Upon the literature of this subject consult Von Siebold, article

96 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

" Parasiten," in Rudolf Wagner's ' Handvvorterbuch der Physio-
logic/ ii, p. 683, note 1, and 684, note 2. It appears only to be
possible for these animals to reach the human intestine indirectly,
and indeed by the use of vegetables which have stood for some
time, and to which the female Anthomyice could have access.
As vegetables of this kind, Von Siebold particularly refers to
cabbages ; I think any farinaceous food which has been kept and
which is eaten cold is sufficient for the purpose. The eggs of
Anthom. (Hyalemyia) canicularis measure \" , and are uniformly
rounded at both poles. The dorsal surface is even covered with
two parallel folds bent inwards, which suddenly cease at the end
with an obtuse angle. The ventral surface with hexagonal facets
and punctures. The inner surface of the dorsal folds and of the
back exhibits broad, rafter-like elevations, by which the facets are
rendered smaller ; it is also punctured. The micropyle is situated
upon a large smooth space at the anterior pole without any dis-
tinctive mark (mouth-piece, points, or the like). In the true
Anthomyia the pores have become real pits, and the transverse
ridges between the facets are tubercular. The micropyle is
funnel-shaped. The larva probably escapes at the anterior pole,
on which a blunt process is sometimes found.

2. Creophila = Flesh-Flies.

Corpus compactum, abdomen rotundum, thorax latus, caput
transversum squamae (= alulets) halteribus majores. Nonnulla
vivipara. Injuventute (statu larvali] parasita.

a. The great Bluebottle = Musca vomitoria = M. erythrocephala

(Aut. recent).

Leuckart describes the eggs of this fly as follows : Eggs tole-
rably compressed, V". long, uniformly truncated at both ends;
upon the very flat dorsal surface a white stripe (a peculiar apparatus
of longitudinal ridges, a duplicature of the chorion) extending
from one pole to the other, or even a little beyond the superior
pole. The delicate, pale, limpid vitelline membrane, which
folds readily, may be easily separated from the brittle chorion,
which is beset with delicate, hexagonal facets, ^" in diameter,
with small, close points, which are rather pits or pores than ele-
vations. The little points may be very distinctly recognised as pits

CREOPHILA. 97

at the posterior pole of the egg. The chorion and vitellftie mem-
brane adhere to each other quite firmly at particular places, more
especially about the true micropyle, so that the openings pass
through both membranes. The micropyle of the bluebottle flies
gives us the clearest insight into the penetration of the seminal
filaments into the egg, and it is particularly to be recommended
for the study of this process. It occurs at the superior pole of the
egg, which is rendered as uneven as the rest of the chorion by
facets and pores, and in its centre. The albuminous mass of the
egg covers the micropyle and the superior pole. The eggs are
usually laid in this state, but sometimes the larva has already
become completely developed in the egg, so that it is frequently
excluded whilst being examined under the microscope, whence
arises the supposition that the eggs are hatched in two hours.
The larva bears two blackish-brown points at the extremity of
its abdomen, and has a very complicated oral extremity ; its mar-
gin is divided in a radiate form, and it has six spiracles on the
abdomen. In eight days it attains its normal size without
changing its skin, and becomes converted into a cask-shaped
pupa by mere thickening of the skin ; from this the fly escapes
in a few days. The fertility of this fly is so great, that
Reaumur counted 20,000 maggots in an oviduct 2±" long. The
larvas of this fly cause the so-called " living wounds " to which
Pruner, for example, refers. They especially prefer the orbits
and ears, but also every part of the body where there is the
least abrasion or discharge. To the naked eye such places
appear as if beset with headless nails, which rise and fall with
the extension and contraction of the animals whilst sucking.
Pruner thinks that in such wounds we have to do with the Iarva3
of Sarcophaga carnaria ; I have arranged them here on account of
the black points on the abdomen. In ulceration, and when their
position is superficial, we distinctly see the white body of the
larva, which is 2'" in thickness ; the head sits, with its booklets,
in the bottom of the wound, which usually secretes no pus, but
only a bloody, watery fluid, and has a bluish, pale, and after the
removal of the animals a favus-like, spongy appearance. The
black hinder parts and the respiratory orifices are directed
outwards.

Treatment. — The best is the careful removal of the animals
with the forceps. Enticing them out with milk does not suc-
ceed, according to Pruner ; touching them with a weak infusion

7

98 ANIMAL PARASITES.

of tobacco is better. But if we are clumsy in seizing the ani-
mals with the forceps, they rapidly creep back. After their
removal, the cavities which they have made and the excrescences
in their neighbourhood soon heal.

b. The common Flesh-fly = Sarcophaga = Musca carnaria.

This also occurs sometimes in external wounds or ulcers
in the human body, as it lays its eggs in which the larvae
are usually ready formed, or its larvae, which sometimes leave
the egg even within the body of the mother, on every animal
structure or nutritive material derived from the animal kingdom
subject to the laws of decomposition. In the latter case the
young immediately begin to eat. In the heat of summer
and in hot climates the larvae easily get into badly managed
putrid, and open wounds ; nay, even the short time occupied in
dressing is sufficient to enable the fly to deposit her brood
in them, if particular care be not taken. Attracted by the
srnell, this fly, as well as the preceding, deposits its eggs and
larvae in the vagina of little girls or women when they lie naked
in hot summer days upon dirty clothes, or when they have a
discharge from the vagina. In malignant inflammations of the
eyes, the larvae of this and the preceding fly even nestle under
the eyelids, and in Egypt, for example, produce a very serious
addition to the effects of smallpox upon the cornea, as, accord-
ing to Pruner, in such cases a perforation of the cornea usually
takes place.

c. The larvae of Musca domestica and stabulans.

These larvae sometimes occur in sores, or in the vagina of
girls. Thus, for instance, I have seen a nest of them in the
vaginal orifice of a little girl in the summer, and removed them
by injections of chamomile. The eggs of the common house-
fly, according to Leuckart, are only a little smaller than those
of the bluebottle, and very similar to them in form. They are,
however, more pointed towards the anterior pole, and have a thicker
chorion, which becomes as much as ~" in thickness at the poles.
The chorion has wide pits and facets. At the poles the pits

NEMOCEKA. 99

become regular, perpendicular canals, which terminate-^in blind
ends towards the inner surface of the chorion. There are also
two ridges, twice as far apart as in the bluebottles, but not much
elevated. A deep furrow runs along upon the ridges, and the
arched portion by which they are united below the anterior
pole, and enters deeply into the chorion. The folds and
ridges diminish and disappear towards the posterior pole;
the micropyle forms a funnel-shaped pit, which is not distin-
guished either by a clear space, or by mouth-piece-like appen-
dages, and forms a distinct canal passing through the chorion, the
inner opening of which is connected with the vitelline mem-
brane. The albuminous layer of the mature ovarian egg is the
same as that of the bluebottle with its anterior projection.

It is also reported that the larvse of the three last- mentioned
species have been found in the urinary passages, in the urethra,
&c. A great part of these cases are undoubtedly to be regarded
as illusions, and many larvse accidentally placed in the chamber-
pot may have been regarded as having been passed from
the urethra. Nevertheless it is quite possible that the larva
of a fly may get into the urethra, especially in blennorrhcea or
in sores on the penis ; or in cases of gonorrhoea uncleanliness,
and abundant formation of smegma, especially in hot countries,
these larvse may have been seated under the prepuce, and
hence have passed into the chamber-pot.

The maggots of the flesh-eating flies occurring in the human
stomach and intestines, certainly get into the alimentary canal
by the use of decaying cheese, spoilt ham, and other cold meats,
during the latter part of the summer and the autumn.

Upon the larvse of the flies in general, consult Von Siebold,
in R. Wagner's ( Handworterbuch/ 1. c., pp. 683 — 685.

Sub-Order — NEMOCERA.

Corpus tenue, longum ; caput parvum ; thorax brevis, arcuatus ;
proboscis varia ; palpi longi, saltern 5-articulati ; sapissime
cristati ; antenna tenues, longa, filiformes, 6 : et ultra articulate,
horrida aut pennatae ; pedes tenues, longi ; alee longae et tenues.

We should only have to do here with the true gnats ( = Tipu-
lida) and the Sand-flies (= Simulida = Mosquitos], of which the
former have a short, thick proboscis, with two distinct terminal

100 ANIMAL PARASITES.

lips, and two setiform maxillse in its interior, and thin five-
pointed palpi either hanging down or bent ; the latter are dis-
tinguished by their prominent eleven-jointed antennae, becoming
thinner at the apex, and have a projecting proboscis, broad wings,
and no ocelli. As, however, they are in general too well known, and
only attack men for a time in order to obtain their nourishment,
we shall not pay further attention to them in detail, but here-
with close our examination of the parasites occurring on the
human subject.1

Amongst the parasites belonging to the class of Helmintha
the reader will miss — 1, the Dactylius aculeatus, and 2, the
Spiroptera hominis from the urine. The former was placed by
Von Siebold with the Naides, and by Henle with his new genus
Enchytraeus ; it is undoubtedly only an animal of the family of
the Lumbricini which had got accidentally into the urine.2 (See
Von Siebold, 1. c.) The latter, according to Bremser, was a
young Strongylus gigas. 3. The Dicer as rude = Ditrachyceras
rudis, recognised as the seed of the white mulberry. 4. Diacan-
thus polycephalus, as a raisin- stalk evacuated per anum. 5. Sagit-
tula hominis, as a fragment of the hyoid bone of some bird
passed with the fseces. 6. The Ascaris alata, found in the small
intestine of a man, is probably only a young individual of one of
the long-known Nematoda, if indeed it be a worm at all. 7.
Bushnan's worms, which were found in the blood an hour after
bleeding, were the larvae of Tipula oleracea, according to Rhind,
and accidentally introduced: red larvse of Chironomus, according
to Von Siebold. 8. The Filaria hominis bronchialis of Treutler,
as already observed, may be identical with the Strongylus longe-
vaginatus of Jorsits (Diesing). 9. The Hexathyridium venarum
of Treutler and Delle Chiaje was probably Pisciola geometra, or
some other planarian inhabitant of the fresh water, which had
got into the vessels with the water employed in bathing the feet,
&c. 10. The Polystoma pinguicola, Zeder = Hexathyridium
pinguicola t Treutler, an animal 8'" long, 2 — 3"' in thickness,
oval, convex above, impressed beneath, furnished with six pores

1 See Appendix A.

2 The history of these animals is given in Appendix C, vol. i.— TRANS.

FALSE PABASlMsV r lOl

at the anterior extremity, and a larger abdominal apertufe before
the tail, found in an ovarian fat-sac, is in my opinion so doubt-
ful, that I think I am justified in leaving it out, although
Bremser figures it amongst the Helmintha. Treutler thinks
that this animal resembled the Linguatula. ; and although
other views have been recently put forward, I cannot help con-
sidering the thing as impossible. Errors are very possible,
especially with such low powers as Treutler appears to have
employed. The animal in question cannot well have been a
Pofystomum, which has hitherto only been found in the air-pas-
sages of fishes or the urinary bladder of the frog. It might, how-
ever, be possible that the animal, if no Linguatula, was a dead
hexabothrious scolex of a Tsenia, which had either lost its hooks,
or had not yet come to their formation. Since we have learnt
how to produce Cysticerci artificially, it will be admitted that
those forms of cystic worms have a very great similarity to
Linguatulce in their external form. 11. Brera's Cercosoma in the
urine were nothing more than thelarvse ofEristalis tenax, so com-
mon in privies, and which had got accidentally into the chamber-
pot. 12. The parasites given to Yon Baer as having been passed
with the faeces, which Von Baer recognised as Iarva3 and beetles of
Ptinus fur. It afterwards appeared that the night-chair of the
patient in question had a torn cushion on its seat. In putting
on the cover, these insects fell into the pan. 13. The hexapod
larva of Clerus formicarius was given to Von Siebold as a
urinary parasite. Both as a larva and beetle this animal preys
upon the bark- and wood-beetles, such as the Anobia, which live
in wooden furniture and in the rafters and deals of rooms and
houses. It might, therefore, easily have got accidentally into
a chamber-pot. The larvse of the churchyard-beetle (Blaps
mortisaga) and the woodlice (Oniscus murarius) have also made
their appearance as parasites.1

1 The most ancient example of pseudo-parasites occurs in Plutarch's ' Symposiacon,'
viii, quaest. 9, cap. 3. After the quotation about the Filaria medinensis he tells of a
person suffering from dysuria, from whom a jointed barley-stalk passed out of the
urethra. Probably the individual had first (horrilile dictu) put it into the urethra him-
self. Plutarch then narrates: " And of our guest-friend Ephebos at Athens we know,
that simultaneously with much seinen he evac-uated a very hairy animal which ran along
rapidly with many feet." Whether in this case a woodlouse, or if " caav " should sig-
nify " rough, hard," an earwig had penetrated into the urethra of Ephebos, and excited
a pollution, we cannot say. Perhaps even the worm only came subsequently to the

102 ANIMAL PARASITES.

According to the plan developed by me in the definition of the
idea of parasites, I must, of course, also omit those articulated ani-
mals which only wound men when they are irritated, or do not live
at all upon his juices. These are — 1. The scorpions (class Arach-
nida ; order Araneida ; series of the cancroid Arachnida, family
of the scorpions, of which we know the sub-families — Scorpio,
Buthus, Androctonus, and Centrums). The common European,
scorpion (Scorpio flavicandus, europaus, germanicus, terminalis,
which are only names for varieties of the same species) has six
eyes, and can only produce local phenomena, which are said to
disappear by treatment with oils or ammonia, and in which,
perhaps, collodion would prove useful. It is supposed that
the effects increase with the age of the animal, and with more
southern climates. The eight-eyed Buthus afer, which is espe-
cially an Indian species, is said to be much more dangerous.
Only local phenomena, can be laid to the charge of the
twelve-eyed Androctonus in Algiers. (On the scorpions in
Algiers and their poison, see Moritz Wagner, ' Reise in
Algier/ iii, p. 255.) 2. The true house-spiders (order
Araneida ; section Araneida • first sub-section Sedentarias =
weaving spiders; family Epeira [geometric spider], Tegenaria
[house-spider], and the Italian Malmignatte [Latrodectus Mai-
mignatus}}. Their bite scarcely inflicts a worse wound than
that of a flea. However, some of the larger, southern spiders
may be more dangerous. Treatment with cold applications (cold
earth or collodion) is sufficient. It may also be mentioned that
a hysterical patient of Lopez pushed spiders under her eyelids,
in order that the surgeon might remove these parasites. 3. The
hunting spiders (Lycosida, according to others Vagabundae), the
third sub-section of the section Araneida, to which the cele-
brated Lycosa tarantula belongs. In Walkenaer's ' Tableau
des Arachnides/ p. 11, and in his 'Hist. nat. des Insectes
Apteres/ i, p. 291, note, and ii, p. 499, we find the literature
referring to Tarantulism. Ferrante is the first who referred to it.
Many are inclined to regard the tarantula dance, which was said
to occur after the bite, as a sort of chorea. It appears to me

emission. This passage is, also, interesting from the narrative that Timon's nurse
annually fell into a somnambulic sleep for t\vo months, and also from its letting us see
that the ancients were already acquainted with delirium tremens. Kai ^i]v Iv ys. TOIQ
Mfjuovtioif ar)p,tHov rjTrctTiKov TrdSrovg avcfykypcnrra., TO TOVQ KaroiKidiovQ JIVQ £7rifj,r]-
Xwc; 7rap<x(pv\arT£iv Kai ftiwKeiv o vvv ffbfittftov •yivop.tvov uparai.

FALSE PA11ASITES. 103

that in this case too little reference has been made to tke follow-
ing circumstance. It may probably happen that in particular
cases the bite of the tarantula may produce violent local irrita-
tion, and that perhaps it was observed accidentally by the people
that violent dancing and keeping up the perspiration in bed
quickly healed these local symptoms. To excite a desire of
dancing in those who were bitten, and thus to obtain a perspira-
tion, it is well known that two melodies were played — the Taran-
tola and the Pastorale. Subsequently this circumstance was
confused or forgotten, and in course of years it came to pass that
as soon as any one was bitten by a tarantula, they played to
him and he was obliged to dance. Hence it might easily hap-
pen that people were unable to imagine a tarantula-bite without
its being followed by music, and in consequence by dancing.
Thus the bite and the remedy came to be so mixed up together,
that the people, and with them Ferrante, could no longer distin-
guish between the two. The bite is a product of the animal,
the dancing a product of the music, as we may see every day in
ball-rooms. 4. The bees, and humble-bees, wasps, and hornets
(order Hymenoptera ; series of the bees = Apida, families Apis
and Bombus ; series of the wasps, family Vespida, sub-families
Polistes [paper-wasp = Polistes nidulans} , Vespa [yulgaris = the
common wasp, V. crabro — the hornet, and V. holsatica and
britannica, of which the latter are probably identical]). 5. The
ants (order Hymenoptera ; series of the ants, family Formicida ;
sub-family Formica).

Of course we need not speak here in detail of the caterpillars,
toads, and snakes, which may accidentally wound and poison
men with their bite ; nor of the lizards, if any of them are really
venomous. They would not be mentioned here at all, if the
popular belief had not regarded some of the last-mentioned ani-
mals, as well as salamanders, frogs, and tadpoles, certain caterpillars,
centipedes, beetles, &c., as actual parasites of man, and supposed
that these animals, nay, even some species of fishes, such as the
eels, could carry on a parasitic existence in the interior of the
human intestine. Unfortunately the medical men have given
their assistance to this nonsense ; and I myself have seen one
allowing himself to be fooled by a patient with an eel, and another
with a frog. With such follies there are only two ways of deal-
ing— jest and scientific experiment. The former has been done,
and many perhaps are acquainted with the satirical tale in which

104 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

a medical man in recent times has castigated a fool of this kind,
who chattered about the presence of living frogs in the body of
a patient, in the same style in which Dr. S. C. H. Windier
(Schwindler) once derided the Infusorian theory of the process of
fermentation. But such remedies are not thoroughgoing, and
cannot effect a fundamental cure. For the cure of these follies
we are indebted to Berthold, of Gottingen (see ( Nachrichten
von der G. A. IJniversitat und der Kb'nigl. Gesellschaft der Wissen-
schaften zu Gottingen/ No. 13, 1849), and I here reproduce lite-
rally his conclusions.

1. All observations on living amphibia having remained long
in the human body, and, acting as the cause of long illnesses in
it, are false.

2. Eggs of amphibia when swallowed very soon lose their
power of development in the stomach. (Dr. Kretschmar, of
Stolpen, informed me as an analogous case, that trout often devour
fertilised trouts' eggs at the spawning time, but that these eggs
when again taken out of the stomachs of the trout and put unin-
jured into fresh water, do not become developed.)

3. It is, however, possible that amphibia may get into the
human subject by intentional or accidental swallowing.

4. Such animals may be again evacuated either in a living or
asphyxied state, when vomiting takes place soon after they are
swallowed.

5. If this vomiting only takes place at a later period, the
animals thrown up are dead ; if no vomiting take place, the
animals are more or less digested, and we find either their epi-
dermis or bones, or nothing at all of them, in the faeces.

6. The only and true reason why the amphibia cannot perma-
nently live in the human body is the moist heat of at least
80° F. (29° R.) which no species of amphibia (frogs of all kinds
and frogs' spawn, the tadpoles of frogs and toads, salamanders,
tritons and their spawn, lizards, and slow-worms were employed
in the experiments) can resist from two to four hours.

The method of experiment was as follows : Berthold put the
animals just mentioned in vessels with water and air, which were
kept for two to four hours at the temperature of the stomach
(29° R.)

The ordinary caterpillars also belong here; they soon died
even at a low temperature in water. They can get into the stomach
with salad, or in as far as concerns the smooth sixteen-footed cater-

FALSE PAKASITES. 105

pillar of Aglossa pinguinalis, which lives in old fat or butter, aud is
therefore frequently found in the kitchen and cellar with fat
articles of food. (This caterpillar was found by Rolaiider and
Linne in the faeces or vomitings, and regarded by the latter as
very dangerous in the human intestine. If they are soon
thrown up, they are either still alive, or retain their form ; but if
this take place later they must bear more or less distinct traces
of digestion about them. In the fseces they can hardly be found
again, or only in cases of very imperfect digestion, and with
violent diarrhoea to drive them very rapidly through the intes-
tines. The same applies to the Gordius aquations, which, how-
ever, from the hardness of its epidermis, may perhaps long resist,
if not death, at least digestion. It might probably reach the
stomach by the use of worm-eaten fruit. We know nothing of
species of Mermis accidentally getting into the stomach with
water, &c.)

In southern countries leeches (Hamopis vorax) are readily
swallowed with water, and these are said to be able to live some
time in the human body, causing violent internal haemorrhages.
This is mentioned by Larrey, and it was also experienced at the
siege of Mahon.

Lastly it may be stated, that hairs, fibres, and undigested
flesh, passed with the fseces, have been described as parasites
of man. The careful practitioner will be easily able to avoid mis-
takes.

The hair of the processionary caterpillar (Bombyx proces-
sionea), which forms on oaks a bag-shaped cocoon often as large
as a man's head, is very dangerous to man.

Nicolai's researches and observations (' Die Wandert oder
Processions-Raupe/ Berlin, 1833) have proved that the caterpillar
usually appears during the middle of May, at first to the num-
ber of from ten to twelve, on the bark of the oak, from whence it
wanders to the first buds and twigs of the oak. Each single
caterpillar is from 3 — 4"' in length, and of the colour of the
bark of the oak. They have long stiff black and white hairs or
bristles, and a black stripe on the back. This little band of
from ten to twelve caterpillars (probably relatives) keeps together
on a twig, and eats during night and day. They grow rapidly,
learn to move more quickly, upwards of 100 and more uniting
and forming a wandering colony in order to attack larger
branches. They wander thus from twig to twig, casting their

106 ANIMAL PARASITES.

skin for the first time towards the end of May by rubbing
against the uneven bark of the oak. They are now of from one
third to one fourth of an inch long, of a grey colour, distinctly
showing twelve segments, and on the top of each segment a
black shield with very short, velvet- like hair of a peculiar lustre.
The large hairs are ranged in from two to three bunches on each
segment, having lower down on their sides eight spiracles and
eight pairs of legs.

During the time of the casting off of the skin, the grey cater-
pillar becomes yellowish-brown, lustreless, stronger, but lazier.
The caterpillars mostly gather where a branch withers, and
attach themselves so firmly by spinning a cocoon, that cater-
pillar and bark seem one. The cocoon is thin and transpa-
rent, and attached to its inner part is the cast skin. These
caterpillars have quite the appearance of the former, and begin
their wanderings afresh — a caterpillar leading each troop, having
attached to its tail other caterpillars and so on. They grow now
very large, and collect together at the end of June or the begin-
ning of July in increasing numbers. The caterpillars, placing
themselves side by side or one above the other, cast their skin a
second time and wander again, leaving threads behind on the
path of their emigration. They are now excessively voracious,
and deposit largely the matter which is so obnoxious to men and
animals. Being now more than one inch in length, and very
strong, they are seen to make long journeys, annexing all smaller
troops which they meet on their way. They gather at last on
the trunk of a thick tree, placing themselves side by side to
the extent of a man's hand, and then one above another in three
or four rows, after which some of the larger caterpillars are seen
to creep from underneath and spin all round the heap. The
spinners are relieved by others at regular periods, and from six
to eight caterpillars may be seen on the cocoon, which is usually
fastened to the sunny side of the trees, rarely to the stormy and
northern side, at a considerable height close to the twigs, and
where a twig or branch is decaying. A hole is left in the
cocoon for the passing in and out of the caterpillars, which is
always guarded by several large caterpillars. These guards allow
only larger caterpillars to pass, preventing all smaller ones which
may happen to follow from entering, and appointing for their
use a separate place close to the nest, from whence they are led
by a larger caterpillar on new excursions to young leaves, the

FALSE PARASITES. 107

leader returning to its nest. The larger caterpillars' deposit
fseces in the nest, which, falling among the threads of the cocoon,
render the latter more opaque, and more capable of resisting
external influences. This closing up happens usually at the end
of July or beginning of August. Each caterpillar prepares for
itself a separate case or cocoon inside the large cocoon, which is
of a grey-yellow colour and silk-like appearance. The single
cocoons of the caterpillars resemble, in the method of their spin-
ning, that of Bombyx mori : they are, however, more oval,
smaller, and very rich in the yellow powdery substance, of which
we shall have to speak. The cocoons are formed in one night.
The butterfly escapes towards the end of August, by softening
the threads of its cocoon with its saliva, (?) and thus dissolves
them. It copulates, lays eggs, and dies. Many of the chrysa-
lides in the cocoons were destroyed by white, worm-like, hairless
parasites.

The inhabitants of Westphalia are well acquainted with the
important and dangerous diseases and sufferings which are caused
by these caterpillars both in men and animals. It is very
doubtful whether the noxious substance which acts like a poison,
creating redness, itching, and burning of the external and in-
flammation of the internal parts, and causing even death, con-
sists of the long hairs of the caterpillar. According to some
writers, the nest or cocoon is to be looked upon as the cause of
these disorders ; whilst others say that they are caused by an
acrid noxious juice which the caterpillar is thought to secrete
when it creeps over the surface of the skin. Nicolai convinced
himself of the impossibility of the latter cause, for he observed
itching pustules on his forearms which were covered with clothing,
though the caterpillar had never come near them. On one
occasion, when attempting to attach to a board a large caterpillar
by means of pins, and for this purpose piercing its black back
shield, he saw on the edge of the shield a reddish-yellow, fine,
dust-like, saffron-coloured powder proceed from the shield, without
the latter being altered in the least. The interior of this spot
showed no especial organ nor opening. Later observations,
however, are said to have discovered underneath these reddish
spots two large warts which almost touch one another, and
which are especially noticed when the caterpillar casts its skin
and has become deprived of its hair. The same dust was found
by Nicolai in the nests and cocoons in the parts which surround

108 ANIMAL PARASITES.

the chrysalis. The caterpillar also exuded this substance on
being touched with a knife on the black shields. On coming
into contact with the moist skin it caused, after eight hours, red
itching pustules, but produced no effect when brought in contact
with the dry or oiled skin. The dust loses its peculiar power by
being preserved in spirits of wine. Ratzeburg observed that
feeding the caterpillars shut up in a glass, and the necessary
repeated opening of the glass, were sufficient to cause inflam-
mation. Lameil, Physician to the Lunatic Asylum at Charenton,
observed, after the lapse of ten years even, on opening a glass
which contained a piece of a cocoon, similar effects. The micro-
scope shows the dust to consist of very fine, straight, spiry,
minute hairs beset with barbs. They are exceedingly light, swim
on water, and are sometimes carried away by the wind, flying
about for some time in the forest. The dust is carried on to
objects and into the air by the creeping of the caterpillar on a
damp place, by touching it, by moving through the air, and by the
falling of drops of rain on the bark. This dust seems, however,
only to be formed after the second and last casting of the skin
of the caterpillar.

In places where the caterpillar is of frequent occurrence, the
animals which come into the forests are attacked by various
diseases. Sheep by inflammation of the eyes and violent coughing ;
cows and goats by the same symptoms, with internal inflammations
and ulcers all over the skin, the violent itching of which makes
the animals restless and drives them almost to madness ; horses
more especially suffer from it. The diseases of the eye caused
by it are blenorrhcea of the conjunctiva, dimness of vision, and
perforation of the eye. People become exposed to this poison by
staying in a forest, by sleeping, working, or taking a ride,
playing, cutting down wood even in winter-time, by gathering
fruits, as strawberries which grow under the oak-trees, by collecting
grass, litter, or the fallen leaves of forests. The diseases which
follow are violent inflammation of the eye, erythema of the eyelids,
blenorrhcea, coughing, inflammation of the throat and the lungs,
violent itching and scalding eruptions of the skin (nettle-rash)
and general fever ; children who wear no trousers incur inflam-
mations of the genitals, phymoses, leucorrhoea, and swelling of
the labise, and finally also angina membranacea. The question
is whether the above-described dust which is found, according to
Nicolai, more particularly on the edges of the black shields of

FALSE PARASITES. 109

each segment lining the shields with a brownish-red and' delicate
border, and which is velvet-like, very fine, lustrous, and soft, and
which can be loosened and shaken away at the caterpillar's
pleasure, be merely a mechanical or also at the same time a
chemical irritant; opinions differ somewhat. Miiller and
Rabenhorst found a peculiar acid and a volatile oil on examining
chemically the fir-weevil (Eombyx Pini) which offers similar con-
ditions, without, however, experiencing any noxious effects from
the oil or the acid. Ratzeburg believes that a poisonous volatile
principle exists (analogous, perhaps, to the poisonous principle,
of sumach, and other poisonous plants) which is simultaneously
developed with the dust.

Treatment and Prophylaxis. — The destruction of the caterpillars
by burning and singeing them by means of wisps of straw or by
sweeping them off the trunks of the trees and crushing them on
the ground, is always dangerous to the operator, since the dust
is dispersed in the air. Obstacles to their migration, such as
coal-tar, tarred paper, and digging trenches round the trees, are
of no avail, as the caterpillar simply goes round them, and crosses
even small brooks. I think it would be best to discover the
nests and wrap them up with rags soaked in oil, and then to cut
away the branch and to burn or bury it. It would be well,
however, to destroy the insect in the chrysalis state towards the
end of July or middle of August, before the butterfly creeps out,
in order to restrict its propagation, or to hunt up and annihilate
the latest brood which exists before the second casting of the
skin without the dangerous dust. It would, therefore, be necessary
to search from the beginning of May to the beginning of June
for the wandering troops. The collector of nests and caterpillars
will do well to use a blunt hoe, to wear gloves, and to oil the
skin. There are generally only one or two nests in each tree.
The caterpillar has but few enemies in the animal kingdom, of
which I may mention the ichneumon. Birds seem to be afraid
of it. Precautions ought to be taken to prevent persons entering
infected forests by means of notices, by the digging of ditches,
&c. The pasturing of animals in such forests and the gathering
of fodder and litter should be forbidden. The gathering of fruits
of any kind should be unconditionally interdicted, and, in case
nests are discovered when oaks or pines are cut down, they should
be carefully removed, as mentioned above, without hewing them

110 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

to pieces ; and the woodcutter advised not to place himself towards
the wind.

Direct treatment. — When the dust has been deposited on an
individual, it is recommended by Ratzeburg to employ cold douche
baths. Nicolai recommends milk poultices in the case of inflam-
mations of the eye and the erysipelatous inflammation of the eye-
lid ; rubbing in of oil on the more sensitive reddened parts, or
applying fomentations or lotions with milk ; when the throat
or tonsils have become inflamed oily emulsions, salad oil, and
milk are recommended ; but if the bronchi .and lungs are inflamed,
a more powerful antiphlogistic treatment is required. Remedies
which allay and restrict the irritation, especially emetics, when
there is a tendency to sickness, and on the whole a quick and
energetic treatment.

Popular superstition augurs a year of dearth from the appear-
ance of this caterpillar and its migrations from west to south or
from southern to northern countries.

Trousseau and Pidoux1 have, as it is well known, endeavoured
to make a therapeutical use of the hairs of this caterpillar, in
order to bring quickly back on the skin exanthemata which had
disappeared by employing them externally. I have already men-
tioned that the caterpillar of Bombyx Pini causes similar disorders.
The latter differs, however, from the former, that the symptoms
are generally a little milder. The hairs are not hooked but thread-
like and in the shape of a lancet, at the same time smooth and
even, though Miiller (Ratzeburg's ' Forst-Insekten/ ii, p. 57)
has observed that they sometimes cause death.

Wounds are said to become very malignant when the juice of
the crushed caterpillar is pressed on them. I do not know
whether the experiments which have hitherto been made be con-
sidered sufficient. In order to prove this fact it would be first
necessary to separate the little hairs from the juice and then
employ the filtrate for the experiment.

1 'Traite de Therap. et de Mat. Med.,' Paris, 1841, vol. i, p. 456.

VEGETABLE PARASITES.

VEGETABLE PARASITES.

GENERAL PART.

"ALL vegetable parasites which are found on animal bodies
belong to the class Cryptogamia, and to the orders Alga and
Fungi exclusively."

The medical man attends more particularly to those forms
which are met with in man/ and all the parasites treated of in tho
present work belong to the most simple plants, sometimes merely
formed by the aggregation of a number of cells, and they can,
therefore, scarcely be of a very complicated nature. Amongst
them the Alga are distinguished from the Fungi by chloro-
phyll, or some other colouring substance, which is observed at
their generation or soon after, and before the time when they
leave the parent-cell. If each cell is considered separately, the
smallest appear to be colourless, but are seen to be distinctly
coloured when they are aggregated into a mass.

The investigation of the medium on which these parasites
are found is of importance for therapeutical purposes, and we
propose to view —

1. The solid ground or soil which affords them nourishment.

2. The gaseous medium which surrounds them.

3. The influence of physical agents upon them.

1 . No plant can thrive on a merely mineral soil, but requires,
at the same time, organic substances ; if, therefore, parasitical
plants are to thrive, the animal system on which they live must
needs suffer from disturbance or want of nourishment, and a
simultaneous retardation of the change of elements. In conse-
quence of these changes, the renovation of the atomic elements
of the tissues and of the fluids proceeds so slowly, that the spores

8

114 VEGETABLE PAEASITES.

which spread themselves on the surface of certain organs have
time to abstract them for their own use. This is the common
requirement of all parasites, and, just as those which live on
other plants are chiefly met with on the epidermis (of the leaves
or bark), which is remarkable for its slow and weak assimilation,
so we find those living on animals preferring those parts which are
slowest in changing their elements — as scales, shields, wing-
covers, shells of muscles, epithelium, epidermis, &c. ; or they occur
in tedious diseases which are followed by weakness, or a retarded
and slower reproduction when the molecules of the tissue appear
to have been retained too long. On animal mucous membranes
such formations which undergo a slow metamorphosis are pro-
duced upon the epithelium in spurious membranes, or by a
diseased, acrid mucus. Similar changes are observed when a
retardation in the change of elements takes place, in consequence
of the wearing out of the spinal marrow in the Batrachia, when
Saprolegnia ferox begins to spread most luxuriantly. Deposits
of food which stick to the teeth, or, in certain insects, to the
folds of the mucous membrane of the peritoneum, and which
undergo in these places a retarded metamorphosis, produce simi-
lar effects. Here we have the analogue of the great theory of
" manuring" without which agriculture could not exist, nor could
vegetable parasites thrive. This constitutes, also, the principal
difference between the nourishment of animal and vegetable para-
sites. The former live upon the fresh juices and supplies of their
host, which they first decompose or assimilate ; the latter live on.
and take up their food from substances already in a state of
decomposition. When the spores of the vegetable parasites be-
come once fixed, they take their food either externally from the
medium which surrounds them — which rarely happens with the
vegetable parasites found on man ; or their presence causes the
soil (i. e.} the tissues) to be saturated with a peculiar fluid which
changes in the air or not, and which may lead even to suppura-
tion. All this greatly favours the rapid growth of Fungi. We
have a good illustration in muscardine, where the animal itself
(the silk-worm) shows the first signs of disease, and as soon as
the fungus known under the name of Botrytis has fixed itself, the
circumstances favorable to its development are increased by its
very presence. Artificial vaccination of vegetable parasites is the
more successful the more diseased the animals are which are
employed (see the experiments of Hilling and Hannover on

GENEUAL CONSIDEKATIONS. 115

vaccination with the spores of Saprolegnia, &c.) The' fitness
of the soil is, moreover, increased by the humidity, which
increases daily and steadily in consequence of the germination of
the spores, and which is favorable to the growth of the plants.
It is always a sign favorable to their growth if this moisture
shows at first a slight acrid reaction ; this is, however, not so
very indispensable as has been commonly thought, since many
Fungi grow on neutral or alkaline soil ; as, for instance, in the
peritoneum of the Herbivora and on ulcers of the trachea.

Fungi prosper the more the richer the soil is in organic nitroge-
nous substances, especially in such as are in a state of decom-
position.

Here also we find exemplified the great law which must be
obeyed wherever plants are to prosper : " The, choice of the
locality depends upon the peculiar properties of the soil sought for
or avoided by the various species of plants." For certain species
prefer certain parts of their animal host.

2. The nature of the gaseous medium seems quite indifferent
to the development of vegetable parasites, for they are found in
atmospheric air when on the skin, in an air rich in carbonic
acid when in the cavity of the mouth and lungs, in an air not
overcharged with carbonic acid gas when in the peritoneum*
Thus, for instance, the Algce of the process of fermentation
thrive best in an atmosphere rich in carbonic acid, whilst the
Fungi appear to absorb oxygen and give off carbonic acid. Hu-.1
midity of the surrounding gaseous media (humidity of the atmo^
sphere, humidity in the cavities of the body which contain air)
favours the development of these parasites.

3. Most favorable for the development of vegetable para-
sites is the temperature of the body of the mammalia, especially
in their natural cavities. Their growth may be increased in
cold-blooded animals by raising the temperature of the surround-*
ing air.

A knowledge of the circumstances which favour their growth
enables us to form a " general theory of the treatment of vegeta-
ble parasites." We have chiefly to look to a change in the me-
dium in which they grow, and to bring on a state in which they
cannot thrive so well. Of late Bazin has done much towards
advancing this department of science ; his method contemplates
more particularly the locality of the parasite, which it endeavours
to change, and makes direct war against the predisposing disease by

116 VEGETABLE PAEASITES.

employing parasiticidal means, and strengthening and improving
the system.

Physiology of vegetable parasites. — They all show —

1. Nutrition. — Assimilation may be recognised distinctly, or
only indistinctly or not at all.. The products of secretion are
none or very sparing. Sometimes a few drops of oil are found
on the surface or underneath the spores, and even these may be
viewed as the product of the transformation of the amylaceous or
nitrogenous matter in plants.

2. Development.- — This varies according to the species, it is,
however, generally speaking, very rapid everywhere with vegeta-
ble parasites, in consequence of the predominant assimilation.

3. Reproduction. — This function is likewise very intense and
rapid. The spores spring up rapidly in masses, and are capable of a
very easy dispersion either by currents of air carrying the spores,
or by water in which they are frequently whirling about.

Effect of the parasite on its host. — The spore of the parasite
germinates as soon as it has settled down on some part of the
body, or it penetrates first deeper into the body underneath the
epidermis, or in the open cavities of the body. The spores pene-
trate rarely deep at first, but almost all will do so as soon as the
filaments of the mycelium are formed, which penetrate rapidly the
surface of the membranes and tissues, disturbing the functions of
these parts, and killing smaller animals sometimes in two or
three days ; as, for instance, the eggs of reptiles and fish (as
those who endeavour to rear fish artificially have to their cost
experienced), or the Batrachia themselves, upon whose skin they
frequently settle down. The penetrating of the filaments is
sometimes merely mechanical into readily formed cavities of the
body, as in the follicles of the hair; sometimes it is caused by the
elevation of the epithelium. It is, however, soon followed by
organic action, since the hard and specifically heavier spore
presses upon the soft tissue underneath and causes resorption in
such places. The same occurs when the action of the organ on
the spot where it lies presses it in deeper, or when its constantly
increasing size causes molecule after molecule to be subjected to
resorption underneath its weight. It may at the same time be
observed that the process of germination, which goes on everywhere
in nature with an unmeasurable display of power — a process by
which the hard husk of the vegetable seed (spores) is rent, and
the young plant enabled to push aside the soil, to lift and to break

GENEKAL CONSIDERATIONS. 117

up, and to drive it asunder likewise in a downward direction in
order to prepare a bed for its roots; that the same display of
strength takes place on the human body, and thus enables the
spores, filaments, mycelia, &c., to penetrate its tissues. Mecha-
nical causes determine, therefore, the spores in penetrating
deeper into the under-lying tissue, and producing atrophy of the
fibres of the skin in these places. The cells containing the fat
disappear, as a section of the skin will show, and a cavity is
formed which is thinner at the spot where the growing parasite
has fixed itself. According to Robin, the eggs of the Helminthse
perforate the kernels of melons, apples, and cherries, and the in-
testines themselves, in accordance to the simple laws of mechanical
pressure. Inflammation of the tissue does not necessarily take place
in these places, although of little concern ; but a certain amount of
swelling, with or without the formation of pus-globules, may be
observed round the place of deposition (the cavity). A favus-
crust is formed, when the exuded mass coagulates and becomes
mixed with epithelium. This explains the migration of the
mycelia into the interior of the tissues and into closed cavities
just as easily as the migration of other foreign bodies from one
place of the body to another. The latter frequently takes,
instead of the molecule placed and resorbed before the foreign
body, another molecule on the opposite side, that is behind the
foreign body, and helps thus to push it forward.

Prognosis. — The preceding characteristics enable us, more-
over, to gain an insight into the kind of injury which the parasites
are able to do. They produce scarcely any critical symptoms,
at the utmost a slight disturbance of the bodily functions, whilst
they are restricted to a very small space, and live on animals of
considerable size. The quicker, however, they grow, the more
bulky they become ; the more important the organ is which they
choose, and the' more diminutive the body of the chosen host is,
the more obnoxious becomes their influence on the host, and his
very life may even be endangered by them.

Absorption and penetration must not be confounded. The
vegetable parasite absorbs, by receiving liquid constituents into
its system without any change of the organic masses ; and it
penetrates, since it is a solid body which penetrates another
body, the tissues of which vanish beneath it by resorption ; and
this it does without changing its own condition.

Parasitical plants as the causes of epidemic diseases. — Without

118 VEGETABLE PAEASITES.

being able to prove it with certainty (we need only think of the
cholera-parasites, which proved to be quite chimerical), epidemic
diseases have, from time to time, been accounted for as produced by
certain microscopic vegetable parasites. Robin is quite right, when
he says — " This whole hypothesis is merely an attempt of medical
men to seek the external conditions of the existence of universal
affections in the changes of the internal constitution of beings,
their atoms and molecules. Should there really be such vege-
table parasites discovered in epidemic diseases, they might rather
pass for consequences of the epidemic disorder of the fluids which
has set in, than for the causes of such epidemics/' It is, un-
fortunately, not yet quite clear what disorder of the fluids is
necessary to make a single parasite thrive well. The disputed
question, when better decided than it is now, as to whether cer-
tain vegetable parasites, when transferred to any organism (no
matter whether healthy or diseased), can develop themselves
well, or whether they thrive only on special organisms, will
enable us to decide the first question with greater certainty.
All observations are yet incomplete; and we entirely lack ele-
mentary observations on the temperature and degree of humidity
of the atmosphere, which are certainly of no little influence,
during some seasons or years, with regard to the more frequent,
almost epidemic appearance of certain vegetable parasites.

Literature. — Principal work, ' Histoire naturelle des vegetaux
Parasites qui croissent sur 1'homme et sur les animaux vivants/
par Charles Robin (avec un Atlas), Paris, 1853.

119

SPECIAL PART.

A. ALG^E.

Plantce aquaticae acotyledone<& guttatim submucosa, granuloscs
floccosce, gelatinosce, membranacece vel coriaceae ; filamentosce vel
tandem foliosa ; olivacete purpurece virides leucophoece, albicantes
vel raro achromaticae ; cettulares ; cellulis minutissimus isolatis, vel
filamentose aut floccose articulatis, aut in fills cum muco aggregatis
vel tubulosis et continuis vel articulatis-prosenchymaticis vel paren-
chymaticis formatce. Sporidia nulla in minimis unicellularibus, holo
vel partim gonimicis, aut in pericarpiis inclusa aut superficei in-
spersa. Qutedam dioicae.

1. Sporidia cellula unica immota vel ciliis moventia (zoopora).

2. Spermatozoidia numerosa ex cellula unica " in antheridiis in-
clusa dein libere moventia.33 Kiitzing.

The vegetative system, which, in other plants, consists of " phy-
coma" is the vegetative system in general ; " cauloma" the stem,
and (C phylloma" the branch, is represented in the Algae by the
" cceloma," or tubus, and " trichoma," or filamentum. The para-
sitic Algse found upon living animals consist of cylindrical or
flattened filaments, single or branched, frequently with dissepi-
ments, or apparently articulated at certain distances, and con-
taining greenish or grayish molecular granulations in varying
quantities. Each of these granular masses is called a te gonidium"
whilst the granulated cell-contents is called the " endochrome."
The tribes of these Algae have no special apparatus for fixing
them in the mucus of the affected animal, but they are held firm
by the crossing of the fibres.

The reproductive system consists of the sporangium and the
spores.

The sporangium, conceptacle, or spore- case, is the organ in
which the spores originate, are developed, and enclosed. It is
formed from a variously shaped vesicle, which is universally of
larger size than the cells of the vegetative system, and originates

120 VEGETABLE PAEASITES.

in the extreme cell of a tube whose contents serve for the pro-
duction of the spores.

The spores, sporules, corps, reproducteurs, sporidia, spora,
sporulce, corpora or cellula gonimicce, spermatia, &c., are round
or oval bodies, containing universally in their interior finely granu-
lated corpuscles. They vary in sfze, but are easily distinguished
either by their appearance or their germination.

Man, according to Robin, grows on his body ten species of
AlgaB, distributed in five genera ; or if the five species of Lepto-
mitus are to be regarded as one, then five species in five genera;
or if the genus Leptomitus is regarded as a depauperated fungus,
which will not fructify because deprived of the air (Robin), then
four species in four genera. They all belong to the class Iso-
carpece, and the order Eremospermece, with the exception of
Merismopoedia Ventriculi, which Meyen has placed in the tribe
Palmellece.

I. Cryptococcus Cerevisice. Tab. I, fig. 1.

Class — Isocarpece : " Fructus verus (cellula) in singularibus
speciebus uniformis ; spermatia vera matura (cellula) semper oli-
vaceo-fusca, ex cellula hologonimica formata"

Sub-class II — Malacophycece : (l Phycoma ex cellulis organicis
(gelineis, anylideis, gelatineis, fucineis ve) compositum, interaneis,
gonimicis, viridibus, raro rubris vel achromaticis"

Tribe — Gymnospermea : " Spermatia ex cellulis vel superfi-
cialibuSj vel subcosticalibus medullaribusque formata, nee spermangio
communi inclusa"

Order I — Eremospermece : " Spermatia in superficie phycomatis
sparsa"

Sub-order I — Mycophycece ; " Algce mucedine plerumque achro-
maticae, raro luteolescentes vel rubrae in corporibus organicis vel in
solutionibus crescentes"

Family — Cryptococcece : " Globuli gonimici minutissimi solidi
mucosi, in stratum indefinitum aggregati."

Genus — Cryptococcus : " Globuli gonimici in stratum amorphum
diffusum aggregati"

Species — Cryptococcus cerevisice.

Synon. : Torula Cerevisice (Turpin) ; Cryptococcus Fermentum.

This plant must not be confounded, as has been done by

CEYPTOCOCCUS CEREVISIJE. 121

Vogel, with Mycoderma Cerevisite, which grows on the surface of
Cryptococcus Cerevisia, and is a species of Leptomitus.

Description. — " Cryptococcus cellulis achromaticis, globosis aut
ovatis, corpusculo inferno (nucleus ?) hyalino notatis ; diam. ple-
rumque O007 interdum 0-005 — 0-003 mm.

Variety. — C. concatenata (Kiitzing). " Cellulis ellipticis vel ob-
longis in trichomata abbreviata ramosa concatenatis, corpusculis
internis interdum binis.33

It is found in yeast, diabetic urine, in the mouth, stomach,
oesophagus, &c.

This parasitical plant is composed of round or oval cells, which
often present in their interior one or two little corpuscles, which
are more like globules of oil, or the nucleus of a cell, than a
vesicle. They are propagated by small projecting bodies on the
sides of the cells, w.hich, when they attain the size of the parent-
cells, give origin to new germs, and form a row of from three
to five elongated cells, but never a cylindrical stem. In the air
it immediately decomposes, on account of which it does not
fructify in the air as the Fungi. The presence of one or two
brilliant, strongly refractive globules in the interior of the cells,
and which are often regarded as globules of oil, is very charac-
teristic. Hannover and Vogel have not taken this circumstance
into consideration ; they have confounded the spores of various
species of Fungi with the cells of this Alga, and have falsely
supposed that all vegetable bodies with round or tubular forms
constituted an especial variety.

Locality. — This Cryptococcus is developed morbidly in the
secretions of the oesophagus, the stomach, or the intestines, or
is introduced into these situations by means of beer. Hannover
found it in the black fur of the tongue of persons labouring under
typhus; Lebert, in the mouth of a woman who had long pre-
viously suffered from disease of the womb ; Vogel, in faeces and
vomited matter; Robin, in the bitter fluid vomited by a woman
who, after fasting many weeks, ate some decomposing apples;
Gruby, in a woman who had for eight years laboured under hys-
teria, accompanied for four years with daily vomiting (the vomited
matter consisted entirely of an agglomeration of Cryptococcus ,
with mucus, saliva, and the remains of the food — as the Crypto-
coccus seems to have the power of developing itself on the inner
coat of the stomach in the same way as the Champignon du
Muguet in pharyngeal diphtherite) ; Bennett, in the vomited

122 VEGETABLE PAKASITES.

matter from a cholera patient (the so-called " cholera fungi 3f of
Swayne, Brittan, and Budd, which they found in the stools and
vomited matter of cholera patients, and which the latter found in the
water and the air of the affected place, seems to be nothing more
than the ferment-alga, as has been pointed out by Baly and Gull,
Griffith, Bennett, Robertson, Robin, and others1) ; Vogel, Ilmoni,
and others, found this fungus in diabetic urine, and also in the
urine of patients affected with scarlet fever. Thus showing that
sugar was not necessary for the production of this fungus. Hera-
path and Quain also found it in the urine of cholera patients.

The development of this plant goes on very rapidly when it is
in contact with decomposing substances, or liquid acids at a
favorable temperature, as in the intestinal canal. But in all

1 [Many other bodies besides the spores of Cryptococcus were regarded as cholera
fungi. The following observations were made at the time of the discussion of this sub-
ject by Professor Busk, who was then president of the Microscopical Society of London,
at one of the evening meetings of the Society. He stated that he should confine his
attention to the papers of Dr. William Budd, Dr. Brittan, and Dr. Swayne, each of
whom had written papers and given drawings of bodies which they supposed to be fungi.
In the first place, he remarked that amongst the varied bodies figured by these gentle-
men there was only one set that bore so strong a resemblance to each other as to claim
anything like a common character. With regard to the figured bodies from air and
water they were not definite enough to yield any possibility of classing them with one
body or another. With regard to the more definite bodies figured by Drs. Budd,
Brittan, and Swayne, and found in their preparations, he had with one exception found
these in the matter passed by cholera patients on board the Dreadnought. These
bodies, which were described as fungi, were of three different kinds. First, there existed
a cellular body, which was more particularly figured by Dr. Swayne, and existed in two
of his preparations, one in the possession of Dr. Lankester and the other in his own,
which evidently exhibited the characters of the spore of a uredo, and on examination
of some specimens of uredo from a loaf of bread bought at a baker's, it was found to
correspond precisely with the spore of the cholera patient. As this species of fungus
was very common in bread that had been kept and easily resisted the digestive action of
the stomach, the presence of it in a few cases was well accounted for. The second class
of bodies, and which under a high magnifying power, with a bad light, looked exceedingly
like the last, consisted of small portions of the inner membrane of the grain of wheat.
In the coarser kinds of flour this membrane was not separated, and he had no doubt
that these bodies were introduced with the bread eaten as food. A third form of these
more definite bodies was evidently due to the presence of undigested starch-granules.
Drawings of all these bodies were exhibited, and their strong resemblance to the bodies
figured by the Bristol observers was at once recognised. In conclusion, the author
stated that he did not wish to pronounce an opinion that the existence of a vegetable
organism as the cause of cholera was impossible, but from the observations he had now
laid before the Society, he considered that such a cause in the production of cholera had
certainly not yet been demonstrated. (Daily News, Oct. 19th, 1849.)] TRANS.

CRYPTOCOCCUS CEREVISLE. 123

cases it will be found the fermentation has commenced/previous
to the development of the Cryptococcus.

It is of great pathological importance, as has been pointed out
by Vogel, to regard this plant only as an accompaniment, and
not as the cause of fermentation. It is an epiphenomenon — a
result of the altered condition of the fluids^-which have assisted
its development ; but it is never the cause of the change in the
fluids, or of the accompanying vomiting. Hence there is no
other method of treatment than a constitutional one.

In the loose stools of sucking children, according to Wedl, a
rich formation of fungus is a common phenomenon. It is found,
however, with difficulty, and only in thin divided layers of the
faecal mass, and after treatment with the carbonates of the
alkalies. According to Frerichs, these fungi are more frequent
in the large intestine than in the stomach, and are the forerunners
and accompaniments of the spontaneous decomposition of the
lower part of the intestinal canal. An oval or elongated cellular
fungus, with free transparent globules in its interior, has also
been found by Frerichs in the large intestine, and a similar form
in the small intestines of the rabbit. (See Tab, I, fig. 1, vol. ii.)

Literature. — Vogel, 'Icones histol. pathol./ Lipsise, 1843,
p. 93; Henle, ' Pathol. Untersuchungen/ 1840, pp. 37 — 65;
Hannover, Ueber Entophyten auf den Schleimhauten des toclten
und lebenden Menschen, Miiller's ' Archiv fur Anat. u. Phys./
1842, p. 281, tab. xv, figs. 1 — 4; Remak, < Diagnostische und
Pathogenetische Untersuchungen/ Berlin, 1845, ix ; ' Pilze der
Mundhohle und des Darm Kanals/ pp. 221 — 227 ; Boehm, < Die
Kranken Darmschleimhaute in der Cholera/ Berlin, 1828, p. 57 ;
Vogel, 'Allgem. pathol. Anat./ Leipzig, 1852, p. 395; Robin,
'Des Fermentations/ Paris, 1847; Gruby, ' Compt. rend, des
Seances de TAcad. royale des Sciences de Paris/ 1814, xviii>
p. 586; Ilmoni, ( Foerkandligar vidde Skandinaviske Natur-
forskarnes tredje Moetei/ Stockholm, 13 — 19, 1842, p. 840;
Bennett, ' Lectures on Clinical Medicine/ Edinburgh, 1851,
p. 213, fig. 79, and p. 222, fig. 102 ; Robin, ' Histoire naturelle
des vegetaux Parasites/ Paris, 1853, pp. 322—327; 'Atlas/
tab. ii, fig. 10, tab. iv, figs. 3 and 4, tab. vi, fig. 1.

124 VEGETABLE PARASITES.

II. Merismopoedia Ventriculi (Meyeri). Tab. I, fig. 2.

Class — Isocarpeae.

Sub-class — Malacophycea.

Tribe — Palmellea.

Cellula globosa elliptic^, aut raro polyedrica, liberce ; plus vel
minus discreta, vel in strata plerumque definito aggregata.

Genus — Merismopoedia.

Phi/coma parvulum non affixum, quadratum, planum ; gonidiis
(cellulis) quaternatiis, solidis (aquaticce).

Species — M. ventriculi.

Synon. — Genus: Sarcina. Species: S. ventriculi (Goodsir).
Sarcina of authors.

Phycoma coriaceum, pellucidum, quadratum prismaiicum aut
irregular e ; 8, 16, 64 cellulis quadratis quaternatis, nucleatis, leviter
(Bruginosis compositum ; diam. cellularum 0*008 mm. ; nucleorum
0-002-4 mm. ; strata longit. 0-030 — O'OSO ; lat. 0-016 — 0*020 mm.

This is a compound membranous, transparent plant, formed
out of cubical, elongated, prismatic, or even irregular masses,
which are ordinarily composed of eight, sixteen, or sixty-four
cubical cells (gonidia).. Each cell is divided on its surface,
through slight furrows, into four prominences (frustula, Goodsir).
The neighbouring cells touch, or barely touch each other, and are
usually coloured of a faint red. The internal nucleus has the
bright brown colour of the entire mass.

Habitat. — In ventriculo hominis sani et agroti aut Leporis
cunicul. in facibus hominis et imprimis diarrhoicis, in urines
crassiminibus et pene tabido et abscessum gangrcenosorum ex c.
pulmonum.

This plant, which for the host it inhabits appears so injurious,
consists generally of cubical prismatic, roundish, or irregular
masses of cells, which are square at one end and round at the
other, and of which the largest are 0*055-30 mm. long, and
0-020-16 mm. broad. These masses are very consistent, re-
sembling the corium ; they are to a certain degree elastic, heavier
than water (so that they fall to the bottom in liquids), colourless
or slightly brown or reddish, transparent. According to Virchow,
they are coloured yellow at first by iodine, and swell up, and are

MERISMOPCEDIA VENTRICULI. 125

rendered colourless by the addition of cold sulphuric acid,- When
sulphuric acid alone is added, they become reddish or brownish
from carbonization. According to Hasse, they become brown
when first treated with cold sulphuric acid, and afterwards with
iodine. They contract somewhat in alcohol, and are not destroyed
even by heat, nitric acid, or the caustic alkalies, but their cellular
structure gives way. When pressed between two pieces of glass,
they give, according to Lebert, a sandy feeling. Towards
reagents they behave as the Diatomacese, on account of which
Lebert attributed to them a siliceous covering. But when treated
with muriatic acid, and burned, they yield an ash in which the
form of Sarcina can no longer be discovered. They are not
destroyed by putrefaction coming on in the fluids in which they
are contained. Their structure is very simple; they adhere
together sometimes merely through contact, and sometimes
through a mucilaginous interstitial mass, which swells up in
solutions of the alkalies. The cells measure about 0'008-10 mm.,
and exhibit under the lower powers of the microscope, cubical
blunt edges, but under higher powers the edges are sinuous.
With lower powers these edges again appear pointed, but with
higher powers they are rounded at the corners. They have in
the middle of the surface a slight depression. From this central
depression there proceed four linear depressions or furrows, from
which originate four roundish projections, which, although they
are not to be compared with the corresponding formations in
Diatomacece, have nevertheless been named " frustula " by Goodsir.
The cells lie generally four, eight, twelve, sixteen, twenty-four,
&c., together. Through pressure, they break away, and form
smaller masses, resembling the parent-cells, and should they pre-
sent a kind of envelope, it arises from their coming in contact
with the digesting food or mucus.

Every cell, according to Robin, is either composed of an
homogeneous mass, free from nuclei, or more frequently of the
same mass with four or two or three nuclei. Both kinds of cells
are to be seen near one another, according to the observations of
Hasse, Kolliker, Miiller, Simon, Robin, and Lebert. Robin
thinks that those who have not seen these nuclei at all, must
have accidentally missed them, or used magnifying powers under
600 diameters. These nuclei, which are from 2 to 4000th, seldom
the 6000th of a millimeter in diameter, are cubical, elongated

126 VEGETABLE PAEASITES.

prismatic, with rounded corners or even almost spherical, refract
the light strongly, and contain nucleoli. Sometimes nothing is
to be seen in the cells but these four nuclei. Yirchow, who seems
to have examined these bodies carefully, maintained that they
were neither nuclei nor protuberances, but that they were depres-
sions from which the furrows proceeded, or a point of crossing
from which a new furrow took its origin.

Neither Virchow nor Lebert ever saw this fungus present at
the same time with the ferment-fungus, but Lebert saw it at the
same time with the Alga filiformis oris.

Medium. — The fluid in which these Alga flourish sometimes
gives an acid reaction, as, for instance, in the vomited matters
in which Wilson discovered acetic, muriatic, and lactic acids. It
is less frequently alkaline, but has been found by Virchow in
ammoniacal pus.

Method of observation. — The matter containing the plant
should be collected in the most convenient manner. Vomited
matter should be allowed to rest, and the deposit collected.
This should be submitted to the microscope, with a magnifying
power of not less than 600 diameters.

Nature and character of this formation. — John Goodsir dis-
covered this organism in 1842, and indicated its vegetable nature,
which is held by naturalists at the present day ; but Busk and Link
regarded the Sarcina as an animal belonging to the genus Gonium,
and Schlosberger maintained that it was nothing more than
decomposed primitive muscular fibre. The views of the first two
pbservers were refuted by the brothers Goodsir, Harry and John ;
the last was opposed by Virchow, who shewed that the cubical
portions of Sarcina were much larger than any that could result
from the decomposition of the bundles of muscular fibres. He
also showed that the muscular fibre entirely disappeared in acetic
acid, whilst the Sarcina was only distended, and that muscular
fibre disappeared in water, whilst Sarcina remained. With re-
spect to the view that it is a product of the decomposition of
the tissue of the animal body resembling fatty degeneration,
Virchow remarks that it is insoluble in ether. Hence he arrives
at the following results :

1. The Sarcina is no product of decomposition.

2. It stands in no relation to fermentation, or certain other
morbid symptoms.

MEKISMOPOEDIA VENTETCITLI. 127

3. But provided its cellular nature be clearly made oti£, it may
be arranged with certain forms of lower plants.

Some writers have regarded it as identical with the ferment-
fungus ; but as we have already seen, there is no proof of its
identity; or of its connection with the process of fermentation.

Lehmann regards it as identical with Merismopcedia punctata ;
Meyeu with Gonium tranquill, Ehr., and Agmenellum quadri-
duplicatum, Brebisson. But it is distinguished from these species
by its tabular-formed masses, by the nearly double size of its
surfaces, and their lying more close to each other.

Robin observes that in the representations of Bennett and.
O. Funke the nuclei are not given.

Development. — According to Goodsir, this plant is increased
singly through division. Frerichs, who observed specimens ob-
tained from a fistula in the stomach of a dog, says that at first
the plant appeared in the form of round isolated- cells, seldom
two together. They were without enlargements, and about
0-005-7 mm. large. At first they were transparent, and exhibited
a furrow in the middle, which soon became crossed by another
at right angles, each running to the periphery, and dividing the
cell into four parts. Each individual was thus divided into four
right-angled plates, which were divided from each other through
the crossed lines. The most recent case of Sarcina is that re-
ported by Neale, in the ' Medical Times ' for July, 1852. In
this case there was also found in the vomited matters, the spores
of Pemcillam glaucum, and also through the use of reagents the
formation of murexid (by the addition of nitric acid and ammonia),
and of crystals similar to iiric acid, and the ferment-fungus^
which had not been previously observed in this position. Jenner's
case (' Med.-Chir. llev./ Oct., 1853, p. 329) is less interesting. la
this case, Sarcina was found in the fluid of the ventricle of the brain
which had stood in an open glass ; but whether it was really in
the body, or had got into the glass after the removal of the fluid
from the body, there was no means of knowing. There had been
no vomiting previous to death. Hassall (' Lancet/ April, 1853,
p. 338) found the Sarcina in vomited matters, together with
starch-granules, the spores of Penicillum glaucum, and other dark
brown and oval corpuscles, with free lactic and muriatic acids.

Treatment. — This parasite, as already remarked, is mostly met
with through vomiting, at least during life, this is the only way
in which it is discovered. The cause of the vomiting is, however,

128 VEGETABLE PAEASITES.

usually attributed to some other form of disease of the stomach,
and the treatment is directed accordingly. On physiological
principles, the treatment must be conducted to meet the two
following indications :

1. The removal of the spores through laxatives and emetics.

2. The destruction of the cells, and thereby the prevention of
their development.

At present we have no means of carrying out this indication.
The so-called Parasiticida, copper and corrosive sublimate, which
are effective as against the development of fungi generally,
are not applicable here, as they can only be applied where the
plant affects the surface of the body. The means hitherto pro-
posed effect but little good. Hasse praises nitrate of potash;
also silver, but according to Wunderlich, it has proved of no
more value than creosote. In recent times, Neale and Hassall
have commended the hyposulphite of soda (9j — 3ss), in an
infusion of quassia (3§s), three times a day. With the first it
produced no actual cure, and with the second only a suspension
of the disease for five weeks.

Literature. — John and Harry D. S. Goodsir, ' Anatomical and
Pathological Observations/ Edinburgh, 1841 — 1845 ; Heller, in
Griesinger's ' Archiv fiir Phys. Heilk./ 1848, part i, and in
Heller's ' Archiv fiir physiol. und pathol. Chemie und Micro-
scopic/ 1852, part i, p. 30 ; Busk, l Microscopical Journal/
1843 ; Virchow, Sarcina in his and Reinhardt's ' Archiv fur
pathol. Anatomic Physiol. und Klinischen Medicin/ i, 1847,
p. 264; Schlossberger, ' Wiirtemb. Correspondenzbl./ 1846, No.
26, and in Vierordt's < Arch./ 1846, vi, pp. 747—768; Hasse,
in ' Mitth. d. Zur. Naturf. Ges./ 1847, p. 95; K. Miiller, < Bot.
Zeit./ 1847, April, No. 26 ; G. W. Simon, ' De Sarcina ventric.
Dissert, inaug./ Halle, 1847 ; Naegeli, ' Gattungen einzelliger
Algen/ &c., Zurich, 1849, p. 2, where the Sarcina is falsely
regarded as a fungus ; Lehmann, ' Lehrbuch der physiolog.
Chemie/ Leipzig, 1850, ii, p. 128 (translated for the Cavendish
Society by Dr. G. E. Day, 1851) ; Bennett, ' Introduction to
Clinical Medicine/ Edinburgh, 1853, p. 214, fig. 80; O. Funke,
' Atlas der physiol. Chemie/ tab. vii, fig. 4 ; Robin, ( Histoire
naturelle des vegetaux Parasites/ Paris, 1853, pp. 331 — 345;
Atlas, tab. i, fig. 8, and tab. xii, fig. 1.

LEPTOTHEIX BUCCALIS. 129

III. Leptothrios buccalis. Tab. I, figs. 3 — 6.

Class — IsocarpecR.

Sub-class — Malacophyceae.

Tribe — Gymnospermeae.

Order I — Eremospermea.

Family — Leptothricece : " Trichomata tranqullla tenuissima, con-
tinua (vel obsolete articulata). Cellulce propagator ice proprice
null®. Filamenta tubulosa, continua, sine articulatione el motu,
endochromate confluente, indistincto plena. Cellules propagatrices
nullce out ignotce"

Genus — Leptothrix .- Filamenta tenuissima eramosa nee con-
creta, recta aut interdum curvata.

Species — Leptotkrix buccalis : " Trichomatibus rigidulis, line-
aribus rectis vel inflexis, non moniliformibus, achromaticis, extre-
mitatibus obtusis, basi in stromate amorpho granuloso, adhcerenti-
bus : long. 0-020— 0-100, lat. 0-0005 mm."

Habitat: " In super fide linguae, intervallis dentium, cavo den-
tium corruptorum, unde in succos stomachi aut intestinorum (si
diarrhoea accedit) descendit."

Wedl describes this plant as occurring upon the epithelium of
the papillae of the tongue in the form of a dark brownish-yellow
granular mass. From these masses are developed very delicate
fibrillse transversely divided, entirely structureless, and about
0-0008 mm. broad. They are not affected by vinegar or weak
alkaline solutions. They are of various lengths, and mostly
assume a bent position. They commence with a few fibrillse,
and gradually form projecting bundles which are evidently of a
vegetable nature. They can be easily procured by scraping the
middle of the tongue, and are seldom absent except in the case
of clean red tongues, whilst they are most numerous on the upper
part of the tongue. Wedl, Kb'lliker, and Hofle regarded them
as Fungi ; but Robin describes them as Algse. He says that this
parasite is found accompanied by epithelial cells, and a number of
a species of Vibrio. It consists of small semitransparent, finely
granular yellowish masses of variable form, and a length of O'OSO —
0-040 mm., and consist of numerous round, straight filaments, free
at one end, and with the other planted in the granular mass.
Uuder the highest powers of the microscope small round granules

9

130 VEGETABLE PAEASITES.

(spores) can be seen in the space between the filaments. The
filaments depend sometimes from a kind of stem, but there is no
branching or movement of the filaments, nor are there sporangia
or clearly, spores present. The Yibriones are very small, but
are always mixed with epithelial.cells, mucus- and pus-globules,
and molecular particles. Individual filaments are found free in
the saliva .(Lebert).

The soil on which these plants grow is the decomposing
deposits of food which lie between the papillae of the tongue
and their processes.

These parasites may be found in great abundance and very
fine on the soft masses of food which collect between the teeth,
especially if they are allowed to accumulate for some days.
Wedl found them in the molecular masses which collect between
the tonsils in a dead body. In the stomach and small intestines
they frequently accumulate, and Robin has observed them in
the stools of typhus patients.

Closely related to these are certain fibrillose and very numerous
corpuscles without any transverse division or branching. They
are thicker than the last, and about 0*014 to 0 024 mm. long.
They have a great tendency to break up transversely. They are
neither soluble in ether nor alcohol, nor are they changed by
heat or the caustic alkalies and mineral acids. These are per-
haps the filaments found free in the saliva by Lebert. According to
Wedl their nature is unknown, and he suggests they may be
Vibrios. Their envelopes, according to him, are composed of
silicic acid, whilst Biihlmann maintains they contain fluoric
acid. This resistance to reagents does not, however, appear to
be opposed to their vegetable nature, as we know that many
plants contain sufficient silica to resist the action of heat.

These formations were known to Leeuwenhoek, who found
them present in forty-seven out of forty-nine healthy persons, so
that he regarded them as the result of uncleanliness.

There is hardly any treatment to be described. The best
thing that can be done is to prevent their growth, by rinsing out
the mouth and using a tooth-brush after every meal. The tooth-
brush should be used on the inside as well as the outside of the
teeth. J . Gutman, in a little work entitled ( The Tooth-brush/
has well observed that in the use of this instrument we should
not be satisfied with brushing across the teeth, but should brush
up and down from the gums to the crown of the teeth, whereby

LEPTOMITUS UBOPHILUS. 131

the parasites get removed from secret corners in which they are
lurking. The tongue should also be cleaned with the brush or
the scraper.

Literature. — Ant. Leeuwenhoek, ' Arcana naturae detecta/
Lugd. Batav., 1722, i, 40, fig. A; Mandl, ' Recherches micro-
scopiques sur la composition du Tartre et des Enduits muqueux/
' Compt. rend./ xvii, p. 213 ; Remak, ' Diagnostiche und patho-
genische Untersuchungen/ Berlin, 1845 ; Biihlmann, Miiller's
'Archiv/ 1840, pp. 442 — 445, tab. xiii, figs. 1 — 6; Henle,
f Allgemeine Anatomic/ ii ; Bouditch, ( American Journal of
the Med. Sciences/ April, 1850, p. 362 ; Robin, 1. c., pp. 345 —
354 ; f Atlas/ tab. i, figs. 1, 2 ; Wedl, ' Grundziige der patholog.
Histologie/ (translated for Sydenham Society by Busk), pp.
746—749.

IV. Leptomitus urophilus.

Family — Leptomitece : " Alga cespitosce, lubricce, vel adnatce vel
liber&j ex trichomatibus articulatis, subtilibus achromaticis com-
posites"

Genus — Leptomitus : " Trichoma articulatum in apicem attenua-
tum, ramosum ; articuli cavi, vaginati. Spermatia (Sporidia) later-
alia, raro inter stitialia} epispermio pellucido cincta"

Species — L. urophilus ; Filis cespitosis, hyalinis} ramosissimis,
ramisque patentibus alterne subternis articulatis ; articulis diametro
cequalibus vel sesquiduplo longioribus.

Robin : " Cespes hemisph&ricus, gelatinosus} altitudine 2 vel 3
millim. metiens. Fila primaria e puncto centrali quaquaversus
irradiantia ; hyalina, a basi ramosissima, vix 0'0075 mm. crassa.
Rami iterum atque iterum ramosij ramis patentibus. Ramuli tertii
ordinis terni quaternive, secundi, obtusi, 0'0030 mm. circiter
tequantes, sensim minores evadunt prout apicem versus, ubi ex
singulo articulo quandoque constant, observantur. Articuli varies
longitudinis ; gonidiis nullis fracti, at spatium orbicular e pellucidum
(an guttulam oleosam ?) in centra exhibentes"

The nature of this parasite is still doubtful, and Robin ex-
presses his conviction that the genera Leptomitus and Hygrocrocis
are degenerated forms of fungi which cannot fructify because
they are withdrawn from the influence of the light. It seems,
indeed, more probable that these parasites have some relation to
cystic formations, than that they should develope in the urine, as

132 VEGETABLE PAEASITES.

the name urophilus seems to indicate. It also appears to me
that the distinction between these formations and the changes
which milk-hairs undergo by the morbid collection of air in their
interior has not been sufficiently attended to.

Habitat: In urina morbosa cury fills emissa (Rayer).

Literature. — ' Compt. rendus' et ' Memoires de la Societe de
Biologie/ 1849, i, p. 29; Robin, loc. cit., p. 361.

V. Leptomitus (?) Hannoverii. Tab. I, figs. 7 and 8.

Filamenta recta, tenuia, nunc pellucida, nunc granules conti-
nentia, ramosissima ad unum aut ad utrumque latus ; rami non
multo tenuiores truncis ; extremitates interdum inflates.

Habitat : Hannover invenit speciem in massa pulposa ulcerum
oesophagi, et in typho, pneumonia, pleuresia, phthisi, delirio tre-
mente, apoplexia, diabete, gastritide chronica.

This formation presents itself upon the living body on the tongue
and pharynx. It has been described so inaccurately by authors,
that Hannover, Mayer, and also Robin, each one of them, takes
a different view of this organism. Robin thinks that Hannover
has entirely overlooked the spores.

Literature. — Hannover, ' Ueber Entophyten auf den Schleim-
hauten des todten und lebenden menschlichen Kb'rpers/ Muller's
1 Archiv/ 1842, p. 280, tab. xv, and Valentin's ' Repertorium/
1843, p. 84 ; Robin, 1. c., pp. 362 — 364 ; < Atlas/ ii, figs. 11, 12.

VI. Leptomitus (?) Epidermidis. Tab. I, fig. 9.

Gubler, who found this parasite, says that it occurred in a
young man who received a wound with a bullet through the
right hand. The wound was poulticed, and the skin became
white, opaque and wrinkled, as though macerated. On the fifth
day there appeared on the back of the hand and of the little
finger, white vesicles (like eczema vesicles after poultices), which
gradually increased in numbers and size, and produced a slight
itching. When scratched they emitted a reddish fluid, but under the
microscope they exhibited a number of byssoid filaments, such as
occur in " muguet." These filaments were very long, frequently
divided across, but were less clearly diaphanous and articulated

LEPTOMITUS MUCI UTERINI. 133

than the filaments of "muguet." Partition walls could be
clearly seen, especially towards the ends of the primitive filaments,
and in the secondary branches. Gubler could not find spores in
the inside of the filaments, but only free in the sporidia which
floated about in the water used for microscopical examination.
The sporidia were elliptical in form, straight or slightly bent, and
divided into two cavities by a partition wall. Montagu regards
this parasite as a Leptomitus, or a cryptogam standing nearly
related to it.

Literature. — ' Proces verbaux des Seances de la Societe Bio-
logic/ Samedi, 24« Janv., 1852 ; Hobin, 1. c., pp. 364 and 365 ;
'Atlas/ x, fig. 1.

VII. Leptomitus Uteri.

Lebert, in 1850, found an Alga in uterine mucus, which has
since been more accurately described by Robin. It consists —

1. Of naked tubes, which are more or less elongated and
branched, and are without partition walls and granulations in
their interior.

2. Of tubes a little broader, articulated, and furnished with
partition walls of varying length, and sometimes branched, and
which are terminated by granulated masses or spores.

3. Of spores which are sometimes formed of ovoid, elongated,
granulated cells, with one or two clear drops in their interior,
and sometimes of ovoid or spherical cells with prolongations.
The last cell of the receptaculum which bears the spores is
ordinarily more swollen than the others, and a little granulated.

Lebert thinks that the spores of this Alga might be destroyed
by injections into the neck of the uterus.

