NATURE JTUDY John Swett / ONE HUNDRED LESSONS NATURE STUDY AROUND MY SCHOOL. BY FRANK OWEN PAYNE, M.Sc. 1 Flower in the crannied wall, I pluck you out of the crannies;— Hold you here, root and all, in my hand, Little flower — but if I could understand What you are, root and all, and all in all, I should know what God and man is." — Tennyson. NEW YORK AND CHICAGO: E. L. KELLOGG & COMPANY. Copyright, 1895, by E. L. KELLOGG & CO. NEW YORK. EDUCATION DEFT, < DEDICATION. TO Eeacfjers, WHOSE EXAMPLE HAS INSPIRED HUNDREDS OF PUPILS LIKE • MYSELF TO BETTER EFFORTS, AND WHOSE SUPERIOR TEACHING STILL REMAINS IN MEMORY TO GUIDE ME OVER DARK PLACES IN MY WORK, THIS LITTLE BOOK IS AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED. PREFACE. THIS little book is not intended to be in any sense a treatise on nature study. It does not pretend to be any- thing more than a collection of one hundred suggestive lessons on natural objects, such as have been given in the public school at Chatham, New Jersey, during the past two years. It will be observed that these lessons are not classified in any iron-clad order, nor are they arranged with any refer- ence to scientific sequence. This apparent absence of classification is introduced for a purpose, i. e., it fulfils more truly the natural method of acquiring knowledge. The author has found during many years' experience that when nature study is fitted into rigid rules as to what, when, how, etc., it becomes very soon little else than so many pages of some text-book in the teacher's hands. In nature study there should be the utmost liberty of choice given to the teacher and pupil, one condition only being required, namely, that a certain definite period be given regularly to the study of some natural object or phenomenon. Comenius said : " Knowledge of things near at hand should be acquired first, then that of those farther off." Taking this maxim as a keynote, the author has endeavored to present only such lessons as can be given in any school outside of large cities : Beginning (i) with things which can be studied in the school-house and grounds, selected by teacher and pupils ; proceeding (2) to things farther away from the school. illustrations are, with one or two exceptions, the 3 4 Preface. work of the writer's pupils. It may be added that not more than ten or fifteen minutes was given nature study twice a week in most grades ; in one grade one lesson per week of thirty minutes' duration was given. Thus it is clear that this subject need not usurp the place of the time-honored branches. Rightly used it becomes a basis for much of the language- and number-work, and is made in every sense an integral part of our school-work. It may be added that, in the writer's opinion, this work should be given regularly and systematically. INTRODUCTION. A FEW general principles must be observed by teachers to render lessons on nature successful. 1. It is a cardinal principle that those things should be studied which aie neaiest and easiest to obtain, 2. It is equally true that, so far as possible, the nature study should fit the season Spring supplies an endless wealth of growing seeds, bursting buds, and opening flowers. Flowers and insects are very abundant in autumn, and these are naturally the best things to work with. Winter offers some opposition to study in the open air, hence dependence must be placed on materials that have been collected before the landscape is covered with its mantle of snow ; the school is then left to work on minerals, dried fruits, preserved insects, the snow itself, and such other things as may be at hand. 3. It is suggested, then, that during the autumn, while the pupils are at work upon things easily found, collections of things which will keep be made for use when the snow prevents outdoor expeditions. Any ditch or gravel-pit is full of pebbles of various kinds, and often as many as twenty or thirty different kinds of stones may be found in the space of a few feet. The city teacher is no less blessed in this respect than the country teacher, for wherever a new build- ing is in process of erection the sand has to be screened, and the piles of gravel may be laid under contribution for stores of minerals A stock of seeds and nuts, grains and dried seed-pods, should always be laid in. If the following lessons do not appear to possess any 5 6 Introduction. logical connection, it is hoped that they will be found to pos- sess at least pedagogical adaptation. The aims of the writer are three : i. Psychological, i.e., training the seeing, judging, discriminating, and classifying powers. 2. Informational, i.e., the acquisition of knowl- edge. 3. To furnish a basis in nature for work in language, numbers, drawing, etc. Each lesson gives the pupil increased power to make ob- servations for himself, and his mind is broadened at every step. Suggestions. — i. The teacher should bring something appropriate for a lesson into the school-room. The pupils often bring in the very thing desired. 2. The teacher must show interest in the thing. The teacher's interest is sure to awaken that of the pupil. En- thusiasm is contagious. 3. Talk about the object under consideration. Ask about it. Lead the children to name its properties, etc. This may be done at any time before, during, or after school. Some of the most delightful lessons I have ever heard have been given in little talks at recess or noon. 4. Inquire where other things of the same kind may be found, and ask pupils to get such for you. 5. Prepare yourself before giving the lesson ; you should know beforehand just what you desire pupils to discover. The object must be closely examined 6. Never make a nature lesson a set task. Make it rather a period of relaxation and recreation from the severer lessons. 7. Select the best specimen to put away in a school col- lection. This starts a school museum, to which many inter- esting curiosities will in time drift. 8. Label each specimen with the name of the giver. This will stimulate children, and so the material for lessons will become practically inexhaustible. Introduction. 7 9. Ignore no object which the pupil brings. If there be more objects than can be used in lessons, lay them aside for the present ; they will come in play when snow lies on the ground. In conclusion I quote from a paper by Geo. L. Clapp, of Boston, entitled " Real and Sham Observation by Pu- pils," printed in Education, January, 1892 : " There is no lack of material in the form of leaves, seeds, fruits, vegetables, stones, shells, insects, etc., but there is a lack of understanding as to how they are to be used in ediicating the children, not simply in informing them. The observation lesson is confounded with, or made the occasion for, an information lesson, or a language lesson : and there too frequently the work ends." After illustrating how this may be the writer adds : " In the study of nature the habit of investigating must be formed. In the case of primary children the work must not be heavily saddled with lan- guage. The letter killeth the spirit. A language lesson may be given on the observation lesson with the greatest advantage, but at another time." " The pupil must exam- ine his own specimens and express in his own words what he has discovered by his own senses. From his own object he will get the best description for him." " A prime object of nature is to get pupils to rely on their own powers, and it is the teachers duty to furnish proper opportunities and guidance when necessary." TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE PREFACE 3 INTRODUCTION 5 CHAPTER I.— PRELIMINARY LESSONS 11-13 CHAPTER II.— LESSONS ON LEAVES, PLANTS, AND FRUITS.... 14-42 A. Fruits: The Apple— The Orange— True Berries— Stone Fruits- Nuts— The Poppy— The Milkweed— The Pod— The Key-fruit— The Cone I4-2o General Observation on the Study of Fruits 20-24 B. Lessons on Seeds : The Seed-coat— Advanced Scheme for Seed Study —Growth from Seeds— Subsequent Work 24-31 C. Some Lessons on Propagation— On. Size and Comparison 31-35 D. Flowers : The Daisy— The Gentian— Other Botanical Lessons 35-42 CHAPTER III. — LESSONS ON ANIMALS 43-100 Fishes: The Crayfish— The Turtle 43-45 Birds : The Canary— The Chick— The Robin— The Duck— The Hawk —Clothing and Shelter— A Feather— Hair, Wool, and Fur— Nests of Birds 45~5i The Hen's Egg : Raw— Hard Boiled— Experiments 52-55 Insects 5S.56 Hints as to the Order of Work 56-58 The Beetle 58-62 The Butterfly 62-66 A Talk About the Fly 67,68 The Grasshopper 68-70 A Talk about the Walking-stick 70-72 Tke Cricket 73, 74 The Bee Family 74-76 Wasps 76,77 Ants 77 Talk about the Dragon-fly 78-81 The Fish : The Perch— The Pike— The Clam-shell— Suggestions to Teacher for Further Lessons 81-88 Bones : Some Easy and Useful Devices for Teaching Them — Feet of Fowls — Wings — Sheep's Fore Leg— Sutures and Bones of the Skull and Face— Lessons for Higher Grades 88-100 CHAPTER IV. — THE SCHOOL MUSEUM. ... 101-105 Table of Contents. PAGB CHAPTER V. — RAINY-DAY LESSONS. ... ............ . ...... 106-134 Lessons on Water ..................................................... 106-108 Lessons on Teeth— Human Teeth — Carnivorous Teeth — Herbivorous Teeth— Fish's Teeth— Omnivorous Teeth— Gnawing Teeth ........ 108-1 1 1 The Exploration of a Rose ........................................... 111-113 A Study of Celery ............................ ....................... 113-118 A Series of Four Lessons to Illustrate Fermentation and Distillation. 119-124 Ten Lessons on Common Objects : Charcoal — Sulphur — Iron — Iodine — Lime — Glass — Soap— Sugar— Rubber ................................ 125-130 Suggestive Lessons on the Human Body : Parts of the Body— Joints — The Flesh and Blood ............................................. 131-134 CHAPTER VI. — LESSONS IN THE SCHOOL-YARD ............. 135-153 Lessons on a Rainy Day ............................................ 135-138 Temperature .......................................................... 138-140 The Leaf-bud .............................................. ......... 140-143 Tree-buds ......... ................................................. 143,144 What can be Found under a Flat Stone ............. .............. 144-146 The Earthworm ....... ........... ---- -... ......................... 146-149 The Garden-slug .................................................. 149-151 The Snail .............................................................. 151, 152 The Millipede and Centipede ......................................... 152,153 CHAPTER VII. — WALKS WITH THE CHILDREN ............. 154-185 A Walk in Early Spring: Quartz— Bark— Pine-needles — Pine-cones.. 155-158 Second Walk in Early Spring: Young Maple— The Crayfish— Frog's Eggs . ......................................................... 158-162 Third Walk : Trees ................................................. 162-177 Fourth Walk : Farming — A Brook .................................... 177-1 79 Fifth Walk :' A Hill. ................................................ 180,181 Sixth Walk: The Ground— Minerals— Metals— Quarrying— Soil and Subsoil ................................ . ....................... 181-185 CHAPTER VIII. — COLLECTIONS DURING VACATION ......... 186-192 CHAPTER IX. — DEVICES AND HELPS IN NATURE STUDY. BOOKS OF REFERENCE ................................. 193-201 The Weather-chart ............................... ............ ......... 193, 194 The Weather-pole ......... ......................................... 195-197 Definition Cards ...................................................... 197, 198 Moisture of the Air ............ ................. ..................... 198, 199 A List of Books Helpful in Nature Study ............................. 200, 201 LESSONS IN NATURE STUDY. PRELIMINARY LESSONS. THINGS BROUGHT IN BY PUPILS. Introductory. — Let the teacher bring to school a few ob- jects, picked up haphazard — say, an ear of corn, a piece of leather, a chicken's foot. These things are taken, exam- ined, and talked about. There should be no attempt at formal instruction, but the objects should be centres of ob- servation, and pupils should be encouraged to talk about the thing under discussion. The teacher may remark that there is much to learn from all kinds of common things. She may suggest that to-morrow each pupil bring in what- ever may be found, and that the class will then see what can be learned from it. Let us suppose that the following things are brought in and placed upon the desk : • 1. A Pebble — Here is a small rounded stone. Can you tell me what such a stone is called ? Are pebbles all alike ? How do they differ in color and size ? Describe this peb- ble. Why is it round ? What made it round ? Did you ever see a pebble rolling along where the water was flow- ing rapidly? If a stone were sharp and the water set it to rolling, what would become of its sharp edges ? Do stones wear away very fast ? Think how very old this little pebble must be to have become so smooth and round. 2. A Snail-shell. — Here is a house. Is it not a very ii 12 Lessons in Nature Study. pretty one ? Can you tell me what lived in this house ? Can a snail creep out of his shell ? His shell is coiled up. How many turns are there in this snail-shell ? Did you ever see a snail moving along with his house on his back ? 3. A Cherry. — Here are some cherries. Are they not very beautiful ? Describe this cherry. How large is it ? Is it sour or sweet, dry or juicy, hard or mellow, ripe or un- ripe ? Mary may tell me how many seeds a cherry has. What do we call cherry-seeds ? Can you tell me some other fruit which has pits ? 4. A Baking-powder Can. — What have we here ! What is its shape ? Can you tell me some other object like it in shape ? The waste-basket, a stovepipe, a silk hat. Of what is this can made ? Is it pure tin ? How do you know that the tin is only a thin layer over iron ? What holds the tin together ? Did you ever see a tinner solder ? How does he do it ? 5. Leaves. — Harriet has just brought in a large number of leaves. What kind of leaves are these ? How many parts has a leaf ? Can you tell me a plant which has larger leaves ? What happens to leaves in autumn ? Whence do they come in spring ? We shall study more about leaves by and by. 6. A Piece of Slag. — Here is a piece of slag. Can you tell me what makes these holes all through it ? How does this prove that slag was once melted ? 7. A Bird's Egg — See what a beautiful little egg ! Can you tell me to what bird it belongs ? How thin it is ! It must have fallen from the nest when the wind blew, 8. A Nest.— See this nest ! It is made almost wholly of horse-hair. It is a hair-bird's nest. Do you know the other name for the hair-bird ? Oh, yes, it is a chippy. Could you make so fine a nest with your fingers ? What does the bird use in making a nest ? Is it not wonderful that she can make such a beautiful nest with only her bill and claws ? 9. A Piece of Wood.— What kind of wood is this ? Find Things Brought in by Pupils. 13 the grain. Is it a hard or soft wood ? Smell it. Cut it. Some day we will learn more about wood. 10. A Living Cricket — Here we have a cricket. We will set this bottle on the window-sill and see how the cricket moves about. Does the cricket like light ? Oh, no, he prefers darkness. We may hear this cricket chirp for us. Such talks may be indulged in from time to time until pupils begin to realize that nothing is unworthy their study. Ignore nothing. Manage to find food for talk in every- thing brought in. Having gradually introduced nature study in this way, suggest that the study of things about the school-house be taken up. 14 Lessons in Nature Study. (fcijaptrt X*L LESSONS ON LEASES, PLANTS, AND FRUITS. A. FRUITS. I. The Apple. The apple is a type of core fruits. Apples are so com- mon that they are admirable as objects for lessons. An- other advantage in using the apple is that it is to be had all the year round. The First Lesson. — Attend first to the external descrip- tion, shape, size, color, texture of the skin, stem-end, blow- end, etc. In the winter apples often feel quite greasy, due to the presence of a sort of oil or wax in the rind. The stem has a woody texture. The blow-end has the remains of last spring's blossom. The various kinds of apples have obvi- ous differences. If, in getting your supply for the lesson, you ask the children to bring each one an apple, there will often be found to be a great variety on hand. Second Lesson. — Half of the pupils may cut their apples from top to bottom exactly through the centre of the core. The other half of the class may cut theirs exactly through the centre from side to side. This will present the inside of the apple in two sections. Now have each pupil give one half his own apple to a pupil who has cut his in the op- posite direction. Each child will now have two half-apples, one cut up and down, and the other from right to left, through the centre. Study each section ; the thickness of skin, color, texture. Fruits. . 4 15 taste, and juiciness of the outer ring of flesh ; also the same features of the meat around the core. Compare these two kinds of meat. Study the core itself, its seed-cavities (car- pels) with their shiny, horny walls. Examine the position of the seed ; where it is attached to the cell, and how. Remove the seeds and examine them. Find their coats and seed-leaves. Find the germ. What of its position and size ? Quarter the apple and remove the core. See how easily the core separates from the outer flesh of the apple. Make drawings of the apple in its vari- ous positions ; of the sections ; of the seeds, etc. Describe fully all you have done with the apple, illus- trating your description with the drawings. Have the chil- dren talk with farmers about various kinds of apples and their culture, and bring into the class the information. As- sign to different pupils different topics relative to this sub- ject, and let them state their knowledge completely. Tell them how all our fine apples have been produced from the wild crab-apple by cultivation. II. The Orange. The orange is not native air over the country. As it is so common an article of food, it may be taken as the subject of a lesson. This is a kind of berry. Operate on it as you did on the apple. Notice how different it is, both inside and out. The stem-end, with its little disk, which comes out ; the absence of a blow-end ; the numerous oil-glands in the skin side the ease with which the skin peels off ; its white in- the sections into which the orange splits up, and the position of seeds at the centre — all are so different from the apple as to awaken interest when these distinctions are brought out. It is well to have lemons, limes, bananas, and grape fruit to present at the same time by way of con- trast. In this connection it is well to devote some time to talk on the places, where these fruits grow. Pictures of 1 6 Lessons in Nature Study. orange-groves, orange-flowers, etc., are valuable aids to such lessons. III. True Berries. The orange differs from true berries in having a thick separable skin and few seeds. Gooseberries, cranberries, grapes, currants, and tomatoes are true berries, and, in their season, are excellent for study. The cranberry is a most interesting fruit for winter study. In this fruit each child should have five or six to work on. They should be studied in the same manner as were the foregoing, but the seeds are too small to claim more than a passing notice at present. Cranberry culture is a good sub- ject for a composition. In Maine, Massachusetts, New Jersey, Wisconsin, and Michigan the cranberry is a very im- portant article of export, and thousands of men, boys, and girls earn their living by picking these berries for shipment. Thousands of barrels of them are shipped every year to Europe from this country. Tomatoes are so large as to be easily studied as typical berries, />., fleshy fruit having seeds scattered through them. IV. Stone Fruits. Peaches, cherries, plums, and prunes, in their season, are best, but dried prunes and apricots are better than none. The country teacher may have recourse to the so-called " berries " on the dogwood in the late fall. It is better to study everything in its season. There is enough in this season without resorting to dried fruits for material. If you desire to give a course of nature studies on fruits, save stone fruits till spring, when the first cherries are brought in to the teacher. These cannot be cut through. The stone resists the knife, but the flesh can be carefully cut away and examined, as was done before. The seed in this case should be ex- Fruits. 1 7 amined with care ; its outside appearance noted — whether wrinkled, as in the peach, or smooth, as in the cherry. Crack the pit and examine the seed inside. Some stone-fruit seeds have a third skin around them. V. Nuts. Here are things which are always brought to the school. The hickory-fruit with its thick, soft, woody outside split- ting away from the white-shelled nut within; the butternut with its thin brown papery covering and its very rough shell; the triangular beechnut and the spherical hazel in their flower-like burs; the horse-chestnut with its bur and large scar — are all excellent objects for winter study. It is well to study the interior not merely by cracking the nuts, but also by sawing through with a butcher's saw. This will show beautifully how intricate is the interior of some nutshells. City teachers can study English walnuts, cocoanuts, pecans, filberts, Brazil-nuts, etc., in a similar manner. VI. The Poppy (a dry fruit]. This is always a most delightful fruit to observe. Its elegant shape is a good object to draw. The cap on the top is pretty, and the row of openings around it like a row of windows up under the eaves of a circular tower are curi- ous. The top should be removed carefully, and then is disclosed a series of partitions radiating from the centre. Here are myriads of little black or dark-brown seeds. These seeds are perfect spheres. Here is a good oppor- tunity to teach plan in nature. The little windows remain shut until the seeds are ripe. Then the windows open, and out come the seeds. Taste of the seeds. Are they good ? Tell the children of the milky juice of the poppy-plant. Tell them about the opium which is made from the juice; of its culture in the far East, and of the danger of using any- thing which contains opium. 