University of California • Berkeley

The Joseph M. Bransten
Coffee and Tea Collection

A TREATISE

THE NATURE AND CULTIVATION

COFFEE;

WITH SOME

KEMAKKS ON THE MANAGEMENT AND PUECHASE

COFFEE ESTATES.

BY

AETHUR E. W. LASCELLES,

MANAGING DIRECTOR, MOYAE COFFEE COMPANY (LIMITED).

LONDON:
SAMPSON LOW, SON, AND MARSTON,

MILTON HOUSE, LTJD&ATE HILL.

1865.
[The right of translation is reserved.]

KABRILD,

PREFACE.

IN the following pages no pretensions are made to
literary composition or elegance of diction. They
are put forth simply as hints, both to those who
purpose engaging actively in the cultivation of coffee,,
and as a guide to others who wish to know somewhat
of the nature of the undertaking they are engaged in,
when they subscribe for shares in any of the numerous
coffee companies which are so frequently launched.
During his planting experience of nearly a quarter of
a century, the author has frequently, both in his own case
and in that of others, had occasion to regret the absence
of any such information as is here sought to be
afforded, and if this publication should in any measure
supply a need which is generally admitted, by those

IV PREFACE.

most acquainted with the subject, to be seriously felt
by beginners, or should it lead to the subject being
taken up by others more capable of dealing with it,
the author's object will be obtained.

A. L.

61, MARK LANE, E.G.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I. PAGE

DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY 1

CHAPTEE II.
PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION 5

CHAPTEE III.
VARIETIES OF PLANT — INFLUENCE OF CULTIVATION, 8

CHAPTEE IT.

ANALYSIS AND ADULTERATION — COFFEE-TEA 13

CHAPTEE V.
CULTIVATION IN CEYLON AND INDIA 15

CHAPTEE VI.
OPENING AN ESTATE 19

CHAPTEE VII.
BUILDINGS 28

CHAPTEE VIII.
PEELING, GARBLING, SIZING, AND PACKING FOR EXPORT 33

VI CONTENTS.

CHAPTER IX. PAGE

COFFEE IN SOUTHERN INDIA. 35

CHAPTER X.

GENERAL CULTIVATION, WEEDING, PRUNING, MANURING, IRRI-
GATION, PICKING, PULPING, ETC 39

CHAPTER XI.
ESTIMATES AND EXPENSES c 47

CHAPTER XII.
DISEASES, ETC 52

CHAPTER XIII.-NOTE.
THE COFFEE BUG 55

CHAPTER XIV.
CONCLUDING REMARKS 62

APPENDIX.
FORMS OF ACCOUNTS 69

ERRATA.
Page 3, line 7 from the top, for " Euarea" read " Enarea."

17,
22,
25,
33,
40,
42,
43,

43,
49,

23
18
14

7
4
5
8

9
14

" roomrie " read " koomrie."
after " last " insert " lines."
"lopped" read "topped."
" nine " read " four to five."
" cultivation " read " ventilation."
" create " read " increase."
" gentle undulated " read " gently un-
dulating."

"sparely " read "sparsely."
"and" read "of the."

THE

NATUKE AND CULTIVATION

OF COFFEE,

CHAPTER I.

DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY.

BOTANISTS and historians are alike divided in opinion
as to the origin of the name of the plant; but it appears
probable that it was given from its being first found in
its natural wild state in the country of Cafe, one of the
provinces of Abyssinia, where at this day it is still
found in the woods, and where a large sheep-skinful
may be purchased for less than a shilling,* and where
it is called Kahwah. The plant itself belongs to the
natural order Cinchonacea, an order which supplies
many of the most useful drugs and medicines. There
are several species, but as opinions differ as to whether
some of these are not mere varieties, and as many of
the distinctive qualities yield to cultivation, and are
materially influenced by differences of soil, climate,

* Harris's " Highlands of Ethiopia."