Literature. — A communication from Lebert to Robin, pub-
lished in the work of the latter on the ' History of Vegetable
Parasites/ pp. 366 and 367; ( Atlas/ v, fig. 1.

VIII. Leptomitus (?) Mud uterini. Tab. II A, fig. 1.

This alga was found by Wilkinson in a morbid puriform dis-
charge from the uterus of a woman seventy-six years old. It
consisted of primary and secondary filaments, the latter of which
were from ^th to ^th of an inch in diameter. The edges were

134 VEGETABLE PARASITES.

colourless. They were of various lengths, and bent and undu-
lated. They were rendered transparent by acetic acid, and were
seen to be composed of elongated cells, laid end to end, as in
many fresh-water Confeme. In some of the filaments the cel-
lular structure disappeared, so that they appeared like simple
fibres.

The primary filaments were from two to six times larger than
the secondary. The broadest were shortest, and terminated
at one end bluntly, and at the other with a bundle of six or
seven long secondary filaments. The blunt ends of the primary
filaments seemed to be adapted to the formation of partition walls
and spores. Besides these, Wilkinson observed ovoid or spherical
corpuscles, which frequently presented, when treated with acetic
acid, a nucleus. On account of the above-noticed bundles of
small fibres, Wilkinson called this parasite Lorum (wool) uteri.
This parasite is not injurious to its host. The drawing given by
Wilkinson resembles the Sphceria Robertsii, of which Robin has
given a figure in his tab. xiii, fig. 6.

Literature. — - Wilkinson, Some Remarks upon the Develop-
ment of Epiphytes, with the description of a new vegetable
formation found in connection with the human Uterus, ' Lancet/
1849, p. 448, figs. 1 and 2 B (fig. 2 A' and A are out of the
question, as they appear to be Cryptococcus cerevisice) ; Robin,
1. c. pp. 367 — 369.

IX. Leptomitus (?) Oculi.

Helmbrecht relates the case of a clergyman, forty-two years of
age, who came under his care for an inflammation of both eyes,
and which was attended with a sudden sanguineous enlargement
in the left eye. Warm fomentations and a foot-bath removed
the phenomenon, but epiphora and a flashing in the eye re-
mained. By resting the eye this also disappeared, when he
suddenly, without any obvious cause, saw figures of a constant
form with the left eye, and muscce volitantes in the right. The
last got well, but there remained in the field of vision of the left
eye a constant form, which moved itself in a definite manner in
various directions. After this the patient had a fall from a
carriage, when the movements of the figure became more free.
Helmbrecht now made a puncture in the lower part of the cornea,
to allow of the passage of the body supposed to be loosened by

LEPTOMITUS OCULI. 135

the fall. In the fluid which came away there was foujzd under
the microscope, with a power of 280 diameters, a branched
vegetable body, divided into four parts, which consisted of con-
fervoid cylinders and rows of spores. After the operation the
patient got quite well.

It was a pity that the spores were thrown away without any
attempt to make them germinate, so as to ascertain the nature
of this parasite.

Literature. — Helmbrecht, c Fall einer confervenartigen After-
production in der Augenkammer des linken Auges, welche nach der
Paracentese gliicldich beseitigt wurde, Casper's ' Wochenschrift der
Gesammte Heilkunde/ 1842, No. 37, pp. 593 — 600, and Neuber
in the same, No. 53; Robin, I.e., pp.369 — 371.

Hannover, in his recent work on the eye (1852), has related a
very similar case. A man who had a long time been troubled
with figures as of a string of pearls before his eye, had the
operation of paracentesis performed on his eye. In the fluid
which escaped there was found a branched mass of small cylin-
ders, which were partly filled with globules, and partly covered
externally with minute processes, which were without cylindrical
walls, and moniliform in shape. The fungus, which occupied the
entire of the interior of the eye, was colourless, or of a slight
gray colour, and exhibited two principal forms, one consisting of
fine fibres, the other of coarse. The contour of the fine fibres
was linear and simple, their contents clear and uniform. The
broader fibres were crisped, but of a simpler contour, and with
granular contents. Other fibres were moniliform, with an irre-
gular contour, and clear uniform or granular contents, and were
longer and more numerous than the fine fibres. The coarse
fibres were sometimes linear and simple, with clear and glittering
homogeneous contents, with small and short branches ; sometimes
they had an undulating contour, as though they were composed
of these compressed globules ; glittering fibres reflected the light
like drops of oil. Lastly, there were present many free globules
(sporidia), from two to three times as large as blood-globules.
These bodies refracted the light very strongly, resembled the
cells of the ferment-fungus of beer, and had uniform contents
without a nucleus. Some of the cells were isolated, whilst others
were heaped together. The coarse and fine fibres were found
towards the periphery of the eye, whilst the pearl-necklace fibres
were in the inside. The innermost masses consisted almost en-

136 VEGETABLE PAKASITES.

tirely of free sporidia, and some fibres with the appearance of
rows of globules.

Hannover says that previous to the establishment of the
disease or the destruction of the eye in this case, there must
have been the introduction of a spore of the plant through some
pervious point in the cornea.

On account of the similarity of this plant to the ferment-alga
or fungus, I have introduced it here. Hannover and others
believe that these observations are important in relation to the
explanation of the very diverse and puzzling forms of scleromata.

X. Oscillaria Intestini.

Sub-order — Tiloblasteae. " Alga trichomatica. Trichomata ex
cellularum seriebus composita, aut in substantia communi inclusa,
aut in substantia communi, gelinea, matricali, amorpha et continua
nidulantia"

Family — Oscillariea ; " Trichomata motu proprio spirali pra-
dita. Propagatio ex cellulis vegetativis ; cellule spermatic® pro-
price nulla."

Genus — Oscillaria. Trichomata articulata socialiter crescen-
tia, muco communi, matricali, mollissimo vel subliquido, continuo et
amorpho, vel in tubulos utrinque apertos, vaginiformes, liberos con-
tracto, inclusa.

Species — Oscillaria Intestini.

This parasite is composed of a number of elongated filaments,
with partition walls which cross each other in all directions.
Each of the cells is considerably elongated and contains a quan-
tity of green matter. According to Farre the spores of this
alga must have been taken into the intestinal canal by drinking
water. He found it enveloped in membranous reddish masses,
brought away during an attack of colic in a dyspeptic woman.

Literature. — Arthur Farre, On the minute structure of certain
substances expelled from the human intestine, having the ordi-
nary appearance of shreds of lymph, but consisting entirely of
filaments of a confervoid type, probably belonging to the genus
Oscillatoria, ' Trans. Microscopical Society/ vol. i, p. 92, pi. xi b •
Robin, 1. c., pp. 404, 405.

I have not seen the plate of Farre's Conferva, but the species
described under the genus Leptomitus are only superficially

FUNGI. 137

described, and can hardly be received at present as actual para-
sites. Although I do not regard them as so unsatisfactory as to
set them aside altogether, I must nevertheless express my doubts
with others, as for instance Virchow, of the genuine parasitic
nature of these plants.1

B. FUNGI.

Planta terrestres, acolyledonea ; pulverulent a, flocculosce, fila-
mentoste, parenchymatosa, carnosa vel coriacea, achromatic®, albas,
nigrescentes, fulv&, olivacea, rubigniosce, vel rubrae ; cellulares ; ex
cellulis minutissimis, isolatis, catenates, vel tubulosis continuo-
ramulosis (mycelium), vel filamentoso-articulatis, vel prosenchyma-
ticis, vel parenchymaticis formats. Sporidia ex singulis cellulis
cvnstituta, aut ad extremitatem receptaculi concatenata, vel in
superficie inspersa, aut sporangiis inclusa.

The vegetative system is represented by filaments, which are
simple at first, but branch out after some time ; each of which
representing a single oval cell, rarely several cells ranged one
close to the other; and lastly there are partition walls in them
(mycelium). The mycelium changes its appearance according to
the position of the filaments which form it. The fungi found
on living animals only show most frequently the nematoidal or
filamental mycelium (loosely crossed filaments) and the mem-
branous (closely united and mixed filaments which form a kind
of membrane more or less solid). According to the amount of
moisture or dryness, or the light in which they are developed,
the filaments of the mycelium exhibit a different appearance, so
much so that the differences and varieties of form which are
thus produced were often mistaken for different species, which
easily led to confusion when the organs of reproduction were not
examined at the same time.

The reproductive system consists of —

1. Spores (sporidia, sporules), which are generally very nume-
rous in each individual, often quite innumerable. They fall off
as fast as they are generated, and are probably reproduced simulta-
neously in large numbers. The spores lie immediately on the
receptaculum, either loose, or fastened on by means of" basides arid
clinodes," or inclosed in a spiral organ (theca, sporangium)3 which

1 See Appendix C.

138 VEGETABLE PAEASTTES.

sometimes lies embedded in a concept laculum, borne by the recep-
taculum, sometimes not. The spores are generally very small
bodies, varying in size, according to the species, from O004-5
or some hundredths of a millimetre. Their smallness enables
them to penetrate every natural cavity — the folds in the skin of
animals, cracks in plants, in short everywhere where dust could
get ; and, like the latter, they are carried by the wind on to slimy
surfaces and deposited there. Their form is generally oval or
spherical, sometimes triangular with normal rounded corners, or
irregular, and often of a longish oval shape or spindle-like.
Their consistency is very great, so much so that they can scarcely
be crushed between plates of glass. This firmness facilitates
their penetrating the skin. The consistency of spores which are
yet between the sporangia is less ; they are found to be fre-
quently elastic and pliant, if they are of a longish shape. Spores
do not lose their capacity of germinating by drying, if in so
doing the temperature is not raised beyond 70° C. (158° Fahr.)
They are less dense than water and float on it. Wind and
water may therefore spread and carry them far and wide. They
vary in colour — gray, brown, yellowish, or, if the light is falling
on them, almost colourless. In reflected light they look gray,
yellowish or of a white, more or less brilliant. If they reflect
the light strongly, they show in the centre a brilliant, usually
yellowish spot. As long as they lie in the sporangium, however,
they are mostly colourless, and look polished, transparent, or
greenish. When very numerous they give to the touch the feel-
ing of fine sand, their surface has a brilliant appearance, and they
sometimes possess a peculiar mouldy odour and taste, especially
when they fructify and are free. They are apt to produce inju-
rious effects on man when introduced into the body, by way of
the food or during respiration.

Chemical reagents act but little on them. Tincture of iodine,
when employed alone, colours them of a dark yellowish-brown,
like other purely nitrogenous substances. When their cellulose
walls are not coloured blue by the action of the iodine, their
nitrogenous contents become brown. On treating them with
hydrochloric or nitric acid, or, better still, with hot sulphuric
acid, before adding tincture of iodine, the nitrogenous part coagu-
lates, contracts, and separates from the sides of the spores, and
remains, forming irregular masses in the centre. On applying
afterwards tincture of iodine to these parts they become brown,

FUNGI. 139

and the cellulose walls greenish — the complementary .colour of
the blue of the cellulose and the brown of the tincture of
iodine.

The structure of the spores is very simple : all present a cell
without a nucleus. The cellulose walls are very thin, yet possess
great resisting power. They are covered with a nitrogenous
utriculus, which encloses a fluid in which granules are suspended,
possessing sometimes a whirling motion (Brown's molecular
movement). The utriculus may be recognised by the above-
mentioned reactions, during which it is torn into rags.

The simplest fungi, like the Torulacese, represent isolated cells,
or rows of two, three, four, &c., cells, which are very analogous
to the spores of many species of fungi. Each cell is the mother
of a new similar one, whilst the spores of the higher fungi
generate a longish cell which forms the filament of the myce-
iium.

2. The Receptacle (receptaculum, chapeau, capitulum, chapiteau)
is the organ upon which, directly or indirectly, the spores which
have been set free rest. They are held fast by means of " ba-
sides" whose " spicula " or " sterigmata " bear a spore, or by
means of " clinodes" When the spores are not free, they are
contained in the receptacle or in the sporangia. A great many
species form their receptacle of a longish cell scarcely differing
from the filaments (for instance, the Oidium albicans), or of a
row of cells, when the last cell displays the presence of spores oil
its surface by a slight swelling, and represents the receptacle,
whilst the preceding, which are for the most part broader than
the filaments, represent the stem (pediculus, caulis, pedunculus,
truncus, petiolus, stipes), that is, the more or less capacious
bearer of the receptacle.

When the receptacle is dry, membranous, and filled with the
spores, it is called peridium • when it is horny and surrounds the
spores, either in their free state or contained in thecce, perithe-
cium or peritheque. When the receptacle is of a globular or
disc-like shape, the conceptacle, a peculiar, globular or oval,
horny or fleshy, hollow organ which encloses the sporangia of the
thecce, and which opens by means of bursting its sides or
through a pore at the end, is observed. The theca = sporangium
is a distinct, globular, oval, or longish vesicle, capable of isola-
tion, filled with spores, and which is sometimes placed on the
surface of the receptacle, and sometimes in a conceptacle.

140 VEGETABLE PARASITES.

The Basides are small prominences on the surface of the recep-
tacle, consisting mostly of a round, oval, or longish cell, with
one or more small cells at its point in the shape of a conical
point (spicula, sterigmata), at the end of which a single free
and uncovered spore is found.

The Clinode is an accessory body composed of very small,
longish cells, either simple or branching off, with a free spore at
its end. It forms uninterrupted filaments of various length, or
is provided with partition walls which originate in the cells,
which represent the parenchyma of the receptacle.

Cystides and Paraphyses. — There is frequently to be seen on
the receptacle or between or along the sides of the sporangia,
basides and clinodes, prominent globular or oval cells, some-
times in the shape of a thread, simple or branched pointed,
blunt or swollen at their free end. These cells in the Peziza3 and
Sphseriae are called " paraphyses" and those in the Agaricese and
Boleta3 " cystides." They are sometimes, though wrongly,
called antheridia, since they have never been found to contain
spermatozooids like the antheridia of the Algae. They are of
little importance, and little is known about them. They may be
considered as accessory vegetative organs connected with the
reproductive system. Perhaps they are connected with the simple
or branched filaments formed by articulated cells, which are
found along the sides of the terminal sporangium in species
which are still more simple than the Sphaerice.

Up to the present time thirteen species, or, if the nail-fungus
is to be considered as a separate species, fourteen species of fungi
are known ^to attack the human body. They may be divided
into three groups.

TRICHOPHYT^;.
I. Trichophyton tonsurans. Tab. II, figs. 1, 2.

Division I — Arthrosporei.

Receptacula filamentosa, simpUcia aut ramosa, clausa, fere
nulla aut nulla. Spori in ordine dispositi ; terminates persistentes
aut caduci.

Tribe — Torulacei; Recept. nullum, aut fere nullum, velfloccosum.
Sporidia continua.

Genus — Trichophytum (Malmsten).

TRICHOPHYTON TONSURANS. 141

Vegetabile unice ex sporis formatum. Spori rotundi ^tut ovales,
pellucidi, sine colore et in superficie laves ; diameter 0-003 — 6 —
8 mm.

Habitat : In interna parte radicis capilkrum, ubi spori firmant
acervum rotundum. Ex sporis exeunt filamenta articulata,
qua sunt spori, in filamentis moniliformibus positi, et, dum sese
evolvunt, substantiam capilli penetrantes} eumque per totam longi-
tudinem peragrantes.

Species — Trichophyton tonsurans.

Synon. : Trichomyces tonsurans ; = Epiphytes = Mycoderma =
Trichomaphytes plica polonies ; — Champignon des cheveux dans
THerpes tonsurans; = Champ, voisin de celui de la teigne, by
Lebert ; = Champ, de la teigne fondante, du Porrigo scutulata
ou Herpes tonsurans ; = Achorion Lebertii ; = Cryptogame de la
teigne tondante ou de la Rhizo-phyto-alopecie. Porrigo circin-
nata and Porrigo tonsoria are synonyms for the disease accom-
panying this fungus.

Habitat : Unice in interna parte radicis capillorum humanorum,
sed non in eorum superficie. Post capillorum rupturam invenitur
in crustis epidermidis et sebaceis capitis pileati.

The filaments placed in rows in which the spores originate
have undulated edges, and show in their interior, at small
intervals, the round spores, rarely so long as to imitate the
filaments, and peculiar to the Cryptogamia. These spores are
round, transparent, half as large as blood-corpuscles, 0'003 — 7 —
O'OOIO mm. long and 0-003 — 4 broad. Many have in their
interior a distinct spot or vaguely defined nucleus ; many, when
they are long in shape, appear to have a constriction in the
middle. There are no partition walls, although it appears as if
they existed, when the spores are very close together.

The medium in which this fungus is found is not, as it might
appear, the space between the cells of the epidermis, where they
are never met with, but in the substance of the root of the hair
itself, though it remains yet very doubtful whether this fungus
thrives only in diseased or also in healthy hair, after its spores
have once penetrated the substance of the hair. The spores
form at first a round heap, which spreads more or less upwards
in a straight line with the longitudinal axis of the hair-mass,
which is thus enlarged till it brings on a state of disease known
under the name of tinea or herpes tonsurans. The fungus goes
on growing with the hair, and when it has grown 2 or 3 mm.

142 VEGETABLE PAEASITES.

above the edge of the skin together with the hair, the latter
breaks off.

The cylinder of the hair is quite filled with spores, and its
substance is entirely indiscernible. The growth of the plant
goes on quickly ; but it is inside the substance of the hair.
In the scales which cover the head itself the fungus is never

O

found.

Effects of the parasite. — Small rugged elevations on round spots
are observed, chiefly on the part of the head which is covered
with hair, and which give to it the appearance of the seal-skin.
The hairs are broken off at 1 — 2'" above the edge of the
epidermis in a regular manner, and baldness is the inevitable
result. The skin is dry in such patches, firmer and more con-
tracted than on the surrounding parts. Small rough inequalities,
similar to those on the skin of a goose, may be observed and
felt. The colour of the skin is a little bluish. On scratching,
the skin becomes covered with a white dust resembling fine bran.
The disease shows itself at first in a very small spot in the middle
of the circle which it afterwards forms, and grows from thence
eccentrically. The same takes place when the patches are at
last uniting into one. Sometimes this disease spreads over the
whole hair of the body, and attacks even the nails.

The nature of the disease is well illustrated by the case observed
and communicated by Malmsten :

A mother observed, in November, 1843, when she was combing
the hair of her boy, three years old, a little to the right of the
large fontanel, a small hairless spot covered with white scales,
which became larger, in spite of carefully combing off the scales.
In February, 1844, this spot was lg inch in diameter, and was
covered with grayish-white little scales, from which issued and
grew up a number of small smooth hairs, 2'" in length, and
quite lustreless. The spot was dry, rough, and grayish. On
scratching off the scales the skin was found to be not in the least
injured, and looked healthy all around. At a short distance a
similar bald spot was seen, 2'" in length, from which the whole
of the hair had not yet fallen off, although some of it looked as if
cracked off. When the hair had been allowed to grow for some
time, some became bristling, whilst the rest remained lying
smoothly on the head and was easily pulled out. Every hair,
however, was bent, at the height of 2"' above the skin, into an
angle. On the 1st of July the spot had increased to 2",

TKICHOPHYTON TONSUEANS. 143

the second was ±" in diameter ; the many small scaly •s'pots had
likewise grown larger. When the remainder of the hair, 1 — 2'"
in length and covering the scales, was plucked out and examined
under the microscope, these fragments of hair were seen, when
enlarged only 300 times, to be filled with spores between the hair-
fibres. The root of the hair presented a mouldy appearance.
The spores lie sometimes in the form of a necklace; sometimes
they represent articulated branches. When the hair is torn out,
fresh hair grows after some days, showing, however, the same
tendency to mould. Fragments of hair are seen in the scales
on the bald patches, bent and twisted in all directions, and the
spaces between the fibres charged, as if with spores. It is
probable that the lead-gray colour of these fragments of hair is
derived from their being mingled with scales.

On considering the properties of the diseased hair more
closely, it is found that the root of the hair is at first, when it is
the exclusive seat of the disease, opaque, dwindling away, and
almost always bent, whilst the rest of the hair is quite healthy.
In proportion as the fungus developes itself in the substance of
the hair, the latter becomes thicker and coarser, grayish, and
opaque, loses its elasticity, becomes soft, and breaks, showing an
uneven filamentous fracture. The fractured pieces are full of
fungi, and remain covered with scales. If the hair breaks off
underneath the skin, the end of the capillary canal becomes
stopped up with scales and fat, which harden, and are at last
raised by the hair ; this has sometimes been erroneously mis-
taken for an abscess. With the decrease in the development of
the parasite, the hair becomes less gray, firmer, thinner, and
finally normal. If the head is kept clean, only a slight redness
of the skin, or small pustules or crusts are observed, which, how-
ever, rarely degenerate into impetigo.

Want of cleanliness of the head makes the skin look like the
flesh of a hen or a shark. If no complication occurs at first,
only an increased formation of scales takes place, together with
the presence of fragments of hair, as in pityriasis, unaccompanied
by a falling off of the hair ; on the contrary, the latter generally
grows faster. The disease frequently attacks children who are in
good health. Sometimes the growth of the hair is seen to be less
strong before the breaking out of the disease ; the hair is dry, and
from this it may be inferred that a certain amount of disease of
the hair is necessary to the growth of the fungus.

144 VEGETABLE PAKASITES.

Unfortunately, we know little or nothing of the state of the
fluids, whether in all, or only in some who are scrofulous and the
like, they are favorable to the development of the parasites. Tinea
tonsurans is sometimes primary, and sometimes follows herpes
circinatus, and seizes at once on^ or several parts of the head
covered with hair, usually the back of the head first, but also
other parts of it. If the disease succeeds herpes, it manifests
itself at first in the centre of the herpetic rings, where a small
tuft of hair becomes paler, reddish, and lighter than the neigh-
bouring hair, and the skin below it a little embossed and covered
with epidermic scales, from whence the disease spreads rapidly
over the adjoining hair, and forms patches of 1 — 2 centimetres
in diameter. Here and there may be seen among the broken
hair of these spots some uninjured hairs. The diseased places
are, moreover, covered with spots of white scales, which have a
velvet-like appearance, and form sheaths round the broken hairs.
Gradually these isolated patches, which represent irregular or
circular plains, deprived of their hair, run together into one.
If the broken hairs of such a patch are seized with a pair of
pincers, they break off with great facility quite close to their
point of insertion. Generally this tinea is less frequently fol-
lowed by lasting alopecia than ihefavus.

Bazin thinks he has found this fungus also on animals. He
mentions a gens-d'arme who had herpetic patches on the
palmary surface of the right fore-part of the arm, one of which
had lost its hairs, and for which the man could only account by
having been infected with tetters, together with five or six
comrades, whilst cleaning horses which were infected with the
disease ; which statement Bazin found to be true on examining
the horses. He found, indeed, that the hair was broken off in
these places; and, moreover, as in herpes tonsurans, a whitish,
squamose, scaly secretion perforated with hair. Deffis and Bazin
found under the microscope a formation analogous to the above-
mentioned fungus, with the exception that the spores and tubes
were much smaller.

These microscopic discoveries explain not only the perti-
nacity of the disease, since it is well known that the lowest
plants develop themselves most intensely and rapidly in a
favorable medium, but also its contagious character which
is no longer doubtful. The fungus itself is the sole cause of
these changes of the hair and of the secondary irritation and con-

TBICHOPHYTON TONSTJBANS. 145

gestion of the skin which- cause exudation, an accelerated forma-
tion of the epidermis, scaling off and production of crusts, because
the swollen hair exerts pressure on the skin.

Treatment. — The brothers Mahon cured, in from eight to ten
months, the disease, with the remedies employed in favus, and
which will therefore be mentioned hereafter.

Cazenave warns us against the use of very powerful local
means, recommending washing with solution of borax^ and
anointing with tar and citron, tannin, liver of sulphur, &c. ; and
he states that he cured the disease in six, eight, and twelve
months, and restored the hair in every case.

Neither the brothers Mahon nor Cazenave begin their treat-
ment with epilation, and the disease may be cured, as Bazin
assures us, solely by the above remedies, but only very slowly.

According to Bazin, epilation ought to succeed most wonder-
fully with successive parasiticidal washings; but, unfortunately, the
hair will break off at the slightest touch for the purpose of epila-
tion, and only a few retain their roots. It is easy at the very
outset to arrest the progress of the disease by depriving every
little patch of its hair, and washing with a solution of corrosive
sublimate (two grammes are dissolved in alcohol, and 500
grammes of distilled water added). Acetate of copper and other
strong local remedies irritate the skin too much, and accelerate
the growth of the fungus enormously. The cure is rapid. If,
however, circular, scaly patches, with broken hair in white
sheaths, slate-coloured skin, and bristly follicles exist, then the
cure becomes tedious, because the hair can only be removed par-
tially and very imperfectly. The eccentric spreading of the
disease may be very much restricted by freeing the patches from
scales and broken hair, and tearing out, all around, every hair of
suspicious look and colour, and applying the above-mentioned
lotion. The lotion must, however, be continued for several days,
and the patches, together with the hair, treated with an ointment*
of from thirty to fifty centigrammes of iodide of sulphur to thirty
grammes of lard. As soon as the hair grows again over the
diseased places they must be removed afresh. The lotion with
corrosive sublimate is to be continued as long as the parts
covered with hair are no longer swollen, or until they have lost
their slate colour, and the root comes out on endeavouring to
draw out the hair. This method requires from three to four
months, rarely more.

10

146 VEGETABLE PARASITES.

The principal problem which the treatment has to solve is, the
securing good means of epilation. If such were once found, sub-
limate or tar would remove the disease in a few weeks.

We pass over Malmsten's treatment, since he does not men-
tion rational epilation, and thought he could succeed by merely
lotions and combing. Celsus mentions that some writers
recommend the removal of the diseased places, and others the
burning them out. I think that this treatment is, a priori,
more rational than the various ointments which have been pro-
posed, although modern medicine would repudiate them as being
too cruel.

History. — Malmsten was the first to describe this fungus, and
to communicate his observations to Gruby, who seems to have
discovered it almost at the same time. At all events, Robin is
in error when he speaks of Gruby's discoveries as having been lately
confirmed by Malmsten. The latter had, in his first edition,
described a peculiar vegetable, quite distinct from Trichophyton ;
he has, however, abandoned this view since. Lebert recognised
this fungus likewise. Malherbe, as well as Cazenave and Leten-
iieur, who had himself been affected with this disease, still deny
the existence of the fungus.

Bazin, who knows the fungus very well, though he mistakes
spores for molecular granules, has introduced a nomenclature
which might easily mislead the student, because the word
" decalvans " appears twice in it. He divides the disease into
Tinea favosa, tonsurans, sycosa (Mentagrum, autorum), achromatosa
(Porrigo decalvans, seu Vitiligo of the skin covered with hair),
and decalvans = Alopecia idiopathica.

I can confirm Malmsten's statements. Professor H. E.
Richter was kind enough to let me have three hairs which he
had collected in Cazenave's ' Clinic ' from a man who suffered
from " Herpes tonsurans." The microscopic examination com-
pletely agrees with Malmsten's description. Robin says, more-
over, that the fungus in question and Giinsburg's fungus in
Plica polonica are identical. I am, however, inclined to believe
that they must be separated, and I shall therefore treat separately
of this fungus.

TRICHOPHYTON PLICAE POLONICyE. 147

II#. — Species — Trichophyton = Trychomaphytes = Mycoderma
(Giinsburg) Plicae polonica. (Tab. II, B, figs. 3—6.)

After Giinsburg had, in 1843, found a plant in the medullary
channel of the hair of a person suffering from the plica polonica
Johann Miiller, and afterwards Miinter, Baum, Simon, Hessling,
Skoda, and Fr. Miiller, who could not again find the fungus,
were of opinion that the discovery had been accidental.

Hebra saw, in one case, as Wedl tells us, on and between
the hair of a queue, an immense number of these parasites; but
he also, like most modern writers, thinks that the fungus is no
pathognomonic sign of this disease, but a mere accidental com-
pagnon of it ; and he places the discovered fungus accordingly
with those of Walther, which will be described hereafter.

Giinsburg seems to entertain still the same view with regard
to this fungus. He says in a letter that the fungi are found
between the root and the hair, in the marrow of the hair, and
underneath the epithelial covering of the hair, which causes them
to swell and to split.

It is clear from a comparison of Malmsteu's parasites and
those of Giinsburg, that the nature of their growth, and, more-
over, the effect on the hair itself, is quite different in the two
species, and we can therefore see no reason why they should
be made one.

The parasite itself forms (according to Giinsburg) articulated
filaments, though rarely occurring, and showing no inter-cellular
spaces in its interior. The spores are very numerous, round or
oval, with a smooth surface sometimes articulated by umbilical
spots. The cells are for the most part isolated, sometimes
grouped together, and sometimes fastened to a very fine fibrous
hypothallus. Iodine dissolves its structure completely, vinegar
and caustic potash (kali causticum) do not alter it. The spores
measure 0*002 — 5 mm., and contain point-like molecular gra-
nules, and rarely distinct nuclei.

The changes in the hair produced by this parasite consist,
according to Giinsburg, in the thickening of the root of the hair,
a spindle-like enlargement of the longitudinal cylinder of the
channel of the hair, through the constant piling up of new
masses of fungi in it, in the splitting and parting of single hair

148 VEGETABLE PAEASITES.

fibres, which gives at last to the hair the appearance of a brush
or of a hedgehog's skin in the opening of the hair in some
places, through which the spores pass, in the condensation of the
hair epithelium, the disappearance of many of the cylinders of
hair, and the adhesion of tufts o£ hair by means of new forma-
tions.

The peculiar adhesive mass consists of a great many large
epithelial cells, writh many small granular bodies resembling the
exudation corpuscles of inflammation, of thinned hair whose
sheath is covered with spores, in some places of a few epithelial
cells, often of the " Glandules sebacea" and of the parasite which
rarely rises above this sheath. The mass is brownish, adhesive,
soft, and binds the hair together in bundles, sometimes it dries
up in some places, and becomes then of various shapes and sizes.
Hebra and Wedl have made similar observations, though they
never found spores in the interior of the hair-canals, but masses
of parasitical plants on and between the plicated hair. Every-
where on the adherent mass there could be discerned round spores,
with a distinct nucleus measuring 0 003 — 7 mil. in diameter.
They formed groups on the periphery of the hair, and nestled in
the spindle-like split-up cells of the hair. Very rarely the
thallus-filaments are found in the shape of square cells placed in
a line. The hair itself was brittle and split up.

Von Walther's experiments on inoculation of the plica polonica
were unsuccessful ; Beschorner, however, thinks he succeeded.

lib. — Species — Trichophyton sporuloides.

Von Walther, of Kiew, Russia, stated in 1844 that he had
found, in a case of plica polonica, by means of the microscope,
a hoar-frost-like covering on all the hairs, which seemed partly to
scale off, as well as dirt, insects, epidermal scales, feathers, espe-
cially linen threads from the plicated spots, together with small
shriveled-up globules on the hair, and other accidental impurities.
Skoda also saw many lice in it, and Von Hessling three mites
which were not yet known, which, however, he does not think
are peculiar to plica polonica (see Acari in Animal Parasites).

When the quite fresh soft mass from the plica polonica was
examined in which healthy hairs were left, it was found to be no

TEICHOPHYTON SPOHULOIDES. U9

longer liquid, but pultaceous, especially at the points of the
plicated tufts. Water turned it milky.

When magnified 400 times, this mass consists of innumerable
round or regularly oval little bodies, which refract light strongly;
they are 0-013'" long, and the smallest even shows a dot or spot
in its body, containing two little vesicles, one placed inside the
other. The one lies in the enclosure of the other, and rises out
of the latter a little. The more developed forms lie close to the
skin of the head. The form of the exterior vesicle is a depressed
round or oval. Both vesicles are transparent, like a drop of
clear water. On adding water a molecular motion is observed,
which is at once destroyed by corrosive sublimate, which causes
the vesicles to shrink. By drying, the vesicles may be obtained
in groups of small heaps around the hair, hanging together
without adhering directly together. They grow distinctly, and
the ventral vesicle is perhaps only the germ to a new molecule.
Many "vesicles contain 2 — 3 smaller vesicles. If there are 3,
they are found to lie on the longitudinal axis ; if only 2, at the
two poles of the ellipse. The larger ones show no molecular
motion. They never range themselves side by side, nor do they
sprout out cells like the ferment-fungus, from which they also
differ in size and their relation to light. These granules form
with the hair the principal part of these masses, and are even
found in dry ones, though they are shrivelled up. According to
Wralther they are independent vegetable formations. The hair-
bulbs and follicles were always healthy. The fungus could not
be transferred by inoculation. It is not met with in the inner
part of the hair. It is to be regretted that Von Walther does
not illustrate his views by drawings.

Appendix. — I may be permitted to add here a few words
more concerning the plica polonica which do not directly bear on
the subject, and yet may be found worthy of the attention of the
medical man. Von Studzieniski, in a work of which I shall have
more to say further on, has with a certain patriotic indignation
about the insinuation of the little amount of cleanliness com-
monly attributed to his countrymen, tested the views on the
nature of the plica polonica, lues plicosa, or lues trichomatica, and
asserts, that he has come to the final result, that the disease is
constitutional, standing in close connection with the normal
process of cornification of the body, and representing merely an
exaggerated activity of this process. He carries out this theory,

150 VEGETABLE PAEASITES.

which had before been proposed by others (Von Walther), with
much energy, and compares the mass which exudes during
the adhesive process and the changes in the hair itself, to the
processes which we observe going on in the feathers of birds
during their falling off and ijestoration in consequence of
moulting. I am sorry to say that the results he has arrived at
are little calculated to carry conviction fit to bribe the rational
practitioner, however much Herr von Studzieniski may appeal to
the feelings of practical men in the words of his preface, and con-
cluding phrase: "This book," he says, "belongs to the practitioner."
Medical men are not made expert by mere theories, however
plausible, but by results borne out by experiment, and made pro-
bable by exact chemical or microscopic researches, and they must
always look with suspicion upon a theory where the variations in
the action of nervous polarity play a principal part. No ex-
periments are to be found in the book, though it must be
admitted that it contains much to interest and to invite to future
rational researches. When Herr von Studzieniski mentions
further the following diseases as related to plica polonica, viz.,
Pellagra (in which the formation of scales predominates), the
Asturian Hose (Lepra asturiensis, in which the formation of
scales prevails), both seated in the horny tissues where hair is
found ; and next Ichthyosis, which, according to Rosenbaum, is
the exudation of the blastema of the hair in a shapeless state on
the surface of the head, and which spares the hairless palm of the
hand and sole of the foot ; and further, the Cornua cutanea, or
cutaneous horns, which are, according to Rosenbaum, hyper-
trophied hair and hair germs, and lastly the Scarlievo : we can
but call the author's theory to some extent ingenious. It is true
that the latter epithet could scarcely be applied to the opinion,
"that even scirrhus is a disease of the moulting process." It
is, however, incomprehensible, that in such a work the para-
sitical nature of the plica is passed over without the slightest
notice being taken of it, or any investigation of this view. Herr
von Studzieniski goes even so far as not to mention at all
Giinzburg's name either in his text or in his literary appendix.
Historical interest is attached to the evidence, that the plica
polonica was brought to Pakutia, fifty years earlier than to
Poland, by the people who fled before the Mongolian Tartars,
and were called Koltun, a name said to be a nickname in these
countries to the present day. The disease did not at first appear

TKICHOPHYTON SPORULOIDES. 151

along the Vistula, nor did it follow its watercourse, but is
reported to have followed the rivers Pruth, Dnieper,, and Niemen ;
and, as a general rule, to have shown itself more along the
mountain ridges than along the course of rivers. The disease is
further stated to have been known to the ancients, and the heads
of the Gorgons and of Medusa are said to have been mere
mythical representations of this form of disease. The Cimbrians
were described by Roman writers as a people with similar medusa
heads (that is, infected with plica polonica), and it is generally
thought that, at an early period, the degenerated plica polonica
" S-ellentost" was found on the shores of the Elbe. Plica
polonica is recorded also to have prevailed in the Alps and on the
Weser long before it showed itself in Poland; and was found,
moreover, in Moravia, Hungary, Carniola, Ceylon, Paris, France,
England, and American India, and it appears therefore im-
proper to give to this disease the name plica polonica.

The plica polonica was always believed to exist only on men
and animals covered with hair ; Von Studzieniski describes, how-
ever, an interesting case of this disease on a pair of turtledoves.
Von Walther noticed that the blood of persons infected with
plica polonica when heated to 30° (?) gives off sometimes a pecu-
liar odour of plica, and that the plicous exudation, not merely
on the skin of the head, but on the whole body, issues through
the skin, so that the perspiration of such sick persons, who are
treated according to Priessnitz's method, is said to be milky and
smells like plica. Von Walther observes, moreover, that the
matter of plica not only blights the living hair, but also the
periwigs and other tufts of hair placed on the body at the period
of the eruption of the exudation.

Literature ad I. — Malmsten, translated in Muller's ' Archiv/
by Creplin, 1848, p. 1, table I, figs. 1 — 3 ; Gruby, ' Comptes
rendues de Paris/ 1814, xviii, p. 583 ; Cazenave, ' Annales des
Maladies de la Peau et de la Syphilis/ 1848; Malherbe, 'Etudes
cliniques sur FHerpes tonsurans/ Nantes, 1852, p. 10, with notes of
Letenneur ; Letenneur, ( Reflexions sur FHerpes tonsur./ Nantes,
1852, p. 17 ; Bazin, ( Recherches sur la nature et traitement des
Teignes/ Paris, 1853, p. 68, tab. II, figs. 2 and 4 ; Robin, 10,
pp. 408—424, tab. II, figs. 7—9.

Literature ad Ha. — Giinsburg, Miiller's ' Archiv/ 1843,
1844, and ' Comptes rendus des Seances de F Academic Royal des
Sciences de Paris/ 1843, t. xvii, p. 250; Vogel, 'Allgem.

152 VEGETABLE PAEASITES.

pathol. Anatomic/ Miinter, M tiller's f Arcliiv/ 1845, p. 42,
note ; Baum, in a note to HonerkopPs Dissertation e De aphtha-
rum vegetabili natura ac diagnosi/ 1847; WedPs 'Elements of
pathol. Histology/ 1854, p. 744; Felix v. Studzieniski, on
' Cornification and lues cornificatori% = plica polonica/ 1854, where
the richest literature on this subject is found.

Literature ad 116. — Von Walcher, in Muller's ( Archiv/ 1844,
pp. 411 — 419.

Robin added to the Trychophytse the fungus which Lebert
found in the scabs of an atonic ulcer of the leg. He describes
it thus :

III. Species — Trichophyton (?) ulcerum = Champignon des
ulceres. Tab. II, B, fig. 7.

The scabs showed here and there dry yellow spots, of about
1 — 2 mm. in circumference, and looked like mould. The
fungus consisted of round or slightly elliptical spores, 0*005 —
O'OIO mm. large, with nuclei of 0*002 mm. In some a double
enveloping membrane could be recognised. There were also
other spores, from 0*010 — 0*015 mm. long, and full of small
globules. The former joined, arid formed threads like strings of
pearls, some of which were branched. Every transition from the
simple globules to the threads and branches could be made out.
I cannot see why this fungus is placed here, but am not inclined
to find it another place.

Literature. — Lebert, ' Physiologic pathologique/ Paris, 1818,
ii, 484—85, and Atlas XXII, fig. 7. Robin, I, c. 4.25—426.

MICROSPOK^:.

Genus — Microsporon (Gruby).

Filamenta undulata, directionem capillorum secuta ; transpa-
rentia, 0*002-3 mm. lata, sine granulationibus, interdum bifur-
cata sub angulo 30 — 40°. Filamenta et rami internum stratum,
spori externum for mantes. Spori propinquissimi, plerumque rotundi,
interdum ovales ; omnes transparentes, sine granulationibus.
Filam,enta (= trichomata] totius ordinis sunt ramosa, sine articula-
tionibus et granulationibus, sporos tamen parantia.

MICBOSPOKON AUDOUINL 153

IV. Microsporon Audouini.

Species — Audouini (Gruby) = Champignon de la Teigne achro-
mateuse, decalvante, du Porrigo decalvans; Trichophyton aut
Trichomyces decalvans.

Signa generis. Spori rotundi 0*001-5 mm.; ovales 0*002-8 mm.,
aqua intumescentes, filamenta et rami breves.

The distinctive character of Trichophyton tonsurans consists in
its numerous curved undulated branches, having generally smaller
spores, in the constant absence of granules in the interior, in the
spores adhering to the filaments and branches, and in its seat;
for whilst Trichophyton tonsurans is developed in the root of the
hair, Microsporon Audouini forms a tube around each hair, of the
thickness of 0*015 mm., and surrounds the hair outside of the
follicle.

Habitat. — In superficie capillorum hominis, qui folliculum rcli-
querunt, et usque ad altitudinem trium Millimetrorum supra cutis
superficiem ascendit.

The filaments run parallel with the stripes on the hair; the
branches have the same diameter as the filaments ; the former
bear the spores. It is not yet known whether the germation of
the Microsporon requires at first a sort of exudation, or whether
the spores are able to develop themselves everywhere merely
under the influence of the epithelia and scales, and at the common
temperature of the human body. Its reproduction is owing to a
segmentation of the points of the filaments ; its growth is extra-
ordinarily rapid, for, in a few days, the parasites are found to
cover a space of 3 — 4 centimetres. Its development begins at
the outside of the hair, 1 — 2 mm. distant from the epidermis.
The hair becomes less transparent, is 0*030-40 mm. thick, and
very finely granulated, till it breaks at last. If the hair has
become gray from its root, it breaks off about a week after at
the spot where the sheath of the plant begins, and is
followed by baldness. The hair-epithelium likewise falls off. The
thickest hair resists longest. Around the follicles masses of the
fungus heap up, from J — \ mm. in diameter, which have falsely
been taken for pustules, or secretion of the " Glandulse seba-
cea3." They are, however, una companied by inflammation,
hypertrophy cf the skin, pimples, or pustules. This fungus is

154 V^aUTABLE PARASITES.

the cause of "Porrigo decalvans;" no matter whether the hair
breaks off at last in consequence of the interrupted nourishment,
or because the elements necessary for the development of the
hair are absorbed by the fungus. The light gray crusts which
cover the places which have been. deprived of their hair consist
of the parasite mixed with a certain quantity of epithelial cells.
Its contagious nature is explained by these facts, and the con-
tagion of " Porrigo decalvans," is nothing more nor less than
the spores of Microsporon Audouini.

Gruby discovered this fungus in 1843; Robin found it on a
child ; Cazenave denies it, and regards it as the result of an
optical deception. Bazin found the disease everywhere on bodies
covered with hair, and recommends epilation and washing with
corrosive sublimate, acetate of copper, or the preparations of tar.
If epilation is resorted to, it is necessary to seize the hair below
the diseased spot, as far as possible, at the edge of the skin.

Droste lately noticed in the ' Deutschen Klinik/ 3854, No.
39, a case of porrigo, described in English journals, of a general
absence of every hair of the body, with the exception of some
hair on the back part of the ear. If the cure of this case was
successful, it was, no doubt, nature's work, and not procured by
the above-mentioned remedies. The disease disappeared when
all the parts subject to this disease had disappeared, that is, when
every hair had fallen off. This general and rapid epilation,
caused naturally, remains, however, very remarkable. It is much
to be regretted, and must be repeated over again, that similar
cases are lost for exact science, as long as the microscope is not
more frequently employed in the examination of skin-diseases.
It is here more especially, where its practical use would become
most evident, and where the labour employed on it would soon
find its ample reward. I am, therefore, unable to decide whether
the case of which Droste speaks exhibited this class of fungi.

Literature. — Gruby, ' Compt. rend./ &c., 1843, xvii, p. 301,
and 1844, p. 585; Cazenave, 'Traite des Maladies du Cuir chevelu/
1850, p. 197; Bazin, 1 c., 1853, p. 40; Malmsten, Muller's
'Archiv/ 1848, p. 7; Robin, 1. c., p. 426 — 427.

MICROSPORON MENTAGROPHYTES. - 155

V. Species — Microsporon mentagrophytes. Tab. Ill, figs. 1, 2, 3
= Oyptogames de la mentagre, Mentagrophyte = Cham-

pignons de la mentagre

The spores, which are in countless numbers, hang with one
part on the inner surface of the sheath of the hair, and the other
on the hair itself; they are round and very small. The filaments
or stalks are granulated inside, and divide themselves at an
angle of 40 to 80°, in the shape of a fork. The branches are
annulated.

Habitat. — In the follicle of the hair of the beard, more especially
of the chin, the upper-lip, and cheek, and, according to Bazin,
also in the tufts of hair of the skin in general.

This fungus is distinguished from the Microsporon Audouini by
larger filaments, branches, and spores, and by its seat. It also
penetrates into the follicle of the hair to its very root, between
the latter and the wall of the follicles. It settles neither in the
substance of the hair which lies in the follicle, like Trichophyton
tonsurans, nor around the part which is exposed to the air close
to the skin, like Microsporon Audouini. Thus M. mentagrophytes
forms, according to Gruby, a kind of vegetable sheath surrounding
and protecting that part of the hair which is imbedded in the
skin, and whose spores are never produced above the surface of
the skin. All the diseased parts of the hair are covered with
white, gray, and yellowish scales, from 2 — 6 mm. in breadth and
3 — 8 mm. in length ; they are a little convex in the middle,
forming angles a little depressed at the edge, and penetrated in
all places with hair. They are attached only slightly to the skin
underneath but firmly to the hair, and composed merely of
epidermis. The parasite begins to grow between the epithelium
of the follicle of the hair and rises along the hair till the latter
becomes exposed to the air. The epithelial cells themselves
change neither their transparency nor their shape, but only their
connection with one another which becomes loosened. The
parasite is found either primarily or secondarily on the simple
mentagra eczema or impetigo of the lips and nostrils. There
exists always, according to Bazin, at first a primary change in the
physical quality of the hair which is too often overlooked. The
eruption at first is either scattered or confluent ; some isolated

156 VEGETABLE PARASITES.

pustules are most frequently seen here and there on the moustache
or whiskers, which grow and suppurate a little, and the evil seems
to have subsided for a time. At last these pustules get closer
together and form groups, though each single hair is attacked
individually. The eruption is preceded by a burning sensation,
pain, and stiffness of the skin, which becomes red and swells.
Near the insertion of the hair small pointed, whitish, or slightly
yellowish pustules arise, which increase after the lapse of a few
days. In some the pustules are scratched open with the nails,
whilst in others the matter recedes and dries up in the interior
of the pustule. Small yellowish crusts, most frequently isolated,
cover then the prominences of the follicle, or a single firm adherent
crust is formed which turns brownish or blackish iri the course
of time. If the inflammation of the follicle does not go on to
suppuration, small, hardened, reddish, or brownish crusts, rather
papulous than pustulous, and covered with epidermidal scales,
are found. The inflammation spreads sometimes to other parts
of the skin, as, for instance, to the sebaceous follicles, and swellings
as large as a cherry (tubercles) are seen, especially on the lips
and chin. The fungus spreads soon and very rapidly from the
upper lip ; sometimes it remains restricted to the line parting the
moustache. The action of emollients and resolvents helps to
reduce the inflammation, and the eruption ceases for a time, but
only in order to break out with more virulence and to spread
further. The disease may thus last for years with alternating
changes for better or worse. When it has once become chronic
a fungous state of the follicles, which bleed at the slightest touch,
comes on, and a badly-smelling, sanious matter is discharged,
a thorough change of the hair takes place, which becomes
yellowish, ash-gray, whitish, and atrophied, and falls off spon-
taneously. It may even lead to a permanent alopascia. There
is no doubt that the mentagrum of Martial (Epigramm., lib. xi,
98) and the pudeudagrum of Pliny, with its formation of little
knots and tubercles, was nothing more than the consequence of
the Microsporon mentagrophytes, which Roman " libertines" called
Cunnilingi and Basiatores, and which was carried from the chin
to the genitals, and from the genitals again to the chin of a third
person.

Treatment. — Bazin considers that mentagra renders an imme-
diate removal of the hair necessary, without any further prepara-
tion, by means of a pair of pincers; this may be done in partial

MICROSPORON MENTAGROPHYTES. 157

mentagra during one sitting, but when it has spread very much
several sittings are required ; it can be done by the diseased
person himself. The operation is for the most part easy and
painless; in old mentagra, when the hair has become loosened,
and the capsule somewhat separated from the papilla and the sac
of the follicle, the hair falls out by itself, and it is only in fresh
mentagra that the operation becomes painful. Epilation is some-
times accompanied by a slight effusion of blood caused by a
fungous state of the infested parts.

After the epilation it is well to drop, by means of a pair of
pincers, a sponge, or a fine brush, a solution of sublimate (5 parts
to 100 parts of wrater) on the injured spots. This treatment
causes sometimes an eruption of pustules on the lips and head,
which must be opened with a needle on the following day. In
order to prevent salivation, 1 — 2 parts of sublimate or 1 part of
acetate of copper to 500 parts of water should be used.

Epilation produces an immediate improvement. The itching,
pain, and tension of the lips cease; the hardened parts become
more pliant ; and the eruption of pustules retires. A single
washing after epilation is sufficient ; no internal treatment, no
lotions or ointment are required. The patient need not go to
a hospital, or only in the case of old mentagra which has spread
over the whole face and the part of the skin which is covered
with hair, and even then he may be dismissed in from 8 to 12 days.
In slighjt cases, and when the parasite is absent, simple epilation
without washing will be found sufficient; it is, however, better to
employ both. The hair grows again soon, and often more beau-
tifully than before. Cases of relapse are met with in some places
which the patient is, however, quite able to treat himself.
Pudendagra is similarly treated.

M. Santlus, of Hadamar, speaks favorably of epilation, and is
confirmed by Didot of Brussels. He orders afterwards bandages
wetted with " Aq. Phag. Pharm. Wii rtemb." The simultaneous
internal use of graphite with guaiacum seems, according to
Santlus, to be superfluous.

Literature. — Gruby, 1. c., 1844, xviii, p. 585; Bazin, 1. c.,
1855, p. 41 — 43; Robin, 1. c., p. 430 — 436; Gudden, Vierordt's
'Archiv/ xiii, 3, p. 504—506 (1853), Appendix.

158 VEGETABLE PAEASITES.

VI. Microsporon furfur = Fungus seu Epiphytes Pityriasis
versicoloris. (Tab. Ill, figs. 1 — 4.)

-

Trichomata (fila) in squamis epithelialibus sit a, nunquam etiam
earum marginem excedentia, multipliciter torta et inter se nexay ut
raro finis fill cvjusdam certo cognosci queat ; simplicibus, parallehs
lineis terminata, nunquam aut articulata aut in margine vincta, nee
contenti quid in eo apparet ; passim in ramulos divisa. Sporidia
rotunda binis adumbrantur lineis concentricis, quarum interior
spatium lucidum circumdat ; in acervulis agminata.

Habitat. — In cute hominis cegroti.

Ab aliis speciebus generis differt longitudine trichomatorum ac
ramulorum et forma sporidiorum semper rotunda.

The parasite consists partly of elongated and branched cells
(fila, filamenta, trichomata), partly of spores which are piled up in
groups or in heaps, some of these being 100 mm. in diameter.
They refract the light strongly, and appear, like all bodies which
do the same, to be limited by two concentric lines, which are
again bounded by a fine, bright space, which is, however, darker
than the brilliant centre of the spore. Caustic ammonia added
to the crusts or scales of the diseased skin renders the parasite
more distinctly visible. Its seat is more particularly the skin of
the breast and stomach, sometimes also that of the extremities,
never that of parts which are exposed to the air. It grows
rapidly, though the nature of the growth of the spores is yet
unknown.

The appearance of this fungus is ushered in by the formation
of more or less yellowish or yellow-brownish spots, which are con-
stantly scaling off and itching, never rising above the level of the
skin, and which are of various sizes and pulverulent on the
surface. The whole forms the "Pityriasis versicolor.)} These
small spots are at first of the size of a pea, they increase, how-
ever, gradually and rise together, spreading to the breadth of two
hands and uninterruptedly from the thorax to the body. The
itching is increased by hard work and spirituous liquors.

Sluyter and Eichstadt have clearly proved that lying in a bed
which was formerly occupied by any one suffering from " Pityriasis
versicolor " will communicate it, and they doubt not that this
disease is caused by the parasite. The evil is purely local ; it

MICROSPORON FURFUR. 159

has never been found to occur previous to puberty, but' always
after the individual had reached from the fourteenth to the six-
teenth year, and it seems more especially to attack such persons
as are suffering from tuberculosis.

Eichstadt discovered the fungus in 1846, and after him, in 1847,
much attention was paid to it by Sluyter ; Robin himself did not
find it; H. E. Richter describes it as Mycoderma Eichstadtii.

Gudden has occupied himself much with this disease lately
without determining the nature of the fungus. The fungus
establishes itself on the skin of both the healthy and the sick,
especially amongst the poorer people. It is found, however, also
on the most luxuriously clean and rich ; more rarely on women
than on men, never on children. It spreads mostly over the back
and even the whole of the chest. It ascends often along the
neck and attacks the extremities. Its horror of such parts of
the body as are kept constantly bare is so great that Gudden saw
a young man who went with his chest uncovered, arid who was
attacked all around by the fungus whilst the open space was left
quite free and uninjured. These brown spots, called chloasmata,
rise rarely above the level of the skin, and the finger experiences
a rough sensation when passed over them. The surface, which
is at first smooth, peels off after a little while. The disease con-
centrates itself, at first around small spots, which are seen, with a
few exceptions, pierced by a little hair.

Means of discovering the fungus. — A vesicator should be placed
on the diseased spot, and the vesicle removed as soon as possible and
spread upon a glass plate suspended over a dark surface, and the
soft serum removed from its lower surface by means of a fine pair
of pincers, which is easily done with a little care. Nothing re-
mains but the upper, thin, transparent, and firm layer, and its
continuation on the sheath of the hair, so that the fungus is very
well seen through it, as well as an innumerable quantity of small
dots which appear to be whitish under reflected light, and darker
by transmitted light. They are the openings of the perspiriferous
glands, consisting of epidermal cells closely and flatly pressed
one against the other, and which stand erect, are well developed,
and contain a yellow pigment. These glands are very constant,
and remain intact in the midst of the fungi. They are sur-
rounded by spores, and present then darker, yellow-brownish,
and funnel-shaped cavities. The fungus does not penetrate into
the cavities of the pores themselves. The cells of the epidermis are

160 VEGETABLE PAEASITES.

all normal, even to the lowest hard and horny layer. The cutis
is sometimes a little redder, corresponding to the seat and extent
of the spots. The masses of fungi may also be wholly or par-
tially removed from the uninjured skin, leaving only a moist
surface behind, by means of ^ myrtle leaf. H. E. Richter
scratches off the scales, puts them under an object-glass, and
moistens them with acetic ether. The fungus is well shown by
this method.

Anatomy. — If a patch of fungi is cut out of the skin, toge-
ther with the nearest surrounding parts, and placed under the
microscope, and viewed from below and above, it is found that the
fungus-patch lies in the uppermost horny layer. The patch im-
bedded between two layers, the lower and larger of which is
formed by the filaments, the upper and smaller by the spores of
the fungus. The vertical diameter of the patch is greatest in
the direction of the hair-funnel, where the spores thrive best,
thinner at the circumference — a proof that the fungi lie in cor-
responding layers. If such a patch is left in the water for
twenty-four to forty-eight hours at the common temperature, the
fungus, which has been soaked and loosened, may be removed by
means of the curved couching-needle, without losing its con-
sistency.

The threads are BJ/" broad, round, serpentine, knotty, branch-
ing off in all directions, and entangled; they are transparent,
slightly yellowish coloured, with moderately sharp outlines, and
become smaller and paler by age, as well as in vinegar. The
spores sprout at the end of a fibre, sometimes also at the side,
and form very dense bunches of ~" longitudinal diameter. If
the bunches consist only of a few spores, the latter may often
be seen on a little branch of the divided filament. Even spores
torn off are branched or united in small chains. The spores are
round, with a sharpish contour, and on an average ~" in dia-
meter. Many of them have one or two little bodies in their
interior which refract the light more strongly, and which are
rarely missing. Gudden does not regard them as nuclei. The
fungus is, moreover, covered with a thin connected layer of
epidermis, which is best seen where a fold in the skin is formed.
Between the fibres and cells of the fungus there are fragments
of the epidermis and molecular detritus. Almost every little
patch is pierced by a hair, and the spores heap themselves up,
especially in the funnel of the hair, descending deep into the

MICROSPORON FURFUR. 161

prolongations of the sheath of the hair, which they sometimes dye
yellow by means of their mass. The spores may also be taken,
out of the sheath of the hair after maceration. They undergo
no change except that they sometimes become thinner from
below.

The patches increase gradually, and peel off superficially after
breaking through the layer of the epidermis, in little whitish
scales (i. e., the cells of the epidermis and dried-up fungi). On
the epidermis the fungi are found sometimes to run along the
minute furrows. If the fungus withers, the yellow spot pro-
duced by the peeling off disappears and leaves behind for a
longer period of time a smooth and less coloured spot. Gudden
relates that a medical student had been infected by his brother,
and thinks that the disease is contagious externally ; his
experiments on this subject were unsuccessful, because he
scratched off the epidermis at the place of vaccination. The
fungus is found on healthy and sick people ; one kind of illness,
however, being more favorable to its growth than another. It
never penetrates into the deeper and softer, but only into the
upper and horny layer of the epidermis, whence children escape
unscathed, and the chemical reactions of the cutis are looked for
in vain. The fungus of the favus (Achorion Schoenleinii) prefers
the lower layers of the epidermis, and is therefore more especially
the disease of children. Should it be confirmed that women are
freeer from Microsporon furfur, it would find its explanation
likewise in the nature of their skin. Gudden does not think
that contact with the air by itself prevents the attacks of this
fungus, but that it seeks and prefers the covered parts, on account
of their greater warmth.

Treatment. — According to Sluyter, the applications of lotions
containing a solution of liver of sulphur or corrosive sublimate
are sufficient. According to more modern writers, Tinctura
Veratri albi (in which, however, the alcohol appears to be the effi-
cient agent) may be employed with success — a fact which I am able
to confirm. Gudden, at an earlier period, when he was but imper-
fectly acquainted with the nature of this disease, and had but
little experience, rubbed the back all over with soap, and, after the
lapse of half an hour, directed the patches of fungi to be bathed
with a lukewarm lotion and then with cloths steeped in solution
of corrosive sublimate, until he saw the first signs of intoxication.
But the evil returned after some months again and again. Von.

11

162 VEGETABLE PARASITES.

Barensprung (' Deutsche ' Klinik/ No. 6, 1855) thinks he has
succeeded in curing the disease by using a lotion, with one grain
of corrosive sublimate to an ounce of water. It appears to me
very improbable that this remedy should prevent relapses without
epilation, since the principal indication consists in removing or
killing all fungi, even those found in the sheath of the hair.
Blisters remove the skin and the fungus superficially, but after
three or four weeks they spring up again.

Gudden adds nothing to this, and yet the treatment does not
seem to be so difficult after the above indications, Let the outer
skin be destroyed or lifted off, which may be done by vesication
as well as by means of Helmerich's ointment (see Itch-mite), and
let every hair be taken out immediately before or after. No
doubt, it may even then not be possible to remove, at the same
time, the sheath of the hair, and it will become necessary to
apply, after epilation has been proceeded with, those anti-parasitic
lotions which have been recommended in other places. The skin
which is taken off is to be burned, and the clothes and linen dis-
infected by heat and steam.

Literature. — Sluyter, ' Dissertatio de vegetabilibus organismi
animalis parasitis ac de novo Epiphyte in pityriasi versicolori/
Berol., 27th of November, 1847, p. 25, figs. 2 and 3; Gudden,
Vierordt's 'Archiv/ xii, 3, pp. 496 — 504, with illustrations;
Robin, 1. c., pp. 436—439; Wedl, 1. c., p. 735; H. E. Richter,
'Grundriss der Innern Klinik/ 2d ed., p. 1087.

It is interesting to compare with this the fungus mentioned by
Fuchs in his work on the ' Diseases of the Skin/ ii, p. 538, as
occurring in Alphis (white spots on the skin). B. Langenbeck
made a drawing of it, which was not published at the time, and
has probably been lost since.

VII. Achorion Schoenleinii.
Tab. Ill, figs. 5—11, and Tab. IV, fig. 12.

Tribe — Oidiei, Leveille.

Receptacula simplicia, ramosa, floccosa. Sporidia terminalia,
ramulis adhaerentia aut verticillata.

Genus — Achorion (Link and Remak) : Orbiculare flavum,
coriaceum, cuti humane, pr&sertim capitis insidens. Mycelium =
rhizopodium molle, pelluddum, floccosum, floccis tenuissimis, non

ACHORION SCHOENLEINII. 163

articulatis , ramosissimis, in stromate granuloso plerumque affixist
anastomoticis. Receptaculum floods crassioribus e cellulis elon-
yatis formatum, subramosis, distincte articulatis, articulis incequali-
bus, irregularihus y in sporidio abeuntibus. Sporidia rotunda, ovalia,
vel irregularia, in uno vel pluribus lateribus germinantia. Species
Oidio affinis. (Remak.)

Remak described the mycelium as articulated, which Robin
considers to be erroneous. Remak called also the tubes formed
by the spores mycelium, and supposed the tubes of the mycelium
anastomosed among themselves, whilst this takes place only with the
articulated filaments of the spores, according to Robin. Oidium
differs from Achorion in the tubular filaments which lie exposed,
and are not inclosed by an external thick and smooth layer.

S pecies — Achorion Schoenleinii.

Synonyms : Oidii species, Oidium Schoenleinii, Mycoderme de la
teigne, Cryptogame de la teigne faveuse. Champignon de la teigne
scrophuleuse, faveuse, Fungus Porriginis.

Signa generis.

Habitat : In cute capitis humani, etiam in aliis corporis regioni-
bus, et in folliculis papillorum inque depressionibus superficiei cutis ;
porro in unguibus digitorum manus et pedis.

It had been overlooked, until Robin and Bazin pointed it out,
that this parasite attaches itself to the bottom of the hair-follicle
in the direction of the hair, more commonly, however, to the
simple layer of the cells of the epidermis. Here spores only, or
closely articulated filaments, are met with. These spores adhere
for the most part to the hair, and create on its surface circular
enveloping masses, which spread out more or less, and form a kind
of sheath for it. Sometimes the spores occur close together,
sometimes forming single, double, or treble rows, which are con-
nected by means of smaller rows, and form a kind of network,
which adheres firmly to the hair, and often appears discoloured on
account of the copious layer of spores. Sometimes the spores
penetrate into the root of the hair, which becomes then disfigured,
dried up, and fibrous, even in the interspaces between the fibrillae.
Spores are likewise found at that part of the hair which lies free,
outside the follicle, on the angles formed by the hair in its folds,
&c. The hair-follicle is changed, moreover, as well as the bulb
of the hair, and it becomes atrophied and thin. The penetrating
of the spores into the follicle explains the pertinacity of favus.

If the parasite be found accumulated in the depressions of the..

VEGETABLE PAKASITES.

surface of the skin, forming what is called a cup = " godet =
favus," in the proper sense, we meet not only with spores, but
every anatomical part of the plant mycelium, receptacle, and
spores. These lie at first underneath the epidermis ; they pene-
trate gradually, still covered by flie epidermis, into the follicle,
and unite with those of the neighbouring hair, whilst the skin
becomes thinner. When the favus is very large, it frequently
throws off the dried epidermis, and the parasite becomes exposed
to the air. The skin around the hair becomes depressed, thinned,
resorbed, and the opening of the follicle changed. When the para-
sites of several infected hairs run together, large crusts of favi are
found, underneath which the skin is changed to a large extent -,
and between the inclosed diseased follicles we find also some
healthy follicles. The glands of the hair become narrower and
smaller, they contain, as they do in a healthy state, only a few
drops of oil, but a large quantity of a granular substance, and
their channel of excretion is thread-like, and probably obliterated.
A considerable number of such fungi unite to form little peculiar
hemispherical masses, from 1 — 15 mm. in diameter, and from
1 — 4 or 5 mm. in thickness, and are on their free side even or
concave, on their attached side convex. Their colour is pale
brimstone-yellow, sometimes a little browned by foreign bodies.
Their whole convex portion is inserted into the skin, whence the
latter is depressed, smooth, and sometimes slightly embossed,
exhibiting oftentimes small branch-like elongations or very short
and blunt little warts (Lebert). The free side is at the same
time the broadest of the favus, often covered with suppurated
epidermal layers, called dry crusts, to which they bear not
the least resemblance. Whilst the favus is not fully grown
it possesses a cup-like cavity in the centre, which fills up as it
grows. A very large favus shows alternately salient and depressed
lines, in various numbers, all around the centre of the favus ;
they are arranged in irregular circles, and ordinarily pierced by
one or more hairs. The edges of the free side often adhere to
the epidermis of the skin, and are covered with a dried-up
substance, forming small, transparent, brownish or grayish crusts,
which do not belong to the parasite, and which must be taken
away if the favus is to be removed. One or more hairs always
pierce the favus in an oblique direction at those places which are
provided with hair. When it is removed it is found that the
hair penetrates the skin, and that the follicle lies still deeper. It

ACHORION SCHOENLEINII. 165

has been wrongly stated that these formations have their seat in
the principal part of the follicle of the hair, or of the glandulse
sebacea3. At the spot which has been freed from the favus there
remains a smooth impression — red from irritation, which, how-
ever, soon disappears, often in the course of an hour, in con-
sequence of the elasticity of the skin when freed from pressure.

Structure of the favi. — In order to study carefully the structure
and construction of the fungus, it is well to examine, first, the
normal structure of the shaft of the hair, which is thus described
by Gudden. The shaft of the hair and the inner sheath of the root
consist of a modified epidermis composed of bright transparent cells,
which are round below, becoming flat towards the upper part, and
stretching out to a considerable length, parallel to the shaft,
perhaps even losing their nucleus, whilst the layer of epidermis
of the skin consists of smaller round or elongated cells. This
may be seen best by drawing out the shaft of the hair, together
with its inner sheath, and separating it from the epidermal layer
of the skin. Since this does not always succeed, the layer of
epidermis of the skin may be torn off by means of a curved
and not too sharp couching-needle, and split longitudinally,
when the single cells are usually brought out very distinctly at
the edge.

The favus is hard, dry, brittle ; its fracture is shining ; its in-
terior whitish-yellow, and paler than the outer surface. When
examined with a lens, it is seen to be spongy, or even a little
hollow in the centre (Lebert) ; when seen under stronger powers,
its contents appear to be the tougher the nearer they approach
the surface, forming a thin, dense layer, which acts as a kind of
cover.

The exterior layer = " stroma" = " gangue amorphe," is one
sixth of a millimetre in thickness, forming a finely granulated
amorphous mass, representing a membrane which cannot be
isolated, belonging, nevertheless, to the favus, and is not the
result of the drying up of the amorphous, albuminous, exuded
mass, nor of an accelerated formation of the epidermis, nor of the
drying up of the pus or the mixing of anyone of these substances
with the other. It forms the amorphous, homogeneous, very finely
granulated stroma, consisting of organic substances or the gangue
amorphe common to all fungi.

The inner surface of this outer layer passes gradually into the
central part ; it is spongy, easily rubbed to a yellowish-white dust,

166 VEGETABLE PAKASITES.

representing, under the microscope, a mixture of mycelium, recep-
tacles, and spores, which show clearly the various steps of transi-
tion among themselves.

1. The mycelium is formed of curved, bent, and simple cylindrical
tubes, forked or branched in all directions, with partition walls, which
are smooth and oblique, standing at unequal distances one from
the other. The tubes are strangulated and articulated, and have
an equal diameter of 0-003"' all along, and are bordered by a
smooth and pale edge. These tubes communicate most frequently
with those of the branches, sometimes they do not, and they are
then separated by a wall. The edges of the tubes are simple,
smooth, of dark colour, and their transparent surface without
granulation in the interior. Sometimes one end of the cavity is
seen free and floating, and the other adhering and communicating
with the granular stroma. A finely granulated mass is found
between the joints, and the sporidia are interspersed between the
thallus-threads. Robin denies the presence of joints and par-
tition walls in the latter.

2. Receptacles or sporophora (the spore-tubes of some writers)
are tubes analogous to those of the mycelium, with short joints,
slightly contracted externally, cylindrical, usually less flexible and
brittle, so that they break up easily into single parts, empty in
one part, and provided in the other with small globules of
O001 — 2 mm., or with a single isolated corpuscle. Other
tubes, neither flexible nor branched, but straight or slightly
curved, contain similar, yet larger granules, of 0-004 — 5 mm.,
which are, however, in closer proximity one to another, especially
towards the ends of the tubes, without ever touching entirely.
The last and broadest tubes, with occasionally occurring partition
walls, are denser (0*005 mm.) and longer and contain spores, which
are closely connected with one another. The tubes are 0 05 — 20
mm. long. There are also spores of 0-005 — 7 mm. in breadth,
and 0-007 — 11 mm. in length, provided with joints at certain
distances, and contracted at those places of juncture in which the
common envelope is no longer recognised. Sometimes, by a
division of the sporules, these rows are divided into two or three
smaller rows. It is uncertain whether these spore-tubes generate
in due time new ones, either at their origin or free end, as in other
cryptogams.

3. The spores are generally round, spherical, oval, or irregular,
consistent, sometimes joined together and provided with smooth,

ACHOIIION SCHOENLEINII. 167

very marked edges, 0-003 — 6 ram. "broad, and 0*007 — 10 nim. long,
not changed in water or vinegar ; homogeneous in their interior,
transparent, and refracting the light strongly, and are found,
on closer examination, to be filled in their centre with a very
fine powder of molecular granules, and exhibiting, on the addition
of water, a molecular motion of the spores (Lebert, Reruak).
Some of the largest round spores show a small granulation of
O'OOl — 2 mm., and the longest the same at each end. There
are, likewise, ovoid, almost four-sided spores, triangular and
rounded off at the corners, which are swollen at the ends and
contracted in the middle, spherical and longish, and grouped
together, forming a simple or sometimes a fork-like divided row
of from four to twelve spores. Sometimes only spores of the
same size are grouped together, sometimes of different sizes, and
sometimes the ramified tubes are found to communicate amongst
themselves. This fungus should be examined with a power of
from 500 to 600 diameters.

Seat of the favi. — They are principally found on the head,
covered with hair, but also on all other parts of the body ; on the
face, the shoulder-blades, the external ear, on the front of the
thighs, the penis, and the testicles, and not merely on those parts
of the skin covered with hair. At first a reddened spot on the
skin, with a yellow dot in the centre, is perceived. If this spot
is opened, a drop of matter is sometimes seen to exude, some-
times not ; and below lies the readily formed mass of fungi as a
yellow knot. The favi are imbedded in the skin, which is de-
pressed and thinned by them ; their surface is firmly attached, by
immediate contact, to the depressed part, which is deeper in the
skin of the remaining part of the body than on the head. As
soon as the mass of fungi becomes exposed to the air, after
the loosening of the epidermis, a scab is deposited, sometimes
with and sometimes without pus, and the external edges still
covered with epidermis, which must be cut off if the scab is to
be detached. When the scab is quite dry, this operation rarely
succeeds completely. Broad crusts of 1" diameter and more
are formed by continued exudation. The opening of the canal
of the hair is, therefore, no necessary seat of the favi, but
becomes so in the course of its spreading ; in small favi,
from 3 — 4 mm. diameter, they are seen to be pierced by
four or five hairs. The adipose tissue has been erroneously
thought to be their seat, and they were even regarded as hyper-

168 VEGETABLE PARASITES.

trophiecl sebaceous follicles. It is most probable, according
to Bazin, since the favus-matter is constantly found at the
lower portion of the epidermal part of the channel of the hair,
below the opening of the follicle in the skin (Bazin's " termi-
naison de la membrane capsulair^ interne, ") that the parasite
originates here, and is sending its branches forth into the interior
of the hair, and outwardly underneath the epidermis. The
epidermal canal is firmly attached to the hair, preventing the free
exit of the fungus, and forming the centre of the cup-like cavity
(godet). On growing, the fungus moves more towards the skin
between the two layers of the epidermal envelope.

The fungus shows itself simultaneously in several capsules of
the same follicle, when the favi occur in groups (Porrigo scuti-
formis). The little cups of the favus press one upon the other,
become deformed, and burst the skin which covers them. This
is proved by the fact, that the Porrigo scutiformis becomes, after
the first epilation and washing with the favus-remedy, a Porrigo
disseminata, which after several weeks runs again together from
the remaining milk-hairs. On other parts of the body, where
the hair is destroyed, and the bulbs not deeply seated in the
skin, only the disseminated favus is found. Guddeii has even
more accurately determined its seat. He considers the normal
epidermis, or the epidermal tissue in general, and the little
funnels of the hair in particular, to be the original places of ger-
mination of the Achorion, from whence it spreads into crevices
and wounds. Its spreading is very much assisted by a delicate,
moist skin. The fungus penetrates from the hair-funnels either
into the hair itself or into the surrounding epidermis, forcing its
filaments inside the sheath between the scaly rings, which they
drive away from the shaft of the hair, or, penetrating deeper and
undermining the whole, cover it in all directions. They arrive
thus sometimes, but rarely, between the longitudinal fibres, and
then run parallel to the longitudinal axis of the hair. Wedl
gives a similar illustration of it, and this is no doubt the reason
why Hebra declares Herpes tonsurans and Favus to be iden-
tical. If, however, the immense bulk of the hair occasioned
by the spores in Herpes tonsurans is compared herewith, and
if, moreover, the observations of so acute an observer as Gudden
are repeatedly confirmed, that the spores never penetrate very
far and very deep into the tuft of hair, nor very far into the epi-
dermis of the skin below the hair, i. e.} into the outer sheath,

ACHORION SCHOENLEINII. 169

it will become clear that the fungi of Herpes tonsurans and
Favus are very different, and have, therefore, been treated
separately here. H. E. Richter is of the same opinion, based,
moreover, on the variation in the size of the parts of the fungi.
According to Gudden, favus-fungi are never found in the canals of
the sudorific glands or of the sebaceous follicles.

Growth of the Achorion.

a. Germination. — Remak could not succeed in germinating
spores, in pus, muscles, cerebral substance, serum, or on
solutions of sugar, but he succeeded very well on an apple, and
on his arm. (See author's Appendix? for further information
about these experiments.) Gudden states, with regard to the
possibility of conveying the disease by means of the spores to
other individuals, which was proved by Remak and Bennett, that
the transference to uninjured bodies fails, whilst it succeeds very
well after removing the outer skin, which may be done either by
a vesicator or by scratching. It becomes then merely neces-
sary to allow the favus to be tied on such places for 36 — 120
hours. Hebra was unable to notice any propagation of fungi of
the favus by means of inoculation, but only redness and the
formation of vesicles.

b. Development. — According to Lebert, Remak, and Gudden,
there is seen, near old crusts, a small, round epidermal elevation
in the midst of them, together with a small yellow body (the
favus). If the epidermal layer which covers this body is raised,
a drop of pus is sometimes seen to exude, underneath which the
little favus lives and thrives, possessing a smooth surface and
deeply imbedded in the skin. The pus is often wanting, and
the fungus forms a small, firm, yellow spot. If the epidermal
layer is removed, and the fungus exposed to the air, it grows and
clothes the neighbouring hair, without producing pus. It adheres
firmly to the skin, its surface is dry, well defined, and slightly
covered with epidermis. On removing the favi new ones spring up.
Ignorance of these processes gave rise to the erroneous descrip-
tions of the favus by some pathologists, as, for instance, Cazenave.