1 8 Lessons in 'Nature Study. VII. The Milkweed. Here is another dry fruit. Its shape, warty surface, jointed stem, should be first observed. Then its shining in- terior, its great mass of flat brown seeds with their silky ap- pendage, should be examined and discussed. Why does nature want the seeds to fly away ? What would happen were the seeds all to fall down upon the ground in one place ? Can you pull off the silk from the seeds ? Does it come off easily? Pull some silk. Is it strong ? Would it weave into cloth well ? Is it brittle or not ? Examine some silk with a glass. VIII. The Pod. For this lesson it is well to have as many kinds of pods (legumes) as possible. Beans, pease, locust, honey-locust, peanut, are commonest. Some of these can be studied fresh from the gardens, while others hang on the trees all winter, and are available at any time. These are also easily drawn and described. The curious way in which seeds are attached to one side by means of short curved stems (funicles) and the little hollows where the seeds nestle down closely are all worthy of note. The use of some of these for food will be worth mention. An- other thing not to be overlooked is the fact that the halves of almost all pods (legumes) tend to split apart along a definite line. This is brought out in shelling peas, and also in cracking peanuts in the hand. The two halves are called valves. IX. The Key-fruit, So much has been written on the maple that it is hardly necessary to outline a lesson on this fruit, but the keys of the elm, box-elders, ash, and ailanthus are far less known, and so they may occupy a few words here. It is well to select one of these fruits, and give a rather full Fruits. 19 treatment of it first. Then take up the others, bringing out first similarities, later differences. The maple-seed is at the end of the key. This puts the wing on one side. The maple-keys are always in pairs. Stand on a chair and drop one. See it whirl around ? Why ? This retards its falling, so that any wind may carry it farther, because it remains in the air longer. Again, stand on a chair and drop a maple- key and a bean. Which strikes the floor first ? Note how the ailanthus seed is near the middle of the wing. See how the wing is twisted. Drop this, and see how this twisting makes the seed to loiter on the downward journey. Per- form same experiments with other kinds of keys. Let each child handle and draw each kind. What a delicate mem- branous wing the elm has. How stiff is the wing of the ash. Are all maple-keys alike ? Do all fall at the same time ? How many seeds are in each key-fruit ? Other dif- ferences will suggest other questions. X. The Cone. Cones are complicated, and a great deal of study may be put upon them. It is only the most peculiar features which need be taken up with primary or ungraded pupils. Here we have a compound fruit, wholly unlike any of the fore- going. Call attention to the fact that it is really a branch with many closely compact leaves upon it. Cut the cone from top to bottom through the axis. Examine the at- attachment of these wooden leaves. Observe also that these leaves are put on in a spiral arrangement. Examine the leaves. Are they thick or thin ? Hard or soft ? Smooth or rough? Compare the edge with .the other parts of the cone-scales in thickness. Are they armed with a spine or not ? Does the spine break off easily, or is it closely united to the leaf? Is there resin on the cone ? Break off a leaf. Note the two hollows on its upper surface. What are these for? Can you find any seeds in the cone ? See how they lie in the hollows. Note 20 Lessons in Nature Study. the wings on these seeds. Can the wing be separated from the seed ? Here we have a seed which is naked in the hol- lows on the upper side of a cone-leaf (scale). When ripe it loosens, drops out, flies away. Dip a cone in water. What effect ? Examine cones of different trees ; also young and old cones from the same tree. When young, they remain closed up tight. A short branch of a pine-tree will often show as many as four or five different crops of cones. Such a branch, where possi- sible, should be brought into the class. Cones differ greatly in size, shape, and the form, etc., of their scales (leaves). The author's public school has made a collection of twelve different kinds of cones. GENERAL OBSERVATION ON THE STUDY OF FRUITS. As fast as dry fruits are studied they should be mounted upon a large stiff card. This is useful as a chart. It also helps to ornament the room. By being before the children's eyes they become more thoroughly familiar with the various forms. The teacher should always be on the outlook for dry fruits. In the fall a walk in the woods is sure to be productive of a quantity of dry pods of various things. These, put away, can be brought out when snow lies upon the ground. Children, once started collecting, will keep the class-room abundantly supplied. An example is given of pupil's descriptive papers. When a leaf, flower, or seed has been thoroughly studied, the pupil should place his knowledge on paper. The Apple. (Description by Doretta N. Wagner, age twelve. Drawing by Charles Miller.) The apple is a delicious fruit, and I do not wonder that Adam and Eve were tempted. The apple I have is about the size of an orange or breadfruit. It is something the shape of General Observations on the Study of Fruits. 2 1 a tomato. Its skin is smooth and tough. The one I have is of a beautiful color, being shaded with pink, green, yellow, and FIG. i. — APPLE AND SECTIONS. brown. Its stem is an inch in length. It is made of woody fibres, and is very strong, so as to hold the weight of the apple. 22 Lessons in Nature Study. The little dried-up blossom at the bottom consists of five parts. It is filled with little stamens, which look like little dark-brown threads. Its flesh is cream -color. Its taste is tart, and my apple is very juicy. Some apples are mealy. When cut across, its core looks like a starflower. In each petal there is a seed. When cut lengthways toward the centre, it is tough. In the centre these are covered with a tough substance that looks like fish- scales. It is enclosed by a heart-shaped mark. The seed is pear-shaped. Its outside skin is dark brown and shiny. The inside skin is light brown and is tough. Inside this skin it is perfectly white. Inside of that is a germ. There are many kinds of apples. The Baldwin is a sour apple and keeps well for winter. The russet is also a sour apple, but it is of another color. The Baldwin is dark red ; the russet is brown. The crab-apple is a bitter apple, used only for pre- serves and jelly. The bellflower, the Canfield and Greening are other apples. They are also very useful for cooking, raw dried, cider, and pies. The Orange. (Description by Ray Atteridge. Drawing by Chester Bellows.) The shape of the orange is that of an oblate spheroid. It is about the size of a baseball. The orange has a different smell from other fruits. The orange-skin is thick. It looks porous. The outside is the part that has the flavor. The orange-skin is formed of two parts — the inside is white, the outside is an FIG. 2. — SECTIONS OF ORANGE. orange color. The part of the orange which is good for food is the juicy part. When the orange is cut across, there are seg- ments, and each little segment is protected from the other by a thin skin. The flesh of the orange is mostly a yellowish juice. It looks like the muscles of the arm or the leg. The seeds are near the General Observations on the Study of Fruits. 23 centre. They point toward the core. The seed has two skins. One end of the seed is sharp and the other is blunt. The outer skin is white and tough, and does not fit close to the seed. The inside skin is a brownish color and slippery. It fits close to the seed. It is the thinner of the two. The skin is spongy. It is larger than that of an apple-seed. The germ is at the sharp end of the seed. The seed is like a little bean. There are two parts to it. When under the glass, it looks like the heart of a cabbage. Oranges grow in warm climates. Some of the places are Florida, California, and West Indies. The Florida oranges are the best, but this year the oranges of Florida are no good, for they are all frozen. They use the orange for flavoring different things. The orange is nice to eat in the hand or on the table. We like oranges the best in the winter-time. .They grow on a tree, not on a bush. The Cranberry. (Description and drawing by Rollo S. Smith.) The cranberry grows in New Jersey, Delaware, and Massa- chusetts. It is grown in marshy land, and a river or a brook is always found near, so they can flood it to keep the plants from getting frost-bitten. The cranberry is something the shape of an egg, and is about the size of a sparrow's egg. The color of the skin is of a light red at the blossom-end, but it gradually grows darker toward the stem- end. Here it is a very dark FIG. 3. — CRANBERRY AND SECTIONS. red. The skin is very smooth, and does not separate from the fruit very easily. When cooked it separates very easily. The flesh is of a cream-white color. The texture of the flesh is not very tough, and it is full of little pores. The flesh tastes very sour, and has an insipid taste beside. The cross- section looks like a full moon and a four-leaf clover in the middle of it. Each cavity has four little seeds in it. There are four of these cavities, which make the leaflets of the four-leaf clover. The vertical section is blong, and each section contains two cavities, which are full of seeds that point to the stem-end. There is a very tough kind of cord, that goes from end to end, that separates the two cavities. This cord is of a red color. The seeds are all attached to the cord that passes through the middle of the vertical section. The big ends of the seeds are 24 Lessons in Nature where they are attached. The seeds, when under the magnify- ing glass, look like bitter-sweet berries, and are about the shape of an orange-seed. The seeds are fastened together by a kind of red substance that looks like red sticky jelly. All the children whose work is here shown were pupils in the Chatham (N. J.) public school. B. LESSONS ON SEEDS. I. The Seed-coat. Preparation.— The teacher should first collect several kinds of seeds. Large ones are best, as beans, pease, squash, watermelon, pumpkin, hickory-nuts, chestnuts, walnuts, peach-pits, etc., etc. Distribute two or three beans to each pupil, having soaked them overnight to soften them. Give each child a pin with which to dissect his bean. The Lesson. — Children, we will learn something about this seed. What is it ? Its shape ? Size ? Color ? Scar where it was fastened to pod. Is it rough or smooth ? Hard or soft ? Draw its shape on your slates. Take a pin and stick it just under the skin of the bean, so as not to injure the bean inside. Be careful not to hurt the bean, for there is a little baby bean-plant inside. The little bean- plant is asleep. Do not stick the pin into the baby. Peel off the skin. We will call it the coat for the baby inside. See if this bean has more than one coat. How does the "overcoat" differ from the "undercoat"? How many parts has the bean ? Pick them apart and see if you can find the baby. Other Seeds. Do the same with pease, squash, melon, etc., until you bring out the fact that the seeds of these plants have two coats. Call these an overcoat (testa) and an undercoat (tegmen). If c seed proves to have a third coat, tell them that Lessons on Seeds. some seeds have more than two coats, but that most seeds have two only. Thus the following table can be made by the pupils : SEELS. Name. Scar. Outer Coat. Inner Coat. Bean. small on side near end. smooth, white, tough. thin, delicate, tender. Pea. small round side. green, smooth, tough. thin, veiny, tender. Peach. rough, at the end. hard, a shell, wrinkled. thin, brown, wrinkled. Apple. at end, small. smooth, brown. thin. Orange. at the end, rather large. roughish, white, tough. cream, tender. Horse-chestnut. very large, gray. brown, smooth, horny. brown, very thin, close to seed. II. Advanced Scheme for Seed Study. Name. Position. Testa. Tegumen- Embryo. Cotyledons. Radicle. Maize. anatro - pal. tough, flexible, yellow. thin, white, delicate. monoco- tyledon- ous, white. one. white. Pumpkin. anatro- pal. hard, yellowish, tough. thin, white. dicotyle- donous. fleshy, starchy. small. Orange. anatro- pal. tough, thick. thin, brown, tough. polycoty- ledonous. 7, various in shape. small, 2-parted. Later such seeds as sunflower, thistle, milkweed, maple, acorn, and ailanthus may be studied. 26 Lessons in Nature Study. Encourage the children to collect small boxes full of seeds. I have seen small boxes, 2X2X1 inch, used, and very interesting collection of seeds thus formed. Late in the fall, when the seed collection is complete, give a lan- guage lesson as follows : Let the class write about seeds, answering these questions based on their observations : How does a peach-pit differ from a plum-pit ? Which is larger, a plum- or cherry-pit ? Name seeds that have wings, down, silk. Name a seed with a very large scar. Other questions will suggest themselves. The seeds collected may often be of use for observation lessons on growth by sowing on wet cotton in early spring. I have seen children work for weeks on seeds, deeply inter- ested in finding these facts, and unconsciously developing their senses to an extent that is truly wonderful. III. Growth from Seeds. Procure some lima beans ; have enough to supply each child. Soak them overnight. Then plant them on a mat of wet cotton. Cover lightly with another wet mat and place in a tumbler on a sunny window-sill. In a day or two employ them in a lesson. Tell the chil- dren that there is a little door in the seed-coat. Tell them that if they watch for it they will soon see the baby put his little foot out of the door. This will create enthusiasm, and observations will be made almost every hour of the day. In a short time their watching will be rewarded, and then each stage of develop- ment will be observed and recorded. Let drawings be made every third day. Other seeds sown in like manner always awaken great interest among the children. Mixed bird-seed gives most interesting results. Older pupils may examine root-fibres, etc., with a small magnifying glass and see the root-hairs. The following is an outline of observations on the bean, together with language and number lessons based upon Lessons on Seeds. 27 them. They are submitted as samples of first-year pupils' work, during February and March, 1894, in Chatham (N. J.) public school, lowest primary classes, Miss M. Alice Gulick, teacher. The drawings are made by the pupils; not one has been doctored. They have been copied by tracing, and then FIG. 4. inked line for line. The children range from six to eight years of age. Lessons are given in the following order : I. The Scar (hilum). — This is where the seed grew to the pod. The scar is interesting to observe. It varies so in size. The children are given many kinds of seeds just to observe the scars. Beans, pease, almonds, chestnuts, 28 Lessons in Nature Study. horse-chestnuts, corn, and other large seeds show great diversity in size, shape, and position of the scar. II. The Little Gate.— Tell the children that inside the seed is a little baby plant, and that there is a little gate or door where it can come out when it gets big enough. TSL. FIG. \a. Then the little opening (micropyle) just below the scar on the bean is pointed out, and the children are told to find the little gate on other seeds. This will be hard to do in some seeds, for the little gate is sometimes merely a pore that can only be found with a needle-point. It is worth the search, however, for it will bring out the fact that Lessons on Seeds. 29 the little gate and the scar occupy very different positions on the seeds of different kinds of plants. III. The Overcoat — Tell the pupils that the little baby plant (germ) must have a coat to keep it warm. Soak the seeds and carefully cut away the outer seed -coat (overcoat). The children should do the same with a pin, Get them to describe the outer coat (testa). Such words as smooth, rough, thin, thick, white, brown, wrinkled, ridged, etc., will come up and furnish excellent language drill. IV. But tell them that kind Mother Nature gave the little baby plant two coats, and ask them to find the undercoat. Tell them that the baby is sleeping and they must be care- ful so as not to wake it up. They will thus find the inner coat (tegmen) and then the baby itself is exposed. V. The Baby. — Direct the pupils to separate the seed- leaves and see the "ittle baby lying there between, i. Point out the pointed portion ; it is the baby's foot (radicle). 2. Point out the two little leaves (plumule). This is the baby's head. Then taking some fresh seeds, plant them on wet cotton in tumblers so that the growth may be observed. No drawings of the inside were made because of its small size, but the children were encouraged to tell all they knew of the coats and other parts of the seed. VI. Growth. — Figures i and 2 of Fig. 4 were traced around, and special attention was called to the little gate, so that the children became eager to watch the little baby creep out through the gate. Drawings were made every two or three days. Errors were carefully noted, as, for ex- ample, when a little six-year-old drew the roots in figure 6, making them turn upward, and when an eight-year-old put parallel veins on cut 9. IV. Subsequent Work. Corn was planted Jan. 28, and observations lasted through the first week of March. Then pease were planted, and by the time they had been studied young maples, acorns, horse- 3° Lessons in Nature Study. chestnuts, etc., were sprouting outside, and from their study a valuable fund of knowledge, an increased power of observa- tion, and a more hearty appreciation of nature's plan and God's providence were awakened in those children's minds. The following sentences are culled here and there from the work of some forty children ranging from six to eight years of age: "See the bean in the glass. The seeds are in the water. The bean is wet in the glass. The bean was planted on wet cotton in the glass. There are roots in the glass. The leaves come from the stem. The little baby plant in the seed is called a germ. We planted the seed on wet cotton. There are roots on the bean and the com and the pea. The stem grows up from the seed. We can plant seed in the ground. The seed has two skins. We like to eat beans when they are cooked. The rootlets run from the large root. The roots are white. Can you see the stem of the pea ? " The foregoing will show about what to expect. The teacher should always say : " Now, children, look at your sentences and see if they are begun correctly." This fixes capitalization. In like manner attend to punctuation. Ac- cept no slovenly work. This fixes habits of neatness and helps the penmanship. Drawing of everything studied is advisable, since it is one of the best means of delineation. A few problems in number are added : 1. There are 5 corn-sprouts in one glass and 3 in another; how many in both ? 2. I had 4 peas in one glass; how many in three such glasses ? 3. The bean-plant has 3 leaflets on each leaf, and a bean- plant has 6 leaves ; how many leaflets on the plant ? Have pupils write the story of a seed. How it grew in a fruit or pod ; how it fell upon the ground ; how the water and light and heat of the sun wakened it up ; and how it grew to be a fine plant. This exercise may be varied by having the seed tell its own story. Some Lessons on Propagation. 