2 THE NATURE AND CULTIVATION OF COFFEE.

and temperature, one only, the coffee of commerce,
produced by the Goffea Arabica, will meet with notice
in these pages. The plant is now widely diffused over
all the tropical parts of the world. It is found in most
of the West India Islands, in all the provinces of
Central America, Cayenne, Brazil, Peru, and Bolivia.
In Africa it has found a congenial habitat ; in the rising
colony of Nafcal, and again in the northern part of the
same continent ; it flourishes both in a wild and cul-
tivated state in many parts of Nubia and Abyssinia ;
in Asia it is widely spread over Arabia, the western
coast of India, Ceylon, Bourbon, Mauritius, Java, and
some of the Pacific Islands ; and in many of these
places it is found in climates differing as much as 20°
in average temperature. The coffee plant will bear
extremes of climate better than most plants. In
Jamaica it is found on the Blue Mountain, upwards of
6000 feet above the sea, and in the East Indies it is
seen growing and producing at Coonoor on the Neil-
gherries at a similar elevation ; whilst, on the other
hand, it is also seen growing at the level of the sea, in
both hemispheres, a difference of average temperature
of from 20° to 30°. It is contended that the coffee
produced at a high elevation is of a finer quality than
that grown in a warmer temperature ; this is, however,
very questionable. No coffee yet produced bears a
better character or realizes a higher price in the market
than Cannon's Mysore ; this is certainly not more than
3500 feet, and the coffee produced at the extremes of
climate is always small, generally much lighter, and
the actual number of berries far less than that grown
in a genial climate. Experience has proved that from

DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY. 3

lat. 6° to 12° an elevation of from 3000 to 4000 feet is
the most suited, whilst beyond this 500 feet of eleva-
tion should be allowed for every degree of latitude. It
is now an ascertained fact, that much of the far-famed
Mocha coffee is produced in India and shipped from
Bombay to Mocha, and no inconsiderable portion also
comes from the low land of Cafe and Buarea in Africa.
The excellence of Mocha coffee appears to exist more in
the method of curing than from any other cause.

There is quite as much variance of opinion as to the
facts of the discovery and use of coffee as a beverage,
as there is regarding its nomenclature, the oft-repeated
fable of the effect of the leaves being first discovered
in goats which had been browsing on the leaves, would
not account for the use of the roasted seed ; whilst un-
fortunately for the propagators of this tale it is well
known that no animal will eat the coffee leaf, cattle
passing through an estate may take a few leaves as
they pass, but fortunately for the planter the tree
itself has few enemies, and estates are left without
fence or hedge of any kind with impunity. Sambur,
deer, bison, and wild hog, pass through estates with-
out doing any injury, except occasionally rubbing their
horns or antlers against the bushes, and perhaps tast-
ing a few leaves. It appears most probable that as in
almost every other case of human food, necessity was
the mother of invention. The fruit itself is beautiful
in appearance, and sweet and luscious to the taste,
and when it was once discovered that it contained a
bean, nothing would be more natural than that its use
should be economized and various modes of cooking
be attempted, until the present process had been

4 THE NATURE AND CULTIVATION OF COFFEE.

found the most palatable. All accounts agree that it
was first introduced into England from Turkey about
the year 1650, but for many years its use was confined
to the rich, and it was used as a stimulating liquor in
place of wine. In 1690 the plant was introduced into
Java, where it was kept by the Dutch with their
usual jealousy, and it was not until about 1720 that it
was imported into Surinam, another Dutch colony, and
thence, some ten years after, its cultivation was at-
tempted in Jamaica. It does not appear to have been
introduced into Brazil until 1782, and thence it has
become widely spread all over the tropical world,
whilst from Brazil alone 1,495,697 bags, or 2,243,545
cwts., were exported in 1864, though the quantity has
much decreased of late compared with previous years'
exports.

CHAPTER II.

PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION.