The favus passes, according to Bazin, during its development,
in three periods, through three different stages, which occur
sometimes simultaneously on the same head, and which have
been described by authors as separate species — Favus urceolaris}
F. scutiformis, and F. squarrosus.

170 VEGETABLE PAEASITES.

During the first period the hair becomes altered, not so the
skin at the place of its germination ; gastric disorders are seldom
or never found.

During the second period the change in the hair becomes
more perceptible ; the fungus appears outwardly as a yellowish
concretion, with or without being preceded by congestion of the
skin, and exhibits all its regular stages of development.

During the third period the alteration of the hair has reached
a high degree, the hair falls off by itself, and leaves merely scars
behind. The few diseased places are covered with lichenous
debris, or crusts resembling pulverized alum or gypsum.

The species of the favus are nothing more than variations in
form according to the different states of reaction of the cutis in
relation to the fungus. Thus the following forms may be traced:

1 . Favus disseminatus, F. isolalus, F. independens, F. urceolarisy
Porrigo favosa, Tinea lupinosa, F. alveolaris, &c. — It is found on all
parts of the body covered with hair, but more especially on the back
of the head, spreading sometimes over the whole surface of the
body (Favus generalis], now alone, now associated with other skin
diseases, and particularly with Herpes circinnatus. It has likewise
three periods. During the first, which is of various duration,
there exists sometimes a disordered digestion, sometimes riot.
The hairs are frequently altered, without lustre, feeble, and
strikingly differing from the colour of the healthy hair; finally
they become quite colourless. On endeavouring to pull out the
hair it offers little resistance, and the microscope shows its texture
to be very much altered. The parts which constitute the shaft
are wholly or partially destroyed. The colour is a dirty, grayish
or brownish-like rust or blight. Distinct traces of the fungus
are observed at the bulb and at the continuation of the root of
the hair.

Gastric disorders become frequent during the second period.
If the fungus is examined at its origin with the naked eye, it
appears mostly as a yellow, scarcely perceptible point, with a
ventral impression, pierced by a hair. The first trace of the
development of the fungus may be discovered by means of a
pocket-lens ; sometimes a slight rising of the skin is observed on
the spot where the hair penetrates it, sometimes a small point
aside and underneath the skin, or also two or three small, yellow,
isolated concretions parting at the basis of the hair, which form
on the following day a single, conically excavated concretion

FAYUS. 171

pierced with a hair in its centre. The yellow crust grows very
rapidly : its vertical diameter increasing \ — 1"' during twenty-
four hours ; the ventral depression becomes daily more character-
istic, and may be compared to the alveoli of the honeycomb, or to
the depressions on beans, or to the small cups of the yellow lichens
on the branches of trees. Sometimes the inner surface of this de-
pression is quite smooth and even, such as is seen in the cnps of the
oak ; at other times uneven, and exhibiting a series of concentric
circular elevations, the number of which indicates to some extent
the age of the cup of the favus, and which resemble, from their
position, the circular prominences of the nests of swallows. The
younger these layers are the more saffron-coloured are they ; the
older, the whiter. The last layer raises sometimes the epidermis
several millimetres above the level of the surrounding skin.
The cup of the favus may even reach more than two centimetres
in breadth ; the fungus makes, however, its exit before it reaches
these dimensions by breaking through the epidermal covering
almost always some millimetres above the point where the crust is
pierced by the hair ; it makes a hernia through this opening, and
shows no longer any regular form during its growth.

Complications.— -The cups of favi run together and open a free
passage for the favus at another place. The patient often
scratches off the epidermal covering of the favi, causing- a few
drops of blood to flow, which dry on the crust. This increases
the irritation of the scalp, produced by the presence of the foreign
body, and leads to the formation of real impetigirious pustules and
crusts. If the alveolar crusts of the favus are removed, by the
nails of the patient, by poultices, or by the physician himself by
means of the spatula, the surfaces which lie underneath are found
to be depressed, red, bleeding, and covered with a thin epidermal
layer, above which are often seen the vessels and fibres of the
skin. If the crusts are carefully removed without injuring the
skin which lies underneath, a transparent lymph without blood
exudes.

After removing the fungus, the depressed part dries and reaches
in a few days again the level of the surrounding skin. The
eruption of the favus daily covers more and more of the scalp ;
its progress is sometimes rapid, sometimes slow, according to the
cleanliness of the diseased persons attacked, and other conditions.

After various intervals the patient arrives at the third period,
that of baldness.

172 VEGETABLE PARASITES.

In spite of the application of emollients and lotions the head
of the patient exhibits a certain inflammable redness, disorders of
digestion come on, and a painful feeling of oppression ; a sign
that a foreign body has its seat in the follicles of the hair, which
sustains the irritation. This rechiess only disappears on bald
places and on the scars which succeed the falling off of the hair.
The hair becomes altered more and more, loses its colour,
becomes atrophied, varying in its diameter in different places, it
becomes mouse-gray or ash-coloured, woolly, and falls out. The
hairs may be drawn out with their bulb by means of a pair of
pincers, or they separate from their root by breaking off at the
level of the skin. The bare spots form complete scars, in which
the bulb of the hair and the whole pigment are destroyed by the
fungus. Sometimes remains of the hair are seen entangled in the
epidermis. Baldness commences, as in most diseases of the
scalp, in the back and lateral parts of the head ; the back of the
head resists longest. The mass of favi may be compared to dried
birds5 dung, and is possessed of a most repulsive smell, similar to
putrefying animal matter. During this latter period the favus is
apt to spread to other parts of the body, and this spreading is
accelerated by the simultaneous Herpes circinnatus, or by the
scratching of the patient. The Favus alveolaris is found in every
region.

2. Favus scutiformis, F. nummularis, Porrigo scutulata, Favus in
rings, circles, groups, &c. — It is primary, or follows chronic
eczema, impetigo, or lichen, and exists only in the scalp, and in
conjunction with a strong growth of the hair. The alteration of
the hair is, during the first period, less perceptible than in the
last form. During the second period this species appears at first
as a more or less extensive round spot, from half an inch in
diameter to that of a five- franc piece. The pericranium appears
elevated, swollen, reddish, and painful ; the surrounding regions
depressed. Sometimes the hair which covers the spot is sur-
rounded at its base with a small epidermal capsule, whitish or
yellowish- white, forming a kind of covering to the hair. This
excessive formation of epidermis continues a long time, and
the favus might then easily be mistaken for pityriasis of the
scalp. The form of the affection, the adherence of the scales,
the gum-like aspect of the epidermal covering of the hair, the
colour of the branny scales, form the distinctive characters of
this disease. The cells of the epidermis become smaller and

FAVUS SQUARROSUS. 173

more rhomboidal, the tubes of the mycelium and the spores are
seen, by the aid of a pocket-glass, before the yellow mass of favus
can be recognised, which is the result of the accumulation of
these cryptogamic elements. This hyper-secretion of the epi-
dermis may last six weeks before the yellow concretion of favus
manifests itself. The alteration of the hair progresses daily, but
the falling off of the hair takes place only after some years.
There is rarely but one spot of favus ; in most cases there are
several, sometimes only two, three, or four, distributed over
various regions of the head; they spring up simultaneously, or
one after the other, in the same parts ; they unite and form a
large crust, which occupies one third, two thirds, or even the
whole scalp. A small strip of hair remains frequently untouched
on the forehead, as well as the lower part of the occipital region
and of the nape of the neck. Half-circles are often found
around the diseased parts, which remind us of the first develop-
ment of the circular spots. The diseased spots are covered with
favi, more or less irregular, fragmentary crusts, often elevated
at the edges, pierced by hairs, and impregnated with dry blood,
possessing a faint, often stinking smell, and sometimes concealing
lice; although these guests are more frequently found in Im-
petigo granulata. The Tinea scutulata makes at this period its
appearance also in other parts of the body, called then Porrigo
favosa ; sometimes even at the same time with the first
species. The cure is, in this case, often accompanied by a
considerable contraction ; the hair grows, however, again very
easily.

3. Favus squarrosus = Porrigo squarrosa. — This species is often
mistaken for the preceding. They differ, however : the outer
development of the fungus does not proceed as regularly ; it
takes place on more or less prolonged, uneven, irregular surfaces,
which are limited, but very inaccurately. The mass of favi
spreads over the hair and forms sheaths for it, which adhere very
closely, producing thus distinct elevations on the surface of the
head, and small, prickly warts, with fragmentary, powdery crusts,
separated by deep furrows.

Detailed description of the scabs of favi, according to Gudden and
Remak. — The scabs form round or oval discs, measuring from
1 — 1J'" in diameter, and depressed towards the middle. They are
of a dirty yellow on the surface, changing to a dirty white towards
the centre, and raised a little above the level of the skin. These

174 VEGETABLE PARASITES.

discs are frequently pierced by a hair in the centre. There are
concentric furrows all around, dividing the scabs into a number
of rings, from J'" in breadth, gradually spreading on the outside.
The epidermis grows thicker on the edges, peels off, or remains
in the middle of the scabs. By onrefully piercing the epidermis
on one side, the scabs may be lifted off easily, and without
injury, from the cavity of the cutis, together with the adherent
neighbouring parts of the epidermis* The lower surface is con-
vex, yellow, smooth, and moist, from whence they can be stripped
off in the form of a rapidly drying layer of numerous, young,
round, and slightly granulated epidermal cells, which are rapidly
converted, on the edge of the scabs, into the great flat and irre-
gular epidermal cells of which the scab consists. Simon denies
the existence of a cellular layer between the cutis and scab.
Gudden always noticed such a layer breaking up into a mole-
cular mass in the neighbourhood of the fungus. The next
following layer of the favus becomes thinner towards the
centre, and ceases entirely in the middle of the cavity. It is of
a brimstone colour, ~ — ^" in thickness all over the scab.
This is commonly called Gruby's capsule. It is best seen by
slightly pressing upon a thin vertical cut in the scab till the
layer separates from the inner darker mass, and by soaking ic
with water, when it may be unravelled by means of a needle
parallel with its perpendicular diameter, when the entangled
threads — now and then exhibiting little vesicles of chlorophyll —
are seen to advantage, and between them a molecular detritus.
The fungus spreads but little towards its lower end, whilst it
branches out variously towards its upper part, and makes rapid
transitions, at the inner border of the capsule, to the variously
intertwined rows of cells, which rarely exhibit a single thread.
These cellular rows and the detritus form the central, grayish-
•white, and easily crumbled part of the scab, which are easily
crushed in water. A great number of little bubbles of air or
carbonic acid are seen at the place of transition to the filamentous
layer. The smallest scabs, which are scarcely seen with the
naked eye, form a flat crust, consisting only of filamentous favi,
and, imbedded in the upper layer of the epidermis, covered by
flat epidermal cells. It may be prepared by loosening the epi-
dermis, and is often quite inclosed by the latter; and the wind-
ings of the excretory duct of the perspiratory glands may even be
recognised at the lower part of this cellular layer, which, however,

FAVUS SQUARROSUS. 175

is spared by the favus, as well as the sebaceous follicles, which
are very strongly developed during a powerful reaction of the
skin. The renewed growth of the hair of persons who suffer
much from favi and the falling off of the hair at the period of
puberty, shows that it is seated in the epidermis. The above-
mentioned little capsule gradually increases and moves downwards
until it reaches the lowest layer of the cutis, where it spreads
more luxuriantly in all directions. Its higher edge encounters
a still more resistent epidermal layer, projects against it, and
forms a yellowish, pretty-looking little nest, harbouring in its
cavity, cells and air-bubbles. The capsule is formed when the
edges are gradually bent inwards, often leaving only a small
opening in the centre. When the scab has once settled in the
lower layers of the epidermis, new layers of favi are continually
seen to make their way to the light; whilst the lower layers
remain unchanged. Their development ceases on drying the
filaments, but recommences when they are put into water and
soaked. The concentric rings, described by Simon, in scabs,
are merely caused by the turning up of the layers of the scab.
Sometimes a small opening is seen, in the middle of the disc
(Gruby), from which the favus grows, and which was forming simul-
taneously with the latter, and is only covered by epidermal cells.
The scabs also run together (Porrigo favosa, Favus conspersus}.
When the formation proceeds rapidly, and when a crust is
formed about every hair, the crusts press on each other, the
scabs increase and rise on account of their humidity, between
the hairs. Most instructive microscopic preparations may be
obtained by detaching the freshly formed scabs, after cleansing
the scalp according to Gudden's method (see below). Sections
of the older scabs exhibit two layers, separated mostly by a line
of demarcation, The thinner, whitish, and crumbling inner layer
contains the thallus-threads ; the free and thicker yellowish layer
the sporidia and spores. (Remak.)

Diseased phenomena produced by the favus. — Remak experienced
no change of general health during the time the artificially created
favus was active ; nor is there any change perceptible in strong
children, should the disease even last for years. It is, however,
very doubtful whether an extensive suppurating favus acts in the
same way as other diseases of the head, like the impetigines,
which act vicariously, by replacing chronic inflammations and
mucous discharges of the conjunctiva, the cornea, and the auditory

176 VEGETABLE PARASITES.

passages, and by taking the place of swelling and suppuration of
the cervical glands, swellings or atrophies of the mesenteric
glands, perhaps also of tubercles of the lungs, the bones, and
the intestinal canal. The development of the fungus is some-
times accompanied by a peculiar odour, like the odour of the
urine of a cat, by painful excoriations, and by a swelling of the
neighbouring lymphatic glands. A large development leaves behind
scars in the skin ; the latter loses its pliancy and imperviousness,
and the hair does not grow again, probably on account of the
atrophy of the bulb caused by pressure. Oftentimes it is ac-
companied by an inconvenient and violent itching, and sickly
feeling. The favi spring up again and again, cause the hair of
children to fall out in various places, and produce great pain,
sickness, and, to some extent, imbecility, thus imparting con-
siderable importance to this disease. „ It is also followed by
Pityriasis, Eczema squamosum, and Impetigo, when it lasts long.
Ulcers were never observed by Gudden; they may, however,
happen, even very deep ulcers, like those which accompany the
itch. These may be caused by a secondary action. A very
serious addition has to be contended with in the numbers of
lice which aggregate on the diseased parts.

Differential diagnosis. — The brariny dust in pityriasis consists
of epithelial scales, in dried-up layers or lamellae. The eczema-
scales or crusts, which often cover the favus, may easily be
distinguished from the latter at a glance. The favus, when it
is detached, often depends from its base in the form of a
small yellow tubercle. The colourless thin crusts consist only of
epithelial scales, lying one above another, and held together by
a serous plasma. The yellow crusts are saturated with blood
and pus, produced by scratching ; the brown, or earth-gray, crusts
consist of decomposed particles of blood. They can be easily
recognised by treating them with water and vinegar.

Pustules of Impetigo are easily distinguished ; they are promi-
nent and convex, with a yellow centre, the skin being inflamed
all around. Pressure causes them to discharge pus. Their scabs
contain no trace of favi, but of dried-up pus-corpuscles and epi-
dermal scales.

Older writers often confounded Achores with Favus. The
achores are small yellow pustules and ulcers, which become
perceptible when the hair is cut off"; they surround the root of
the hair, and appear depressed in the centre. They soon dry up.

ACHORION SCHOENLEINIL 177

nnd form crusts, consisting of epidermis and pus, and cannot be
enucleated. (Lebert.)

Special changes of the hair. — The hair is restored from time
to time, but always in an altered condition, and has more of a
milk-hair-like appearance ; it splits also longitudinally into fibrillse,
which sometimes are entangled, sometimes ravelled out, and is
dotted all over with molecular granulations, epithelial cells, and
numerous spores. The hair is never entirely lost, except on the
oldest diseased parts. According to Bazin, the shaft is sometimes
the only diseased part, sometimes the favus-matter is found on
it here arid there, when the hair looks dead, lustreless, and the
external layer and medullary substance are usually mixed together,
and the longitudinal fibres are broader and thicker than in the
normal state. Other hairs exhibit a change of the inter-follicular
substance ; spores and mycelium-tubes are found on the mem-
branes, or sometimes favus-matter in large quantity between the
prolongation, in root- shaped prolongations, and the tunica internet
of the follicle of the hair, as a kind of conus, the point of which lies
between the radicles of the hair and the inner part of the capsule,
and the rugged basis corresponds to the upper end of the inner
tunic of the follicle, and has in front the epidermal channel of
the hair. Other hairs show also no follicle, or merely a few
broken pieces. The bulb of the hair, the root, and the root-
shaped prolongation of the hair are interspersed with spores and
tubular filaments. Sometimes globules of pigment are seen at
the nearer end of the longitudinal fibres, sometimes they are with-
out pigment. Spores and tubes of the favus are met with even
in the centre of the shaft. The highest degree of degeneration
of the hair is marked by atrophy and discoloration, when it ex-
hibits on the edges tubular filaments, proceeding from the centre
of the hair, similar to the changes which the latter undergoes in
Herpes tonsurans.

Bazin recapitulates thus the changes of the hair :
The change of the hair does not proceed from the pressure of
the favus on the hair.

1. The constituent parts of the bulb themselves are altered,
producing a disturbance of their inner texture, and not merely
atrophy.

2. The follicles of the hair are likewise under the influence of
the disease.

3. The favus and its intra-epidermidal part is most frequently

12

178 VEGETABLE PAEASITES.

found between the upper extremity of the tunica internet of the
follicle and the epidermal sheathing of the hair; and the bulb
even disappears during the last period of the development of the
favus.

According to Gudden, the imbedding of the favus in the hair
renders the latter white, rigid, brittle, and unravelled at the
point. The hair is opaque when examined immediately after
the addition of water, because the air which exists between the
longitudinal fibres and circular scales, or which is formed into
small vesicles, gives to the whole the appearance of a row of cells,
till it passes finally out by way of the circular scales on the side
collecting on the surface, and forming larger vesicles, which,
however, recede into these spaces as soon as the hair becomes
dried up. The hair becomes more transparent as soon as the
air has escaped, the greater portion of which is atmospheric ; the
smaller, perhaps, consisting of carbonic acid ; for some vesicles
are rapidly absorbed by the water, and little drops of oil are seen
floating about.

Etiology of Favus. — It is found in every age, mostly in
children. All modern writers agree that a scrofulous con-
stitution does not alone produce it, but that various diseases,
misery, privation, and unhealthy habitations, likewise foster it.
The sole cause of the favus is the transfer of the spores to the
skin, which may be effected in various ways. Few persons who
have daily to treat favus become themselves infected, and it may
therefore be well to presume, with Robin, that a predisposition
to it exists in the individuals attacked by this disease. It would
be more correct to say that contagion takes place only in the
case of open wounds, broken skin, &c., by which the spores of
the favus are attracted and developed. It is very doubtful
whether it is hereditary. It has not yet been thought worth
while to ascertain whether the children of parents who were
infected with favus had not come into contact with other favous
persons, and thus incurred the disease. Favi have only been seen
on the human skin. It is not known what kind of skin is most
advantageous to their growth. There is no reason why the favus
ought not to be considered as the primary cause, and not merely
as the bearer of a peculiar hypothetical favus-contagion.

Reactions relating to the diagnosis of the favi and the epi-
dermal crustSy according to Bazin. — Distilled water at the common
temperature, or boiling, rectified spirit, ether, and chloroform, do

DIAGNOSIS OF FAVUS. 179

not dissolve the pure mass of favi ; they are left unaltered, whilst
fatty matters are easily dissolved. The epithelial masses become
thin by this treatment. Ammonia renders the favus-mass a
little paler, but does not dissolve it, whilst it dissolves pus
and impetiginous crusts, forming a milky gelatinous mass. An
alcoholic solution of potassa, especially on being heated, dis-
solves impetigo-crusts, pus, skin, hair, fatty matter, and sebum,
but not the favi. Nitric acid is coloured yellowish-brown by
crusts of the impetigo, which, after a few hours, become of
a turmeric yellow; masses of favi impart to it a golden-yellow
colour, turning to straw-yellow, especially after the lapse of
a day. Sulphuric acid attacks favous and impetiginous masses,
and is turned reddish ; the crusts of favi, however, become
porous, pumice-stone-like; the impetiginous crusts gelatinous.
Chlorine gas discolours favous and impetiginous masses, hair, &c.
Mouldy formations show the same reactions as the masses of favi.
Hebra is of opinion, as already remarked, that favus and Herpes
tonsurans are identical ; to which he seems to have been chiefly led
by the circumstance that the spores of the favus and of Herpes
tonsurans penetrate into the interior of the hair itself; that the
favus-fungus, occurring on the body and back and forming scabs,
cures itself, like Herpes tonsurans. His opinion that the favus is
merely a further stage of development of Herpes tonsurans seems
to be principally based upon two cases described in his periodical,
one of which having quite the appearance of Herpes tonsurans,
exhibiting the favus-fungi, when it was examined under the micro-
scope ; the other, however, showing the favus-fungus exactly as it
was observed on the head, and in scabs on the top of the nose. On
looking closer to the latter case, I am uncertain whether Hebra
really understood, by Herpes tonsuram, what we have understood
by it; for he does not speak of fungi in the hair, but only of epi-
dermal accumulation of scales, the latter being but accidental to
Herpes tonsurans.

The fatty substances of sebum and cerumen exhibit vesicular
granules, rhombic crystals, and epithelial cells; the sero-purulent
and purulent masses show granulated globules and globules of pus,
but are not, however, to be confounded with favi.

The favus-fungus may be distinguished by the above-described
thallus from the ferment-alga, which resembles only the sporidia
of the former.

]SO

VEGETABLE PARASITES.

Pustules and favi may be thus distinguished :

Favi.

Colour of brimstone,, with a
•very distinct alveolar depression;
rarely discharging a drop of pus
when pricked ; easily detached
from the skin ; the epidermal
layer which covers them is more
resistent and has underneath a
second thin layer,, thus placing
the fungus between two epi-
dermal layers ; the development
of the favus-contents is very
rapid and regular, and may be
continued infinitely.

Pustules.

Colour whitish or slightly
yellowish ; surface even, or
slightly convex, with a scarcely
perceptible depression at the
basis of the hair ; discharging
matter on application of a
slight pressure or on pricking
with a needle, which spreads
also into the areoli of the
corpus mucosum of the skin ;
covered with an extremely thin
epidermal layer ; the bottom of
the pustules is formed by the
papillary bodies of the skin. The
change of the pustulous con-
tents is less rapid and regular,
and, as is the case with all dis-
eased products, it becomes hard,
forms crusts, and does not grow
any more.

A transition of the favus into pustules, either by continuity or
contiguity, has, moreover, never been established. Cases where
the centre is formed by a fungus are most liable to be
confounded when this centre is surrounded by a purulent ring,
without its ever mixing up with the former, a case which may
best be studied in Porrigo scutulata.

It is further of importance in diagnosis, that the three species
of glands occurring on these parts of the skin should be con-
sidered.

1. Perspiratory glands, or follicles with a spiral tube, opening
on the surface of the skin.

2. The sebaceous follicles, which do not branch, but end in a
sack; simple grape-like glands, which have wrongly been called
folliculi sebacei, and which secrete the sebum. They open on
the surface of the skin, often in conjunction with the opening of
a hair-follicle, which fact was denied by Bazin without giving anv
reason.

TREATMENT OF FAVUS. 181

y
3. The hair-glands (glandula pilosce), which are small glands,

rarely consisting of one, but mostly of two, three, or more blind
sacs, lined with epithelium, filled with drops of oil, and
containing one or two passages which open into the hair-follicle,
where the skin is pierced by the latter. They are more particu-
larly attached to the hair-follicle. The number of blind sacs
rarely exceeds one, two, or three with man, whilst they are found
to be more numerous with other animals.

Treatment of favus. — Once developed, it is difficult to cure,
though cases are known where nature has cured it, because, ac-
cording to Remak, the accessory suppuration lifts off the whole
scab, and with it the fungus. It will, however, be easily per-
ceived that this is only possible when the scab which becomes
loosened is removed at the same time with the hair and its roots
or sheaths — -a very rare occurrence, no doubt. Most of the
older remedies which have been proposed have proved inefficient,
for as soon and as often as the favus is removed it grows again.

Indications. — Of primary importance are extreme cleanliness,
and treatment of the cachectic state of the patient ; then the
cutting of the hair, and removing the epidermal crusts by means
of poultices and washing ; next the removing of the favi, which
bear millions of spores; preventing at the same time the repro-
duction of these spores by parasiticidal remedies (such as solu-
tions or ointments of metallic salts, as of acetate or sulphate of
copper or iron, acetate of lead, calomel, corrosive sublimate, iodide
of sulphui', liver of sulphur, black oxide of manganese, charcoal,
&c.), and by wearing a wax cap; and finally removing the conva-
lescent from the neighbourhood of persons who are yet infected
with favi, otherwise frequent relapses occur. Especial care
requires to be taken in order to prevent the head-dress of favous
people from being worn by convalescents or healthy persons
without its having been cleansed previously.

Bazin specifies the treatment as follows :

Internal remedies. — Purgatives and specifics have been gene-
rally abandoned, and strengthening remedies, such as improve
the constitution, are now almost exclusively adopted.

Local treatment.

Epilation. — The only really successful remedy. 1 . The oldest
method of epilation is that of the Jew's nightcap. In this case

182 VEGETABLE PARASITES.

the removal of the hair is effected by means of sticking plasters,
a method which has justly fallen into discredit, on account of its
barbarism, and, after all, the uncertainty of success.

2. Epilation by means of a pair of pincers, according to the
plan of Samuel Plumbe.

3. Epilation by means of combs and fingers, according to the
brothers Mahon, after having rubbed the hairy parts \vith certain
ointments (studiously held secret), with the ball of the thumb.
The hair was torn out with the fingers, as the feathers of geese
are when stripped. On the whole this is a method little to be
recommended.

4. Epilation produced by the disease itself, which is the best
means, according to Bazin.

The ordinary epilatory means act only mechanically on the
hair-bulbs, not chemically ; they act the better, and excite
the more, the coarser the remedies are powdered. Marion's
ointments are therefore not more efficient than those made of
powdered charcoal, chalk, or fullers' earth. Liver of sulphur
exerts the most powerful chemical action on the hair; as even
dead bodies, exposed to the air, lose their hair after being treated
for twelve hours with it, whilst, however, the inter-cutaneous part
of the hair remains unaltered.

If the favus be fresh, and if the hairs resist the attempts to
remove them by means of a pair of pincers, they require to be
rubbed for several days with an alkaline ointment (according to
Bazin, with ' ' chaux vive, soude du commerce, au 2 grammes;
axonge, 60 grammes"), or also with a small addition of auripig-
mentum, or the oil of the acajou-nut (J — 1 gramme to 30
grammes of fat), or, what I consider to be better, with " huile
de cade." The latter keeps alive the sensibility of the parts of
the head covered with hair, and acts more especially on the bulbs
of the hair. Epilation effected by such means removes the hairs
and their capsules, but there still remain spores of the parasite
in the follicles. Epilation alone would therefore give but very
uncertain results, and not be sufficient, or, perhaps, produce a
merely momentary relief, whilst it does not prevent relapses.
Even the method of the brothers Mahon did not prevent them,
or they were only successful after treatment for six, twelve, or
eighteen months. The brothers Mahon have chiefly been blamed
for having purposely confounded favi with eczema, lichen, or
psoriasis, and, more particularly, Porrigo scutulata with Porrigo

TREATMENT OF FAVUS. 183

favosa, and for having announced that, on a general Estimate,
Porrigo scutulala was more easily cured, which latter statement
Bazin's experience does not bear out.

The treatment, according to various writers, is as follows :
The head is first to be cleansed ; the crusts are removed by
cutting off the hair quite close, and by immersing the head several
times in tepid water, and softening the crusts by washing, or by
means of poultices (which, according to Lebert, are best made
with the aid of a spatula), because the spores are less liable to
spread over the whole head covered with hair, than in the case
where baths and lotions are employed (a course to be recom-
mended only iti the case of restricted favus, and when a second
epilation, after the appearance of scabs of favi, has become neces-
sary, which course, however, is objectionable on account of the
increased pain when the favus has once spread very much). The
hair is then freed from lice (if there should be any) by means of
mercurial ointment. Gudden, whose chief indication of a suc-
cessful treatment consists likewise in the removal of the parasites,
chooses remedies which destroy vegetable life without irritating
the cutis to a great degree, when rubbed into the capillary de-
pressions, and which cause no further inconvenience on being re-
sorbed. Gudden, however, knows, as it appears, of no such
remedy, for he was even unsuccessful with oil of turpentine.
Gudden considers epilation, or, more correctly, the tearing out of
the sheath of the root of the hair, as the principal requirement,
and prepares consequently for it in the following manner : The
hair is cut off, leaving it only a few lines in length, and the scabs
removed, during one or two sittings, by the repeated application
of warm soap-baths, and by using a soft brush, together with a
round writing-quill, if necessary, whilst at the same time the sof-
tening of the parts, by applying the oily unctions recommended
by Von Hebra, is to be avoided during the following treatment
with water. As soon as the skin which has thus been cleansed has,
to some extent, become covered again with a new epidermis, it is
rubbed with equal parts of croton and olive oil before going to
bed, and the parts which have been spared by the fungus secured
from its ravages by strips of sticking plaster. The places are
carefully examined on the following morning, and rubbed again
with a little oil in case the very rapidly produced but also very
painful inflammation should be too feeble, and the patient is to wear
a double cap of linen, filled with a warm poultice made of oil and

184 VEGETABLE PAEASITES.

rye-flour. The epidermis becomes softened in two days, the for-
mation of cells in the outer sheath of the root of the hair is ac-
celerated, and epilation and separation of the hair may be pro-
ceeded with by means of a broad pair of pincers — an operation
which requires frequently a whotoday when the favi are plentiful,
and is very tiresome and harassing to the operator, who is often
haunted by the disgusting sight for some days, in consequence of
the strain on the eyes. The result is favorable. The fungus
luxuriates at first among the purulent mass, which, however, dries
up rapidly, and after the lapse of twenty-four to forty-eight hours
lamellse of suffocated fungi may be taken off, the epidermis is
rendered healthy in a few days, and peels off only very slightly.
The fine atrophied milk-hairs require to be looked to for a fort-
night longer, and it is well to treat the skin with rectified spirit
or ether, since these penetrate easily to the vegetable spores,
and decompose them. Complications alone require some care.
A rapid cure need not be feared, since there cannot be a re-
lapse, in the proper sense of the word, similar to itch. Bazin
also is unable to cure without the indication of epilation ; he
says — " The fear of permanently destroying the growth of the
hair after epilation is unfounded, and it is not necessary to tear
out the hair merely on the places which appear red and swollen,
and covered with crusts, for the hair thrives always again on the
diseased or healthy parts, even after applying these remedies."
The hair is therefore removed not only from the diseased parts,
but also from the healthy surrounding part, and even from the
whole head in case porrigo has spread sporadically all over the
head. No tuft of hair is to be left over the forehead or on the
scalp of the head. It is sufficient after the first epilation to
wash the head for three or four days, night and morning, with a
solution of corrosive sublimate, to rub it with lard on the next
day, or still better, with an ointment of acetate of copper (1 part
to 500 parts of -lard). If an eruption of pustules should occur,
it is simply necessary to pierce the pustule, and to empty it of its
contents. Careful treatment will cure the disease in six to eight
weeks. The three forms of the favus — urceolaris, scutiformis,
and squarrosus — agree in their origin, and require, according to
Bazin, only one treatment. The urceolaris, thought to be the
most intractable, is the easiest to be cured ; and it must be con-
sidered as the first sign of a successful treatment of confluent
favi, when the favus is isolated by becoming Favus urceolaris.

TREATMENT OF FAVUS. 18.

Sometimes there is seen an epidermal secretion on tfie places
occupied by favi, such as is the case with pityriasis, which, how-
ever, need not cause any anxiety, and which disappears easily
after washing with water and applying lard.

Treatment by Hebra. — He thinks Herpes tonsurans and Favus
to be identical, and believes that the disease may get well spon-
taneously, and, with more reason, that no cure is possible without
epilation. To produce the latter by means of the Jew's nightcap
is, unfortunately, too painful, though the result might well justify
such barbarism.

It appears to me that the principal task in an efficient treat-
ment consists in finding out the mildest method of epilation.
The arrangement which Hebra made in his clinical hospital (and
which exists still, I believe), that diseased children should tear
out one another's hair, is, no doubt, very recommendable, and
saves time to the physician — a sacrifice which Gudden was not
afraid of making. Some believe that the disease may be cured
by drenching the head underneath a spout of rain-water. Cures
without epilation are tedious, insufficient, and little reliable.
This method would, I believe, deserve more consideration if it
were preceded by epilation ; and the nature of the disease might
render the following treatment very useful. The hairs are to be
torn out on the favous parts, and a lukewarm " douche " allowed
to fall, for ten to fifteen minutes, on the child in a warm bath.
In case of relapses, epilation is resorted to, followed by the
douche. In private dwellings, where it is inconvenient to make
space for a douche-apparatus, a watering-pot, or simple syringe
of large size, may be used instead, provided with the fine sieve
of a watering-pot, fitting well, such as is used in watering hot-
house plants. If the operator has merely to do with very small
spots of favi, he may conveniently use syringes with a round
beak, such as are employed in diseases of the eye, and which
may be bought from Jerak, at Prague, and at other places.

Treatment of Boeck, of Christiania (Giinsburg's l Zeitschrift/ v,
1, p. 50). — Boeck also acknowledges that the Jew's nightcap
answers its purpose, but he considers the action thereof too
violent, for it often happens that the forcible removal of a large
pitch-plaster removes far more than the mere hair — a process
which is therefore as dangerous as it is painful. This may,
however, be modified by covering the head with eight to ten
cuneiform pieces of a very efficient sticking-plaster, the

186 VEGETABLE PARASITES.

points of which meet towards the top of the head. Baume's am-
moniacal plaster has been found most advantageous for this purpose.
It is prepared by mixing in a porcelain basin, one part of gum
ammoniac um and three parts of white- wine vinegar, and which is
heated to boiling, then filtered, jy^d two more parts of vinegar
added to the solid residue ; the mass is again boiled and filtered,
and the filtrate added to the first portion, and allowed to stand for
some time, in order to allow foreign bodies to separate and preci-
pitate ; the liquid is skimmed off and evaporated at a low tempera-
ture, to a syrupy consistence. The strips are covered with this mass,
and put on the clean head by means of poultices, or Linimentum
Calcis. After two or three days these strips are removed, either
all at once, or on alternate days, when the patient is irritable.
Many hairs are thus torn out, the skin of the head becomes
inflamed, and a great number of pustules usually break out
during the following two days, when the head has to be kept
uncovered. These pustules are not identical with the favus.
When the head is quite bald the ammoniacal plaster is less effec-
tive, since, probably, in consequence of a secretion of the skin of
the head, the plaster is prevented from sticking so well. Re-
course must be had to a plaster of Pix burgundica, Acetum vini,
and Amylon, or to the following mixture : R Colophon. $v, Olei
5J, Cerse albae 3§s ; or IjL Resina fiavee 3J> Amylon Jss, Acet. vini
3vj, Ol. oliv. 3iv, Terebinth, ^ss. This process of sticking on
and tearing off the plaster must be repeated for several months,
at short intervals. The microscope alone can tell when the cure
is effected, that is, when all the spores of the fungus have disap-
peared, or else there will be new crusts of favi, sometimes after
a few weeks only.

Von Barensprung (' Deutsche Klinik/ No. 6, 1855) employs
likewise this modified pitch-cap, and orders precipitate-ointment
to be rubbed in, in order to prevent the reappearance of the
fungus.

Boeck tells us that it is one of the injunctions of the founder
of the Hospital of St. Gallicano, at Rome, to treat the favus by
scarifying the skin of the head ; which was therefore done exten-
sively every day, till the whole head had become scarified in the
course of a week. The hair is not sacrificed in this process, and
one may even succeed in splitting the follicle of the hair, amount-
ing, in reality, to the extraction of the hair (epilation). This
treatment is, however, admitted by the physicians of the hospital

GROWTH OF FAVUS. 187

to be slow (eight to twelve months) ; and Boeck did not observe any
improvement after several months during which he made use of
this method — hence his working out a new method. The results
would, perhaps, be different if scarification were resorted to
simultaneously with and after bathing with parasiticidal remedies.
I believe that the deed of foundation, which requires that the
donations of the hospital should pass over to other institutions
if curing by scarification were deviated from, might be eluded
by adding douche-baths to scarification.

Didot recommended quite lately preparations of tannin. So-
lutions of tannin should, at all events, be employed after epilation,
without which it would be useless.

APPENDIX.

Experiments made on the growth and contagiousness of the favi
by Remak and others.

The spores of fresh and dried scabs were found to germinate
on slices of an apple. After twenty-four hours the sporidia
exhibited short, pale, homogeneous, cylindrical outgrowths, which
grew longer and more transparent during the following days, and
became limited by pale outlines, whilst they themselves remained
dark at those places which did not present any outgrowth. Small
oval cavities were observed on the third and fourth days in the
outgrowths, not separated by partition walls, which increased in
size during the following days. On the sixth day observation
became suspended by the luxuriant growth of the Penicillium
glaucum, or some other species of mould, which covered entirely
the favus-fungus, and, perhaps, their development was altogether
stopped by the decomposition of the masses of fungi in consequence
of the chemical alteration of the soil. The sporidia of the favus-
fungus differ essentially from the simultaneously occurring spores of
Penicillium and other fungi, in that they represent a many (three
or four) sided germination. The spores of the favus-fungus germi-
nate also in solution of sugar, but produce only thallus-threads, and
no sporidia-filaments. The latter are formed when the sporidia
are exposed to the action of the atmosphere. The mass of scabs
crumbles in spring and distilled water without germinating. The
spores do not germinate in blood-serum, solution of the white of
an egg, muscle, brain, on severed pieces of the skin of man and
animals, or on animal fats. They germinated speedily, however,

188 VEGETABLE PAKASITES.

when solution of sugar was added or poured over them, when mil-
dew rapidly grew over the Achorion, just as other mould-spores ger-
minate speedily on apples and in sugar. When muscle or brain
were immersed in water putrefaction was seen to set in, and infu-
soria were forming, but the action Was stopped on addition of solu-
tion of sugar, and conferva and mildew were then observed to grow.

No infection resulted from the scabs of favi in case of fresh
wounds, or small pimples scratched open ; the scabs crumbled to
pieces. Fuchs asserted that favus was more easily transferred
on the uninjured skin. Remak attached, in May, 1842, small scabs
of favi on the skin of his arm by means of sticking plaster; the
scabs dried up and shrank, and fell off after a few days without
leaving a trace of their existence. He washed his arm, and
took a bath ; but after the lapse of a fortnight he felt itching at
the place of inoculation. He noticed a dark-red spot, covered
with epidermal scales, the skin being thick and hardened. From
the centre of the red spot there grew a pustule, and the remain-
ing scab frequently secreted purulent matter. After three weeks
from the first appearance of the spot, Remak removed the puru-
lent scab, together with the pus, and found below a whitish
body sunk cup-like into the corium, and consisting of nothing
but favus-fungi, which formed a real favus-scab after a week. In
another week a drop of pus began to make its way from under-
*neath it, then ceased again, in order to drop again at times, and
after four weeks the dry favus-scab fell off, measuring 4"' in
diameter, and the skin became covered with epidermis.

Contribution to the history of the favus. — Schoenlein was the
first to discover the vegetable nature of the favi, and to make a
drawing of the filaments of the mycelium and the granulated
stroma. Remak had noticed mouldy filaments in 1837, but did
not pay any further attention to them. He made the first
attempts towards inoculation, believing the fungus was only
able to live on a cachectic soil, and opposing the view of
Henle, who thought that the fungus was accidental. Fuchs,
Jahn, and Langenbeck discovered the fungus, but viewed it as
an attribute of scrofulous rashes, more especially of exanthemata
and serpiginous crusts. Gruby first described accurately the fila-
ments and spores, as well as their penetrating the bulbs of the
hairs : he inoculated the fungus successfully even on wood, and
all his statements have been confirmed by Bennett, the latter
believing, however, a scrofulous state to be indispensable. Hannover

LITERATURE OF FAVUS. 189

confounded the spores of this fungus with Cryptococcus Cere-
visia ;" Muller, Retzius, Remak, Link, and Lebert, to whom we
are chiefly indebted for a more correct knowledge of this fungus,
classified it with Oidium ; Vogel described it superficially; Rnyer
and Montagne knew it well, whilst Leveille could not discover
it; Mahon considered the disease to be a hypertrophy of the
follicle of the hair, and thought that the hair was piercing the
sebaceous follicles ; Cazenave and Didot view the favus as an
inflammatory disease of the follicle, and deny, on that account,
the fungus and the parasitical nature of the disease, because
Brett thought he had noticed the favus to occur after great
mental excitement, owing to moral influences. Bazin must be
looked upon as the most complete observer of this fungus among
modern writers, though his illustrations are faulty, since they
confound the sebaceous follicles with the fat-glands, not allowing
that the latter opened into the follicle, and, moreover, thought
they were sudorific glands.

Literature. — Schoenlein, ' Zur Pathologic der Impetigines;'
Miiller's ' Archiv/ 1838, p. 82, tab. iii, fig. 5 ; Remak, in ' Me-
dicin. Zeitung/ herausgegeben vom Yereine fur Heilkunde in
Preussen, Berlin, 1840, No. 16, pp. 73, 74; Valentin's 'Re-
pertorium/ 1841, vi, p. 58; ' Medicinische Vereinszeitung/ 1842,
und ( Beitiage zur gesammten Natur- und Heilkunde/ Prag,
1842, p. 893; in ( Diagnost. und pathol. Untersuchungen/ 1845;.
' Muscardine und Favus/ pp. 193 — 215 ; ' Pilze der Mundhohle
und des Darmkanals/ pp. 221 — 227; Fuchs and Langenbeck,
Holscher's ' Hannoversche Annalen/ 1840, in the Report upon
the Gottingen Poliklinik; Fuchs, ' Die krankhaften Verande-
rungen der Haut/ Gottingen, 1842 ; Klencke, in 'Neue physic-log.
Abhandlungen/ 1842, p. 60; B. Langenbeck, ' Bericht iiber die
18 Versammlung der Gesellschaft deutscher Naturforscher und
Aerzte zu Erlangen/ Sept., 1840, von Leopoldt aud Stromeyer,
Erlangen, 1841, pp. 166, 167; Jahn, ' Naturgesch. der Schon-
lehVschen Binuen-Ausschlage oder Exantheme/ 1840, p. 155 ;
Gruby, ( Compt. rend./ 1841, xiii, pp. 72, 309, and 388 ; also
Miiller's ' Archiv/ 1842, p. 22; Textor, < Compt. rend./ 1841,
tab. xiii, p. 220; Meynier, ibid., 1841, xiii, p. 309, note; Han-
nover, Miiller's ' Archiv/ 1842, pp. 281 — 295, tab. xv, figs. 7, 8,
9 ; Bennett, On the vegetable nature of Tinea favosa, in ' Monthly
Journal of Med. Science/ 1842, and ' Transact, of the Royal
Soc. of Edinburgh/ 1842, vol. xv, 2d part, pp. 277 — 294; Muller

190 VEGETABLE PAEASITES.

and Retzius, in Mulleins 'Archiv/ 1842, p. 192, tabs, viii, ix ;
Cazenave, f Dictionnaire de Medec./ 1844, 2d edition, vol. xxix,
article Teigrie, p. 338, and ' Traite des Maladies du Cuir chevelu/
Paris, 1850, p. 210 sq. 220; Lebert, f Physiologic pathologique/
ii, 'Memoire sur la Teigne/ Paria, 1845, pp. 477, 478, and 486;
Vogel, ' Allg. pathol. Anatomic/ p. 383; Leveille, 'Diet. univ.
d'hist. natur./ Paris, 1847, viii, p. 461 ; Canstatt's 'Handbuch
der medicin. Klinik/ 4 Band ; Rayer, ' Traite dcs Maladies de
la Peau/ Paris, 1835, i, p. 697; Bazin, f Recherches sur la nature
et le traitement des Teignes/ Paris, 1853, with 3 plates, and
Considerations generates sur les Teignes et leur traitement, ' Journ.
des conn, med./ Fevr. et Mars, 1853, pp. 241—305, mid < Gaz.
hop./ No. 92, 1853, Des Teignes achromateuses ; Didot, ' Bullet,
de TAc. de Med. de Bel./ 1853, pp. 227 — 255, Discussion iiber
Philippart de Tournay's Note in ' Bezug auf Behandlung des
Favus;' Gudden, in Vierordt's ' Archiv/ xii, s. 244 sq. 1853;
Hebra, ' Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft der Wiener Aerzte/ x, 7,
p. 88, Juli, 1854.

VIII. Oidium albicans. Tab. IV, figs. 3—8.

Synon.: Schwammcheri; fungus = Champignon = Cryptogam
of Aphthse, Soor, Muguet, Thrush. Species, Sporotrichi affinis ;
Apthaphyte = Kuhn or Kahn. We shall find in the historical part
how great a number of misinterpretations this disease has under-
gone, which represents the effects of this fungus. We will only
remark that what is called Aphthae and Muguet is nothing more
than the effect of this fungus, and that these two names mark
merely different stages of its development.

The Aphtha? = Alcola = Muguet, Millet, or Blanchet =
i funghi or Afte = Asorro (lining, because the disease looks
like white linings) = Sore = Sprouw = Soor, Kuhn, Schwamm-
chen = Trodske = Torsk, in English Thrush, is a disease of the
mucous membrane, manifesting itself sometimes in the form of small
points, rings, conical and semi-spherical elevations ; sometimes,
however, in the shape of large spots, and able to form even a
compound membranous envelope. This envelope is originally of a
milk- or pearl-white colour, passing into gray or yellowish when
the disease is left to itself, or occurs in weaned children, but
rarely assuming a darker colour in children, which happens
only when a foreign colouring substance acts on it. The external

OIDIUM ALBICANS. 191

portion possesses a more or less soft cheese-like consistency, is
more or less thick, from the density of the finest paper to half a
line and more ; it adheres firmer at first than after a little while,
and finally peels off by itself, without injuring the continuity of
the mucous membrane. It is found alone or simultaneously on
the inner edge of the lips, where the mucous membrane begins,
on the inner side of the cheek, on the gums and the palate, on
the upper and lower surface of the tongue, in the throat, and in
the oesophagus, down as far as the cardia. Its microscopic con-
stituents and its cause are a peculiar fungus. (Berg.)

Genus — Oidium (Link) : Fila simplicia ramosa, minutissima,
pellucida, in floods aggregata, leviter intexta, articulata. Sporidia
ex articulis secedentibus orta, simplicia , pellucida.

Species — 47, Oidium albicans : Fila in cespitibus lam, primo
villosis, humidis, albis, dein sordide fulvis, vel fuscis, vel fusco-
fulvis intertexta, intus leviter granulosa, 0*004 lata, 0'050 —
0-600 mm. longa. Sporidia plerumque rotunda, aut vix ovalia, ex
articulis secedentibus orta} raro ovalia.

Habitat : In membrana mucosa oris, faucium, cesophagi, narium,
in lacuminibus pharyngis senum, inter massas mucosas et epitheliosas
ad ligamenta aryepiglottid. ; in mucosa laryngis, in cicatricibus
bronchiorum, rarissime ad anum, labra, pudenda et mammas lac-
tantium. Pr&sertim in pueris, in adultis cachecticis, inprimis
sen Hi bus ad extremum vitae tempus.

The white external layer consists, according to Berg, of the
condensed epithelium, in consequence of an enlargement of the
epithelial cells, of the elements of the fungus, and of molecular
protein- detritus. Reubold, however, states, that fibrinous cells,
the proper elements of pseudo- membranes, are wanting, and
that it contains only amorphous fibrin, exudation- cells, and, at
times, also globules of pus. The parasitical vegetation and the
epithelial enlargement extend at first only to the points of the
small papillae (at the tip of the tongue), and small white and
isolated patches are perceived (Muguet discret), which often
escape observation. If, however, fewer papilla are found on the
seat of the disease, and if the whole surface is smoother, as is
the case with the mucous membrane of the mouth, with the
exception of the upper part of the tongue, the external covering
appears in the shape of rings of ribands, which are intertwined,
and of hemispherical elevations produced by the fungus. The
more numerous these points and rings become, the more luxuriant

192 VEGETABLE PARASITES.

the epithelium and the fungus continue to grow, the more they
will run together and form a continuous layer, which covers the
whole mucous membrane and its cavities (Muguet confluent),
formed partly through the natural combination of the epithelial
cells, partly through the entanglement of the filaments of the
fungus amongst themselves and with the epithelial cells. Epi-
thelial cells are met with mixed with cross filaments, sometimes
covered with adhering spores, sometimes not, exhibiting, more-
over, a more or less thick mucus, together with molecular granu-
lations. Some filaments are seen broken up. A little practice
will enable the operator to recognise the fungus without the
microscope, provided it exists in considerable quantity. The
mucous membrane underneath is seen to glimmer through if the
epithelium possesses its natural density and transparency. The
surface becomes less transparent and white when the epithelium
thickens, and is macerated by heterogeneous liquids (milk- or
pearl-white colouring of the infected spots). This milky colour
passes into a yellowish or green tint when the growth of the
fungus and the plentiful formation of spores takes its uninter-
rupted course. A similar observation has been made with regard
to the spores of other fungi. The other colours of the soor-
layer will be entered into more especially when we are speaking
of the colour of the thrush itself, and it will suffice to remark
here that the white colour is more particularly attributable to the
granulations in children in private families whose mouths are
kept carefully clean.

The layers of the fungus have the following position : Upon the
mucous membrane is found a dense layer of epithelium ; the
fungus covers entirely the edges of the epithelial cells on their
free side ; the aphthous layers (soor-plaques) thus formed are
soft ; they grow to a larger extent, and the more rapidly, the
more lacerated the tongue is, and the more numerous and larger
the papillae of the tongue are. The firmer the epithelium is
seated on the tongue, the deeper they penetrate into the cells,
which usually contain the roots of the fungus, whilst the filaments
and branches make their way to the open air, the firmer will be
their original footing. But if the epithelial layer becomes loose,
after a little time, the fungus, together with the normally
loosened epithelium, separates in smaller or larger membranous
patches. This separation seems to proceed quicker when the re-
newed growth and separation of the epithelium itself is unna-

OTDIUM ALBICANS. 193

turally hastened on. The fungus can easily be removed artifi-
cialty, without this normal separation, by scratching it off, or by
applying linen compresses ; less easily, however, by means of a
pair of pincers. The mucous membrane is found to be inflamed,
but not very red, when the membrane has been removed to some
extent. It is the redder, the thinner the layer of epithelium is
which covers it. A layer of epithelium would always cover the
places from which the membrane is removed, if suppuration and
ulceration were not brought on by delay; hence no blood ap-
pears when the membrane is taken off. This separation leaves
always behind a few sporidia and filaments, which foster the re-
newed growth of the fungus as long as the soil is found to be
favorable to its regeneration ; hence the pertinacity of the
disease. The opinion has now been generally accepted, that
alkalinity, as well as the formation of lactic acid, are in its
favour; but large quantities of either will prevent its growth. The
mucous membrane of the mouth and the upper portion of the
intestinal tube are its seat. Berg thinks it possible that the
real fungi might thrive even on the mucous membrane of the
genitals. No doubt, hsemorrhagic erosion in the stomach, or
follicular affections and ulceration in the child's intestine, may
have sometimes been called aphthae. Some observers even doubt
its occurrence on the nipples of nurses. The description of
the fungus itself we shall give according to Berg, Robin, and
Reubold.

The parasite consists of tubular filaments bearing spores, and
of spherical or at first oval spores, which are the same every-
where.

1. The tubular filaments (radices, trunci, fibrilli,} of writers are
cylindrical, elongated, straight or curved in different directions,
0-003 — 5 mm. broad and 0*05 — 6 long, rarely longer or broader.
Their edges are dark, accurately defined, and mostly parallel. The
interior of the tube is transparent, and of an amber colour. The
filaments are formed of long cells, with occasionally articulated cells
which are 0'002 mm. long; they decrease in length towards the
free end, which bears spores, and are, when washed out, seen to be
once or more times ramified, and the branches composed of cells.
The latter are often as long or longer than the branches ; some-
times only one short arid round, or two or three elongated cells, are
perceived in them. Partition walls are met with from time to time
on the branches and filaments, and diminutions or depressions on

13

194 VEGETABLE PARASITES.

a level with them, on or below which the brandies occur, which
never communicate with the cellular cavity. Robin supposes
the partition walls to have been produced by the gradual ap-
proach of the roundish ends of two cells. The cellular cavities,
closed by the partition walls, "contain usually some molecular
bodies, from O001 — 2 mm. in extent, which are of dark colour, and
which move about ; or, instead of these, little bodies of from two to
four oval cells, with pale-yellowish cellules, which are more brilliant
and less dark than the filaments, closely approaching with their
ends, or becoming a little depressed, and possessing homogeneous
transparent contents. The end by which they are attached is
usually hidden in the centre of a heap of isolated spores, which are
sometimes mingled with epithelial cells. By isolating these
formations the first cell is found to be a prolongation of the
spore, and a free communication exists between its cavities,
whether the spore be formed by many cells bearing already
branches, or merely be represented by one or two cellular cavities.
This spore incloses usually two or three spherical, dark granules,
O001 mm. large, with sharp edges, and a distinct motion in the
interior. Other spores are often attached very firmly to the ger-
minating spores. The free end of the filaments or of their
branches, as well as the end which bears spores, are round, without
enlargement, or it is formed by a spherical or ovoid cell, which
is larger than the preceding, and separated by a distinct process
of contraction into one or two smaller cells. The last cell is
0-005 — 7mm. large; the paler cells are probably only just formed;
the riper, however, are probably spores ready to separate. When
the cells are ovoid or short, the filament acquires a various or
twisted appearance which precedes the final swelling.

2. The spores are spherical, or a little longish, with distinct
dark edges, and a somewhat more transparent amber-coloured
cavity, which refracts the light strongly, and contains a fine mole-
cular dust, or one or two globules O'OOOG — 0*0005 m. in diameter.
They are seldom placed in rows of from two to four. A part freely
floats, but the greater part are attached to the surface of the epithe-
lial cells of the mucous membrane of the mouth, in the form of a
dense heap. Only when they are met with in separate masses is it
sometimes possible to recognise their edges, and the spores are
often seen heaped up in round groups. They are easily distin-
guished from the globules of milk, the granules of starch, the
cells of mucus and epithelium, in connection with which they are

OIDIUM ALBICANS. 195

>

apt to appear, by their peculiar mode of occurrence, for the most

part, in groups of two. Both spores and filaments resist even
concentrated sulphuric and nitric acid. The fresh fungi are
shorter, not ramified, the partition walls are closer together,
the contractions rarer, the filaments more regularly cylindrical,
and the contents of the terminal cells of the filaments paler. The
same may be observed in algae which have been kept in water for
several days. Reubold observes that, on the whole, little is to be
added to this description as given by Robin. He also speaks of
the spores and of the partition walls and the contractions, rarely
found on any fungus of the skin, as well as of the oval violet-
coloured cavities, as highly characteristic of this fungus,
although they are sometimes small in number. Reubold
deviates from Robin merely in assuming the existence of two
kinds of germination in the spores.

Threads of various thickness, with partition walls and
contractions whence the branches arise, spring from the ends or
sides of the spores, whilst in their interior granules and mole-
cules are found. The filaments betoken their origin, according
to the position of the spores, sometimes as shining points, some-
times as projections. Very thin threads frequently originate
during the germination, which are often of considerable length,
and without any partition walls or contractions, exhibiting only
numerous dense cavities, which, however, finally expand. Robin
does not seem to be aware of this kind of development, whilst he
knew well the second kind, where the fungus is developed by
mere prolongation of the spore, and direct transformation into
threads. The spore becomes longer during this process; the
cavity remains the same, whilst the prolongation may give rise to
a new cavity, or frequently to two, three, or four, side by side,
beginning as small points. These spaces enlarge as the cell en-
larges and elongates ; they touch one another, and finally leave
only small partition walls between them, so as to transform these
partitions riot into new formations, as Robin states, but into the
remains of a previous solidity. The same formation of expanding
hollow spaces occurs during germination j the two kinds of de-
velopment are sometimes met with during the same germination.
The ramifications, which have the same diameter as the principal
trunks, are for the most part only perceptible in the first order ;
ramifications of the second, third, and fourth order are, however,
often found. Very neat dendritical figures occasionally occur.

196 VEGETABLE PARASITES.

The branches incline at various but always rather sharp angles,
so as to impart to the whole the appearance of a tree with its
branches — a good criterion for our fungus. Regularity in the
number, the position, and the alternation of the branches does
not exist. Special organs for* proliferation were not noticed
(Reubold) ; it is, however, probable that the swellings and cells
at the ends of the filaments and branches are transformed into
spores. Objects are often seen which must be viewed as
transitions from simple enlargements to distinct separate cells,
which sit sometimes looser, sometimes firmer. Robin noticed
the same on other fungi. It is not to be doubted that the organs
for forming spores are less distinct here than is the case with
other lower fungi.

Colour of the Thrush. — It is mostly white, like coagulated milk
(lactucimen), sometimes dirty, yellowish, brownish, and even
blackish ; the aphthae are never of a pure white. The white
colour of the thrush results partly from the fungus, partly from
epithelial accumulations; at all events all epithelial sloughs in the
case of hypertrophies of glands and on other places, in the case
of measles, stomatitis, &c., are of the same colour, even if there
be only single layers. In private families where children are
fed well and acquire habits of cleanliness, this whitish colour
remains usually the prevailing colour, and it turns more yellow
only when the fungus is allowed to expand into large membranous
masses. Whence the dirty and brown colour comes from it is
difficult to say. Reubold thinks that it is only met with in the
membranous form, and agrees with Berg, Valleix, and Robin,
that it lies in the fungus itself, and in the colouring of its spores
which occur in such large quantities, and that it is not caused by
any extraneous colouring substances. The great formation of
spores, or the dismemberment of the epithelium, which turns yellow,
may either perhaps cause this colour ; perhaps, also, the age of
the spores. One is reminded of the white colour of the boletus
in its early stage of growth, and of its brown colour when old.
The thrush-fungus lastly turns brown on drying. The still darker,
blackish-brown and black colour is the result of coloured sub-
stances used as medicines, blood, pus, or of the complication with
the ulcers of the mucous membrane (Berg).

Seat of Thrush according to Reubold. — The thrush-membrane is
siad to lie sometimes under the epithelium, sometimes leaving
the glands quite free, or proceeding from them, or sometimes

OIDIUM ALBICANS. 197

"V

only luxuriating in the mucus of the mucous membrane. Lelut
even states that it occupies at different periods of its development
different positions ; at first being underneath the epithelium, and
after a little while laid bare. The soor is seen with the naked
eye, at least, for a short time, below the level of the surrounding
epithelium, but never directly on the mucous membrane, but
always on epithelial layers ; nor does it exclusively proceed from
the glands, since the free glandless edge of the lips, and the
upper surface of the nearer glandless part of the tongue, are
most frequently attacked. The fungus is always seen to be
intimately mixed with the epithelium ; the former is found be-
tween the epithelial cells, penetrating all their layers, and mixed
up with them. It cannot be said with certainty where the
epithelium allows the fungus to penetrate its outer layers ; this
seems, however, to be the case in several places, and especially
where inequalities in the thickness of the layers and in the
separation of the epithelium occur.

The fungus, in growing amongst the epithelial layers, attacks
first the uppermost layers, growing gradually also among the
lower, whilst the uppermost are worn out and thrown off by the
rapid growth from below. The fungus attaches itself with its
filaments partly to the epithelium, partly in the furrows of the
surface of the tongue, and all around the papillae, which sit like
a red centre in the thrush-ring. It occurs very rarely, according
to Bednar and Robin, on the mucous membrane, with ciliated
and cylindrical epithelium, but especially on that which contains
pavement epithelium, perhaps on account of their stratification,
and the possibility of an increased development of cells. It
likewise occurs only where there is pavement epithelium in the
respiratory passages. Reubold observed such a case in the nose
of a child two months old, and repeatedly in children on the aryteno-
epiglottic folds, and in the larynx, and on the vocal ligaments.
It is slightly distributed over the bronchi and the larynx. It
may, however, spread when cicatrized ulcers are found on those
parts of the body which are usually accompanied by pavement
epithelium. The epithelial appendages which the glands of the
rnouth offer at their openings are likewise a favorable place.
The fungus is often attached at first to the openings of the
glands, and penetrates laterally underneath the epithelium. The
secretion-layer of the mucous membrane is not very favorable
to its development, on account of its growth and its distance

198 VEGETABLE PAEASITES.

from the proper mucous membrane. Robin is of opinion that
the fungus grows in the layers of the mucus which are attached
to the epithelium, and on the surface of the latter; an opinion
which was refuted by Reubold. The mucous membrane is rarely
altered by the fungus, although it penetrates down below the
first epithelial layer, sometimes even into it, which leads to its
softening and ulceration, occurring especially on the alveolar edge
of the skin, when the fungous layers have been forcibly torn off.
It is as yet undecided, it seems, whether the fungi cannot live
on those places, or whether they thrive but sparingly, where there
is ciliated epithelium, although there seems to be no further
doubt that those tissues greatly favour the growth of the
fungus, which are covered with pavement epithelium. Berg
states, that this fungus does not occur around the rectum
and nates, arid on the nipple, but thinks that it may occur on
the mucous membrane of the genitals. Berg was chiefly led to this
statement by his theoretical speculations, and the former is there-
fore not yet decided. Further and final practical observations will
be required, which demand great care on account of this disease
being easily confounded with hsemorrhagic erosions of the stomach,
follicular affections, and ulceration of the intestinal tube in
children, or with undigested coagulated milk.

Circumstances favorable to the development of the thrush-fungus,
according to Reubold. — This fungus is found at every age,
the earliest as well as the oldest in preference, the reason of
which may, perhaps, be sought in the long sleep of very young
and of aged persons, leaving to the spores time for growth
without disturbance. Reubold observed it on persons from the
age of two days to seventy years, more especially, however, up to
the first nine months, frequently in connection with catarrh of
the bowels, from whatever cause produced. The conditions under
which the fungus thrives are little known. Secretory changes
of the mucous membrane (production of an acid secretion, parti-
cularly of lactic acid), induced and fed by the fungus, (Robin) ;
next to this a changed vegetation of the epithelium play still a
considerable part in the theory of the genesis of the fungus. Such
opinions are not fully proved yet. It is true that the thrush-
fungus, like the other fungi, is found to follow a decomposition
which provides for its wants, increasing it even by the eagerness
with which it abstracts nourishment. Decomposition of organic,
especially nitrogenous, substances, such as takes place in the

OiDlUM ALBICANS. 199

>
mouth, acts, no doubt, favorably (Robin), but a decidedly acid

decomposition and formation of lactic acid is not necessarily
required, for thrush-fungi are found without any acid re-
action. Among the causal circumstances, the peculiar properties
of the mucous membrane are especially not to be passed over
silently ; such as its loose state, its unevermess on the surface,
and its readiness to cast off its epithelial cells, — conditions which,
like the separation of the membrane of the tongue, are of tran-
sient, but frequent, occurrence in the mouth. Add to that the
repose of the mucous membrane in question, which is the more
conducive to implantation the greater it is; next the lessened
moisture and occasional drying up of the mucous membrane, as
often happens in the upper parts of the intestinal tube, and
the stratification of the epithelium, which prepares the way for
the fungus the better the more abundant it is. Thrush is therefore
met with most frequently and remains longest on those places
of the mucous membrane of the mouth which possess the
thickest epithelium — on the hard palate, accordingly, behind and
on the inner part of the lips and cheeks. The papillary bodies
of the mucous membrane appear likewise to stand in a certain
relation to the thrush-fungus, for the latter seems to have a
liking for the places where the papillse are thickest, such as on
the hard palate, on the cheeks, the lips, on the back of the tongue,
and on the oesophagus, though the fungus occurs sometimes in
the larynx, where these papillse, are not found.

The properties of the epithelium seem mostly to deserve our at-
tention. Several questions must, at present, be left unanswered,
as to whether the coherence of the epithelial cells be at first
increased and afterwards decreased ; whether the thrush-membrane
falls off at a later period ; whether the earlier irregularity in the
epithelium, which facilitated the growth of the fungus, be equalised;
whether the later epithelial crop thrives more rapidly than the
fungus itself, or whether the secretion, which is at first viscous,
loses afterwards its viscosity.

Catarrh is, of all diseases of the mucous membrane, that
which offers the above-mentioned undoubted causes of aphtha
most abundantly, presenting them all, whether they be of a
mere mechanical, local, or constitutional origin, acute or chronic.
It causes, at all events, changes in the arrangement of the epi-
thelium and in its secretions, if only because it is likely to lay
bare the secerning mucous membrane. Those changes which

200 VEGETABLE PARASITES.

the epithelium undergoes by a catarrh are unfortunately little
known as yet, and just as little do we know correctly the nature
of the secessions of secretion. One would naturally expect that
the eruption of the thrush-fungus should always bo preceded by
distinct indications of catarrh, *as was stated by Billard, Lelut,
Valleix, Empis, and Gubler, who supposed the mucous membrane
to be more or less inflamed, and yet these symptoms of inflam-
mation are so few and so indefinite, as was already stated by
Robin, that they can scarcely be recognised. There are, how-
ever, indications of such a state of irritation, although very local,
such as a local stomatitis, and the formation of a more abundant
epithelium on such places (Berg, Bednar, Reubold Stomatitis
morbillosa). We may, moreover, mention those symptoms which
point to a catarrhal state of remote portions of the bowels, or to
general diseases of the blood (typhus, phthisis, phhbitides, lymphan-
yitides, fyc.} • such as, diarrhoea, vomiting with pain, fever, ery-
thema podicis, though Bednar thinks that this is merely a
complication with thrush. It must not be overlooked that the
thrush sometimes disappears rapidly, sometimes remains stationary
for a long time, and sometimes reappears ; and it is well to
observe in future, whether this change can be brought into
accordance with changes observed in the catarrh. Let us
not forget that the most favorable age is that of childhood.
This age offers most facility on account of its irritable mucous
membrane, so rich in blood, and which seems to react on the
slightest indigestion, by producing diarrhoea, inflammation of the
mucous membrane of the mouth, attended by dryness or pain,
•when children are seen lying with open mouth, their tongue
scarcely moving; or by causing a general catarrh (icterus).
Keubold noticed on himself the thrush-fungus, caused by a
rheumatic inflammation of the neck, to which were added a
catarrhal and a local irritation of the mucous membrane of the
mouth, from taking rancid cod-liver oil, and saw it disappear
again with the catarrh.

The occurrence of thrush around the nipples of mothers is
explained by Robin, with Bouchut, Rayer, and Empis, according
to his theory of acidification, as being caused by the retention
and acidification on these places of the milk and the mucus of
the child's mouth ; and Rayer, Charco, Depaul, and Verneil, say
they have noticed it on ulcers of the extremities, in consequence
of protracted lying, in the case of severe phlebitis, a fact which

OIDIUM ALBICANS. 201

was, however, never observed by any modern writer, although it
seems to me that the possibility of their occurrence is not to be
excluded on physiological grounds. The horny tissues are closely
related to the epithelial tissues, and only separated in their wider
life the one from another. In a diseased state, nature is anxious
to restore the epidermis which was just removed, and the forma-
tion of epithelial cells must therefore take place, which the fungus
might occupy as its seat. Thus the growth of the thrush on
the above places of the skin becomes intelligible. (See section XII,
and what is stated there of the nail-fungus.) It has already
been remarked that the thrush occurs occasionally on ulcerated
surfaces and diphtheritic membranes; according to Robin, the
elements of the fungus are, however, found on these places only
in the purulent mucus of the diphtheritical ulcers, which fact he
explains by the accumulation of the epithelial masses, especially
of pavement epithelium in such exudations.

Berg thinks that the thrush-fungus grows also externally on
the body, especially at a temperature of 30 — 35° C. (98° Fahr.,
blood-heat), and in albuminous liquids forming an acid ; and is
of opinion that its development outside of the body is divided
into two different forms, now in the form of sporidia, giving rise
to a mouldy membrane on the surface of the liquid, and then in
a stalked form, exhibiting radiating and entangled fibres. Im-
mediately afterwards, it is, however, stated by Berg, that he
obtained a thrush- like mouldy membrane, in a liquid which con-
tained a solution of milk-sugar and a piece of the stomach of a
new-born child ; likewise in a liquid of mucus and cane-sugar,
although he could not discover any thrush-fungi, either in the
stomach or in the mucus. The same occurred after some
weeks in closed vessels in solutions of milk-sugar, made of human
and cow's milk. Vegetations like the thrush-fungus became
rapidly manifest in the serum of the blood, diluted a little with
water and acid, more rapidly still when a little cane-sugar was
added. Solution of caustic potash, which dissolves easily the
protein-compounds, clearly proved the vegetable nature of the
above formations. A similar process is noticed in milk, which
seems to be accelerated by a mutual action between protein-
compounds and certain acids. The thrush-fungus seems to be
nothing more, according to these considerations, than a kind of
fungus occurring as an ordinary mould on animal textures and
animal liquids which are left uncovered, and the fungus nothing

202 VEGETABLE PARASITES.

more than a mould-fungus ejected from the living human body,
but still adhering to the living filaments, and occurring on parts
of the organism (epithelium) ; its elements never penetrating the
real life-texture.

Berg very justly remarks that^ properly speaking, there are no
good or malignant fungi, but only a lesser or higher degree of
the causal process of disease, in the course of which they become
manifest, and that the symptoms which precede the outbreak of
the fungi belong to diseases which cause a general disturbance
of health, and facilitate at the same time the sowing of the
fungi. These fungi may, therefore, be accessory to a great
many different and serious diseases of children and grown-up
people.

Effects of the Parasite on Man (Reubold}. — The fungus being
merely a symptom of a disease of the mucous membrane, as stated,
does not deserve, according to Robin and Reubold, to be placed
among the formations noxious to man, and deserves mention only
on account of the increased difficulty experienced in swallowing
and sucking by its accumulation, preventing, by means of obtura-
tion of the oesophagus, the passage of the food, and generating
a considerable amount of acid by facilitating decomposition.
Otlier symptoms which accompany it, such as diarrhoea, more
rarely vomiting, erythema of the skin, and the saturated fever-
nrine, are not attributable to the thrush but to the catarrh. The
fungus is, however, not quite so despicable as to be estimated in
its effect merely as a furred tongue (Bednar), proof of which is
found in the enormous masses of fungi which almost stop up the
03sophagus. Its occurrence on the ligaments of the glottis may
render it very dangerous, by stopping up the glottis and pro-
ducing spasm or inflammation, and oedema of that organ. Reu-
bold thinks that the ulcerations and erosions underneath the
thrush-fungus ought to be accounted for by catarrh more than
by the fungus, although the latter is able to change erosions
into ulcerations, if it be correctly stated that it penetrates the
mucous membrane. The frequent occurrence of thrush in dys-
pepsia is explained by Reubold and Rinecker by the fact that the
fungus acts like a ferment on the mucous membrane of the
stomach, thus causing, in a very short time, its softening,
and even death may occur. Berg mentions, among its effects,
the following : sometimes as precursors of an eruption of
thrush : inflammation, pain, and heat of the mucous membrane

OIDTUM ALBTCANS. 203

of the mouth, symptoms which frequently, in new-born babes,
are of a mere physiological character, as well as external redness
of skin, and which are often met with without being followed by
an eruption of thrush-fungi ; sometimes, however, a slight con-
densation and whitish colouring and swelling of the epithelium
are noticed on the free edge of the lips, as if in consequence of
a kind of maceration. A disturbed taste, in consequence of a
luxuriant development of fungi, is occasionally observed, and
may be considered often rather as the effect of a general catarrh,
besides an interruption of the free movements of the affected
parts. The renewal of the epithelium succeeds more rapidly
than usual, no doubt with the aid of the fungus, although the
gastric primary disease by itself favours this renewal. Berg
seems to be justly of opinion that the fungus produces the
hoarseness, which often accompanies thrush ; and even the
already existing vomiting might, to some degree, be increased by
it, although the fungi do not necessarily cause it. The slight
idiopathic form, affecting healthy children, "is said by Berg to
have precursors, yet the symptoms he mentions seem to be merely
symptoms of a slight intestinal catarrh. The torpor and drowsi-
ness accompanying such cases, as well as the fear of removing
the diseased parts, are very likely the means of increasing the
luxuriant growth of the fungus, for even sucking must necessarily
disturb the attachments of the fungous parts. Night may, there-
fore, be in favour of eruptions, as well as the long sleep of the
new-born child, according to the view of Berg and other
writers.

I am inclined to attach little importance to the disturbing in-
fluence exercised by the confluent fungi on the secretion of
saliva, which they almost prevent during the period of the earliest
childhood, whilst it seems of more importance with well fed
children, who require much saliva for the insalivation of their
food. Berg observed, at the Foundling Hospital, in 1845, during
the prevalence of aphthae, that the faeces of 29 out of 139
children were yellow ; of other 29 children, after the fungus had
made its appearance, green; and of 57 the motions, sooner or
later after the eruption, became of the same colour. Berg seems
to conclude from these observations, that the thrush-fungus colours
the faeces green ; we are, however, unable to follow him in his
deductions, and believe that the first 29 cases, with constant
yellow motions, are quite sufficient to prove the view of Heubold

204 VEGETABLE PAKASITES.

and others, arid that the cause and the varying accident were
confounded. The cause of the green feculent matter must be
sought for in the catarrh of the intestines, the cavity of which
likewise favours the growth of the fungus, and not vice versa
in the luxuriant growth of the ftmgus. I have arrived at this
conviction in spite of Berg's observations (1. c.} p. 41 et seq., of
which I intend speaking more fully in the Appendix), which seem,
on superficial examination, to favour his view. We arrive proba-
bly nearest the truth by making the allowance that the aphtha-
fungus occurred at a later period than the catarrh of the intestine,
and became the cause of sustaining the latter by its very
presence, favouring to some extent the decomposition of certain
aliments into lactic acid. Berg states that he never observed
death as the immediate cause of the thrush-fungus ; all he saw
was contraction of the epithelium on the places above the
cardia where the fungi adhered very strongly, and he assures
us repeatedly that he never noticed underneath the cardia, or
in the lungs, fungi which adhered closely, but only loose ele-
ments of a fungous nature. Berg thinks that the fungi were,
no doubt, the cause of the earlier diseased symptoms, for the
latter disappear and health is restored with the disappearance of
the fungi. This phenomenon finds, however, its natural explana-
tion by inverting the causes, and by saying : As soon as the dis-
ease which favoured the development of fungi is over, the latter
will disappear, and it naturally follows that we have to ascribe
more influence to the generation of the acid products of digestion
than to the fungi, I shall return more fully to Berg's
experiments, in order to enable everyone to judge for himself; I,
for my part, think that the question is neither decided in favour
of Berg, nor do I believe that Reubold and Kobin (the latter
seems not to have been aware of the existence of Berg's work)
paid any such special attention to these experiments in treating
of the question referred to, as they undoubtedly deserve, in spite
of his defective and one-sided investigation of the subject.
Although I cannot share Berg's view, I agree with him that it is
not very improbable that the thrush-fungi, occurring in large
masses, are able to create a tendency towards an increased acid
digestion, if it were only because they pertinaciously retain the
acid which is found to be present. The frequent occurrence of
such a tendency may, however, be doubted, since the greater
number of the cases where this fungus occurs are accompanied by

OIDIUM ALBICANS. 205

a great want of appetite and impaired digestion. It is lastly not
to be overlooked that, although spores are present, they cannot
thrive in an uncongenial medium, and that much depends upon
the medium, and even the disease itself, as to whether it be able
to create a favorable medium for itself or not. It is, however,
possible, according to Berg's experiments (much as they require
to be repeated), that the fungus itself is able to help to transform
(if only to a slight degree) the soil upon which it grows into one
more favorable for its growth. It is well known that the age of
childhood is the period of diarrhoea, and since the latter occurs
more frequently in summer, the summer diarrhoeas of children
are greatly in favour of this disease. Age, by itself, does not
protect from it, neither does the climate. The growth of the
fungus is, moreover, assisted when the spores of fungi fly about
in large numbers in a place which is with difficulty ventilated,
thus causing always fresh infection. Suckling does not afford
unconditional protection, although, on the whole, fewer children
nursed by their mothers or by nurses are subject to it than other-
wise— a fact attributable more to external causes (such as the con-
tagiousness of the disease), and to disturbances of the digestion,
caused by the unnatural way in which they are reared, than to
the quality of the food itself. Temper and sex of the child are
of no influence at all. The principal circumstances, favorable
or unfavorable, are supplied by the healthy or unhealthy state of
the child. We know also that grown-up healthy people, as well
as children, are liable to thrush.