31 Exercises of this kind must be copied neatly and laid away for future use as supplementary reading. Material of this character is far superior to a great deal which we find in so-called supplementary readers ; it is about things the pupil has seen. C. SOME LESSONS ON PROPAGATION. I. Here is a branch cut from an ivy-plant. Let us exam- ine it closely. Do you see any roots upon it ? Let us place the lower end of the stem into a bottle of water. We will set it in the north window and see it put forth roots. Here is a piece of nasturtium, and also a piece of oleander. We will also put them into bottles of water and see their roots form. Observe them each day, and by and by the tender, white, threadlike roots will be seen to appear. The nasturtium will probably be the first to throw out roots, then the ivy, and last the oleander. When the roots appear, examine under a magnifying glass and discover the little root-hairs by which the plant absorbs moisture and nutriment from the soil. Before the roots appear examine from time to time to see the callus or scar where the roots first appear. This callus comes at the end of the slip where it was cut off, and when it comes you may be very sure that roots will speedily follow. When the roots have made their appear- ance, and when you have given them all the study you can, put the new plants in good earth and set in a sunny window. The foregoing illustrates one important way of propagating plants. II. Here is a piece of geranium stem. Let us plant it in the soil. First we will cut off the large leaves and we will cut the stem off smooth with a sharp knife. Look at it closely and see how fresh and green the stem looks where I have cut it. 32 Lessons in Nature Study. We will take this clean sharp sand and sift it to get out all the pebbles. Now we will put it in this pot and make it damp. Let us push this pencil down into the soft damp sand and so make a hole. Now put in your geranium slip and crowd the sand up around it. Where shall we put it? Why put it in a north window? Why not let it have sun- light from the first ? When it has been planted for a week, carefully remove it by tipping the pot upside down and ex- amine the geranium stem for a callus. Signs of healing over will probablybe observed, and a roughish ridge will be seen on the edge where bark and wood join. This is a cal- lus. If the stem has begun to rot, it is because the sand has been kept too wet. The sand should be damp, not wet. If no callus has appeared yet, carefully bury again and wait another week. The callus and the roots are bound soon to appear, and they may be examined as with nastur- tium, ivy, and oleander. III. Procure a plant of periwinkle (myrtle) having rather long branches. Plant it in a pot, and fix another pot full of good earth, but having no plant in it. Place the pot of earth beside the one containing the periwinkle and lay one of the long branches across the pot of earth. Place a stone upon the branch, and water the pot of earth whenever you water the periwinkle vine. Now and then gently lift the stone and observe the vine. After a time roots will appear and a new plant will thus be formed. The branch may be severed after a while and the new plant will then carry on a separate existence. In the above experiment have pupils make careful note of when the stone is first placed and how long it takes to root the branch. IV. Make the foregoing experiment with another branch, only before placing the stone cut off a small slice of the bark from the periwinkle vine on the upper side only. Do not take off the bark all around; that would cause the death of the branch. It will be found that roots will start much sooner around the wound than they will on a stem which has not been so treated. These experiments will On Si%e and Comparison. 33 bring out much valuable information regarding how nature tries to repair any injury; how new plants may be formed from old ones, etc. In all such work a diary should be kept to record obser- vations. ON SIZE AND COMPARISON. MEASUREMENTS. Many teachers give their pupils some drill on form and size. Some teach measurements. One of the earliest faculties to develop is comparison, and the following lesson is designed to furnish drill in comparison and measure- ments. Each child has a ruler. THE LESSON. Who can tell me what kind of tree this is ? Yes, it is an oak-tree. Did you ever notice how large some oak-leaves are ? Let us see who can find the largest oak-leaf. Here is a very small one. See who can find the smallest also. Get the biggest and the littlest you can find, and then we will all sit down here and measure them. Mary, how long is your leaf ? Who has a longer one ? Measure from the top to the end of the stem of the leaf. Does the stem of the leaf belong to it ? Yes, because it comes off with the leaf. [When you have had the children measure their leaves, have them put the figures on slate or paper. Be sure the brighter ones help the duller, and so facilitate matters.] Now let us see who has widest place. Measure farther down, Willie ? You are too far down, Jessie. Hold the leaf flat, Mary. Now you may measure the smallest leaves. When this has been done, the results of both observations may be written upon the board. A sort of table may be made, as follows : 34 Lessons in Nature Study. SIZES OF LEAVES. Name. Largest. Smallest. White oak.,.. Mapl£ Long. 4fin. 3i 6 i1* Wide. 3iin. 5i if •i Long, if in. 2i 5i A. Wide, iin. 2f -A Plantain Grass . . Should the teacher think best, the children may add col- umns on distance around, measuring as near as may be the margin of each leaf. That is rather too much to ask unless the margin is very regular. It is well to have one or two margins measured. Few people realize the distance around any object. This scheme will furnish instructive work for two or three les- sons. Don't push any observation lesson until the child feels it to be a task. When interest begins to wane, drop it and turn the attention elsewhere. Another drill in observation of size and measurement of handy forms is to have each child procure a piece of string not less than three yards long. Take the yardstick and appoint them two and two to measure the circumference of several trees about two feet from the ground. Let them use the string, and then by applying it to the yardstick they can tell the distance around any tree in the yard. This is eminently practical work, and will benefit the pupil in many ways. I have found children fifteen years old who did not know how to use a measure, and who had no conception of distance, yet they knew the tables by heart. Out on such methods! One fifteen minutes spent in measuring any ob- ject is better in the practical results than any table learned by heart to-day, forgotten to-morrow. Another most interesting lesson on measurement is to take some place beneath the trees in early autumn when the leaves lie around upon the ground. Measure a square yard on the ground and have the leaves counted which lie in the space. The number will astonish most pupils. The Daisy. 35 Then if it takes a certain number to cover a square yard, how many will be required to cover the ground under the tree? Such problems, assigned to be solved at home, will add much to the interest in number-work. D. FLOWERS. I. The Daisy. Bring into the school-room a large bunch of daisies, or, better, ask the children to bring you some at recess. The daisy is so common that it is easily obtained. Any com- mon flower will do quite as well. When ready, give each child ten flowers. Lay the flowers on your desks, children. Mary, where did you get your daisies ? Arthur, where did yours come from ? Anna, do daisies grow in sunny or shady places ? Willie, did you find yours in rich or barren soil ? Martha, do daisies grow in dry or damp places ? Having obtained correct replies to the above, ask some one to tell where daisies grow, putting the above facts into one or two sentences. Jennie, what color is the daisy ? Yes, it has a yellow center with white flowers around it. What does the daisy look like ? Yes, the centre looks like a button or a ball, the whole flower like a star. What shall we call these white flowers around the yellow centre ? Let us call them rays, because they make the daisy look like a star. We will call the yellow centre the disk. Now take one daisy from your desks, children. Count the rays on the one you have taken up. I will write the numbers on the board, and you may write them on your slates. Now you may tell me, one at a time, how many rays there are on your daisy. Mary, 31. Jessie, 29. 36 Lessons in Nature Study. Willie, 34. Hannah, 35, etc., etc. This will disclose the fact that these flowers differ in the number of their rays. Now, if the teacher wishes to sus- pend the nature-work and take up number-work, he may proceed. Mary had a daisy with 31 rays ; how many rays would there be in 5 daisies ? etc., etc. Willie's daisy had 34 rays ; how many were there on J his daisy ? Children of higher classes may be required to add the numbers and divide by the number of flowers, thus finding the average number of rays to a flower. Expedients will readily sug- gest themselves to any wide-awake teacher. This flower will furnish material for number-work, language-work, busy- work, and almost every kind of work done by children during the first four years of school. Read to the children Burns' Poem to a Daisy; sketch a cluster of them on the board. Cultivate the eye, the heart, with those humble instruments thrown with such lavish profusion around your school-house. At another time make a comparison between the white daisy and the yellow one (Rudbeckia) as to form, size, soil, color, number of rays, etc. Have conventional de- signs for wall-paper, tiles, oilcloths, dress goods, etc., etc., made from this flower or any other handy one. The Daisy. Jennie Miller. Mr. Mun's field. Soil Dry, rich sandy. 2 ft. 6^ in. Number of flowers examined 10 Color of rays White •24. Average number 10 flowers • . . . . . •22 Strong smell. Date June 3, 1894. Although number lessons and language lessons may be built upon the nature lessons, yet the nature lesson should be given as such, not as an introduction to any other line The Gentian. 37 of school-work. Nature study, for its own sake, should have a place in the school. II. THE GENTIAN (Figs. 5 and 6). Gentians are so common, so conspicuous, and so beauti- ful that, coming as they do so late in autumn, they are among the most appropri- ate flowers to study at that time of the year. At least one whole plant should be obtained when possible, so that all its parts may be seen. I would not advise the digging of roots enough for a whole class, for such an act as that would soon drive these beautiful blos- soms from our forests. One root is enough, but each child should have at least one flower to examine for himself, and the one with roots should be passed from one to another, and each child may see the plant in toto. I would not advise the teacher to procure the plants for a class. Have the children procure their own if possible. This is so that they may observe the locality, soil, and surround- ings of the plant. Having FIG. 5. supplied each child with a specimen, time should be given to allow all an opportunity to observe their specimens Perfect silence should reign while each looks at his plant. 38 Lessons in Nature Study Oral Lesson. — Having given time for silent, indepen- dent observation, get each pupil to tell all he sees. Ques- tion to get him to see what he has not yet observed. Ignore those features which the child cannot see, i.e., is not ready to see. Illustration.— The untrained child will probably not be able to see more than that the flower is blue, and perhaps that the petals are fringed (fringed gentian), or that the flower is closed (closed gentian). It will then be the teacher's place to ask questions like the following : Are there many or few roots ? Their color and size ? Are they branching or simple ? What is the position of the stem ? Its shape ? Break it ; is it solid or hollow ? Its height ? Its surface (rough or smooth) ? Its color ? Does it bend readily (flexible or brittle) ? How are the leaves placed on the stem ? Are they few or many ? Large or small ? etc. Their shape, size, color, and general appearance ? Are all leaves alike ? Compare the lower with the upper leaves. Are the flowers alone or in clus- ters ? Are they single or double ? How many sepals (green outer flower-leaves) ? Describe the petals as you did the leaves. Draw a petal. Cut open a flower. Are petals separate or united ? Count the stamens. To what do they grow ? Are they between or opposite the petals ? How many pistils ? Draw the pistil. Cut it crosswise and draw the section ? What do you find inside the large part of the pistil (ovary) ? When these (ovules) ripen into seeds, how will they get out of the pod ? Where are the seeds attached to the ovary ? The foregoing questions may be multiplied indefinitely. The teacher should at least bring out the following facts : The roots are many, fibrous, white. The stem is smooth, green, erect, rarely branching. The flowers are usually three or four in number, four-parted, blue, with " satiny " fringed petals. The stamens are equal in number to the petals. The pistil is large, having two stigmas at the top. The flowers growing in shade are always paler than The Gentian. those growing in the open sunshine. The gentian favors rich moist soil, but never wet soil. The stem and root have a strong bitter taste. Various sketches, such as the accompanying drawings (Figs. V and VI) may be made : No. i, entireplant ; 2, the pistil ; 3, same cut crosswise ; 4, a seed highly magnified showing its loose coat ; 5, the flower cut open to show al- ternation of stamens and form of petals ; 6, plan of the flower, parts being respectively sepals, petals, stamens, and pistils. fcjtil. FIG. 6. Never draw the thing for a pupil. Let him draw what he sees. Only after the child has done his best by himself would I let him see the printed or blackboard form. It is the artist who paints from the living subject. He who en- larges a photograph is not necessarily an artist, hence the foregoing directions. Written Lesson — The written lesson may follow the oral one immediately, but it is better to take the following day for the written lesson. Before writing it is well to have a brief review of the gentian from memory. This is almost necessary in a primary school, but with larger pupils no oral review is needed. 40 Lessons in Nature Study. When all are ready with paper and pens, the order may be given to write, as neatly as possible, a description of the gentian. This description should be illustrated with draw- ings, either from memory or after the sketches from the plant itself. Before taking up the written work the teacher should say : " Begin and end your sentences properly." " Look to your capitals and punctuation." " Be careful with your penmanship." Suggestions. — Each plant may be pressed between some thoroughly dried newspapers. Use a board and about six bricks as a weight to press them. When thoroughly dry, mount the plant on Bristol-board cut same size as the writ- ten exercises, and bind the whole together with a ribbon or a brass clip. This makes an attractive exhibit, and also a souvenir of work done in school. No work should be ac- cepted until it has been done neatly. Misspelled words should be marked for the pupil to copy and study. This beautiful flower is also easily made into designs for drawing, and since its leaves are in twos and the parts of its flowers in fours, there is likewise an opportunity to use it with lowest primary classes in number-work. Having studied the fringed gentian carefully, bring in the various beautiful poems about it. Bryant, Lowell, Whittier, and others have celebrated its beauties in song. These selections are excellent for supplementary reading. The following flowers are offered as good subjects for similar lessons in autumn : the bellflower, goldenrod, aster, sunflower, lady's - tresses, chickweed, and closed gentian. In conclusion the following scheme for Friday afternoon programmes is offered : select a flower as the subject for the afternoon. Let the school-room be decorated with this flower where it can be found in abundance. Let the black- boards be ornamented with drawings of the plant from nature, with conventional designs of tiles and borders hav- ing this flower for a unit. This may be easily done with Other Botanical Lessons. 41 such flowers as the daisy, dandelion, periwinkle, violet, azalea, anemone, gentian, goldenrod, aster, rose, etc. When the flower is not abundant, there may be at least a bouquet on the teacher's desk. The programme may consist of selec- tions from the poets relative to the flower to be honored, interspersed with musical selections, and three or four of the best written exercises of the children. The result of such a programme can not fail to inspire both teachers and pupils with a deeper love for nature. The children will know the flowers and love them. They will be able to de- scribe them and tell where they grow and how they live. They will know what poets have said about them, and knowing one plant intimately will enable them to learn others more readily. OTHER BOTANICAL LESSONS. Roots form excellent material for nature lessons. These are especially good, because they may be had at all seasons. Thus in summer the plantain with its numerous long white fibrous roots, the violets with their matted fibrous roots, the short tap-roots of many weeds and vegetables (cabbage, onion, etc.) are easily obtained and studied. But in winter beets, carrots, parsnips, and sweet potatoes are to be had. Turnips and carrots are also easily drawn and colored, and all roots furnish materials for clay or papier- mache modelling. Branching. — Modes of branching may naturally fol- low lessons on buds. They may be deferred until the fol- lowing lessons on trees are taken up. Budding, branching, and trees themselves are so closely related that it is always advisable to treat them at or near the same time. Leaves. — So much has been published on leaves that it has not seemed advisable to the writer to outline any special lessons upon them in this book. Every teacher should have Miss Youmans' First Book in Botany as a guide to all elementary lessons on plant-forms. The use of leaves as elementary units of design is admirable. 42 Lessons in Nature Study. Flowers. — Aside from two or three flowers, the writer has omitted lessons upon these fascinating objects of nature for the reason that all the leading school-papers as well as many books give much space to the subject of flowers. With flowers, as with leaves, their use as units of design and objects for conventional drawing cannot be too highly commended. The Crayfish. 43 LESSONS ON ANIMALS. FISHES. The Crayfish. Shortly after ice breaks up in early spring go to some pond or stream with a dip-net made of thin cloth fastened to a wire hoop. A little effort will secure a liberal supply of larvae of frogs and other creatures. Crayfish will nearly always be found, and usually there will be seen numerous eggs fastened to the swimmerets under the long abdomen. Place your material in a large shallow tin pan of water and take to school. Here the complete change from egg to crayfish may be observed by the children. It is interesting if each child can have a bowl of water of his own to observe, but I have found one large vessel of water quite sufficient for observations of an entire room. If you fail of securing eggs, you can at least have observations made upon the adult. These observations should at least bring out the following facts : i. Its body is jointed. 2. It has ten jointed legs. 3. It has long antennae. 4. Its eyes are on stalks, like those of the snail. 5. It can move either forward or backward, but it prefers a backward motion. 6. In moving it turns the tail under and darts quickly backward. 7. It uses the tail for swimming. 8. The jaws move from side to side. 9. The first pair of feet is enlarged into huge claws. 10. The body is covered with limy scales (crusts). ii. Under the large side-plates are the gills. 12. The cray-fishes shed their scales (moult) from time to 44 Lessons in Nature Study. time. They have to do this in order to grow. 13. Note how it acts when teased. At first it attempts to escape, then it defends itself with its claws. Read to the children about the crayfish ; how it burrows in the earth in summer, bringing much dirt to the surface, and digging wells to find water in dry seasons. Tell that in this manner they are a great benefit to plants, but that they often do much damage by making holes in levees along the Southern rivers. Older pupils may dissect crayfishes when dead and mount the parts upon card for more special study. If they desire to prepare some crayfishes for permanent collection, first soak them in a solution of glycerine, alcohol, and arsenic for several days ; then remove, rinse, and dry before mounting. The same solution is good for preparing worms, caterpillars, etc. The Turtle. Some common kind of turtle is most desirable. If pos- sible, the turtle should be brought into school and kept there several days before the lesson is given. In addition to a living turtle it is well to have one or more preserved turtles, turtle eggs, skulls, etc., and some ornaments made of tortoise-shell. Where does the turtle live ? Do all turtles live in water ? Do they always live in water ? What do we call creatures which live partly on land and partly in the water ? Am- phibians. Does a turtle breathe by lungs or gills ? Give reason for your opinion. Can you find its nostrils ? Exam- ine its beak. Has it any teeth ? Why not ? Is its blood warm or cold? Examine the shell Of how many scales is it composed ? Observe the breast-bone. See what bright eyes he has. Why does he not run away when teased ? What does he do ? Some turtles have a soft shell like leather ; others can shut up their shells like a box. Tor- toise-shell is very valuable for ornaments. Eggs and flesh of turtles are very good for food. The Canary— The Chick. 45 A turtle may be preserved by making ari incision in the soft side between the front and back shells and placing him in a solution of alcohol, glycerine, and arsenic. The solu- tion will penetrate the body and keep it from decomposi- tion. BIRDS. The Canary. Let a pupil bring a bird-cage to school. This cage should contain one or more birds. Hang it where the birds may be seen from time to time, so that their mode of life may be observed. Describe the canary ; its round head, full throat, slender legs, long toe-nails. What is its color? Are all canaries colored so? How many toes has the canary ? Do they all start from the same point on the leg ? How does it sit upon a perch ? What takes the place of a heel ? Are all toes of equal length ? Examine the bill. How does its shape compare with the bill of a chick ? Examine the eyes, their position in the head, the three eyelids, and the way each moves. Examine the scales upon the legs. Are these scales alike in front and behind? What does the canary eat ? How does it crack a seed ? How does it drink ? Watch the bird for five minutes or less and then recount what it has done in that time. Give the bird a bathing-dish of fresh water. Watch it bathe. A lesson in cleanliness. When possible it is well to have a large family cage and let a bird raise her young where day by day they may be seen and conversed about. (I would not advise the bringing of any but canaries into the school- room, as other birds pine in confinement.) The Chick. A friend of mine once borrowed a small " coop " con- taining a hen and thirteen young chicks and kept them a day in her school. Such a plan may succeed very well, but children must, in such cases, be cautioned not to handle the feathery babies. 