THE Eastern hemisphere appears quite to have taken
the place of the Western in the production and supply
of coffee. Partly owing to the high price of labour
and land, and partly to other causes, such as exhaus-
tion of soil, etc., the British possessions in the West
Indies only produce between three and four millions
of pounds of coffee annually, against fully ten times
that quantity twenty years ago. The French and
Spanish colonies are also giving up the cultivation in
favour of other articles, and the fall in the price of the
article, together with the rise in the price of labour,
provisions, and land, all over the world, has reduced
the area where coffee can be profitably cultivated, to a
very small extent. Brazil, Java, a portion of the
Central American Republics, and our own colonies of
Ceylon and British India, are the only countries where
coffee can be cultivated with certainty as a profitable
speculation. It has been already shown that the pro-
duce of the first of these has fallen off considerably of
late years. In Java it is stationary and the produce
is inferior, whilst in Ceylon it can be produced and
shipped for 35s. per cwt., and in British India at one-
sixth less, owing to the lower rate of wages and
cheaper transport to the coast.

6 THE NATURE AND CULTIVATION OF COFFEE.

The total quantity of coffee consumed in Great Bri-
tain in 1864 was about thirty-five millions of pounds,
of which nearly thirty millions was the produce of India
and Ceylon. The total exports into Europe amount now
to about 290,000,000 lb., and the consumption having
of late years increased enormously on the Continent, as
will be seen from the annexed table, a rise of price is im-
minent as soon as the States of America shall resume
their former consumption. The following figures show
the exports from England to the Continent : —
In 1859 . . 8,600 tons

„ 1860 . . 12,743 „

„ 1861 . . 13,168 „

„ 1862 . . 17,262 „

„ 1863 . . 22,161 „

France alone consumes one-sixth of the total pro-
duction of the world. In 1809 the exports from
Jamaica alone exceeded 83,000,000 lb., whilst at
present they do not reach 6,000,000 lb. In British
Guiana the exports have fallen in like manner from
9,472,000 lb. to nothing, scarcely sufficient being now
grown for consumption in the colony. In Porto Rico
the production has slightly increased, but if we turn
to Brazil we find the following results. The exports
from Rio were in

1859 . . 2,026,819 bags

1860 . . 2,122,334 „

1861 ' . . 2,040,810 „

1862 . . 1,486,207 „

1863 . . 1,312,902 „

1864 . . 1,495,697 „

PKODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION. 7

The shipments from Eio to the United States were in
-1859 . . 1,149,441 bags

1860 . 960,804 „

1861 . . 690,270 „

1862 . . 390,956 „

1863 . . 387,138 „

1864 . . 553,120 „
Showing a decrease in the exports from Eio to the
United States of 734,650 cwts. per annum, and a
decrease in the total production of Brazil of nearly
1,000,00) cwts. annually, or more than the total pro-
duction of Ceylon and India, that of the former being
abouc 800,000 cwts. in 1864, and of the latter less
than 200,000 cwts. in the same year. In the current
yea' an increase to the former of about 50,000 cwts.,
and to the latter of about the same quantity is expected,
brhging the production up to the amount of the de-
ficet from Brazil. Prom Costa Rica and Venezuela
the exports have considerably increased of late years,
anl the quality of the coffee is good, though not equal
to best Ceylon or Indian produce.

In Java coffee is a Government monopoly, and
Government purchases the produce at a fixed price.
The average produce is about 1,250,000 cwts. annually.
The trade for the last five years is shown in the figures
annexed.

Export of Coffee from Java.

1859 . . 59,789 tons

1860 . . 54,638 „

1861 . . 61,783 „

1862 . . 63,286 „

1863 . . 62,400 „

CHAPTER III.

VARIETIES OF PLANT — INFLUENCE OF CULTIVAriON.

As is often the case, theory is opposed to practice, in
upholding the idea that there is any substantial differ-
ence in the coffee grown in different countries : where
such difference is really found to exist, it will generally
be the result of different modes of cultivation^ and
preparation for the market, or what is known as curing.
If we take the product of the principal coffee-groving
countries, we shall find them distinguished by thefol-
lowing characteristics. The West India coffee is for
the most part even sized, pale and yellowish, firm knd
heavy, with a fine aroma, and losing little in weighi by
the roasting process. That from Brazil is larger, Jess
solid, greenish or white, and the marketable articL is
usually styled by brokers as " low," or "low middling."
Java coffee is smaller, slightly elongated, pale in colour,
deficient in aroma and essential oil, and light. Ceylon
produces coffee of all descriptions, but the ordinary
plantation coffees are even, coloury, slightly canoe-
shaped, strong in aroma and flavour, of considerable
gravity, and admit better of adulteration than mosfc
other kinds. Between Ceylon and Indian coffee there
is little difference, the brokers state that Wynaad and
Neilgherry coffee have generally the preference in the
market ; but this may be ascribed partly to the small