It follows thus that the aphtha or thrush is owing to a fungus, and
that it consequently is an entophite, and not an exanthem, and that
this eruption is not of a critical nature. The latter may especially be
said of the thrush around the anus of children, or of the thrush-
crisis, as it is called. These phenomena are by no means real fungi,
for nothing is seen of the fungus, but they are simply produced
by the mechanical action of the acrid faeces of children. In the
case of real thrush, the Oidium albicans becomes perceptible from
the very beginning of the disease, and in the smallest spots and
points (Berg, Reubold). Should it, however, happen that it
cannot be discovered at once, as happened to Remak, it is
merely necessary to treat the object with kali causticum. The
fungus is accordingly no mere consequence or accident of
a disease of the mucous membrane, but the cause of the disease
itself.

206 VEGETABLE PAKASITES.

No further argument is then required to prove that the thrush
is a contagious disease, the spreading of which depends upon
the transfer of the spores of a fungus, and we may easily
understand the outbreak of it in large foundling hospitals.
One means of its spreading is fhe suckling several children at
the same breast; sucking-bottles, sugar-titties, and vessels in
general which are used in feeding children in community ; the
very hands of the child, or the fingers of the nurse, especially
when the latter has to attend several sick children, and
presents them to the healthy children to suck at; the chewing
of the food by mothers or nurses suffering from thrush ; the
tO}rs of sick children which are sucked by healthy ones; un-
clean articles of dress, bedding, &c. Berg mentions also that
artificial food, and especially the keeping of such close to
mouldering liquids, is likely to become a means of transfer. The
reasons for Berg's view will be found in the experiments men-
tioned at the end of this volume ; these render it very likely
that the thrush is a kind of mouldy fungus usually occurring on
old protein compounds exposed to the action of the air. It ap-
pears to me that a chief cause of the contagious nature of thrush
in large foundling hospitals and lying-in hospitals, must be sought
in the bath, and the vessels and things employed, such as sponges
and linen for cleansing the mouths of children, and in the water
itself used for bathing, in which the spores float about, and in
which vessels are washed which may be used for water employed
for cleansing the mouths of other children. In private practice
the thrush is likely to be transferred by the objectionable custom
of nurses, who have the charge of several children, bathing
them at one time arid place. These women are in the
habit of cleansing the mouth of the child with their finger,
either uncovered or wrapped in a rag of linen. If we consider,
moreover, how chapped and rough the fingers of such women
usually are, it will no longer remain doubtful that they may be
the cause of* spreading the spores of fungi in private practice.
Berg proved the contagiousness of this disease by transferring the
fungous layer on to the healthy mucous membrane of healthy
children living in various localities, by the following experiment.
He took some crusts of aphthae from the mouth of a usually
healthy child, which had suffered for four days from thrush, anu
placed them on the intact mucous membrane of four children
brought to the foundling hospital the day before without a trace

OIDIUM ALBICANS. 207

of fungi, between the cheeks and the back part of the alveoli,
because they would remain there longest.

1. One child whose parents were unknown, but which was
suckled, exhibited, after sixty-five hours, distinct thrush on the
tongue, which had formed on the eighth day a large confluent
mass. Green stools were observed from the fourth to the eighth
days, followed, on the eighth day, by vomiting, by a watery
stool, and an increased difficulty in sucking. Careful local treat-
ment removed the vomiting and diarrhoea ; the thrush decreased,
and disappeared entirely on the eleventh day. The child was
again suckled, but the mucous membrane of the mouth was red^
dened and the papillae swollen. For three weeks there were
new eruptions.

2. Another child exhibited quite the same phenomena; the
thrush-layer was already slightly developed on the fifth day. It
persisted pertinaciously up to the eleventh or twelfth day, when
it disappeared. In this case, also, diarrhoea was noticed on the
fourth day.

3. A third child, suckled by its mother, exhibited on the
fourth day slight traces of discreet thrush without disturbance of
the health in general, and which soon disappeared by means of
local treatment. Another child, suckled by the same mother,
likewise exhibited thrush without being inoculated.

4. A fourth child, suckled by its mother, exhibited thrush on
the fifth or sixth day; it remained white, discreet, and produced
no special gastric symptoms.

These experiments prove, on the one hand, the contagiousness
of the disease, and, on the other, that the fungi pass off quite
mildly without any other gastric disturbances than those already
existing, whilst they vegetate most luxuriantly in such cases. I
am of opinion that the diarrhoea in the first and second cases is
not to be placed to the account of the thrush-fungus, but to that
of the change of the mother, arid because the children had first
to become accustomed to the milk of the new mother. It is
thus clearly seen, that the cessation of sucking accelerates the
spreading of the thrush ; perhaps on account of the fact that the
fungi are transported, during the progress of sucking, from the
mouth to the intestine, which is less favorable to their deve-
lopment.

This shows clearly the injustice of finding fault with the
nurses for a want of watchfulness, or with the sucking-bottle,

208 VEGETABLE PAKASfTES.

when an epidemic of thrush occurs, as has been done at the
Leipsic Lying-in Hospital, on the part of the director of that
institution. It is not the rude cleansing of the mouth on
washing the children, nor the irritation caused by it, or even the
exposure of the mucous membmne of the mouth, nor the irrita-
tion caused by sucking at a sucking- bottle, which are the causes
of the thrush, since we know from Berg's experiments that the
fungus thrives even when it is transferred to an intact mucous
membrane, and also that it sends its roots only into the epithe-
lium, and not below. Would it not be sufficient to employ
great care and cleanliness in using the various vessels, especially
the baths and their apparatus, when fungi have once declared
themselves in the hospital, applying the usual reproofs when
open neglect is discovered? Such a course, I think, would
be more adapted to an institution which perhaps was the first
in Germany where the vegetable nature of the Aphthse was
studied.

Prognosis. — There exists no prognosis of thrush, according to
Reubold, this disease being in general of little importance, and
only capable of producing independent symptoms which endanger
life in the exceptional cases already referred to, either by their
masses or by their seat. Berg is of opinion that they are quite
indifferent in healthy persons, disappearing spontaneously, or
being at least easily curable ; and he says that he never witnessed
a case where death ensued. The simple idiopathic, as well as
the discreet forms which attack healthy children, are the least
injurious, whilst the confluent, which occur in diseased conditions
of the system, generally demand the prognosis of the original
disease. In special cases, however, when the disease makes its
appearance during severe illnesses, or when the exhausted bodily
system would otherwise rapidly recover, they are certainly not to
be slightly treated. They retard the return of the appe-
tite by destroying the sense of taste, and render the appeas-
ing the appetite less agreeable by increasing the difficulties of
deglutition, and by thus rendering hunger endurable for a time
by dint of self-control, when it would be extremely desirable
that the exhausted body should recover rapidly by means of
good food. They also retard convalescence, and are capable of
reducing a weakened body to the uttermost. The colour is of
no prognostic value at all, unless we consider the dark brown or
black forms as more dangerous on. account of their indicating an

OIDIUM ALBICANS. 209

original disease that depends upon a disordered condition of the
blood (scorbutus, morbus maculosus Werlhoffii, &c.), or a more
copious ulceration. The cure of thrush will remain an impossi-
bility as long as the remedial agents do not succeed in removing
the original disease and in changing the soil on which the fungi
thrive.

After having thus studied this disease in all its forms, we now
proceed to speak of the differential diagnosis. Following the
very able historical and physical description by Berg, and viewing
thrush and aphtha as synonymous, I give the differential diag-
nosis, with some modifications, according to Eeubold :

1. Stomatitis vesicularis. — Distinct little vesicles, often arranged
in regular groups, are perceived on the surface, at the top and
on the edges of the tongue, especially in older infants, which
sometimes heal rapidly, and sometimes pass into pustules or ulcera-
tions. These vesicles, when they are still small and filled with a
whitish-gray matter without reddening the surrounding mucous
membrane, are not easily made out without the aid of the micro-
scope. They are, however, easily distinguished when the vesicles
are a little larger and surrounded by an inflamed ring, and filled
with a larger mass of a clear transparent liquid, when they spring
up discretely, or burst after a little while, presenting an ulcerated
mass, covered with a dirty yellowish secretion. When the thrush
lasts very long it becomes accompanied by ulcers, although the
fungus is found to grow secondarily even in the colon and on
diphtheritical exudations, which resemble it to some extent in
colour. The thrush resembles at first crummy, gritty bits of
cheese, or patches of coagulated milk, which look like the slough
of ulcers ; the fungus itself supplies, however, the distinctive diag-
nosis.

2. Certain affections of the epithelium of the mucous membrane,
especially epithelial accumulations. — They are very much like the
patches of thrush. The chief distinction is found in a thicker
and a shining layer of epithelium, and in their remaining sta-
tionary and unaltered for from four to six weeks, until they dis-
appear at last. They are often met with, but always ill an
isolated state, and on the middle line of the hard palate, towards
the front of the alveolar processes. They are likely to occur
sometimes to a larger extent and in a higher degree, and I
believe that the Stomatitis morbillosa of Reubold and the Pityriasis

14

210 VEGETABLE PARASITES.

oris are nothing more than such an epithelial productiveness on a
larger scale.

3. Stomatitis follicularis occurs most frequently about the time
of the first teething and in old age. Large, white, discrete,
half-spherical or flat vesicles %re formed especially on the lips,
on the inner side of the cheek, and on the gums. These vesicles
are depressed in the middle, often provided with a point ; they
burst soon, forming superficial ulcers with a red ring, and healing
sometimes with and sometimes without cicatrization. Weak
children are most subject to these ulcers, and in them they pene-
trate deeper, spread out more, possess a lardaceous base, and
cause greater destruction. These vesicles are nothing more than
the inflamed and enlarged mucous follicles.

4. It is not very likely that the thrush should be confounded
with the fatty degeneration of the villi of the mucous membrane,
especially near the cardia, observed by Reubold, which I stated
often to occur normally in the intestinal canal of dogs, and which
I regard as a sign of old age.

5. The gastric fur of the tongue, especially the spotted, and the
white masses around the teeth and gums, as well as the white coating
which often detaches itself irregularly on the fourth or fifth day
from • the tongue of children taken ill with scarlatina, are easily
distinguished with the aid of the microscope and by the absence
of the fungus. I was unable to discover the thrush-fungus in
the latter, although I applied caustic potash.

6. Remains of food and especially coagulated milk are easily
confounded without the microscope. Many of the cases men-
tioned by writers of thrush in the intestines and stomach, of
thrush-layers passing off with the excrement, were probably
nothing more than particles of such undigested coagulated milk.
The microscope alone can throw light on this subject.

7. Ricord states that a certain syphilitic disease of the tongue,
accompanied by granulated papillae, resembles thrush very much.

Therapeutics. — Berg paid great attention to this point, and
recommends finally the nitrate of silver (from x grs. to 3J of water,
or more, according to Trousseau), which is to be painted over the
sore by means of a fine brush. He prefers the various sodium-
salts to the potassium-salts, and gives solutions of borax and nitrate
of soda in decoctions of sage. He recommends also cleanliness and
ointments against the erythema on the rectum and the genitals.1

1 Appendix C.

TREATMENT OF THRUSH. , 211

Reubold, whose therapeutical views seem to me the most ra-
tional, states — " The causal treatment of the disease belongs to
the therapeutics of the intestinal tube; parasiticidal remedies
alone ought to find a place in the treatment of the thrush.
Cleanliness and removing the fungus are no doubt urgently
required in many cases, as, for instance, when the fungus is
seated on the isthmus faucium ; but surely these are not the only
means, as Bednar thinks. (I believe that the absolute con-
demnation of the process of wiping off the fungus, and the in-
veighing against this custom so often met with in nurseries, is
frequently the effect of ignorance, and shows a thorough want of
knowledge of the nature of the disease.) Uninjurious parasiti-
cidal remedies applicable to the mucous membrane of the mouth
are not known. Borax is harmless (Oesterlen and Jorg) ; other
metallic astringent salts act against the catarrh itself, when they
act favorably. Alkalies which remove acidity have been aban-
doned for a long time ; and Berg's theory of acidification loses
more and more ground every day. Five grains of sulphate of
copper in half an ounce of water is likewise ineffective, according
to Reubold. Nitrate of silver was found most effective against
diarrhoea in the Wiirzburg Clinic, and a little wine should the
child's weakness increase."

I would urge the use of small doses of iron, as, for instance, lac-
tate of iron, together with carbonate and phosphate of lime, or the
creosote-water united with the salts of lime, which I have frequently
found effective in cases of diarrhoea accompanied by fungi in
infants. Solutions of an iron-salt, especially when followed by a
small dose of cod-liver oil (10 — 20 — 30 gtt. per day in the case
of children upwards of one year), were found most effective in
removing atrophy and its consequences, and in accelerating con-
valescence.

History. — In order to be able to survey the history of this
disease it becomes necessary to sum up all that has been said of
aphthae, muguet, and thrush, and, above all, to abandon the
French mode of dividing it into separate diseases, which are in fact
merely gradations of one disease. Robin did not even proceed
thus. If we proceed from this point of view and master the
entire literature which was collected with great pains by Berg, we
may take the following historical view :

1st period. — Period of Hippocrates, who knew and described

212 VEGETABLE PARASITES.

the actual thrush of children under the name of aphthae (' Aphor/
Sect, iii, No. 24).

2d period. — Corruption of this idea by the Roman medical
writers, who wrongly translated this word by ulcera. This cor-
ruption has been retained front the time of Celsus to the present
time, and comprises both Stomatitis vesicularis and S.follicularis.
Celsus confounded the real aphthae with all kinds of ulcerous,
exudative, diphtheritic, and gangrenous disorders of the mouth
and throat, with Stomacace, Noma, &c. Galen confounds the
thrush especially with Stomatitis follicularis and vesicularis with
their ulcers and others. Aphthae were treated like ulcers by
Aretaus, Oribasius, Aetius, Paulus .^Egineta, Primerose (1508) ;
Amatus Lusitanus (1551), who describes a case of thrush on a
grown-up person taken ill with intermittent fever; Fernelius
(1569) ; Ambrosius Pare (1575), who recommends with Ruff the
simultaneous treatment of nurses and infants; Mercurialis (1583);
Forestus (1591); Herlicius (1597); Sennertus (1646, ulcuscula
seu tubercula oris) mentions as remedium fcetidum the frequent
sucking at a living frog, which he thought would remove the
malignant secretions; Joel (1665, exigua ulcuscula seu pustulse) ;
Riverius (1646, the different distinctions of colour are supposed
to be produced by bile, mucus, atra bilis, and putrefaction) ;
Mauriceau, Riedlein (1698) ; Loew (1699) (Prunella infantu-
lorum = thrush) ; Becher (1700); Slevogt (1706) speaks of two
species — Ulcuscula and Papula, which form vesicles; Boerhave
(1709), who was acquainted with the piecemeal loosening, falling
off and reappearance of the sloughs, till larger ulcers were formed ;
Juncker (1718), observed that they might be wiped off; Dionis
(1718); Astruc (1746) ; Cooke (1770) ; Nicolas (1722) ; Plenk
(1776, ulcera cutanea) ; Selle (1802) ; Heberden (1804) ; Henke
(1810-21) ; Swedians (1812, ulcers, vesicles, pustules; they belong
to his Pyrexire, order Phlegmasiae).

3d period. — Return to the name given by Hippocrates. — It is
scarcely necessary to speak of this as a distinct period, as it only
included a few isolated writers who endeavoured to return to the
most ancient name, but whose voice, however, was disregarded.
I mav mention Pollux (' Onomastic/ 1. iv, c. 24, sect. 200) ; Gir-
tanner (1794), who calls them vesicles or spots on the lips;
Brassard (1837).

4th period. — Period marked by the endeavours to describe

HISTOEY OF THRUSH. 213

more exactly the aphthae, and to distinguish them from other
diseases at other ages ; a general abandonment of the view of the
ulcerous nature of aphthae, and a prevalence of the view that they
were exanthematous. (The German-Dutch school of the Middle
Ages to the present time.)

Eiiff (1554 and 1580), and his Swedish translator Benedict.
Olai (1578), call them leaflets ( Blatterlein) ; Hollerius (1579),
vicarious eruption (beneficium naturae), their arrest creating
atrophy of children ; Scipio de Mercuriis, and his translator
Welsch (1653), white vesicles, with a red base; Ketelaer (1652),
complication of the Dutch marsh-fever; he was the first who
described well the aphthae of adults ; no ulcers but tubercula ;
empyreuma, which was to be separated by way of the newly
discovered lymphatic vessels, opposed to the theory of the cause
of the colour of the aphthae ; extension of the same to the whole
intestinal canal ; creating an epoch. Ettmiiller (1675, tubercula)
did the same for the aphthae of children as Ketelaer did for those
of grown-up people, and created likewise an epoch ; Pechlin
(1691), aphthae-blossoms, rising from the stomach to the mouth,
analogous to a process of sublimation ; Cregutus (1696), like
Ketelaer; Lentilius (1709), pustulae miliaris albae; Voeltern
(1722), " Biatterlein," which render the mouth as rough as a
grater; F. Hofmann, " Blatterchen," the seat of which are the
glands of the mucous membrane (1741) ; Pelargus-Storch (1750),
" Blatterchen " and ulcers, of the matter of which, whether it be
acid salt or acid, we are ignorant ; Borner, " Blatterchen " and
vesicles (1752) ; Van Swieten (1754), pustulae, which are gene-
rated by the obstruction of the natural ways of exit to the
hardened mucus of the tongue and the mouth; Sauvages (1755),
phlyctaenes, papulae subrotundae, semilineares ; Linne (1765),
morbi exanthemat. sporadici, escharae albidae; Eosenstein (1764,
translated by Murray, 1798), scurfs ; Armstrong (1765), spots and
vesicles; Cullen (1769), exanthemata, escharse; Unzer (1770),
patches, forming a scab ; Sagar (1771), exanthem. contagiosum ;
Mellin (1781), "Blatterchen/' Soor = Kurvoss, because it is a
curable disease — affecting the nipples, " Fasch," in which case the
breast is best protected by oil; Starke (1784), vesicles caused by
the stopping up of the efferent channels of the glands — although
they are not dangerous it is well not to disturb their eruption ;
the German translator of Cullen (1785), ulcers of the size of
millet, never any primary ulcers ; Underwood (1784), white layers

214 VEGETABLE PARASITES.

springing from spots; J. P. Frank (1792), exanthemata scabra,
— he confounded them with stomatitis; Hufeland (1792), critical
phenomenon; Fleisch (1808), vesicles, stomatitis vesicularis;
Jahn (1803), local disease, dots, fissures, vesicles; Gardin (1807),
critical exanthem of white tubercles, moreover identical at all
ages; Capuron (1821), translated by Puchelt, a critical exanthem ;
A. G. Richter, pustulous exanthem; Good (1822), granulated
vesicles; Wendt (1823), white spots and vesicles; Josephus
Frank (1830) ; Eisenmann exanthem ; Schoepff (1841), idem.

5th period. — The period in which Muguet meets with a special
description, and is separated from aphthae, by the French school.

Knellie, an Englishman, is the first who describes the Mugue.t,
although he does not give it that name. The French school
begins with the year 1738, when the attention of the government
was called to the excessive mortality at the Paris Hospital for
Children, with the work of Martinet, 1740, who calls the disease
Blanchet, or Muguet, and who ascribes to it a contagious cha-
racter, Colombier (1779), de petits boutons blancs et durs;
Doublet (1783) describes accurately the course of their develop-
ment. Amongst the competitors for the prize given at Paris, in
1786, who were successful, were Sarponts, who distinguishes
" aphthae in puncto albicantes et pustulae miliares," and recom-
mends inoculation as a protection ; Auvity, who separated aphthae
and muguet, and mentioned the glands of the mucous membrane
as their seat; Van de Vieupersse, who classifies them with the
exanthemata, as being more related to miliaria, and therefore
critical, and knew that the vesicles discharge no liquid; Coop-
mans, who says, the word aphthae was used for " stomacace " and
" noma J> by ancient writers, whilst they are tubercles or pus-
tules around the rectum — aphthae are the same in the North
as miliaria are in the South; Arnemann, who says, aphthae are
neither ulcers nor pustules, but white tumours, consisting of three
species — the commonest are those of foundling-hospitals, and
those of grown-up people, which latter alone are critical ; and
Lentin, who calls them a non-critical formation of papillae.
Wedekind knows them to exist in an isolated state (Stomatitis
follicutaris) , and aphthae in heaps (true aphthae and diphtheritis) ;
Hecker (1815), in his otherwise good description, is, however,
defective, — he divides Aphthae neonatorum} the same as " soor" and
Schwammchen (thrush) ; Bertin (1810) ; Geoffrey (in the ' Dic-
tionnaire des Sciences medic,/ 1812) ; Dievilliers (1819, ibidem,

HISTORY OF THEUSH. 215

article " Muguet"), the name muguet is derived from the resem-
blance in colour and form to the flowers of " Convallaria maialis ;"
Heyfelder (1828) ; Guersant and Blache (ibidem, 2d edition,
carrying out further Wedekind's views) ; Lelut (1827) ; Billard
(1827), " Stomatitis follicularis " = aphthae and stomatite avec
alteration de secretion = muguet; Duges (1829) only increases
the confusion; Pieper (1831) — like Billard, he does not, however,
perceive the resemblance to mould, and describes the Stomatitis
follicularis, the latter being entirely confounded with thrush by
Rau (1831) ; Eisenmann (Stomatopyra Soor and Stomatopyra
aphthae, which are exanthems) ; Gordinet (aphthae, a disorder of
the mucous glands ; muguet, an exudation) ; Naumann (aphthae =
a formation of phlyctenae ; soor = Stomatitis exsudativa, or in the
2d edition, Angina aphthosa) ; Bouillaud, de la Berge, and
Monneret, who caused great confusion; Schnitzer and Wolff;
Bouchut calls aphthae what is, in fact, Stomatitis follicularis, and
applies muguet to the real fungus. All the renowned medical
authorities of France and Germany, down to Cannstatt, when he
wrote his first edition, share the faults spoken off, and it appears
to me superfluous to enumerate them all. The exceptions will
be mentioned in the last period.

6th period. — Period of the proof that aphtha and muguet are
identical. — Double (1803), it is no inflammation, but a disease
which occurs on red spots, forming white pustules ; O. L. Bang ;
Heyfelder thinks that aphthae and muguet are synonymous — he
confounds, however, aphthae and Stomatitis follicularis. Bark-
hausen thinks that Peyer's and Brunner's glands were often mis-
taken for aphthae. Frankel (1838), muguet, a variety of aphthae.

Period of the knowledge of the true fungous nature of aphtha.

Jahn first observed, in Hufeland's ' Journal/ 1826, that the
people had rightly conceived a similarity to exist between this
disease and mould, and compared the physical development of
both. But as he did not believe the lowest moulds to consist of
really organized plants, he also viewed these fungi merely as
physico-chemical products. He is of opinion that a peculiar
fungous mass exists, and that the fungi are sometimes produced
by other species of mould, as, for instance, Merulius destruens.

216 VEGETABLE PAEASITES.

Although J. Frank ridicules this idea, Jorg likewise speaks, as
early as the year 1826, of fibres of fungi.

Langenbeck first described a fungus (in Froriep's 'Notizen/
No. 252, 1839) which occurs on the aphthous layer in the
ossophagus of a person who died of typhus, and gives more details
(1840), without knowing, however, whether this fungus was of
constant occurrence.

Berg accidentally saw, in the 'winter of 1840-41, the mould
which grows on old milk, and was surprised to find such a great
resemblance between mould-fibres and those which he found in
the aphthous discharge. He communicated his observation to
Gruby, who considered the fungus to be analogous to the favus,
and reported it as such to the Swedish Association (September
and November, 1841) ; Joh. Miiller published some remarks in
his ' Archiv/ 1842. Berg discussed the subject further in the
' Hygiea/ 1842. Eschricht, Vogel (as resembling the favus-
fungus), and Buchner described the fungus in 1841. The latter
continues the comparison of fungi which Jahn began, and men-
tions as analogous to the noxious effects of spores of the fungi,
three cases of poisoning caused by the sporidia of Mthalium
septicum, as well as his own stupor after swallowing the spores of
Boletus. Hannover's Leptomitus (1842) and Bennett's expec-
toration-fungus are, according to Berg, nothing but aphthae.
Oesterlen knows the fungus (1842), but considers it to be merely
accidental. Gruby, who, with Berg, was the first to discover the
vegetable nature of the aphthae, described the fungus as Spo-
rotrichum (1842), and called it Aphthaphyte, and assumed as its
cause severe epithelial disease. Rayer and Montague, Andral
and Gavarret, were likewise acquainted with this fungus. The
latter saw it also generated when albuminous substances were
left standing together with vinegar. Eisenmann (1845) attributes
the fungus to a " generatio sequivoca." Bouchut knew the
fungus which occurs on real thrush, and calls it muguet, whilst
his aphthae are Stomatitis follicularis. Remak states that the
fungus occurs only secondarily after the loosening and ulceration,
but does not know its pathogenetical significance (1845). Hoerner-
kopf and Baum adhere to Berg's views. Empis, next to Berg,
has the merit of enlarging our knowledge of this fungus. Gubler
thinks that the fungus originates in the interior of the salivary
glands ; Bazin, in the follicles which generate the slime. Bednar
is well acquainted with the fungus, but confounds the name soor

EXPERIMENTS. 217

(thrush) with aphthae and stomatitis. He speaks of two forms of
thrush. The first kind, which he only observed during an epidemic
of measles, is said to be remarkable for its excessive luxuriance,
formation, and detachment of the epithelium of the mouth
(pavement-epithelium), together with mucous corpuscles and oil-
globules without fungi ; the second form of soor consists of real
thrush. Reubold saw the first form only once during an epidemic
of measles, and he describes it quite correctly as " Stomatitis mor-
billosa" This stomatitis formed on the lips and the parts of the
gums which correspond to them, more rarely on the tip of the
tongue, a thin layer of white, small gritty discharge, accompanied
by pain, inflammation, and swelling of these parts. The dis-
charge fell off without causing ulceration, and exhibited cor-
puscles of mucus and pus, without a trace of pseudo-membranes
or fungi, besides a plentiful epithelium, and they never occurred
on toothless children. It was only after this disease had had its
course that thrush-fungus was once observed to break out.
Reubold, who recently gave a more correct description of
aphthae, and who deserves great merit, alwa3rs saw the fungus at
the very beginning of aphthae. He adopted, however, the French
theory, and views aphthae and thrush as two distinct forms of
disease.

EXPERIMENTAL APPENDIX.

Experiments made by Berg in order to ascertain the most favorable
medium for the development of the fungus.

Berg took scabs of aphthae, weighing two or three grammes,
from a living child, and poured distilled water over them, and
allowed them to stand at a temperature of 12 — 15° C. (53 — 59°
Fahr.) He found after the lapse of five days numerous sporidia
in the liquid, which were larger and more developed and more
copious than at the time when the scabs were detached. He
also observed that there was a connection between two or three
of them, and that their stalks were twice as thick, whilst other
fungus-formations were wanting. A similar result was obtained
by the experiments for preserving the scabs in a liquid mixed
with arrow-root powder at the same temperature. Luxuriant
fungous formations were also seen shooting up from the scabs

218 VEGETABLE PARASITES.

that lie on the bottom in a solution of sugar. Berg thinks that
they also belong to the thrush-fungus. No particular formation
of aphthae was observed in the case of scabs which were preserved
in pure water at a temperature of 30 — 35° C. (86 — 95° Fahr.),
but they were very numerous Tjrhen the scabs were preserved in
the mixture of arrow-root. A small cloud was perceived after
forty-eight hours, consisting of the fungus, but possessing only
few and short stalks. The process proceeded most luxuriantly at
the same temperature in a solution of sugar, the result being the
formation of a white mouldy membrane or layer on the surface of
the liquid, which is said to have been produced by small patches
of the aphthae-fungus which floated in the liquid, whilst at the
same time a gas was emitted from the liquid employed. The same
phenomena were observed in a solution of cane-sugar mixed with
albumen, in which fungi grew for ten days. Solutions of milk-
sugar likewise exhibited a mouldy membrane, with similar spo-
ridia to those of the aphthae-fungus.

Berg next examined the stems and spores of isolated fresh
thrush- fungi, after having carefully removed all organic portions
of the epithelium, &c. He did not succeed in tracing the growth
of these fungi in distilled water at a temperature of 30 — 35° C.
(86 — 95° Fahr.), but he noticed a slow growth of the fungous
elements in a hermetically sealed-up solution of sugar at 15° C.
(59° Fahr.), and a more rapid one in solutions of sugar con-
taining albumen, the growth being, however, slower in the latter
case at a temperature of 15° C. (59° Fahr.)

Experiments on the thrush by Berg.

Berg took scabs of aphthae, and mixed concentrated solutions
of borax, soda, alum, and corrosive sublimate (about one twentieth
part) with a solution of cane-sugar containing the scabs. All
these compounds seemed to impede their growth. The solutions
to which borax or soda had been added exhibited gradually a less
alkaline reaction, and on exposing the scabs perhaps longer than
for a period of six days, another result might probably be
obtained. The same took place when eight grains of nitrate of
silver were mixed with one ounce of water and nineteen twen-
tieths of cane-sugar and scabs of aphthae. I cannot see the use
of these experiments, as the aphthae-fungi exist here under different
circumstances to what they do naturally. If therapeutics are to be

EXPERIMENTS. 219

benefited, it can only be done by submitting the fungi, which
form a mouldy layer on albuminous substances, to the remedies
employed in the experiment, and by placing fungous elements
for some time in the solutions of such remedies, watching
whether they continue to grow when brought together with fresh
albumen.

Experiments on the question whether the scabs of aphthae have
the power of converting milk-sugar into lactic acid, and thus
acting as a kind of ferment, and simultaneously producing an
evolution of carbonic acid and the generation of acetic acid ;

1. A glass tube was filled with cane-sugar dissolved in eight
parts of water. Reaction neutral ; after seven days, still clear
arid neutral.

2. A glass tube was filled with milk-sugar. Reaction neutral ;
after seven days, like No. 1.

3. Ditto, with a thin mucilage of arrow-root starch. Reaction
neutral; after seven days, still neutral; a deposit of starch-
envelopes.

4. A tube was filled with human milk. Reaction slightly
alkaline ; after twelve hours it was sour, and coagulated slightly
after twenty-four hours.

5. Ditto, with cow's milk. Reaction slightly acid ; after ten
hours, found to have almost completely coagulated.

6. Ditto, cane-sugar, with two grains of scabs of aphthaB.
Reaction neutral ; after twelve hours, acid reaction ; after thirty-
six hours, acid, and a cloud of fresh spores of aphtha?.

7. Ditto, with two grains of yeast-fungi. Reaction neutral ;
after one hour, fermentation and acid reaction.

8. Ditto, with two grains of acid stomach of a child. Reaction
neutral ; after nine hours, acid ; after thirty-six hours, strongly
acid, the stomach breaking up on shaking; three or four days
later, the liquid opalized, and exhibited some sporidia resembling
the aphthae- fungi, some fine fibres like the tooth-alga.

9. A tube contained milk-sugar with two grains of scabs of
aphthse. Reaction neutral ; after nine hours, acid ; after twelve
hours, slight fermentation ; in four or five days, a mouldy mem-
brane, with sporidia of the aphthae-fungus without stalks.

10. Ditto, with two grains of yeast-fungus. Reaction neutral ;
evolution of gas in the course of an hour ; acid without fermenta-

220 VEGETABLE PARASITES.

tion after twenty hours ; in forty-five days, a yellowish-gray cover
of mould, unlike the aphthae-sporidiae.

11. Ditto, with two grains of acid stomach of a child. Reac-
tion neutral ; after thirty-six hours, as in No. 8 ; in three or four
days, opalization of the liquid zfhd a mouldy scum, with sporidia
and fibres resembling those of aphthae-fungi, as in No. 8.

12. A tube with a paste of arrow-root starch and two grains of
scabs of aphthae. Reaction neutral; acid after twelve hours;
after forty-eight hours, still more acid ; cloud of fresh aphthae-
fungi.

13. Ditto, with two grains of yeast-fungus. Reaction neutral ;
after six hours, a slight evolution of gas; acid after thirty hours.

14. Ditto, with two grains of acid stomach. Reaction neutral ;
after twelve hours, acid; after thirty-six hours, as in No. 8; in
three or four days, infusoria and fibres, as in No. 8, without
sporidia of the aphthae-fungus.

15. A tube with human milk and two grains of scabs of
aphthae. Reaction neutral ; after three hours, acid ; after twelve
hours, coagulated ; in three or four days, pretty copious genera-
tion of fresh sporules of the aphthae-fungus.

16. Ditto, with two grains of yeast-fungus. Reaction neutral ;
after six hours, no change ; after twelve hours, acid with fermenta-
tion, without coagulation.

17. Ditto, with two grains of stomach. Reaction neutral;
after three hours, partial coagulation ; after six hours, acid ; after
thirty-six hours, very acid ; stomach dissolved ; in three or four
days, as in No. 14.

18. A tube was filled with cow's milk and two grains of scabs
of aphthae. Reaction slightly acid ; after two hours, acid reaction ;
after four hours, also coagulation ; after six hours, general coagula-
tion ; after twelve hours, still more distinct.

19. Ditto, with two grains of yeast-fungus. Reaction slightly
acid ; after two hours, acid reaction ; after four hours, ditto ;
after fourteen hours, slight coagulation, without fermentation.

Experiments on the question as to whether the completely pure
aphthae-fungi possess the power of exercising a modifying influence,
especially the promotion of acidification, on a solution of sugar :

I. A few drops of the albumen of an egg were mixed with
water. Reaction neutral; temperature, 12 — 15° C. (53 — 59°

EXPEEIMENTS. 221

Fahr.) ; after a short time, flakes of albumen ; no fermentation
up to the eighteenth day ; still neutral after six days.

II. Ditto, with addition of cane-sugar, at 30 — 35° C. (86—95°
Fahr.) ; quite as in I ; acid in forty-eight hours, no fermentation.

III. A solution of sugar with clean aphthae-fungi ; neutral at
12 — 15° C. (53 — 59° Fahr.); after thirty-six hours, acid; no
fermentation ; no addition of aphthae-fungi.

IV and V.— Ditto, but at 30—35° C. (86—95° Fahr.) ; during
the first few hours, slight evolution of gas around the parts of the
fungi ; in twenty hours, distinctly acid ; no fermentation ; no
addition of aphthae-fungi.

VI. A minimum of clean aphthae-fungi with water and
albumen. Neutral ; at 16° C. (60° Fahr.) ; in sixty-five hours,
acid ; no fermentation.

VII. Ditto, with addition of cane-sugar. Neutral at 30 — 35°
C. (86—95° Fahr.)

VIII — XII. Ditto, only with variation of the quantities of
albumen. After some minutes, a fine flocculent deposit (albumen)
round the parts of the fungi, which was soluble in potassa ;
a slight evolution of gas for several hours ; gradually a heavier
precipitate rising to the surface; on the tenth day, slight fer-
mentation ; after from eight to twelve hours, distinctly acid ;
increase of fungous sporidia as long as gas continued to be
evolved.

Experiments by Berg on the power of the aphthae-fungus to form
acids, and on its increased growth by forming acids in pre-
sence of a nitrogenous body.

Two grains of the scabs of aphthae were put into a solution of
sugar at a temperature of 30 — 35° C. (86 — 95° Fahr.) After
twelve hours, evolution of gas, acid reaction; after thirty-six
hours, small fungous flakes ; after sixty hours, a mouldy mem-
brane on the surface. The whole mass was then shaken and left
to itself; the precipitate was washed until it no longer gave an
acid reaction. The deposit was again mixed with albumen and
solution of cane-sugar at 30 — 35° C, (86—95° Fahr.); after
twelve hours a slight, and after twenty hours strongly acid reac-
tion was observed, and evolution of gas, which caused the spores
to rise to the surface ; after forty-eight hours many fresh aphthae-
fungi appeared. The whole mass was shaken up after four days.
One half was put into a glass tube, arid potassa added until it

222 VEGETABLE PAEASITES.

was strongly alkaline. This reaction lasted for three days, the
liquid remained clear and without gas. On the fourth day, the
liquid was slightly acid, which went on increasing as well as the
evolution of gas; oil the sixth and seventh days, fresh sporidia
appeared. To the other half more sugar was added, gas was
evolved, and the fungi continued to increase ; on the fourth day,
however, the whole action ceased. The gas which was evolved
was found to be carbonic acid gas by passing it through lime-
water. The acid which formed after the evolution of carbonic
acid gas had ceased appeared to be acetic and lactic acids.1

I may, in conclusion, mention the questions which Reubold
puts at the end of his article, and which are to be decided experi-
mentally.

1. Does the fungus pertain only to man?

2. Is it a separate distinct species or only modified by its
local seat ?

3. Are mucous membranes the only favorable soil?

4. What are the conditions of its growth and the results of
the decomposition which accompanies it ? Is it an acid ?

5. Do different kinds of fungi occur in thrush, or are the
various distinctions caused by external influences?

6. Can other fungi produce a similar disease of the mucous
membrane ?

7. Does a particular kind of gas (marsh-gas) favour its de-
velopment ? or a particular season of the year ? (Reubold thinks
that the fungus is of more frequent occurrence in summer, as is
also the case with summer-diarrhoea.)

8. Are warm, wet summers in favour of the fungus ?

Literature. — 'The principal work is that of Berg of Stockholm,
f Ueber die Schwammchen von Kindern/ translated by van dem
Busch, 1848 ; Berg, in Miiller's « Archiv/ 1842, p. 291 ; ' Hygea/
1842, 12 Hft.; Gruby, ' Compt. rend./ 1842, xiv, p. 634, and *1 844,
xviii, p. 585 ; * Clinique des hopitaux des enfans/ 1842 ; ' Annal.
d'Anatomie et de physiol. pathol./ 1846, p. 286; Vogel, 'Allg.
Zeitung fur Chirurgie, innere Heilkunde, &c./ 1842 ; ' Gaz. med.
de Paris/ 1842, p. 234 ; ( Allg. pathol. Anatomic und ihre Ueber-
setzung durch Jourdan / ' Icon. path, hist.' 1843, tab. xxi,
1 — 3; Eschricht, Froriep's ' Notizen/ 1841, No. 134; Hannover,
Miiller's 'Archiv/ 1842, p. 290; Hoernerkopf, 'Dissert, de aph-

1 Appendix C.

APPENDIX. 223

tharum veget. natur./ 1847, pp. 28, 29, and Baum, ibidem, p. 38 ;
Sluyter, ' De veget. org. animal./ Berlin, 1847, p. 18 ; Raynal, ' De
contag. anim./ Berolini, 1842, pp. 9 — 24; Weigel, ' De aphtharum
natura ac diagnosi/ Marburg, 1842; Oesterlen, in Roser and
Wunderlich's ' Med. Vierteljahrsschrift/ 1842, p. 470; Gubler,
Note sur le Muguet, e Gaz. med. de Paris/ 1852, p. 412, and
' Cornptes rendus ' and e Memoir de la Societe de Biologic/ 1852 ;
Bazin, ' Recherches sur la nature et le traitement des teignes/
Paris, 1853, p. 12, pi. iii, fig. 2 ; Empis, Etude de la dipthe-
rite, 'Arch, gener. de med./ 1850, xxii, pp. 281 — 289; Bednar,
' Kinderkrankheiten/ Wien, 1850; Reubold, in Virchow's ' Ar-
chiv/ 1854, vii, 1, p. 76. The last is deserving especial notice.

Parasites resembling the thrush-fungus.

Similar parasites as in thrush are sometimes seen in the oeso-
phagus and in vomited matters. Wedl describes the following
case by Herzfelder. (Tab. V, fig. 1 a — g.)

Round spores of 0*005 — 9 mm. in diameter were discovered in
the vomited mass, with a partly voluminous, bright, eccentric
nucleus and group-like accumulations. The thallus-threads had
a transverse diameter of 0'003 — 014 mm. The cells of the
thicker threads exhibited a very large, bright nucleus, and be-
came smaller towards the two points of meeting. Two round
nuclei were frequently seen on the outermost cells. These cells
were sometimes of an elongated shape, with a nucleolus towards
the uniting parts. Even the thinnest threads still exhibited little
granules. In the original cells of the thallus-threads were seen
several granules (nuclei ?) in a separate state or in little heaps.
They were most copious on the lower part of the oesophagus near
the cardia of the stomach.

The mother-soil consisted of a molecular mass, together with
decayed granules (remains of epithelial cells) and slightly granu-
lated globules in striped mucous masses.

APPENDIX.

Berg found a fungus in the mouth and on small intestinal
ulcers which he does not further describe.

Bennett found a fungus between the teeth and the gums of a
person attacked by typhus. It was 0-003 — 6'" broad ; its free extre-
mities not very numerous, and fringed by a row of spores. Little

224 VEGETABLE PARASITES.

globules were seen in the cavities of the filaments, of O'OOl — 2X"
in size,, and longish spores in others. Bennett has since found
other indistinct vegetable formations, in a yellowish-green stool,
consisting of confervoid, entangled, elongated, articulated tubes,
with spores, and exhibiting a great inclination to break across.
(Bennett, On the presence of Confervse, &c., ' Monthly
Journal of Medical Sciences/ 1846, and ( Lectures on Clinical
Medicine/ Edinburgh, 1851, p. 215, figs. 83, 84.)

Langenbeck describes similar formations in the pharynx down
to the cardia, in a case of typhus.

Robin is of opinion that the latter fungus is Oidium albicans.
(' Repertorium fiir Anatomic und Physiologic/ von Valentin,
1840, v, p. 45.

Remak (1845) found several kinds of fungi on aphthae. He
thinks that the generation of fungi is always preceded by soften-
ing and loosening of the mucous membrane. He also believes
that he has discovered ramified thallus-threads on the pseudo-
membrane of a croupous patient. (Remak, ' Diagnost. und
pathogen. Untersuchungen/)

It is to be regretted that these latter observations have all been
recorded too incorrectly to enable us to classify them.

Reference has already been made to Wedl, Henle, Virchow,
Meissner, &c., as speaking of filamentous fungi which occur in
the mouth. I need not repeat what has already been said when
speaking of the Algse, according to Robin, and of LeptothiriM
buccalis.

IX. Fungus of the Lungs (Bennett) = Champignon du poumon.

Tab. V, fig. 2.

The mycelium of this fungus is composed of long tubes,
provided with partition walls and unequal articulated intervals,
bearing several branches, which sometimes consist of one cell,
set into the stem at the end of the last cell, and parted in the
shape of a fork ; sometimes simply separated into two or three elon-
gations at their point of articulation. These branches are 0*005 —
O'OIO'" in diameter. The spores are numerous, and are 0-010
— 0'014/x/ in diameter. Bennett saw these spores become longer
and form tubes. He found the fungus in the expectoration, in
the caverns, and in their tuberculous matter, in a case of pneumo-
thorax.

ASPERGILLI SPECIES. 225

*>

Rayer likewise cites byssoidal formations on the pleura in a
tuberculous case, and in the intestines in a case of pneumothorax,
without, however, describing them any further. (' Journal
PInstitut,' 1842, No. 492.)

Remak speaks likewise of dichotomous, divided mycelium-
fibres in the expectoration of tuberculous patients, and, more
generally, in diseases of the windpipe where the epithelium of the
pharynx is frequently renewed.

Gairdner describes likewise, though extremely superficially, a
fungus which had its seat on the pleura, in a case of pneumo-
thorax. (Confervse on the Pleura, ' Monthly Journ. of Med. Sc./
1853, p. 472.)

X. Aspergilli species.

Tribe. — Aspergillei : Recept. floccosum, simplex vel ramosum.
Sporidia vesicula sphtericte vel ovato-terminali inhcerentia.

Genus — Aspergillus : Flood tubulosi, septati, biformes ; fer-
tiles erecti, apice clavato incrassati. Sporidia simplicia, globosa,
seriatim conglutinata, in capitulum rotundatum circa apices clavatos
arete congest a.

Aspergilli (?) species. Fungus Meatus Auditorii externi (Mayer).

Tab. V, fig. 3.

The stem is long, transparent, showing in its interior little
globules, and terminating with a small, swollen, round, and
greenish little head, which sits like the cap of the fungus on a
small inflation of the stalk (Robin, Atlas, iii, 1). It is covered
with a layer of simple or double nuclei or spores on its free edge.
Between the stalks are other filaments, which are deprived of
mycelium, and spread here and there, isolated or in bundles.
Amongst them are found filaments in all stages of develop-
ment.

It was observed in a case of scrofulous otorrhcea, in a girl eight
years old, consisting of round oval cysts, of the size of a cherry,
the walls of which were fibrous, white on the outer part, hollow
in the interior, greenish, and granulous. These granulations
were found to be organized productions, by a magnifying power
of 300 diameters. Vogel thinks that it is closely related to the

15

226 VEGETABLE PAEASITES.

fungus of the root of the hair ; Robin classified it with Mucedo
in his first edition ; it belongs, however, to Aspergillus, the species
of which are known to thrive on masses of fatty matter in a state
of decomposition.1

Literature. — Beobachtungen von Cysten mit Fadenpilzen
aus dem anssern Gehorgange, Miiller's ' Archiv/ 1844, p. 401,
tab. x, figs. 1 — 4.

XI. Aspergilii species.

Affinis Aspergilii capitati capitulo aureo, seminibus rotundis.
Muffa dorata, gambata (cum Aspergillo capitato, capitulo glauco
seminibus rotundis, Micheli).

Here we find —

1. Filaments or tubes of the mycelium. — It is composed of
several very rigid, transparent, and branched tubes, separated
by partition walls, and consisting of several elongated cells, with
a few very small granulations, which are not, however, spores,
as Pacini thought. The single cells were 0009—0*200 mm.
Jong, the diameter of the tubes was 0*010, the thickness of their
walls 0*001 mm. They were not very numerous in the ear, but
could not be preserved by Pacini underneath glass plates, and
mixed with gum and arsenic.

2. Receptacular filaments, of pretty nearly the same diameter,
0-009 — 0-013, with a capitulum of 0-060 — 0-142 mm. ; they varied
in length according to the degree of development, being about 0*770
mm. Their form was very regular, of a rose colour, transparent,
and possessing a strong power of resistance. They exhibited a
clear cavity without granules, with two lines on each side. The
stalk was thin at the base, with two or three small angular pro-
jections. Pacini mistook them for little roots. The stalk be-
comes then of a somewhat more uniform and larger diameter, and
narrows once more shortly before the receptaculum, forming a
kind of sheath analogous to the calyx of flowers. It bears a
spherical inflation on its further end, the receptaculum = placenta
(Micheli), which is thicker in young persons than in old. Its
contents are a little granulated, according to Pacini ; it lies in the
centre of the capitulum, which is perfectly spherical, 0*060 — 0*100
mm. in diameter. The colour varied with the age and diameter,
that of younger individuals being dark yellowish-red, and from

1 Appendix C.

NAIL FUNGUS. 227

s

bluish to intensely black with older persons. The structure
of the capitulum was distinctly discernible only in young persons.

3. Spores. — They were spherical, 0*003 mm. broad, showing
in their free state a feeble movement (Brown's molecular motion),
and forming radiated rows with the receptaculum for their centre.
Each row contained from eight to fifteen spores. Some rows were
occasionally found isolated, but only on ripe forms (Micheli).
Each receptaculum bore, according to Pacini, 19,000 spores.

Dr. Bargellini discovered this fungus on Nardi, who had been
ill fourteen years. Nardi had resorted to sea-bathing, and he
stated that the water had often remained in his ears, causing
him at first pain, together with itching ; lastly, however, almost
complete deafness. Bargellini found, in the outer auditory duct,
small transparent vesicles, like millet-seed, with rather thick
walls, and having a serous secretion, which prevented him from
looking deeper into the auditory duct. A fortnight afterwards
the latter was found to be blocked up with a whitish mem-
brane, which could be removed by means of lukewarm water,
but only made place for fresh layers. After another fortnight
a blackish substance made its appearance, plugging up the audi-
tory duct, and adhering to a whitish membrane when the syringe
was applied. This happened repeatedly after cleaning the ear,
and Pacini, who examined this substance under the microscope,
found the above-mentioned rows of spores amidst the fat and epi-
thelial cells, partly dyed with blood, and viewed them as algae-
spores. Injections of acetate of lead (15 centigrammes to 30
grammes of water) easily removed this merely accessory para-
site, which perhaps owed its chief prosperity to the oil used
for injection having become rancid. Pacini's theory of the
origin of this fungus has not been confirmed by more recent
researches, as observed by Robin.

Literature. — Pacini, ' Supra una muffa parasita (Mucedo) nel
condotto auditivo externo/ Firenze, 1851, p. 7.

XII. Meissner's and Vir chow's Nail Fungus Aspergilli (?) species.

Tab. V, fig. 4.

1. Meissner found at Baum's Clinic a copious plexus of variously
entwined filamental fungi on the nails of an octogenarian, which
were thick and broad, with thick edges, strongly convex, re-

228 VEGETABLE PAKAS1TES.

sembling claws, striped with a yellowish-white, or brownish colour,
opaque, and which moved in their sockets, having a soft and
brittle but not lacerated appearance, and being fissile like wood.
These fungi became perceptible, on displaying the ordinary cells
of the nail by means of caustic soda, in which they spread freely,
often extending beyond the edges of the section. Their mycelium
consisted of long, ramified, articulated filaments, with joints of
__L_ — ^" in breadth, and twice to four times as long; being usually
arranged in consecutive layers, and refracting the light of a
greenish colour. There were, moreover, sporangia, with broad,
short threads or tubes, which were not ramified, indistinctly arti-
culated and enlarged, composed of short roundish or square
divisions, which contained the spores in the shape of a rosary,
with edges of double " contours," and which contained an im-
mense number of free spores in the filamental spaces, being
TOSO — 730"' in extent, roundish, and greenish in colour. The
largest among them exhibited double contours, and a spot (nu-
cleus?) in the interior.

The whole nail-substance of all the fingers, with the exception
of the healthy fore-finger of the right hand, was permeated by
this fungus, which extended in parallel rays and stripes from
the root towards the surface, pushing aside the cells of the nail,
and discolouring the latter. The fungus did not, however, occur
on other parts of the body. The man stated as the cause of his
disfigured nails, that the latter had been crushed some thirty
years ago by a heavy load, that they had fallen off, but grown
again, and become very thick, but he did not know whether the
fore-finger also had been injured. Meissner thinks that the
fungus was the cause of the abnormal growth of the man's nails.
The fungus is very much like that of Porrigo lupinosa, and is
distinguished from the fungus of Pityriasis versicolor (Micro-
sporon furfur) by its articulated mycelium, by larger filaments, and
spores.

2. Virchow mentions (1. c.) three more cases of the formation
of fungi on the nails of the toes, under the head " Onychomy-
cosis." Virchow adopts Meissner's description only generally,
and does not know whether all the forms observed by the latter
belong to one and the same fungus. Virchow found —

a. A very dense, copious mycelium occurring between the
fissures of the texture of the nail and within the circumference
of the large masses, which consisted of very fine, entirely colour-

NAIL FUNGUS. 229

less filaments, composed of longish joints, with double contours,
frequently exhibiting very fine clear drops at certain distances,
together with numerous ramifications, anastomoses, shoots of the
root, and sometimes roundish projections.

b. Very fine, small, simply bordered, numerous spore-grains,
with clear contents. Their development was indistinct, on
account of the adhering air-vesicles; large quantities of fine
spores were frequently observed lying in heaps at the end of a
filament, as on a receptaculum, very much like forms of Asper-
gillus. Virchow also found germinating spores, that is, spores
with fine cylindrical processes near to the larger filaments.

c. Coarser, broader, dark yellowish-brown, articulated, and
ramified filaments, with oval terminal enlargements, but only
once in a few examples.

d. Uncoloured, shortly articulated filaments, with larger
spores arranged in rows at their extremities, frequently of a
round shape and pretty large size, or with oval and smaller
spores, which often extend in one direction, being connected with
the next spore by means of a short flatly-ending neck, where
they retained their arrangement in rows. They appear almost
homogeneous in water or alkalies; iodine imparts to their in-
terior a stronger brownish-yellow colour, lighter on the edges ;
and on addition of sulphuric acid they exhibit a distinct, dense,
colourless, occasionally transient greenish or brownish mem-
brane, with brown, granular contents. On treating it with more
acid, the outer sac always opened on the spot where the neck
was (micropyle ?), allowing the brown contents to flow out.
In alcohol they exhibited likewise very distinctly the bottle-
shaped neck, which was only adhering to the outer envelope of
the spores, whilst their interior showed a contracted granule.
Virchow further states that he once found the fungus in the
gryphotic toe-nails of a woman who died of purulent empyema;
on another occasion in the very thick and short nails of a tuber-
culous individual ; and on a third occasion on an old woman, in
a case of nail-splitting, when he observed a yellowish-gray,
powdery mass, which could be sent flying about in the air by
bending back the nail, and allowing it afterwards to return to
its former position. The fissures of the nail harboured in all
these various cases either spores or mycelium, the part underneath
the nails was always very thick, and consisted of loose horny
scales, between which the yellow fungous mass, resembling in

230 VEGETABLE PAKASITES.

colour the favus- or tinea-mass, was interpolated. The fungous
mass, which sometimes appeared of a reddish-gray hue, invariably
occurred far back, between the foliated masses, near the edge of
the lunula, in large lenticular heaps. Virchow believes that
the fungus is equally important to the disease of the nails just
described as to Porrigo and Pityriasis versicolor ; but not so to
the Gryphosis of the nails by itself, for many more intense diseases
are frequently unaccompanied by fungi.

I am only following Virchow in classifying this fungus in the
mean time with Aspergillus, reserving for myself, however, in case
I should be able to collect further information, the right to give
it another place. Meissner' s illustration of it would most likely
classify it with Achorion Schoenleinii ; and Virchow likewise
points out that it forms a mass resembling very much the favus-
mass. But Achorion is without articulation, which Meissner and
Virchow state they have distinctly seen. Next to Achorion
Meissner's illustration resembles the Oidium albicans. The en-
tanglement of the filaments forms a kind of network, and their
articulation is likewise in favour of this theory, the only objection
being its different seat. According to what has been said at the
end of the division, " On the circumstances favorable for the deve-
lopment of the fungus" when speaking of Oidium albicans, it might
be thought possible that it should also occur in the deeper layers
of the nail-bed, i. e., on the numberless young nail-cells analogous
to the epithelium. I, for my part, am not disinclined to think
that this nail-fungus is related to Achorion or Oidium, and to
leave the proof of this doubtful point to some one more expe-
rienced. The nail-fungus found a place here because I should
not like to contradict recognised authorities, resting on a mere
" opinor," and I may be permitted to quote what Gudden has
said of Achorion : " Similar favorable conditions as the little
hair-funnel offers to the reception of fungous particles would be
offered by the furrow leading to the bed of the nail, if the fre-
quent washing of the hands did not counteract it." Also the
quotation of Gudden, from Canstatt's ' Hand-book of Med.
Clinics/ 3d edit., p. 1092 : " The horny mass of the nails suffers
likewise when the extremities are attacked by porrigo. The nails
become disfigured, they crack, and fall off."

Literature. — Meissner, in Vierordt's 'Archiv/ 1853, xii,
p. 193, with tab. i; Virchow, in ' Verhandlungen der physikal
med. Gesellschaft zu Wiirzburg/ v, 1, 1854, p. 102.

MUCOR MUCEDO. 231

Division II. Trichosporei (Leveille).

There are no species of fungi found on man belonging to this
division.

Division III. Cryptosporei (Leveille).

Receptacula floccosa, sept at a, simplicia aut ramosa. Sporidia
continua, in sporangia terminally membranaceo, columella centrali
munita vel non inclusa.

Tribe — Columettati : Sporangium vesiculosum, subtus irregu-
lariter aut in orbem dehiscens.

XIII. Mucor mucedo. Tab. V, fig. 5.

Genus — Mucor (Micheli) : Flood tubulosi, subseptati, fertiles,
erectij apice aquales, terminati peridio (sporangia] membranaceo,
dehiscente (raro diffluente), includente sporidia discreta.

Species — Mucor mucedo, L. ( = Mucedo ; Mucor vulgaris, Mucor
splicer ocephalus, Mucor tenuis) : Byssinus floccis fertilibus sim-
plicibus, peridiolis (sporangiis) sporidiisque globosis, demum ni-
grescentibus.

Baum, Litzmann, and Eichstadt found this parasite in a
cavity, in a case of inflammation of the lungs. It formed
a black mass of filaments, interspersed with round globules,
adhering to the walls of the cavern. Each filament had a
process on the outer surface of the mass, terminating in an
enlargement, surrounded by a row of oval cells. Sluyter views
these formations as Mucor mucedo, adhering to Schoener's theory.
The very imperfect illustrations would rather show it to be an
Aspergillus, as .Robin observed.

Robin leaves undecided whether the parasites found by Degner
and Horn, in a case of gangrcena senilis, and which the latter
believes he has discovered likewise on certain purulent spots and
blistered surfaces exposed to the air, belong to this division or not.

On looking at the illustrations, I am unable to find sufficient
distinction from the species of Aspergillus described under X.

Literature. — Sluyter, ' Dissertatio/ pp. 14 — 29, fig. 1.

232 VEGETABLE PAEASITES.

XIV. Puccinia Favi. Tab. V, fig. 6.

Division IV. Clinosporei (Leveille).

•

Receptac. variabili forma, clinodio obtectum aut clinodium in
receptaculo inclusum.

Tribe — Coniopsidei : Receptac. carnos., coriaceum, tremel-
loideum pulvinat., gibbum aut linguiforme ; primitus celatum, dein
exoriens. Sporid. decidua, simplicia vel septata, sessilia aut pedi-
culata.

Section — Phragmidiei : Receptac. carnos., coriac. vel tremell.
Sporid. pedicellata et septata.

Genus — Puccinia : Sporidia uni-, rarius biseptata, appendiculo
filiformi pedicellata et matrici adnata, in tuberculum concrescentia.

XI. Species 74 — Puccinia Favi (Ardsten).

The colour is constantly of a very distinct brownish-red,
whether viewed by day or candlelight, which latter usually causes
slightly coloured objects to appear colourless. It is of an elon-
gated form, at one extremity more or less longish, and occa-
sionally, but not very frequently, a little angular (i. e., its
body) ; the other contracting into a stalk. Both exhibit some-
times a slight contraction at the joints. The body always divides
into two cells, by contraction of which the one nearest the
stalk is the thinner. The broadest part of these cells is the one
nearest to the point of contraction, whence both decrease in
breadth. They yary to some extent in shape. The upper cell,
situated towards the body, is roundish and elongated, having its
greatest diameter either running parallel to the axis of the plant
or perpendicular to it; the lower, being situated nearer the
stalk, is longer and more angular, sometimes forming a regular
triangle with rounded angles. A cell-wall (= tissu cellulaire) and
contents (nucleus, Ardsten) are to be distinguished in both cells.
The contents appear sometimes homogeneous, sometimes granular,
sometimes spongy, full of holes or pores, which is probably caused
by different illumination. The cell-wall is quite homogeneous
and clear — brighter or darker than the contents, according to the
amount of light. Botb cells are surrounded by a very smooth
membrane, which is best seen where an empty space occurs
between the cell-wall and the surrounding membrane, viz., at the
upper extremity of the plant ; sometimes also at the place of con-

PUCCINIA FAVI. 233

S
traction, when the latter does not run exactly in a vertical

direction. The stalk varies most in size (from 0*00015 — 0-00030
mm.) and in diameter (from 0-00032 — 0-00160 mm.) ; it always
appears quite flat, sometimes round at the end, sometimes broad
and blunt ; and, in that case, generally very short, often twisted,
or ending towards its lower end in two hooks. It is sometimes
found without a stalk, which was probably torn off. Robin
observed four abnormal articulations in Puccinia. The latter is
always very soft, especially its stalk, which rolls itself up from
one side to another when it is long.

This parasite is more likely to be met with in the small fine
white scales at the commencing formation of the crust below,
than on the large yellow favus-scales. This is, however, not
always the case. The place which the Puccinia occupies is not
always easily determined^ and it is doubtful whether it thrives
best on the outer or inner surface of the scale, or — what
appears to be most probable — in its midst. The whole plant is
0-00200 — 348 mm. long, the body alone 0-00415 — 188 mm.,
and the stalk 0-00032 — 0*00160 mm., whilst the body alone is
0-00056 — 70 mm. broad, and the stalk O'OOOIS — 30 mm., the
cellular tissue being 0-00008 — 10 thick. It cannot be denied
that this parasite belongs to Corda's Puccinia, according to the
above description. Among the fifty species separated by almost
imperceptible distinctions, it stands nearest to Puccinia Alliorum,
P. Virga-aurea, P. Polygonorum, especially to the last mentioned,
differing from it only in a few points, on account of which
Ardsten places our fungus in a separate species, which he calls
Puccinia Favi, because it is principally met with on crusts of favi,
although not exclusively, since it also occurs in other diseases of the
skin, for example on the fine scales in pityriasis. The Puccinia,
which was first pointed out to Ardsten by Boeck, of Christiania,
occurs very frequently, if not always, in cases of favi. It is often
very difficult to discover, and a single scale may often be examined
for hours and no Puccinia discovered. Cazenave, who has not
yet been brought to acknowledge the vegetable nature of the
favus, regards Puccinia as merely an abnormal product of secre-
tion. Robin thoroughly refuted Cazenave's view, and we cannot
do better than quote his final sentences :

1. Achorion Schoenleinii deteriorates the skin, and causes
disease by its incessant accumulation and increase.

2. Puccinia is merely an accessory epiphenomenon, often

234 VEGETABLE PAEASITES.

wanting, and when it occurs is found on Achorion, or more fre-
quently on epidermal scales.

Literature. — Ardsten, in ' Gazette des hopitaux/ Paris, 1851,
October 14th, pp. 477, 478 ; and ' Annales des maladies de la
peau et de syphilis/ Paris, Aou*, 1851, 2d series, vol. iii, p. 281

PSEUDO-PARASITES
Belonging to the class of Alg& and Fungi.

1. The cholera-fungi or algae of Swayne, Britten, and JbJudd
are best known among the pseudo-parasites, being, to a great
extent, remains of food or medicines, and occurring also in many
other diseases. One portion of these bodies is in reality nothing
more than the alga of fermentation (Torula = Cryptococcus cere-
visite) and is likewise found in the urine of cholera patients.
Another part consists of carbonates or chalky concretions with
cellular tissues. Many resemble even certain eggs of the Hel-
minthi, which is easily perceived on comparing the illustrated
representations of this cholera fungus which have appeared in
the ' Illustrated Leipsic News/

2. Bodies analogous to bezoar-stones, which have passed off
from the bowels or during vomiting, have likewise been believed to
be vegetable parasites.

Denis describes such a body thrown up by vomiting, which
Braconnot recognised to be ligneous (ligneux), in the case of a
man thirty-six years old, and another in the stool of a man
eighty years old. Laugier thinks that a part of them which
exhibit distinct woody fibres may be traced to the remains of
chewed wood, especially to liquorice. They are the so-called
Egagropiles of authors, found on men and animals, on horses, and
are traceable to the husks of oats, as they are also found in men
feeding on oatmeal.1 I would add, that they are probably also
produced where bread baked of coarsely ground flour forms an
article of consumption. Others may perhaps be traced to
undigested shells (of almonds, plums, fruit, and potatoes, or
of coriaceous fungi). There is no characteristic sign whatever
of a cryptogam discernible. The case of obstruction of the
ductus Bartholin., mentioned by Strahl, in Vierordt's ( Archiv/
1847, pp. 481, 482, seems to be of the same kind. A mass of

1 Appendix C.

PSEUDO-PARASITES. 235

elongated, slightly entangled filaments, which exhibited a wall, a
channel, and contents, not being acted upon by vinegar, hydro-
chloric acid, and caustic potash, the latter of which destroyed the
link existing between them, stopped up the channel, and caused
great pain, which ceased with its removal. Strahl thinks that
he probably tore off the roots of the plant which were seated in
the ductus ; in which case, however, the fungus ought to have
grown again. Strahl afterwards thought that they were merely
the remains of vegetable food ; or, what I think more likely,
cotton-threads, which the person used against toothache, imbued
with various remedies.

3. Robin mentions that Von Siebold at one time viewed the
dust of the blossoms of Orchidacese, which had fallen on certain
Hymenopterse and Lepidopterae, as cryptogamic parasites, which
was, however, contradicted by Schlechtendahl, and Von Siebold
retracted his view at a later period. I would warn all observers
against similar misconceptions of the fungi on man, and may be
allowed to relate the following case. A robust child, of one and
a half year, had a moist skin disease on the left upper-arm
I examined for spores of vegetable parasites, but was unable to
find any ; but I frequently discovered in the crust which had
been lifted off a body resembling a receptaculum filled with
spores, arid which was not changed by treating it with caustic
potash. After searching for several days, I discovered at last
that the mother of the child had used the seeds of club-moss
(Lycopodiacese) as dusting-powder, without my knowing it, and
I recognised at once these bodies as the spore of a Lycopodium.
It is, therefore, necessary that medical practitioners should pay
particular care and attention to the dusting-powders, such as
starch-powder, See., used by the people, or they may run the
chance of discovering new parasites where there are none. Other
seeds and spores of similar minuteness, or the pollen of flowers,
are likely to be mistaken for parasites, when persons who move
about in forests and in the open fields come in contact with the
blossoming or fructifying plants, and when they are attacked by
moist eruptions, forming scales or scabs on the parts of the body
which are left uncovered.

Vegetable Parasite from the Vagina.

A case of diphtheritic inflammation of the intestine was observed
at the Lying-in Hospital at Dresden by Professor Dr. Grenser.

236 VEGETABLE PARASITES.

A similar process occurred afterwards in the vagina, forming a
membranous layer on the mucous membrane of the vagina, which
was thrown off in single pieces. A slight improvement was
noticed. Prosector Dr. F. A. Zenker recognised in these masses
scanty pavement-epithelium, aJhd entangled fungous filaments
and spores, which were entirely surrounded by mucus-corpuscles.
Dr. Zenker was kind enough to send me some of these broken
pieces, and I obtained on addition of strong vinegar the partly arti-
culated filaments of which I have given an illustration on Tab. V,
in fig. 8. In order better to recognise the shape and articulations
of the very diaphanous filaments, I added Syrupus Rubi Idai, which
fully answered its purpose, and which I would recommend for
the purpose of examining vegetable parasites by means of acetic
acid. I use, however, a red ink when I employ potassa, since
the Syrupus Rubi Idcei would change its colour in alkalies.

The above parasites remind us of those which Hannover found
on the ulcerated mucous membrane of the oesophagus, and in
cases of typhus. They very much resemble Leptomitus Hannoveri
(Tab. I, fig. 8), and ought accordingly to be classified with the
algae of Robin.

This parasite resembles slightly the fungus given in Tab. V,
fig. 2, which Bennett found in the lungs. It appears to me,
however, that we have in fact to deal with a Leptomitus.

EXPERIMENTS

Made in order to test the parasiticidal effect of the most urgently
recommended remedies.

I could not succeed in generating a continuous growth of
mucedinous fungi in mixtures of albumen and blood and water,
even after adding sugar, nor on Ascarides lumbricoides which
had been left to putrefy, and I resorted therefore to the mould
of very black bread, which I succeeded in keeping in a good
thriving state for weeks.

Chance pointed out to me a pretty large piece of the so-called
pumper-nickel-bread, which I had bought warm at Cologne, and
which had been very much squeezed on the journey, so as to
render it highly humid and sticky, promising, a priori, on account
of the slight porosity of its interior, to keep for some time in
that moist state, and which is so favorable to the growth of
fungi. After this bread had become covered with dense mouldy

PAEAS1TIC1DAL REMEDIES. 237

j

masses all over, I divided it into several square pieces, of the
size of an inch, and wrapped them up in paper, putting them
back to the same place where they had been getting mouldy,
some after having been previously treated with the above re-
agents.

The following experiments were made :

June 8th, 1855.

1. A piece of bread, luxuriantly covered with mould and heaps
of spores, was brushed over with Tinct. Veratri albi on one side,
whilst the other was left untouched. As soon as the tincture
touched the mouldy threads they shrivelled up, whilst the heaps
of spores soaked up the tincture with great avidity, so as to make
the wetted spot look as if it had been treated with oil.

2. Another piece of equal size was wetted with- a solution of
Cuprum aceticum (1 part to 100 parts of water). The mouldy
filaments, as well as the heaps of spores, allowed the solution to
run off, and retained only a few drops similar to the drops on the
plumage of water-fowls after bathing. The water carried, how-
ever, mechanically away a greater or lesser quantity of spores, or
else the latter were brushed off by the drops of the solution, and
sent flying about in small clouds of dust, and not the least ab-
sorption or retention of the solution on the fungus was dis-
cernible.

3. A similar piece was treated with a solution of corrosive
sublimate (1 part to 500 parts of water). The same phenomena
presented themselves as in No. 2.

4. Another piece was brushed over with Aqua phagad. phar-
macop. Wurtemberg.

5. Ditto, with a concentrated watery solution of tannin.

6. Ditto, with a concentrated watery solution of borax.

7. Ditto, with Aqua Creosoti ; and

8. Ditto, with Aqua Picis, with precisely the same result as in
No. 2.

9. A similar piece was brushed over on two sides with Un-
guentum Picis. The filaments of mould shrivelled up at once,
and the heaps of spores could be smeared with the ointment
without causing clouds of dust to rise.

10. Other pieces were preserved.

June 9th.
1, The filaments of mould were found to be shrivelled up on

238 VEGETABLE PAEASITES.

the places brushed over with Tinct. Veratri, the heaps of spores
likewise,, and no trace of dust from the spores was perceptible on
shaking these parts. Fresh mould had been generated on the
adjoining side which had been left unbrushed. The latter was

then likewise brushed over, as well as the former, with Tinct.

.

Veratri.

2. Numerous fresh mouldy fungi were discovered on the parts
which had been brushed over with Cuprum aceticum : the spores
raised a dust as before on brushing them over afresh. Quite the
same phenomena were observed.

3. On the piece treated with Mercurius corrosivus,

4. „ Aqua phagad.,

5. „ Solution of tannin,

6. „ Solution of borax,

7. „ Aqua Creosoti,

8. „ Aqua Picis.

Nowhere did a decrease of fungi become perceptible; the
spores raised a dust, the mould-filaments stood upright, and con-
tinued to fructify just like the unbrushed pieces of No. 10.

9. On the piece treated with Unyuentum Picis, every formation
of fungi and fungous spores had ceased, whilst the already
existing fungi continued to grow. Nos. 3 to 9 were freshly
brushed over on that day on the old and new parts.

June 12th.

1. Nowhere any fresh formation of fungi. The spores formed
a shapeless, sticky mass. No further treatment in this case.

2 — 8. The several pieces exhibited as luxuriant a formation
of fungi as the unbrushed pieces in No. 10. The same changes
were, moreover, observed as were mentioned to have been noticed
on the 9th of June.

Accordingly a fresh process of brushing over was resorted to
on the 12th. A regular bathing of the pieces of bread in ques-
tion in the remedies mentioned under Nos. 2 to 8 took place, so
as to saturate with the solutions even the pieces of paper in which
the bread was wrapped up.

No. 9 showed no trace of fungi on all the parts which had
been rubbed over with the solution. The ointment was therefore
once more applied to fresh parts, and, by preference, on fissures
and furrows.

A part of No. 10 bread was also taken and treated, as No. 11,

PARASITICIDAL BEMEDIES. 239

with a liquid of 1 part alcohol and 3 parts of water, Even this
liquid was found to adhere pretty much without running over
the fungous masses. A mixture of equal parts of alcohol and
water, marked as No. 12, adhered to the spores of the fungi even
better.

June 15th.

No. 1. None of the fungi exhibited the least trace of growth
on the brushed parts, but were found to be entirely dried up.

Nos. 2 — 8, as well as No. 10, exhibited a luxuriant growth of
fungi.

No. 9. No trace of fungi on the parts brushed over.

Nos. 11 and 12 exhibited a slight formation of fungi only on
the corners left untouched by the ointment, and none at all on
the parts which had been rubbed over.

The following alterations were then made :

No. 1 was once more steeped in Tr. Veratri.

Nos. 3 and 5 were treated with a solution of equal parts of the
hitherto employed mixtures and alcohol of 80° (?).

Nos. 11 and 12 were once more brushed over with alcohol, as
on the 12th of June ; and a fresh piece was brushed over, as
No. 13, on three different sides, with Tinct. Veratri, alcohol at
80°, and diluted alcohol.

Nos. 2, 4, 6, 7, and 8 were not treated.

June 19th.

No. 1. Every trace of the formation of fungi had disappeared.

Nos. 2, 4, 6, 7, 8 exhibited, as did No. 10, fine fungous
formations.

Nos. 3, 5, 11, 12, 13, no fresh fungi — the old ones had
shrivelled up.

No. 9 still preserving its former protective power.

The practical result which we may draw from these experiments
is the following :

The tar-ointment approved and used from remote times in
various diseases of the skin is evidently an excellent parasiticide,
and we have only to regret that it acts no further than on the
parts which have come into direct contact with it, and which
have been rubbed over with it. It is therefore improbable that
it reaches the spores seated in the fissures of the skin, or destroys
those which are located in the follicles of the hair.

210 VEGETABLE PARASITES.

Solutions of the principal remedies recommended against
vegetable parasites are all of them objectionable,, as the adipose
tissue of the skin renders the surrounding of the parasitical
elements still more difficult by their use. Their chief value
consists in removing mechanically the spores, and thus restricting
the spread of the parasites — a result which may be attained still
easier and less dangerously by treating the parasite on the ex-
ternal skin with fresh water alone. The benefit of corrosive
sublimate, acetate of copper, and tannin, as proved by experience,
can only be indirect, by producing in the liquids of the animal
soil a change (perhaps a coagulation of the albumen, and an
envelopment of the fungous elements, which prevents their spread-
ing further, or other influence hitherto unknown) in consequence
of which the parasites finally retire.