46 Lessons in Nature Study. Describe the young chicks ; their shape, color, covering, and manner of running. Notice how they eat and "peep." See how they run to their mother whenever she gives a cer- tain call. See how anxious the old hen appears when her chicks venture too far from her. If young, you may still find the little hard point adhering to their bills with which they broke out of the shell. See how small and round their little wings are. Feed them some wet meal or moist bread- crumbs. How greedily they eat it. Compare the hen with the canary, as regards bill, feet, legs, feathers, eyes and eyelids, food, size, use, etc. Hens belong to a great family of birds called scratchers, because they scratch for their food. It is well to bring into school on some other day a dressed fowl and show to the children the various parts of the body. The Robin. This bird comes so early in the year that his arrival is always hailed with joy. How does a robin go along on the ground ? Hops. Why does he go hopping along in the grass ? What does he eat ? Did you never see a robin hop- ping along with a long worm in his mouth ? What else do robins eat ? Did you ever find the cherries on the tree all pecked full of holes ? Who did it ? What sharp sight the robin must have to see worms away down on the ground. Compare his bill with those of the canary and the chick. Describe the robin and her eggs. When the robins sing, we feel that spring is close at hand. Sometimes when they sing in a peculiar way we say they are calling for rain ; but when the cat gets the young robins we hear them giving their piteous cry of alarm. They build their nests in trees, and make them of hair, sticks, grasses, and mud. When they go south in the fall, they gather in large flocks. The robin is a good subject for teaching patience, ten- derness, jollity, and self-denial, for it exhibits all these traits in the care of its young and its merry song in the The Duck — The Hawk. 47 spring. Robins give us often much trouble by stealing fruit, but their song and blithe manner recompense for all their failings. The Duck. Describe the body of the duck. Compare it with the chicken in shape. Notice the way in which the legs are attached, i.e., so far back as to make walking awkward. Such walking is called waddling. Does this position of the legs aid or detract from the duck's ability to swim ? Why ? What advantage is there in the broad flat bill ? Study the plumage closely. See how much more down the duck has than the hen. Examine the feet. How many toes ? How many project forward ? How do the feet differ from those of the hen and canary ? Is this web thick or thin ? Does it unite all toes ? With what is it covered ? How do the web-scales differ from those on the leg ? Why does nature give birds scales on their feet and legs instead of feathers ? Compare ducks' eggs with those of hens', canaries', and robins'. Hunt for the oil-gland just above the tail. How does a bird dress its feathers ? Why ? What noise do ducks make ? Bring out the fact that the duck is suited to its environment just as is the chick. The duck could not swim if its feet were like those of the hen, and the hen could not pick if her bill were shovel-like, as the duck's is. Nature thus suits all things to their surroundings. The Hawk. This bird should be described in a manner similar to the preceding. Care should be taken to point out those characteristics which make hawks, owls, etc., different from the birds previously studied. Some of these characteristics are found in the hooked bill and talons (claws), fitted for tearing food and charac- teristic of flesh-eating birds. The large bright eye, the haughty pose, the vigorous manner of motion, all show a near relationship to the eagle, owl, and vulture. Describe 48 Lessons in Nature Study. how the hawk steals chickens and other birds. Tell how you have seen very small birds, like robins, sparrows, and bluebirds, attack a hawk which had robbed them of their young. Describe the sport of hawking in the Middle Ages. Clothing and Shelter. Note to the Teacher — The autumn is a good time to take up a series of lessons on clothing and shelter. Then it is that nature begins to plan for the protection of her children. Such a series of lessons may well begin with a talk by the teacher in which allusion is made to the fact that all things are preparing for their long sleep. As in a preceding lesson, twigs should be shown on which the winter buds are already forming with their various means of bud protection. Attention should be called to the fact that birds are not moulting now, and horses, cattle, cats, and dogs are not shedding their hair, but are. getting fine thick coats for winter wear. Propose then to study the clothing of various animals, and request pupils to bring in all manner of things which serve as clothing, shelter, or protection for animals or men. This will include feathers, scales, hair, fur, wool, textiles such as cotton, hemp, flax, and silk, and all manner of nests of birds and insects. The fall and winter are good for such collec- tions, since the nests are mostly deserted then and there is no cruelty in getting them at such a time. A Feather. Children, can you tell me any one who has chickens ? Can I get some of you to bring me some nice clean feathers ? (These questions will usually result in supplying the teacher with an abundant quantity of all kinds of feathers.) Select similar feathers, say those from the tail or wing of the chicken. Give one to each child and tell him to examine it carefully. How long is the feather? How wide is it? Is it alike on both sides? What are soft fine feathers A Feather. 49 vane. called ? Here is a piece of swan's down. Can you find any down on this feather? Where is it? Yes, there is a little down on the feather just below the wide part. Who can tell the name of the stem of the feather ? Yes, it is the quill. What is a quill like (finger-nail, horn)? Can you see through quill? What shall we call anything that we can see through ? We call the wide part of a feather the vane. Is the vane alike on both sides ? Which side is wider ? What makes the parts of the vane (barbs) stick together ? Can you not see the little hooks that hold them together? Tear the vane apart. Does it tear easily ? Can you bend the quill ? Can you cut it ? Is it solid or hollow ? Is there any hole in it? Yes, there is a small hole at the lower end. Can you find another hole in the quill ? Yes, there is another hole among the down just below the begin- ning of the vane. Josie, what do we use feathers for ? What kind do we put in pil- lows? What kinds on our hats and bonnets ? Of what use are feathers to birds? We call a young feather just about to grow a pin-feather. Will feathers burn? When they burn, what happens? They melt and burn with a very bad smell. How do ostrich feathers differ from those of the hen ? Why does nature give the hen such thick stiff feathers, and the ostrich such light thin loose ones ? Hold a hen feather up FIG. 7. — FEATHER SHOWING PARTS. 50 Lessons in Nature Study. before one eye and look at the sun. What do you see ? Why does the light show all these rainbow colors ? It is because in passing through the feather the ray is broken up. Squint the eyes and look at the sun. Do you not see the same colors? Why? Get a chicken's head and see how many kinds of feathers grow on it. Examine the ear FIG. 8. — PARTS OF FEATHER ENLARGED. nostril, sides of mouth. Did you ever watch a bird dress her feathers ? How does she do it ? Watch a chicken, a canary, or any other bird dress her feathers and describe just how she does it. Under the microscope the accom- panying drawings of the parts of a feather were made by a pupil. Now let us see how many kinds of feathers we can get for our museum, Hair, Wool and Fur— Nests of Birds. 5 1 Hair, Woo^ and Fur. To study these things it is necessary to have samples of different kinds of fur. Pieces taken from the trimmings of cast-off wraps, carriage robes, etc., are useful. These should be examined and compared as regards, fineness, length, thickness, value, color, etc. Compositions on these things form an excellent exercise. Accounts of the animal which furnishes each kind, how caught, and something of his habits and the land where he lives, will come in as a part. Hairs should be pulled from the head and examined with a glass. The root or bulb and the delicate barbs should be noticed. The similarity to feathers is also noteworthy. Scales of fishes are very interesting. The way they are fastened to the fish, their size and shape, are worth study. Are all scales on the same fish alike ? Are the scales of all fishes alike in shape ? In thickness ? Scales on the legs of fowls. Their points of similarity and difference from those of fishes. The scales of turtle-shell. Their form, number, and peculiarities. Nests of Birds. The materials used ? The way they are woven ? Evidence of design in their construction ? Where found ? How obtained? Easily got or hard to reach? Compare these nests one with another. Are all robins' nests alike ? In what respects do they differ ? Can you account for these differences in material used ? Tell the fable of how the thorn bush plucked a little tuft of wool from a little lamb. The lamb at first complained to the thorn bush, but when the thorn told him that it was done to give the bird some- thing warm with which to line her nest, the little lamb told the thorn to pluck as much as she wanted, etc. The moral is of mutual dependence and helpfulness. Other kinds of nests, such as those of the paper-wasp, mud-wasp, bee, are full of material. Spiders' webs, snakes' holes, ant-hills, and the hollow in the tree where the squirrel sleeps will be good themes to conclude the, series, Lessons in Nature Study. THE HEN'S EGG. I. Raw. Hold up before your class a fresh egg. How do you know ? What is its shape ? you ever see a larger egg eggs white, like this one ? eggs, blue eggs, etc. ? What kinds of hens lay brown eggs ? Describe the shell. What shape is it ? Is it rough or smooth ? Examine care- fully the surface of the egg. Hold it to your eye and close the other eye. What do you see ? Place the lips at the What is this? Its color ? Did ? What kind was it? Are all Name a bird that has speckled FIG. 9. — HEN'S EGG, FRESH. large end of the egg. Hold them there a moment. Is it warm or cold ? Place the small end of the egg to your lips. Is this end warmer or colder than the large end ? Put the egg in clear water. Will it sink or float ? Put it in strong brine. Will it sink or float now ? WThy ? Fill the vessel half with strong brine, then carefully add a quantity of fresh water so as not to mix it with the brine. Why does the egg sink in the water until it reaches the brine, and float in the middle of the glass ? Now we will break the egg. We must do it carefully, so as not to break the inside parts of the egg. I will crack the shell so, and put the egg into this saucer. Now come and look at this egg, and see what we can find inside it ; but first let us see what is still in the, shell. How many layers The Hen's Egg. 53 has it ? Does it line the shell all around ? What do you find at the large end ? Is this space empty or full ? (We will talk of that again soon.) What color is this thin skin that lines the egg-shell ? Can you get it out of the shell ? Now let us look in the saucer and see the parts of the egg. What is this thin watery part called ? Which part of the white is thicker than this watery part ? What do we call this beautiful yellow ball in the centre of the white ? Can you see the thin silken sack that covers the yolk ? See these milky-looking twisted cords that grow to the yolk on each side. What else do you see on the yolk? See if you can look closely and find a lighter spot. What shape is this spot ? Did you ever see the little round spot before ? Is it always on top, or beneath ? To-morrow we will see what is inside of the yolk. II. Hard Boiled. Yesterday we had a fresh egg. Let us see how many remember what we learned. What color was the shell, the yolk, the white ? What comes next to the shell inside ? Where is the air-bubble ? How many parts has the white ? Which part is nearest to the yellow part ? What is this yel- low part called ? Why does not the yellow part run out and mix with the white ? What holds the yolk in the shell ? Which part of the yoke is always on the upper side? Here is another egg. It is hard boiled. We will crack the shell and take it off. When anything cracks and breaks easily, like an egg-shell, what do we say of it? Name some other brittle things. Now I have tapped it all over with my ruler until the shell is full of cracks. Now we will pick the pieces of the shell off. Where is the lining of the shell now ? Where is the air-bubble ? Is the lining tough or tender ? Was it tougher or tenderer yesterday ? What did boiling the egg do to the lining of the shell? Where is the white ? How has boiling changed the white ? Now let us cut down through the white carefully, so as not 54 Lessons in Nature Study. to cut the yolk. Can you find the thin sack that covered the yolk and kept the yellow from coming out when the egg was raw ? Look carefully. Yes, here is some on the yolk, and there is part of it on the white in the little round hole where the yolk lay. Only see how thin it is ! Now can we find the little spot which we found yesterday on the upper side of the yolk ? Yes, Charlie, you found it first. Now we will try to find how this yolk looks inside. I will cut it right through the centre of the little round spot with this sharp knife. Now see how the egg-yolk is made up inside. What is in the centre ? Which part of the yolk is boiled hardest ? Which part is still soft ? See the layers around the soft middle. What shape are they (vase-shaped) ? What has boiling done to the yolk ? What can we say heat does to an egg ? It changes the white , and the yolk . Did you ever see mamma break an egg into a hot pan on the stove ? What happened ? III. Experiments. If I beat the white of the egg with a fork, what will happen ? I put this fresh egg in some vinegar yesterday, and left it until to-day ; what has it done ? Where has the shell gone ? Here is some alcohol. I will put some on this little piece of white of egg. What does it do to it ? Little boys and girls have brains something like white of egg, and when they drink whiskey, or wine, or beer, or cider it does this same thing to their brains. We do not want to have our brains cooked with this nasty alcohol, do we? Then we must let all kinds of drinks alone, so as to save our brains from being spoiled by them. Take a piece of this lining out of a fresh raw-egg shell, wet it and put it on your hand, with the inside of the lining down on the hand. Press it down and wait a few minutes What is it doing now? Insects. 55 What makes it stick to your skin, Mary ? Does it hurt, Sadie ? Wet the hand and it will come off again. Place the egg in vinegar or other acid for a day, and the shell will be dissolved. INSECTS. The beginning of the fall term is the best time to begin the study of living insects. So many insects are getting FIG. to.— OBSERVATION Box. ready for their winter sleep that, if they are collected in September, many of their transformations may be watched, and a deep interest will thus be awakened as the pupils find each day that some new change has taken place. Begin, then, by collecting a few insects, no matter what. Caterpillars are preferable to butterflies, as they have all their changes to go through. To study living insects it is necessary to have some sort of " observation box ; those 56 Lessons in Nature Study. used for the shipment of honey are very good." But the most approved device of this kind is made by taking com- mon inch boards from six to eight inches wide, and making a box as in Fig. 10. This box should be just long enough to sit upon the window-sill. The bottom and sides consist of board. The ends, also of board, should extend up to eighteen or twenty-four inches above the sides, and plates of glass should fit in as in an aquarium. A fine wire-gauze top should be put on. This prevents the escape of insects and permits a free circulation of air. Having completed the "observation box," fasten it se- curely to the window-sill, and then begin to populate it. Every insect caught should be given its own proper food. This is easily done when the collector is careful to bring in a spray of the plant on which it is found. Place the spray in a bottle of water, and set the bottle down in the box. Fresh sprays must be supplied as the old ones wither. Water larvae may be placed in dishes of water and also set into the box, where their changes may be watched with interest. Grubs dug from the earth may be placed in soil in a can, or the whole box may be filled with mould for their benefit. Thus every condition — light, darkness, air, water, etc. — can be supplied for the study of these creatures. Having placed your " observation box " on the window- sill, and having peopled it with whatever is most convenient, begin a series of systematic observations on one or more of the inhabitants of the box. A good way is to assign some one insect to each pupil, or let two or three pupils observe one. Let them report each day what has happened. HINTS AS TO THE ORDER OF WORK. Each pupil will have a notebook, and proceed to : 1. Draw the insect in different positions. 2. Draw the insect in different parts — viz., head, tail, legs, etc. 3. Note his food. Hints as to the Order of Work. 57 4. Manner of eating (how the jaws work). 5. Manner of motion and locomotion. 6. Rate of eating, etc. 7. Changes in action. 8. Note all changes with dates until death. Example.— Asterias butterfly (caterpillar). ist Observation. — Describe it with drawing. zd Observation. — Acts sluggish. $d Observation. — No change. 4/// Observation. — Attached hind foot to roof of box. 5/7* Observation. — Spins a collar or loop to fasten his head in. 6th Observation. — Rests head in loop and goes to sleep. 1th Observation. — Begins to change color. §th Observation. — Begins to change form also. qth Observation. — Assumes a grayish color and a more angular form. Observation. — No change. Observation. — Splits down the back. izth Observation. — Emerges from shell, a beautiful black butterfly. These should be accompanied by dates, and thus the life- history of the creature can be determined. Last fall, while we were studying the metamorphosis of a certain caterpillar confined in a cigar-box, a most interest- ing duel was observed between two caterpillars of the same kind. Both were about ready to go into the pupa state. One had gone up to the top of the box, and was just beginning to fasten his hind foot firmly to the ceiling ; the other, not seeing him, also crawled in the same direction. By the time that No. 2 had reached No. i the latter had begun to spin his collar. No. 2 crawled on, and chanced to crawl over No. i. Then a fight began. No. i struck at No. 2 with his head, for he was fastened by his feet to the roof. No. 2 returned the thrust, and each ran out a pair of branching yellow horns, with which they fought until No. 2 fell to the floor, while No. i, who became dislodged from 58 Lessons in Nature Study. the loop, went to spinning himself another, and after he had become a chrysalis his former loop hung useless beside him. No. 2 went elsewhere, and hung himself up for his long sleep. The children made much of this, and many language lessons were built upon it. The Beetle. In stocking the observation case with such living things as the children will collect from every locality the question will often be what to accept and what to reject. Often FIG. ii. — «, A BEETLE ; 6, A GRUB. more than one box seems necessary, but as this is apt to lead to confusion, it is recommended to have only one. Every locality should be laid under contribution. Stones should be overturned, bark of dead trees removed, and whenever any creature of the insect world is seen he should be taken, with something of his environment, when possi- ble. To explain : A caterpillar should be taken with the branch on which he is feeding ; rotten wood with the beetle found in it, etc. The Beetle. 