VARIETIES OF PLANT — INFLUENCE OF CULTIVATION. 9

quantities of the latter in the market, and also to the
planters in India having bestowed more care on the
preparation in order to get a name. The quality of
coffee is mainly dependent on the soil and general cul-
tivation, and slightly on the climate, the quantity of
rain being found to exercise a material effect on the
quality of the crop, and a dry climate producing a
better flavoured and more coloury bean than the ex-
cessive moisture prevalent on some of the most highly
esteemed districts, both in the east and western hemi-
spheres. It may be mentioned in proof of the first of
these statements, that the size and appearance of the
bean has been entirely changed by improved or
neglected cultivation, and in one estate in India the
beans are scarcely larger than sweet peas, owing to
the proprietor having adopted a theory of never prun-
ing the trees, whilst several estates in Wynaad and
Ceylon, that had been neglected, have improved both
in quality and quantity of produce to an extent scarcely
credible,, since they have been manured and pruned.
Seeds from Mocha, Brazil, and Java, have been tried
in Ceylon and India, and the produce has not differed
in any respect from that of the plant already in ex-
istence there. A moist climate has further a tendency
to produce long, weak, elongated shoots, drooping
at the extremities, and the foliage is thin, the leaf long,
but devoid of substance. The real Mocha coffee is
cured in an entirely different mode from that practised
in the colonies. The berries when ripe are picked,
and spread out on large drying grounds, and are dried
with the pulp and parchment on the bean ; when
thoroughly dry the berries are passed under wooden

10 THE NATURE AND CULTIVATION OF COFFEE.

rollers or pounded in wooden mortars similar to those
used for removing the husk from rice, and the outer
skin being thus removed, the beans are winnowed,
garbled, sized, and packed for the market. The coffee
prepared in this way is seldom so even in colour and
appearance, but the aroma and flavour is better. This
method is, however, open to serious disadvantages.
Owing to the much greater bulk of the coffee before
the pulp is removed, the room for drying would require
to be very extensive, and as coffee is very liable to fer-
ment in the pulp, it must be laid very thin, and con-
st antlyaturned ; whilst in event of wet weather and ex-
posure to moisture, or the equally dangerous alternative
of heaping it up, the whole would ferment and be
utterly spoiled. The system at present pursued by
all European planters of removing the pulp by means
of machinery, which will be hereafter described, as
soon as the berries (or as they are called by planters,
cherries) are picked, and thus placing the bean beyond
the risk of fermentation, appears the best. The
quality and colour of the bean is also materially
affected by its treatment after the pulp is taken off.
It should not be kept too long in the vats for the
removal of the mucilage. This is a sweet sticky
substance, between the outer rind and the parchment,
which rapidly turns acid and loses its mucilaginous
quality, and can be easily washed off after twelve
hours' soaking in the vats ; if allowed to remain too
long on the bean, it will communicate an unpleasant
flavour. After being washed and put out on the bar-
bacues to dry, it is of importance to keep the coffee
constantly turned until it is all surface dry, and the