It seems to be desirable to repeat the experiments with alcohol
and alcoholic solutions. Tinct. Veratri albi has been used success-
fully for a long time against Microspor on furfur, i.e., the fungus
of Pityriasis versicolor ; and was successfully employed by myself
in a very delicate case. I believe that alcohol and water alone
would be efficient, as is shown by the above experiments. It all
depends, in praxi, upon the greater or lesser dilution of the
alcohol, so as to avoid irritation and pain ; and, further, on the
degree of dilution, so as not to destroy the parasiticidal effect of
the remedy. Spirits and spirituous preparations being able to
penetrate into the crevices, furrows, and fissures of the skin over
the fungous elements, and, especially after proper cleansing and
removing of the oily matter of the skin by means of soap, pro-
mise to supply us with the means of searching out the spores of
the fungus even in its remotest corners, and of annihilating
them. Practice must decide whether they will be able to set
aside the very painful process of epilation, or, at least, to moderate
it essentially. I am unable to say how much is owing to the
cold produced by the evaporation of the alcohol in alcoholic pre-
parations ; but I would draw the attention, finally, to two points.
First ; nobody repeating the above experiments, confirming them,
or who believes them on my authority, will ever doubt the effi-
ciency of alcohol in these cases, or will prescribe for them anything
but pure alcohol mixed with water. Secondly ; I would ascribe
a double effect to the wine given to children attacked by fungi :
first, a direct, parasiticidal effect on already existing parasites; and
next, an indirect effect by destroying the matrix favorable to the

CONCLUSION. 241

formation of parasites, by generally improving and strengthening
the constitution.

I should feel rejoiced if the officers of hospitals and private
institutions devoted to skin diseases would test the results which
I have mentioned here, since my own practice does not offer me
sufficient material and cases enough bearing upon diseases of the
skin.

I have abandoned the plan of writing a complete literary index.
A rich literature is found in Diesing's work. In order to satisfy,
however, the practitioner, I intend to give, if possible, in a short
time, a literary index merely relating to the human parasites, and
which will be sold for a few pence. Here it is only my duty
to remind the reader that I have always mentioned the authors
when speaking of their labours^ in order to avoid the appearance of
passing off for my own observations those which in reality are the
property of others. None have been passed over intentionally: if
it should, however, have happened accidentally, I beg to express
here my sincere regret.

Vogt's ' Zoological Letters/ Weber's * Illustrated Natural His-
tory/ and Martini's ' Hand-book of the Animals of Importance
in Medicine ' have chiefly been followed in the last part of the first
division of this work. I beg also to thank Dr. Wagner, of Leipsic,
and Drs. and Professors Virchow, Luschka, and Leuckart for the
many valuable suggestions I have received from them.

And, now, may this book meet the judgment of the critic — may
it be severe but just ; perhaps the author may claim some con-
sideration from having been obliged, far from any metropolis of
science, to spend much time and to undergo much trouble in pro-
curing the sources of his information, and has not in many cases
been able to succeed. The book has no doubt many defects, and
if one thing more than another could cause his regret on parting
with it, it is the conviction that it will easily be seen on closer exa-
mination that the book is the work of an autodidactician. May
the learning youth of my country fare better with regard to
the science treated of in these pages than I did during my earliest
studies.

16

APPENDIX BY TRANSLATOR.

APPENDIX A, RELATING TO THE ACAKINA.
I.

THE case referred to in the text (p. 64), in which a species of
Acarus was found beneath the cuticle surrounding a sore in the
sole of the foot of a negro, is related in the ' Microscopical
Journal/ vol. ii, p. 65, pi. iv, fig. 7, 1842.

The man was admitted into the Seaman's Hospital with large
sores on the sole of the feet, of a very peculiar character. The
appearance of the sores conveyed the impression that more or
less circular portions of the enormously thick cuticle had been
gnawed or cut out, leaving the surface of the corion exposed and
covered with prominent papillae, and affording a sanious discharge.
The border of cuticle surrounding these excavations was under-
mined, as it were, by irregular galleries, which penetrated to
some distance between the cuticle and corion, or rather in the
soft deep layer of the cuticle. On examining the secretion of
one of these sores, Mr. Busk noticed the Acarus in question,
which was dead, and apparently partially crushed, as represented
in the figure. It was supposed that the disease, for which no
other obvious cause existed, and which was undoubtedly of a
peculiar character, might have been caused by the burrowing of
these creatures beneath the thick cuticle, which thus became
irregularly detached, being, as it were, undermined by galleries
branching in all directions. The disease was attributed by the
man himself to the wearing of a pair of shoes which he had lent
to another negro, whose feet had been similarly affected for
nearly a year, and who wore the shoes thus lent for a day or
two. The negro, whose feet were affected in the way described,

TAMPAN OF AFRICA. 243

was a native of the West Indies, but the man to whom he had
lent the shoes came from Sierra Leone; and this circumstance
was considered very remarkable in conjunction with the fact,
that in some water brought by Dr. Stanger from the river Sinae3

dn the coast of Africa, one very nearly perfect specimen, and
fragments of others, very similar to, if not identical with, the
one noticed in the negro's foot, were found. Whence it was
supposed that the disease was contracted from some external source.
In this account of the case, though necessarily imperfect,
there does not appear to be anything very " mystical/' and still
less does it seem to deserve the term " nerdachtig/' so need-
lessly applied to it by Dr. Kiichenmeister.

it

Whilst remaining at the village of Ambaca, on the east coast
of Africa, Dr. Livingstone, in his ' Missionary Travels in South
Africa/ gives the following account of the attacks of an insect
belonging to the group of Acarida :

" When sleeping in the house of the Commandant, an insect well known
in the southern country by the name of Tampan, bit my foot. It is a
kind of tick, and chooses, by preference, the parts between the fingers or
toes, for inflicting its bite. It is seen from the size of a pin's head to
that of a pea, and is common in all the native huts in this country. It
sucks the blood until quite full, and is then of a dark-blue colour, and its
skin so tough and yielding that it is impossible to burst it by any amount
of squeezing with the fingers. I had felt the effects of its bite in former
years, and eschewed all native huts ever after ; but as I was here again
assailed in a European house, I shall detail the effects of the bite. These
are, a tingling sensation of mingled pain and itching, which commences
ascending the limb until the poison imbibed reaches the abdomen, where
it soon causes violent vomiting and purging. When these effects do not
follow, as we found afterwards at Tete, fever sets in ; and I was assured

244

APPENDIX.

by intelligent Portuguese there that death has sometimes been the result
of this fever. The anxiety my friends at Tete manifested to keep my
men out of the reach of the tampans of the village, made it evident that
they had seen cause to dread this insignificant insect. The only incon-
venience I afterwards suffered from this bite was the continuance of the
tingling sensation in the point bitten for about a week." — Pp. 382-3.

III.

Note on the Acarus Scabiei.

The figures of this insect given in the text do not represent the
two pairs of mandibles possessed by this creature so accurately as
they ought. I have therefore reproduced a drawing by Mr.
Hepworth, of Crofts Bank, near Manchester, published in the
fourth volume of the ' Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science/
Fig. 1 represents a magnified view of the entire creature, mag-
nified 65 diameters.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2 is one of the mandibles of this creature, magnified

Tig. 2.

65 diameters. The mandibles of the whole family of Acarida

BEACHYCERA.

245

appear to afford good characteristic distinctions of the species.
Pigs. 3 and 4 are the mandibles of the male and feinale of
Acams Sacchari, magnified 390 diameters.

Fig. 4.

Fig. 3.

Female.

Male.

APPENDIX B, RELATING TO THE INSECTA.
I.

The following note by the Author occurs in the second edition
of the German work, and was omitted under the head of the
Brachycera, to which it refers :

" I may also mention here a few facts derived from comparative ana-
tomy and pathology. The most common therapeutics in cases of (Estrus
Ovis in the frontal sinus are incision or trepanning of the frontal sinus,
and removal of the larvae by means of injections, or by means of a pair of
pincers. I, for my part, consider such proceedings only justified after
having found sternutatories (e.g., the so-called Schneeberger snuff, or a
kind of snuff prepared from Marum verum, mixed with finely powdered
insect-powder) of no avail, and in case the larvae of the (Estrus remained
unremoved. It is of common occurrence that the larvae of (Estrus are found
sneezed out on the pasture land in spring time. We ought to imitate
this process of nature, based upon the natural history of the (Estridce.
The above sternutatory, mixed with insect-powder, as the means for
killing larvae, has proved very effective during the last year. The ob-
servations which Bruckmiiller made on a young vertiginous colt are very

remarkable. He found two larvae of insects, 12'" in length and 3'" in
thickness, in the left hemisphere in front of the pons varolii, and higher
up in the medullary substance of the brain. The rings of the larvae were
impressed upon the brain. (Vienna, ' Quarterly Journal for Veterinary
Science,' 1855, vi, p. 48.)

Mention is made in Gravell's ' Notes,' viii, 1856, pp. 443 — 445, of
the occurrence of the larvae of Chrysomelines, Stratyomides, Dermestes
lardarius, Car teles Scolopendron, in the frontal sinus, to which I would
draw attention, because the phenomena resemble those which manifest
themselves after (Estrus Ovis in sheep. I therefore give a place to
Gra veil's note.

" Delasiauve describes a case, observed by Dumesnil and Legrand-
Desaulle, of Jiystero-epilepsy, in consequence of larvae in the sinus frontales,
which is worthy of special notice on account of the accessory circum-
stances. A girl, nine years old, of a lively disposition of mind and in
excellent health, was, one day in the month of October, 1850, suddenly
seized by a violent pain in the region of the forehead, which was most
severe over the sinus. Photophobia, vertigo, titillation on the nasal
mucous skin and repeated sneezing, soon appeared. This state lasted
for six weeks without remission. The child, who had always been
of a sweet temper and obedient, became irritable and passionate, insult-
ing her parents in a rude manner, breaking everything that came under
her fingers, beating her playmates, &c. Her irritability, however,
soon gave way, and the sick child became more quiet, complaining of a
peculiar heat between the eyebrows, and asserting that she had passed
small grains and animals on sneezing. These bodies passed off from the
patient for nearly two months without creating uneasiness in her mind
or that of her mother. Professor Brulle, at Dijon, examined the insects,
and discovered larvae of five different kinds, viz., Chrysomelines, Stratyo-
mides, Dermestes lardarius, Castries, Scolopendron. The attacks be-
came worse in spite of the means employed. The sick child suddenly
lost its consciousness on the 25th of March, 1851; and scarcely had she
recovered it when she fell into convulsions, which lasted for several hours.
Twelve leeches were put on in the afternoon, and although the attacks
did not repeat themselves, the patient was brought on the 28th of April
to the lunatic asylum of the department of the Cote d'Or. The secretion
of the nose contained no larvae for the next four days. On the 29th, at
ten o'clock in the morning, just when the patient was going to carry a
spoonful of soup to her lips, she uttered a faint cry, fell from the chair,
and was seized by convulsions. The face became of a violet colour; the
jaws were closed, the bulbi turned inwardly, the contracted muscles were
quivering ; her pulse beating rapidly yet feebly ; her respiration became
asthmatical, and her throat distinctly contracted. Seven similar attacks
followed one another at short intervals, and each left the child exhausted,
pale? and her eye lustreless. It was in vain to apply sinapisms, cold com-
presses, and varying doses of chloroform. Forty-five attacks were counted,
lasting from one to three minutes, when the patient became at last
more quiet and fell asleep. After her awakening on the evening and
(luring the night following she again became subjected to disconnected move-
ments. A warm bath of 26° C. (78° Fah.), together with cold douches, were
ineffective. May 1st. Another bath of three hours' duration ; ten drops of

THE TSETSE. 247

Tinct. Cantharidum in a mixture. May 2d. In the secreted nasal mucus
were found several larvae, which repeatedly showed themselves during the
fortnight following. The nervous affection was now clearly attributable to
insects which had developed themselves in the sinus frontales. Dumesnil
was of opinion that unsized paper dipped into a solution of two grammes of
arseniate of soda in thirty grammes of distilled water, and rolled into
cigarettes, should be given the girl to smoke, advising her at the same
time to draw in the smoke through the nostrils. These fumigations
rather excited the patient, and intoxicated her momentarily ; they were,
nevertheless, repeated every morning and evening? The baths and mix-
ture of cantharides were likewise continued. Up to the 23d of May no
new attack occurred. On that day Legrand witnessed thirty-three attacks,
which were accompanied, like the first, by mental aberration, The treat-
ment was now suspended for two days. May 30th. Several withered
larvae made their appearance, June 10th. Numerous larva?. June 15th.
Two convulsive attacks, but without mental aberration. July 14th.
Symptoms satisfactory ; slight sensation of heat between the eyebrows.
The patient smoked four cigars. The tincture of cantharides was
suspended on account of dysury. July 15th. After a thunderstorm and
a walk in the town, five slight attacks. From that time up to her leaving
the asylum, November 8th, her health remained undisturbed. No
return took place for three years and a half. Each cigarette contained
about 0-050 milligramme of the arseniate. (' G-az. Hebdom.,' Sept. 28th.
— Austrian periodical for Kinderheilkunde, i, 2.)"

II.

The account given by Dr. Livingstone, in his ' Missionary
Researches in South Africa/ of the Tsetse, a dipterous insect
producing ravages amongst cattle, is of sufficient interest to be
repeated here :

"A few remarks on the tsetse, or Glossiva, morsitans, may here be
appropriate. It is not much larger than the common housefly, and is
nearly of the same brown colour as the common honey-bee ; the after part
of the body has three or four yellow bars across it ; the wings project
beyond this part considerably, and it is remarkably alert, avoiding most
dexterously all attempts to capture it with the hand, at common tempe-
ratures ; in the cool of the mornings and evenings it is less agile. Its
peculiar buzz when once heard can never be forgotten by the traveller
whose means of locomotion are domestic animals ; for it is well known that
the bite of this poisonous insect is certain death to the ox, horse, and dog.
In this journey, though we were not aware of any great number having
at any time lighted on our cattle, we lost forty-three fine oxen by its bite.
We watched the animals carefully, and believe that not a score of flies were
ever upon them.

"A most remarkable feature in the bite of the 'tsetse' is its perfect
harmlessness in man and wild animals, and even calves as long as they
continue to suck the cows.

248 APPENDIX.

"We never experienced the slightest injury from them ourselves,
personally, although we lived two months in their ' habitat,' which was
in this case as sharply denned as in many others, for the south bank of the
Chobe was infested by them, and the northern bank, where our cattle were
placed, only fifty yards distant, contained not a single specimen. This was
the more remarkable, as we often saw natives carrying over raw meat to
the opposite bank, with many tsetse settled upon it.

" The poison does not seem to be injected by a sting, or by ova placed
beneath the skin, for, when one is allowed to feed freely on the hand, it is
seen to insert the middfe prong of three portions, into which the proboscis
divides, somewhat deeply into the true skin : it then draws it out a little
way, and it assumes a crimson colour as the mandibles come into brisk
operation. The previously shrunken belly swells out ; and, if left undis-
turbed, the fly quietly departs when it is full. A slight aching irritation
follows, but not more than the bite of a mosquito In the ox this same
bite produces no more immediate effects than in man, it does not startle
him as the ' gadfly' does ; but a few days afterwards the following
symptoms supervene : the eye and nose begin to run, the coat stares as if
the animal were cold ; a swelling appears under the jaw, and sometimes at
the navel ; and, though the animal continues to graze, emaciation com-
mences, accompanied by flaccidity of the muscles, and this proceeds
unchecked until, perhaps months afterwards, purging comes on, and the
animal, no longer able to graze, perishes in a state of extreme exhaustion.
Those which are in good condition often perish soon after the bite is
inflicted ; with blindness and staggering, as if the brain were affected by
it. Sudden changes of temperature produced by falls of rain seem to
hasten the progress of the complaint, but in general the emaciation goes
on uninterruptedly for months, and, do what we will, the poor animals
perish miserably.

" When opened, the cellular tissue on the surface of the body beneath
the skin is seen to be injected with air, as if a quantity of soap bub-
bles were scattered over it, or a dishonest awkward butcher had been
trying to make it look fat. The fat is of a greenish-yellow colour, and of
an oily consistence. All the muscles are flabby, and the heart often so
soft that the fingers may be made to meet through it. The lungs and
liver partake of the disease. The stomach and bowels are pale and empty,
and the galUbladder is distended with bile.

" These symptoms seem to indicate, what is probably the case, a poison
in the blood, the germ of which enters when the proboscis is inserted to
draw blood.

" The poison-germ, contained in a bulb at the root of the proboscis,
seems capable, although very minute in quantity, of reproducing itself, for
the blood after death by tsetse is very small in quantity, and scarcely stains
the hands in dissection.

" I shall have, by and by, to mention another insect, which by the same
operation produces in the human subject both vomiting and purging.

" The mule, ass, and goat enjoy the same immunity from the tsetse
as man and the game. Many large tribes on the Zambesi can keep no
domestic animals except the goat, in consequence of the scourge existing
in their country.

" Our children were frequently bitten, yet suffered no harm ; and we saw

DR GREEN'S CASE. 249

around us numbers of zebras, buffaloes, pigs, pallahs and other antelopes,
feeding quietly in the very habitat of the tsetse, yet as undisturbed by its
bite as oxen are when they first receive the fatal poison. Ttiere is not so
much difference in the natures of the horse and zebra, the buffalo and ox,
the sheep and antelope, as to afford any satisfactory explanation of this
phenomenon. Is a man not as much a domestic animal as a dog ? The
curious feature in the case, that dogs perish though fed on milk, whereas
the calves escape so long as they continue sucking, made us imagine that
the mischief might be produced by some plant in the locality, and not
by 'tsetse;' but Major Vardon, of the Madras army, settled that point
by riding a horse up a small hill infested by the insect without allowing
him to graze ; and though he only remained long enough to take a view of
the country, and catch some specimens of tsetse on the animal, in ten days
afterwards the horse was dead. The well-known disgust which the tsetse
shows to animal excreta, as exhibited when a village is placed in its habitat,
has been observed and turned to account by some of the doctors. They
mix droppings of animals with human milk and some medicines together,
and smear the animals that are about to pass through a tsetse district ;
but this, though it proves a preventive at the time, is not permanent.
There is no cure yet known for the disease. A careless herdsman, allowing
a large number of cattle to stray into a tsetse district, loses all but the
calves ; and Sebituani once lost nearly the entire cattle of his tribe — very
many thousands — by its influence. Inoculation does not ensure immunity,
as animals which have been slightly bitten in one year may perish by a
greater number of bites in the next ; but it is probable, that with the
increase of guns, the game will perish, as has happened in the south, and
the tsetse, deprived of food, may become extinct" simultaneously with the
larger animals."

III.

The following case from ' The Lancet ' is given by the author
as an appendix to the Nemocera.

" On Filamentous (Entozoon) Worms in the Living Human Body.
By JONATHAN GREEN, M.D.

" In the months of May and June, 1843, were published in ' The
Lancet' two papers of mine on ' Entozoon Worms inhabiting the Living
Body.' These papers, I believe, occasioned doubts in the minds of some
professional gentlemen, amounting more or less to a want of credence in
the facts stated therein. This I in some degree anticipated, as such
cases are extremely rare in this country, so much so that most prac-
titioners pass through professional life without ever having seen a case
of entozoon worms inhabiting the tissues of the human body, and it is the
only case of the kind that I ever saw. In one of those papers I promised
that if I was ever enabled to throw more light on this condition of
disease, I should, through your pages, avail myself of the opportunity of
doing so.

250 APPENDIX.

" Such an opportunity has occurred through the kindness of Professor
Grant, of the London University College, himself a high authority in
these matters. Dr. Grant has lately put into my hands the work of
Professor Biagio Gastaldi, of Turin, in which the subject of entozoa and
other worms is embraced and discussed by a master mind. In thus re-
deeming my promise, I would refer those of the profession curious in this
subject, for full elucidation, to the pages of the able and practised
authority of Dr. Gastaldi ; and as some may not have the leisure to turn
back to the beforernamed two papeft, I will here briefly recapitulate the
essentials of the rare case — entozoon worms inhabiting the living body —
as detailed in ' The Lancet' of May and June, 1843.

" The lady who was the subject of the infliction I never knew anything of;
she came to my establishment, as it were, determined not to be recognised,
wrapped up in a shawl, veil, &c., and merely asked for a sulphur fumi-
gating bath. She never said who she was, nor did she name any medical
gentlemen that had recommended her to take the fumigations. She
merely told the female attendant that she had been under the treatment
of the first medical authorities of the west end of London ; that they had
done her no good, and that she was determined of her own accord to try
the sulphur fumigations, and did not say what was the nature of her
malady. On the evening of the day that she took her first fumigating
bath, the attendant (a more than usually clever, experienced woman)
came to me, saying she had that day had a very curious and not pleasant
case — that the patient was all over worms, and that she saw them creep-
ing from the patient's forehead and face whilst she was in the bath. I
answered abruptly, by telling her not to talk such nonsense ; she, how-
ever, seemed to maintain that she was right.

" On the patient repeating the bath, the attendant came to me with
the same tale, and was again reproved by me ; on which she said she was
correct in her statement, and added, that she did not like to attend such
a patient, as she herself might catch the disease ; however, being a reason-
able woman, her objection was overruled. The lady had her second bath,
and the former report was repeated, with some enlargement.

" On taking the third bath, the attendant told the lady that she had
named the case to me, and that I had twice scolded her for talking such
nonsense, on which the patient said, ' that was like all the doctors ; they
won't believe it.'

" On coming out of the fourth fumigation, there was such a very, very
numerous escape of worms, that the attendant again became uneasy, and I
suppose some discussion took place between her and the patient. The result
was, that the latter sent me word 'that, as I would not believe, I might come
down and judge for myself.' I did so, and never was more surprised ; there
stood the patient en chemise. I was cautioned as I entered the room not
to tread on the worms, and at once saw a round ring of pinkish-white on
the floor ; these were worms which had fallen from under the chemise,
and had not been swept up, in order that I might see them. The lady's
head, face, and chest, were covered* with the shawl and veil; she seemed
afraid of being recognised. On removing part of the veil from the fore-
head, then wreaking with perspiration, I saw little red points sticking out
from the skin at right angles, and whilst looking at them some seemed
to retract themselves, others evidently were getting longer, and became a

DR. GREEN'S CASE. 251

quarter of an inch and more in length, and then fell on the chest and to
the floor as others had done. I then held aside more of the veil from the
face, ear, and neck ; there was the same appearance of little-pink thread-
like worms, as thick as they could cluster, elongating themselves to get
out of the skin, and then falling, as from the forehead, on the floor. Many
of them seemed to give a sort of jump or jerk before they could escape
and fall from the person. The lady became more emboldened, and I was
allowed to remove the shawl from the neck and chest, and afterwards
from the arms, legs, &c. ; but from all parts of the person these worms
were sticking out, stretching themselves, and then with a positive jump
escaping from the skin to the distance of six or eight inches, occasioning
me to stand at a distance, in order that they might not fall or spring on
to myself. With the corner of a napkin I carefully wiped various parts
of the skin where I saw the worms sticking out, but I could not wipe
them away, though gently, without breaking off the heads ; and of those
that had become more elongated and protruding from the skin, they
would break short off, the bodies being very tender ; whilst the gentle
pressure of the napkin seemed to greatly facilitate and aid the escape of
others, and very many were full an inch in length, yet for the most part
they were from a quarter to three quarters of an inch in length, and
some more, looking like pink thin threads. They were annular and trans-
parent, with red heads, and the tail part was larger than the head part.
They lived only a few minutes after escaping from the skin, wriggling
themselves as worms do, and almost invariably curled themselves into a
crescent or horseshoe form, then, taking a spring to many inches' distance,
fell quite straight and dead, and the red heads in that short time would
become dark brown, approaching black in colour. The napkin with which
I had wiped the parts of the person I placed on a table, and having occa-
sion to take it up again from its folds, the table under it was covered
with these worms. I gathered about two or three table-spoonfuls of them,
which were afterwards subjected to investigation, as detailed in 'The
Lancet' of June, 1843.

"The case being so unique I delayed publishing it, until a corre-
spondent of * The Lancet' made an inquirv ' whether there was a disease
of the skin, where living animals or insects were turned out.' This mainly
determined the recordation of the case.

"Such cases, though so rare, I find are common enough in warmer
climates, although I myself never saw a similar case of entozoa in those
climes ; out they must be well known to physiologists.

" It is satisfactory to know, at least as far as this case goes to establish
the fact, that in the sulphur fumigating baths, and perhaps other mineral
fumigating baths, we have a positive and direct remedy for such ailments,
and which I think may be thus easily explained : The moisture and heat
of these baths softening and laxing the skin, the worms more easily get
to the surface, whilst the sulphur (or perhaps other minerals) that are
used in the baths would make their position there untenable, and they are
readily enabled to escape from the skin.

" The lady whose case is just related was very desirous of getting well
of her odious complaint, as she called it ; it was a sad source of annoyance
to her husband, as the worms were constantly escaping on to the pillows
and sheets and had been so doing for more than two years. She attributed,

252 APPENDIX.

as the cause of the complaint, her having fallen asleep in the air near some
stagnant water, and on waking found her mouth and nose full, as she
said, of young gnats. I suppose she got well, for after a few more baths
I never heard anything more of her, which I judge I should have done
had she not got well, for certain it is, she found a direct and powerful
remedy in the use of the fumigations for dislodging these worms, not in
hundreds, but I may safely say in thousands.

IV.

On the Minute Anatomy of the Larva of Anthomyia canicularis,
Meiyen. By ARTHUR FARRE, M.D., F.R.S.

(Read before the Microscopical Society, April 28th, 1841.)

" The subject of the present memoir has come under my notice as a
parasite of the human body, of which, however, it appears to be a rare
inhabitant, as I have met with but a single instance of the kind, and I
believe there are only two or three similar cases on record.

" The mere circumstance, however, of this insect in its larva state being
found in the human intestine, it is not now so much my object to record,
as it is to bring before the Society a brief description of the minute
anatomy of this singular parasite, with a view of showing the peculiar
adaptation of its organs, particularly those of the digestive system, to the
circumstances in which it is thus occasionally placed.

" The insect considered as a parasite appears to have its parallel in the
CEstrus or bot of the horse and sheep, and may perhaps be considered as
constituting the bot of the human subject, though it does not appear to be
altogether limited to man, but has been also observed to occur in the Boa
constrictor .*

" The case which afforded me the opportunity of making the following
observations was that of a rather sickly child, a girl five years of age, who
was brought as an out-patient to St. Bartholomew's Hospital, in the
month of June, 1837, having the ordinary symptoms of irritation produced
by worms, for which a brisk purgative was prescribed. This had the
effect of bringing away a vast quantity of the parasites, which were stated
to be alive at the time they were passed, and were described by the parent
of the child as coming away by handfuls at a time, and which con-
tinued to be passed at intervals for three weeks, when the case was lost
sight of.

" A similar case occurred to Dr. Haviland of Cambridge, in the year
1836, in the person of a clergyman seventy years of age, who, after suffering
disagreeable sensations about the epigastrium, which he described as a
tremulous motion, accompanied by loss of appetite and general weakness,
passed in the summer and autumn of the same year very large quantities
of the larvae, and, according to his own statement, the chamber-vessel was
sometimes half full, and he thinks that altogether he must have passed

< See 'Lancet,' vol. ii, 1839-40, p. 638.

ANTHOMYIA CANICULARIS. 253

several quarts : they were alive, and continued to be passed for several
months. This case is recorded by the Rev. Leonard Jjjnyns, in the
' Transactions of the Entomological Society,' vol. ii, part 3, find is accom-
panied by a very accurate figure of the insect. A rather rude drawing
of evidently the same insect also accompanies a paper by Dr. Bateman in
the seventh volume of the 'Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal,'
p. 48, on the subject of larvae found in the human body ; while a much
older, though more accurate one, will be found in Swammerdam's ' Bibl.
Nat.,' tab. 38, figs. 3 and 4. And, lastly, may be mentioned a case pub-
lished in the second volume of the ' Memoirs of the Medical Society of
London,' which appears to be of a similar kind. These are the only cases
that I find recorded of the occurrence of the larva in the human subject,
but it has also been observed in the Boa constrictor, as appears from an
instance recorded by Mr. Iliff, to which I have just alluded, and where the
larvse were passed along with the masses of urate of ammonia, which
constitute the excrement of that animal.

" There appears to be little doubt that in all these cases the insect is
the same, and that it is the larva of the Anthomyia canicularis of Meigen,
or Musca canicularis of Linnaeus.

" Its minute anatomy does not appear to have been investigated, and it
is this deficiency which I shall attempt to supply from my notes of the
dissection of the specimens obtained from the first case to which I
alluded.1

" The larva is five lines in length by one and a half in breadth. It is of
a dull-brown or blackish-brown colour, soft and flexible, but having a tough
integument, which, however, is sufficiently transparent to allow of the ali-
mentary canal being seen through it. The body consists of eleven segments,
but the last is apparently formed of three blended into one. Each segment
carries a pair of feathery branchial appendages, which project at right angles
from the body, constituting a double row on either side. There is also a
double row of small eminences extending down the dorsal surface, but the
abdominal surface is nearly smooth. The lateral appendages, of which the
upper series is much larger than the lower, are pinnate. The central shaft
of these, which is long and pointed, is hollow, and communicates appa-
rently with the tracheae. The lateral pinnae are again pinnated on their
outer margin. The integument, which appears smooth to the naked
eye, is found, when examined under the microscope, to be granulated
all over with minute dentiform or pointed processes, which appear to
be of a harder nature than the rest of the tegument, and resemble on
a small scale the spinous prominences in the tegument of certain carti-
laginous fishes, as the sturgeon ; and it appears to be only an extra-
ordinary development of these latter processes which constitutes the
long feathery lateral appendages already described.

" The mouth of this larva is perhaps the most interesting part of
its anatomy. The head is furnished with two broad fleshy lips, which
together constitute a broad disc, having in its centre a minute aperture
leading to the oesophagus, and flanked on either side by the hook-shaped
mandibles, the sharp points of which are directed downwards and some-
what outwards, and are nearly retracted each within a separate sheath, the

1 For a specimen of this larva consult the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons,
London ; « Cat. Nat. Hist. Series,' part iv, No. 609, D.

254 APPENDIX.

aperture in the extremity of which just allows their points to protrude. Each
of these broad fleshy lips is crossed by transverse parallel plaits or folds of
membrane, about twenty-five in number, which in their free margin exhibit
a delicately notched appearance, and in fact in every particular resemble a
similar structure which is seen on a larger scale in the sucking disc situated
upon the dorsum of the head of the Hemora, by which that fish is enabled to
attach itself firmly to various objects. In the present instance, however,
the structure, though precisely similar, is exceedingly delicate, and so
minute as to be invisible to the naked eye, though there can be no doubt
that it is intended to answer the same purpose in both. For by the aid
of this sucker the larva is enabled to fix the head, so as the more readily
to insert its sharp hook-shaped mandibles into the soft mucous membrane
of the intestine which it inhabits, and draw therefrom its nutrient juices,
which would thus readily flow into the little aperture of the mouth,
situated in the centre between the mandibles, assisted also by the partial
vacuum which would thus be produced during the act of adhesion.

" The mandibles are sunk so deep between the two fleshy lips, having
only the points projecting from the aperture of their investing sheaths,
that it is necessary to disconnect them entirely from the soft parts before
they can be accurately examined. They are placed parallel to each other,
with their hooked points directed downwards, so as the more readily to be
inserted. The mandibular apparatus on each side consists of three portions.
The first portion is hooked and sharp pointed, and is only the g^th of an
inch in length. It is nevertheless furnished at its base with a delicately
shaped ball, adapted accurately to a socket in the second joint, and has
projecting from either side of its base a sharp spine or trochanter, for the
insertion of the tendons of the abductor and adductor muscles by which its
movements are effected. The second joint bears the socket to which the
ball of the first is adapted, and at its opposite extremity is united to the
third and principal portion of the jaws, which consists of a broad expanded
corneous plate, of less density than the preceding, and resembling in form
and office a similar structure well known as occupying the centre of the
large claw of the lobster, being for the attachment of the muscles by
which the mandibular hooks are moved to and fro. The whole man-
dibular apparatus measures about ygth of an inch in length, and, being
very firm and solid, presents a remarkable contrast in texture to the
surrounding soft parts with which it is connected, and from which it
is easily detached.

" If the body of the insect be laid open the alimentary canal is seen
to be of considerable length, and much convoluted. It commences by an
exceedingly delicate hair-like oesophagus, so narrow that it would appear
to be specially destined to transmit fluid nourishment, and nothing else.
This terminates about the third segment of the body in a minute globular
cavity or proventriculus, which is of the same diameter as the rest of the
alimentary canal, and immediately below whic'h four very short salivary
vessels enter. From this point commences the large intestiniform sto-
mach, which after contracting in its first third to the finest thread,
again dilates and proceeds of uniform diameter to the point where
the four slender biliary vessels enter, where it again contracts and
forms a short intestine. The whole alimentary canal is about six times
the length of the body, and of this length the stomach forms about five

ANTHOMYIA CANICULARIS. 255

sixths. Its greatest diameter does not exceed one third of a line, and its
least is that of a mere thread. The whole structure appears, to be that of
an animal adapted to live on fluid nourishment.

" The principal external openings to the tracheae appear to be two aper-
tures situated on the dorsum of the last segment of the body, and which,
constitute the last pair of the series of dorsal eminences formerly noticed.
These apertures correspond with the very remarkable and conspicuous pair
of organs occupying a similar situation in the last segment of the oestrus
of the sheep, and which are also the external openings of the respiratory
apparatus in. that insect.

" None of the insects were alive when they came into my possession,
and they were placed in spirit of wine for the purpose of preserving them
previously to their being dissected. Several days after my attention had
thus been directed to the subject, I happened to observe at the bottom of
a jug of New River water a small living object, which appeared very much
to resemble the larvae which I had recently been examining ; and upon
placing this under the microscope I found the resemblance to be complete,
except that the animal was only about two thirds the size of the former.
It was deficient also in the pinna? upon the lateral spines, which were
simple, but the mandibular apparatus was perfectly formed. On making
further search two other individuals of the same species were found in
different stages of growth ; the smallest, however, not exceeding one third
of a line in length, though still possessing some of the characters of the
larger ones. One of these specimens was very lively, moving freely at the
bottom of the water, and frequently protruding and retracting its pro-
boscis, by which it dragged itself along.

"• This fact is a matter of some interest, as furnishing a clue to the
source of these parasites, since it is evident that the larvae can pass along
the water-pipes which supply the metropolis, and may thus be swallowed
in the water used for food : and in the present case the larvae, or the ova,
must have traversed a distance of at least a mile. At the same time it is
evident that this cannot always afford an explanation of their mode of
entrance into the body, because in the case of the clergyman at Cambridge,
it is expressly stated that ' he never drank water unmixed, but generally
beer, tea,' and the like ; at the same time the water used for these bever-
ages was entirely supplied from a pond on a stiff clay. If, therefore, the
ova found entrance with the fluid aliments, they must have withstood the
action of heat, as in making the beer, tea, &c. ; while, on the other hand,
it is difficult to suppose that they passed in with the solid food, because
the larvae are evidently aquatic. Perhaps the most inexplicable part of
the case is, the fact of their occurrence in such immense numbers. In the
Cambridge case several quarts were passed in a few months, and in the
instance which I have just recorded they were described as coming away
by handfuls. It is extremely difficult to account for this fact, because a
number of larvae, or their ova, must have been swallowed equal to those
which were evacuated, since they could not multiply by generation in the
alimentary canal, they being in the larva state, and having, as the dis-
section showed, and as is well known in the case of larvae, the generative
organs undeveloped ; indeed, no trace of generative organs was visible :
while it is difficult to suppose that the parent animal could have been
accidently swallowed, and its ova, previously impregnated, have become

256 APPENDIX.

developed in the bowels ; though this is perhaps the least objectionable
supposition. At any rate the parent animal could not live in the ali-
mentary canal, since the larva has been recognised by several entomologists
as being that of a well-known fly (the Anihomyia canicularis) . The
latter supposition, however, which I have advanced, namely, that the fly,
having its eggs previously impregnated, may have been swallowed, and
thus, perishing in the digestive canal, have left the ova unencumbered,
and in a possible situation for development, derives some countenance
from the circumstance of the extreme rarity of the occurrence of these
larvae as parasites, there being, as I have mentioned, very few cases on
record ; which would give to the circumstance the air of an accidental
occurrence, of which, however, it is again immediately robbed when we
contemplate the singular and very obvious adaptation of its organization
to the peculiar circumstances in which it is thus placed. The anatomy
being clearly that of an animal destined, or at least adapted, to live by
adhesion and suction on fluid nourishment, though it is clear from the
fact of some being found nearly two thirds grown in simple river water,
that the larva is also capable of life and growth in other elements than
the contents of the alimentary canal, and in other capacities apparently
than that of a parasite.

" Much, it appears, may be advanced on either side, and indeed the
whole subject appears to me to be calculated to afford interesting points
for discussion ; and it is chiefly with this view that I have brought it
before the notice of the Society."

APPENDIX C, RELATING TO VEGETABLE PARASITES.

I.
Appendix and Supplement to the Parasitic Plants, by the Author.

Page 121. — Kolliker and Scanzoni also found spare, thin, and
short ferment-fungi in the secretions of the Cervix uteri.

Page 127. — Treatment of Merismopcedia (Sarcina) Ventriculi. —
Hasse also, in his most recent ' Clinical Reports/ commends most
of all nitrate of silver against this parasite, while he saw no
benefit from the hyposulphite of soda. Would not strong
spirituous drinks in moderate doses, as a spoonful of undiluted
rum, once or twice daily, quickly swallowed, particularly when
nothing else is drunk, be worth a trial ?

Page 129. — First Donne (' Cours de Microsc./ pp. 157 —
161, fig. 33), and after him Kolliker and Scanzoni (1. c., p. 12
and fig. 6), found in vaginal mucus fine, stiff threads, 0-04 —

PAEASITIC PLANTS. 257

0'06'" in length, exactly resembling Leptothrix buccalis, from
which they are only distinguished in that they are always
isolated, are not bound together by a fine granular material, and
are never situated on epithelial cells. Although often very
numerous, they are still not so abundant as Trichomonas vagi-
nalis, and are never met with like these without the coexisting
presence of mucus-corpuscles.

Page 132. — In his 'Clinical Reports' during 1853-4, pp.
69 — 71, Fuchs mentions having found a fungus, in Bronchitis
maligna, in the sputa and bronchi. After written communications
he considered it to be the fungus treated of before as Leptomitus
Hannoveri.

Page 162. — Correction and appendix to the notice given of the
parasitic fungus mentioned by Fuchs. — Through an oversight on
my part it is said that Alphi are " white spots on the skin-." I
should have written white pustules in or on the skin. I shall
seek to make this error good, because I speak more at detail now
of Fuchs' s fungus. The Alphus sparsus = scattered meal- scab =
Pustulte scrofuloste == Ecthyma scrofulosum appears especially on
the trunk and superior extremities, seldom on the face ; solitary,
discrete, light gray pustules, never met with on hairy parts ; which
raise themselves on isolated, round areolse of the size of peas or
beans; which are hard, firm, nearly half spherical, and buried in
the pale livid cedematous halo ; they are filled with a yellowish
fluid, and from a pin-prick slowly flows out a fluid which resembles
a mixture of chalk powder and water. They dry up without
breaking into isolated round crusts, increasing to the size of a
groschen-piece, which raise themselves over the skin and become
easily torn off by the clothes, on which a circular scrofulous ulcer
remains behind.

According to Fuchs this form of eruption is confined to
scrofulous persons, and is contagious like favus, although the
attempts at its inoculation by Fuchs failed. Through conditional
modifications of the constitution, simple Eczema, Impetigo,
Psydracia fiavescens, Ecthyma, Acne, &c., may become very
like Alphus externally.

That the deeper layers of the skin are involved is probable
according to Fuchs, but has not been proved. The crust
consists of fungus threads which in some measure resemble those
of favus ; they appear sometimes to be increased by epidermic
scales, and occasionally assume a pale greenish colour.

This disease becomes chronic, has an indeterminate dura-

17

258 APPENDIX.

tion, but is not so protracted as favus. Recovery takes place of
itself after the cicatrization of the ulcers and the falling off of
the crusts; still relapses take place. It never has a bad
termination.

Treatment. — According to Fuchs this should be antiscrofulous ;
still local means in addition arew beneficial. Recent cases can be
destroyed by caustic, treating the skin after the destruction of
the crusts ; with alkalies, sulphur, preparations of iodine, and, I
believe, with spirit or spirit containing veratria ; still one should
not close up the ulcers too quickly. Fuchs believes the fungus
is allied to favus. Possibly this form is the Favi disseminati of
other authors.

Page 181. — Treatment of Achorion Schoenleinii (Favus fungus) .
— Shortly after the completion of the experiments mentioned
at page 236, I sent them, with other communications
which gave the same results, to Professor Hebra, with the
request that he would, in his numerous experiments with
spirituous remedies (with Tinct. Veratri or with pure spirit), carry
them into effect against favus, and try whether the theoretical
results gained by me were practically applicable. The distin-
guished skin-pathologist had the kindness immediately to make
the trial on two of his patients in the following manner : After
the way and mode of epilation given at page 385, Hebra treated
the diseased parts with the following mixture from the 23d of
June — R: Spirit. Vini rctss. (80°) Ib. j, containing Veratrini, gr. v.
He soaked with this solution pieces of lint, and ordered the parts
to be well rubbed with these twice a day, and then a dossil
wetted with the tincture to be laid over them. In the middle of
August the patients were dismissed ; and, up to the end of
October, had shown no relapse. The results appeared so satis-
factory to Hebra, that he carried on this treatment directly
with three new patients, and, in future, will adopt this treatment
of favus, and with plain spirit. May his further experiments
turn out as successful as the first ! Whether this will succeed in
entirely sparing the epilation is an object which I have sought to
determine by the strict but always impartial and scientific
criticism of the celebrated clinical observer of Vienna. But
should the later experiments not succeed, still the experiments
of Hebra should invite inquiry. The patients appear to
be remarkably pleased with this treatment ; at least those two
patients mentioned here came only lately to Hebra to thank
him specially for their recovery.

THE EAK-FUNOUS. 259

Only lately we find the confession made by Kiichler
(Official Report of the Hospital at Darmstadt in No. 38 of the
f German Klinik' for 1855) that, in spite of the pitch-plaster, he
has experienced two relapses. That this extremely energetic
physician did not, perhaps, proceed mildly in the application
of the pitch-plaster, the following will show. I give this
account because it indicates particularly the preparation and
application of the pitch-plaster. One takes ordinary, not
thin, liquid cobblers' wax, and places it not too thickly on
strong, not too fine, nor too new, nor too smooth, nor
very heavy linen, with the addition of a few drops of oil of
turpentine. After the most thorough removal of the hair possible,
as far as it goes, and after removal of the crust which becomes
softened by oil, the pitch-plaster is placed on the diseased
part, over all the space implicated. The plaster for two or
three finger-breadths near its anterior border should be kept
free from pitch and turned over, by which it can be better
taken hold of and pulled off. Incisions also should be made
round the edges of the plaster, by which it fits closer, but not
too deep by which it is not pulled off afterwards. The
pitch remains on eight days, and is then removed. The
patient is seated on a stool without a back or crosswise, and
his head and neck made fast sideways under the plaster by the
grasp of a strong assistant. A second assistant at the head
stands behind the patient, with his eight fingers on the fore part
of the slightly loosened plaster, places his knee on the neck of
the patient, and draws off, if possible, the whole plaster with
a haul. This proceeding has sometimes to be gone over
again. The stench on the removal is often horrible. The
part never remains bare. Kiichler saw relapses twice ; still he
has not specified altogether the number of cases. On the removal
once all the pitch remained on the diseased part, because the
assistant had taken very strong linen. Kiichler ordered a
smoothing iron to be heated, and better linen to be ironed on.
With such faults, and such heroic corrigentia, who would not
admire the pitch-cap treatment !

Page 202. — On the question of Reubold. Is the thrush fungus
peculiar to man? — In October of this year, (1856), which
distinguished itself by its mildness, and at a time when aphthae
frequently associate themselves on sloughing sores, I pro-
cured, from a boy twelve years of age, affected with inflam-
mation of the neck (probably scarlatinous), from the country,

260 APPENDIX.

some pieces of aphthous membrane,, in which I found numerous
elements of the fungus. Of these pieces I placed a great number
between the jaw-bones and cheeks of three still blind sucking
puppies, where the fungus would support itself longer without be-
coming swallowed. I hoped in this case the sooner to resuscitate
the fungus, because the puppies only a few hours before the inocu-
lation had their ears and tails cut off, and the animals were brought
down a little and were anaemic. But, although for fourteen days
I examined the dogs every other day, still I could discover none
of the aphthae on any part of the mouth. Professor Haubner has
informed me that he never saw aphthae on young dogs. Should
the external appearances after similar experiments be found
in the mouths of sucking calves, Haubner, ought to state that
he had produced aphthae from fungi.

Page 225. — To the kindness of Professor Luschka I am
indebted for my knowledge of the original labours of Pacini.
Although Pacini certainly was incorrect if he meant that he
had found two peculiar plants in the ear, and if he considered
the figures K to N to be an alga resembling Oidium albicans
and figures A to J a fungus. Robin is perfectly correct if he
understood the figures K to N as the mycelium of A, so I am
still, after comparison of the original and the version of Robin,
necessitated to make these remarks. I mention only by the way
that Robin allowed Dr. Bargellini's patients to go back to the sea-
baths of Florence instead of those at Livorno.

The white fatty -looking masses in the ear — which entirely
covered the tympanum, which only became visible when injections
or other attempts to remove the fungus accidentally shifted a
portion of the fungus on one side, and allowed a piece of
the tympanum to come into view — consisted of granulations,
mostly epidermic cells filled with fine granules, which were very
transparent and uniform, and had a diameter from 0*015 — 0*018
mm., and of the elements of the fungus.

The capitulum of the fructifying elements was completely
spherical, that of Mayer's ear fungus pear-shaped. The colour
changed according to the size of the capitulum and according to
its state of maturity ; with advancing age and ripeness the head
became darker, less transparent, and more indistinct in its
structure. The placenta or the centre of the capitulum = the
proper receptaculum, was of very varied dimensions; in
figure A it measured 0'142 mm. 0*037 mm. in diameter, in
smaller specimens it was of less size. This structure consists of

THE EAR-FUNGUS.

261

small spores (r), which in the stage of development (B) have a
diameter of 0-0042 mm., if not so mature they arfe smaller,

in A 0-003 mm. The mature, perfectly spherical spores have a
very thick contour, and are only a little more transparent in the
centre. They range themselves in rows joined to one another,
and radiate from the placenta. From this arrangement,
Micheli conceived the name Aspergillus (Aspersorio = holy-water
sprinkling.) Pacini wondered that neither Mayer nor Robin had
represented this arrangement, but the spores are dispersed and
the placenta is sown over with them, and believes that if it does
arise not from inaccuracy of delineation, that certainly different
species are treated of by Mayer and himself. But if perfect
maturity has occurred the spores disunite themselves spontane-
ously, which, in example A amount to about 19,000, is
deceiving.

The caules — the filaments, which form the stalk, present the
appearance and size of a large elementary nerve-fibre of the frog

262 APPENDIX.

with a double contour. Moreover, externally they are single in
their course and of the same size, the caules sometimes being
covered at their terminations with small, thorny-looking ex-
crescences, which Pacini incorrectly supposed to be radicles.
Near the capitulum (at the point j) the stalk is surrounded by a
species of sheath (analogous to a perianth), and the individual
spores are separated from one another. Besides the diameter of
the caulis varies with the size of the specimen, in A the diameter
is 0'013 mm. So it is with the cavity of the stalk, which in A
is 0-008 mm. In general the length of the stalk depends on its
development ; in A and B it \vas about O770 mm. long. Pacini
has drawn the stalk shortened one half, but I have given the
stalk and capitulum of the natural proportion. The mycelium
consists of that structure which Pacini again gave at K, and in-
correctly described as an alga, but Robin rightly interpreted it.
The ramifications of the mycelium one sees at M and L. There-
fore these rows are formed on elongated and reunited cells, and
exhibit internodes. Those containing in them small dark cells,
but which are not spores, as Pacini would have it, have a diameter
of 0'0015 mm. Sometimes the tubes bend themselves angularly
and return back towards the epithelial cells, caules, and spores.
After two months' preservation in solution of gum arabic with
a little arsenious acid, Pacini found nothing more of the
substance here described as mycelium, while all the other parts of
the fungus had been very well preserved. Has Pacini here
committed an error in observation, or has he overlooked
altogether the mycelium ?

The treatment consists not in dropping in acetate of lead, as
Robin repeats, but in vigorously injecting water. The acetate of
lead should be employed secondarily against the Otorrhceq which
remains behind.

In regard to the position of Pacinr's fungus in the system, I
should not after my observations of Pacini's drawings have
placed it with Aspergillus, as Robin did, but associated it with
Sluyter's Mucor mucedo, so long as we in general allow, that
every observer accurately observes, and has given drawings true
to nature. The differences between Aspergillus and Mucor
mucedo consist for the present in the dissimilar form of the so-
called placenta and the filamentary radiated or homogeneous
light simple ring forming the periphery of the capitulum, and
these are possibly only differences in the age and maturity of the
individual specimens. (See page 271).

THE EAR-FUNGUS.

263

What has been said concerning Pacings fungus is also to be said
concerning the fungus here mentioned, for the representation and
description of which I am indebted to Professor R. Leuckart. The
fungus was found in 1848 at Gb'ttingen in the stomach of a dead

woman. The numerous ramifications of the threads had produced
such a matting together, that a well-formed membrane was found on
the mucous coat. The sporangia were ~" , the shaft or stalk T50'",
the individual spores ~" in diameter. The individual spores re-
sembled yeast-cells. On the grounds mentioned above, for the
present I shall give this fungus the name of Aspergillus Leuckartil.
Page 231. — Mucor mucedo. — Herr Hofrath Hasse in Heidel-
berg, had the kindness to send me, through c.%°/^,
Dr. Wagner of Leipzig, a fungus found in
the interior of a gangrenous abscess of the
lung. Dr. Welcker determined the
following principal facts, which I can only
corroborate by the microscopical prepara-
tion kindly sent me. It occurs in the
form of thallus-threads about 0-308 mm.
in length, by a breadth of from 0-0026
to 0-008 mm. The shaft always in-
creases more in breadth towards the top
= sporangium, till it attains in the round
sporangium to a breadth of 0-025. mm.
The stalk is hollow in the interior, so that
if it is broken across, one can see within
through its transparency, or if it becomes
dried up in part, air finds its way into
it, which is sometimes met with in the
sporangium in the form of a small round
bubble. The spores are 0-0036 to 40
mm. in length, and have in breadth a diameter of from 0-0015

264 APPENDIX.

to 17 mm. Sometimes placed on the side of the stalk is another
smaller sporangium with only a short stalk.

From the external appearance it can only be considered an
Aspergillus, similar to Mayer's ear-fungus or a Mucor mucedo. I
believe the last is most probable, because the sporangia have
that fringed, fan-like appearance which is given at Plate V,
fig, 5, as characteristic of Mucor mucedo. Also the seat agrees
on the whole, and we refer this fungus for that reason to Mucor
mucedo, although we are deprived, on account of the deficiency
in important particulars concerning the fungus, by Sluyter, of
accurate means of determination.

Page 232. — Professor Leuckart had the kindness to send
me a drawing of a parasite found on the pustules of Acne
and granular contents. Its size varied between ^ — —^ '. Leuckart
represents the parasite with more than two articulations, always
according to its size. I find once five, once seven, cross-partitions.
However, the whole has a great resemblance to Ardtsten's
Puccinia.

II.

" On the minute structure of certain substances expelled from
the human intestine, having the ordinary appearance of
shreds of Lymph, but consisting entirely of filaments of a
Confervoid type, probably belonging to the genus Oscillatoria.
By ARTHUR EARRE, M.D., F.R.S.

(Read before the Microscopical Society, June 22d, 1842.)

" On a former occasion I laid before the Society the results of my ob-
servations upon a remarkable and exceedingly rare parasite of the human
body, the larva of the Antliomyia canicularis, which was expelled in vast
numbers from the intestine. The subject of the present communication
must also, I presume, be classed under the head of parasites, but occurring
under such a remarkable form, as to render the determination of its pre-
cise nature a matter of not very easy accomplishment.

" The individual from whom the substances which I shall describe were
obtained, is a married female, aged thirty-five, residing at No. 28, Crown
Street, Soho, who is now attending as an out-patient under nay care, at
King's College Hospital. She is a moderately stout and healthy -looking
person, but has been slightly ailing for the last twelve months, and for six
weeks past has been subject to menorrhagia, by which she has been some-
what debilitated ; she has also suffered lately from slight dyspepsia. Six

FAKKE'S OSCILLATOKIA. 265

days ago, after suffering considerable griping pains in the bowels, which
continued for twelve hours, she passed per anum a number of shreds,
which being discharged with some difficulty, and causing an obstruction of
the bowel, her attention was thereby more particularly attracted, and
some of the shreds were pulled away by herself, so that there can be no
question as to the source whence they were derived.

" The substances thus passed were placed in water, and brought by the
patient for my inspection. They had so much the appearance and ordi-
nary characters of shreds of lymph, or false membrane, that I had not at
that time the slightest suspicion of their being anything else, and merely
reserved them for a more particular examination at some future period,
but without any expectation that they would present appearances different
from the ordinary microscopic characters of false membrane. I was there-
fore much surprised, on placing a small portion of the substance under
the microscope, to find that it presented the appearance of a mass of
Conferva, and that, in fact, the entire substance was made up of nothing
else but tangled filaments of a confervoid type. However, before de-
scribing the microscopic characters of this singular substance, it will be
necessary to give some idea of the appearance of the mass, as examined
without the aid of the microscope. I have already compared the sub-
stances to shreds of lymph or false membrane ; such shreds or flakes of
soft yellow matter, assuming a membranous form, are familiar to every one
accustomed to pathological researches. It is well known that they are
often the result .of inflammation attacking membranous surfaces, and that
they are most frequently met with on the serous membranes, as the
pleura, pericardium, and peritoneum, but that they are also occasionally,
though more rarely, produced from mucous surfaces, as those which line
the air-passages and alimentary canal. Of the same nature as these have
been also generally considered those fibrinous flakes which are occasionally
passed from the intestines in chronic affections of the mucous membrane
of those parts, and which sometimes assume the form of tubular casts
evidently moulded upon the surface of the gut ; and lastly, I may allude
to a more common affection of another mucous surface, the lining mem-
brane of the uterus, on which membranous substances are occasionally
formed and discharged, constituting a complete cast of the organ, and
familiar to every practitioner as occurring occasionally in cases of dys-
menorrhcea.

" I allude to these examples (familiar enough to medical men) for the
purpose of showing to those who have not directed their attention to such
subjects, that membranous or fibrinous substances are occasionally dis-
charged from the various mucous surfaces of the body, which are gene-
rally considered to be the product, of inflammation, either acute or chronic,
and are closely allied in composition and ordinary characters to the fibri-
nous part of the blood, from which fluid they are apparently separated by
the inflammatory process. With such knowledge therefore we should,
• I think, be but little prepared to find that flakes or shreds of a membranous
substance — having so much of the ordinary appearance of the substances
which I have just described, that several medical friends to whom I have
shown them, have at once supposed them to be the ordinary flakes of
false membrane discharged from the bowels — should, when microscopically
examined, present all the characters of those confervoid masses which are

266 APPENDIX.

to be found in almost every water, but the appearance of which to the
naked eye is so totally dissimilar to that of the substances under con-
sideration, that no one could for a moment suppose, without the aid of the
microscope, that they were, in the slightest degree, allied to each other.

" The several portions of this substance in my possession differ from
each other in some respects in reference to their external characters,
though in their composition all are alike. Some of the portions are in the
form of riband-shaped masses, of wh^ph the largest is six inches in length,
varying from half to three quarters of an inch in breadth, and is about a
line in thickness : there are five or six portions of similar breadth and
thickness, and varying from one to two inches in length. These portions
are highly elastic, and may be stretched to a considerable length, returning
again to their former shape with considerable resiliency. This elasticity,
however, is chiefly observed when the pieces are stretched in the longitu-
dinal direction, as they are capable of very little extension transversely.
The margin of some of these portions is irregular and flocculent, being
formed evidently of minute filaments, and resembling the villous surface of
a mucous membrane, and in the largest piece the whole surface has this
velvety appearance. Others of these portions present more distinct evi-
dences of a fibrous arrangement, and distinct traces of fibres, or, as they
will be presently shown to be, bundles of filaments, may be observed ex-
tending through the mass, both longitudinally and transversely, but the
surface or the margins still preserving a flocculent appearance. One or
two of these pieces, of which the border is nearly smooth, present very
much an appearance of having been cast in a flattened or contracted
portion of the small intestines ; one of these especially, which is only four
lines in width, looks like a portion of the intestine of some small animal,
with its mucous membrane turned externally and flattened, but, like the
other portions, it is not hollow, but riband-shaped. The remaining portions
differ from these only in presenting no trace of the flocculent surface or
margins, and in being more completely membranous. They might, in
fact, be easily mistaken for portions of animal membrane, and being of a
closer texture have much less elasticity than the former portions. The
thinnest of these portions, which at its edge is nearly diaphanous, is very
smooth and shining, having almost a tendinous lustre. To the naked eye
it appears to be made up of fibres, both longitudinal and transverse, but
the longitudinal prevail, and the mass more readily splits in that direction,
the splitting taking place with a clean margin, as if cut with a sharp in-
strument. This fragment bears no distant resemblance to a piece of dura
mater, covered by the arachnoid membrane ; both surfaces are equally
smooth, and no appearance is presented of any surface for attachment.
The remaining portions are thicker, measuring nearly a line in thickness,
and present a more distinct appearance of fibres crossing at right angles.
They may, in fact, be readily split into masses of fibres, which very closely
resemble, both in colour and texture, the middle or fibrous coat of the
arteries, but being softer and more elastic. The whole of these portions
are of a buff colour, and are here described as they appear when examined
under water.

" When a small fragment of any of these masses is placed under the
microscope, with an amplifying power of from 50 to 100 linear, it is seen
to be made up of very delicate filaments, the y^tf °f an mc^ ^n diameter,

FAKRE'S OSCILLATORIA. 267

which are differently arranged in different specimens. In those portions
which have a flocculent surface and loose texture, the filatoents are seen
to be coiled up and interwoven in a tangled mass, which presents no ap-
pearance of any definite arrangement : at the edges of such portions the
filaments are seen distinct and separate from each other, and shooting free
into the surrounding fluid ; but the examination of the centre presents a
confused appearance where the fibres cross each other in all directions,
and intermingled with them are seen some irregular granules of the same
colour as the mass. When those portions however are examined which
have a membranous character, a very distinct and definite arrangement of
the fibres is perceived, which here cross each other nearly at right angles,
and are so interwoven as to form a layer of greater or less strength and
thickness ; and it is apparently entirely owing to this variety in the mode
of arrangement of the fibres, that the different appearances in the several
masses already described are produced : the tangled and confused aggre-
gation of fibres producing the villous masses, the loose ends of the
filaments constituting in fact the villosity, and the regular crossing of the
fibres giving rise to the smooth, shining membranous expansion.

" To examine however the minute structure of these filaments, which
make up, in fact, the whole mass of these singular substances, with the
exception of the granules just noticed, and which are few in number, it is
necessary to use a magnifying power of 500 or 600 linear.

" The filaments which have been just described, are so exceedingly
minute, and require such high powers for their examination, that it must
be a matter of some difficulty to determine their exact nature. The con-
fervoid type however is, I think, so very strikingly and obviously ex-
hibited, as to leave little room to doubt the class of products to which
this substance is to be referred. That it is no animal membrane or pro-
duct of inflammation, as it would at first sight appear to be, before it had
been submitted to the test of the microscope, will, I think, be readily ad-
mitted by all who have ever had the opportunity of examining these sub-
stances. The texture to which perhaps it approaches most nearly is the
muscular, arid that in the invertebrate classes only, in many of which the
filaments composing that texture are disconnected, and not bound up in
bundles and enveloped in sheaths, as in the Vertebrata, to which, there-
fore, the arrangement here described can bear no resemblance ; but the
resemblance to muscular texture at once vanishes when we apply the
higher power, and discover the intimate structure already described.

" If, as I presume will be the case, the product be admitted to belong to
that group of Cryptogamic products which have been generally classed
together under the title of Con/ervce,ii then remains to determine whether
this specimen belongs to any known genus or species, or is as yet unde-
scribed. I am inclined to refer it to the genus Oscillatoria, but am not
acquainted with any species with which it is identical. Its resemblance
to Oscillatoria is seen in the extreme delicacy of its filaments, in its simple
transverse markings, and the separation of the green matter at intervals
within the sheath by which those markings are produced. In colour it
resembles Oscillatoria ocliracea, but that species is extremely brittle, and
can scarcely be handled without breaking up into fragments, while this is
very tough and elastic. I am inclined to consider it a new species, if not
a new genus.

268 APPENDIX.

" Further opportunities of examining this product, supposing it to be
allied to or to belong to Oscillatoria, may probably throw some light on
the disputed question of the animal or vegetable nature of that genus,
which appears to be now one of the many bones of contention between the
botanist and the zoologist. Perhaps the chemical analysis of this sub-
stance, which I have not yet had an opportunity of instituting, may
throw some light upon the question. I have already alluded to the re-
semblance in colour and other particulars of this substance to animal
matter ; it appears also to be disposed to a similar putrefaction, for on
opening the phial this morning, in which the substance was contained in
a weak solution of salt and water, I perceived a very distinct odour,
similar to that of decomposing animal matter, and I find that these spe-
cimens are not now so perfect as when I first examined them.

" With regard to the source from which these bodies could be derived :
since similar organisms are abundant in every water there can be no
difficulty in supposing that a portion of the substance itself, or some of its
reproductive germs or sporules, may have been swallowed by this indi-
vidual in the water which she drinks. I have made particular inquiry as
to her diet, and find that it is of the ordinary description, both animal
and vegetable ; and that her drink is limited to tea and water, but of the
latter she takes very little. The water is supplied by the ordinary
service-pipes of the metropolis, and not from any particular well or
pump.

" At this point of the inquiry the same difficulty occurs as in the
question of the origin of the ordinary internal parasites of animals, the
Entozoa. Whence are they derived, and how is their existence in the
body to be explained by reference to an external origin, since they are not
found in any other situation ? It would be almost impossible to conceive
that the substance which I have described could be found out of an or-
ganized body, for example in a stream of water ; but I would suggest,
that having derived its supplies of nourishment from an organized body
(in this case, as may be presumed, from the surface of the intestine), its
characters may have been so far modified, consisting in fact, as it does, of
animal matter, as to render the object no longer recognisable as an already
existing species.

" I believe the fact which I have just announced is new to science ;
I have not myself met with any similar instance, but it belongs to a class
of facts which modern microscopic investigation is rapidly rendering
familiar to all who value that species of observation. In the journals of
the day may be found numerous examples of parasitic growth from various
parts of the bodies of animals, and even of man. From the surface of the
body, as in the confervoid growths attached to the fins and gills of fishes,
and cryptogamic vegetation constituting the essential part of certain
morbid products, as in the porrigo of the human subject. Other ex-
amples are recorded of internal vegetations, Entophyta as well as JSntozoa,
as from the lungs in birds, and even of the human subject, as recorded by
Dr. J. H. Bennett, in a case where such organisms were expectorated by
an individual under pulmonary consumption. Mr. Goodsir has related a
case in which thousands of animals, allied to the genus Gonium, were
vomited from the human stomach ; and to the mass of evidence which is
thus rapidly accumulating, of parasitic growths, both animal and vegetable,

INTESTINAL CONCRETIONS. 269

infesting the bodies of man and animals, I beg to add the details of the
analogous formation which I have just had the honour of describing to the
Society."

in.

" The Microscope as a means of Diagnosis. — Singular case of In-
testinal Concretions. By H. MONROE, M.D., Hull.

(' Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science,' No. 18.)

" The value of the microscope as a means of diagnosis is now universally
acknowledged by every medical man. Many are the instances I could
enumerate, in which, without its assistance, no clear or definite opinion
could be arrived at. Among the many cases which have come under my
observation, the following one may not be uninteresting, as I know of no
other similar case, save one mentioned by our esteemed friend, Mr. Quekett,
in his first volume on ' Histology.' I give you the history of the case as
detailed to me by Dr. Wilkinson, of Manchester, under whose care
the patient was placed, and to whose kindness I am indebted for the
account.

" B. L — , set. 52 years, a power-loom weaver, has never been the subject
of any ailment until four years ago ; in fact, he does not remember ever
having had a day's illness. At that time he suffered slightly from indi-
gestion, felt some uneasiness at the pit of the stomach, with at times,
though rarely, actual pain. The food taken frequently returned at inter-
vals, varying from ten minutes to two or even four hours after ingestion.
The vomit, if retained for some hours, presented the appearance of butter-
milk and treacle. He never vomited except when the stomach contained
food ; but he was subject to frequent eructations of a small quantity of clear
fluid, intensely acid ; sufficiently so to set the teeth on edge, and to produce
even a shudder at the recollection. About this time he perceived a hard
body directly below the ensiform cartilage, but somewhat to the right side,
lying as it were between the depending point of the cartilage and the right
costal cartilages. He judged that the lump he felt was a hard substance
about the size of a hen's egg. He felt this lump pass down along the
course of the duodenum and intestines, until it arrived in the left hypo-
chondriac region. A short time after this it was passed by stool, being
several weeks after he had first noticed it. The whole of the time he had
severe and continued pain ; and after it had passed, per rectum, he suffered
for thirteen hours severely. Sixteen days afterwards another concretion
was passed ; and at the end of sixteen days more one still larger. There
were no other concretions passed for two years, and then another of a
smaller size.

" He then felt a hard tumour in the abdomen on the right of the
umbilicus, which has since gradually increased ; continuing hard, moveable,
and somewhat changes its position, but does not seem to move along the
canal.

" The concretions which have been passed have not varied greatly in

270 APPENDIX.

appearance, being irregularly oval. The one he presents is hexagonal,
apparently presenting articular facets of a lightish brown colour.

" He states that he has lived since childhood principally on oatmeal
porridge with treacle, has taken little animal food ; and, during the four
years he has been unwell, has taken magnesia as a purgative. He, how-
ever, says that he took no magnesia before the first concretion was
passed.

" Such is the case as sent me by m^ friend with a portion of the concre-
tion for microscopic analysis. Chemistry and all other means had failed
to unravel the mystery of the composition of this concretion. I macerated
a portion of it for some time in distilled water, expecting to detect the
starch granules of the oat by the polarizing apparatus of the microscope,
but in this I failed. I continued the maceration, separating the parts a
little with very fine needles, and at last was able to detect very beautifully
masses of the hairs of the palea of the oat, of which, and the husks of the
oat, the concretion seemed to be entirely made up."

IV.

" On a Fungus parasitic in the Human Ear. By JOHN GROVE,

Esq., M.R.C.S., &c. Communicated by HENRY DEANE, Esq.

(Read before the Microscopical Society, April 15th, 1857.)

" Having taken a lively interest for some years in the subject of
parasitic growths of all kinds, whether occurring on animals or plants, I
have lost no opportunity of seeking for them when occasions have presented
offering any probability of success to my research.

" In the month of September last (1856) I met with a beautiful speci-
men of a fungoid growth which was removed from the ear of a gentleman
who had been suffering from inflammation of the left external meatus
auditorius.

" Tne ailment commenced with uneasiness and irritation of the ear,
diminution of the sense of hearing, and some slight discharge. In a few
days there was pain ana greater urgency of the other symptoms. As the
patient was in the prime of life, of unimpaired constitution, and apparently
in vigorous health, I ordered simply poppy fomentations by means of
spongio-piline, the ear to be carefully syringed with warm water, and
a drop of glycerine to be applied night and morning — the syringing be-
cause there appeared to be some flocculent-looking matter deep in the
meatus. After a day or two some of this flocculent matter came away in
little masses, which was preserved according to order for iny inspection.

" The fungi to be presently described being detected, it occurred to me
that the best method of preventing their further development would be to
use some injection which was likely to be inimical to their existence.
Alum was selected, and it seemed to answer perfectly. But soon the
other ear began to take on the same symptoms as its fellow, and now the
alum injection succeeded in checking altogether the progress of the affec-
tion, and the patient was speedily out of my hands.

EAR-FUNGUS. 271

" The only instance of a growth of this kind in a like situation, that
I am acquainted with, is in Robin's work; he quotes, hfavever, from
a paper by Mayer, in Muller's ' Archives.' He speaks of a fungoid vege-
tation which was found in some cysts removed from the ear of a child
eight years old, who was suffering with a scrofulous discharge from the
external meatus, and had been treated both locally and generally with a
variety of medicaments.

" The differences between the description given by Robin and that
which I have to offer are such as to lead to the belief that the objects are
not similar.

" 1st. I detected no cysts, but flocculent membranous-looking masses.

" 2d. He describes the stipe as long, and containing within it small
granules (or having a granular interior). Now although the accompany-
ing has a rather long stipe, it does not contain spherules or granules.

" 3d. The pileus is said by Robin to be small and of a greenish colour,
whereas that here shown is comparatively large and of a reddish-brown
colour.

" 4th. The position and character of the spores are distinctly different.
Robin speaks of them as granules, single or double, spread over the sur-
face of the upper swollen extremity of the stipe ; but those here exhibited
are closely packed oval spores, completely enveloping the upper extremity
of the stipe, forming a compact pileus.

" Further, there is a difference in the cases furnishing the growth, the
contrast between a scrofulous child, eight years of age, and a healthy man
in the prime of life, is as great as could be, and tends to show that the
scrofulous habit has no special influence in favouring the growth of the
parasite."

INDEX OF VOLUMES I AND II.

Acanthia lectularia, ii, 85

Acanthida, ii, 85

Acanthotheca, ii, 6

Acari, instruments for extracting, ii, 18

Acariasis, ii, 63

Acaridae, ii, 19, 243

Acarina, ii, 5, 242

Acarus dysenteries, ii, 65

favorum, ii, 55

folliculorum, ii, 7, 15

habitation of, ii, 23

nidulans, ii, 64

sacchari, ii. 244

Scabiei, ii, 19, 244
Acephalocysts, i, 228
Achasthelmintha elastica, i, 409
Achores confounded with favus, ii, 176
Achorion, growth of, ii, 169

Schoenleinii,ii,161, 162, 230,233, 258
Acne, ii, 17

vEthalium septicum, ii, 216
Agatharchides, i, 390, 394
Aglossa pinguinalis, ii, 105
Agmenellum quadriduplicatum, ii, 127
Alhers on tape- worm, i, 168
Albin Gras, ii, 44
Albrecht, case by, i, 378
Albucasis, i, 396
Albuminogene, i, 294
Aldrovandi, ii, 21
Alga, ii, 113

Alga filiformis Oris, ii, 126
Algae, parasitic, ii, 119
Alibert's method of expelling tape-worm,

i, 164
Alimentary apparatus of Distoma hepa-

ticum, i, 250

Alopecia idiopathica, ii, 146
Alphus, ii, 162, 259
Alston's method of expelling tape-worm,

i, 157

Alt's mite, ii, 63
Amaebae, i, 8
Ametabola, ii, 75
Ammonia in favus, ii, 179

Amphibia, eggs of, in stomach, ii, 104
living in the human body, ii, 104

Amphistoma, i, 244

Anchylostoma, i, 383

Ancyiostomum duodenale, i, 207, 384
found in corpses in Egypt, i, 384
symptoms of, i, 387
treatment for, i, 388

Androchtonus, ii, 102
twelve-eyed, ii, 102

Angelica, i, 240

Anobia, ii, 101

Anthomyia canicularis, ii, 95, 252

Anthomycida, ii, 95

Anthomyia scalaris, ii, 95

Antisarcoptica, ii, 41

Ants, ii, 103

Anthelmintics, time when they should be
administered, i, 374

Aphaniptera, ii, 88

Aphtha;, ii, 190

neonatorum, ii, 214
and muguet identical, ii, 215
true fungous nature of, ii, 215
experiments on, ii, 219

Aphthaphyte, ii, 216

Apida, ii, 103

Apples not a cause of tape-worm, i, 194

Aptera, ii, 75

Araneida, ii, 102

Arachnida, ii, 3

Archduke Ernest of Austria, case of,
i, 378

Ardsten, ii, 233

Argas Persicus, ii, 61

Argades, ii, 61

Ark, i, 395

Artificial beverages of Iceland, i, 239

Articulata, ii, 2

Arthrosporei, ii, 140

Ascaris alata, ii, 100

development of eggs, i, 293
experiments on vermifuges for, i, 420
lumbricoides, i, 293, 311, 366, 410
lumbricoides, production of, i, 317

276

INDEX OP VOLUMES I AND II.

Ascaris lumbricoides, Dr. Kiichenmeister's
own case of, i, 318

marginata, i, 310

vermicularis, i, 356
Ascarides, i, 293, 409

lumbricoides, ii, 236

Saoria as a remedy, i, 155

symptoms of, i, 413
Aspergillus, ii, 230
Aspergilli, ii, 225
Aspidium athamanticum, i, 168

as a remedy for tape-worm, i, 162
Autenrieth's method of expelling tape-
worm with tin, i, 157
Avenzoar, ii, 20

Bagge on the eggs of nematode worms,

i,291

Baillie's case of Filaria, i, 401
Baldness, ii, 171
Band-worm, i, 108
Bang's method of expelling tape-worm,

i, 166

Bauhin on Distoma hepaticum, i, 261
Barensprung, Von, ii, 186
Bargellini, Dr., ii, 227
Bartholin's commentary on. the Mosaic

account of the fiery serpents,

i, 394

Basiatores, ii, 156
Basides of fungi, ii, 140
Bateman, ii, 25
Batrachia, ii, 114
Bazin, ii, 144
Bazin's discoveries on vegetable parasites,

ii, 115

Bazin on favus, ii, 178
Beck's method of expelling tape-worm,

i, 165

Bed-bugs, ii, 85
Becker, method of expelling tape- worm,

i, 157

Bees, ii, 103
Beetle-lice, ii, 62
Belgian rapid cure for itch, ii, 48
Behrens, Dr., on tape-worm, i, 180
Belladonna ointment as a remedy for

Filaria medinensis, i, 404
Bennett, ii, 122, 224

on thrush fungus, ii, 223
Bera's Cercosoma, ii, 101
Berberis vulgaris, i, 172
Berg on aphthse, ii, 202
Berg's discoveries on aphthae, ii, 216

experiments on the development of

aphtha, ii, 217
Beschorner, ii, 148
Besenna anthelmintica, i, 156
Bete rouge, ii, 68
Beverages, artificial, of Iceland, i, 239

Bianchi, assertions respecting Oxyuris,

i,372
Bicking's method of expelling tape-worm,

i, 164

Biddloo on Distoma hepaticum, i, 261
Bilberries, i, 239
Bilharz, i, 141

discovery of Distoma heterophyes,
i, 276

discovery of Distomum in blood,
i, 278

examination of, for worms, i, 384
Bischoff on eggs of Nematoda, i, 297

on Trichina, i, 345
Bladder, alterations by the presence of

Distoma hsematobium, i, 282
Blanchet, ii, 190, 214
Blaps mortisaga, ii, 101
Blasius, case of, i, 378
Blossfield's method of expelling tape-
worm, i, 165
Bluebottle flies, ii, 96
Boa constrictor, ii, 253
Bobe Moreau, i, 379
Body-louse, ii, 81
Boeck, ii, 30

Boeck's treatment of favus, ii, 185
Bombus, ii, 103
Bombyx processionea, ii, 105
Bonanni, ii, 15
Bonomo, ii, 23
Bory's case, ii, 63
Bot-flies, ii, 92
Bothriocephali, i, 38, 95
Bothriocephalus, eggs of, i, 38

latus, i, 96

latus, treatment for, i, 105

mature state of, i, 96

ova and embryos, i, 100

physiology of, i, 104

sexual organs of, i, 99

vascular system of, i, 98
Botrytis, ii, 114
Bourdin, ii, 46
Bourguignon, ii, 23, 37, 50
Brachycera, ii, 92, 245
Brayera, i, 160

Brain, human, Cysticerci in, i, 131
Bread, experiments on fungi in, ii, 237
Bremser on Oxyuris, i, 356

on Strongylus, i, 376
Bremser's remedy for Ascarides, i, 422
Brera on Distoma hepaticum. i, 261
Brera, assertions respecting Oxyuris, i, 372
Brittan, ii, 122
Buchner, ii, 32

Bucholz, case of Distoma, i, 263
Budd, ii, 122

Dr., case of fluke in liver, i, 433
Budd's case of Lascar, i, 437
Bugs, bed-, ii, 85

INDEX OF VOLUMES I AND II.