59 One such " bug-box " contained a bottle of water having some sort of larvae, a baking-powder box of vegetable mould in which were some white grubs, another full of meal con- taining " meal-worms," and numerous twigs bearing cater- pillars. If these twigs are found in early September, they should be often renewed, and be set in bottles of water to prevent their wilting. Later in the season the caterpillars will not eat so much, and late in September and October no food need be given them, as they are usually ready to form their pupas then. It is not possible to give the exact names of the insects which will be found. No two cases would be inhabited by the same denizens, but it is reasonable to assume that there will be members of the great families of insects, viz.: i, straight-winged; 2, net-winged j 3, two-winged; 4, scaly winged; 5, shell-winged; 6, half -winged; and 7, membrane- winged. These families may be represented respectively by i, grasshoppers; 2, dragon-flies; 3, flies; 4, butterflies; 5, beetles; 6, bugs ; and 7, bees. On this assumption I shall outline lessons on these typical insects. Suppose, then, that there is among the insects a grub. The earth will be watched day by day. A pupil will keep count of the days and note when he comes out ; also his size, shape, color, and actions. Suppose it to be a beetle, — for beetles are plentiful enough, — then questions like the following may be asked : How many parts has the body ? Which part is largest ? How many legs ? Are the legs alike ? To which part are the legs fastened ? How many joints in each leg? What kind of feet has the beetle ? How many wings ? How do the outer differ from the inner wings ? What is a baby beetle ? Grub. Do you see this beetle's feelers ? Some beetles have horns on their heads. Let us try to get differ- ent kinds of beetles. Let us watch them every day and see how they live. (Note. — Beetles are often called bugs, but they are not real bugs). 60 Lessons in Nature Study. Language Lesson. — The following sentences are select- ed from language lessons and number lessons on the beetle. The beetle is black. His wings are shining. This beetle is smooth. This little beetle eats potato-leaves. That large beetle eats rotten wood. The beetle has rough legs. His legs have seven joints. His toes are like little hooks. His fore legs are shorter. Do you see the little black eyes ? There are knobs on his feelers. The feelers are like a little string of beads. The wings are hard like a shell. The out- side wings are stiff, but the inside wings are thin. There are fine wings under the shell. Three legs are on each side. The legs grow to the middle part. Beetles have a head, and a chest, and a big body. A baby beetle is called a grub. I saw a big white grub. The grub was in the dirt. The boy dug up a fat grub. This red beetle has black spots. That brown beetle is a " June bug." I saw a yellow and black beetle with long feelers. Beetles do not sting. Does this beetle eat dirt ? Do beetles bite boys and girls ? Beetles do not sting or bite us. We should not hurt these beetles. John found three beetles under a big flat stone. I saw a big brown beetle on the vine. The list of sentences to be made upon the beetle might be increased almost indefinitely. These are samples taken at random from the children's work. ^ Number Lesson. — i. There are 6 legs on my beetle. 2. 3 legs + 3 ^gs = 6 legs. 3. 2 wings + 2 wings = 4 wings. 4. One beetle has 6 legs; how many legs have 3 beetles ? 5 beetles ? 6 beetles? 5. 4 wings — i wing = 3 wings. 6. A beetle lost i leg ; how many had he left ? 7. There are 7 joints in i leg ; how many joints in all 6 legs ? 8. 9 beetles H- 5 beetles — 2 beetles = ? 9. A mother beetle had 12 little beetles, 3 flew away ; how many were left ? 10. A man told a boy that he would give him a cent for The Beetle. 61 every 10 potato-beetles he would catch. The boy caught 30 beetles. How many cents did the man give him ? How many beetles must he catch to earn 50 cents. General Suggestion. — i. In catching insects note their locality, food, etc. 2. Study them alive, (a) their form, size, color, etc.; (b) their motions and locomotion ; (c) food and manner of eating ; (d) changes, etc.; (e) draw back, front, side, and end views ; (/) draw various organs enlarged. 3. Call attention to all these, and encourage the children to talk about them, and write about them. 4. Make observations the basis of number lessons from i to 6. 5. Finally, when the life-history is as complete as possible, kill the insect with a drop of naphtha or benzine, and mount him for future use. We know far too little about insects, as regards their life- history. Intelligent people often betray the profoundest ignorance of the life-history of the commonest insects. It is time to turn attention into this channel. It will broaden the mind ; it will cultivate the heart ; it will enrich the memory ; it will furnish an exhaustless fund of material for language and number lessons. The teacher should have a box prepared to receive a col- lection of insects. This will become a part of the school museum. To kill an insect put a drop of gasoline or naph- tha upon it. It will die at once. This does away with the cruel method of transfixing with a pin. To prepare a bug- case, take any shallow wooden box, — one with a sliding top is preferable, — line it with paper, and slide a pane of glass into the top instead of the board top which belongs there. As fast as the insects are killed pin them to the bot- tom of the box. A small pill-box full of naphthaline powder or crystals placed, in this box will keep out dust-lice and moths. At first all insects may be put into one box, but as the collection grows it is well to have a separate box for each 62 Lessons in Nature Study. family of insects. Boxes especially prepared to receive collections may be had at trifling expense from any dealer in scientific supplies. The Butterfly. Note to the Teacher. — Among the insects collected will be numerous caterpillars. The beetle in the last lesson r., Hea»(£ «>} .1*9*1-' vss , Z. 3. FIG. 12. may be followed by any insect desired, but caterpillars are interesting, as they are beginning to seek places where they The Butterfly. 63 may build, or at least where they may hide, their cocoons during their long sleep. Among the commonest caterpillars is the one here figured (Fig. i2#). It is a green caterpillar, beautifully marked with black bands and orange-yellow dots. Having procured some of these beautiful caterpillars, place them in the " bug- case " and wait results. If obtained late in the fall, the observer will not have to wait long. While waiting the teacher may perform this experiment before the children : Select one and tickle him with a feather or other soft body. If this is persevered in, he will become angry and thrust out a pair of branching horns (?), and he will strike at the an- noying thing spitefully. The changes are better told in the accompanying illus- trations than in words. It will cover a long time from the time the green larva is placed in the " bug-box " until he emerges from his chrysalis (Fig. 120, e) a beautiful 64 Lessons in Nature Study. butterfly This is a black butterfly with blue and yellow spots on the wings. Note, also, the beautiful orange- red dot at the inner edge of the hind wings. If he can be caught in the act of spinning his collar, there will be no end of interest among the children. The children should also draw the whole and parts of all insects studied, as in Figs. i, 2, 3, 4, etc. Even the mutilated insects found in street- lamp globes and emptied out every day will supply teachers in city schools with abundant material for work of this kind. Of course, Figs. 4 and 5 can hardly be drawn by children from nature unless you have a glass, but these may be drawn by the teacher on the board to show the children how the wonderful compound eyes are made, and how the beautiful scales are attached to the wings. THE LESSON. 1. The Caterpillar. — How long is this caterpillar ? How wide is it ? How is its body made up ? Of how many rings ? How is each ring marked ? What colors has this larva ? Have all the rings black bands with dots ? Which have not ? Which ring has hairs upon it ? How many hairs ? How many feet has this caterpillar ? How many feet on each joint? Do all joints bear feet ? How do the feet on the middle joints differ from those on the front joints ? How many feet on the last joint ? Does the hind foot look like the front or the middle feet ? 2. The Chrysalis. — What holds the pupa to the stick ? How did this collar come there ? How did the small end of the pupa get fastened to the stick ? How does the pupa differ in feeling from the caterpillar ? How do they differ in color ? In size ? Is the pupa dead ? Can it move ? Has this animal lost any rings by changing into a pupa ? Can you tell where the feet were ? 3. The Imago. — How many parts has this butterfly? How many legs? How many wings ? How many feelers ? How do the hind wings differ from the fore wings ? What color are the spots on the wings? Are all spots alike? The Butterfly. 65 Which ones are yellow ? Which blue ? How many rows of spots on the front pair ? On the back pair ? How many rings in the abdomen ? Notice the black dust on the wings. Look at it with a glass. See the long tongue. How long are the tails on the wings ? Look at the little toes. Draw the head : i, front view ; 2', side view. Draw the scales. Are the scales all alike ? Are they alike on all parts of the insect ? Draw the front wings. See the veins running through them. Draw the hind wings. CONTRAST. — How do butterflies differ from beetles ? i front wings ; 2, hind wings ; 3, antennae (horns or feelers) 4> legs > 5> size '•> 6, color ; 7, manner of flying ; 8, food 9, the way they use their wings ; 10, manner of creeping n, shape of the joints of their legs ; 12, covering of wings. COMPARISON. — Wherein are butterflies like beetles? i, number of parts of body ; 2, made of rings ; 3, number of legs ; 4, attachment of legs ; 5, number of wings ; 6, com- pound eyes. By such a lesson as this the characteristics which belong to insects as such are brought out, and the distinctions be- tween the shell-winged (coleoptera) and scaly-winged insects (lepidoptera) is also brought out in such a way that the child can easily see that these creatures, so different in some respects, are very similar in others. It is thus that real scientific work is done, and the child acquires scientific habits of thought, and at the same time he is developing material for language- and number-work. Language Lesson.— This is a butterfly. The butterfly is black. A baby butterfly is a caterpillar. My butterfly came from a green caterpillar. The caterpillar had a green and black dress. There were yellow spots on the green dress. He ate green leaves then. The black dust came off his wings. He has two horns. The horns have knobs and little hooks on them. His eyes are very big. This butter- fly has a long tongue. He eats honey with it. Number Lesson. — i. 12 rings — 2 rings = 10 rings. 2. 2 wings -f- 2 wings = 4 wings. 66 Lessons in Nature Study. 3. 2 X 4 legs = 8 legs. 4. 8 legs + 6 legs = 14 legs. 5. If i caterpillar has 12 rings, how many rings will 3 caterpillars have ? 6. If i ring has 6 spots, 10 rings will have how many spots ? 7. If i butterfly had 4 wings and he lost i, how many has he left ? 8. How many legs has a butterfly ? 9. How many more legs has a butterfly than a cat ? A boy? 10. If i eye has 6 sides, how many sides will 13 eyes have? Suggestions. — I have given only a few sample problems and sentences to illustrate the line of work to be followed with primary pupils. It is a good plan to give all the language and number les- sons on the days following insect study in some such way, and so review the insect previously studied. Another excellent exercise in language is to write a skel- eton on the board and have blanks filled in with the neces- sary words. I give an outline as follows, which may be varied indefinitely to suit pupils of every grade in language : Mary saw a large green ... on a stick. He had . . . rings, and all but two had . . . bands with ... on them. Mary put the green ... in a cigar-box and she watched him every day. After a while he began to act ... He spun a ... for his neck and fastened his foot so that he might rest. Then he became . . . and . . . After a great many days his shell was empty. There was a big black ... in the box. I think that the . . . came out of the . . . This butterfly had ... on his wings, and his ... had knobs on the ends of them. His toes are little . . . He has . . . wings and . . . legs. His ... is three-parted. A baby butterfly is called a ... A caterpillar is not much like a grub. A beetle is not much like a . . . , but they are both . A Talk about the Fly. 67 A Talk about the Fly (House-fly). The children should catch several flies. If possible, each child should have one or two. Let us look at this little fly. How many wings has the fly? What color are the fly's wings ? What shape are they ? How many parts has a fly's body ? We call .the part next to the head the chest or thorax. We call the other part the abdomen. Ab-do-men is a big word. I will write it on the board. You may write it on your slates. Now, Nellie, you may tell us something about the fly. " The fly has three parts." That is very good indeed. Georgie, what else did we learn about the fly ? "He has two wings." "The wings are clear." "There are fine marks on the wings," etc., etc., will easily come out. On which part of the fly do the wings grow ? On which part do the legs grow ? How many legs has a fly ? Now lock carefully and see if you can find two little balls, one on each side, near the wings. Tell them that these little balls (balancers) are to keep him steady when he flies in the air. Call attention to his red eyes, and to his peculiar mouth, which can be easily seen in most flies. Get them to tell you all they can about flies ; their habits, food, etc. Tell them that the fly lays her eggs on meat or other animal sub- stance, and that the eggs hatch into maggots. These de- velop into flies. What animal is the enemy of flies ? How does he catch them ? Did you ever see a spider catch a fly? Select one or two good specimens and pin them to a board, or, better, to the inner surface of a pasteboard box. Ask the children to see how many kinds of flies they can find to put in your collection, as house-fly, horse-fly, bee-fly, bot-fly, bottle-fly, etc., etc. Bring out the fact that true flies have never more than two wings. What kind of food do flies like — sweet or sour, solid or liquid? When are flies most common ? What do we do to keep 68 Lessons in Nature Study. them out of the house ? How can we get flies to go out of the house of their own free will ? By darkening the house and by leaving one light opening, as a window-blind partly open. Flies abhor darkness and fly toward the light-crack. They will soon pass out if it be a warm sunny day outside. Are flies of any use to man ? How ? Take a piece of sticky fly-paper and when several flies have become entan- gled take a simple magnifying glass and examine carefully. If you find one which is gray in color, or one which has small bright scarlet specks on it, look at such a fly closely. The gray dust and scarlet specks will be found to be lice which live on the fly. Did you ever find flies under a board or stone ? Why do not flies live as crickets, ants, and beetles do ? Nature has given different tastes and inclinations to insects, as she has to different races of men. Some prefer the dark, damp se- clusion of the earth, others the sunny freedom of the atmos- phere, but all work together for good in one way or an- other. Repeat the Spider and the Fly. What is the parlor ? The "winding staircase"? etc., etc. The Grasshopper. Henry has just brought me a fine grasshopper. He caught it in the yard. Are they easily caught ? How do they move from place to place ? Why do they move so ? Let us place him under this tumbler and we will watch him. Can you tell me how I know that the grasshopper is an in- sect ? Why so called? He has six legs. His body is three-parted." Let us first study his head. Examine the eyes under this glass. Are they compound eyes, like those of the dragon-fly ? Examine the feelers (antennae). How are they built up? Look under the eyes and see him move the lips. See the small feelers on the lower lip. These are palps. How many parts has the chest (thorax) ? To which part are the The Grasshopper. fore legs attached ? What are attached to the second part? See how the hind wings and hind legs grow to the third part. How do the legs compare in size ? What other insect that we have studied has such big stout hind legs ? The cricket. Yes, the cricket has such legs. How do the wings of -the cricket compare with those of the grasshopper in number, form, veining, size, and position when at rest ? let pair of Legs — ' — 1st pair af Wings 2nd pair of I.cga Thorn* •2nd pair of Wings 3rd pair of Legs "** — - AMomai Tajsus FIG. 13. GRASSHOPPER. How many rings make up the abdomen? Look closely at the egg-depositors (ovipositors) at the end of the ab- domen. How do they compare with the leaflike bodies at the end of the dragon-fly ? See the small holes on the side of the abdomen. They look like a row of buttons down his sides. These are breathing-holes (spiracles). See how his abdomen swells as he breathes. Let us give him a tender piece of cabbage and see if he will eat it. 70 Lessons in Nature Study. How do they jump ? How do they fly ? Can they walk ? Do they fly with fore or hind wings principally ? Why ? What kind of insect shall we call this ? Straight-winged. Yes, we will call the grasshopper a straight-winged insect. Draw the head, front view, side view, top view. Draw each leg. Draw the wings. Draw the insect with wings spread. Draw him side view. Write what you know about grasshoppers ; where found, food, habits, and describe the insect as fully as possible. Note to Teacher. — I would not kill and dissect any insects. Biology is too advanced for children ; besides, it teaches a moral lesson to be kind to every living thing. I would not go so far, however, as to condemn the study of parts of dead insects. When it becomes necessary to kill such things, do it by the shortest and easiest method, viz., drop a few drops of naphtha, gasoline, or benzine on the insect and it will kill him instantly. I have seen a beetle transfixed with a pin to a door struggle and suffer for days, while the children looked on and got enjoyment from it. In all our dealings with animals and children we should constantly keep before us the fact that our lessons must have not merely an informational aim, but above all they should have an ethical aim ; and when a child is constantly made familiar with the killing of living creatures his better nature canuot help being seriously affected by it. A Talk about the Wal'king-stick. I fancy when you look at this slender fellow you will say : "Here is a creature that looks like an insect so far as the legs and jointed body goes, but you told us that the bodies of insects are always divided into three parts, and this one has more than three parts to his body. Besides, this creat- ure has no wings." Well, it does seem so at first sight, but if you will remember that the legs and wings are always at- tached to the thorax (chest or middle part) you will have no difficulty in seeing that this insect has also a three-parted body. A Talk about the Walking-stick. He is long-waisted — that is all. And his waist is made of three parts. These three parts have big names. Beginning at the head, they are called prothorax, mesothorax, and metathorax, but all we need to remember is that the thorax has three parts. In the insects we have studied these parts are not so easily seen, but in this family they are always easily found. See what long feelers the walking-stick has ! Compare these feelers with those of the katydid, grasshopper, and cricket. You see they all have long feelers. Look at these feelers with a glass. They are like a string of beads. Ex- amine the mouth and the eyes ; how f they project from the head. Com- pare the neck with that of the dragon-fly. Compare the legs with those of his cousin, the grasshopper. The walking-stick can creep along very fast, because his legs are so long and his body so slender. Green ones may be seen among bushes in summer, and gray ones in barns, upon the ceiling and walls. Sometimes they grow to be very large. One kind becomes over a foot long. The walking-sticks have many relations in warm countries. The walking-sticks are harmless creatures, but they have many ene- mies. Nature has made them look so much like hay or twigs that they can thus hide, and no one can see them as they stand upon the limb of a tree. One summer I saw hundreds of them in a barn. They were every- where, but to any one who was not looking for them it would have been impossible to realize how many were there. FIG. 14. 72 Lessons in Nature Study. They were just the same color as the hay, and looked like it. They could only be seen when they began to move. Suggestions.— Draw the walking-stick. Write a careful description of it. Write all you have learned of its life-history. Compare it with the grasshopper and the katydid. Draw a contrast. Compare and contrast the walking-stick with the butter- fly, beetle, and dragon-fly. Write an imaginary conversation between a walking stick and a grasshopper. Write a story of a walking-stick who escaped from its enemies because of its ability to hide. Questions. — If you were going to give a walking-stick one pair of wings, where ought they to be fastened on ? Where if you gave two pairs ? Did you ever see an in- sect with wings on the first section of the thorax (pro- thorax) ? What other wingless insects have you seen ? Where were they ? Why does nature give some insects wings and others none ? If he had wings, what kind would they be? Yes, they would be straight like those of his cousins, the grasshopper and katydid. Make a list of winged and wingless insects you have seen. A Child's Story. A pretty green walking-stick lived in a bush. He was very lean and long, and he looked very hungry. He was not hungry, for he had plenty to eat, but he could not get fat. When he heard the birds coming, he just put his feet together and stood still. The birds could not see him, because he was green and looked just like a little stem. JENNIE CARSON. Measurements. — The walking-stick is four inches long. His legs are two inches long. All of his legs are twelve inches long. If his legs were placed end to end, they would reach a foot long. His body is twice as long as one leg. The feelers are three inches long. There are nine joints in the abdomen, and three in the thorax. If I add one for the head, there will be thirteen joints in his whole body. The Cricket. The Cricket. I will introduce you to the grasshopper's cousin. 