VARIETIES OF PLANT INFLUENCE OF CULTIVATION. 11

beans cease to adhere to each other, but it should not
be exposed to sun and wind until the pellicle known
as the parchment cracks, unless it is purposed at once
to peel and pack it, as every hour's exposure to the
atmosphere after that is removed takes away both
from the colour and the aroma of the bean. For the
same reason casks or cases are preferable to sacks for
its conveyance to the market, and it cannot be too
strongly impressed on the planter that coffee has a
strong attraction for damp and for all scents, and will
become thoroughly impregnated with any substance
with which it is brought in contact. Pepper, ginger,
salt fish, spirits of all kinds, and cocoa-nut oil, all im-
part their flavour and scent to coffee, and will spoil it
if amongst the same cargo. In what has been said
above, it is of course supposed that the coffee is picked
when fully ripe, and not, as is frequently the case with
native planters, that the trees are stripped directly a
few berries are ripe on them, for no care in curing or
packing [will impart colour or flavour to a half-ripe
bean. In order to obviate as much as possible the
risk of loss of colour and aroma in the conveyance to
Europe, it has been proposed to send the coffee home
in the parchment skin, in the same state in which it is
brought from the various estates to the shipping port
to be cleaned and shipped, but although the actual
weight of the parchment or refuse is only one-fifth of
the whole, yet the greater expense of labour in this
country has proved an insurmountable obstacle. As
the expense of cleaning and shipping is £5 per ton
on the coast, and all mechanical operations are per-
formed with greater facility in this country, this objec-

12 THE NATURE AND CULTIVATION OP COFFEE.

tion may, it is hoped, be removed at some future time,
especially as there is reason to believe that the parch-
ment skin, though thrown away abroad, could be
utilized here, both it and the pulp being used in Brazil
and Arabia as inferior coffee,

CHAPTER IV.

ANALYSIS AND ADULTERATION — COFFEE-TEA.

THE object of the present work being to supply infor-
mation to the coffee-grower, and to the very large
number of the public who are in various ways con-
nected with and interested in coffee-planting, it has
not been thought necessary to enter upon a scientific
analysis of the composition of the bean, or to enter
into the chemical and physiological view of the subject.
The part roasted is a hard horny albumen, and many
other plants having seeds of the same texture are fre-
quently used to adulterate it ; the principal substitute,
however, is chicory, and many persons prefer coffee
with a small mixture of chicory in it. This is, how-
ever, purely a matter of taste ; those who prefer really
good coffee will buy it only from respectable grocers,
and will, if able, roast it themselves. It may not be
probably known that an apparatus was patented not long
ago for making artificial coffee from chicory and other
foreign matters. The mixture of coffee with chicory
may always be detected by sprinkling it on the surface
of water : genuine coffee floats a long time, and sinks
slowly, colouring the water but slightly ; chicory sinks
quickly, and colours the water a deep brown at once.
Horse beans, roasted corn, and various other substances
are used to defraud the public, and if common report

14 THE NATURE AND CULTIVATION OP COFFEE.

may be believed, even more objectionable substances,
such as roasted horse liver and other animal matters,
find their way into the coffee-pot to the profit of the
grocer and the loss of the planter.

Attention has been lately drawn to the use of the
leaf of the coffee tree as a substitute for tea, and
experience has shown that a beverage prepared from
coffee leaf is not only palatable, but is by some pre-
ferred to the best Pekoe or Souchong. There is little
doubt that such tea would, moreover, command a sale
in Europe, so that the process is reduced simply to a
question of profit or loss in production. The first
obvious objection is that it would injure the trees to
deprive them of their leaves, which constitute their
breathing organs, but on many estates where the trees
are luxuriant and constant pruning required, no incon-
siderable quantity might be collected from the shoots
and suckers which are pruned off; this could, however,
only be done at certain seasons when the pruning is
being carried on, and practical experiment alone can
prove whether the leaf at this season is at the fittest
state for manufacture. The second objection is the
cost of collecting and preparing the leaves ; this, how-
ever, applies equally to the cultivation of tea, and need
not be considered of importance if it was ascertained
that coffee-tea would realize the average price of Assam
produce.

CHAPTER V.

CULTIVATION IN CEYLON AND INDIA.