277

Bugs, treatment for their bites, ii, 86
Biihlmann, ii, 130
Buthus, ii, 102

afer, eight-eyed, ii, 102
Bushnan's worms, ii, 100
Busk, ii, 64, 122

on Distoma hepaticum, i, 434
Busk's case of fluke in liver of Lascar,

i, 437 ; of Acarus, ii, 242
Buxus sempervirens, i, 172

Calomel as a remedy for Distoma, i, 388
Calyptera, ii, 95
Capparis spinosa, i, 17£
Capuchin powder, ii, 79
Caspar Wendlandt, case of, ii, 93
Cataracta viridis lenticularis, i, 408
Catarrh a cause of thrush, ii, 199
Catarrhus intestinalis, i, 386
Caterpillars, ii, 103

in human stomach, ii, 104

of ermine moth, worms infesting,

i, 313

Caterpillar, processionary, ii, 108
Cazenave, ii, 145, 189, 233
Celsus on Trichophyton tonsurans, ii, 146
Cenedella, opinions on pomegranate bark,

i, 172

Centrums, ii, 102
Cercaria, i, 270

echinifera, conversion into Distoma

echinifera, i, 270

Cerebral ganglia of Oxyuris, i, 361
Cervi capreoli, ii, 94
Cephalothorax, ii, 2
Cestoidea, i, 3, 12, 240
Cestodea, stages of development, i, 53
Cestoni, ii, 23

Chabert on Distoma hepaticum, i, 261
Champignon du Morguet, ii, 121
Chapotain, case of, i, 378
Cheese-mites, ii, 65
Childhood, thread-worms not confined to,

i, 372

Chironomus, ii, 100
Chlorine gas in favus, ii, 179
Cholera fungi, ii, 122
Churchyard-beetle, larvae of, ii, 101
Clems formicarius, ii, 101
Clinode of fungi, ii, 140
Clinosporei, ii, 232
Clossius's method of expelling tape-worm,

i, 153

Cnesmus acariasis, ii, 63
Coenuri, i, 233
Cold-water clysters as a remedy for worms,

i, 374"

Colour, phenomena of, santonine, i, 425
Concretions, intestinal, ii, 269
Copeland on turpentine as a remedy for

tape -worm, i, 159

Cornua cutanea, ii, 150

Crab-louse, ii, 82

Cregutus, ii, 213

Creophila, ii, 96

Creplin on Bothriocephali, i, 103

on Cysticercus, i, 232
Crow, the Trichina of the, i, 353
Crustacea, ii, 3, 4

like Arachnida, ii, 5
Cryptococceae, ii, 120
Cryptococcus, ii, 120

Cerevisiae, ii, 120, 189, 234

concatenate, ii, 121

fermentum, ii, 120
Cryptosporei, ii, 231
Cucullanus, i, 244
Cunnilingi, ii, 156
Cuprum aceticum, ii, 240
Curling's case of Dactylius, i, 438
Cysticercus cellulose, i, 113, 177

cellulose, habitations of, i, 117

cellulosae, treatment of, i, 132

cellulosae, Rainey's researches on,
i,428

fasciolaris, i, 17

tenuicollis, i, 177

Vesicae Hominis, i, 232

visceralis, i, 177
Cysticerci, development of, i, 31

infection with, i, 45
Cystic worms, i, 13

tape- worm, growth of body, i, 21

worms known to the Ancients,

i, 14
Cystides, ii, 140

Dactylius aculeatus, i, 438 ; ii, 100
Dancing productive of itch, ii, 40
Debothrium latum, i, 96
Decerf s case of worms passing with urine,

i, 377

De Geer, ii, 23
De la Valette's experiments with Distoma

hepaticum, i, 269
Delphinine, ii, 46
Denticola hominis, i, 8
Dermatophilus, ii, 91
Dermanyssi, ii, 56
Dermanyssus, ii, 62

avium, ii, 62, 64
Desault's method of expelling tape- worm,

i, 153

Deslandes, i, 172
Diabetic urine, ii, 121
Diacanthus polycephalus, ii, 100
Diceras rude, ii, 100
Didot, ii, 189
Diesing, ii, 6

on Strongylus gigas, i, 379
Diet for tape-worm, i, 151

278

INDEX OF VOLUMES I AND II.

Digitalis as a remedy for Filaria medinen-

sis, i, 404
Diptera, ii, 87
Distoma, i, 244

Buskii, i, 437

haematobium, i, 277

heematobium, action on man, i, 282

haematobium, action upon the intes-
tinal Jnucous membrane, i, 285

haematobium, action in the uterus, i,
284

haematobium, description of, i, 279

haematobium, its effect on the bladder,
i, 283

haematobium, action upon the liver, i,
285

hsematobium, treatment of, i, 286

hepaticum, i, 247

hepaticum, alimentary apparatus of,
i, 250

hepaticum, diagnosis of, i, 265

hepaticura, excretory organ of, i,
251

hepaticum, habitation of, i, 268

hepaticum, Mehlis's case, i, 261

hepaticum, nervous system of, i, 250

hepaticum, production of, i, 271

hepaticum, treatment of, i, 266

heterophyes, treatment of, i, 277

in human body, i, 433

lanceolatum, i, 273

lanceolatum, generative organs of, i,
275

malady, progress of, i, 266
• ophthalmobium, i, 246

parenchyma of, i, 249

Von Ammon's, i, 245
Distomea, i, 246
Distomum hepaticum, i, 247

heterophyes, i, 276

ophthalmobium, i, 287
Ditrachyceras rudis, ii, 100
Dobritzhofer, ii, 91
Doctor, ii, 68
Dogs, Acari on, ii, 17

Cysticercus in, i, 178

experiments on, i, 181

experiments with Trichina, i, 349

experiments with Trichinae, i, 353

in Iceland, i, 237
Dolichos pruriens, i, 148, 422
Dracontiasis, i, 397
Dracunculus, i, 401

Persarum, i, 397
Drake's case of worms, i, 439
Drastic purgatives and mercurials as a

remedy for tape-worm, i, 150
Droste, ii, 154
Drummond's case of Filaria medinensis, i,

402
Dubini, worm found by, i, 383

Dubois's method of expelling tape- worm, i,

165

Duchateau, case of, i, 378
Dujardin, i, 23

on Monostomum ochreatum, i, 245
Dumeril's case of worms passing with

urine, i, 3/7
Dupin's method of expelling tape- worm,

i, 157
Duval on Distoma hepaticum, i, 262

Ear-fungus, ii, 260, 270
Echinococci, i, 55, 189
Echinococcus altricjpariens, i, 205, 234

diagnosis of, i, 224

duration of life, i, 228

generation of, i, 190

Hominis, i, 189

Hominis Autorum, i, 205

Infusorium, i, 192

in the lungs, i, 208

of kidneys, i, 223

of the liver, i, 220

polymorphus, i, 192

scolicipariens, i, 234

scolicipariens, development of, i, 69

therapeutics in case of, i, 228

tumours, i, 234

Veterinorum, i, 181, 189

Virchow on, i, 216
Eczema squamosum, ii, 176
Eggs, formation of, in nematode worms, i,

291

Egypt, Ascarides in, i, 317
Egyptian chlorosis, i, 386
Eichstadt, ii, 23, 25, 158
Electricity, its effect on Tsenia, i, 148
Emmerich, ii, 66
Enchytraeus, ii, 100
Entozoa, i, 2
Epeira, ii, 102
Epilation in favus, ii, 182
Epithelial accumulations, ii, 209
Epsom salts as a method of expelling tape-
worm, i, 165
Erdl's mite, ii, 15
Eremospermeae, ii, 120
Eristalis tenax, ii, 101
Ermine moth, worms infesting, i, 312
Erythema Podicis, ii, 200
Eschricht, i, 196
Ettmiiller, ii, 213

Ettmiiller's method of expelling tape-
worm, i, 152

Extraneous matters in human fasces, ii, 105
Excretory organ of Distoma hepaticum, i,

231
Eye, Distoma ophthalmobium in the, i, 287

human scolex of Taeniasolium in, i, 125

Fabricius, ii, 23

INDEX OF VOLUMES I AND II.

279

Farve's Conferva, ii, 136, 253, 265

Favi and pustules, distinctions between, ii,

180
Favus, ii, 164

advantages of douche in, ii, 185

alveolaris, ii, 172

conspersus, ii, 175

disseminatus, ii, 170

etiology of, ii, 178

generalis, ii, 170

independens, ii, 170

indications of, ii, 181

isolatus, ii, 170

nummularis, ii, 172

producing special changes in the hair,
ii, 177

scutiformis, ii, 169, 172

squarrosus, ii, 169, 173

treatment of, ii, 181

urceolaris, ii, 169
Fasciola, i, 244
Farre, Dr. Arthur, i, 442 ; ii, 136

on Trichina, i, 345
Fat-glands, ii, 189

Feet and hands remaining covered a pre-
servative from Filaria medinecsis,
i, 400

Festucaria, i, 244
Ficinus, Dr., on tape-worm, i, 240
Fiery serpents supposed to be the Medina

worm, i, 393
Filaria, hominis bronchialis, ii, 100

lachrymalis, i, 408

lentis, i, 407

medinensis, i, 313, 316, 389, 397

medinensis, diagnosis for, i, 402

medinensis, different modes of treat-
ment for, i, 404

medinensis in the eye, i, 407

medinensis, mode of extraction, i, 403

medinensis, mode of production in the
human body, i, 400

medinensis, serious effects of breaking
the worm, i, 405

immature species found in the human
lens, i, 407

Oculi humani, i, 407

obtusa of the swallow, i, 408
Filaria}, i, 389

of insects, i, 312
Filix mas in tape-worm, i, 165

powder as a remedy for worms, i, 373
Flat worms, i, 11

isolated, i, 244
Fleas, ii, 88
Flea-sand, ii,91
Flesh-flies, ii, 96
Flesh-fly, common, ii, 98
Flies, hot, description of, ii, 92

true, description of, ii, 92

two-winged, ii, 87

Flour and bread productive of Ascarides,

i, 317

Flower-flies, ii, 95
Folliculi sebacei, ii, 180
Forbes on Dracunculus, i, 401
Formica, ii, 103
Formicida, ii, 103
Fox's case of Distoma, i, 434
Frerichs,ii, 123
Friedrich on tape-worm, i, 168
Frog, Trichinae of, i, 353
Fronmiiller, ii, 47
Fructus Saoria3asa remedy for tape- worm,

i, 154

Frustula, ii, 1 25
Fuchs, ii, 188
Fulvius Angelianus, ii, 8
Fungi, ii, 113, 115, 121, 137

receptacle of, ii, 139

spores, ii, 137
Fungus of the lungs, ii, 224

nail, ii, 227

Funk on tape-worm, i, 168
Fur on the tongue, ii, 210

Gad-fly, ii, 94
Gairdner, ii, 225

on Trichina, i, 339
Galen, i, 397
Gale, ii, 23
Gall-ducts, effects of Distoma hepaticum

on, i, 264
Gamasida, ii, 62
Gangra?na senilis, ii, 231
Garlic as a wornuexpellent, i, 374
Gastric disorders, ii, 170
Gastro-enteritis a symptom of worms, i, 386
Gastropacha Neustria, i, 313
Geese, red worms in air-passages of, i, 383
Geoceres, ii, 85
Geoffrey, ii, 23
Geometric spider, ii, 102
Germ-stock of Nematoda, i, 292
Germany, Ascarides in, i, 317
Glauchan, i, 317
Glandulse pilosae, ii, 181
Gnats, ii, 99

Goeze, views on worms, i, 19
Gohier, ii, 55
Gonium t ran quill, ii, 127
Gomez, i, 172
Goodsir, ii, 126

Gordii, distinction from Filaria?, i, 389
Gordiacei, Meissner on, i, 292
Gordius, i, 312

aquaticus, ii, 105

medinensis, i, 397

Graefe,Von, on Cysticercus in the eye, i,127
Grass-mites, ii, 66

and plant-mites, ii, 65
Greve, ii, 54

280

INDEX OF VOLUMES I AND II.

Giesker, Dr., case of Distomum hepaticum

in the foot, i, 272
Glossiva morsitans, ii, 247
Green, Dr., case of worms, ii, 249
Griesinger's observations on Ancylosto-
mum, i, 386

method of treating Ancylostomum <
duodenale, i, 388

on Distoma hsematobium, i, 281
Groguier, ii, 54
Grotius, Hugo, case of, i, 378
Gruby, ii, 175

cases of Acari, ii, 17
Gruner's account of the Medina worm, i,

396

Gryphosis, ii, 230
Gubler, ii, 132
Gudden, ii, 23, 24, 39, 149, 177

experiments on itch, ii, 26
Guinea dragon, i, 398

hair-worm, i, 398

thread-worm, i, 398

worm described as the larva of an in-
sect, i, 398

Gunsburg, ii, 146, 147
Gurlt, M., case related by, i, 379
Gymnospermeae, ii, 120

Haemopis vorax, ii, 105
Hafenreffer, ii, 22
Hair-glands, ii, 181

special changes of, ii, 177
Hahne, case of, i, 378
Hamularia subcompressa, i, 382
Hannover, ii, 114, 121, 135
Hardy's cure for itch, ii, 49

rapid cure for itch, ii,46
Harris's letter on case of Distoma, i, 435
Harvest-mites, ii, 67
Haubner's experiments, i, 70

experiment on a pig, i, 43

experiments on Echinococcus, i, 202
Hauptmann, ii, 22

Hautesiark, R. de, method of expelling tape-
worm, i, 156

Hawk, Trichinae of, i, 353
Heat favorable to Filariamedinensis,i,400
Hebra, ii, 23, 25, 33, 39, 147
Hebra's method of curing itch, ii, 43

treatment of favus, ii, 185

watch-key method of extracting Acari,

ii, 18

Hecker, ii, 44
Helmbrecht, ii, 134
Helmerich's ointment, ii, 47
Helmintha, i, 2, 11
Helminthae, ii, 117

Helminthochordon in tape-worm, i, 165
Hemimetabola, ii, 84
Hemiptera, ii, 84
Henle, ii, 15

Herbst on Trichinae, i, 353

Hermann, ii, 58

Herpes circinatus, ii, 144, 170

tonsurans, ii, 141, 177, 179

tonsurans and favus not identical,

ii, 185

Herrenschandt's method of expelling tape-
worm, i, 166
Hertwig, ii, 44
Hessling, ii, 58
Hexathyridium pinguicola, ii, 100

venarum, ii, 100
Hille's, Dr., account of the Medina worm,

i, 396

Hiller on tape-worm, i, 168
Hilling, ii, 114

Hippocrates' notions of thrush, ii, 212
Hbfle, ii, 129
Holometabola, ii, 87
Hooklets, development of, i, 432
Hopping Diptera, ii, 88
Hornets, ii, 103

Horn's method of curing itch, 43
House-spideYs, ii, 102
Huf eland's method of expelling tape-worm,
i, 152

remedy for Ascaris, i, 423
Humble bees, ii, 103
Hunting spiders, ii, 102
Huxley, i, 190
Hydatid disease, i, 233
Hydatigena granulosa, i, 192
Hydatis erratica, i, 192
Hyalemyia, ii, 96
Hydrachna, ii, 61
Hydatid trembling, i, 225
Hymenoptera, ii, 103

Jacobson, opinions on Guinea worm, i, 398

Jalap as a remedy for worms, i, 373

Jahn, ii, 66

Janson, ii, 66

Iceland, cases of tape-worm in, i, 206

dogs in, i, 236

hydatid disease in, ii, 233

waters of, i, 238
Icelandic sheep, i, 233
Icthyosis, ii, 150
Jenner, ii, 127
Jenni, ii, 43
Impetigo granulata, ii, 173

pustules of, ii, 176

Infection by drink with Taenia, i, 238
Infusoria, i, 5
Insecta, ii, 3
Insects, ii, 68
Introitus faucium, i, 411
Intestinal canal, i, 3
Joachim's case, ii, 50
Johannisapotheke, i, 173

INDEX OF VOLUMES I AND II.

281

Irschata, i, 397

Isocarpese, ii, 120

Israelites, plague of serpents among the,

i, 392
Itch, Belgian cure for, ii, 48

cure of, ii, 41

diagnosis of, ii, 41

inoculation of, ii, 26

known to the Ancients, ii, 20

mites, ii, 19, 33

mite combs, ii, 41

mites, discovery of, ii, 25

mites, moulting of, ii, 38

mode of infection, ii, 39

remedies of, ii, 44
Jungken's case of Filaria, i, 408
Jungken, Professor, i, 245
Ixodida, ii, 59
Ixodes Americanus, ii, 60

crenatus, ii, 60

humanus, ii, 60

marginatus, ii, 60

ricinus, ii, 60

Karsten's method of expelling tape-worm,

i, 167

Kali causticum in thrush, ii, 205
Kampfer on Filaria medinensis, i, 401
Karmsen, Herr, sheep, i, 32
Kidneys, Echinococcus of, i, 223

cases of worms in, i, 378
Kieser on tape-worm, i, 168
Kircher, ii, 22
Kletzinsky, i, 425
Knellie, ii, 214
Kobelt, ii, 44
Kolliker, i, 291 ; ii, 125, 129

on the eggs of nematode worms, i, 291
Kousso, i, 177

as a remedy for tape-worm, i, 160

its effect on Taenia, i, 148
Kramer, ii, 23

Laborde's supposition respecting scorpions
in the Mosaic writings, i, 391

Lagine's method of expelling tape-worm,
i,152

Lamarck, ii, 23

Lameil's observations on the processionary
caterpillar, ii, 108

Land-bugs, ii, 85

Langenbeck, ii, 216

Lanzoni, ii, 22

Languetin, ii, 23

Lankester, Dr., ii, 122

Latrodectus Malmignatus, ii, 102

Laurence, case of worms, i, 377

Lavements daily as a remedy for thread-
worms, i, 374

Lebert, i, 191; ii, 121

Leeches, ii, 105

Leeuwenhoek, ii, 130
Leonhardt, Dr., case of worble, ii, 93
Lepra asturiensis, ii, 1 50
Leptomitus, ii, 120, 136, 216

Epidermidis, ii, 132

Hannoverii, ii, 132, 236, 257

Muci uterini, ii, 133

Oculi, ii, 134

urophilus, ii, 131

Uteri, ii, 133

Leptothrix buccalis, ii, 129, 224, 257
Leptus, ii, 65
Leuckart on Cysticerci, i, 46, 61

experiments on Trichina, i, 349
Liebholt, Dr., ii, 44
Lice, ii, 76

among the Asiatic and American In-
dians, ii, 80

peculiar to negroes, ii, 79
Lieutaud's method of expelling tape-worm,

i, 152

Limax agrestis, i, 6
Linguatulae, ii, 5, 6, 7, 101
Liuguatula constricta, ii, 8

denticulata, ii, 8, 11

emarginata, ii, 11

ferox, ii, 8

serrata, ii, 11

taenioides, ii, 8, 11
Linne, ii, 22

Linimentum Calcis, ii, 186
Liparis chrysorrhcea, i, 313
Liver, case of fluke in, i, 433
Liver, Echinococcus of, symptoms, i, 222
Livingstone, Dr., ii, 243
Localities of Filaria medinensis, i, 400
Lorum, ii, 134
Louse, body, ii, 81
Louse, common, ii, 76
Louse, head, eggs of, ii, 77
Lungs, fungus of the, ii, 224
Luschka, experiment on a goat, i, 54

experiments on a goat with Cysticer-
cus, i, 185

experiments on Trichina spiralis, i,
343

on Trichina spiralis, i, 333
Lues plicosa, ii, 149

trichomatica, ii, 149
Lungs, worms in the, consequences of, i,

382
Lycopodium seeds mistaken for parasites,

ii, 235

Lycosa tarantula, ii, 102
Lycosida, ii, 102

Magendie on tape- worm, i, 168
Maggots of flesh-flies, ii, 99
Mahon, ii, 189

Mahon's cure for Trichophyton tonsurans,
ii, 145

282

INDEX OF VOLUMES I AND II.

Malacophyceae, ii, 120

Male fern as a remedy for tape-worm, i, 162

Malgaigne's case of Filaria medinensis, i,

398

Malherbe, ii, 146
Malmignatte, ii, 5, 102
Malmsten's parasites, ii, 147

treatment of Trichophyton tonsurans,

ii, 146

Malpighi on Distoma hepaticum, i, 261
Margined tick, ii, 60
Martiny, ii, 23

account of the sand-flea, ii, 91
Martius, i, 172
Martius, Professor, on Kousso as a remedy

for tape- worm, i, 161
Matthieu's method of expelling tape-worm

with tin, i, 157
Mayer's method of expelling tape-worm, i,

167
method of expelling tape-worm with

tin, i, 157
Mayor's method of expelling tape-worm, i,

166

Measled pork, i, 428
Measurement of hooks, i, 242
Medina worm, i, 393
Mehlis on a case of Distoma hepaticum, i,

261
Meissner, i, 292

fungus nail, ii, 227
on Ascarides, i, 302
on the eggs of nematode worms, i,

290

on eggs of Nematoda, i, 298
Mercurials as a remedy for Filaria medi-
nensis, i, 405

Mercurius corrosivus, ii, 238
Merismopsedia punctata, ii, 127

Ventriculi, ii, 120, 124, 256
Mermides, i, 306
Mermis, i, 295, 312
albicans, i, 313
in stomach, ii, 105
Mermites, i, 292
Meyer Ahrens, i, 143

M'Gregor's table of cases of Filaria medi-
nensis, i, 401

Mice, experiments on, by administering en-
cysted Trichinae, i, 354
Michael, M., investigation on the Medina

worm, i, 393
Microsporon, ii, 152
Audouini, ii, 153
furfur, ii, 158, 161, 228, 240
mentagrophytes, ii, 155
Miescher, ii, 15
Migration of embryo, i, 4
Milben Hautschabe, ii, 63
Milk, coagulated, mistaken for thrush, ii,
210

Millet, ii, 190
Mites, ii, 5

Mites accidentally transferred from man to
animals, ii, 50

from cheese, ii, 65

from plums, ii, 65

grass and plant species, ii, 65
Moller's case of Echiuococcus, i, 200
Mole, Trichina of the, i, 353
Molimina haemorrhoidalia, itching caused

by, i, 373

Monceau, case of, i, 378
Mongiu's case of Filaria in the eye, i, 407
Monocotylea, i, 244, 246
Monostoma, i, 244
Monostomum, i, 244
Moon, influence of, on Oxyurides, i, 375
Morgagni, i, 323 ; ii, 23
Morpion, ii, 82
Mosing on tape-worm, i, 168
Mosquitos, ii, 99
Moublet, case of, i, 378
Moufet, ii, 21
Mould on bread, ii, 237
Movements, ameboid, i, 8
Mucenna, i, 156
Mucor mucedo, ii, 231, 263
Mucus, ii, 114
Muguet, ii, 190, 214

confluent, ii, 192
Muller, ii, 189
Munroe, Dr., 269
Musca carnaria, ii, 98

canicularis, ii, 253

domestica, larva of, ii, 98

erythrocephala, ii, 96

stabulans, ii, 98

vomitoria, ii, 96
Muscae volitantes, ii, 134
Muscida, ii, 95
Mustela, worms in the lungs of a species of,

i, 381

Mycoderma Cerevisise, ii, 121
Mycoderma Eichstaedtii, ii, 159
Mycophycea3, ii, 120
Myelraintha, i, 244
Myriapoda, ii, 3

Naides, ii, 100

Nail Fungus, ii, 228

Natron santonicum, i, 421, 426

santonicum as a clyster for worms, i,

374

Naramboo, i, 397
Nardi, ii, 227
Navicula, ii, 13
Nechaschim Seraphim, i, 392
Negro case, Busk's, ii, 64
Nelson on eggs of Nematoda, i, 297
Nematelmia, i, 11, 289
Nematoid larva, migrations of, i, 313

INDEX OF VOLUMES I AND II.

283

Nematoida, i, 3

fecundation of, i, 305

generative organs of, i, 297

migration of, i, 291

Nematode worms in human bodies, i, 289
Nemocera, ii, 99, 249
Nervous system of Distoma hepaticum, i,
250

system of Oxyurides, i, 361
Newport, i, 290
New Zealand lice, ii, 80
Nicolai, ii, 107

on tape-worm, i, 107

Nipples, occurrence of thrush on the, ii, 200
Nitszch, ii, 23
Nitric acid in favus, ii, 179
Nitrate of silver a remedy for thrush, ii, 210
Nordmann's case of Filaria, i, 408
Nordmann, Monostoma lentis of, i, 245

worm possessed by, i, 245
Noss on tape-worm, i, 1, 68
Norway, itch in, ii, 32
Nucleoli, ii, 126
Nuffer's method of expelling tape-worm, i,

164
Nyander, ii, 23, 25

intestinal itch, ii, 65

(Estridea, ii, 92, 245
(Estrus, ii, 8, 94

Bovis, ii, 94, 246

Ovis, ii, 94
Oidium, ii, 163, 189

albicans, ii, 139, 190, 224, 230
Oil of turpentine for Ascarides, i, 415
Oleum animale as a remedy for worms, i,
374

Chaberti, i, 422

Chaberti.as a remedy for worms, i, 374

filicis maris in tape-worm, i, 166
Olive oil, clysters of, as a remedy for

worms, i, 374
Oniscus murarius, ii, 101
Oribatida, ii, 65
Oscillaria Intestini, ii, 136, 265
Oschatz, ii, 17
Osiander, ii, 54

Oviduct of Distoma hepaticum, i, 254
Owen, on Entozoa, i, 442

on Trichina spiralis, i, 333

correspondence on case of Distoma,

i, 435

Owl, Trichinae of the, i, 353
Oxyurides, i, 3, 314

nervous system of, i, 359

Saoria as a remedy, i, 155

sexual relations of, i, 368

skin of, i, 362
Oxyuris, i, 355

muscular system of, i, 363

ornata, i, 363, 366

Oxyuris vermicularis, i, 297, 356, 363, 420
vermicularis, alimentary apparatus of,

i, 366
vermicularis, locality of, i, 372

Pacini, ii, 226

Pallas on Distoma hepaticum, i, 261

views on Cysticercus, i, 18
Palmellea3, ii, 120
Panna, i, 427
Paper-wasps, ii, 103
Parasites, animal, i, 2

general remarks on, i, 1

human, i, 1

the cause of epidemic disease, ii, 117

vegetable, ii, 113

vegetable, development of, ii, 116

vegetable, effect of, ii, 116

vegetable, from vagina, ii, 235

vegetable, nutrition of, ii, 116

vegetable, reproduction of, ii, 116

whose muscles exhibit no transverse

striation, i, 2
Parasiticida, ii, 128
Parenchyma of Distoma, i, 249
Partridge, Mr., case of fluke in human

liver, i, 433

Paullin on worms, i, 377
Pechlin, ii, 213
Pediculida, ii, 76
Pediculus Capitis, ii, 76

Hutnani Corporis, ii, 81

Vestimenti, ii, 81
Pediculi tabescentium, ii, 79
Penicillium glaucum, ii, 127, 187
Pentastoma, ii, 6
Pentastomum, ii, 7

constrictum, ii, 8
Peridium of fungi, ii, 139
Persian insect-powder, ii, 79
Perspiratory glands, ii, 180
Peschier's prescription of tape- worm, i, 107
Petromyzon marinus, i, 6
Phenomenology and diagnosis of all the
mature Cestoidea in the human in-
testine, i, 142
Phycoma, ii, 124
Pharaoh's worm, i, 398
Phthiriasis, ii, 80, 82

interna, ii, 63
Phthirius Pubis, ii, 82
Pigeons, experiments with Trichinae, i, 353
Pigs, experiments on, for Taenia solium, i1

121

Pimple-mite, ii, 15
Pisciola geometra, ii. 100
Pitch-cap, ii, 259
Pityriasis, ii, 176, 228

versicolor, ii, 158

Oris, ii, 210
Platyelmia, i, 11, 12

284

INDEX OF VOLUMES I AND II.

Platyelraia isolata, i, 244

Plaister, ammoniacal, for favus, ii, 186

Plica polonica, ii, 58, 147

polonica, examination of, ii, 148

polonica on doves, ii, 151

polonica, origin of, ii, 50

polonica, vaccination of, ii, 148
Pockel's, Dr., case of Echinococcus, i, 224

on tape-worm, i, 240

remedy for worms, i, 373
Polistes, ii, 103
Polycephalus granulosus, i, 192

Hominis, i, 192
Polystoma pinguicola, ii, 100
Pomegranate bark in tape- worm, i, 171

method of administering, i, 173
Pontia Crataegi, i, 313
Pork a means of communicating Taenia

solium, i, 114
Porrigo favosa, ii, 170, 175

decalvans, ii, 146

disseminata, ii, 168

lupinosa, ii, 228

scutulata, ii, 172, 180

scutiformis, ii, 1G8

squarrosa, ii, 173
Pouch et, ii, 79

Processionary caterpillar, hair of, ii, 105
Proglottis, i, 37

Proglottides, passage of, i, 137
Pruner, ii, 8

case of Filaria behind the liver, i, 401

on the parts of the mouth of Ancy-

lostomum, i, 385
Prurigo senilis, ii, 64

sine papulis, ii, 30
Pseudo-parasites, ii, 234
Ptinus fur, ii, 101
Puccinia Alliorum, ii, 233
. Favi, ii, 232, 233, 264

Polygonorum, ii, 233

Virgaurea, ii, 233
Pudendagra, ii, 157
Pulex irritans, ii, 89

penetrans, ii, 91
Pulicida, ii, 88
Punica granatum, i, 171
Pustules and favus, distinctions between,

ii, 180
Pyrethrum, i, 187

caucaseum, ii, 79

Rabbits, Cysticerci of, i, 28

Raimann, Von, Professor, on Kousso as a

remedy for tape-worm, i, 161
Raisin, case of, i, 378
Rainey's researches on Cysticercus, i, 428
Rapp's method of expelling tape-worm, i,

165
Raspail, ii, 23

Ratzeburg's observations on the proces-

sionary caterpillar, ii, 108
Raw food, i, 239

Raw meat productive of tape-worm, i, 317
Raw meat to be avoided, as productive of,
t Trichocephalus, i, 354

Rayer, ii, 189, 225

on tape-worm, i, 168
Receptacle of fungi, ii, 139
Red Sea, worms of the, i, 390
Reinlein, i, 114
Remak, ii, 15, 163, 225

on growth and contagiousness of
favus, 187

remarks on favus, ii, 188
Reproductive organs of Distoma hepati-

cum, i, 253
Retzius, ii, 189
Reubold, ii, 202, 211

questions with regard to aphthae, ii, 2 1 9
Rhodius, case, i, 378
Rhyngota, ii, 84
Richter, i, 290 ; ii, 146

experiments on Ascaris, i, 311
Ricord, ii, 210
Rigler, ii, 32
Rete Malpighi, ii, 30
Ritscher's method of expelling tape-worm,

i, 152

Robin, ii, 117, 125, 195
Rokitansky's experience of Distoma he-

paticum, i, 263

Roman medical writers on thrush, ii, 212
Rose, Dr. on Tffinia, i, 140
Rosenbaum, ii, 150
Rouget, ii, 67
Round worms, i, 11
Rudolphi, ii, 6
Ruysch, case of, i> 378
Rumex acetosa, i, 239

Sabadilla as a remedy for tape-worm, i,

149

Sagittula Hominis, ii, 100
Sand-flea, ii, 91
Sand-flies, ii, 99
Santonine, i, 424
Santlus, ii, 157
Saprolegnia ferox, ii, 114
Sarcina, ii, 126
Sarcophaga, ii, 98
Sarcopsylla penetrans, ii, 91
Sarcoptes Bovis, ii, 55

Canis, ii, 51

Catorum, ii, 51

of cats, ii, 51

Equi, ii, 52

Hominis, ii, 42, 51

Ovis, ii, 56

Sausages a means of communicating Trcnia,
i, 117

INDEX OF VOLUMES I AND II,

285

Scabs of favi, ii, 173

Schebdi as a remedy for tape-worm, i, 154

Schenten, Dr., case of Strongylus related

by, i, 379

Schinzinger, ii, 40, 44, 81
Schmidtmiiller, i, 172
Schoenemann on tape-worm, i, 167
Schrant on Echinococcus, i, 213
Schultz, ii, 83

Sclerostomum quadridentatum, i, 384
Scolex, passing into activity, i, 80

resting on nurse, i, 93
Schomburgk, ii, 94
Scorpio, ii, 102

flavicandus, ii, 102
Scorpions, ii, 102
Sebaceous follicles, ii, 180
Sedentariae, ii, 102
Selle's worm-electuary, i, 423
Semina Cinse, i,422
Seraphim, i, 392

Serpent, brazen, signification of, i, 394
Serpents, fiery, supposed to be Filaria me-

dinensis, i, 391
Sharptail, i, 355
Sheep, Cysticerci in, i, 184

vertigo in, i, 233
Sick, ii, 54
Siebold, Von, ii, 10

on the larvae of flies, ii, 99
Simon, ii, 63
Simon Gustav, ii, 15
Simonida, ii, 14
Simulida, ii, 99
Six-hooked brood of Tsenia, i, 40

when free, destiny of, i, 48
Skin of Trematoda, i, 248

of Oxyurides, i, 362
Skin-worm, i, 398
Sluyter, ii, 158

treatment of Mycoderma> ii, 161
Snakes, ii, 103
Soft bugs, ii, 85

Soft soap as a remedy for itch, ii, 42
Sommering, discovery of males of Oxyuris
in evacuations, i, 368

remedy for worms, i, 374
Sorrel water, i, 239
Spiders, ii, 102
Spider-like Arachnida, ii, 5
Sphaeria Robertsii, ii, 134
Spigelia anthelmintica as a remedy for

tape-worm, i, 149
Spiroptera Hominis, i, 438, 442

from urine, ii, 100
Sporangium, ii, 119
Spores of fungi, ii, 137
Sporotrichum, ii, 216
Stanger, Dr., ii, 64, 243
Stannum raspatum, i, 421
Steenstrup, alternation of generations, i, 22

Sterna Cantiana, i, 268

St. Gallicana, hospital of, ii, 186

Stieglitz, ii, 80

Stincus marinus, i, 207

Stomatitis follicularis, ii, 210, 216

morbillosa, ii, 200, 209,217

vesicularis, ii, 209, 212
Storck's remedy for Ascaris, i, 423
Stratton, case of, i, 379
Strawberries, i, 239
Strobila, i, 108

the so-called tape-worm colony, i, 84
Strohl, Dr., experiments with Saoria,

i, 155

Strongyli, veri, i, 375
Strongylus, i, 317

auriculatus, i, 386

gigas, i, 376

gigas, specimen in the College of
Surgeons, i, 379

horridus, i, 442

longivaginatus, i, 381 ; ii, 100

tetracanthus, i, 384
Strizolobium Mucuma, i, 148
Sulphur remedies for itch, ii, 42
Sulphuric acid as a remedy for tape-worm,
i, 150

in favus, ii, 179
Swammerdamm, ii, 78
Swayne, ii, 122
Sydow, ii, 54
Syphilitic disease of tongue, ii, 210

Tabanus, ii, 94
Taenia, ii, 6

crateriformis, i, 193

Coenurus, i, 185

Ccenurus, experiments on sheep with,

i, 71

crassicollis, ii, 12
dispar, i, 3 ; ii, 12
epidermis of, i, 113
eggs of, i, 41, 73
eggs of, caution needful regarding

them, i, 204

grand-nurses or embryos, i, 93
granulosa, i, 192
matura, i, 108, 192
mediocanellata, i, 133, 169
nana, i, 141

sexual organs of, i, 89, 111
solium andCysticercus cellulosae, proof

of identity of, i, 118
solium, description, 107
solium, eggs contained in, converted

into Cysticercus, 120
solium, scolex in the human brain,

i, 131
solium, scolex in the human body,

i, 124

286

INDEX OF VOLUMES I AND II.

Tsenia soliura, scolex present in the human
eye, i, 128

solium, treatment for, i, 147

symptoms produced by, i, 142

the head of, i, 108

the order, description of, i, 106

uterus of, i 113

which occur in man, i, 107

variety from the Cape of Good Hope,
i, 139

visceralis, i, 192
Tasniae, i, 19

deformity in, i, 76

immature, i, 177

position of hooks in, i, 87
Tampan, ii, 243
Tannin, ii, 240

as a remedy in favus, ii, 187
Tape-worm, i, 12, 108

method of expelling, Desault's me-
thod, i, 153

methods of expelling, Hufeland's
method, i, 152

remedies for, i, 149

treatment for, i, 147
Tarantula, ii, 5
Tarantulism, ii, 102
Tar ointment, ii, 239
Tegenaria, ii, 102

Testicles of Distoma hepaticum, i, 255
Tetrarhynchi, i, 24
Theca of fungi, ii, 139
Thompson on Ascaris mystax, i, 290, 298
Thorstensohn, case of Echinococcus,
i, 182

case of worms by, i, 207
Thrush, ii, 190

cases of, ii, 198, 208

colour of, ii, 196

contagious disease, ii, 206

fungus, ii, 259

fungus, parasites resembling, ii, 223

Hippocrates' notion of, ii, 212

in adults, ii, 20 J

in dyspepsia, ii, 202

on the nipples, ii, 193

remedies for, ii, 210

seat of, ii, 196
Thread-worms, i, 288, 314

emigrations of, i, 314
Thudichum, ii, 55
Ticks, ii, 59
Tick, dog, ii, 60

Ticks of North and South America, ii, 60
Tilly of Courtrai, remedy for itch, ii, 43
Tilanus on Echincooccus, i, 213
Tinctura Staphisagriae, ii, 46

Tabaci, ii, 46
Tinea, ii, 141

alveolaris, ii, 170

favosa, ii, 146

Tinea lupinosa, ii, 170

scrutulata, ii, 1 73

sycosa, ii, 146

tonsurans, ii, 146
Tin, methods of expelling tape-worm with,

i, 156

Tipula oleracea, ii, 100
Tipulidae, ii, 99
Toads, ii, 103
Tooth-brush, ii, 130
Torula, ii, 234

Cerevisise, ii, 120
Torulaceae, ii, 139
Tott on tape-worm, i, 167
Transverse muscular fibres, i, 113
Trembling hydatids, i, 227
Trematoda, i, 3, 244

skin of the, i, 248
Treutler, ii, 100

case of Strongylus longevaginatus,

i, 381
Trichocephalus affinis, ii, 354

dispar, sexual apparatus of, i, 315,

321, 329

Trichocephali, modes of infection with,i,315
Trichomonas vaginalis, i, 6
Trichophyton, ii, 147

tonsurans, ii, 140

ulcerum, ii, 152
Trichosporei, ii,231

destination of, i, 348

of the hawk, i, 353
Trichina affinis, i, 315

affinis in the flesh of the pig, i, 333

spiralis,as the brood of Trichocephalus
dispar, engaged in migration, i, 322,
333

spiralis, i, 315

spiralis, modes of infection with, i, 316

spiralis, skin of. i, 350
Tricuspidaria nodosa, i, 23
Tropical chlorosis caused by intestinal

worms, i, 389

Trychophyton sporuloides, ii, 148
Tsetse, ii, 247
Tuba of Nematoida, i, 295
Tubercula, ii, 213

Turpentine, oil of, as a remedy for Dis-
toma, i, 388

oil of, as a remedy for tape-worm, i,

358

Tuschek's reports on the Persian worm, i,
397

Upmann, ii, 45

Uredo, ii. 122

Urine, cases of worms passing with, i, 377

Uterus of Distoma hepaticum, i, 254

Vagina of Distoma hepaticum, i, 255
vegetable parasites from, ii, 235

INDEX OF VOLUMES I AND II.

287

Valerian clysters as a remedy for worms,!,

374

Van Beneden, i, 25
Van den Corput, ii, 44
Vegetables in Iceland, i, 239
Vegetable parasites, ii, 113
Vertigo in sheep, i, 233
Vesicaria granulosa, i, 192
Vespa crabro, ii, 103
Vespa holsatica, ii, 103
Vespida, ii, 103
Verloren, i, 290

experiments on Ascaris, i, 310
Vermes, i, 11

cucurbitini, i, 35

cystici, i, 13
Viborg, ii, 54
Vibrio, ii, 129
Vibriones, i, 5; ii, 130
Vincentius Alsarius, ii, 8
Virchow, ii, 126, 228

fungus nail, ii, 227

on Echinococcus, i, 213
Vitelligene, i, 293

Vitelligenes of Distoma hepaticum, i, 253
Vogel, ii, 121
Vogt, ii, 2

Carl, on Bothriocepbali, i, 103
Volz, ii, 47

Von Ammon's case of Ecbinococcus, i, 198
Von Haselberg on tape-worm, i, 167
Von Siebold, ii, 66

on Linguatula, ii, 10
Von Studzieniski, ii, 149
Von Walther, ii, 148
Von Wittig, Professor, i, 371

Walter, George, on Oxyuris, i, 361
Wawrucb's method of curing tape-worm,

i, 162
Wasps, ii, 103

Water, bad, a means of producing Filaria
medinensis, i, 400

Waters of Iceland, i, 238

Wax-mites, ii, 22

Weasels, experiments on forTrichinae,i,353

Wedl, ii, 123, 129

Wedl on Oxyuris, i,366

Weisshaar's method of expelling tape- worm ,
i, 163

Wepfer on Distoma bepaticum, i, 261

Whip-worm, i, 326, 355

Wichmann, ii, 25

Wilkinson, ii, 133

Willan.ii, 64

Willigk, ii, 56

Wilson, ii, 126

Wolffheim's method of expelling tape-
worm, i, 165

Woodlice,ii, 101

Woodlouse, ii, 61

Woodpecker, Trichinae of the, i, 353

Worms, flat, i, 11
round, i, 11
tape, i, 12

Wormwood as a worm-expellent, i, 374

Wulf, assertions respecting Oxyuris, i, 372

Wunderlich, ii, 128

Wurtemberg method of expelling tape-
worm, i, 163

Yeast, ii, 121

Yponomeuta evonymella, i, 312

Zeder's case of Cysticercus, i, 182

Zeller's case of Echinococcus in the liver,

i, 211

Zenker, Dr., discoveries of Oxyuris, i, 369
on Linguatula, ii, 11
description of Linguatula ferox, ii, 1 1
experiments on tape-worm, i, 206
experiments on Trichina, i, 349
measurement of hooks, ii, 14.

J. E. ADLARD, PRINTER, BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE.

ON

TAPE AND CYSTIC WORMS,

WITH AN INTKODUCTION

ON THE

ORIGIN OF INTESTINAL WORMS.

BY

CARL THEODOR VON SIEBOLD,

PROFESSOR IN THE UNIVERSITY OF MUNICH.

TRANSLATED BY

T. H. HUXLEY, F.R.S.,

WITH THIRTY. SIX WOODCUTS.

LONDON:
PRINTED FOll THE SYDENHAM SOCIETY.

MDCCCLVIl.

PRINTED BY J. E. ADLARD, BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE.

VON S I E B O L I)

ON

TAPE AND CYSTIC WORMS.

CONTENTS.

Author's Preface .
Introduction .

CHAPTER I.

Origin of Intestinal Worms . . . . . .3

CHAPTER II.

On the Tape- worm . . . . 31

Encysted Cestoidea . . . . . .33

The Scolex state . . . . . 35

Development of Scolices . . . . . .37

Proglottides . . . . . . 41

CHAPTER III.

Cystic Entozoa . . . . . . .47

CHAPTER IV.

On the origin of the Cestoid and Cystic Entozoa . . 57

1. Experiments on feeding with Cysticercus pisiformis . . .59

2. Experiments on feeding with Cysticercus tenuicollis . 62

3. Experiments on feeding with Cysticercus cellulosee . . .66

4. Experiments on feeding with Ccenurus cerebraUs . . 69

5. Experiments on feeding with Echinococcus Veterinorum . . .73

6. On diseases produced by Cystic worms and their prevention . . 77
Cysticerci in sausages . . . . . .85

Cestoid epidemic of Iceland . . . . 87

AUTHOB'S PREFACE.

INVESTIGATIONS into the natural history of the entozoa, con-
tinued for many years, have taught me that it is impossible to
obtain a complete view of the different stages of existence through
which these parasites pass, if one's observations are restricted to
but a few of the localities in which they are found. At an early
period of my researches, it became evident that the same entozoon,
in its young state, may have a very different habitation from that
in which it is found in its adult condition ; for these animals
undergo the most remarkable metamorphoses, and their habits
varying with their changes in form and age, they are necessitated
repeatedly to change their residence.

These peculiarities in the natural history of the entozoa, often
most difficult of investigation, have rendered the task of the
helminthologist, in seeking to obtain a just conception of their
genera and species, a very difficult one. It has only too frequently
happened that the different stages of development of the same
species of entozoa, have been described as so many distinct species
or genera ; and thus the systematic arrangement of the group has
been built upon a faulty foundation. Hence, again, a difficulty
has arisen in the way of attaining correct ideas with regard to the
modes of propagation of the intestinal worms, and this obstacle
could only be removed by determining, in defiance of the authority
of the older helminthologists, to give up many genera and species
established upon what they supposed to be independent forms.
/* 1

2 AUTHOR'S PREFACE.

The investigation of the natural history of the intestinal worms,
at the same time, opened up a channel through which their mode of
origin could be traced ; and indicated a way in which the attacks
of those parasites which are dangerous or troublesome to man
and animals, could be prevented; an object, in certain cases, of
the highest importance, since the morbid changes induced by
many entozoa in the organs which they infest, are not always
removable.

For a long period, I have been at much pains to inquire into
the origin of the entozoa found in man and the domestic animals ;
and in the present essay I lay before physicians, veterinarians,
and breeders, a summary of the results of the observations
and experiments which I have made upon the production and
development of these creatures. My chief attention has been
directed to the destructive cystic-worms, and I believe that the
conclusions at which I have arrived are not merely a gain for
science, but promise to be of useful practical application.

MUNICH ; March 30/A, 1854.

INTRODUCTION.

CHAPTER I.

UPON THE ORIGIN OF INTESTINAL WORMS.

HAVING been occupied for many years with inquiries into the
natural history of the intestinal worms, a subject involved in
much obscurity, I have gradually arrived at the decided conclusion
that these parasites do not originate, as has been commonly
believed, by "equivocal generation," from substances of a dis-
similar nature. With the usual exaggeration and misuse of
language, the doctrine of equivocal generation has been applied
both to the infusoria and to the intestinal worms. It was diffi-
cult, at first sight, to account for the origin and reproduction of
these animals, and, even upon closer investigation, they presented
many phenomena which could not be recognised in the organiza-
tion and vital manifestations of other, especially of the higher
animals ; but instead of seeking for the cause of these exceptional
peculiarities, people, accommodating themselves to the usually
accepted view as to the natural history of these lower creatures, set
the matter straight in their minds, by supposing that the unusual
phenomena occurred somehow or other in that way ; thus allowing
the imagination to indulge in fancies of the wi Ldest description, and
even in opposition to the most important laws of nature. It was
in this manner that physicians and naturalists thought themselves
justified in assuming, that the parasitic worms in the intestines
of men and animals owed their origin to ill-digested nutriment,
or that they were developed in the most widely different organs
from corrupt juices. They took it for granted, that certain

4 INTKODUCTION.

morbid processes in any organ were competent to give rise to para-
sites, assuming that the elementary constituents of an organ affected
by disease, mechanically separated themselves from their natural
connection, and not perishing, but transforming themselves into
independent organisms, became parasites. Clothed in fine phrases,
this idea was everywhere received with favour, and took such deep
hold of the public mind, that it is now a matter of no small
trouble to eradicate what has, with many, become an article of
faith, and to substitute the laws of nature, drawn from experience,
for the creation of their fancy. It was certainly more convenient
and enticing to give free scope to one's thoughts, and to fill up
the frequent gaps left in our knowledge of the origin and multipli-
cation of the lower animals, with pure hypotheses, than as now,
renouncing this faulty method of inquiry into nature, to attain,
by troublesome researches and careful experiments, a secure insight
into her hidden workings.

It was by the latter method that a remarkable and hitherto
unanticipated development of the sexual apparatus was discovered
in many parasites, such as round-worms, thread-worms, tape-
worms, and flukes,1 in which such an immense mass of eggs
and young can be generated, that it seems unnecessary to look
further in order to account for their origin. But the precise
mode in which the countless brood of these parasites make their
way into the interior of the animals they are destined to inhabit,
was long but dimly understood, until by degrees attention was
directed to* certain peculiarities in the mode of life of these
creatures, which threw great light upon the subject.

It has been ascertained, in fact, that at particular periods of their
existence, the intestinal worms undertake emigrations, and these
often very extensive ones, in order to reach that animal whose
organs are by nature fitted for their habitation. We now know
that the young of the tape-worm, (which inhabits the intestine of
the higher animals only,) leave the place where they were brought

1 With respect to the tape-worms, it is well known that a single individual is often com-
posed of many hundred joints. Each joint is capable of laying many hundred ova, so
that the number of the progeny of a single tape-worm is enormous. Professor Eschricht
of Copenhagen (see his work ' Das Physische Leben in popularen Vortragen, Berlin,
1852, p. 115) posesses a tape-worm, expelled by a patient of his, which consists of
1000 joints, and some of the joints contain more than 1000 ova. The same writer
(ibid., p. 112) having carefully examined the reproductive organs of a female Ascaris
lumbricoides, estimates the number of eggs in a single thread-worm at many millions.

OKIGIN OF INTESTINAL WOEMS. 5

forth, or laid as eggs (that is to say, they emerge from the intes-
tine of their parent's host), and seek an opportunity to enter into
the intestine of some other creature. It is easy to convince
oneself of this emigration of the young of the tape-worm, by
examining the excrement of animals infested by them, at those
times of the year at which they attain their sexual maturity.
We then observe, that sometimes single joints, or connected
series of joints, full of ova ; sometimes immense masses of the
ova, are passed with the faeces. The same thing holds good
with regard to the ova of the Distomata that infest the livers of
our ruminating animals ; their eggs, after they have been trans-
ferred from the liver to the gall-ducts, being washed out with the
bile into the intestine, and evacuated with the dung.

These emigrations of the young of the intestinal worms benefit
not only the creatures they infest, but themselves. There are many
kinds of intestinal worms, in whose eggs the embryo is never hatched
if they remain in the place where they have been laid. They
must wander to some other place in order to develop their young,
or to allow of the escape of the young already developed in them.1
These young must then either wait for, or seek, an animal to
lodge in, having entered into which, they are capable of attaining
sexual maturity. By such emigrations the infested animals are at
the same time freed from guests, whose increase would be both
troublesome and prejudicial. For example, what would happen
if the millions of eggs that a single round-worm or tape-worm
can produce, were to develop and generate their young in the
same intestine in which they were laid ? Would not the intes-
tine, after the young had attained their full growth, and brought
forth others in their turn, become at last so choked up as to
disable this part of the digestive apparatus, so that the whole
organism of the imhappy animal must perish, together with his
parasites ? In any case, the emigration and immigration of the
young of the intestinal worms, is a very important though long
unregarded part of the history of their propagation ; and since

1 Hence a tape- worm which has found its way into the intestine of an appropriate
animal will attain its sexual maturity, but will not, properly speaking, multiply its kind
there. For this reason, the tape-worm (Tania solium) infesting the human subject,
which is common in Germany, France, [and England,] is commonly called the
solitary worm, (Einsiedler-wurm, ver solitaire,) although the name is not a very fit one,
as it depends entirely on accident whether only a single individual or a whole society of
these worms shall enter the human intestine in the course of their wanderings.

6 INTRODUCTION.

physicians and naturalists have devoted the requisite attention to
the subject of these wanderings (to which I directed attention
some years back1), a number of facts have been discovered, show-
ing more and more that the origin of the intestinal worms in the
viscera of animals can be readily accounted for according to
natural laws; whereas formerly, hardly anything being really
known of the natural history of these parasites, their mode of
origin and propagation, already difficult enough of comprehension,
was rendered more and more mysterious by an hypothesis of
" equivocal generation" entirely devoid of any direct support.

An important circumstance, very favorable to the progeny
of the intestinal worms during their wanderings, is the solidity
of the egg-shell in which they are commonly contained. By
its hardness and resistance, the egg-shell of many kinds of
intestinal worms efficiently protects the enclosed germ and
yelk, or the already developed embryo, against injury from
without, and maintains within the ovum the degree of moisture
requisite for the further development of the young. In this
way the ova preserve their vitality for months together, not-
withstanding the many vicissitudes to which they are exposed
after leaving the dwelling of their parents. They pass into
dust-heaps, privies, drains, &c., where, surrounded sometimes by
a greater, sometimes by a lesser degree of moisture, they are
subjected to various degrees of temperature, until, deposited
in the dung-heaps into which corrupt and mouldering organic
substances are usually converted, they are, as manure, spread
upon the fields and meadows, where, under favorable in-
fluences of the weather, particularly if supplied with adequate
moisture, they become further developed. It will be obvious that
the young of the intestinal worms have not far to seek for an
opportunity of re-entering other animals, when we consider that
they are scattered through the manured soil amongst the seeds
that have been sown there; that these produce plants which
generally serve for the support of men and animals, and that the
young worms adhering to them may thus be easily swallowed.
Again, it may well happen that showers of rain occasionally
wash out the ova of the intestinal worms from the dung-heaps
or manured soil, carrying them off into streams arid brooks, and

i See my article " Parasiten" in R. Wagner's ' Handworterbuch der Physiologic,'
Bd. ii, 1844, p. 645.

ORIGIN OF INTESTINAL WORMS. 7

So affording another mode of entrance into men and animals,
by the water which the latter drink.

Many of the young intestinal worms, more or less developed,
but still enclosed in the egg-shell, remain quite inactive in their
wanderings, and for these passive emigrants it is, of course, a
mere matter of chance whether they reach their goal or not.
The young of others, having previously left their egg-shell, may
take an active share in the process, creeping up out of their holes
and corners in wet weather, or in the damp mornings, upon the
slippery plants, and so entering the animals fitted for their habita-
tion, when they come to seek for food.

According to an old- standing custom which careful shepherds
strictly keep up, sheep are never allowed to be driven out in the
morning till all the dew is off the grass, nor yet to graze in damp
swampy pastures. By this precaution the shepherds unwittingly
protect their charges from the attacks of Strongyli and Distomata.
It is on like grounds that seasons of wet weather are so frequently
fatal to flocks, it being then easier for the young intestinal worms
to enter the sheep and give rise to entozoic pestilence; whilst
in continuously dry and hot seasons a great number of these
young worms must be dried up and destroyed, and thus the sheep
are delivered from their attack and all its evil consequences.

But in thus expressing my opposition to the various hypotheses
of the origin and multiplication of the parasitic worms, it might
appear as if I had fallen into the very error I condemn, and the
objection might be raised that the explanation I have just given
of the singularities observed in the mode of occurrence of the
intestinal worms is, like former hypotheses, merely imaginary,
and that I am unable to support it by demonstrative experimental
evidence.

This I must beg leave to deny. It is true that what I have
said respecting the origin of the Strongylus filaria and of the
fluke (Distomwn hepaticum) in sheep, is as yet only an assumption,
and not to be regarded as directly proven. Nevertheless, my
assumption rests upon the analogy of reliable facts, which I have
established by observation in other intestinal worms. The
recognition of definite, though at first isolated truths, has often
done much for science, since by careful application of the laws
of analogy they have furnished the key to phenomena long hidden
in obscurity.

In order to show that emigration and immigration are regular

8 INTRODUCTION

phases in the life of many intestinal worms, I will here recall
certain observations of my own on the natural history of the
following parasites.

For a long time the origin of the thread-worm, known as
Filaria Insectorum, that lives in the cavity of the bodies of adult
and larval insects could not be accounted for. Shut up within
the abdominal cavity of caterpillars, grasshoppers, beetles, and
other insects, these parasites were supposed to originate by
equivocal generation, under the influence of wet weather or from
decayed food. Helminthologists were obliged to content them-
selves with this explanation, since they were unable to find a
better. Those who dissected these thread- worms and submitted
them to a careful inspection, could not deny the probability of the
view that they arose by equivocal generation, since it was
clear that they contained no trace of sexual organs. But on
directing my attention to these entozoa, I became aware of the
fact that they were not true Filarice at all, but belonged to a
peculiar family of thread- worms, embracing the genera Gordius
and Mermis. Furthermore, I convinced myself that these parasites
wander away when full grown, boring their way from within
through any soft place in the body of their host, and creeping out
through the opening. How many a butter fly- collector, keep-
ing caterpillars for the breeding of fine specimens of butter-
flies, must have seen one or more yellowish white thread-worms
winding their way out of them ! These parasites do not emigrate
because they are uneasy, or because the caterpillar is sickly, but
from that same internal necessity which constrains the horse-fly
to leave the stomach and intestine of the horse where he has been
reared, or which moves the larva of the gad-fly to work its way
out of the boils on the skin of oxen. The larvse of both these
insects creep forth in order to become chrysalises and thence to
proceed to their higher and sexual condition. This desire to
emigrate is implanted in very many parasitic insect larvae, and has
long been a well-known fact in entomology. Now I have demon-
strated, that the perfect, full-grown, but sexless thread-worms of
insects are, in like manner, moved by this desire to wander out of
their previous homes in order to enter upon a new period in their
lives which ends in the development of their sexual organs. It is
true that in the boxes and other receptacles, in which one
is generally accustomed to keep caterpillars, these creatures
perish j they roll themselves together, and from the absence of

OEIGIN OF INTESTINAL WORMS. ^ 9

the'necessary moisture, they in a short time dry up. But their
fate is very different when the infested insects remain under
natural conditions ; the thread-worms, as they leave the bodies of
their hosts, then fall to the ground, and crawl away into the deeper
and moister parts of the soil. Thread-worms found in the damp
earth, in digging up garden-beds and cutting ditches in the fields,
have often been brought to me, which presented no external
distinctions from the thread-worms of insects externally. This
suggested to me that the wandering thread -worms of insects
might be instinctively necessitated to bury themselves in damp
ground, and I therefore instituted a series of experiments with
such entozoa (which I procured in numbers from the caterpillars
of a moth, Yponomeuta evonymella), by placing the newly emigrated
worms in flower-pots filled with damp earth.1 To my delight, I
soon perceived that these worms2 began to bore with their heads
into the earth, and by degrees drew themselves entirely in. For
many months (through the whole winter) I kept the earth in the
flower-pots moderately moist, and on examining the worms from
time to time I found, to my great astonishment, that the sexual
apparatus became gradually developed in them, and that, after a
time, eggs were formed and were eventually deposited by hundreds
in the earth. Towards the conclusion of winter I could succeed
in detecting the commencing development of the embryo in these
eggs. By the end of spring they were fully formed, and many of
them, having by this time left their shells, were to be seen creeping
about the earth in the flower-pots, which I still carefully kept
damp. I now conjectured that these young worms would be
impelled by their instincts to pursue a parasitic existence and to
seek out an animal to inhabit and grow to maturity in, and it
seemed not improbable that the brood I had reared would, like
their parents, thrive best in the caterpillar. In order, therefore,
to induce my young brood to immigrate, I procured a number of
very small caterpillars of Yponomeuta, of half a line in length,
which the first spring sunshine had just called into life. For
the purpose of my experiment I filled a watch-glass with damp
earth, taking it from amongst the flower-pots where the thread-
worms had wintered, and of course satisfying myself that it con-

1 These experiments and their results have been already published in the ' Entomo-
logische Zeitung,' 1848, p. 290.

2 I have named this species of thread-worm Mennis albicans.

10 INTRODUCTION.

tained a number of lively young of the Mermis albicans. Upon
this I placed several of the young caterpillars of the Yponomeuta in
order that the worms might gratify their immigrative propensities.
I must explicitly remark, that before experimenting with the
caterpillars, I carefully examined each with the microscope, in order
to ascertain whether it was not already inhabited by young thread-
worms. From their softness and transparency, I could ascertain
this point with certainty, without in the least injuring them.
The event proved that this inspection was necessary, for out of
twenty-five individuals which I at first selected, three contained a
thread-worm embryo, which was excessively like those in the
flower-pots. I published the results of these experiments a year
or two back, in an essay upon the thread-worms of insects1, from
which I quote the following :

" From amongst those caterpillars which microscopic inspection
clearly demonstrated to be free from thread-worms, thirteen were
placed in a watch-glass filled with damp earth containing many
lively Mermi s- embryos. After eighteen hours I was able to
discover Mermis-embryos in five of the caterpillars. On a second
occasion, three-and-thirty of the caterpillars of Yponomeuta
coynatella, likewise carefully examined and found free from
parasites, were in the same way placed in a watch-glass filled
with damp earth containing Mermis-embryos. After four-and-
twenty hours, fourteen contained Mermis-embryos. Six of these
little caterpillars each contained two small worms, whilst in two
others there were as many as three worms. I also employed
other caterpillars (of three lines in length) of Pontia Crataegi,
Liparis chrysorrhoea, and Gastropacha Neustria, which I took out
of coccoons where they had passed the winter. They were, in
like manner, placed in a watch-glass upon moist earth containing
Mermis-embryos. On the next day, among fourteen caterpillars
thus treated, I found ten infested with Mermis- embryos ; five of
these contained two worms each, and into one even three worms
had wandered." It was clear that these young thread-worms
had bored their way through the soft skin into the interior of the
young caterpillars.

From the results of the experiments I have just recorded,
one must conclude that it is not necessary to turn to the
mystical doctrine of equivocal generation for an explanation

1 See 'Eulomologische Zeitung,' 1850, p. 239.

OEIGIN OF INTESTINAL WORMS.,- 11

of the presence of worms in insects, since here the origin of
the parasites is sufficiently obvious. Those who cannot make up
their minds to renounce the easy and convenient doctrine of
equivocal generation, may perhaps object, that the history I
have given of the propagation of the Mermis albicans stands
alone, and only makes an exception from the rule. To this I
answer, in the words of Goethe : " Nature goes her way, and that
which appears to us as the exception, is the rule." That this is
really the case in the present instance, is proved by recent
investigations into the natural history of the intestinal worms.
Since attention has been directed to their wanderings, more and
more facts have been daily brought to light, all tending to
show that the emigration and immigration of these parasites is a
much commoner and more widely extended occurrence than was
at first imagined. Habits, very similar to those which I have
just described in Mermis albicans, are also to be observed in
another thread-worm, the well-known Gordius aquaticus, which
has also been shown to live parasitically in the cavities of the
bodies of various insects, viz. : grasshoppers, terrestrial and
aquatic beetles, and in their larvae ; and to grow from a most
diminutive worm to one of several inches in length, which then
makes its way out, to attain to sexual maturity elsewhere, often
in the water. These facts were formerly wholly unknown, though
it must have long appeared surprising that this thread-worm,
which, on account of its form and colour has been compared
to a horse-hair, is, whenever met with in the water, of its full
size. But now that we know that the Gordius aquaticus, like
the Mermis albicans, enters in the embryo state into insects,
growing with them, and only quitting them when it has done
growing, the striking phenomenon I have mentioned is easily
accounted for.

Just as, for the reasons already named, some kinds of para-
sites that have emigrated are never met with below a certain
size ; so, some kinds of parasites that have already made
their way into the interior of animals are not to be found
under a certain size, however often and carefully they may be
sought for, a circumstance which must certainly have been
noticed by many physicians and naturalists, without their having
paid further attention to it. It is now known that many para-
sites do not enter into the animals in which they are to pass
through their further stages of growth until they have attained a

12 INTRODUCTION.

certain degree of development elsewhere. This is particularly
the case with such intestinal worms as remain parasitic in the
last stage of their existence, viz. — that of sexual maturity, whilst
the Gordiacai (Gar dim and Mermis), as soon as they are full-
grown, quit their parasitical life, in order to become sexually
mature, away from the animal they have infested. During these
early wanderings, the worms in question commonly undergo a
change of form — -a sort of metamorphosis, often accompanied by
other phenomena of so highly remarkable and abnormal a
character, that naturalists could not at first understand the varied
character and import of these phases of existence, nor comprehend
their relation with hitherto known facts.1 For a long time it
was supposed that these discoveries were isolated facts, and they
were regarded as a sort of curiosity; but here again the saying
was verified, that that which at first appeared to be the exception,
eventually proves to be the rule. By degrees, a mass of obser-
vations upon certain remarkable metamorphoses of the intestinal
worms accumulated, and constituted a complete chaos of seem-
ingly irregular phenomena, which broke down every barrier
hitherto set by the acknowledged laws of animal existence
and propagation, until the penetration of the Danish naturalist,
Steenstrup,2 succeeded in evolving a certain order out of this
confusion, by the discovery therein of a hidden, underlying law
of nature, by which all the phenomena that had seemed so devoid
of plan could be reduced to order. Steenstrup named the newly
discovered law, the " Alternation of Generations," a phrase which
describes this phenomenon. " That an animal bears young which

1 I may refer to the " king's-yellow" worms discovered by Bojanus in water-snails,
and now become famous. (See Oken's ' Isis,' 1818, p. 729, plate 9, figs. A, F.) Of this
discovery Oken says 4< Observations of this kind make one dizzy." No less attention
was excited by Von Bar's description of the Bucephalus pclymorphus of the fresh-water
mussel. (See ' Verhandlungen der Kaiserl. Akad. d. Naturforscher,' B. xiii, 1826,
p. 570, pi. 30) ; and by the Leucochloridum paradoxum, first discovered by Ahrens, and
afterwards described anew by Carus. (See ' Magazin der Naturforschenden Freunde zu
Berlin, 1810, p. 292, pi. 10, figs. 12— 19, and the ' Verhandlungen der Kaiserlichen
Akademie,' Bd. xvii, 1855, p. 87, pi. 7.)

2 See his important essay on the ' Alternation of Generations,' Copenhagen, 1842.
[This essay has been translated by Mr. Busk, and forms one of the publications of the
Ray Society. It must not be forgotten that the first conception of the doctrine of the
" Alternation of Generations," and the first use of the term, are due to Chamisso. See his
' De Anirnalibus quibusdam e classe vermium Linnaeana,' 1819, and ' Reise urn die
Erde.'— ED.]

OBIGIN OF INTESTINAL WOEMS. 13

y

are, and remain, dissimilar to their parent, but bring forth a new
generation, whose members either themselves, or in their descend-
ants, return to the original form of the parent animal."

Any one who has not familiarized himself with the fun-
damental idea of this doctrine of the alternation of generations,
may easily imagine it to be nothing but a modification of the
long well-known metamorphosis, exemplified by the tadpoles of
frogs and toads, or by the larvae and chrysalises of most insects.
This is, however, by no means the case. Those reptiles and
insects that are subject to metamorphosis, no doubt bring forth
young that differ from the parent, but there are two respects in
which the act of simple metamorphosis widely differs from the
highly complex alternation of generations.

Although Steenstrup has already particularly noticed these
two grounds of difference in his definition of the alternation of
generations, I deem it not altogether superfluous on my part
once more to draw especial attention to these important diver-
gences, if only for the benefit of those who are unfamiliar with
the phenomena. The first point of difference between the
alternation of generations, and metamorphosis, is, that the young
of those animals whose mode of development comes under the
former head, are not only unlike their parent at first, but remain
so : the second distinction rests on the important fact that this
young generation, so dissimilar to the parent animal, brings
forth new creatures, which either themselves, or in their descend-
ants, revert to the original form of the first parent. Whereas,
on the other hand, in simple metamorphosis, the dissimilar
young pass by gradual changes into the likeness of the parent
animal, and until this metamorphosis is complete, are incapable of
generation. Steenstrup has given the name of " nurse" to those
young, which, whilst departing from the parent type, remain, and
propagate under their own form.

It thus happens that in the alternation of generations (to use
the words of Steenstrup), the parent animal produces " nurses,"
whose descendants only, take her form. A most important
circumstance which characterises these nurses or " Agamozooids"1

1 I have rendered the word " keim-korper" by " sporula," meaning thereby a free
germ which is capable of development without fecundation, just as is the spore of a
cryptogamous plant. When the sporula? are developed in a special organ I term this
organ (the " keimstock" of Von Siebold) the " sporularium." Any independent form
from which sporulae or their equivalents alone are developed (the " ammen" or " nurses"
of Von Siebold, Steenstrup, &c.) I term " agamozooids." See concluding note. — [ED.]

14 INTRODUCTION.

physiologically, is, that they bring forth young, without themselves
possessing any real sexual apparatus. These Agamozooids, in
fact, multiply by division, by external or internal gemmation ;
they develop within their bodies germs which become fresli
creatures. But these germs dcf not deserve the title of " eggs;"
nor is the place where they are developed to be called an
" ovarium," since the germs, which I shall for the future
distinguish by the name of " sporulae," are not only devoid
of the ordinary constituents of an ovum, as vitelline mem-
brane, yolk, germinal vesicle, and so called germinal spot,
but the further development of the germ-body is not pre-
ceded by those conditions, (I mean that " impregnation" by
means of a special seminal matter produced in a testis,) which
is essential to the development of true ova developed within
an ovarium. The organ in which, in certain Agamozooids the
"gemmse" are formed, cannot therefore be properly termed an
" ovarium," and I shall distinguish it by the name of " sporula-
rium." No et nurses" present any sexual distinctions, and hence
their method of multiplication and propagation, which takes place
by means of sporulse formed within sporularia, or by ordinary
budding, or by division, must be arranged amidst the modes of
asexual reproduction.

Very many cases of the alternation of generations occur
among the Trematoda. The relations that the various changing
forms of these animals have to one another, remained long un-
suspected, since it was not an easy matter to discover among the
various successively alternating generations of a single fluke-
worm, the clue to their origin from one and the same parent.
The recognition of the connection of these forms, was ren-
dered more difficult of discovery by the fact, that these alternating
generations of animals not only changed their appearance, but
also their dwellings, whereby their parentage was still further
concealed. These multitudinous difficulties in the way of the
observers of the alternation of generations, render it impossible
for me to give a complete account of all the complex series of
changes undergone by any single Trematode in the course of its
development. Up to this time only longer or shorter fragments
of the circle of vital phenomena, broken as they are into many
phases by the alternation of generations, have been made out in a
few Trematoda.

However, these fragments do not relate to one and the same
period in the life of these parasites, nor to the same generations

ORIGIN OF INTESTINAL WORMS.

15

cf Agamozooids, but to the most widely various periods and stages
of their development. We can, therefore, by careful selection and
judicious arrangement of these observations, build up a general
view of the complicated process of the alternation of generations
in the Trematoda in general.

The so-called Cercaria offer the best exemplification of the
alternation of generations as it occurs in the Trematoda. These
Cercarice, which swim about with great activity by means
of a cylindrical tail, have long been known; but until the
discovery of their real origin and signification, were taken, on
account of their diminutiveness, for Infusoria. When, at a
recent period, their parasitic nature was recognised, it became a
matter of much astonishment that the Cercarice were not
derived from parents resembling themselves, but that they
originated in peculiar animated, worm-shaped sacs, which were
found buried amidst the sexual and digestive organs, in various
kinds of fresh-water snails and
mussels. The form of the sacs
that produce the Cercarice is, not-
withstanding the simplicity of their
organization, very various ; in ac-
cordance with the form and kind
of Cercaria to be developed within
them. Some kinds of Cercaria-sacs
have an oral aperture, and a simple
blind intestine, but in others this di-
gestive apparatus is entirely want-
ing. One series of Cercaria-sacs possesses contractile walls,
whilst others again are stiff and inflexible. In one parti-
cular group, the Cercaria-sacs are simple shut receptacles ; in
another, the sacs ramify and anastomose to a great extent. The
whole of these multifariously-shaped Cercaria-sacs enclose within
the walls of their bodies a cavity which, besides the intestinal

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2. Fi>. 3.

Fig. 1. A cercaria-sac (two lines long) provided with an elongated alimentary canal
— the agaraozobid of Cercaria ephemera, a. Oral cavity, b. Alimentary canal, c. A
developed Cercaria ephemera, d. Sporulae not yet developed into Cercaria. These
sacs are found in Planorbis corneus. Fig. 2. A cercaria-sac — the agamozobid of Cercaria
armata — provided with a very short alimentary canal and remarkable for the two short
lateral abdominal processes, found in Lymnaeus stngnalis. Fig. 3. A perfectly simple
cylindrical cercaria-sac, having no digestive canal. I found it as the agamozobid of
Cercaria sayittifera in Helix pomatia.

16

INTRODUCTION.

caecum, (where such a structure exists,) contains nothing but
young Cercarice. These young are developed, not from ova, but
from gemmae, which differ essentially from ova. They are
solid, round, and somewhat flattened discs, which, growing and
developing, become little caudate worms, resembling in form and
organization certain Trematoda (Distomum, Monostomum, Diplo-
discus, Gastrostomum).1

Fig, 9.

Figs. 4 — 10. The various stages of development of Cercaria ephemera, from the
agamozobid, fig. 1. Fig. 4. Sporula. Fig. 5. Sporula thinned at the hinder end.
Fig. 6. Sporula with this taper posterior extremity elongated into a tail. Fig. 7. The
sporula in this stage has assumed the form of a Cercaria. The tail is already defined.
Two black pigment-spots appear on the fore part of the dorsal surface. Fig. 8. A still
further developed Cercaria. a. The oral aperture, c, d. The urinary organ, e. The
Tail. f. Two pigment-spots. Fig. 9. A fully formed C. ephemera (one millimetre long).
a. Oral cavity, b. Alimentary canal, c, d. Urinary organ filled with granular urine.
e. Tail. /. Three hlack spots on the anterior part of the dorsal surface. The median
pigment only begins to be developed in the last stage of development. The whole figure
of the body of Cercaria ephemera corresponds with that of Monostomum. Fig. 10.
Four cercarise, after Filippi, from Planorbis nitidus, whose posterior sucking apparatus
(composed of two suckers, one enclosed within the other) is seen in different stages of
contraction and expansion. When the tail is cast off these Cercarice are altogether
similar to Diplodiscus.

1 The Cercarice and the sacs have been so often referred to of late that I mav leave

OEIGIN OF INTESTINAL WOEMS. 17

It was a long while after the origin of the Cercarice was
known, before any explanation offered itself as to how the
parasitic Cercaria-ssics in water-snails and mussels arose, and
as to what became of the Cercarice, which, when fully formed,
always seemed to desire to leave the bodies of the dissimilar
parents in which they had been developed ; penetrating the walls
of their sacs, and boring through the substance of the bodies of
the snails and mussels into the water, where they at first creep,
and at length paddle swiftly about by the help of their tails.

With regard to the origin of the CerazHa-sacs, it cannot be
supposed that they proceed from Cercaria, since, in these last, no
organs of propagation are perceptible. In this perplexity the
doctrine of equivocal generation was again invoked, and it was
assumed that certain glandular caeca of the digestive or sexual
apparatus, in the snails and mussels in which Orcarm-sacs are
found, were converted into such sacs, and produced Cercariae by
equivocal generation. This was, of course, a mere assumption
based upon no direct observation.

Now I was so fortunate as to make a discovery by which
much light has been thrown upon the obscure history of these
Cercarm and Cercaria-s&cs.