73 We found this little creature under the stone in the yard. What is its name ? Describe it carefully. Are crickets easy to catch ? How do they go ? How do you catch them ? Do they bite? Do they sting? Can they jump as far as a grasshopper can ? See how nature has fitted them for jumping. Their hind legs are very much longer than their FIG. 15. — «, YOUNG CRICKET ; 6, FULL-GROWN CRICKET. fore legs. Are their wings like those of the grasshopper? They are shorter. Can crickets make a noise ? WTe say that they chirp. This cricket is black. Let us put a living cricket under a glass and watch him. See how he moves his jaws. Crickets feed on tender roots and leaves. Mole-crickets often do much harm to the roots of plants, because they eat them, and sometimes this kills the plants. Mole-crickets 74 Lessons in Nature Study. have large claws, so that they can dig down into the earth just as a mole does. See the short stiff hairs on his hind legs. If you look closely, you will find on one of his wing- veins some short stiff hairs also. When he scrapes his leg across his wing, we hear the noise which we call chirping. Put the cricket into this dark box and perhaps he will chirp for us. Some say, "Te-weety te-weet" some say, "Katy-did, katy-did" The crickets, katydids, grasshoppers, and walking-sticks, all belong to the same family, because their wings are straight. They are straight-winged insects. We will call them cousins. Let us write down what we have learned about the cricket. Sometimes crickets live about houses. In old houses they often live around the fireplace. Did you ever hear the story of Old Dame Hicket ? "Old Dame Hicket Had a wonderful cricket That lived in a hole by the fender, And when he came out He would dance all about On his hind legs, so tall and so slender. " This pleased the old dame, So she gave him a name, Little Peter it was, you must know; And she fed him with crumbs 'Twixt her fingers and thumbs, Then into his hole he would go.rt Was this a true story ? Draw the cricket as you think he looked in this story. The poem To an Insect, by Oliver Wendell Holmes, and Dickens' Cricket on the Hearth, may be read to the class. The Bee Family. To-day we will study a new family of insects. These are busy little creatures, always working. They are great build- The Bee Family. 75 ers, too. They are bees, and are cousins to the wasps, hor- nets, and ants. Do you see how their bodies are divided ? They are very different from the beetles and dragon-flies, and yet they have many features in common with them. Their bodies are jointed — how many parts? Three: head, thorax, and abdomen. See the long slender neck 13^s. FIG. 16. which joins the thorax of the wasp to his abdomen. How many wings has the bee ? How do the fore wings compare with the hind ones ? See if you can find the hooks which fasten the hind and fore wings together. Compare the wings with those of the beetle, butterfly, and dragon-fly (i) in shape, (2) in size, (3) in structure, (4) in texture. We 76 Lessons in Nature Study. call bees membrane-winged insects, just as beetles are shell- winged, and butterflies scale-winged. Compare also the feet, heads, and shape of the different parts of the body with the same portions of other insects you have examined. Take a large wasp or bee and examine its mouth care- fully. The dried specimens collected last summer may be rather hard to examine, but a little care will show that these insects have a very peculiar mouth fitted both for suction and for chewing. This is different from the butterfly with its long trunk for sucking, and the beetle with his powerful jaws. Examine the sting in the end of the body, and if you have a microscope pull out the sting and examine carefully. The feet will also be found to differ greatly from those of the beetle, dragon-fly, and butterfly. Count the rings in the body. Tell all you know about bees ; their food, homes, and manner of living. Find out more by inquiring and reading. The wonderful government of the hive, the acts of the drones, the workers, and queens, will inspire interest for many days. Wasps. Nests of mud-wasps are very common. The large ovoid homes of the paper-wasp are not uncommon in brush and open places. Samples of these as well as of the honeycomb kind can be obtained to exhibit before the class. Tell them how the wasp bites off wood, gnaws it, so to speak, chews it up, and mixes it with saliva to form paper. It is from the wasp that mankind learned how to make paper. Cut open the wasp nest and show the beautiful inside ar- rangement. Talk about hornets, yellow-jackets, and other insects of this family. It is the most useful to man of all the insect tribes. Talk about honey as a food; how it is made, its great importance in the ancient world, when it took the place of sugar. Tell how the wax is an excretion from the sides of Ants. 77 the bee ; that it occurs in the form of scales, which the bee picks off to use in laying up the walls of the cells. Ants. Remark how much they resemble wasps. Ordinarily they have no wings. But some kinds have wings. Ask the class how ants live. Do they make a comb, as the bees do ? Do they build homes of mud or paper, as the wasps do ? Describe ant-hills. How large is the largest ant-hill you ever saw ? Are all ants black ? Can they sting ? Do ants ever get into houses ? What food do they like best ? Bring out the extraordinary strength of ants; how they can carry many times their own weight. How they seem to talk with one another by touching their antennae to- gether. Tell the children that there is an acid (formic acid) in ants. The natives of Brazil make ants into salad. They esteem the sour taste of ants as a great delicacy. •Note to the Teacher. — There is no better chance to teach lessons on morals, neatness, industry, thrift, manage- ment, economy, etc. than is afforded by using the bee family as a model. Man owes more to bees than to any other insect, if we except the silkworm. Mention may be made of the " ant-lion," an insect which constructs a den into which the ants sometimes go and are caught. Allusion may also be made to " ants' cows," i.e., plant-lice which yield a drop of sweet fluid when ants touch them. The famous ant-eater may also be described. Review lessons to test the memory and to give language and number drills may follow these lessons on bees, wasps, and ants. NOTE TO TEACHERS. — With each new insect it is always advisable to introduce comparisons between the insect on hand and those previously studied. In this way the mem- ory of past lessons is refreshed, and essential likenesses and differences are more strongly emphasized. 7 8 Lessons in Nature Study. Talk about the Dragon-fly. Children, the beetle with its hard shell-like wings, and the butterfly, whose wings are covered with beautiful scales, has been in our class-room. Now I am going to show you an in- sect which is a great friend to boys and girls, but some boys and girls are afraid of it. Can any of you tell me what it is ? "A bee, because it gives honey and stings." No, not this time. This is an insect which goes about always doing good, killing the insects which harm us, but we often say very bad things about him. Here it is. What is it ? "A darning-needle." FIG. 17.— DRAGON-FLY. "A snake-feeder." "A dragon-fly." Yes, it is a dragon-fly. Did you ever hear what mean things people tell of him ? "They say that dragon-flies will sew up your ears." Yes, that is what they say, but it is not true. I want you to know and love this beautiful insect, for he«does us much good, as you shall see. Only see what a large head he has, and what a small neck. Look at his great eyes. Each eye is as large as all the rest of his head. If you look closely, you can see that his eyes Animals. 79 are like those of the butterfly; those were made, you will remember, of a great many little eyes. Into how many parts is this insect divided? How does the abdomen compare with the abdomen of the butterfly ? The beetle ? How many rings in the abdomen ? Where is the end of the abdomen? What is the shape of the abdomen ? How does it compare in length with the chest (thorax)? How do the wings differ from those of the butterfly ? The beetle ? The wings are like lace or netting. How long is the fore wing ? Hind wing ? How wide is the fore wing ? Hind wing ? Draw the insect back view, front view, side view. Draw a fore wing exactly. Notice the beautiful veining of the wings. Examine the legs carefully. Notice the little feet. Did you ever see dragon-flies differ- ent from this one? Yes, some have shorter bodies with brown bands across the wings, and some are much smaller and deep bright blue in color. Notice the colors of the wings when held sidewise in the sunlight. This is somewhat like the colors of a soap-bubble. Natural History. — The eggs are laid in the water, where they hatch out into a large larva. The larvae feed on wig- glers (mosquitoes), and when ready to come out of the water they split open and escape pretty much as the mosquito and the cicada do. Then they fly away in search of more mosquitoes. It is claimed that during their entire life the dragon-flies live on mosquitoes. That is why they are such friends to man, and that is why they like to fly around the water where mosquitoes are to be found. Did you ever watch a dragon-fly as he flew along ? How he darts forward and then pauses in mid-air, seeming to be at rest while his gauze wings beat the air at a truly wonder, ful rate. Language Lessons. — I saw a big dragon-fly. A boy said he would sew up my ears. The dragon-fly has four wings. The beetle has four wings. The dragon-fly cannot dig in the dirt like a beetle. If he dug, he would tear his wings. The butterfly cannot dig. The dirt would scrape the dust- 8o Lessons in Nature Study. scales from her wings. The beetle can dig in the dirt. The dragon-fly is five inches long. The wings are long and thin. The eyes are big. His neck is like a little string. I should think his head would come off. There are two green stripes on his chest. His legs are bent. He has three tails. He has nine rings to his abdomen. His abdo- men is long like a needle. Number Lessons. — i. A dragon-fly ate 6 mosquitoes for breakfast, 5 more for dinner, and 4 more for supper ; how many did he eat that day ? 2. There are 9 rings in the abdomen of a dragon-fly ; how many rings in 5 dragon-flies ? 3. A dragon-fly's body was 2 inches longer than its fore wing, and its fore wing was 2\ inches long ; how long was the fly ? 4. A dragon-fly flew 6 rods in 2 seconds ; how far did he go in i minute ? 5. How far would he go in 5 minutes. 6. One eye has 12,500 parts ; how many in both eyes ? 7. How many more antennae (feelers) has a beetle than a dragon-fly ? 8. A butterfly lent one of her feelers to a dragon-fly ; how many feelers had she left ? QUESTIONS ON THE DRAGON-FLY (A NET-WINGED INSECT). Teacher (showing the insect). — Children, what is the name of this animal ? George. — It is a darning-needle. Helen. — It is called a snake- feeder. Willie. — It is a dragon-fly. Teacher. — Why do they call it a darning needle ? Mary. — Because it will sew up our ears. Teacher. — That is a very wrong thing to say about this beautiful insect. It does not do such a thing as that. Some call it a darning-needle because its body is long and slender. George. — Where I used to live they called them spindles, or snake-spindles. Animals. 81 Teacher. — Where do the dragon flies-live ? Willie. — They fly around where there is water. Teacher. — That is because they feed on mosquitoes. How do you know that this creature is an insect? Helen.— It has six legs and there are three parts to the body. Teacher. — Describe the head, Mary. Mary. — The head is large. It has two big eyes bigger than the rest of the head. Teacher. — How is the head fastened to the body ? George. — By a small cord. The head is very loose and will turn about. Teacher. — Describe the chest or thorax, Charlie. Charlie. — The chest is twice as large as the head. The six legs are on the lower side. The four wings are on the upper side. Teacher. — What do the wings look like ? AIL—A, net. Teacher. — Has the dragon-fly any balancers like the house-fly ? How many joints in the abdomen ? Describe the tail. Notice the short hairs on the legs. Have any of you ever seen larger ones ? Smaller ones ? Let us collect different kinds for our collection. THE FISH. I have found it very interesting to take almost any living thing, such as a fish or a canary bird, bring it to the school- room in its globe or cage, and let the children study the liv- ing creature. There is vastly more interest awakened in observing anything alive than the same thing dead. The crickets, bees, and other insects are always better studied under a glass when living than when pinned out stiff in death upon a cork. We must not lose sight of the fact that it is nature we are studying rather than science as such. Material. — i. If possible have a living fish swimming in a. dish, A goldfish is good. Goldfish can be hired in the 82 Lessons in Nature Study. city, but if boys can catch a fish in the brook it is much better. My boys caught a pike by breaking the ice and getting him with a small dip-net. This is easily done when the water is frozen over, because the fishes then are more or less torpid. 2. Some dead fish : These may be had at the market, and even dried herring and salted mackerel are useful. 3. An entire skeleton or a portion of a skeleton of some fish. The skeleton of a mackerel is easily obtained by scalding and carefully separating the flesh from the bones. 4. Any other parts of fishes that may be procured easily. FIG. 18. — GOLDFISH. Observations.— i. On the living fish. 2. On the dead one. Notice the shape of this fish. Draw it. The color. How does he move the mouth? The fins? How many fins ? Where are they situated ? How does he swim ? (Many will say, "With the fins," but careful observation will soon disclose the fact that the fins serve to balance the fish in the water, while it is the tail fin which propels the fish through the water.) Bring out the fact that the fish has fins to correspond with fore legs and hind legs. How is the tail divided ? Draw it. Are the parts equal qr unequal? Animals. 83 We call the fin on the back the dorsal fin, and the one below near the tail the anal fin. Point out the dorsal fin on the dead fish. Point out the anal fin. Notice the parts of the fins. See the fine spines which form their framework. How many spines in the dorsal fin ? We call the tail fin the caudal fin. Compare the caudal fins of these fishes. Sketch them. Measure the fish from the tip of the head to the base of the tail. What part of this length is head ? Open the mouth of the dead fish several times. See how the bones and gill-covers move. Is his mouth large or small when compared with the size of his body ? Open the FIG. 19.— PERCH. mouth wide and feel the teeth. Are there many or few ? How do they point ? Where are they placed ? Now see the eyes. Can the fish wink ? Has he eyelids ? Why not ? Can he move the eyes around and look upward, right, left, and downward as we can ? Why, then, do fishes swim in a zigzag manner ? Try to move the dead fish's eye. Can you push it so as to make it turn as our eyes turn ? Can a big fish catch a smaller one easily when the smaller one goes swimming in this way from side to side ? Lift up the gill-covers. See the dark-red fringes of the gills. Put your pencil into the fish's mouth and out at the gills,. That is the way water goes as. the fish breathes, 84 Lessons in Nature Study. The fish does not swallow the water, but merely allows the water to pass through so as to wash the dark-red fringes of the gills. That keeps fresh water near the gills all the time, and so the impure matters of the blood, escaping into the water from the gills, are quickly washed away. Pure oxygen in the water enters the fish's blood through the gills and purifies it. If we will leave the fish in this water a long while, he will begin to pant, or move his gills very fast. He will come to the surface and swim about restlessly. That is because the water has lost most of its free oxygen. If we did not change the water, the fish would soon die. Why do not fishes in the brooks and ponds die ? The plants growing in the water take up the impure matters and give off oxygen to FIG. 20. the water, and fishes give to the plants just what they need for their food. Scrape off a scale from the fish. See the little socket where it grew. See the markings like those on a shell ; notice how they lap over each other like the shingles on a roof. See how nicely nature made the fishes to swim in the water. How easily their narrow pointed bodies cleave the water. Let us now see how a fish is built up. Here is a skeleton. See the parts of the backbone (vertebrae). Count them, and also count the ribs. The fish has a backbone (spine), as we have. Note how it joins the skull. See how carefully nature protects the spinal cord by its position, (It is not Animals. 85 desirable for younger pupils to dissect a fish. The anat- omy is too complicated to do that. Older pupils may dissect, but in a large school I would not recommend it.) I conclude this lesson with a sample of pupils' work on the pike, to which I have alluded. The fish lived in the school-room, having the water re- peatedly changed, but at length it died, owing to some hurt received when captured. After death we studied it as above outlined, and made it the theme for drill in language, punctuation, capitalization, and paragraphing. The following is one of the pupil's compositions : The Pike. (Description by Anna Hess, 8th grade, public school, Chatham, N. J.) The pike is a long slender fish. This one is about seven inches long. It is shaped somewhat like a cigar. Its color is of a dirty greenish white changing to gray. There are eleven black or dark-brown stripes across the back. The six fins are very delicate pink in color. They move backward and forward in the water, and so balance the fish not to let him tip over. The bright eyes are on the sides of the head. They are very large and they project from the sides of the head. The fish has no eyelids. He does not need any. The water washes the eyes, and so saves having tears and lids. A fish has no ears, but there is a round spot back of the eyes. That is the ear-drum. The pike-scales are very small and thin. The fishes do not like water unless it is fresh. The fish acts nervous when the water gets stale, just as boys do when the air in the school-room is bad. The Clam-shell (a Special Expedient). Note to the Teacher. — It is not well to pursue the same plan with every lesson. The manner should be varied as much as the matter. As one way to vary the manner of giving the lesson the following is suggested : Let the thing in question be a shell — say a clam-shell. Let the teacher Lessons in Nature Study. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHER FOR FURTHER LESSONS. 1. Let pupils draw the clam-shell open and closed, exte- rior and interior. 2. Compare clam-shell with that of a fresh water mussel. 3. Compare clam, mussel, etc., with oyster-shell. 4. Get the living clam when possible and examine him. 5. Let pupils write descriptions with the shell before them. 6. Also write a description from memory. 7. A comparison of the above shells will be a good lan- guage lesson. 8. Also the differences neatly stated. 9. Let them write what they find as to the habits of life of each of these animals. 10. Let each child take a good shell and neatly print the name of each part upon it. 11. Let them write the story of a clam ; its autobiogra- phy. 12. Encourage the collection of shells for the school mu- seum. The pupils will hunt for land- and water-shells, and solicit contributions from people who have them and care little for them. TABULAR COMPARISON. Clam-shell. Oyster-shell. Razor-shell. Round-oval Lines parallel Hard and white Naked Both shells alike Hinged on side Two muscular impres- sions Muscular impressions white Sinus pointed irregularly oval lines not parallel softer and gray naked shells not alike hinged near end one impression black sinus irregular linear lines parallel brittle, white covered with horny skin both alike hinged on side two impressions white sinus square BONES. I. Note to Teachers. — Bones will be found, and usually one will find its way to the teacher's desk. Whether it does or not, it is well to supply various kinds of bones. Fresh Animals. 87 Alice. — The outside is round. Henry. — There is a point (beak) on the outside. John. — The edge is full of fine notches. Isabel. — There is a dark purple mark on the inside. Hattie. — There are two shining spots on the inside near each end. Alice. — One side is sharp like a knife. Willie. — There are three little sharp teeth on the inside near the point (beak). Charlie. — There is a line near the edge running all around the shell. Harry. — The line has an angle near one end of the shell. Teacher. — That is what I have in mind. The lines on the outside are called lines of growth, because as the clam grew his shell grew little by little. The point on the out- side is called the beak or umbo. It is the beginning or old- est part of the shell. The fine notches around the edge help the clam to hold the shell firmly together when it is shut. Some shells have but little of the purple on them, and some are very beautifully colored. The two shining spots inside are where the strong muscles are attached to help the clam to pull his shells together and hold them shut. The sharp knifelike edge on the back is called the hinge, because it fits into a groove on the other shell (valve). The three teeth are to fit into three little sockets on the other valve so as to hold both shells firmly together. Do you see how safe the clam is when his shell is shut ? The clam cannot leave his shell. He grows to it. He has a loose cloak or mantle that covers him and grows to the inside of the shell down to the line that runs all around near the edge. The mantle rolls up behind and does not grow so near to the edge, and that makes the notch on the back. We call the part of the cloak that is rolled up the siphon and the notch on the shell a sinus. The word sinus means a bay, and this is so called because it looks like a bay on the map. The siphon is important, for it helps the clam to eat and breathe. 88 Lessons in Nature Study. examine the shell thoroughly before school. Let her notice something prominent, but not too obvious, about the shell. I am going to give you some shells to-day. I want you FIG. 21.— THE CLAM-SHELL. (LizziE WRIGHT). a, Outside; £, inside; c, front view. to observe them very closely. I see something, and I want you to try to find out what it is that I have in mind. Mary. — It has fine lines or ridges on the outside. Animals. 89 bones, burnt ones, and some which have been buried — all are of use in teaching this subject. Preparation. — Procure a chicken leg-bone and three soup- bones ; the best are ordinary marrow-bones. One of the latter should be fresh from the market, with marrow in it, and sawn open by the butcher ; the other may be obtained from the kitchen after soup has been made. Boil this sec- ond bone in strong suds to remove fat. Scrape off the specks of muscle, etc., and remove the remains of marrow with a soft cloth on a stick ; then get the butcher to saw this bone also. The third marrow-bone should also be an old one, and should be put in the fire for half an hour to burn out the animal matter. The chicken bone should be FIG. 22. — SECTION OF BONE. s, s, s, Articulating surfaces. immersed in diluted hydrochloric acid, and left overnight to remove mineral matter. When the above articles are ready, they may be placed in a box and taken to school for use. The Lesson. — I. Pass the raw bone around the class. Point out bone, marrow, smooth covering of bone (perios- teum), very smooth moist end of bone (synovial membrane); notice where ligaments and tendons join the bone. Bring out the fact that the marrow is merely fat stored away in the bones for use. II. Give them the boiled bone to examine. Note its form, size, structure ; that it is larger at ends. Why ? That it is softer at ends. Why ? That it is harder and more 90 Lessons in Nature Study. slender at middle. Why ? Call attention to the marrow- cavity, the delicate fibres of bone at its ends. Describe the cavity. Is it lined with periosteum ? etc., etc. Draw figure of the interior of bone. III. Exhibit the burnt bone. The animal matter is burnt out ; what kind of matter remains ? Exhibit the chicken bone. The mineral matter is dissolved out ; what kind remains ? Bone, then, consists of two kinds of matter, animal and mineral. The above is sufficient for young children. More exten- sive lessons may be made by calling attention to the end of a freshly broken piece of burnt bone, where the ends of fine pores (canals) may be seen. The effects of weather and soil on bones may be brought out by samples of bone picked up on the ground. Uses of bones as levers, and as organs for protection of delicate parts. Their use as a fertilizer, and their employment in arts, may also be brought out. The pupils may then write what they can of bones. BONES. II. SOME EASY AND USEFUL DEVICES FOR TEACHING THEM. It is a fully determined principle that the way to teach things is to bring the things themselves into the class-room. This is opposed to the usual way, which gives the pupil a book to study what some one else has seen. This principle is well established in the teaching of physics and chemistry. It is no less applicable to physiology and kindred subjects. How much clearer is the knowledge possessed by a child of the turbinal bone after he has seen one and noted its convolutions. How much clearer is his knowledge of a joint when he has himself put one together. The memorizing of the names of bones, the classifying of various species of joints, is proper when it follows the observation of the things memorized. But when taught, as is usually the case, purely from the text, it results in a most Animals. confusing and evanescent impression on the pupil's mind. As a simple means for bone and joint study, and as a useful bit of apparatus in any school, the following suggestions are offered : Feet of Fowls. These are easily obtained from city butcher, or board- ing-house cook, or farmer's wife. I. Give a short lesson on the feet, calling attention to scales, their shape, size, color ; the nails ; the shape and posi- tions of toes. Pull the cords at the upper end, showing that these cords extend to the toes and move them. This will give them an idea of the use of the tendons. II. Place the feet in a pan, cover with water, and boil for some time. Give each foot FIG. ^.-TURKEY'S FOOT. thus boiled tQ a pupil> Qr let two pupils work together. If the feet are well cooked, the flesh is easily removed. Let the pupils clean the bones carefully, laying each bone by its mate when cleaned. Place the bones on a card or board to dry. When dry, have the pupils arrange them in their order. Bring out the fact that each bone fits its neighbor at the joint. No other bone will fit exactly. Notice that the bones are grooved at the joints so as to permit motion in two directions only. This is therefore called a hinge-joint. III. Lastly, use glue or strong mucilage and have the FIG. 24.— QUAII/S FOOT. Lessons in Nature Study. FIG. 25.— DUCK'S FOOT. pupils fasten the bones in position. Glue the foot to a card or block ; have it signed by the pupil as a souvenir of the work. Older pupils can bore the bones and wire them. IV. A very practical way of se- curing the greatest benefit to the greatest number, and having pupils of one class help another, is to have the older pupils make awls, bore bones, and have the younger pupils use them for seat-work. i. To make the awls : Select some coarse needles about two inches long. Lay a piece of flat iron or any smooth iron on the lap. Heat the needle- point red-hot in an alcohol lamp or other flame and lay it on the iron and strike it while red-hot with a hammer ; this will flatten the end or point like a chisel. The heating has removed the temper. Reheat to redness and plunge in cold water to retemper. The boys can whittle out handles and set the school-made awls into them. 2. Bore the bones from end to end like beads. 3. For seat-work gwe a child the bones of a foot which has previously been bored, and give him also needle and thread or piece of fine wire. Ask him to string the bones and make a chicken's foot of them. The feet and also all kinds of wings may be managed in like manner. BONES. III. I. Wings. Having eaten the flesh from the wing of chicken at dinner, save the bones and boil them in a little strong soap-suds to remove the grease. These may be glued or wired as in the preceding lesson. If the teacher cannot Animals. 93 find time for such work in school, they may be fixed and mounted on Saturday for use in the school museum, and, being kept, will serve for years in giving instruction on bones and joints. Nothing affords more interest to the pupil than to procure FIG. 26. — SHEEP'S FOOT. and prepare skeletons and parts of skeletons. The feet of sheep, of pigs, and of calves are obtained for the asking of any butcher, and the village and country boys can tell where to find the bodies of horses, goats, and other animals long since deceased. In an experience extending over many 94 Lessons in Nature Study. years I have never found lack of material or lack of enthu- siasm in pupils as a reason for neglecting this kind of study. It smacks of adventure. It is conducting them into a field full of new facts and awakens new interest in them. II. Sheep's Fore Leg. Boil the leg until the flesh is very soft and is easily re- moved from the bones. If it has been boiled long enough, FIG. 27. — HORSE s FOOT. the bones may be cleaned by wiping off the flesh which adheres. Then add plenty of soap to the water and boil the bones. This will remove the fat and render the bones white. They should be bored and wired. The teacher who tries this alone, or who requires the pupils tQ do so, will riot regret the. time, so spent, The Animals. 95 adaptation of bone to bone is as beautiful as the arrange- ment of the parts of a flower. BONES. IV. SUTURES AND BONES OF THE SKULL AND FACE. Some of the bones of the skull give trouble to students. The ethmoid and turbinal bones are rarely understood per- fectly, and I have found even medical students unable to SkuU FIG. 28.— SKULL AND FOOT OF QUAIL. Few make point out the first of these two, even from a skull, schools possess human skulls, and as a means to clearer the study of skulls the following is suggested : Procure any skull, as of a sheep, from the butcher, him saw it through the middle from front to back, give the skull a boiling in hot water with soap or sal-soda ; then rinse it thoroughly and dry. Point out each bone and call attention to the beautiful §utures that run between the bones, If it is the skull of a. Have First g6 Lessons in Nature Study. cow, be sure they notice that in lieu of front teeth the cow has a bone (pre-maxillary) not found in man. Show the interior of the skull. Here the ethmoid and sphenoid bones are exhibited clearly, and the office of each is plainly indicated. The delicate turbinal bone rolled up in its narrow cham- ber and the long knifelike vomer are easily found and form most interesting objects. Procure enamel paints and paint each bone a different color, so that the shapes and outlines of the bones and the interlacing of sutures are brought out into sharp contrast. After the paint is dry label each bone and mount the skull on a board. This will form a useful object for future lessons, a neces- ary piece of apparatus made by pupils while learning the subject. Of the bones not found in human skulls nothing need be said. The pupils of the Chatham School prepared the skulls of the cow, pig, dog, and sheep one year. An Incident. — Last fall I learned that a goat had been buried in the vicinity three years before. Knowing that nature had by this time done much toward cleaning the bones, I said to my physiology class that I would be ready to go with the boys any Saturday morning to dig up the goat and prepare his skeleton. On the following Saturday five boys reported at my house, and we set out for the grave of his goatship. We dug " BiHy " up, and having placed his bones in a bag, we bore him home in triumph. After boiling the bones in sal-soda and then soaking over- night in bleaching-powder, we rinsed them in clear water and laid them in the sun to dry. The next day was spent in arranging the bones. One day each week we spent a half hour in boring and fitting, until at last Billy's bones were in position. His skeleton now adorns the school- room. Can any one question the educational value of such work? (Notice that only those who wanted to go to the digging up went, so, that the most objectionable feature was not forced upon anybody.) Animals. 97 In arranging the bones one of the boys took a humerus and tried to fit the ball at its upper end into the socket of the hip-bone. He came to me and said, " These bones do not fit." He was quite sure that he had a femur instead of a humerus. On being told to hunt again he went to work, and at length found the shoulder-blade. This taught them that we are not made haphazard. There is method in the way in which bone is joined to bone. The child who catches a glimpse of the plan of the Creator in the structure of animals has caught something worthy to be treasured in his mind and heart. The accompanying drawings were made by pupils of seventh and eighth grades, from work with bones actually prepared by the children themselves. BONES. V. FOR HIGHER GRADES. In the preceding articles on this theme bones have been studied by putting them into the hands of the children^ and by requiring a careful study of each bone, its shape, size, structure, and adaptation to the purpose for which it was intended. The lowest pupils strung them like beads, or glued them to cards, putting together the feet and wings of animals. The chicken foot and wing, the simplest struc- tures of this kind, were prepared by lowest primary or second-year pupils. Much composition, language, and number-work was based upon them. The second step was with the foot of the sheep, and later still the pig's foot. Here again the work was made a basis for language, number, and composition, and the manufac- ture of their own drills gave manual training of a practical character. The third step, rather more difficult, consisted in more especial work on skulls, noticeably those of larger animals, where the sutures are marked, and it was advised that these bones be painted with enamel paints so as to bring out their 98 Lessons in Nature Study. contour the better and emphasize their functions and names upon the pupil. The last step is the construction of a complete skeleton. For this purpose it is well to select some animal whose bones are large enough to bore and wire easily. I have found that of a dog to be the best. Nearly every child can tell where a dog has .been buried. If long dead, the remains can be disinterred without serious offence to eyes or nose. I would advise, however, that the first trial of this kind be made on a fresh specimen. The boys will readily skin the body and remove the viscera. Then boil the body in water for an hour or two in an old kettle or boiler out in the yard. Having cooked the dog until the flesh is beginning to loosen from the bones, take carefully from the water and remove the legs entire. Give each pupil i part to clean, as a leg, a head, the spinal column, or the ribs. This is done without touching the flesh if it is thoroughly cooked. Let each pupil keep his bones separate, and when cleaned have them boiled a few moments in water with soap, sal-soda, or other alkaline sub- stance. This removes the grease and renders the bones white and smooth. If on drying they still smell of fat, cover with water in which some bleaching-powder is dissolved. This deodor- izes and disinfects the bones. Let each pupil bore and wire his part as he did in the preceding three lessons. When all parts are wired, join them together and mount on a board so cut as to fit the back and mounted on another board for a stand. The accompanying photograph is that of a dog put up and mounted by my physiology class of 1893. The boards were sawed, fitted, etc., the bones bored, wired, etc. — in short, the whole work was done by the boys and girls. Of course work of this kind is done only by older pupils, but those pupils who have done the earlier work can do this last with ease. It requires little time in school. The boiling and scraping are done out of school hours. The Animals. 99 boring and wiring may be planned to be done in lesson- time twice a week, and so there will be very little interfer- ence with regular work. As to the preparation of skeletons of small animals, like rats, squirrels, frogs, etc., the bones being too small to bore, glue is used, but the specimen is too frail to stand long. Another way is to boil very little and remove the flesh, but FIG. 29. — SKELETON OF A DOG. keep the bones all united, leaving the cartilage to join the bones. I have done this many times and I have had success in this way. Another way is to soak the body in strong potash for two days, then rinse and soak again in a weaker solution, repeat- ing until the flesh is dissolved, and the whole skeleton will come out intact. This method is used by naturalists gener- i oo Lessons in Nature Study. ally, and Principal Hulsart, of Dover, N. J., has some beau- tiful specimens of skeletons done in this way. Care must be taken, however, for if the potash is too strong the toes and fingers come off. I should rather advise the use of larger skeletons, as it gives a better exercise where the scholars do the work entirely. Where a school has a skeleton of a dog, the subject of bones may be taught almost as well as if it were the skele- ton of a man instead. I have known pupils to become so enthusiastic in the study of bones that on Saturdays a knot of boys would gather in some grove or meadow to boil a dead animal for next week's study. For many useful hints in regard to work with bones, I am very greatly indebted to Dr. E. W. Claypole of Buchtel College, Akron, O., whose valuable contributions to science are well known. The School Museum. 101 Chapter KIT. THE SCHOOL MUSEUM. Every school, no matter what its grade or condition, should have a museum. In Chapter VII the matter of vacation collections will be considered. The present chapter has rather to do with the preparation and arrange- ment of specimens which may from time to time drift into the school-room and become part of a permanent collection. 1. Classification. — No rigid scientific arrangement is recommended. Many systems are in vogue. The simplest is to conform to the great kingdoms of nature. Thus the separation of all minerals, vegetable forms, animal products, into groups would form the first rude attempt at classifica- tion. As the collection grows, it will be found necessary to sub-classify each of the above groups. Thus specimens having an historic value may be separated from others, no matter to what kingdom they belong. Animal collections may be subdivided into insect collections, egg collections, and so forth. 2. Preparation. — Seed collections are best arranged in small phials or pill-boxes. Each phial or box should be labelled, and the entire set of boxes placed in a larger one, so that they may be taken down at a moment's notice. I have found it convenient to place the smallest seeds in homoeopathic phials, and arrange these in Clark's O. N. T. thread-boxes, larger seeds in boxes of the same kind, and the thread-boxes placed in a shoe-box just large enough to hold them. io2 Lessons in Nature Study. Shells may be arranged in a similar way. Twigs bearing buds are best placed upon large stiff cards. Woods may be cut in uniform length and placed in boxes, or small screw-eyes may be inserted, and they may be suspended from cup-hooks in a lath tacked above the blackboard. Insects should be placed in boxes from which the dust is excluded. Soft animals should be preserved in alcohol and bottled. In lieu of a cupboard in which to keep these collections a very good one may be devised by employing wooden boxes 3X2X1 foot in dimensions, such as are used for ship- ping soap. Two of these boxes placed one above the other form a substantial frame into which shelves may be fitted. A curtain may be hung in front, and the outside may receive a coat of paint or stain, which will convert the boxes into a very respectable cabinet. 3. The Curator. — Nothing is more unpleasant than to see a collection of any kind of curios covered with dust. To keep a museum in good order requires the expenditure of no little time and attention. To this end it is well to have from the outset a curator. Pupils should be made to feel that this office is one of honor. This will make them willing to hold the office. Its duties should be (a) to label all new specimens and place them with their kind ; (b) to keep specimens clean from dust and be responsible for them while in office. The curator should take care that specimens do not become disarranged, and in schools when a case with lock is provided he should have the key. 4. Exhibits. — I have found a very fertile source of specimens to be the homes of pupils. In many a house may be found unique and often very valuable curios, which are not cared for by the owners. Rare minerals, beautiful corals, shells from distant seas are often found relegated to the garret, whence they may be brought to become a perpetual source of instruction in the school-room. A good way to obtain such treasures for the museum is The School Museum. 103 to hold exhibits — i.e., let each pupil bring in something to tell about. A half hour may be given on some Friday afternoon ; once a month, perhaps. Each pupil is requested to bring some curio to school. When the time comes for the exercise, each one rises and exhibits what he has brought. He tells something about it, and then passes it around for inspection. These things need not be given to the museum. They may be loaned for the occasion and taken home again imme- diately, or they may be loaned for the term. But a large number will come to be a part of the permanent collection. Do not compel pupils to bring things to the exhibit. A few will do so at first, and others will desire to do so later. An example of such an exhibit is added. During the first three weeks of the month the teacher had said that on the last Friday of the month they would hold an exhibit. She explained what it would be, and requested all pupils to bring in something, at least for exhibition. On Friday afternoon, one half hour before closing-time, all work was laid aside, except the curios, which were all concealed in pockets or desks. The teacher began by ask- ing how many had brought things to the exhibit. Many hands went up. Some, of course, had nothing. John had a piece of iron ore. He rose and said : " This is a piece of iron ore from the mines in northern Michigan." He was asked to show upon the map where these mines are located. Mary said : " I have a piece of coral. It came from the Pacific Ocean. My uncle brought it home with him." Stella had a piece of velvet made in Lyons. Martha had found a flint arrowhead. Ivan had a picture of London Bridge, and Henry showed a canteen taken on the battle- field of Gettysburg. Other facts were brought out on each of these articles, and the lesson was over. The teacher had taken note of errors in language. These would be taken up in their next language lesson. Some 104 Lessons in Nature Study. pupils who had been unprepared went home to search for things for next exhibit. 