It was in the year 1833, whilst FiS- n- FiS- 12-

fulfilling my duties as district
medical officer (kreisphysicus) at
Heilsberg, in East Prussia, that
I had occasion to examine a large
number of specimens of those
Trematoda known to Helmintho-
logists by the name of Monos-
tomum mutabile, which were very
commonly found in the geese of
that locality, in the cavities which

lie underneath the eyeballs. I convinced myself that these para-
Fig. 11. An infusoroid embryo of Monostomum mutabile which has just left the
egg. (See rny essay on this subject in Wiegmann's ' Archiv.,' 1835, i, p. 69.) a. Sucker.
b. Double pigment-spot, c. Sporule-cyst. — Fig. 12. a. The sporule cyst left free by the
death of the infusoroid embryo, b. The same viewed laterally. This body closely
resembles the sporule cysts of Cercaria armata.

their manifold forms undescribed in this place, merely referring to the descriptions and
figures which Von Bar, in his masterly ' Beitrage zur Keuntniss der niederen Thiere'
(' Nova Acta,' vol. xiii, pars 2a, 1826,) and Steenstrup, in his ' Alternation of Genera-
tions,' have given.

2

18 INTRODUCTION.

sites, belonging to the order Trematoda, bring forth living
young, which assume the form of Infusoria, and swim about in
the water by means of the cilia which cover the whole surface
of their bodies. After some tjme, I observed that these embryos
apparently died, their bodies seeming to break up and gradually
disappearing, but always leaving behind a sharply defined, mobile,
cylindrical body, provided with two short, lateral processes. In
all the embryos, without exception, this body was visible through
their parietes while they still lived. To my great astonish-
ment, upon further observation of these contractile remains of
the Monostomum embryos, I discovered that they agreed precisely
in form, structure, and movement with certain young Cercaria-
sacs. Hence I ventured to conclude that the Cercaria-sac$ pro-
ceed from Trematoda. At the same time, these observations
seemed to indicate how it was possible for the inert, helpless
Cercaria-s&cs to make their way into snails and mussels. The
Monostomum mutabile is known to reside in such cavities of the
body of wading and swimming birds, as possess natural external
apertures ; when, therefore, the embryos of a Monostomum muta-
bile are born, they will issue without much difficulty from the
animal infested by their parents, each carrying its Cercaria-sac
within its body : and the habits of the infested animals are
usually such that the embryos will at once pass into water,
in which they can, by means of their cilia, swim swiftly about.

In this element, the infusory Monostomum embryos will, in-
stinctively and immediately, seek out those animals that are fit to
serve as a nidus for the further development of the Cercaria-
sacs enclosed within them. After the Cercaria-sacs have thus
passively entered, by the natural apertures, into their appropriate
animals, their carriers, the ciliated embryos which have hitherto
enclosed them, die off. As a sort of animated covering to the
Cercaria-sacs, they have performed their office ; and it is now left
to the young that have just been released, to work themselves
deeper into their new habitation by their own efforts, and to
seek out those places which will afford them the necessary
nourishment for further growth, and for the development of their
brood of Cer caries.

I have not yet been able absolutely to witness this process of
immigration of Monostomum embryos containing Cercaria-s&cs,
and as I have filled up the gaps in observation with my own
ideas on the subject, what really occurs may be somewhat

OKIGIN OF INTESTINAL WOEMS. 19

different ; still, the immigration of the Monostomum embryo,
which is the principal point, must take place, since the singular
relations of the infusorial Monostomum embryos and the young
Cercaria-sacs they contain, point distinctly to this conclusion.

Every one will understand, that the knowledge of even such a
small fragment of the history of the development of the
Monostomum mutabile as this, was of the utmost value, since it
afforded the key to the long inexplicable mode of origin of the
Cercaria-sacs. There now only remained the question as to
what became of the Cercarice, and in what relation they stood to
the Trematoda. It was an old idea that there was great similarity
between the bodies of the Cercarice and certain Trematoda, viz.,
Monostomata and Distomata, and the force of the comparison was
strengthened by the fact that the Cercarice cast off their tails
after leaving the sacs, and thus become still less different from
these Trematoda. Many Distomata whose bodies are encircled
with spines at their anterior extremity, for example, Distomum
trigonocephalum, echinatum, uncinatum, and militare, are so like
certain Cercarice., that when the latter have thrown off their tails,
any unprejudiced person would take them for the young of these
Distomata. In fact, in their whole organization, the Cercarice
are really no other than young Trematoda. The circumstance
that one never finds sexual organs in the Cercarice is strongly
corroborative of the notion that they are young Trematoda not
yet sexually developed. Here again we have to do with parasites
destined to emigrate and immigrate, that in some other situation
they may arrive at sexual maturity. The course which the
Cercarice take in their wanderings is, however, a much longer
and more complicated one, than that followed by the sexless
Gordiacei. These need only leave the insects they have hitherto
infested and withdraw into damp ground, where fully grown as
they are, and provided with the necessary store of fat in their
bodies, they can quietly await the development of their sexual
organs. On the other hand, the emigrating Cercarice are destined
to enter vertebrate animals, since it is only in the intestinal canal
of certain mammals, birds, reptiles, or fishes, that they can grow
and mature their sexual organs.

Many of my readers may be unable to conceive how it
is possible for Cercarice living in water, to enter into the
intestines of such mammals and birds as live far away from
water, or, at any rate, never come into proximity with the

20 INTRODUCTION.

waters in which the Cer caries live. I can, however, offer a
solution of this apparent mystery, having surprised many Cercarics
in the act of migrating. Before I say anything more about
this, I must mention a peculiarity which is to be noticed
in most of the Cercaria after they have left their sacs. This is
their habit of encysting themselves, a process which is effected in
the following manner. After a Cercaria has been for some time
in the water, first creeping and then swimming about with mani-
fest restlessness, it gathers itself up into a ball, and emits from
its whole surface a mucous secretion which soon hardens, and since
inside of this mucous mass the worm, coiled up into a little ball,
turns round without stopping, invests it as it were in an egg-shell.
During this process of encysting the Cercaria invariably casts off
its tail, so that the capsule eventually encloses the body merely,
(fig. 13). For a long time I vainly wondered what could be
the object of this process, and, never understood what its
signification in Cercarian life was, until, in dissecting some

insects, I met with a fact which

Fig. 13. Fig. 14. suggested how I might gain the

knowledge I sought for. In the
larvae of a great number of various
kinds of aquatic insects, of Libel-
lulidae, Ephemeridce, Perlidce, Phry-
ganidce, I found encysted Cercarice,
which I again discovered in the
same animals, after they had left
the water, and had been trans-
formed into winged insects. Not one of these encysted Cer-
caria lodged in an insect, was either full-grown or possessed
sexual organs. I only observed one other slight step towards
their further development ; the sexual apparatus, viz., the testis,
the germarium, and the copulatory organs, were already faintly
indicated. As, however, perfectly full-grown and sexually
developed Trematoda are never met with in insects, I decided,
after the discovery of the encysted Cercaria in them, that they
merely sought out the insects as a temporary resting place.

Fig. 13. Encysted Cercaria ephemera, a. Sucker, c, d. Urinary organ. — Fig. 14.
Abdominal extremity of a Cercaria ephemera, in which, by the casting of the tail the
urinary organ has been opened externally, a. Inferior expanded end of the urinary
organ, g. Aperture out of which the granular urine is excreted. Before I pointed
out the true import of this urinary organ these granules were regarded as eggs, and
when the urine was excreted they were thought to be laid.

OKIGIN OF INTESTINAL WOEMS.

21

Most of the sexually developed Trematoda are parasitic upon the
higher Vertebrata, the Cercaria being, in fact, nothing else than
young sexless Trematoda, whose instinct it is, to pass out from
the inferior animals where .they are produced, into the higher
forms in which they attain the power of sexual reproduction.
Should those Cercaria which are generated in aquatic molluscs,
be able to attain their sexual maturity in the intestines of
insectivorous birds or mammals alone, they can only reach the
latter locality by entering the larvse of aquatic insects, and then
becoming encysted in the manner already described. In this
condition they remain, until the new animal in which they have
established themselves, having undergone its metamorphosis, leaves
the water and is swallowed by some insectivorous vertebrate.

In the act of digestion the body of the insect is destroyed, together
with the capsule of the imprisoned Cercaria, which in this manner
finds itself transplanted into those new circumstances which are
alone fitted to permit of its further change into a sexual Trematode.

That this instinctive impulse of the Cercaria to encyst them-
selves after emigration, is accompanied by a desire to pass into
insect larvse, I assured myself by ocular demonstration. I had
procured a large number of specimens
of Cercaria armata which had emigrated
from the common Lymnaus stagnalis,
and put them into a watch-glass filled
with water, in company with several live
Neuropterous larvse (of the families of
the Ephemerida and Perlida). I soon
observed, with the microscope, that the
Cercaria, which at first, flapping their
tails, moved freely about in the water, at
last betook themselves to the insect larvse,
and crept restlessly about them. It was
easy to see from their movements that

the little worms had some object in view. The Cercaria armata,
as is well known, is provided with a spine-like weapon, pointing

Fig. 15. A. A Cercaria armata viewed from the abdominal surface, a. Oral sucker
with the frontal spine showing through it. b. Ventral sucker, c. Digestive apparatus.
d. Urinary organ, h. Tail whose root plugs up a pit in the hinder end of the hody, in
which the urinary organ opens.— B. The same Cercaria viewed laterally a, b, d, have the
same signification. — e. The frontal spine. The alimentary canal is left out in this
view. — C. The frontal spine of ihisCercaria very much magnified, and viewed from above.

Fig. 15.

22 INTRODUCTION.

forward from the centre of the animal's head. (Fig. 15 B.) I
could readily perceive, that these Cercaria which I was observing,
frequently paused in their inspection of the insects, and inserted
this weapon into their bodies as they crept over them. This
probing experiment, for it wras clearly nothing else, was repeated
again and again, until the larva had discovered one of the soft
places between the segments of the insect's body; this being
reached, it never moved from the spot, but worked incessantly
with its spine, until a way was bored through the soft place it had
fastened on. Scarcely was the point of the spine fairly through,
ere the supple worm inserted his thin anterior extremity into the
wound, widened the opening a little, and by degrees drew in his
whole body, which became wonderfully slender under the opera-
tion. The tail of the Cercaria was not drawn inside the insect,
but remained hanging outside the puncture, being doubtlessly
seized and nipped off, by the sudden closing of the wound when
the body of the Cercaria had slipped through. Having selected
very young and delicate Neuropterous larvae for my inquiry, the
transparency of their bodies enabled me to continue to observe
the tail-less Cercarice after their entrance ; they forthwith lay
still, drew themselves up into balls, and surrounded themselves
with a cyst. During the process of encysting, the frontal spine
fell off from the body of the Cercaria, and lay apart by its side,
but enclosed within the cyst.1 This weapon,
Fig. 16. therefore, undergoes the same fate as the tail of

these animals, each apparatus being cast aside
after fulfilling its intended end.

The impulse to immigrate and become en-
cysted is so strong in all the Cercarice, that
their efforts appear to be occasionally over hasty,
and perhaps lead them altogether astray.

I have found in Aselli and Gammari, encysted Cercarice, which
in every way resembled those which had passed into insects.

Fig. 16. An encysted Cercaria armata. a. Oral sucker. b. Ventral sucker.
e. Digestive canal which is connected with the oral sucker, d. Urinary organ
filled with granular urine, e. Cast off frontal spine which now lies free in the cavity of
the cyst. f. Aperture of the urinary organ, which becomes visible after the tail is cast
off. g. Cyst in which the tailless Cercaria remains encysted as an asexual Distomum.

i The observation above detailed (which I have already published in Wagner's
' Handworterbuch,' Bd. ii, p. 669,) can be easily repeated, since the sacs of Cercaria
armata are excessively common in our fresh-water snails.

ORIGIN OF INTESTINAL WORMS. 23

Now, if these Cercarice can only attain their sexual maturity
in the warm-blooded vertebrate animals, which devour in-
sects, and therefore seek their food in the air or on land alone,
the Cercaria, that had established themselves in the Aselli and
Gammari, would wait in vain for the time to arrive when they
should be transported into the air, since the animals in which
they were domiciled would never quit the water. Again, many
Cercarice, in their haste, become encysted incautiously at so early
a period, that the purpose of the process is defeated.

I have already shown that the emigrated Cercaria ephemera
attaches itself to water-plants, or any other objects in the water,
by means of the cyst which it elaborates ; other Cercarite even be-
come encysted before they quit the body of the aquatic snail in which
they were generated ; whilst some, again, have even been found
encysted within the Cere aria-sacs.1 Steenstrup takes this to be
a normal phenomenon ; I should only consider it such, provided
that the encysted Cercarice in the snails are intended to attain
their sexual maturity, in the intestines of fishes or of water-birds
feeding on snails.

Although the various facts I have communicated can only be
regarded as fragments of the natural history of certain Trematoda,
they are yet capable of being connected into a whole, if the
theory of the Alternation of Generations be extended to them.
For instance, from the foregoing statements, we perceive that certain
sexually matured Trematoda (Monostomum, Distomum) generate
young within their sexual organs, which are not developed into
sexual individuals similar to their parents in form and structure ;
but that, on the contrary, each embryo is converted into an
animal of remarkably different form, viz., into a Cercaria-sac,
which has the import of a sexless nurse, since without possessing
sexual organs, it nevertheless generates young Cercarice. These
Cercarice again differ from their parents, but gradually become
sexually perfect, and in form and structure take the likeness of
their grandparents. The several embryos of these Trematoda,
therefore, do not pass into an equal number of new and separate
sexual Trematoda, but each embryo produces a nurse, which, by
asexual generation, brings forth a greater or less number of
sexual Trematoda.

1 Steenstrup (1. c., p. 85, pi. iii [English translation]), has more particularly described
and figured such Cemzn'a-sacs containing encysted Cercariae.

21 INTRODUCTION.

If we follow those Trematoda which are subject to the
Alternation of Generations, in their wanderings, we shall see
that they are likely to meet with many obstacles to the
completion of their developmental course, which is the entering
into the viscera of an animal in which they can become sexually
developed. It may happen that the various emigrations and
immigrations of the infusorial embryo, or of the tailed Cercarice,
may miscarry ; or it may be, that the exact time for the Cercaria
to become encysted may be missed ; or that after the due occur-
rence of the encysting process, the insect selected for its penulti-
mate habitation may die at an inappropriate time or place, and
so prevent the encysted Cercaria from reaching the last animal,
or that one fitted for its final residence. This destruction of the
various forms of Trematoda by untoward circumstances is com-
pensated by the fact, that they are furnished by the Alternation
of Generations with the means of greatly multiplying the various
developmental stages of their descendants. By these means the
propagation of these animals is secured, since, notwithstanding the
mishaps by which many are arrested or destroyed, a sufficient
number of individuals always remains out of the numerous young
of the nurses and larvae, who, in spite of all obstacles, achieve the
end in view — the propagation of their species.

The history of the Cercaria enables us to comprehend many
phenomena which were necessarily quite erroneously interpreted
by the older helminthologists, who were ignorant of these wan-
derings and unacquainted with the occurrence of the Alternation
of Generations. It is a common thing to find capsules or cysts,
in the midst of the tissues of the most widely different organs of
men and animals, containing asexual and only partially developed
intestinal worms. It was difficult to understand how such living
Entozoa could have originated in the viscera of animals (sometimes
in those which are deeply seated and cut off from all external
communication) and could here propagate their kind. Hence it
was taken for granted that they had been produced by equivocal
generation from the surrounding parts, and the mode of origin
thus assumed, conversely furnished the reason why these Entozoa
were unprovided with sexual organs. Frequently too, free,
young, or imperfectly developed intestinal worms were met with
in the substance of organs, and their occurrence was in the same
way attributed to equivocal generation, though in reality these
Entozoa were either in the act of emigrating or of immigrating,

OF INTESTINAL WOKMS. 25

"V

or else, having found a resting place in some organ, were tarrying
till the creature they infested should be swallowed by some other
animal, when the passive immigration for which they waited
would take place.

Many wandering parasites are unresistingly suffered to bore
their way into and remain in, the organs of animals, whilst
on the other hand, certain kinds are arrested and finally stopped,
by becoming enclosed in a coagulable lymph thrown out by the
organs which they traverse. Hereafter we shall have to dis-
tinguish two kinds of encysted intestinal worms. In the one
kind the cyst is thrown out by the parasite itself, as I have
already explained in the case of the Cercaria ; in the other, the
organ in which the encysted parasite lies imbedded, furnishes the
walls of the cyst. These last ' ' extrinsic" cysts are easily recognised
in the passively encysted parasites of vertebrate animals, being
immediately and intimately connected with the neighbouring
tissues and traversed by blood-vessels.

In such capsules or cysts are found the most diverse kinds
of intestinal worms, whose further course may be very
various.

Many of the encysted young of the intestinal worms experience
no further change, but only remain for a longer or a shorter period
until such time as they may, together with their host, pass into the
intestine of some animal of prey suitable for their future develop-
ment. To this kind belong the Cercarice I have already mentioned
(page 20). There is also a small, imperfectly developed, round
worm, hitherto always erroneously described as a perfect intesti-
nal worm, under the name of Trichina spiralis, which remains a
long time in its cyst without either growing or developing sexual
organs. This minute Trichina spiralis is not only met with in
the substance of the muscles of man, but also in the pleura and
peritoneum of the most widely different kinds of vertebrate
animals, enclosed in oval capsules about a quarter of a line in
length. Most probably a certain time of imprisonment is allotted
to the little worm, and after this period has elapsed, should its
deliverance not be effected by passive emigration, it dies, and its
body, which has not in the least increased in size, is, without
changing its outward form, transformed into a brittle glassy mass
composed of carbonate of lime. This process of calcareous de-
generation also takes place in other encysted and dead intestinal
worms, in which, however, the form does not always remain

26 INTRODUCTION.

perfect, but is either more or less altered, or else entirely
destroyed.

Other encysted intestinal worms succeed in obtaining nourish-
ment through the walls of thek prison, and thus go on growing.
Those, however, amongst the encysted entozoa, which are in-
tended by nature to attain their sexual maturity only in the
digestive organs of certain animals, cannot arrive at this condition
in their cysts, and must, in spite of their further growth, fail in
the attainment of the power of sexual propagation, until the
animal they inhabit is devoured by the predacious creature,
whose intestine is alone fitted to allow of the passage of these
asexual intestinal worms into the last stage of their development.
I may cite here, as examples, various Nematoidea and Cestoidea.
In many marine fishes the liver is covered with capsules, which
often contain a well-grown nematoid worm more than an inch
long. Naturalists have arranged this parasite among the in-
testinal worms as Ascaris capsularis, Filaria piscium, Filaria
cystica. I have never met with one of these round worms con-
taining developed sexual organs. As in their further organization
no less than in their whole form, these ascarids most strikingly
resemble certain sexually-mature nematoid worms, namely,
Ascaris osculata, spiculigera, angulata, aucta, and others, which
infest the alimentary canal of seals, cormorants, divers, gulls, and

predacious fishes, the idea presents
Fig. 17. itself that these encysted, not yet

fully developed Nematoidea belong to
either one species or another of the
last-named Ascaridae. More par-
ticular inquiries into the subject will
instruct us what species of these
round worms, which are now con-
sidered to be distinct species, will
hereafter have to be united into a

single group, as younger or older individuals of one and the
same species. The sexless Ascaris incisa, represented in fig. 17,

Fig. 17. A convoluted piece of the intestine of the mole (nat. size), with many flat-
tened, pedunculated cysts, each enclosing a little thread- worm, attached to its peritoneal
investment. * * Such cysts viewed edgewise, b. A single capsule much magnified,
so as to render the enclosed thread-worm more clearly visible. This parasite belongs to
that group of the Ascaridce whose intestine is provided anteriorly with a ca3cum directed
upwards.

ORIGIN OF INTESTINAL WORMS. 27

which occurs encysted in the peritoneum of the Mole, must also
be awaiting its transference to the intestine of some other anial,
where it attains its sexual maturity.

From what has been stated we gather, that those young intestinal
worms which are developed at a distance from the nidus of their
parents, succeed, in the end, in reaching those situations where
they may repeat the part of their progenitors, and reproduce their
kind. Impelled by instinct, the embryo parasites, that have only
just left the egg, disperse in all directions, so that they may
immigrate into other animals, whenever an opportunity offers.
Many thousands of these embryos of necessity never attain their
object, on account of the numerous casualties that beset them in
their wanderings. The point of most importance is, that these
embryos should select, as their temporary residence, such crea-
tures as will be consumed by those animals, whose intestine served
their parents, as a habitation and birth-place for their young.
But many of these young, immigrated, intestinal worms will
have undertaken their journey in vain, and will die without reach-
ing the last stage of their development, in consequence of their
host and involuntary carrier, escaping from his natural enemies.
Again, many embryos will be led astray by the migratory im-
pulse, and pass into animals which never become the prey of those
whose digestive canal is their goal. This I conclude from the
frequent occurrence of one and the same kind of encysted para-
site amongst the most various kinds of animals. And I shall
regard those embryos which have failed in their object, in the
way I have mentioned, as parasites which have strayed in their
wanderings.

I know that there may be some difficulty in accepting this
theory of strayed parasites ; it will be urged that these, like all
animals, have a sort of instinct implanted in them which never
allows them to enter upon any fruitless undertaking, and which,
without their knowing it, impels them to strike out the right
path in their wanderings. If this were really the case, every
tsenioid embryo must some day become a tape-worm, and we
should be so overrun with nernatoid worms that, judging from
the enormous quantity of their eggs, the animals they infest
would perish by wholesale from their countless numbers. Those
who have occupied themselves with the collection of intestinal
worms, must only too frequently have remarked, however, that these
parasites are by no means so numerous as the immense numbers

28 INTRODUCTION.

of their eggs would lead one to suppose. This inclines one
more readily to the belief that nature, seeing how full of diffi-
culties is the way of these parasites to sexual development, has
endowed them with the power of generating millions and
billions of eggs, when once they have overcome these obstacles
and developed the necessary sexual organs. Through the un-
ceasing spread of cultivation, the decrease and extirpation of
certain animals, on the one hand, and the taming and increase of
domestic animals on the other, the conditions of life of many of
the intestinal worms have become so changed, and so widely
different from their original state, that, with their inherent
tendency to wander, many of these parasites must often go
astray.

The Trichina spiralis, which is found in human beings, and
which, as I have already shown, must be regarded as an encysted
sexless nematoid worm, can hardly have found its way into the
muscular substance of man, except by having gone astray ; so also
the Cysticercus cellulose, which not unfrequently appears in the
muscles and other organs of man, and which, as I shall hereafter
show, is an asexual tsenioid agamozooid. The Cysticercus celluloses
changes to a sexual tape- worm in the intestinal canal of certain
mammals ; the Trichina spiralis, after transportation to another
and more favorable situation, will also become sexually de-
veloped. That these two parasites should have been originally
intended to pass into and establish themselves in, human beings,
waiting for the opportunity to emigrate, which could only occur
when the person who harboured the sexless parasite should be
devoured by some appointed beast of prey, is an idea insufferable
to the dignity of man,1 which every reader of these lines must of
necessity reject ; and admit, instead, that the appearance of these
parasites in the interior of man can only be accounted for by
the fact of their having gone astray.

Many of the young of the intestinal worms which only attain
the last stage of their development in the digestive canal of the
Vertebrata, chance, in the course of their wanderings, to pass
into the wrong organs ; for instance, into the muscular substance,
the liver, or the peritoneum; here they remain undeveloped,

1 To appeal to the " dignity of man" in a zoological argument appears a little out of
place. Nature seems to have had small respect for our " dignity" when she created the
fleas, lice, and hugs which annoy us ; the Ascaris, which reduces us below the level of
the beast ; the Strongylus, and the Echinococcus, which destroy us outright. — [Eo.]

OKIGIN OF INTESTINAL WORMS. 29

whilst other individuals of the same brood, which have found
their way into the intestine of the same animals, arrive at
maturity. Tricenophorus nodulosus, infesting fishes, offers an
example of this, developing into a long, sexually-mature tape-
worm, in the intestines of pikes and perch, whilst at the same
time these fishes often harbour other tape-worms, which are,
however, always sexless, in cysts in their liver. These last must
certainly be also regarded as strayed parasites.

In these wanderings through the bodies of vertebrate animals,
the very small embryos of the intestinal worms, boring their way
through the walls of the blood-vessels, not unfrequently fall into
the current of the circulation, and so become distributed with the
blood. In fact, embryos of intestinal worms, to which the name
of H&matozoa has been given, have often been discovered in the
blood of birds, reptiles, and fishes.1 These Hamatozoa neither be-
come further developed in the blood, nor increase in size ; but many
of them, whilst circulating in the vascular system, stick in the narrow
blood-vessels of certain organs which afford a more congenial soil
for their further growth ; such at least is the most natural way
of accounting for the appearance of intestinal worms in the
brain, in the spinal marrow, and in the eyeball of man and
animals. These organs are so completely enclosed, partly by
bones, and partly by dense fibrous membranes, that before the
existence of animals in the blood was known, it was supposed
quite impossible for parasites to penetrate into such well pro-
tected organs ; but that they must have originated then and
there through equivocal generation. The Cysticercus cellulosce,
the Ccenurus cerebralis, and the Echinococcus hominis and Veteri-
norum, have long been known as occasional denizens of the brain
and of the spinal marrow in men and animals, and have, up
to the very latest times, served as a stronghold for the sup-
porters of the doctrine of equivocal generation. Having sub-
jected these very cystic worms to particularly close inves-
tigation, in order to confute this fabulous hypothesis as to

1 I have collected together the different observations on haematozoa in the article
" Parasiten" in Wagner's ' Hand-worterbuch' already referred to (p. 648) ; subsequently,
new facts of the same kind have been published by Ecker (Mailer's 'Archiv.,' 1845,
p. 501), Wedl (in his ' Beitrage zu Lehre von den Haraatozoen,' Wien, 1849), and
Leydig (in Mailer's ' Archiv./ 1851, p. 227).

[See also the remarkable observations of Bilharz, ' Ueber das Distoma hoematobium,'
' Zeitschrift fur Wiss. Zoloogie,' 1852. This dioecious haematode is found in the portal
Hood of man.] — [ED.]

30 INTRODUCTION.

their mode of origin, I will give an account of the results
below.

With the migrations and alternation of generations amongst
the intestinal worms, two other.phenomena are connected, which
were formerly quite unnoticed, but which now, since attention
has been directed to them, have been very generally observed. In
the neighbourhood of those sexually perfect intestinal worms
which, in their wanderings, are subject to the alternation of
generations, only eggs, or recently hatched embryos are met with ;
but the further stages of development are always wanting,
since they first make their appearance after the emigration of
the young to other places. Further, many of these intestinal
worms, taken whilst in the act of migrating, are never found
below a certain size, since they do not commence their wanderings,
either as nurses or larvse, until they have already reached a certain
stage of their development.

In this chapter I have expressed myself somewhat at large
upon the wanderings and alternation of generations of the intesti-
nal worms, in order that I may be fully understood in the
ensuing ones, when I have occasion to refer to this generation
by agamozooids. The history of the propagation of certain para-
sites, in the foregoing pages, may seem new and astonishing
to many readers, and yet the alternation of generations is not
more wonderful than metamorphosis. We have been so long
acquainted with the way in which metamorphosis takes place in
the higher and lower members of the animal kingdom, that we
no longer wonder at the various transformations of the frog, nor
gaze with surprise when a caterpillar becomes a chrysalis, and
after a certain time flies off in the shape of a butterfly. The
many to whom the metamorphosis of frogs and insects is a
common appearance, forget that there was once a time when it
was unknown, and when the multiplication of grubs and larvae
was ascribed to equivocal generation, their true origin being
unsuspected. It is to be hoped that a time will also arrive
when the complicated alternation of generations will not be
known to naturalists alone.

CHAPTER II.

ON THE TAPE-WORM.

THE tape-worms (Cestoidea) constitute a peculiar group of
entozoa which only attain their perfect development and sexual
maturity in the intestinal canal of vertebrate animals. Those
that are often met with in other internal organs than the
intestinal canal, in fishes, reptiles, birds, or mammals, or in the
interior of inferior animals, are always sexually undeveloped.
In this sexless state the tape-worms wait for an opportunity to
pass out, which occurs when the creature they lodge in is swal-
lowed by some vertebrate carnivore. It is only when such sexless
tape-worms have thus passively effected their entrance into the in-
testinal canal of the appropriate Vertebrata, that their sexual matu-
rity takes place, and they become capable of laying eggs for further
propagation. In this wandering the remarkable circumstance
occurs, that whilst these undeveloped tape- worms pass into the
stomach of the predacious animal in a more or less uninjured
condition, and establish themselves in its intestine, the soft parts
of their former host yield to the digestive juices. Numerous
examples attest the truth of this assertion, but of these I will
only select the following.

In certain neighbourhoods the sticklebacks are infested by a
kind of teenioid parasite which lies free in the cavity of the
abdomen, and often distends the body to an unusual size. This
parasite has been before described under the name of Bothrio-
cephalus solidus. In the stickleback its joints and sexual appa-
ratus are undeveloped and always remain so.

In the intestine of many of the water fowl which prey upon
these sticklebacks, a sexually matured tape-worm, known to
naturalists by the name of Bothriocephalus nodosus, has been
found. This is no other than the Bothriocephalus solidus in a
further stage of development ; after its former host, the stickle-
back, has been digested in the bird's stomach, it is released,

32 THE TAPE-WOEM.

and entering uninjured into the intestine of its new owner,
arrives at sexual maturity. The extent of development in each
individual will be found to be in proportion to the time it has
passed in the bird's alimentary canal after its passive emigration.
Since the connection between Bothriocephalus solidus and nodosus
has been known, helminthologists have ceased to regard these
two taenioid worms as different species, but in accordance with
the suggestion of Dr. Creplin, who first drew attention to the
relationship between them, they have been considered to be
different stages of the same species, Schistocephalus dimorphus.
A similar instance occurs in the case of the Ligula simplicissima,
infesting the abdominal cavity of various species of carp, whose
sexual organs are, and remain, undeveloped, as long as the worm
remains within the fish, whilst when the latter is eaten by, and the
entozoon thereby conveyed into the intestines of, ducks, divers,
waders, and other water-fowl, it attains perfect sexual develop-
ment. In the older helminthological systems the sexually ma-
tured Ligula simplicissima is described under various specific
names, sometimes as Liyula sparsa, uniserialis, sometimes as
Ligula alternans, or interrupt a.

Many Cestoidea, during their youth, lodge in the liver and
peritoneum of fishes. In these organs they excite a morbid
exudation whereby a membranous substance is produced, which
forms a kind of capsule round the worm, and thus, as it were,
excludes it from the organism. This act, by which the organs
seek to free themselves from such unwelcome guests, I shall
designate by the name of " extrinsic"1 encysting process already
given in page 25.

The encysted Cestoidea increase in size, but do not become
sexually mature, from the absence of the conditions necessary
to the attainment of this state ; and should their hosts perish
without having been devoured by an animal of prey, the sexless
Cestoidea will die with them, without leaving any progeny.
Various examples illustrate the truth of this statement.

Mention has already been made (at page 29) of the Triaeno-
phorus nodulosus which infests the intestine of the pike and
the perch, where alone it is to be met with sexually mature.
Helminthologists, however, give other localities of this worm, as

1 I have added the word " extrinsic" here to distinguish this from the self-encysting
process by exudation from the entozoon itself. — [ED.]

ENCYSTED CESTOIDEA. 33

certain species of salmon, for instance; but in these it is met
with encysted in the liver and peritoneum, and is invariably
sexless. The examination of the livers of a great number of
the Salmo salvelinus caught in the Konigs-see, near Berchtesgaden,
recently convinced me that this worm can only attain to sexual
maturity in the alimentary canal of perch and pike. These livers
were covered with various sized cysts containing larger or smaller
individuals of Tricenophorus nodulosus, which were every one
sexless. The Cestoidea were obviously awaiting their sexual de-
velopment, which could only take place when they should have
passed into the intestine of a pike or perch, a migration which
may easily occur, since the lake is full of such predacious fish,
who are always ready to seize upon the salmon. When the
Tricenophorus nodulosus has come to sexual maturity and has
deposited its eggs in the intestine of the pike and perch, these
eggs will be passively extruded, since the cestoid embryos are
never hatched in the spot where they have been laid ; that is to
say, they will be expelled with the faeces through the anus of the
fish. With regard to the ultimate fate of the young of the
Tricenophorus nodulosus, I can state nothing from actual know-
ledge, but from what has been observed in regard to other intes-
tinal parasites, I think one may infer that the young of the
former will be impelled by the same instinct, to wander, and to
seek that situation which can alone develop their powers of repro-
duction. Although I am unacquainted with the form in which
the embryos of the Tricenophorus nodulosus commence their
wanderings, yet, having found tolerably large individuals of this
species encysted in the livers of various fishes (of salmon,
sticklebacks, millers' thumbs, burbot, blennies, and others), I
conclude that the young Tricenophori have merely made these a
temporary resting-place, and are waiting till their host becomes
the prey of the above-named fishes. Whether the young of the
Tricenophorus always avail themselves of an intermediate host by
whom they may be conveyed into the intestine of their final en-
tertainer, the pike or perch — I cannot say. It is possible that
they may pass, at once, into the pike or perch whenever an
opportunity offers ; but under these circumstances it would be by
no means immaterial into which organ of the fish they first
entered. Since the intestinal canal is the only proper place for
their sexual development, they will, by passing into the liver or

3

34 THE TAPE-WORM.

peritoneum, most assuredly meet with the same fate as if they
had entered the other fishes ; they will become encysted, and
may grow within the cysts, but will not become sexually mature
unless their owner be swallowed by a larger creature of his own
kind.

Similar migrations and strayings from the right path are
exhibited by the Tania longicollis and ocellata, which are met
with, not only in the intestine, but also encysted in the livers, of
salmonoid and percoid fishes, in a jointed but sexless state. I
must call attention to the fact that the Tri&nophorus nodulosus,
in its sexless condition, is not uncommonly found in the liver and
peritoneum of the sticklebacks ; and as this fish, on account of its
spines, is generally avoided by the pike and perch, the immi-
grated young of the Trianophorus in the stickleback must be
certainly regarded as having gone astray.

The various species of the cestoid genus, Tetrarhynchus, enu-
merated by systematic helminthologists, are nothing more than
imperfectly developed, sexless forms of Cestoidea, which, in their
fully developed and sexually mature condition, have been regarded
as belonging to an entirely distinct genus. Following Rudolphi,
later helminthologists termed this latter genus, Rkynchobothrium.
The genus Tetrarhynchus must now, however, be set aside,
since the forms of animals hitherto included in it must be
considered as younger stages of development of true Rhyncho-
bothria. The head end of many kinds of Tetrarhynchus, with
its four protractile proboscides, armed with numerous sharp
grappling hooks and provided with four moveable suckers, in
form and organization resembles so exactly the fore part of the
Rhynchobothria, that there is no doubt as to the origin of the
former.

The Rhynchobothria in their full grown and sexually matured
state, are only found in the digestive canal of plagiostome fishes.
In order to secure their migration into other individuals of this
order, the young of the Rhynchobothria make use of such
marine creatures as serve the former for prey. As the ravenous
shark or ray is not over nice in the choice of its food, it is
not necessary for the young Rhynchobothria to select any par-
ticular marine animal as its temporary host, in order to introduce
itself into their intestine. Indeed one meets with Tetrarhynchi,
(that is to say young Rhynchobothria}, in soles, flounders, mullets,

THE SCOLEX-STATE. 35

in cod-fish, gurnards, congers, and even in cuttlefishes. From
the encysted condition in which the parasites are found in these
animals, it is easy to see that they have only made them their
temporary abode. That they are by no means at home in these
intermediate hosts seems evinced by their lively and restless
proceedings ; their four protractile feelers, with their countless
hooks, being employed most cleverly, to bore through the flesh,
the walls of the stomach, and the tunics of the various organs.

The head end of the young Cestoidea takes, at a very early
period, the form of that of their sexually matured parents, whence
it is easy to distinguish to which species of cestoid worm they
belong. According to Van Beneden's suggestion, helminthologists
have designated such undeveloped sexless Cestoidea whose heads
have already assumed the parental form, as " scolices." From
their physiological signification these cestoid scolices have been
compared with the larvae of insects ; the comparison, however, is
not tenable, since every insect larva leaves the egg in its larva-
form, and is gradually changed into an individual insect capable
of propagation, whilst the scolices of the Cestoidea do not come
forth from the egg in the condition of scolices, nor are converted
into a reproductive tape-worm individual, but by sexless genera-
tion give birth to a great number of sexual individuals. Here,
therefore, we have to do, not with metamorphosis, but with an
alternation .of generations in which the scolex-forms play the
part of agamozooids.

In studying the history of the Cestoidea, it must be strictly
borne in mind that all scolices, whatever be their form, are only
different stages of cestoid worms ; and, on the other hand, that
the cestoid embryos leave the egg in a form widely different from
a scolex. The embryos of the genera TcPMia and Bothriocephalus
are precisely similar, widely different as are the forms of the
so-called " heads " of these worms subsequently. The whole or-
ganization of these embryos seems specially adapted for the purpose
of digging and boring, a circumstance most favorable to them in
their wanderings. They possess, in fact, a very small rounded
body, (fig. 18 a), at one end of which six little hooks or claws
project, two in the middle and two on each side. Each pair of
these hooks is differently shaped from the others (fig. 18 b, c, d)}
and they are so arranged, that one of each form is placed on each
side of the embryo, so that the two innermost, the two middle,

36 THE TAPE-WOEM.

and the two outermost hooks are alike.1 If one of these embryos

is set free (which can be effected by care-
fully crushing the eggshell between two
plates of glass), without destroying the
living tape-worm embryo, its various
movements may be examined under the
microscope. It draws its round body
together, and enlarges and contracts its
transverse diameter, and by this operation protrudes, first in
front and then at the sides, the six little hooks from that end
of its body which, from these hooks being situated there, I shall
call the fore part. The observer can readily understand how, by
such movements, the excessively minute cestoid embryo succeeds
in boring its way into the moist and tender soft parts of other
animals and in traversing their interior in all directions.

When the cestoid embryos have, by immigration and subse-
quent encysting, lodged themselves in an animal by whose
means they will eventually become introduced into the alimentary
canal of one of the Vertebrata, and so reach the last stage
of their development, a remarkable metamorphosis takes place
by which they pass from the condition of embryos into that of
scolices. In the interior of the embryo an organ is developed
which gradually assumes the characters of the head of a cestoid
worm, and always resembles that of the particular species from
which the embryo has been produced. When once the head of
the cestoid is fully formed it may become extruded from the
interior of the body, and the entire worm then constitutes a scolex.
The whole of this process of scolex-development may be justly
compared to an internal budding.

According to the view of the earlier helrninthologists, the
scolices consist of the head end of a cestoid worm, out of whose
posterior extremity the proper body is subsequently developed.
In regard to the organization of the scolices, it must be par-
ticularly noted that they possess no oral aperture, and are only
nourished by the absorption of fluids through the surface of their

Fig. 18. The embryo of Tcenia crater if or mis. The six hooklets are formed upon
three different types ; b, c, d, represent the three kinds more highly magnified, b. One
of the two uppermost, e, one of the two median, and d, one of the two outermost
hooklets.

1 See my description of these hooks in Burdach's ' Physiologic,' Bd. ii, 1837, p. 204.

DEVELOPMENT OF SCOLICES.

37

integument. In the substance of their bodies, spherical or
discoidal bodies of a glassy appearance are often seen : these

Fig. 19.

have frequently been mistaken for eggs, whereby the nature of
these creatures has been wholly misconceived. The particles are,
in fact, nothing more than organized deposits of carbonate of
lime. Integumentary concretions of the same kind are found in
many other of the lower animals. The scolices have also been
described as young cestoid worms : we shall, however, more
readily comprehend the various stages through which the Ces-

Fig. 19. Series of developmental stages of a Tetrarhynchus, or rather of a scolex of
Rhynchobothrium, represented diagrammatically, and partly after Van Beneden. The
cestoid embryo becomes a receptaculum scolicis by the development of a scolex in its
interior. With the progressive development of the scolex the body of the embryo
(receptaculum scolicis') and the cyst containing it, increase in dimensions. 1. The
encysted embryo. 2. The encysted embryo developes a bud internally, and so becomes
the receptacle of a scolex. 3. The internal bud out of which a scolex is being developed
has increased in size. 4. In the interior of the bud the head of the future Tetrarhynchus
appears, and the stickers become perceptible. 5. The head of the Tetrarhynchus
becomes more clearly denned ; and, 6, acquires a neck. 7. The neck elongates, the four
hooked proboscides make their appearance. 8. The more elongated neck is forced to
become curved in order to accommodate itself to the narrow space in which the scolex
is undergoing its development. 9. The adult scolex out of its cyst, and beginning to be
extruded from its receptacle. 10. The extruded scolex; which, in 11, has separated
itself from its receptaculum. In this condition, the scolices of the Rhynchobothria
have hitherto been described as species of Tetrarhynchus. * Scolex. ** Receptaculum
scolicis. *** Cyst. For the further development of the Tetrarhynchus into a Rhyncho-
bothrium, see fig. 23.

88 THE TAPE-WORM.

toidea pass, and be better able to bring them into unison with
the phenomena presented by the other entozoa, if, as has been
suggested above, we regard the scolices as agamozooids.

In taking this view of the jaature of the scolices of the
Cestoidea, we assume that they are in that condition in which
they may, by asexual reproduction, bring forth a series of
sexual individuals. This in reality takes place, but only in the
intestinal canal of vertebrate animals. Before entering more
fully into the description of this process, however, it is advisable
that I should refer to certain facts, known to helminthologists,
which prove that the scolices really originate in the cestoid
embryos furnished with six booklets. In this matter I avail
myself of the evidence of Stein of Tharand, who made the fol-
lowing important observations.

Stein discovered,1 on the exterior of the stomach of the meal-
worm (the larva of the coleopterous Tenebrio inolitor), small cysts
about the size of a pin's head, containing a cestoid embryo in whose
body a more or less fully developed scolex was included. In
those that were fully developed Stein recognised a perfect Tania
head. Stein distinctly convinced himself that the Tania embryo did
not become a scolex by simple growth, but that the latter was
produced by budding in the body of the embryo, having, amongst
the numerous cysts that he examined, the most various transi-
tional forms, from the simple unaltered embryos to those con-
taining a fully developed scolex. During this development of
a scoliciform agamozooid the embryo changes its form, growing
rather longer on the one side than the other, in consequence of
which its six hooks become irregularly scattered over the upper
surface of the body and lose their import (fig. 26) ; a clear
proof that they do not enter into the formation of the circlet of
hooks of the tsenioid scolex. It is clear that these tsenioid
embryos arrive by immigration into the abdominal cavity of the
meal-worms, and in fact, as Stein suspected, through the walls
of the stomach ; for this observer more than once found tsenioid
embryos in the stomach of meal-worms, which, judging from their
form, could only just have been hatched. Most likely these
minute embryos had been taken in with their food by the meal-

1 See his ' Beitrage zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Eingeweidewnrmer,' in the
'Zeitschrift fur Wissenschaftliche Zoologie,' edited by Kolliker and myself. Bd. iv»
1853, p. 207.

DEVELOPMENT OF SCOLICES. 39

V

worms, and so conveyed into the stomach. By the help of their
six hooklets they pierce its walls and pass into the perivisceral
cavity. Having got thus far, the immigrated tsenioid embryos
find in the meal-worms a fitting intermediate residence, and the
scoliciform agamozooid begins to be developed in them. The
embryos having thus completed their wanderings, and arrived at
their appointed end, throw off their boring apparatus, and play a
more subordinate part, the scoliciform agamozooid developed
within them, henceforward taking the chief place. The scolex is
itself sexless, but by asexual generation will bring forth sexual
individuals ; this, however, can only take place in the intestine of
some vertebrate animal, and it is now the turn of the scolices to
wander, in order that they may pass from their intermediate host
into their final one.

In doing this the nurse is entirely passive, waiting until
its intermediate host shall be devoured by that particular verte-
brate animal which is fitted to serve as the nidus for its sexual
stage. What vertebrate animal this is, is at present unknown,
so that I can only speak conjecturally, and indicate that these meal-
worms are the favorite food of various small mammals, such as
rats and mice, and of numerous birds, the red-start, for instance ;
and that the Tenebrio molitor, which flies about, and is produced
from the chrysalis of the meal-worm, is often caught and eaten
by bats, swallows and other insectivorous animals. A minute
comparison of the scolices of the meal-worms with the heads
of tape-worms from the intestines of the animals I have named,
may perhaps assist in filling up the gaps in these observations.

Another observation made long ago by myself, and which has
since been more fully worked out by Dr. Meissner, serves to
confirm the observations of Stein. In the substance of the pul-
monary sac of Arion empiricorum, (a slug), I discovered many
encysted scolices,1 from the shape of whose heads I judged that
they formed part of the developmental series of a Ttenia. The form
of these scolices, is, however, very different from that of those
which are found in the meal-worms. Their head end is always
involuted in the short, and only partially developed, hinder
part of the body (fig. 20, 21).

One sees in the whole arrangement of the various parts of the

1 See my essay « Ueber den Generationswechsel der Cestoden,' in the ' Zeitschrift ftir
Wissenschaftliche Zoologie/ 1850, p. 202.

40 THE TAPE-WOEM.

encysted scolex with the retracted head, that the latter is pro-
duced in exactly the same manner as that of the meal-worm

scolex described by Stein, viz., by in-
ternal pudding, although I have never
chanced to meet with such earlier stages
of development of the scolex in the slug.
However, that they do directly emanate
from Tcenia embryos, is evidenced by the
three pair of hooks or claws, which are
firmly fixed in the substance of the sur-
face of the posterior extremity of the
body of these retracted scolices. We are
indebted to Dr. Meissner for the discovery that these six claws are
the remains of the embryonic condition of these cestoid agamozooids.1
The encysted scolices in the slug, therefore, are perfectly analo-
gous in form and signification to the cestoid agamozooids in the
meal-worm, with this difference, that the first are not elongated
into a tail at the posterior extremity. The encysted cestoid
agamozooids in the slug are evidently the result of the immigra-
tion of cestoid embryos, and yet in spite of the fact that
these parasites are very frequently met with in slugs,2 I have
not been able to determine which species of Taenia- embryo passes
into this form of scolex, nor into the intestine of what particular
vertebrate animal the scolex of the slug must emigrate, to give
rise to sexual individuals.

The sexually matured individuals of the Cestoidea are no other
than their full-grown joints; in which are developed the male
and female genitalia, by whose co-operation eggs capable of re-
production are generated, and the continuation of the species is
secured. Such a sexually-mature, hermaphrodite joint of a
cestoid worm, which, in certain genera of Cestoidea, when fully
formed, separates from the body of the scolex with great
readiness, is denominated a Proglottis. The formation of these

Fig. 20. A scolex of Tania from Arion empiricorum included within its receptacle.
Fig. 21. The same extruded, a. Head of the scolex. b. Receptaculum scolicis. c. The
remains of the six embryonic booklets.

1 See the ' Zeitschrift fur Wiss. Zool.,' B. v, 1854, p. 383.

2 I have found, not only in Breisgau, but also in Schleswig, and here in Bavaria, the
lung of the red slug (Arion empiricorum) very frequently infested by the encysted
scolices referred to above; and I learn from Dr. Meissner that the same is the case with
the slugs found in the neighbourhood of Hanover.

FREE JOINTS, OE PROGLOTTIDES. 41

"V

Proglottides takes place at the posterior end of the scolex by
asexual reproduction; viz., by a simple process of growth and
division. If we compare this process with the phenomena of
the Alternation of Generations, we shall discover in it all the
essential characters of the latter. The matured joints, or the
sexual individuals, of the Cestoidea in their proglottis form, pro-
duce a brood of embryos armed with six booklets, which are
quite dissimilar in shape from their parents, the Proglottides, and
remain so, since at a later period they assume the scolex form,
and take on the functions of an agamozooid. From the posterior
end of the body of such a scoliciform agamozooid a series of joints
are developed ; that is to say, a generation of sexual individuals,
which again present the original proglottis form. In their
organization, the Proglottides , apart from their sexual apparatus,
so far resemble the scolices, from which they have been pro-
duced, that they possess no oral aperture, and moreover are
subject to a deposit under their integument, of those glassy cal-
careous particles which I have already mentioned.

It seems, at first, paradoxical to say that the joints of a tape-
worm, which have hitherto been believed to be mere parts of one
animal, should be considered as individuals; but whoever will
observe, with an unprejudiced eye, a fully developed Tcenia with
its sexually matured joints, must be convinced that it is no
simple animal, but one composed of many individuals. The
joints of a Tcenia , when quite mature, become detached from one
another with the greatest ease ; the separated joints for a long
while preserve their form and remain quite fresh and lively,
being even capable of locomotion, and always seeking to dis-
burden themselves of their eggs before dying. Even the older
naturalists had regarded the single, separate joints of a Tcenia as
separate individuals, whilst others again, described the joints of
the common tape- worm of Man, (Tcenia to/stem), as " Vermes
cucurbitini" Later helminthologists, however, rejected the idea
that a Tcenia was composed of " Vermes cucurbitini" and especially
objected1 to the view of Vallisnieri and Coulet,2 who maintained
that the Tcenice were produced by the mutual adherence of a
number of the cucurbitine worms into a complex, jointed whole.

1 See his ' Considerazioni ed Esperienze intorno alia Generazione de' Verrai del Corpo
umano.' Padooa, 1710, p. 63.

8 ' Tractatus de Ascaridibus et Lumbrico lato.' Lugduni Batavorum, 1729, pp. 37,
56, &c.

42 THE TAPE-WORM.

Blumenbach stood almost alone among the later naturalists,
when, to the astonishment of his contemporaries, he defended
the incorrect views of Vallisnieri.1 The older inquirers were
quite right in regarding the varjpus isolated Tama-joiuts as sepa-
rate individuals, though they certainly fell into a gross error in
imagining that the long, many-jointed Tania was composed of
coalesced Vermes cucurbitini] in point of fact it is exactly the
reverse, the Vermes cucurbitini owing their origin, to the break-
ing up of the Tcenia into separate joints. That the first impres-
sion of these old naturalists was a just one is evident, from the
circumstance that even modern helminthologists, meeting now
and then with solitary Tcenia- joints, with whose origin they were
unacquainted, have regarded them as peculiar individual worms,
and described them accordingly. A remarkable intestinal worm
described many years ago by Diesing, under the name of Thy-
sanosoma actinoides, which was found in the intestine of a species
of deer from Brazil, created much sensation amongst helmin-
thologists, until Diesing himself, not long ago, acknowledged
it to be an isolated joint or Proglottis of Tcenia fimbriata?
Dujardin described the isolated joints of various Cestoidea as
forms of a peculiar genus of worms, to which he gave the name
of Proglottis? Although he believed them to be originally
derived from Taenia, he was, notwithstanding, so firmly convinced
of their independent existence, that he made them into a sepa-
rate genus in his systematic arrangement of the Cestoidea.41
However, since more has been known of the alternation of gene-
rations, whereby the origin of one animal from another of quite
dissimilar form, and their mutual relations to each other have
been explained and familiarized, helminthologists generally admit
that a cestoid worm is really a colony of animals. How dif-
ficult naturalists formerly found it, to accede to a view that
since the time of Blumenbach had been a subject of ridicule,

1 ' Gottingischen Anzeigen von gelehrten Sachen,' 1774, No. 154. Blumenbach
regards the anterior, smallest, joints of a tape-worm as the oldest, and he accounts for
their being smaller than the posterior joints by supposing that they have to give up the
nutriment which they take in, to their successors which have fastened on to them behind.
He compares these worms to the mass of authors, the more modern of whom merely
suck out of their immediate predecessors, that which these had extracted in the same
way from still older writers.

a See his ' Systema Helminthnm,' i, 1850, p. 501.

3 ' Annales des Sciences Naturelles,' t. xx, 1843, p. 341.

4 ' Histoire Naturelle des Helminthes,' 1845, p. 630, pi. 10, figs. A, n, c.

FREE JOINTS, OE PEOGLOTTIDES.

43

Fig. 22.

is shown by F. S. Leuckart, who, rightly appreciating the
true meaning of these jointed Cestodea, and yet apparently
not liking to oppose his contemporaries too strongly, merely
expressed himself thus upon the matter.1 " I was almost inclined
to consider the jointed tape- worms as organisms, in which each
joint is a separate animal, and the whole a compound animal, as
has been before supposed by many distinguished zoologists."
Steenstrup returned to the idea (loc. cit., p. 103) that the tape-
worms are compound animals, and subsequently, Van Beneden2
in his admirable monograph, has pointed out and illustrated with
excellent figures many striking and conclusive examples of the
truth of the same view. In
looking at Coulet's (1. c., figs.
2 — 16,) illustrations of the
separate joints (Proglottides]
of a Tcenia solium in their
various states of contraction
and expansion, (fig. 22,) it is
impossible not to admit the
conception that these animal
bodies are independent exist-
ences. The separate joints (that is, the Proglottides^ of the
other species of Tcenia are perfectly similar to these; and the
Proglottides described by Van Beneden in the cestoid genera
Echeneibothrium, Phyllobothrium, Ant hobo thrium, Acanthobothrium,
Onchobothrium, Calliobothrium, and Tetrarhynchus, (all charac-
terised by clearly marked articulations), closely resemble them.

Since we must henceforward regard these Cestoidea as com-
pound animals, we may compare the many-jointed tape-worm
with a polypidom, although we must not forget that there are
some points of difference between the two. In the compound
polypes, the individuals bud out in various directions and relative
positions from their parent stock, whereby the polypidom, accord-
Fig. 22. Single and separated sexually mature joints of T&nia solium (of the natural
size) with lateral sexual apertures, (*) and in different states of expansion and contrac-
tion (after Coulet). Each of these separate joints must be regarded as a sexual indi-
vidual of the Tcenia solium, and is the proglottis of this Cestoid worm.

1 ' Versuch einer naturgemasseu Eintheilung der Helminthen,' 1827, p. 21.

2 ' Les Vers Cestoides,' 1850. It is to he regretted that Van Beneden has confined his
investigations to the scolices and proglottides, and has not examined the development of
the embrvos.

44 THE TAPE-WOBM.

ing to its genus and species, receives a specific, ramified, folia-
ceous, or encrusting form, whilst in the compound tape-worms,
the individuals only grow out of the common stock in one
direction, and in a single series.

In the Cestoidea the stock is the posterior end of the scoliciform
agamozooid. In the alternation of generations amongst the
Cestoidea, there is this peculiarity, that the agamozooid preserves
its efficacy and independence, whilst the agamozooids of other
animals which undergo alternation either die after producing
their brood or pass into it.1

We must consider the head of every cestoid worm as the
agamozooid still remaining and capable of reproduction, and its
neck as the equivalent of the posterior extremity of the scolex.
In all cestoids we see that fresh joints are continually being
developed at the posterior part of the neck, which lengthens
and becomes covered with transverse folds. These folds are at
first very close together, but as the process of growth throws
them backwards, further and further from their place of origin,
they gradually change from indistinct wrinkles into sharp trans-
verse lines of demarcation, between which the substance of the
body dilates into a joint (individual), and assumes its specific
shape. At a later period, the rudiments of the hermaphrodite
sexual apparatus make their appearance in the interior of the
joints : and in proportion as the latter move backwards from their
parent stock (the neck), so much the nearer do they approach
to maturity, through progressive development of their sexual ap-
paratus ; and finally they separate themselves from their younger
fellows as independent individuals. I must not leave the fact
unmentioned that the formation of marked proglottidiform joints
does not take place in all Cestoidea. In the genera T&nia,
Tetrarhynchus and several others furnished with cephalic hooks
and suckers, the development and individualising of the pro-
glottides occurs in perfection. In the genus Bothriocephalus ,
although the joints exhibit a distinct demarcation, they show
little inclination to become separate. In Triaenophorus the
articulation is still less marked; whilst in Ligula it is obso-

1 The correctness of this statement appears to be doubtful. The stock of the
"Hydra tuba'1 remains after giving rise to a brood of Medusae, and neither dies nor
can be said to pass into the brood. The like is true of those Sertularida, Diphyda, and
PhysophoridcB which give rise to medusiform Zobids ; nor does it seem to be otherwise in
the remarkable Trematode Gyrodactylus described by Von Siebold himself. — [£D.]

OEIGIN OF THE PKOGLOTTIDES.

45

lescent, being only denoted by imperfect transverse folds on the
sides of the body. Here, in fact, many groups of hermaphrodite

Fig. 23.

sexual apparatus become developed close together, in the ribbon-
like body of the full-grown agamozooid, but the parts which
surround them do not break up into joints. In this respect
we may compare a Ligula, as a compound animal, with certain
polypidoms in which the individuals become, in a similar manner,
less distinctly separate from the parent stock.

For how long a time the head end of the cestoid worm can
play the part of an agamozooid, and how many sexual individuals
such a tape- worm can produce, has not yet been certainly proved.
The number of proglottides which a single scolex can bring forth,

Fig. 23. Represents, diagrammatically the metamorphosis of a Tetrarhynchus into a
Rhynchobothrium (after Van Beneden, see also supra, fig. 19). A. A Tetrarhynchus
scolex, whose posterior extremity is growing and elongating. B. The elongated hinder
extremity exhibits transverse wrinkles which indicate the boundaries of the future
joints, c. The posterior end of the same scolex appears clearly jointed, i. e. provided
with proglottides. The Tetrarhynchus has thus become a Rhynchobottirium. a. One of
the four sucking disks, b. Protruded part of the four proboscides provided with
recurved hooks, c. Middle portion of the four proboscidean tubes, e. Unarticulated
portion of the body, e* Transversely wrinkled portion of the body, e** Articulated
part of the body giving rise to proglottides.

46 THE TAPE-WOKM.

must, in many species, be enormous, since many hundred articu-
lations may still be counted, in cestoid worms which have, for
months, been giving off numerous joints every day. Whether a
cestoid worm, after giving off a series of sexless individuals as
joints, can, after a certain interval of rest, repeat this process,
would be a difficult fact to determine either in man or in animals,
since it is impossible to be sure if the renewed production of
joints springs from one and the same agamozooid, or whether it
may not be the product of a more lately immigrated one.

THE CYSTIC ENTOZOA. 47

CHAPTER III.

ON THE CYSTIC ENTOZOA.

ZOOLOGISTS have hitherto founded the genera and species of
Cestoidea on the characters presented by the head and by the
fully developed joints only ; and even these characters have been
but superficially and imperfectly employed, so that a close
revision of this order of Entozoa has long been necessary. This
task has been recently undertaken by Diesing and by Van
Beneden, but the labours of these two helminthologists have led
them to very different results. The great point in revising the
old genera and species of the Cestoidea is, to discover what forms
of proglottis belong to certain scolices which are commonly found
without proglottides (and which, therefore, have long been
regarded as distinct genera of Cestoidea}, and to unite these
together. Diesing has not attempted to do this, having appa-
rently no conception of the bearing of the alternation of gene-
rations upon the systematic arrangement of the lower animals.

On the other hand, Van Beneden, guided by the light of the
alternation theory, has justly recognised and given due promi-
nence to, the affinities of certain Cestoidea. To this end the
different kinds of scolex require to be more carefully defined
than they have hitherto been, and the use of the microscope
becomes indispensable. The forms of the apparatus of attachment
must be determined and compared with the utmost care, and
those hooks and protractile proboscides, armed with more or less
moveable booklets, which are attached to the head of the scolices,
are especially adapted, from their varying and well marked figure
and disposition, to afford good generic and specific characters.
If the form and arrangement of that apparatus of attachment of
the Taeniadan which is known as the circlet of hooks, of the
proboscis which carries it, and of the sac which conceals it, had
been carefully observed, the identity of many so-called species of
Taniadce would long since have been recognised, and the close

48 THE CYSTIC ENTOZOA.

relation of the Cystica with the Cestoidea would not have been a
recent discovery. It must not be forgotten, however, that in
very many Taniada, the scolices lose their circlet of hooks with
advancing age, and that in many Cestoidea, the suckers of the
scolices undergo great changes of form when the development
of proglottides commences ; in consequence of which it is often
very difficult to demonstrate the connection of the older and
younger individuals of one and the same species of cestoid.
The proglottides of the Cestoidea, again, considered as individuals
wholly separate from the parental organism, present distinct
specific characters, though they are not, perhaps, very obvious
at first sight. In these it is the sexual apparatus more par-
tictdarly which, forming as it does the principal mass of the
proglottis, presents excellent specific characters, in the form,
dimensions, number, and arrangement of its parts. Van Beneden
has the merit of having paid particular attention to these par-
ticulars in distinguishing the different species of proglottis.

As I have already hinted, the cystic worms, which were made
by Rudolphi into a distinct order of Entozoa, are so closely
allied to the Cestoidea that they have no claim whatever to be
regarded as an independent group. Since, in addition, various
kinds of scolices have been regarded as distinct genera of
Cestoidea, it is high time that zoologists should resolve to erase
from their systematic arrangements all these groups, which are
in reality, based only on our ignorance of the natural history of
the Entozoa. How great a number of these improper genera
have been introduced may be judged by the fact that out of the
order Entozoa cephalocotylea, alone, established by Diesing,1 and
containing thirty-two genera, ten genera must be eliminated,
namely, Echinococcus, Coenurus, Cysticercus, Piestocystis, Antho-
cephalus, Acanthorhynchus, Pterobothrium, Tetrabothriorhynchus,
Stenobothrium, Scolex. Many of the Entozoa arranged under
these genera are merely the scoliciform agamozooids of other
Cestoidea ; a fact which is demonstrated not merely by their
undeveloped and sexless body, but by their habitation, since they
are almost all found, not in the alimentary canal of a vertebrate
animal, but in its other viscera. Another portion of these genera
consists of the cystic worms, which are also nothing but the
scolices of certain Cestoidea, with this difference, however, that a
portion of their body is enlarged into a vesicle.

1 Diesing, ' Systeraa Helminthum,' i, p. 478.

THE CYSTIC ENTOZOA. 49

To prove that the cystic Entozoa are the sexless and va-
riously degenerated nurses of the Cestoidea, I must once again
return to the already mentioned (page 36) development of the
cestoid agamozooids. When the cestoid embryo has immigrated
and established itself in any organ of an animal, it begins to
develop a scolex by internal budding, which takes the form of a
Tcenia-hesid or of a Tetrarhynchus-he&di, &c., according to the
origin of the embryo. The embryo then increases and becomes
enlarged by the growth of the scolex, which it holds enclosed
within the distended walls of its body. These walls pass inter-
nally into the neck of the scolex, directly over the spot whence
the scolex sprung. On the external surface a funnel-shaped but
narrow depression is developed opposite the scolex, from which
a canal stretches through the neck of the scolex to its head.
This canal, after the full development of the scolex, permits its
evolution, by which means the hinder end of the scolex passes
immediately into the body of the embryo. The fully developed
scolex in the interior of the embryo appears as if it had drawn
itself inwards by a process of involution ; but observation teaches
us that the scolex is originally developed in this involuted con-
dition, instead of becoming retracted when it has attained its full
development. The material required for the development of
the scolex and of the embryo which invests it, is taken up by
the latter by absorption through its integument. This absorptive
power of the integument may vary in amount, and produce
different results, which are, of course, dependent upon the
quantity and quality of the fluids, and upon the special pecu-
liarities of the organs of the animal in which the embryo has
taken up its residence. Under particular circumstances it may
easily happen that an embryo should absorb, through the surface
of its integuments, more nutritive fluid than is necessary for the
growth and development of the scolex. The surplus nourish-
ment then gives rise to exuberance of growth and to degenera-
tion of the body of the embryo. The immediate consequence of
the accumulation of absorbed and unemployed nourishing juices
will be a vesicular enlargement of the embryonic body ; and the
cestoid embryo in this condition has received the name of a
cystic worm. The development of the scolices in such cystic
entozoa is sometimes more, sometimes less, advanced.

I have already shown that the cestoid embryos, after leaving
their eggs, must wander, in order to establish themselves in

4

50 HYDROPIC DEGENERATION.

fitting animals and become developed into agamozooids. If any-
thing is to come of these wanderings, however — that is to say, if
the cestoid embryos are to propagate, two main conditions must
be fulfilled. In the first placg, the localities chosen for lodge-
ment must afford suitable nourishment; in the second place,
the animal selected by the embryo as its home must afford an
opportunity to the scolex developed within it, to reach the
appointed intestinal canal of a vertebrate animal, either by active
or passive emigration, in order to accomplish its sexual development
and propagation. That the cestoid embryos should often go far
astray in their wanderings, whereby these conditions are left unful-
filled, is easily conceivable ; however, these strayed cestoid embryos
do not perish, but notwithstanding the degeneration which they un-
dergo retain sufficient tenacity of life to be capable of further
development and propagation. Objections have been raised by
some to the opinion I have just expressed, that strayed cestoid
agamozooids may undergo dropsical degeneration; audit is urged,
on the contrary, that the vesicles of these hydropic scolices are a
necessary organ, a sort of reservoir of nutriment. In answer to
this, I can only repeat what I have already said in another place,1
in vindication of my views, viz., that I cannot see why one should
deny the possibility of a degeneration in form among worms,
since it is observed in the higher animals, where the modifi-
cations produced by climatic influences and change of food are at
once admitted as " Races." If, in many of these races, an extra-
ordinarily luxuriant growth of hair shoots out over the whole
body, or on various parts of it ; if the horns of certain races of
ruminants have the property of lengthening, or even of doubling ;
if the ears of certain kinds of our domesticated animals become
disproportionately long and drooping; if, in some races, local
fatty degeneration takes place in the shape of a fatty tail or
hump, why should not an accumulation of serous fluid in certain
parts of the body, giving rise to a local dropsy, take place
amongst the lower orders of animals, when these are exposed to
the influences of an unusual mode of life ?

The processes of degeneration to which the cestoid embryos
are liable in their wanderings are of two different kinds ; either
the body of an embryo lengthens posteriorly into a solid caudal
appendage, or else it becomes distended into a watery vesicle by

1 ' Zeitschrift fur Wiss. Zoologie,' Bd. iv, 1853, p. 407.

THE CYSTIC ENTOZOA. 51

the accumulation of serous fluid. It may even happen that both
these forms of degeneration attack the same embryo. For the
better comprehension of these occurrences of excessive growth
and of degeneration in the course of the development of the
cestoid embryo, I will distinguish the part of the body of the
embryo which becomes distended by the formation of the scolex,
by the name of the receptaculum scolicis. Strictly speaking, this
receptacle is no other than the embryo itself (see page 37, fig. 19**).

Whilst the scolex is becoming developed within the receptacle
of a cestoid embryo, many and various changes of form may
be going on in the embryo itself, pari passu with the vesicular
change, and these have given occasion to the erection of the
various genera of cystic Enlozoa.

Those Tsenioid embryos whose receptacle has become dis-
tended to sometimes a larger, sometimes a smaller vesicle, have
been hitherto included in the cystic genus Cysticercus. If such
a Tceniu scolex extrudes itself from its vesicular receptacle, it is
obvious that the posterior part of the scolex passes immediately
into the vesicle, and the presence of such a caudal vesicle in the
scolex of a T&nia has been raised into the generic character of
the Cysticerci (figs. 24,25). Exposed to certain external in-
fluences, the receptacle of a Tcenia

scolex becomes distended into a very Fig. 24. Fig. 25.

large and spacious vesicle, from the
inner surface of which, a number of
Tcenia scolices develop by budding;
this form of cystic worm has been
elevated into a genus, Ccenurus. An-
other kind of Tsenioid embryo becomes
metamorphosed into a vesicle of larger

or smaller dimensions, from whose inner surface countless scolices
pullulate ; these, however, become detached, and lie freely within
the cavity of the closed parental vesicle. Upon this form the
genus Echinococcus has been founded.

Fig. 24. Cysticercus cellulosce from the human brain, of its natural size, and with
a retracted anterior extremity. Fig. 25. The same Cysticercus extruded, a. The caudal
vesicle of the Cysticercus, which is nothing hut the receptactdum scolicis (or hinder end
of a Tzenioid embryo), distended into a vesicle by the accumulation of water, b. The
retracted anterior end of the body of the Cysticercus contains the taenioid scolex deve-
loped by budding within the embryo, c. Thy transversely wrinkled anterior extremity
of the Cysticercus. d. Its head and neck, which conjointly form the Taenioid scolex.

CAUDAL APPENDAGES.

Fig. 26.

The changes of those cestoid embryos in which the receptacle
grows out behind into a long, solid, caudal appendage, are very
remarkable. The receptacle of the Tcenia scolex which Stein
observed in the meal-worms, de^velopes such an appendage (page
38). I must remark here, that Stein considers the scolex recep-
tacle as a cyst, and the caudal appendage as a part of it, which
is certainly not correct, for if the tail does not appertain to the
embryo, how could the six hooks have come to lie upon the
upper surface of the tail, where, according to Stein's express
assertion, he invariably saw them ?

The Piestocystis crispa, which attains a length
of from one to three inches, is nothing more than
a Tcetiia scolex evolved from its receptacle, with a
very long, ribbon-like, solid, caudal appendage.1 In
certain Tetrarhynclti the receptacle also becomes dis-
tended into a vesicle, and such forms of Tetrarhynchi
were united by the older helminthologists into the
genus Anthocephalus. From this genus Diesing
separated, under the names of Acanthorhynchus and
PteroboHdum, those Tetrarhynchus scolices, the pos-
terior end of whose receptacle is produced into a
very long, unjointed, caudal appendage. As in
.these degenerations, the form and size of the vesi-
cular dilatations of the receptacle, as well as the
shape and length of its caudal appendage, are often
dependent upon accidental external influences, the
dissimilarity which the parts present in different individuals of
one and the same species of scolex become readily intelligible.
For this reason, such diagnostic characters of genera and species
as are derived from the conformation of the vesicular enlarge-
ments and of the caudal appendages of the receptacle must be dis-
carded on account of their uncertainty. Only on the form of
the scolex (the so-called head of the sexually matured cestoids) is
it possible to base constant generic and specific characters. A

Fig. 26. A Tania scolex from the meal-worm retracted within its receptacle;
partly after Stein, a. Head of the scolex. b. Receptaculum scolicis. c. Caudal
appendage of this receptacle, on which lie scattered the six embryonic hooks.

1 This animal was formerly described by Rudolphi as Cysticercus crispus. I have
demonstrated, however, in the ' Zeitschrift fur Wissenchaftliche Zoologie,' (Bd. ii, 1850,
p 223), that this worm possesses no caudal vesicle.

THE CYSTIC ENTOZOA. 53

striking proof of this is offered by the Cyslicercus cellulosce, of
which the diagnosis invariably states, that it possesses a "vesica
caudalis, elliptica, transversa." This form of caudal vesicle is,

however, only found in such Cys-

Fig. 27. Fig. 28. ticerci as are imbedded in the mus-

-£ cles of men and pigs ; in individuals

/?r~~~ of the same species residing within

U SL=dHfc the human brain, the caudal vesicle

^^BI0I^^B^li^kv^^B

assumes the most various and irre-
gular forms (figs. 24, 27, 28). Even

in the Tcenia-scolex observed by Stein,1 the caudal appendage
of the receptacle assumed the greatest variety of shapes.

If attention had been earlier directed to these circumstances,
the cystic Entozoa would not have been made into a separate
order from the Cestoidea. The older naturalists and helmin-
thologists took a far more just and unprejudiced view of the
matter, when, from the similarity of the degenerated cystic
scolices with the heads of certain Cestoidea, they divined the
close connection of the two orders, and described the Cystica as
Tcenia vesicularis, Tcenia hydatigena, Tcenia cellulosce. Even the
dropsical condition of these cystic worms did not escape the eyes
of the older naturalists, since already, in 1691, Tyson2 described
the Cysticercus tenuicollis as Lumbricus hydropicus. •

But after Linnaeus had animated naturalists with his spirit of
arrangement, they worked with such good will and so exclusively,
at the perfection and completion of his system, that for a long
time it seemed to be thought enough if generic and specific
names were given to newly discovered animals, and their due
systematic place assigned. The inquiry into the natural history
of these animals hence became quite a secondary consideration,
and with such a one-sided study of animal forms, it could hardly
fail to happen that not merely varieties, but also young states,
larvae, and even fragments of animals already known, should be
described and systematically arranged as peculiar animals.3

Figs. 27, 28. Two Cysticcrci rendered quite irregular by constriction of their
vesicles ; from the human brain, natural size. b. The retracted anterior edge of the
scolex. In fig. 28 the constricted parts are produced into tubes.

1 See ' Zeitschrift fiir Wiss. Zoologie,' Bd. iv, 1853, p. 207, and pi. x, figs. 12 — 14.

2 ' Philosophical Transactions,' 1691, No. 193, p. 506, figs. 1 — 4.

3 Ehrenberg's and Diesing's systematic works on Infusoria and Entozoa, testify that
this faulty and one-sided method finds followers even now.

54 CYSTICERCUS FASCIOLAETS.

It is to the peculiarity in the form of the Cysticercus fascio-
laris that we owe the recent recognition of the connection
between the cystic and the cestoid worms. The similarity of the
head of this Cysticercus with tjjat of the Tcenia crassicollis is so
great and striking, that I can scarcely claim much merit for
having been the first to entertain the idea which I thus ex-
pressed i1 the Cysticercus fasciolaris is nothing more than a
strayed or degenerated Tcenia, which may, however, attain the
normal form of a tape-worm if transported to the intestinal
canal of a suitable animal. Both forms are so intimately related
to each other in form and organization, that I am not surprised
at Allen Thomson, of Glasgow, having recognised the agreement
of the Cysticercus fasciolaris with the Tcenia crassicollis without,
as it seems, being aware of my researches and publications upon
the subject.2 The mutual affinities and relations of these two
Entozoa are the more perceptible, because during the growth of
the Cysticercus fasciolaris the joints of the future tape-worm are
developed between the caudal vesicle and the head. These joints
certainly remain narrow, and develop no sexual apparatus, but
they give to the scolex, which in this stage of development
always has the head extruded, such a characteristic appearance,
that its identity with the Tcenia crassicollis can only be denied by
those who regard the caudal vesicle as the sole test of sys-
tematic position. If we examine the Cysticercus fasciolaris or
altered Tcenia crassicollis, more narrowly, we shall perceive in this
tape- worm the same peculiarity which occurs in the various other
cestoids, for instance, in Tricenophorus nodulosus, Tcenia longicollis
and ocellata, viz., that the body of the tape-worm grows from
the back part of the head and neck of the scolex, even before
this has reached the intestine of the vertebrate animal adapted to
its sexual development (see page 32). There is, however, an
additional departure from the ordinary course in the Tcenia cras-
sicollis, that during the development of its scolex its receptacle
undergoes a dropsical degeneration.