5. General Exhibits. — In connection with the students' other work it is well once a year to lay out the school museum for public inspection. Many people will be inter- ested, and much valuable material will find its way into your hands. 6. In General. — All specimens should be labelled with name (if known) and the name of the donor or leaner. Labels may be made after the following plan : Number. Name Locality Donated by. Thus: Number, 25. Name, White Marble. Locality, Rutland, Vt. Donated by Mrs. E. T. Bowser. 7» Uses. — The museum is one of the teacher's most efficient means in imparting instruction. Our museum is used constantly for reference. The specimens are used as objects for drawing, language lessons, etc. On rainy days it is often most useful. Every class in geography finds material for his lesson. I once overheard one boy say to the curator : " Say, Jim, have you anything on South Africa ?" " Jim " thought a minute. "Yes," said he, "we've got some ivory, a piece of gold quartz, and an ostrich feather." " Gim-me-um," said the other. The School Museum. 105 As a device for rainy days it is sometimes well to allow each pupil to select a specimen from the museum, and de- scribe it orally or in writing. I have seen excellent descrip- tions of starfishes, birds' eggs, and other interesting things taken haphazard from the museum. 106 Lessons in Nature Study. Chapter -T7t RAINY-DAY LESSONS. LESSONS ON WATER. I. Forms of Water. Select a lump of ice, and bring it into the school-room. What is this ? Describe it. Clear, cold, brittle. Give each child a piece. What does it do when brought into the house ? Why does it melt in the hand ? Let us hold the thermometer-bulb on the ice. What does the quicksilver do in the thermometer ? How far does it go down ? We will melt this piece of ice. What does the heat change it into ? Is ice " lighter or heavier than water ? Will it float on water ? Why does the ice stay on the top of the pond instead of sinking ? II. Now let us put the water on the stove. What does it do ? What comes off from this boiling water ? Let us put the thermometer in this boiling water. What does the quick- silver do now ? How high does it rise ? What does cold do to the quicksilver ? Heat ? Let us put just a little water in this baking-powder box, and set it on the stove. We will put the cover on tightly, and make a small hole in the cover with an awl. When the water boils, what happens ? Hold a cold piece of glass in the steam a moment. What is on the glass ? Breathe on the glass. What is there on the glass now ? We call water when cold and solid ice ; when liquid, as we usually see it, water ; when hot, coming from boiling water, steam, vapor. In what form is water Lessons on Water. 107 that comes from our breath ? What form is in the well ? Tell me some other forms of water. Fog, snow, cloud, hail, rain. III. Catch snowflakes on a piece of black cloth, and examine with a glass. Draw all the different forms you can find. Darken the room and put a thin piece of ice over a hole in the shutter, so that the sunlight can pass through. Now look with the glass. What do you see ? Are these crystals like snow crystals ? How do they differ ? Get a sheet of ice from some little brook or puddle where the water has gone down after the ice was frozen. Examine the beauti- ful crystals on the under side. Examine crystals forming on a cold window. Examine the steam as it issues from a teakettle. Is it white just where it leaves the spout? Why not ? IV. Properties of Water. 1. Take a spoonful of sugar and place it in a cup of cold water. Stir it a second and pour off the water. Is all the sugar there ? Where has the rest of it gone ? Taste it. Do you taste the sugar ? What has the water done to the sugar ? Take a spoonful of sugar and put it in a cup of hot water. Stir it also one second, and pour off as before. Where is the sugar now ? Does hot water dissolve sugar more or less rapidly than cold water ? Water dissolves substances put into it. 2. Place thermometer in freezing water. At what tem- perature does it freeze ? 3. Place thermometer in boiling water. At what temper- ature does it boil ? 4. Place a small dish of water out of doors on a cold night ; next day get it and see what has occurred. Why did the dish break ? Why did the ice bulge ? What does water do, then, in freezing ? It expands. 5. Hold up a glass of water. Look through it. De- scribe it. io8 Lessons in Nature Study. V. Question the class about the uses of water, ice, and snow. Have some of the various poems on snow, winter, etc., read in school. (Lowell's description of winter in the Vision of Sir Launfall is among the finest in literature.) Draw- ing snow crystals is interesting and instructive work. Frost on windows is also very beautiful. An experiment may be made by placing a tumblerful of cracked ice in a warm room. There will soon form on the outside of the glass beautiful frost crystals. This proves the presence of water vapor in the atmosphere. LESSONS ON TEETH. Among the most interesting things which will be brought in by children will be teeth of animals. Little children sometimes bring their first teeth, and recount the trials they endured in having them extracted. In the country it is easy to obtain teeth from defunct animals, and in the city any dentist will give you a handful if you ask him. I. Human Teeth (Pig. 30, i). Supply each child with as many as possible. Get pupils to describe a tooth as regards its parts, body, roots, and crown. The enamel and the dentine, with the small masses of cement adhering to the ends of the root, are all easily seen and described. If you find among the teeth one which has been decayed, you can show to the pupils the pulp-cavity inside. Differences between single and double teeth should be brought out. Tell the children to feel their teeth, and see where single and double are. Tell them to count their teeth. If any one brings in a " milk-tooth," show it to the children, and let them see that it has no root, etc. I have found it very interesting " seat-work " to pass around a large handful of human teeth, and get the chil- Lessons on Teeth. 109 dren to arrange them as they should be, placing them in a semicircle, thus : bi i <***'**'* '* blbi m m FIG. 30.— TEETH. Such busy-work as this helps to fix knowledge of teeth, their names position, etc., on the child's mind: A sample set may be glued to the inside of a box and be kept for future lessons. no Lessons in Nature Study. II. Carnivorous Teeth (Fig. 30, 2). Carnivorous teeth are best obtained by securing the head of a cat, dog, or some other flesh- eating animal. When you cannot get such a skull, the best thing to do is to lay a liv- ing dog or cat under contribution. Call attention to the greater number of incisors, the long sharp cuspids, the narrow edges of the back teeth. It is easy to discover the vast difference between teeth of this kind and those of a boy or girl. Bring out the adaptation displayed in giving us grinding teeth, and giving to the cat family teeth for tearing and cutting. Make comparisons to show that both have enamel, both have roots, both have cement and dentine. III. Herbivorous Teeth (Fig. 30, 3). From the butcher you can get cow teeth, and from the veterinary surgeon horse teeth, and the farmer or butcher will supply you with sheep teeth and swine teeth and tusks. IV. Fish's Teeth (Fig. 30, 4). Procure a fish head. Open the mouth. Pass it around, so that all may see. The teeth are not atone in the jaw. They are all over the sides of the mouth and the roof of it. They are upon the tongue, and away down the throat. Run your finger down the throat and feel them. Note their shape, their lack of root, and their exceeding small- ness. If you can show some shark teeth, you will add to the interest. V. Omnivorous Teeth (Fig. 30, 5). To this class belong the teeth of hogs and bears. Men's teeth are really of this kind. Institute comparisons as be- fore, being sure to bring out the fact that these teeth are like those of the flesh-eaters in some respects, but that they are like those of the herb-eaters in other respects. In other words, nature wisely adapted the teeth of animals to eat different kinds of food. This adaptation of teeth to Lessons on Teeth. m food is shown still better in the teeth of the next class of animals. VI. Gnawing Teeth (Fig. 30, 6). The skulls of rabbits, squirrels, muskrats, rats, and mice are easily obtained and are very interesting to study : the long front teeth, two in each jaw, the enamel only on the outside in front, the tops bevelled so as to be like a chisel. These are fitted for gnawing through any hard body. The side teeth are like those of herb-eaters. The front teeth are exceed- ingly long. Their roots are far back in the jaws. They wear off very fast at the ends and grow out as fast as they wear away, another instance of nature's care and foresight. TALK UPON TEETH. See how peculiar these teeth are. Are they the teeth of a flesh-eater ? Why not ? Are they human teeth ? Why not ? Compare them as regards size, shape, etc., with the teeth of cats and men. See how flat they are on the top. They are grooved. Why is this so ? Break one open to show how it looks within. It seems as if it had been soft once on a time and was then rolled up. Find the eye-teeth. How do they compare with those of men and dogs ? THE EXPLORATION OF A ROSE. One of the most entertaining lessons I have ever enjoyed giving was an exploration of a rose. Any double rose will do for the purpose, but a cultivated tea-rose, such as is grown by florists, is best. Each child should be supplied with a rose, a pencil pad, pencil, and, where possible, a simple magnifying glass. The glass is not absolutely necessary, but it aids greatly in show- ing the curious forms inside the rose. Tell the children that the rose contains some very curious things. Teach them which are sepals and which petals, and then require them to pick their roses to pieces just as you do. i. Remove the outer circle of petals. Are these alike in shape ? Draw one petal. 112 Lessons in Nature Study. 2. Remove the second circle of petals. Are these like the petals of the first circle ? How do they differ ? Draw a petal of the second circle if these petals show a tendency to become narrower. 3. Thus, slowly remove one circle at a time, comparing the petals with those of the rows already removed. It is not necessary to draw every one, but only the petals of FIG. 3o«. — EVOLUTION OF THE GARDEN ROSE. those circles which show a difference. The interest will at once be aroused, because, as they approach the centre of the flower, the petals take on various curious and often fantastic forms, until they partake of the nature of both petals and stamens. At last the petal-forms disappear and normal stamens are found. The drawings will show every stage of development from stamen to petal, and each child A Study of Celery. 1 1 3 will have discovered for himself a strange and interesting fact in nature. Written and oral descriptions should also be given. Other double flowers show still more wonderful transfor- mations. Thus the flowering almond has had all its stamens changed to petals and the pistil often to a leaf. The pu- pils, having had their attention turned to this line of in- quiry, will often bring in results of independent observa- tions in the same direction. The water-lily shows every stage of petal development from the stamen. Having had the foregoing lesson in spring before wild roses are in bloom, direct pupils to examine the single roses for beginnings of this development. They will often find stamens which are beginning to show a change in form ; hence the lesson that all our cultivated roses are produced from single wild parents. Similar facts may be introduced to illustrate the working of this law of evolution in other things. The following are suggested : Apples produced from the wild crab-apple, peaches and almonds from the same wild parents, fantail doves, and indeed all ornamental doves, from the wild pigeon. The fact that all cultivated things will degenerate into the primitive form unless cultivated will furnish material for lessons in morals. A STUDY OF CELERY. Directions. — The teacher should bring in celery, or have the children do so. If possible, plants should be had which have roots attached. It is not necessary that each child have a whole plant. One leaf with its long petiole is sufficient for each. The lesson on the gentian introduced the pupils to plant- life as a unit. They have seen the roots, stems, leaves, flowers, etc. The object of this lesson on celery is to show the children how some plants are built up. Lessons in Nature Study. FIG. 31.— ENTIKE CELERY PLANT, A Study of Celery. 115 I am aware that there are people who will shake their heads and declare that to give such work as " struc- tural botany " in a primary room is the acme of folly. In reply I -have but to say that the "structural botany" in this outline is nothing more that what may be seen with the naked eye. I introduce Fig. 32 merely to furnish the teacher with something to put on the board in case she wants to show FIG. 32. — CROSS-SECTION OF CELERY, SHOWING STRUCTURE. the children how a thin slice of celery looks under the mi- croscope, for I judge that few schools are supplied with that very useful instrument. The lesson may be given without any glass whatever, and I am sure that the child will be led to discover something of the way nature builds up her organisms. The gentian is too small a plant to dissect in this way, but celery is n6 Lessons in Nature Study. large, coarse, and tender. It is easily cut, and it shows its structure very readily to the naked eye. The Lesson. — Talk about the plant, its name, taste, smell; its uses, i.e., as a food, medicine, etc.; its history, i.e., how it was formerly called " smellage," and how people used to carry bunches of it to church to smell of during three-hour sermons. Find out how it is planted, what soil it affects, how it is cultivated, how it is cooked or prepared for the table, etc. Note the fibrous roots, the short, hard, woody stem, and the ridges upon the leaf-stems. Bring out the number and ar- rangement of leaflets (ternately pinnate). Tell pupils that the whole mass of leaflets makes up one leaf. Then such questions as the following may be put : 1. Each leaf has how many parts ? 2. Each part has how many parts ? 3. Each of these last parts is how divided ? 4. Are the divisions all alike ? 5. Are the branches of the foot-stalk all equal in length ? 6. How long are the side branches ? 7. How long is the middle part ? 8. How far do the ridges run up the stem ? 9. Are the ridges alike all the way ? 10. Do the ridges ever run together ? 1 1. How does the inner side of the celery-stem differ from the outer side ? 12. What color is this celery ? 13. Is it alike throughout? 14. Why does it vary in color ? 15. Why is it more brittle near the base ? 16. How does the farmer make it so? 17. What do they call this ? 18. Yes ; they call it bleaching the celery. 19. Why does covering the stalks make them so white and tender ? 20. What makes the tops turn green ? 31, Do plants kept in the dark turn white ? A Study of Celery* 1 1 7 22. Did you ever see potatoes, onions, and turnips which have sprouted in dark cellars in the winter ? 23. How did they look ? 24. Taste of the white end and of the green leaf an, are well worth study. This shows how streams are the enemies of lakes. The inlets are constantly trying to fill up the lakes with mud, while the outlets are trying to cut open a wider and deeper channel to let out the water stored up. Our pupils found a rill flowing down the hillside, which emptied into a small puddle of quiet water. At the mouth of this rill a delta had formed with thirteen separate streams. The sediment had been sorted in a truly wonderful manner. Practical and systematic observations upon temperature by the aid of the thermometer are valuable as lessons. They are best given in the school-yard. I have found them very helpful to geography work later on. TEMPERATURE. I wonder how warm it is this morning. Frank, you may take the thermometer out and find how hot it is. Frank returns, having found the thermometer to register 72°. Where did you take the temperature ? Go out and see if it is just the same on the north side of the building, Mary. Mary finds it only 70°. Floyd is now sent out into the road to find the temperature there. He returns and finds the temperature about 71°. Try to find the reason for such difference of temperature. Is it warmer on the north or Lessons in the School-yard. 139 south side of the building ? Why ? Where is it warmer — near the house or out in the field ? Why ? Such facts as these will help us in all our work : Why is Mr. Clark's cow-shed open on the south side and shut on the north ? Why are Mr. Ryan's rose-houses fixed with their roofs sloping toward the south ? Why has Mr. Moore put his garden on the south slope of the hill ? Why does snow remain longer where I live than where Sanford lives ? Why do the cows always get on the south side of the fences in cold weather? When the sun shines on the ground, it warms the air, and if we can have a fence, or shed, or wall to keep the wind from blowing this warm air away, it will be warmer for our plants and animals. When I came to school this morning, I saw that Elsie had al Ithe geraniums and heliotropes covered with papers. Why did she do that, Irving ? " To keep the cold out." " To keep them from freezing." Why does such treatment pre- vent plants from freezing, Mattie ? " Because the papers keep the air under them very quiet, and the wind cannot blow the warm air away." The earth is being warmed every day, all day, long. When the sun goes down, this heat escapes from the ground. It warms the air next to the ground. Now if we can cover the plarrts, t-his warm air will be kept in, and so the plants will be saved. From what does all this heat come ? Yes, it comes from the sun. The sun is the source of heat. Do you think we could live without the sun's heat ? No, every living thing would perish. The sun gives us heat, and so it is the source of life, too. How can we help warm plants and animals so that they will thrive and increase for us ? Yes, by sheds, walls, and protections against winds and cold. I saw radishes in market last March. The frost was in the ground. It was very cold, and the wind was blowing as it always does in March. " They grew in a cold-frame or a hotbed." " Perhaps they were raised in a greenhouse." That is right. Let us see what you can tell me about these things. These are the principal ways that we have of 140 Lessons in Nature Studv. catching the sun's heat and holding it so as to make our plants grow before the weather outside will permit. Henry may find out what a cold-frame is and how to make one, and tell us to-morrow. James may tell us about hotbeds. This art of raising early vegetables is called " forwarding." This is an important business near large cities. Carrie may look up this word and tell us about it to-morrow. THE LEAF-BUD. Much time and attention have been given of late to pri- mary lessons on plant-forms and plant-life. The seed, its coats, its cotyledons and germ have been taken and studied, and their development has been watched and each stage drawn. Comparatively little, however, has been done with leaf- buds. Now these are nearly as interesting objects of study as are the seeds. They have the added advantage of being larger, and are thus much easier for pupils of primary grade to study. Children, there are interesting things in the yard. Let us see if we can find them. How brightly the sun shines ! Pretty soon the trees will spread their leaves and we shall have shade here. Who has a sharp knife ? Henry, you may get me some twigs from this tree. James, you may get some from that tree. Mary may get some from the bush over yonder. Let each get enough for the class. Now we will go in and study them. We will put the twigs in water and keep them fresh. Here are some twigs from a hickory-tree. See what large buds it has. What is the shape of this bud ? Where is the bud (end or side) ? How many outer scales are there ? What color are they ? Are they hard or soft ? Smooth or rough ? Thick or thin ? How do they differ from the inner scales ? How do the insides of scales differ from the outsides ? What do you find on the edges of these inner bud-scales ? Why is the fine down put on these scales ? See how beautifully these scales lap over each other. Lessons in the School-yard. 141 Carefully remove the scales, one scale at a time ; have the children notice the beautiful lustrous down covering the scales until the little tuft of leaves is reached. What do you find in the centre of this bud ? Leaves. How are these leaves folded in the bud ? How many leaves do you find in your bud, Harry ? Pick these off and tell me what you FIG. 35.— BUDS. a, Ailanthus ; £, beech ; c, sycamore ;