As the Cysticercus fasciolaris, which is found always encysted,
in the livers of various rodents — most commonly those of rats
and mice — is often met with several inches long, the caudal
vesicle terminating the elongated body of such individuals, which

1 Compare my article " Parasiten," 1. c., pp. 650, 676.
3 'Zeitschrift fiir Wiss. Zoologie/ Bd. iii, 1851, p. 97.

THE CYSTIC ENTOZOA. 55

never grows in the same proportion, is very minute, which seems
to render probable the notion that the caudal vesicle of these
cestoids has not originally been a scolex receptacle, but is rather
the hinder end of the tape-worm in a diseased and dropsical
state. Such dropsical enlargements are undoubtedly found occa-
sionally in single joints of the Cesloidca ; but if attention is paid
to the gradual development of the tsenioid Cysticercus fasciolaris
it will be seen that its caudal vesicle is at an early period a true
receptaculum scolicis. I have before me many examples of the
Cysticercus fasciolaris which present the most various stages of
development, the oldest being from five to seven inches long,
whilst the youngest were no more than from one to four lines.
Amongst the older individuals the long body is distinctly jointed;
in the younger the short body merely presents very close trans-
verse wrinkles as indications of the future joints. At all these
different ages, the caudal vesicle appears to have about the same
size, and indeed in the older individuals is even somewhat smaller.
The youngest individuals, of one and one and a half lines long,
have no body at all ; in these the head and neck of the scolex
only project, in the slightest degree, from the vesicular recep-
tacle, whilst these parts, in the smallest individuals, which possess
a perfectly rounded vesicle, are still, as I have most distinctly
convinced myself, concealed in the receptacle. If one were care-
fully to inspect the livers of many different species of murine
rodents, one would certainly come upon still younger forms of
development of the scolex of Tcenia crassicollis ; one might even
be so fortunate as to discover the embryo hooks on the external
surface of the receptacle of the developing scolex, although the
discovery of these six hooks of the cestoid embryo, on account of
their excessively small size, is a very difficult task. In the Cys-
ticercus pisiformis, which, always encysted, infests the livers of
hares and rabbits, I have succeeded in meeting with the scolex
receptacle, in a very early period of development, with a diameter
of half a line. The internal gemmation had just begun, the four
suckers of the future scolex were scarcely sketched out, and the
still soft apices of the circlet of hooks were only just in process
of formation (see fig. 33, d, e), but I sought in vain for the six
embryo-hooks on the external surface of the receptacle. In
pursuing these inquiries, however, a very interesting phenomenon
was presented by the livers of some wild rabbits of this neighbour-

56 CYSTICERCUS PISIFOBMIS.

hood. Besides containing many very small scolices of Cysti-
cercus pisiformis just developing, there were a number of short,
pale-yellow lines crossing each other in all directions, which, upon
microscopical inspection, did no| seem to be sharply defined, and
appeared to consist of a granular substance. I suspect that this
substance was the product of an exudative process, occasioned
by the creeping about of the immigrated Ttenia -embryos in the
substance of the liver • probably it would be gradually reabsorbed
when, in course of their development and metamorphosis, these
embryos had become converted into the dropsical receptacles of
Cysticercus pisiformis.

CHAPTER IV.

ON THE ORIGIN OF THE CESTOID AND CYSTIC ENTOZOA.

THE extraordinary likeness of the Cysticercus fasciolaris of
rats and mice with the Ttenia crassicollis of cats, and the fact
that the above rodents are the principal food of cats, and that,
moreover, the joints of the Cysticercus fasciolaris enclosed in the
cysts in the livers of rats and mice are never sexually developed,
inclined me to helieve that this sexless Cysticercus fasciolaris
would be changed into a sexually matured Tcenia crassicollis, as
soon as the animal it lodged in should be devoured by a cat.
For, under these circumstances, the liver of the devoured rodent
would be digested in the cat's stomach, and the cystic worm,
freed from its cyst, would be transplanted to a place where, after
casting off its caudal vesicle, it might, as a Tcenia crassicollis,
attain to sexual maturity in the intestine of the cat. Fully as I
was persuaded of the possibility of such a transformation of the
Cysticercus fasciolaris into Tania crassicollis, yet I could hardly
conceive that the other species of Cysticercus, in which no jointed
body was developed between the head and caudal vesicle of the
scolex, could become Taeniae ; and this appeared the more un-
likely, as I had often found cysts that had perished, in which the
Cysticerci they contained were dead, and lay shrunk and buried
amidst inorganic calcareous deposits. Such a calcareous de-
generation of the cysts1 must assuredly render the cestoid scolices
incapable of propagation -, still all do not meet with this fate, for
under favorable circumstances they can, even in spite of their
dropsical receptacle, subserve the multiplication of sexual cestoids ;
that is to say, when they are transported into the intestinal canal
of animals fitted for the development of Proglottides.

That the cystic Entozoa can thus become changed into sexual

1 I have mor3 particularly described this process in the 'Zeitscrift fiir Wissenschaft-
liche Zoologie,' Bd. ii, 1850, p. 225.

58 FEEDING EXPERIMENTS.

cestoids, has been proved by Kiichenmeister, of Zittau, by experi-
ments first made by him, and published in various medical and
natural history periodicals.1 It was a very happy thought of his
to institute experiments of feeding animals with Cysticerci. I
have repeated and extended these feeding experiments, and can
substantiate what Kiichenmeister was the first to make known,
viz., that certain cystic Entozoa become Taenice in the intestinal
canal of dogs.

The chief condition for the success of these experiments is, that
the cystic worms should be lively, or at least capable of being
revived when administered ; to which end they must be made use
of directly, or at the most a few hours after, the death of those
animals which yield them. As long as the organs of the mam-
mals in which these parasites abound remain warm, one may be
sure that the worms are still living ; with the cooling of the
infested organism, they become gradually languid, and at last
seem quite dead, but from this state they can be restored to
life, even after the lapse of several hours, by the application of
warmth. When I was not certain wrhether the cystic worms
I was using for my feeding experiments were still living or not,
I threw them into luke-warm water, and then only made use of
those individuals which had by this means been re- animated.

To produce tsenioid worms out of cystic worms, I caused the
latter to migrate passively into the intestinal canal of puppies by
feeding these with them. Puppies of about a week or two old
were most suitable. They lapped up the milk in which the
cystic worms were mixed very readily ; those which exhibited no
particular appetite at the moment had their jaws held open and
the milk poured down their throats, so that the swallowing of the
worms was secured. At first I made use of cats, rabbits, and
Guinea-pigs, also, for these experiments ; but they afforded me no
satisfactory results.2 But the dog, as I shall presently show, is
by his mode of life naturally obnoxious to those cystic worms
with which I experimented, and hence the experiments with
puppies necessarily succeeded.

1 The first notice is given in Giinsburg's ' Zeitschrift fur Klinische Vortriige,' 1851,
p. 240.

2 All the feeding experiments cited in the following pages were carried on in the year
1852.

ORIGIN OF CYSTICA AND CESTOIDEA. 59

1. EXPERIMENTS OF FEEDING WITH CYSTICERCUS PISIFORMIS.

The cystic entozoon, known by the name of Cysticercus
pisiformis, is a very common inhabitant of the liver and peritoneum
of hares and rabbits. Cysts as large as a hazel-nut are frequently
disseminated completely through the substance of the liver of
hares, and these cysts are not unfrequently found hanging down
like bunches of grapes from the external surface of the liver ; in
rabbits the great omentum and the mesentery are generally full
of these cysts. Commonly such a cyst only contains a single
Cysticercus pisiformis ; but two are also sometimes enclosed in a
common cyst. In Breslau, the rabbits which were sold in the
markets in the spring months of 1852 were almost invariably
infested by this Cysticercus, whence I made use of them at the
Physiological Institution in that place for my feeding experiments.
The results of these experiments were published in the inaugural
dissertation1 of my pupil, Dr. Lewald, who took a very active share
in them ; subsequently I gave some account of them myself in the
1 Zeitschift fur Wissenschaftliche Zoologie/ Bd. iv, 1853. The
number of Cysticerci which I administered at once in these experi-
ments was various, seven, twenty, forty, and sixty. In all cases,
the Cysticerci were left enclosed within their cysts, and in these
experiments, as in all subsequent ones, I wrote down in my
journal, the precise time of feeding, the number of the cystic
worms made use of, and the dogs fed with them, subjecting these
last, after feeding, to strict watching and careful attention.

Of experiments tried with Cysticercus pisiformis upon ten
dogs, the following are the results, which I repeat from the report
I made in rny essay in the Zeitschift cited above. When the
encysted Cysticerci are devoured, it is the cysts which are first
attacked by the gastric juice in the dog's stomach, and then the
caudal vesicle is consumed ; but not, however, the remaining part
of the Cysticercus, so that of the whole Cysticercus pisiformis
nothing more is left than the whitish round body which was
enclosed in the caudal vesicle, and which consists of the head and
neck of the animal involuted within its body, or, in other words,

1 This dissertation appeared at Berlin in 1852, under the title <De Cysticercorum in
Tsenias metamorphosi pascendi experiments in institute physiologico Vratislavensi
administrates illustrata.'

60 FEEDING WITH CYSTICERCUS PISIFORMIS.

is the scolex. Even before the caudal vesicle is digested, it fre-
quently shrinks and collapses, its thin contents being discharged,
probably by exosmosis, into the thicker fluid of the stomach.
Accompanying the latter, the remaining portions of the Cysticerci,
viz., the tailless bodies with their involuted neck and head, pass
into the duodenum through the pylorus. Having reached the
duodenum, the heads and necks of the Cysticerci are extruded,
in order that they may find places of attachment by means of
their suckers and hooks, between the villi of the intestine, where
they may await the growth and further development of the
other parts of their body.

During the first hours of their sojourn in the small intestine,
these outstretched tailless Cysticerci (scolices) often present a
bloated oedematous appearance ; but by degrees the body becomes
thinner, probably parting by exosmosis with its superabundance
of fluid, and in this manner establishing an equilibrium with
the more or less viscous chyle. In all these Cysticerci the
posterior end is clearly the place where, at an earlier period,
the caudal vesicle was attached, as is evinced by a sort of scar,
like a notch or incision, from which at first very delicate
flakes of membrane depend, the remains of the digested caudal
vesicle. Already, after a day or two, the worms begin to exhibit
a growth, in which only the body takes part, the neck and head
being already fully developed, whilst the worms were still within the
peritoneum of the rabbits. Whilst the bodies of the worms, as yet
unjointed, and only provided with very close transverse wrinkles,
increase in length, the transverse wrinkles also multiply ; and if
the growth of the body goes on uninterruptedly, the transverse
wrinkles, after a day or two, change by degrees into distinctly
marked articulations ; the joints, which are at first very short,
lengthen, and there appears either on the one lateral border or on
the other a kind of papillose elevation, which afterwards becomes the
aperture of the sexual organs. In this condition the ingested
worms have exactly the appearance of a Taenia, and only betray
their origin by that scar on the terminal joint of their body, of
which I have already spoken. After remaining twenty-five days
in the dog's intestine they have become Tcenia, of from ten to
twelve inches long. The growth of these Taenice goes on without
intermission, the posterior joints increasing in size, and the re-
productive organs in the interior developing more and more,
whilst at the hinder limit of the neck fresh joints are continually

OKIGIN OF CYST1CA AND CESTOIDEA. 61

produced from tlie transversely wrinkled anterior part of the body.
In three months these Tcenice attain the length of from twenty
to thirty inches and more.1 In such Tcenice the posterior joints
seem to have reached their full sexual development. In some of
these tape-worms the last joints become cast off, a proof of their
having attained their sexual maturity. The eggs contained in
the fully formed joints are perfectly developed, and contain an
embryo, furnished, in the usual manner, with six moveable hooks.

After having thus obtained sexually developed Tcenice, that is
to say scolices with sexually matured proglottides, from the
Cysticercus pisiformis, I was enabled to decide to which species
of tape-worm these scolices, as the head end, and the proglottides ,
as joints, belonged, and I recognised in them the Tcenia serrata,
which had long been known to infest the intestine of dogs. The
form of the head, the number, shape, and arrangement of the
hooks encircling the head, the construction of the joints, and of
the sexual organs within them, the form of the developed eggs,
all persuaded me that I had educed the Tcenia serrata out of the
Cysticercus pisiformis.

Perhaps .some of my readers may doubt the conclusion I drew
from the above-mentioned experiments, and may object — How
could T be sure that the dogs which I fed with the Cysticerci
might not have come by the tape-worms known as Tcenia strrata
in some other manner ? This objection occurred to myself, and
all the more strongly since in searching the intestinal canal
of dogs fed with Cysticercus pisiformis I often met with
thread-worms and tape- worms of another kind (Tcenia cucume-
rina), among individuals of Tcenia serrata. So that the question
naturally arose whether, in the same way as individuals of the
dog's thread- worm (Ascaris maryinata), and the ordinary dog's
tape-worm (Tcenia cucumerina], had found their way into the
intestine of the dogs experimented upon, so these individuals
of the other rarer tape- worm (Tcenia serrata) might not also have
arrived there without any assistance of mine. I can, however,
bring forward the following demonstrative evidence to substantiate
my assertion, that the individuals of Tcenia serrata which I dis-
covered in the course of these experiments were really produced
from Cysticercus pisiformis. I have repeatedly searched the

1 With regard to these different stages of development, see the figures in Lewald's
' Dissertation/ cited above.

62 FEEDING WITH CYSTICERCUS TENUICOLLIS.

intestines of puppies of the same litter as those I had used in
my other experiments, and have never found Tcenia serrata in
them ; but, on the other hand, I have very commonly met with
Ascaris marginata and Tcenia ci^cumerina. I must here remark
that I only made use of parlour and house dogs for my purpose,
and it is in these that both the above-named parasites ordinarily
appear, the Tcenia serrata more commonly infesting hunting dogs.
Still further confirmation of my view is afforded by the impor-
tant circumstance that after feeding the dogs with Cysticercus
pisiformis, the number of tape-worms of the species Tcenia
serrata, which were found more or less developed in their digestive
canal, agreed exactly with the number of Cysticerci I had given.
Another circumstance worthy of observation, and strongly con-
firmatory of my view, is, that the size and the condition of
development of the Tcenia serrata in the intestine of the dogs
that had been fed with Cysticerci, exactly corresponded with the
time that had elapsed since the period of feeding.

2. EXPERIMENTS OF FEEDING WITH CYSTICERCUS TENUICOLLIS.

The slender-necked Cysticercus is very commonly met with in
the viscera of our fat cattle ; as regards its caudal vesicle it is the
largest of all the Cysticerci, for this often attains to the size of a
fist, whilst its head never exceeds that of an ordinary Cysticercus
in circumference. As these Cysticerci were generally brought
to me enclosed in their cysts, and as the walls of the cysts were
penetrated by a great deal of fat, I always disengaged the tape-
worms from their investments before I fed the dogs with them.

First experiment. — In the beginning of May, 1852, I made my
first preliminary experiment of feeding with iheCysticercus tenuicollis
upon a young hound ten weeks old, to wrhom I gave six Cysticerci
within four days. A few days afterwards I found, in this dog's
intestine, only the head ends of the ingested worms. They were
from one to one and a quarter line in length, and consisted of
the head and solid neck of the former cystic worm, of which the
scolex had alone escaped digestion. In order to ensure the
greater success of my experiments, I each time cut off before-
hand the voluminous caudal vesicle of the selected tape-worms,
and only fed the dog with those which had the neck and head
involuted in the cylindrical and hollow body.

Second experiment. — On the llth May, a second young hound

ORIGIN OF CYSTICA AND CESTOIDEA. 63

was fed with twenty-one cystic worms. On the 12th May, he
had five, and on the 14th, three more, so that this dog altogether
swallowed twenty-nine Cysticerci without their caudal vesicles.
On examining the dog on the 17th May, seventeen scolices were
found in his small intestine, of which the smallest was from three
quarters to one line in length, and the largest two lines.

Third experiment. — A young poodle swallowed, ou the 18th
June, twelve Cysticerci, of which, on the 23d of June, eleven
were found as scolices, from one to two and a half lines in length,
in the small intestine of the dead animal.

It was then the body of the Cysticercus that had perished by
digestion, for the short thick body of these scolices was no other
than the neck of the Cysticercus. It showed no trace of trans-
verse wrinkles, and at its posterior end appeared to be cut off
transversely or obliquely, with a sort of hollow scar in the
middle, denoting the place where the hollow cylindrical body of
the Cysticercus had been detached in the dog's stomach.

In uninjured individuals of Cysticercus tenuicollis one can
easily recognise that portion of the body which, in the small
intestine of the dog, becomes the scolex, by putting the uninjured
worms into lukewarm water. The worms seem to like the
warmth, which corresponds with that of the mammals they infest,
moving about in the most lively manner, and stretching out their
tubular body (previously contracted into a short, transversely
wrinkled, milk-white knot), with the head seated at its extremity
on a short, slender, and solid neck, for a long distance. This thin
neck appears to be sharply separated from the body of the worm,
and easily permits the line of demarcation to be seen, where, at
a later period, the head and neck become detached as the scolex.1

Fourth experiment. — A young mongrel pug-dog received, at
various intervals, two- and-twenty cystic worms ; namely, on the
llth July, six; on the 14th July, fourteen; and on the 17th,
two. The examination of this dog when killed, on the 5th
August, proved that out of these two-and-twenty worms nineteen
individuals had passed as scolices out of the stomach into the
small intestine, and that their seventeen to three-and-twenty
days' sojourn had caused a remarkable growth in their abdominal

1 Amongst the various figures of the Cysticercus tenuicollis, that given by Pallas,
(see his 'Miscellanea Zoologica,' 1766, p. 167, Tab. xii, fig. 10; or * Stralsundisches
Magazin/ Bd. i, 1767, p. 69, Taf. ii, fig. 10), exhibits the head and neck marked off
from the body of the worm as the future scolex, very distinctly.

64 FEEDING WITH CYSTICERCUS TENUICOLLIS.

end which gave them the appearance of tape- worms. The length
of these tape- worms varied with the difference of age from four
lines to an inch and three quarters. The shortest individuals
evidently proceeded from thos£ scolices which had been only
seventeen days in the small intestine of the dog.

In the individuals of four lines long one could trace very close
transverse wrinkles gradually appearing behind the neck, always
more closely defined towards the posterior part, and denoting,
where they became wider apart, the future joints of this portion
of the body. The individuals of eight lines long, already
possessed a clearly jointed hinder end, the joints increasing
in number with the length of the individual. In all the indi-
viduals the scar I have mentioned was to be seen on the hinder
extremity of the body, or on its last joint. This last joint with
the scar, moreover, always appeared smaller and more slender
than the preceding ones, from which it follows that it is in that
part of the scolex which is situated between the posterior end
and the neck that the growth and articulation of the tape- worm
takes place. The sexual apparatus was not perceptible either in
the interior or on the exterior of the joints of these tape-worms
of from seventeen to twenty-three days old.

Fifth experiment. — On the 19th July, eight Cysticerci were
given to a sporting dog, and on the following day six-and-twenty,
to which were added four more on the 22d ; so that within four
days this dog had devoured altogether eight-and-thirty Cysticerci
tertuicolles. The small intestine of this dog, which was inspected
on the 20th August, afforded thirty-two Teenies in very different
stages of development. In regard to their length, a great differ-
ence already prevailed; in the smallest individuals the diameter
varied from four lines and a half to one inch and a half, whilst
the longest extended from five to ten and a half inches. The
consequence of this was that although from nine-and-twenty to
two-and- thirty days had elapsed since the Cysticerci had been
administered, their scolices had most unequally developed, some
of them being greatly behindhand in 'point of growth. I ob-
served the same thing in several other experiments. The reason
of this unequal development of the tape-worms may lie partly
in the different individuality of the Cysticerci, partly in that
of the dogs fed with them. In the longest individuals that I
obtained from this experiment the development of the joints was,
moreover,, most advanced; although these joints were always

ORIGIN OF CYSTICA AND CESTOIDEAy 65

wider than they were long, still the development of the sexual
apparatus, manifested externally by the presence of irregularly
alternating sexual apertures on one side or the other, had already
commenced within them. In a few of the most developed pos-
terior joints of one individual, I could perceive roundish hard-
shelled eggs, which contained the characteristic embryo with six
hooks, and in regard to shape, size, number, and arrangement
of the investments of the egg, exactly resembled the eggs of
the Tcsnia strrata. I must also remark, that in the larger indi-
viduals the developed joints were marked, on the upper surface,
with transverse wrinkles, which gave their lateral edges a wavy
appearance, and that the slightly prominent posterior edge of many
of these joints seemed to be faintly and irregularly puckered.
Some of the largest individuals had already cast off their hinder-
most joints ; in others, the last " scarred" joint was peculiarly
altered ; it was much enlarged, but had at the same time taken
quite an irregular shape, with blunt projecting angles at the sides ;
the sexual aperture at the side, and the small scar on the
posterior edge, alone betokening its true nature.

Sixth experiment. — A mongrel of poodle and spaniel, which
had devoured five Cysticerci on the 7th June, and twelve on the
29th June, was killed on the 25th July, that is eight-and-forty
days after the first meal, and six-and-twenty after the second.
Out of the seventeen Cysticerci administered, fifteen were again
discovered as sexually matured tape-worms; the smallest were
from four to nine inches long, the largest from fourteen to twenty-
six inches. In these last the posterior joints appeared already to
be longer than they were broad. In other individuals the less
elongated posterior joints had a squarish or transversely elongated
shape, and upon their exterior surface showed the above-mentioned
transverse wrinkles. The hindmost joints were cast off in
some of the larger individuals, whilst the rest still possessed
the original posterior joint, which was remarkably grown, not
being in the least degree inferior in size to the other posterior
joints, from which, however, it was essentially distinguished by
the small scar on its posterior rounded edge.

Seventh experiment. — From the 21st May to the 5th June, an
interval of sixteen days, thirty-one thin-necked Cysticerci were
administered to a young fox. On the 13th June he was killed
and examined ; but there was not a trace in his intestines of the
Cysticerci he had eaten, either in the shape of scolices or of tape-

5

66 FEEDING WITH CYSTICEECUS CELLULOSE.

worms, from which we may venture to conclude that the stomach
of the fox had perfectly digested the Cysticerci with which he
was fed.

I now took much pains to determine the species of these tape-
worms obtained from Cysticercus tenuicollis, and was astonished
to discover that they had all the characteristic features of
Ttenia serrata. The form of the eggs of the tape-worms obtained
from Cysticercus tenuicollis had first drawn my attention to the
Tcenia serrata, whose eggs, in form and in the number of their
investments, completely coincided with the eggs of the tape-worms
I had obtained. Comparing the head end of the latter with that
of the Taenia serrata, I could neither in the outline, nor in the
suckers, nor in the hooks of the double circlet, perceive any
difference between these Ttenice ; even the fully developed, as well
as the less developed joints of these tape- worms, with their trans-
verse wrinkles, reminding one of Ttenia serrata.

In respect to the negative result of the seventh experiment, I
must leave the question open, whether it is not possible that the
intestine of the fox is unfit to afford a favorable nidus for the
development of the scolex of the Cysticercus tenuicollis.

3. EXPERIMENTS OF FEEDING WITH CYSTICERCUS CELLULOSJE.

The Cysticercus cellulose occurs, as is well known, in such
numbers in the flesh of our domestic pigs, that from a single
muscle of one of these animals hundreds of these cystic worms
may sometimes be collected ; and even in the flesh and intestines
of man, its occurrence is not an unusual phenomenon. For the
last reason I was exceedingly anxious to try the result of feeding
with Cysticercus celluloses, in order that I might discover from
which kind of tape-worm these Cysticerci are produced.

First experiment. — A young dog was fed, on the 22d May, with
forty-four Cysticerci ; on the 24th May, fourteen more were given
him, and on the following day, five-and-thirty. Before the worms
were given, they were taken out of their cysts. The dog was
killed on the 3d July, which was thirty-nine days after the last
feeding, and forty-two days after the first. Only four tape- worms
of two inches in length were found in this dog's small intestine.
From their appearance, they were evidently the product of the
Cysticerci which the dog had swallowed.

Second experiment. — Having procured two Cysticerci from a

OKIGIN OF CYSTICA AND CESTOIDEA. 67

human brain, which, when put into luke-warm water thirty-six
hours after the death of the subject,, still moved, I would not, few
as they were, allow the opportunity to pass of making an experi-
ment of feeding with them ; nevertheless the young dog to whom
I administered them on the 22d May, and who was killed on the
14th June, that is twenty-three days after receiving them, showed
not the slightest trace of a tape-worm or scolex.

Third experiment. — On the 18th June, a young poodle
swallowed two-and-forty Cysticerci from the pig, deprived of their
cysts. The examination of this dog, on the 4th August, fifty-one
days after feeding, showed eight tape-worms of different lengths.
The smallest individual measured one inch and a quarter, a few
others measured five and a half to seventeen and a quarter inches,
a larger individual was twenty-five and a quarter inches long,
whilst the three largest individuals had attained the length of
fifty-one inches. Notwithstanding the length which the worms
had attained, and the great number of their joints, I could
discover no. perfectly developed eggs in any of the latter.

Fourth experiment. — To a young pug-dog two and thirty
Cysterci, without cysts, were administered on the llth July, and
five-and-forty on the 17th. On the 21st July the dog was killed.
On inspecting the small intestine forty-six scolices were found, of
which the shortest measured one line, the longest six. All bore
the characteristic scar on their posterior extremities. The smallest
individuals consisted of nothing else than the head and neck of
the Cysticercus celluloses. The remaining and somewhat longer
individuals had a transversely wrinkled body, which as yet bore
no traces of joints.

Fifth experiment. — On the 8th August, a young setter was fed
with five-and-forty Cysticerci, which were still in their cysts and
enclosed in flesh. On the 21st August, this dog was likewise
killed. In his small intestine only a few tape- worms in
course of development, of three fourths of an inch in length,
were found.

I must here remark that the dogs I made use of for the second,
fourth, and fifth experiments were troubled with the distemper, a
thing of common occurrence amongst young dogs, and that the
disease had probably had an injurious effect upon the development
of the tape-worms. Notwithstanding that these experiments of
feeding the dogs with Cysticercus cellulosae afforded no such com-
pletely favorable results as the foregoing series, they nevertheless

68 FEEDING WITH CYSTICEECUS CELLULOSYE.

went far enough to prove that the Cysticercus cellulosce may also, in
the intestine of the dog, hecome developed into a Tcenia.

The few Tcenice which were obtained from these Cysticerci
were, moreover, a source of great perplexity to me, for when I
attempted to define the species to which they belonged, I was
doubtful whether to consider them as appertaining to the Tcenia
serrata or to the Tcenia solium. The head and perfectly developed
joints accorded with either species, only the neck was longer and
more slender than that of Tcenia serrata, so that I was inclined
to regard them as Tcenia solium. Owing to the resemblance of
these tape-worms, Tcenia serrata and solium, to one another, I
was induced to submit the specimens of Tcenia solium in my
collection to a more searching examination, and to compare them
with the examples of the Tcenia serrata taken out of the dogs.
To my no small astonishment I found individuals amongst Tcenice
which had been taken from the human subject that were not to be
distinguished from Tcenia serrata. They had the short broad
joints with transversely wrinkled integument and undulating
posterior edge, just like Tcenia serrata ; the head, too, was formed
exactly like that of the latter, though the neck was more elon-
gated. Besides these, there were a few feeble individuals
amongst them, which fully corresponded with some of the tape-
worms produced from Cysticercus pisiformis ; and the eggs of the
Tcenia solium were not distinguishable from those of the Tcenia
serrata, so that I was forced to conclude that Tcenia solium and
Tcenia serrata were identical. In order to obtain a still clearer
insight into the matter, I further compared the heads with their
apparatus of hooks of Cysticercus pisiformis, longicollis, and
cellulosce with one another, and in these also I could find no
difference.

With regard to the length of the neck, and the circumference
and contour of the joints, though there are, as I have already
partly shown, discoverable differences, they are not sufficiently
marked to rank as distinctive characters of two species of tape-
worms, and I must therefore maintain that Tcenia solium and
Tcenia serrata belong to one and the same species ; that they are
the extreme forms of a single species, connected by a series of
transitional forms.

ORIGIN OF CYSTICA AND CESTOIDEA.

69

Fig. 29.

Fig. 30.

4. EXPERIMENTS ON FEEDING WITH CCENURUS CEREBRALIS.

In order to make as sure as possible with these experiments, I
took dogs, which I had selected for feeding, into the country
with me, to the very place
where there were sheep affected
by the staggers, and let them
swallow the cystic worms
fresh from the sheep affected
with the disease, that had just
been killed. If the parental
vesicle were small, and only
covered by a few clusters of

scolices, they were left in connection with it ; but if the parental
vesicle had attained a considerable size, it was divided and given
in portions to several dogs. (Fig. 29.)

Fig. 31.

Fig. 32.

Fig, 33.

Fig. 29. A portion of the parental vesicle with an attached colony of involuted scolices
of Coenurus cerelralis from the brain of a calf, seen from the external surface, of the
natural size. Each of the separate rounded corpuscles corresponds with a scolex
developing or developed by internal budding : a, a complete involuted scolex ; 6, a still
imperfect involuted scolex ; c, many scolices commencing their development.

Fig. 30. A bit of the parental vesicle with a colony of everted scolices of Coenurus
cerelralis from the brain of a calf, seen from the external surface, and of the natural size.

Fig. 31. An everted scolex detached from its parental vesicle (fig. 30), and mag-
nified to the same extent as the succeeding figures, a. The protruded double circlet of
hooks on the cephalic extremity. 6. One of the four cephalic suckers, c. Fragment of
the detached parental vesicle.

Fig. 32. The head of a similar scolex seen from above ; the double circlet of hooks
surrounded by the four suckers is seen in the middle.

Fig. 33. Various hooks from the double circlet of the scolices of Coenurus cerelralis.
a. A long hook of the inferior circlet seen from below. 5. The same from the side.
c. A short hook of the lower circlet also viewed laterally, d, e. Two not yet fully
developed and soft hooks from the young buds, fig. 29 c.

70

FEEDING WITH CCENURUS CEREBRALIS.

First experiment. — On the 29th of May, a young dog was made
to swallow a cyst with nearly a hundred scolices. He was killed
on the 3d of June, that is, five days afterwards, and sixty-five
free and everted scolices were found in the small intestines.
Their length was from half a line to one and three quarters ;
they showed no trace of joints or transverse folds, and each
exhibited on the posterior end of the body a small kind of
cicatrix-like indentation, which plainly denoted the spot where the
scolex had separated from the parental vesicle. (Fig. 34, A, B.)
Second experiment. — On the 6th of June, a young dog
swallowed a large Ccenurus- vesicle, which was covered with

several clusters of scolices. When,
on the 26th July, the dog's small
intestine was examined, it afforded
an enormous number of tape-
worms ; I counted six hundred and
forty individuals in the most vari-
ous stages of development and
growth. The longest, with its
many joints, measured twenty- three
inches ; the shortest, having a length
of two lines, were still un jointed,
and yet perfectly resembled scolices.
In all, the scar on the last joint,
or on the unjointed posterior end
of the body was not to be mistaken.
(Fig. 34 and 35*.)

Third experiment. — On the 28th July a young terrier was
fed with part of a large Ccenurus, and was killed on the 5th
August, after a lapse of thirty- eight days. In his intestine
there were seventy-one tape-worms variously developed. Three
of the least developed individuals were from one and a half to
two lines long, and appeared to resemble a scolex most com-
pletely, their smooth posterior end being devoid of joints;

Fig. 34. Different tseniae developed in the intestine of the dog, from the scolices of
Ccenurus cerebralis. A. A scolex one inch and three quarters long, with smooth and
protruded body, viewed from the edge. B. The same scolex seen from the surface.

C. A scolex three lines long; the articulation is beginning at the lower extremity.

D. A still longer and more developed scolex, at whose binder extremity the formation of
proglottides has taken place to a great extent. * Scar, or place by which these tcenice
were fixed as scolices to the parental vesicle.

OEIGIN OF CYSTICA AND CESTOIDEA.

71

seven others were from four to six lines long, and showed a
commencing articulation. A few worms of six lines in length
appeared already distinctly jointed. Amongst the remaining
specimens that had become fully developed into T&niae, several
had attained the length of from sixteen to twenty-six inches.
(Fig. 35). In the longest individuals the development of the

Fig. 35.

eggs was completed, in several shorter ones the characteristic
scar on the last joint was wanting, and from the posterior edge
of the last transversely truncated joint one could plainly per-
ceive that these Taenice had already cast off matured joints (pro-
glottides), and indeed it so happened that the dog had passed
tape- worm joints with his fseces several days before his death.
Fourth experiment. — On the same day with the last mentioned

Fig. 35. A T&nia serrata, produced from a scolex of Ccenurus cerebralis in a dog's
intestine, in thirty-eight days ; natural size. The hindermost joints are fully formed
proglottides. At the posterior extremity of the last joint the scar (*) clearly indicates
that no proglottis has yet detached itself from this tape-worm.

72 FEEDING WITH CCENUBUS CEEEBRALIS.

dog, a young hound devoured a similar allowance of Coenurus.
He was killed on the 6th August, a day later than the other one.
On searching his small intestines eighty-six worms were dis-
covered, of which the majority Jiad grown into jointed Teenies of
three to ten inches in length, whilst several individuals of from
four to five lines long only showed faint signs of the transverse
wrinkling, and a few of from one to two lines long were still in
the scolex condition without any folds.

Fifth experiment. — Another young hound was, in the same
manner, fed, on the 28th July, with the same number of Ccenuri.
There might have been about a hundred scolices attached to the
coat of the parental vesicle. On the 10th August, the dog was
killed after having passed tape-worms an ell long for several days
previous to his death. On dissecting the dog no trace of tape-
worms could be found.

Sixth experiment. — On the 1st August, a young setter swal-
lowed a piece of Coenurus with about a hundred scolices on it.
The dog was opened on the 23d August, and showed seventy-
three worms, of which only a few individuals of one to two lines
long, resembled everted scolices, whilst the remaining ones of
one to four inches long had already all the distinguishing cha-
racters of Tanice. The characteristic scar was not to be seen in
any, whether with or without joints.

Seventh experiment. — On the 1st August, at the same time
with the subjects of the foregoing experiments, a similar portion
of Coenurus was given to a mongrel- dog, (a cross between the
setter and wolf-dog) . This dog subsequently suffered from the dis-
temper for a considerable time, and was killed on the 25th August.
His intestines contained many full-grown thread-worms, (Ascaris
marginata), and a few scolices of Taenia cucumerina, but no trace
of worms that should have resulted from the feeding with Coenurus
cerebralis. The distemper had probably occasioned the failure of
this experiment.

For the rest, the determination of the Tania which I had
obtained from these experiments of feeding with Coenurus cerebralis
was not difficult, the characters of the Tosnia serrata being, in all
of them, clearly and sharply marked.

It must have been remarked that in the third and fourth
experiments (in which the scolices were retained in the dogs'
intestines an exactly similar period of time), the Tceniae in the
one dog were twenty-two inches long, whilst those in the other

OEIGIN OF CYSTICA AND CESTOIBEA. 73

dog were only ten inches. This unequal development of the
T<enice within the same period of time is probably to be ac-
counted for by some special peculiarities of the circumstances
into which, in these cases, the scolices of the Ccenurus cerebralis
had been conveyed.

There is yet another remarkable phenomenon which was
brought to light by the experiments on feeding with Ccenurus
cerebralis. It is that in each separate case, worms, of a very
dissimilar stage of growth were produced, although every indi-
vidual dog had been fed only once with scolices of Ccenurus
cerebralis. This diversity in the growth of the scolices conveyed
at the same period of time into the same intestine, may, perhaps,
originate in the various stages of development of the scolices
at the time of their introduction. It is known that the parental
vesicles of the Ccenurus go on growing without intermission,
and that fresh scolices are, by the process of budding, continually
springing forth on their inner surface. Through these peculiar
conditions of the Ccenurus cerebralis, older scolices long since
perfected, and only awaiting the opportunity of further develop-
ment, were conveyed into the dogs' stomachs, together with
younger ones, some of them only just formed, some, again, not yet
fully developed. From this point the older scolices proceeded
rapidly to their further development, and to the generation of
proylottides, whilst the younger scolices grew more slowly, and
the youngest forms, whose gemmation was not yet quite com-
pleted, were, probably, incompetent to pass from the stomach
into the small intestines of the dog, but yielded to the digestive
powers of the former.

EXPERTMENTS ON FEEDING WITH EcHINOCOCCUS VETERINORUM.

The Echinococcus veterinorum, which is of such common
occurrence in the liver and lungs of our domestic cattle, does
not, probably, differ specifically from the Echinococcus hominis,
whose parent vesicle often attains such an enormous size in
the most widely different viscera of man, and by its growth
so obliterates the substance of the organs round about it, as
to bring about the death of its host. The experiments of feeding
with these worms which I made on twelve young dogs and a
young fox, I have already fully described.1 For each experiment

1 See the < Zeitschrift fur Wiss. Zoologie,' Bd. iv, 1853, p. 409, Taf. xvi, A, fig. 1—9.

74 FEEDING WITH ECHINOCOCCUS VETERINOBUM.

the contents of a fruitful Echino coccus -vesicle were employed.
That is to say, free scolices developed by gemmation were taken
out of the Echinococcus-vesicle, mixed with luke-warm milk,
and poured down the dogs' throats; the latter, after having
in this manner been made to swallow a considerable quantity
of the young of the Echinococcus, had some pure luke-warm milk
given to them, which they licked up with avidity, so that
these continued acts of deglutition made sure of the small Echi-
nococcus-larvtt or scolices being washed into the dogs' stomachs.

The examination of these dogs after death proved, that the
scolices of the Echinococcus veterinorum, when conveyed into
the dog's digestive canal, do not perish, but, under certain
favorable circumstances, develop into proper sexually matured
tape- worms, possessing only a couple of joints. After the
feeding, they passed without obstruction from the stomach into
the small intestine of the dogs, where, in proportion to the
number of scolices administered, they were found in immense
numbers fully extruded from their receptacle, whilst, when in
the interior of the parent vesicle, they are almost always to be
found retracted within it. After remaining from fifteen to
twenty days in the dogs' intestinal canal, these scolices, which
when administered were without joints, exhibited a two-jointed
body. After twenty-two days, the body was divided into three
joints, and from this time forward these little tape- worms ceased
to increase in length, or to become further divided, whilst
the sexual organs began to appear in the two posterior of the
three articulations. The development of the eggs in the sexual
organs of these little worms was to be seen twenty-six days
after the feeding, and the embryo appeared on the twenty- seventh
day.

With the maturity of their sexual organs, and the division
of their body into three joints (and hence with the pro-
duction of only two Proglottides) , I concluded these worms
had attained their perfect state) from the circumstance that
amongst the three-jointed little tape- worms in the dogs' small
intestine, I discovered several individuals which had already,
twenty-seven days after the feeding, thrown off the circlet of
hooks. The loss of this apparatus amongst Taeniae furnished
with it, is a proof of mature age. When I endeavoured to
determine the systematic position of the tape- worms which
had been developed from the scolices of the Echinococcus vete-

OEIGIN OF CYSTICA AND CESTOIDEA. f- 75

rinorum and which did not exceed one, or one and a half lines in
length, there was not a single species of Taenice among the many
admitted by helminthologists, with which they agreed. I was
soon convinced that this small species of tape- worm had been
hitherto overlooked by helminthologists ; for it cannot but be
admitted that this transformation of the young of the Echino-
coccus into sexually-matured Tcenice may take place independently
of artificial feeding. In our slaughter-houses, similar scolices
must certainly often find an opportunity of entering into the
intestinal canal of dogs, the Echinococcus-vesicle, cut out of
the viscera of the slaughtered animals and thrown away, being
no doubt frequently devoured by the former. It was such a
brood of Tania developed from the young of the Echinococcus that
Rudolphi probably saw, when he believed that he had discovered
in the intestine of a dog, young tape- worms, which were assumed
to have been developed by equivocal generation from the villi of
the mucous membrane.1 The little three- jointed tape-worms
which Roll twice found in dogs, and which were not long ago
described by him as young individuals of Tania serrata, must
also of a certainty have owed their origin to scolices of the
Echinococcus veterinorum?

The specific form of the hooks of the circlet of the scolices of
the Echinococcus veterinorum, as well as the very small number
of Proylottides generated by them, justify me in considering the
T(Bni(B developed from these scolices as a distinct species, which I
have denominated Taenia echinococcus. (See the ' Zeitschrift
fur Wiss. Zool./ B. IV, 1853, p. 423).

If we sum up the results of these experiments on feeding
with Echinococcus veterinorum, they may be shortly stated as
follows :

1. Sexually-developed Tanice have been produced out of all
those kinds of scolices known as cystic worms which have been
employed for feeding experiments.

2. From the scolices of the Cysticercus pisiformis} tenuicollis,
celluloses, and Ccenurus cerebralis, T&nice of an ell long have
been produced, which perfectly agree with both the Tcenia
serrata, and with the Taenia solium.

1 See his ' Entozoorum sive vermium intestinalium historia naturalis,' vol. i, 1808,
p. 411.

2 See Roll's ' Beitrag zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Taenien,' in theVerhandlungen
der Physikal. Medizinischen Gesellschaft in Wiirzburg,' Bd. Hi, 1852, p. 55.

76 SPECIES OF CYSTICA AND CESTOIDEA.

3. The scolices of the Echinococcus veterinorum developed
themselves into very small tape-worms, of from one, to one and a
half, lines long, which have been shown to be a distinct species,
and named Taenia echinococcus. .

It may seem questionable to many helminthologists and
zoologists, that four different kinds of cystic worms, which have
hitherto been looked upon as so many distinct species, should
only produce one and the same species of Taenits. But I
would ask, are the cystic worms which have been termed Cysti-
cercus pistformis, tenidcollis, celluloses, and Ccenurus cerebralis,
really distinct kinds ? After the present inquiries, this question
must be negatived. All these cystic worms are only the
degenerated embryos and scolices of a single species of Tania.
If they who have always regarded these cystic worms as belong-
ing to different species will make the experiment for themselves
of detaching the several heads of the four above-named cysticerci,
and mixing them together, they will find it utterly impossible to
make out any specific difference between them. Further than
this, I not only question if the T&nia serrata from the intes-
tine of the dog, and the Taenia solium from the human intes-
tine are distinct and sharply defined species, (see p. 68), but I
also doubt the specific distinctness of the T&nia marginal a from
the intestine of the wolf, of the T&nia crassiceps from that of the
fox, and of the Ttenia intermedia from the intestine of martens
and polecats. All these five T<eni<e certainly belong to but a
single species of tape- worm, and only present varieties of race
dependent on the influence of the varying circumstances to which
the young Taenice are exposed in the course of their further deve-
lopment, according as they have entered the digestive canal of a
man, a dog, a wolf, or any musteline carnivore. If we consider
the diagnoses of these five kinds of Taenice given by helmintho-
logists, we shall be convinced that there is not a single specific
mark of distinction to be found between them, and that the form
and arrangement of the circlet of hooks of these tapeworms are
entirely disregarded. If the heads of the five above-mentioned,
so-called species of tapeworm, with their circlet of hooks were
submitted to the inspection of the most experienced helmintho-
logist, without betraying their origin to him, I feel persuaded that
he would be perplexed in distinguishing those five species of Ttenice,
which only differ according to their various habitations. In the
genera Ligula, Schistocephalus, Tetrarhynchus, and Echinorhynchus,

DISEASES PRODUCED BY CYSTICA. 77

helminthologists have long ago observed that certain species
inhabit and attain sexual maturity in the most different kinds of
birds and fishes. The conditions of life of the five races of
degenerated Teenies serratai (with their various oedematous forms of
scolex, which are also to be considered as varieties of race), were
certainly originally more simply and sharply defined, and must
have gradually become impressed with their present complex and
indefinite character from the domestication of the animals they
infest.

At the same time, the results of these feeding experiments,
which I have just cited, contradict the belief that the cysts of
these worms have a physiological,1 and not a pathological signifi-
cation, for all the Cystica mentioned are produced from a single
species of tape-worm, namely, the Taenia serrata, and it only
depends upon the nature of the spot to which these embryos
have been transplanted after having completed their immigration,
whether they degenerate into Coenurus cerebralis, or Cystictrcus
pisiformis, or tenuicollis, &c. When subject to the same external
influences, these degenerations will always present the same form ;
whence it seems justifiable to compare these continually recurring
and sharply-marked modes of degeneration of certain intestinal
worms with the phenomena of race.

5. ON THE DISEASES PRODUCED BY CYSTIC WORMS, AND THEIR

PREVENTION.

After having pointed out, in the introduction, that all the
intestinal worms reach the interior of their hosts by immigration,
and after having shown by the feeding-experiments, that certain
cystic worms are transformed in the digestive canal of dogs into
a particular kind of tape-worm, I may be allowed to draw the
conclusion that, reversing the circumstances, the young of these
tape- worms may, by the help of the alternation of generations
which I have already described, be developed into cystic worms,
the species of the animals and also the nature of the organs, into
which the immigration takes place, exercising a specific influence

1 Kuchenmeister has taken much pains of late to defend this view, in opposition to
mine, and has been led away by his zeal, to depart from that calmness of tone which
becomes scientific controversy.

78 THE STAGGERS.

on the development and form of the cystic worms, and giving
rise to many kinds of distinct degenerations (races) .

By keeping in view these highly interesting vital conditions of
certain intestinal parasites, we^ shall be enabled to take more
efficient means against the spread of cestoid and cystic worms, in
those cases in which their presence is prejudicial to the animals
they inhabit, than could be the case so long as no one was
aware in what way these parasites, whose entrance it was so
desirable to prevent, made their way into the creatures they
infested.

What purposeless and useless remedies have been proposed for
this same worm-disease, we gather, amongst other things, from
the numerous treatises which the disease of the " staggers" in sheep
has called forth. On account of not having a correct acquaint-
ance with the natural history of the Cystica, there necessarily
arose the most contradictory and unreasonable opinions, and
upon these a series of prophylactic and curative measures have
been founded, which, resulting in no success, have been one after
another discarded again. Amidst such irrational proceedings, we
cannot blame the sheep owners if they entirely gave up using
means for the eradication or prevention of the staggers, and
unwillingly submitted to a loss that, amongst rich flocks, was
by no means to be lightly estimated, amounting in many sheep-
farms to more than ten per cent.

Were I to bring forward all the various causes to which the
origin of the Coenurus has been referred, I should far exceed the
limits that I have assigned myself in these pages. That the
doctrine of equivocal generation played a conspicuous part therein
will surprise no one, since there yet exist veterinary surgeons
who adhere to that doctrine in all points.

The only mode of insuring the destruction and removal of the
worm, and hence the only effectual cure for the disease of the
staggers, is trepanning. Unfortunately this process is not appli-
cable in all cases — since it depends upon the situation of the
worm, whether it can or cannot be reached by trepanning. The
operation is of course admissible only when the Coenurus cere-
bralis is imbedded in the anterior and upper portion of the
ruminant's brain, whilst if, on the other hand, it be deeply
seated in the base of the brain, or in the spinal marrow, it cannot
be reached by trepanning. For this reason the testimonies as to

DISEASES PKODUCED BY CYSTICA. 79

the result of this operation vary so widely. Operators who have
accidentally fallen in with cases where the Ccenuri were super-
ficially situated, have been successful, and so have gained credit,
whilst other cases have completely baffled them. Not only the
deep-seated position of the Ccenurus cerebralis occasions the
ill success of the operation, but even postponing it so long
that their size is already so great as to have produced much dis-
turbance in the efficiency of the brain, may render the removal
of the worms useless. Further, trepanning may also have come
into discredit as an inefficient means of cure for the staggers,
from having been applied on the appearance of dizziness which
had been produced by other causes than the existence of a
Ccenurus cerebralis.

Here I cannot refrain from remarking, that in the south of
Germany, namely, in the Suabian part of the kingdom of
Bavaria, the Ccenurus cerebralis not unfrequently appears in
oxen; whilst in the north of Germany this disease is scarcely
known in cattle. The common occurrence of the staggers
amongst these domestic animals is probably the reason why
trepanning has been recently tried as a cure for calves affected
with the staggers. I have to thank Dr. Gierer, the provincial
veterinary surgeon at Tiirkheim, who has performed the ope-
ration with success on several oxen, for his very interesting
communications on this subject, amongst which the following
points appear particularly worthy of notice.

M. Gierer is persuaded that the disease of the staggers amongst
oxen is by no means of very unfrequent occurrence, but as
hitherto no certain means of cure has been found for this evil,
all the calves affected with the disease have been sold betimes to
the butchers. Even M. Gierer, before he succeeded in curing by
the trepan, had heard remarkably little in his own circle of the
appearance of this disease amongst oxen; now, however, after
having thoroughly cured eight and twenty oxen out of thirty
which he trepanned, he is able to form some idea of the frequency
of the complaint amongst the animals, being consulted oftener
than ever about the cure of this disease.

I have compared several examples of Ccenurus cerebralis which
Gierer obtained by trepanning from young oxen, mostly of from
about two to three years old, with the Coenurus cerebralis of
sheep, and have found no specific difference between the two ; so
that I conclude that the Ccenurus of the ox also originates in the

80 TREPANNINO FOE CCENUEUS.

T&nia serrata. Beyond this, the cysts of these Ccenuri were of
extraordinary dimensions, since they would have exceeded the
size of hens' eggs if, when in a fresh condition, they had been
filled with water. They, moreover, contained a remarkable
number of scolex gemmae, which covered the interior surface of
the cyst in masses thickly pressed together. Very many of the
already developed scolices were everted, so as to project con-
siderably on the exterior surface of the parent cyst, a pheno-
menon which I have seldom observed in those of sheep.

Although the fact has been proved, that the disease of the
staggers, arising from the presence of Ccenurus cerebralis, can
be cured by trepanning, still sheep-owners must not always
reckon upon the absolute success of the operation, since, as has
been already stated, the result must depend upon the situation
of the parasite ; and as it is impossible to know if two, or even
several cysts, may not have established themselves at the same
time in the nervous centres of the affected animal, of which one
alone could be removed by trepanning, and that the cyst which
lay nearest to the surface. Furthermore, even though the
animals can be cured by the removal of these parasites, the
question arises, if such animals, the vital powers of whose brain
have been disturbed by the presence of this cyst, can be said to
be cured in the full meaning of the word? Do the diseased
changes which a considerable- sized Ccenurus-cjst engenders,
through displacement, pressure, and wasting away of the sub-
stance of the brain, become so entirely removed after the extrac-
tion of the worm, that the vital powers of the brain can be again
restored in their full integrity ? Will there not still remain
traces of changes engendered by the disease in such a brain,
which although causing no striking interruption of the animaPs
nervous energies, may yet more or less affect its strength, dura-
tion of life, and fruitfulness, and render it inferior to a thoroughly
healthy individual of the same race.

From what has been stated, it follows that the cure of the
staggers, when it has once broken out, is always a difficult, and
very often an impossible task ; hence it would be much more
worth while to take precautions for preventing it. The only
rational prophylactic treatment must consist in employing such
means as may prevent the immigration of the young of that tape-
worm from which the Coenuri are developed. As, according to my
experiments, the Ccenurus cerebralis changes, in the digestive canal

DISEASES PBODUCED BY CYSTICA. 81

of dogs, into the Tcenia serrata, I venture to assume that the
young of this tape-worm, after its immigration into ruminants,
becomes developed in their nervous centres into the Coenurus
cerebraliSj which, according to the situation it occupies, produces
either vertigo by pressure upon the brain, or the phenomena
characteristic of pressure upon the spinal marrow.

The only prophylactic measure against the morbid conditions
induced by the Coenurus cerebralis must therefore be — to guard
against the immigration of the young of the Tcenia serrata.

It will possibly be objected that, even if the generation of
the Tcenia serrata out of the scolices of the Ccenurus cerebralis
had been proved, the production of the Coenurus cerebralis from
the young of the Tcenia serrata must first be demonstrated,
in order that, from the facts before us, we may have the right
to consider immigrated young Teenies as the cause of the
staggers proceeding from Coenurus cerebralis. The lawrs of pro-
pagation of these animals long since suggested the view I have
just put forth, but recently I have been put in possession of facts
which directly support it. Dr. Haubner, professor at the vete-
rinary school in Dresden, has in fact had the goodness to com-
municate to me that in that establishment, on the 7th of January
of this year, several lambs were fed with perfect joints of the
tape-worm of dogs, containing ova, and that on the 20th of
January the first appearances of the staggers manifested them-
selves at the same time in all, whilst the remaining animals of
the flock to which those lambs belonged continued healthy. The
diseased lambs were killed and examined in succession at intervals
of eight days, by which proceeding Professor Haubner obtained
the following results : *

"At the commencement of the disease various symptoms
of irritation and inflammation of the brain appeared, which
perfectly accorded with those which Dr. Haubner had already
become fully acquainted with in cases of the so-called spontaneous
development of this disease. In this stage the sheep might
either die, or else the irritation of the brain might pass away,
and the Coenurus-cysts proceed to further development. Upon
dissection after three or four days, reckoning from the first
appearance of the disease, Dr. Haubner found many cysts in the

1 A short communication upon this subject has just been made by Professor Haubner
to ' Hamms Agronomische Zeitung,' 1856, No. 10, p. 157.

6

82 PROPHYLACTIC MEASUEES.

brain, about the size of a pin's head. They lay partly free on
the vessels in the convolutions of the brain, partly imbedded in
superficial canals formed of exuded matter, the substance of the
brain representing the bottom, ^nd the exuded matter the cover-
ing of the canals. The whole animal (heart, lungs, muscles,
&c.) was at the same time permeated by the encysted young of
the tape- worm. Later dissections showed fewer but larger cysts
in the brain. Mr. Haubner conjectures, and rightly so, that
the rest were abortive and died away. After fourteen days,
always reckoning from the first morbid symptoms, the same
observer discovered several dark spots in a few of the cysts,
which were probably the projected heads. After four weeks all
the cysts had separate heads with distinct suckers ; and, as it
appeared, with the circlet of hooks in course of development/'

After having thus proved by facts that the immigrated young
of the Taenia serrata in ruminants can develope into Ccenurus
cerebralis^- I feel justified in advising, as the most important
preservative against the Coenurus, that the immigration of the
young of the Taenia serrata into ruminants should be prevented.
The utility of this advice will certainly be admitted by every one
who has made himself acquainted with the history of the intestinal
worms in the foregoing pages of this pamphlet; but beyond
this, persons will be also desirous of knowing how it can be
practically carried out. When I consider the many hidden paths
by which most of the intestinal worms make their way during
their existence, I must confess once more that it will be a most
difficult task for those engaged in the breeding of cattle to
prevent the excessively small young of the tape-worm from pass-
ing into their oxen and sheep.

It may be safely assumed that the young of the tape-worm
pass with the food into the digestive passages of the ruminants
whilst they are eating and drinking. How easily the fresh as
well as the dry fodder of ruminants may become contaminated
with the ordure of dogs containing eggs of the Ttenia serrata ;
especially when we remember that these eggs possess great
tenacity of life, and are able to withstand for a considerable time
external injurious influences, such as cold, heat, drought, &c.

' Through the kind communication, by letter, of Professor Leuckart, of Giessen, I
have just heard that he has succeeded in generating the Cysticercus fasciolaris in the
livers of white mice, after having given them sexually developed joints of the tape-worm
of the cat ( Tania crassicollis) to eat.

DISEASES PBODUCED BY CYSTICA. 83

If we fix our attention upon sheep, which are unfortunately
too often exposed to the dangerous attacks of the Camurus
cerebralis, we shall find that very frequently when a flock of
sheep is attacked by the Coenurus cerebralis, it is the sheep-dog
who has guarded them year after year who is answerable for
the mischief; in this case the shepherd's dog is infested by the
Tcenia serrata, whose young, after being passed by the dog in the
neighbourhood of the flock, are easily caught up and swallowed
by one sheep or another without being observed. The surest
means, then, of keeping off the Coenurus cerebralis from a flock
of sheep would be to do away with the sheep-dog. To this,
however, the sheep-breeders would hardly agree, since the ser-
vices of a first-rate sheep-dog are not to be easily replaced by
any other kind of help. But that the sheep-dog is really con-
cerned in the devastations which the Ccenurus cerebralis makes
in a flock is borne out by the fact that those sheep-flocks which,
in the true sense of the word, are stall-fed, and consequently
unattended by a dog, are never, or at least very rarely, troubled
with the Camurus cerebralis. Those sheep-breeders who are
disinclined to give up keeping dogs to guard their flocks, could
urge as an objection that their dismissal would afford no sure
guarantee for keeping off the parasite, inasmuch as the pastures
where the sheep feed might become contaminated by the young
of the Tcenia serrata through other dogs, such as hounds and
mastiffs; perhaps, indeed, even by wolves, foxes, or martens, and
other animals of prey (see page 76).

Since, also, I have pointed out the identity of the Tcenia
solium of the human subject with the Tcenia serrata of the dog
(see page 68), there appear to be so many possible ways open
for the dispersion of the cestoid embryos and their development
into the Coenurus cerebralis, that it needs the utmost care to
discover means of always cutting off the approaches by which
these dangerous parasites effect an immigration into the sheep.

If, after these objections, which I have myself raised, I am
the less inclined to think that the doing away with the sheep-dog
would be an absolute preventive against the Ccenurus cerebralis,
yet, I at least believe that, as a rule, and as a wise pre-
caution, it might be recommended to those sheep- owners
who employ dogs in the care of their flocks, to exercise a
watch over them. If the dog be troubled with the T&nia
serrata, the worm should be expelled before the animal comes in

84 PROPHYLACTIC MEASURES.

contact either with the flock or their food. This supervision of
the dog will be continually necessary, since although, according
to my experience, the period of the parasite's existence is confined
to only a few weeks, the opportunity for its immigration into the
dog may frequently occur again. For the rest, I have pleasure
in thinking that I have pointed out the true cause of the origin
of the Coenurus cerebralis, and hinted to the sheep-breeders in
what way the worm creeps into their flocks ; and I now leave it
to intelligent proprietors to employ those means which are best
fitted for the purpose of arresting the enemy, according to the
locality, the style of farming, or to the condition of the animals.
Having furnished a statement of the natural history of the
Coenurus cerebralis, I must leave it to experience to show if there
are really means of preserving a flock of sheep from this cestoid
parasite, and if so, what kind of means.

The Tcenia serrata of the dog, whose presence in the sheep-dog
is most particularly to be guarded against, is easily distinguish-
able from the other, harmless, tape-worm of the same animal,

rig. 36.

the Tcenia cucumerina ; the first having its developed joints always
white, and of a quadrangular or oblong shape, with only a single
irregular marginal sexual aperture, varying in its position on each,
whilst the developed joints of the Tcenia cucumerina are elliptical

Fig. 36. Tcenia cucumerina, from the intestines of a dog, with perfectly developed
joints, natural size.

CYSTICERCI IN SAUSAGES. 85

in form, are commonly of a pale-red colour, and have on every
joint two marginal apertures opposite to each other.

The evidence that I have given in the foregoing chapter of
certain cestoids becoming changed in the digestive canal of dogs
into sexually developed tape-worms, suggests the idea that,, most
probably, the greater number of the human tape-worms enter as
scolices into the intestine of man. That the opportunity for
such an immigration may readily occur is plain, if we reflect how
easily a Cysticercus may get upon the lips of a butcher or a cook
in handling pork containing these parasites. In fact, it appears
from the medical reports that persons engaged in slaughter-houses
and kitchens very commonly suffer from tape-worms,1 which
indicates that, although the use of " measly" meat for the most
part never produces dangerous results, yet that especial care
should be taken regarding it. In any case, encysted pork, when
boiled or roasted, can afford no opportunity for the production of
a T&nia solium in the human digestive canal, since the Cysticcrci
will be completely destroyed by the degree of heat necessary
for the preparation of the meat; but it is quite a different
case with smoked sausages, in the manufacture of which
many butchers make use of measly meat.3 With the present
clever and expeditious method of smoking them, how easily
may a sausage stuffed with this meat be eaten so soon and in
such a fresh condition, that one or another scolex may have pre-
served its vitality, and awakening from its trance in the human
digestive canal, proceed to its development as a tape-worm.
From what I have stated in the earlier chapters with regard to
the internal relation of the scolices to the tape-worms, it is now
explained how that in no country are men more tormented by
these parasites than in Abyssinia, it being well known that the
Abyssinians eat a great deal of raw meat. Dr. Bilharz, formerly
a pupil of mine, some time ago wrote to me from Cairo, that in
Abyssinia the tape-worm was so common that a native would
regard it as an abnormal condition if he were to expel no tape-
worm joints; and that no slave was purchased there without at the

1 Compare "Wawntch, ' Praktische Monographic der Bandwurmkrankheit,' Vienna,
1844, p. 197.

2 The shrunk Cysticerci in such sausages are very easily to be found ; they form
milk-white bodies of the size of a needle's head, which, when pressed between glass
plates and seen through the microscope, show the circlet of hooks and the four suckers
of the scolex very distinctly.

86 PROPHYLACTIC MEASUKES.

same time receiving a packet of cusso to remove his tape-worm.
That the flesh of our cattle affords the principal opportunity for
the immigration of the Tcenia solium into man, is borne out by
the experience of Reinlein,1 a physician of Vienna ; who for ten
successive years professionally attended the Carthusian monks,
who never partake of either meat or milk, but live mostly on
fish ; he had never seen a single person who had suffered from
tape-worms, and was assured by the oldest fathers that they never
remembered any of their associates to have been troubled with
them.

But it is not alone in the torrid and temperate zones of our
globe that man is visited by these parasites, for even in the polar
regions the cestoids find means of reaching him. Dr. Schleisner,
who a few years ago published a medical topography of the island
of Iceland/ makes mention of an epidemic liver complaint or
hydatid disease which made great ravages among the Ice-
landers. In the short account of this complaint, which is
more commonly met with in the interior of the country than on
the coast, I recognise a tape-worm which is imbedded not only in
the livers, but also in the abdominal organs and in the skin of
these islanders. Professor Eschricht, of Copenhagen, wrote to me
lately that the sixth part of the whole population of Iceland
suffered from this disorder of the liver, and that with many of
them, after dreadful and protracted sufferings, it terminates in
death. From a more particular description and illustration of
this disease produced by the tape-worm, for which I am indebted
to the kindness of Eschricht, I conclude that the parasite is one of
the Cysticerci, and has its origin in the T&nia serrata (solium) . In
Copenhagen, people's attention has already been drawn to this
cestoid disease, so highly fatal to the Icelandic population, and
they appear to be desirous of taking energetic measures for its
prevention. I entertain the belief that, bearing in mind the
natural history of the Cysticerci as I have represented it in these
pages, it may be possible to prevent the immigration of the
cestoid young — to which, from the Icelanders' mode of life, they

1 See his ' Bemerkungen iiber den Ursprung, die Entwickelung, die Ursachen, Symp-
tome und Heilart des breiten Bandwurmes in den Gedarmen des Menschen/ Vienna,
1812, p. 25.

2 See his ' Forsbg til en Nosographie of Island,' Kjobenhavn, 1849 A short abstract
of this work will be found in ' Janus/ the ' Central-Magazin fur Geschichte und Literar-
Geschichte der Medizin,' vol. i, 1851, p. 300.

CESTOID EPIDEMIC OF ICELAND. 87

are so fatally exposed — into tlie inhabitants of this island. How
this may be effected the following remarks may serve to show. It
is well known that the Icelanders carry on an extensive breeding
of cattle and sheep, in which the canine race are in many ways
serviceable.1 I presume that the Icelanders, when slaughtering
their cattle, never have the dogs far off, and thereby it readily
happens that these voracious animals, in swallowing what is
thrown aside, take in various Cysticerci ; from these the Ttenia
serrata is developed, and their young, by means of the oxen, give
rise to many evil consequences to man. If the dogs of the Ice-
landers were kept under supervision and free from the Taenia serrata3
not only would the propagation of the young of this tape-worm
be certainly prevented, but also their immigration into man and
cattle, and their injurious degeneration into Cysticerci.

It can now be no longer regarded as wonderful, or considered
as fabulous, when physicians inform us that after raw meat had
been prescribed for certain of their patients, they had found
them to become troubled with tape-worms.3 In the cases that were
met with, it was explicitly said to be the Taenia solium that was
expelled, which exactly supports the opinion that this tape-worm,
so rare in St. Petersburg, has there been developed by the
adoption of a diet of raw meat. The statements would have
been much more to be suspected if, in the tape-worms that were
passed, the Bothriocephalus latus, so general in Russia and Poland,
had been recognised, since this worm is never met with amongst
our cattle in a scolex condition. Formerly, the geographical
distribution of both these human tape-worms, the Bothriocephalus

1 What important services the numerous dogs spread all over Iceland render to the
inhabitants in their husbandry, is given in the more or less detailed accounts of travellers.
Compare Hornebow, ' Zuverlassige Nachrichten von Island,' Copenhagen, 1753, pp. 143
and 164; further, Hooker, 'Journal of a Tour in Iceland in the Summer of 1809,'
London, 1813, vol. i, p. 339.

2 Compare, upon this subject, the communications made by Weisse (in the ' Journal
fur Kinderkrankbeiten,' vol. xvi, 1851, p. 384), which, in spite of Braun's objections
(ibid., vol. xviii, 1852, p. 78 ; or in Froriep's ' Tagesberichten,' 1852 ; ' Geburtshiilfe
und Kinderkrankheiten,' p. 281), are worthy of all belief. The opinion expressed by
Andral in favour of the doctrine of equivocal generation (' Grundriss der pathol.
Anatomie,' Leipzig, vol. i, p. 393), that from external mechanical influences (a contusion)
affecting an organ, its necessary nourishment may be disturbed, so that the organic par-
tides are not fully assimilated, and become metamorphosed into lower kinds of animals
(into a Cyslicercus) — an opinion in which Professor Uhde, of Brunswick, also coincides
(see < Deutsche Klinik.,' 1851, No. 40, p. 434)— is thus thoroughly refuted.

88 CONCLUSION.

latus and the Tcenia solium, was declared to be very sharply
defined ; the appearance of the former being supposed to be con-
fined to Switzerland,, Poland, and Russia ; but now, if the Taenia
solium were to show itself in these countries, it would not be a
matter of astonishment nor appear unworthy of belief, since,
through the importation of cattle infested with Cysticerci, from
countries where only the Tcenia solium is found, this tape-worm
may easily be introduced in its scolex form.1

After this statement of the history of the tape-worms, and of
the Cysticerci which stand in such close relationship with them,
I trust that I may have so strongly shaken the many false views
and prejudices so deeply rooted amongst physicians, veterinarians,
and economists, with regard to the origin, development, and pro-
pagation of these intestinal worms, that they may henceforth be
renounced as untenable. I have thereby not only the satisfaction
of having uprooted the very foundations of a chateau en Espagne,
filled with the most marvellous hypotheses, but of having erected
in its place a structure compacted of facts and based upon experi-
mental demonstrations, which throw a light upon a path hitherto
wrapped in profound obscurity, but which may now be profitably
followed.

1 According to a written communication, for which I am indebted to Dr. Baumert,
during his stay in Neuchatel, the Cysticerci are almost unknown in pigs in the western
parts of Switzerland, viz., in Neuenburg, whilst all those pigs that are introduced there
from France are abundantly infested with them.

INDEX OF TAPE AND CYSTIC WORMS.

Abyssinia, 85
Acanthorhynchus, 48, 52
Acanthobothrium, 43
Agamazooids, 13
Alternation of generations, 1 1
Anthobothrium, 43
Anthocephalus, 48
Arion empiricorum, 39
Ascaris acuta, 26

angulata, 26

capsularis, 26

incisa, 26

marginata, 61, 72

osculata, 26

spiculigera, 26

Bats, 39

Baumert, Dr., 88
Bilharz, 85
Bojanus, 11

Bothriocephalus latus, 87
solidus, 31

Calliobothrium, 43
Caterpillar, thread-worm of, 8
Cats, 57

Caudal appendages, 52
Cercaria arraata, 21

encysted, 22

ephemera, 16

sacs, 15
Cercarise, 15

Cestoid Entozoa, origin of, 57
Coenurus, 48

cerebralis, 29, 80

cerebralis, experiments on
with, 69

cerebralis, origin of, 84
Creplin, Dr., 32
Cysticercus, 48

cellulosae, experiments of
with, 66

fasciolaris, 54

feeding

feeding

Cysticercus of rats and mice, 57

pisiform is, 59

tenuicollis, 53, 62
Cystic Entozoa, origin of, 57
Cysticerci, experiments of feeding with, 64
Cystic worm, diseases produced by, 77

Diesing, 48
Distomata, 5, 7.
Distomum echinatum, 19

hepaticum, 7

militare, 19

trigonocephalum, 19

uncinatum, 19
Dog, 37

Echeneibothrium, 43
Echiriococcus, 48

Hominis, 29

Veterinorum, 73
Egg-shell of intestinal worms, 6

solidity of, 6
Entozoa cephalocotylea, 48

cystic, 47
i Ephemeridae, 20
Eschricht, 86

Feeding with Cysticercus, 59
Filaria cystica, 26

Insectorum, 8

Piscium, 26
Fluke, 7

Gastropacha Neustria, 10
Generations, alternations of, 14
Gierer, Dr., 79
Gordius, 8

aquaticus, 11
Gyrodactylus, 44

Haematozoa, 29
Haubner, Dr., 81
Hydra tuba, 44

18

274

INDEX OF TAPE AND CYSTIC WOEMS.

Iceland, 86

Intestinal worms, origin of, 3

King's yellow snails, 11

Leuckart, Professor, 82
LibellulidEe, 20
Ligula, 45

alternans, 32

simplicissima, 32

sparsa, 32

uniserialis, 32
Liparis chrysorrhoea, 10
Livers of Salmo, 33
Lumbricus hydropicus, 53
Lyinnaeus stagnalis, 21

Measly meat, 85
Meissner, 39
Mermis, 8

albicans, 10

embryos of, 10
Monostomum mutabile, 17

Nurse, Steenstrup's title of, 13

Oken, 11
Onchobotbrium, 43

Parasites, strayed, 27
Percb, 33
Perlidse, 20
Pbryganidae, 20
Phyllobotbrium, 43
Piestocystis, 48
crispa, 52
Pike, 33

Pontia Crataegi, 10
Pterobotbrium, 48, 52

Rabbits, 59

Races, 50

Rats, 57

Raw meat, 87

Receptaculum Scolicis, 51

Redstart, 39

Reinlein, 86

Remedies for worms, 78

Rhynchobothrium, 34, 45

Roll, 75

Round worms, 4

Rudolpbi, 34, 48

Salmo salvelinus, 33

Scbleisner, Dr., 86

Scolex, 48

Schistocephalus dimorphus, 32

Sertularidae, 44

Sheep, Coenurus cerebralis in, 83

Solitary worm, 5

Staggers, 79

Steenstrup, 12

Stein, 52

Stein of Tharand, 38

Stenobothrium, 48

Sticklebacks, 31

Strongyli, 7

Strongylus filaria, 7

Taenia crateriformis, 36

cellulosae, 53

crassicollis, 54

cucumerina, 84

fimbriata, 42

hydatigena, 52

longicollis, 34, 54

ocellata, 34

of cats, 57

serrata, 61, 71

serrata, emigration of tbe young of, 81

solium and Taenia serrata, identity of,
83

vesicularis, 52
Tape-worm, 4, 31
Tenebrio molitor, 38, 39
Tetrabothriorhynchus, 48
Tetrarbyncbus,'34, 43, 45
Thread-worms of caterpillars, experiments

on, 9

Thysanosoma actinoides, 42
Trematoda, 14

Trieenophorus nodulosus, 29, 32, 33, 54
Trichina spiralis, 25

Van Beneden 47
Vermes cucurbitini, 41

White mice, livers of, 82

Yponomeuta, 10
evonymella, 9

LIST OF THE WOKKS PUBLISHED BY
SYDENHAM SOCIETY FROM ITS
FOUNDATION IN 1843,

IN THE ORDER IN WHICH THEY WERE ISSUED.

FOR THE FIRST YEAR, 1843-4.

* "Becker's Epidemics of the Middle Ages" 1 vol., 8vo, pp. xx, 380.

* "Louis on Phthisis" 1 vol., 8vo, pp. xxxv, 571.

" Th. Sydenham Opera Omnia" 1 vol., 8vo, pp. xxx, 668.

FOR THE SECOND YEAR, 1844-5.

* " The Seven Books of Paulus Mgineta" Vol. I, pp. xxviii, 683.

* " Observations on Aneurism" 1 vol., 8vo, pp. xii, 524.

* " Simon's Animal Chemistry" Vol. I, 8vo, pp. xx, 360, plate.

FOR THE THIRD YEAR, 1845-6.

* " Simon's Animal Chemistry" Vol. II, 8vo, pp. xii, 560, 2 plates.

* " Paulus JEgineta" Vol. II, 8vo, pp. xi, 511.
" Hasse's Pathology " 8vo, pp. xvi, 400.

FOR THE FOURTH YEAR, 1846-7.
" The Works of W. Hewson" 1 vol., 8vo, pp. Ivi, 360, portrait and 8

plates.
" Dupuytren's Lectures on Diseases and Injuries of Bones.'9 1 vol., 8vo,

pp. xvi, 459.
" The Works of W. Harvey, M.D." Complete in 1 vol., 8vo, pp. xcvi,

624.

FOR THE FIFTH YEAR, 1847-8.

* "Paulus ^gineta." Vol. Ill, pp. viii, 653.

" Feuchtersleben's Medical Psychology." Pp. xx, 392.

''Microscopical Researches of Schwann and Schleiden." Pp. xx, 268,

6 plates.
" Memoirs of the French Academy of Surgery." Pp. x, 293.

FOR THE SIXTH YEAR, 1848-9.

" Rhazes on the Smallpox and Measles" 8vo, pp. viii, 212.
"The Genuine Works of Hippocrates, translated from the Greek."

Vol.1, 8vo, pp. x, 466.
<(The Works of Sydenham, translated from the Latin" Vol. I, 8vo,

pp. cvi, 276.
" Rokitansky's Pathological Anatomy" Vol. II (the first issued), 8vo,

pp. 375.

FOR THE SEVENTH YEAR, 1849-50.
" The Genuine Works of Hippocrates." Vol. II, pp. 406.
" Essays on the Puerperal Fever, and other Diseases peculiar to Women"

8vo, pp. 552.
" The Works of Sydenham, translated from the Latin ." Vol.11, pp. 396

FOR THE EIGHTH YEAR, 1850-1.

" Rokitansky's Pathological Anatomy." Vol. Ill, 8vo, pp. xvi, 467.
" Hunter on the Gravid Uterus" \ vol., folio, 34 plates, with descriptive
letter-press.

FOR THE NINTH YEAR, 1851-2.

" Unzer and Prochaska on the Nervous System" 1 vol., pp. xvi, 463.
" Annals of Influenza " 1 vol., pp. xvi, 406.
' Rokitansktfs Pathological Anatomy" Vol. IV, pp. x, 398.

FOR THE TENTH YEAR, 1852-3.
" Romberg on Diseases of the Nervous System" 2 vols. Vol. I, pp. xvi,

368; Vol. U, pp. viii, 450.
" K tinker's Manual of Human Histology " Vol. I, woodcuts, pp. xix

498.

FOR THE ELEVENTH YEAR, 1853-4.
" Kolliker's Manual of Human Histology" Vol. II, woodcuts, pp. x,

434.

" Rokitansky's Pathological Anatomy" Vol. I, 2 plates, pp. xvi, 446.
" Dupuytren on Lesions of the Blood-vessels" &c. 1 vol., pp. 378.

FOR THE TWELFTH YEAR, 1854-5.

" WedVs Pathological Histology." 1 vol., woodcuts, pp. xxvi, 637.
" Oesterlens Medical Logic" 1 vol., pp. xii, 437.

FOR THE THIRTEENTH YEAR, 1855-6.
" Velpeau on Diseases of the Breast" 1 vol., pp. xxiv, 608.
" The Works of Aretceus" Greek and English. 1 vol. pp. xx, 510.

FOR THE FOURTEENTH YEAR, 1856-7.

" Von SieboJd and Kuchenmeister on Intestinal Worms and other Para-
sites" 2 vols., 8vo, with numerous illustrations, plain and
coloured. Pp. xix, 492 — xvi, 287— xx, 88.

*#* Those books to which an asterisk is affixed are out of print ; of the
others copies are still on hand, and may be had at reduced prices
on application at 45, FRITH STREET, SOHO.

THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE
STAMPED BELOW

AN INITIAL FIN-E OF 25 CENTS

WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN
THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY
WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH
DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY
OVERDUE.

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