COFFEE appears to have been first introduced into
Ceylon by the Dutch, some time about 1690, but it was
not until 1824 that coffee planting on a large scale was
commenced by Sir Edward Barnes. The great in-
crease in planting dates from 1835, since which year,
with the exception of a pause owing to commercial
depression, from 1847 to 1850, the cultivation has been
annually increasing, and at present there are 265,000
acres owned by planters, of which about the half are
under cultivation. In Ceylon, as in India, the coffee
is found to succeed best at an elevation of from 2500
to 4500 feet. Below the former the tree suffers from
droughts, and requires shade and irrigation, but where
this last can be successfully practised the cultivation
might be carried on as low as 1500 or 2000 feet.
When a higher elevation than 4500 feet is selected,
the trees suffer from the cold winds, the crop is late,
and does not all ripen, part of it commonly dying on
the trees, and the plants become woody and full of
twigs, forming numbers of small shoots instead of ex-
pending their strength in blossom and fruit. The
exports from Ceylon in 1864-5 are upwards of 800,000
cwts., and this quantity will probably be largely in-

16 THE NATURE AND CULTIVATION OF COFFEE.

creased, as much of the land in cultivation is not yet
bearing.

The railroad now in process of formation from
Colombo to Kandy, and the immense benefits resulting
from the successful operation of the road ordinance, in
opening new roads, will much facilitate transport in
Ceylon, and will impart additional impetus to the culti-
vation.

The effects of elevation may be stated to be, the
lower parts produce much sooner and generally larger
crops, but with some uncertainty, as they are more
dependent on the seasons ; the estates on the higher
ranges produce smaller but more steady crops, and
seldom are in full bearing till the fifth year. It is fre-
quently stated that the higher the elevation the finer
the quality of the coffee, but this is very doubtful, and
practical experience proves that the quality of the
coffee is more influenced by cultivation than elevation,
and even were it the case, it will be admitted by all
that ten cwts. of coffee per acre at an average price
more than compensates for the few shillings extra per
cwt. on thirty to forty per cent, less produce.

Many circumstances, however, affect climate be-
sides elevation. The neighbourhood of high moun-
tain ranges generally attracts fog, cloud, and rain, and
the base of large hills will be generally found moister
and warmer than the same elevation some distance
from the high land. It will be obvious that at a low
elevation far more moisture is necessary than at a
higher and colder atmosphere. At 2000 feet 80 to
100 inches more rain is necessary than at 4500 feet.
Again, aspect has much to do with climate ; a south-

CULTIVATION IN CEYLON AND INDIA. 17

westerly exposure being subject to high wind, hot sun
(and the full force of the monsoon) ; whilst a north-
east to a north-west will be sheltered from the direct
rays of the sun during the dry season or summer sol-
stice, and the heavy monsoon rains, which on the west
coast of India or Ceylon set in from the south-west,
will strike against the land at an acute angle, and lose
much of the force from being unaccompanied with
wind. To sum up briefly what has been said, high
elevation with cold and wet, and exposure to high
winds, or, on the other hand, a low range with exces-
sive heat and drought, are alike unfavourable, and
much judgment is needed in the selection of such a
climate as shall possess a happy medium of these
characteristics.

The subject of soil is, however, one more difficult
of solution, and one that is likely to excite more
debate than that of climate. All prefer a deep, loose
mould, of a dark chocolate colour, but many denounce
as utterly unfit for cultivation a soil possessing all
these advantages, because it is covered with the
secondary jungle (or as it is called in Ceylon, chenah ;
and in India, roomrie) which takes the place of the
original forest, when this has been cut down to produce
a crop of grain for the natives ; others, again, decry
soil, however rich, if it has had either fern or grass
upon it ; many object to the heavy bamboo land, now
so much sought after, and so profitably cultivated in
Southern India. Under the old system of coffee
cultivation, which consisted simply of cutting down a
mass of jungle, burning it off, planting the tree, and
weeding once a month or once a year, as found most

2

18 THE NATURE AND CULTIVATION OF COFFEE.

convenient, without any attempt at high cultivation or
manuring, all these objections were well founded ; but
the modern system of manuring, pruning, and trench-
ing is rapidly equalizing the value of all soils, and the
principal object of the planter should be to select a
deep and moderately loose soil, on such a slope as can
be worked without danger of its being washed away,
and not too far from roads or pasture. The means of
access to high roads is a point of great importance
affecting the estate in the expenses of every depart-
ment, and always determining the serious item of
transport of crop from the estate.

CHAPTER VI.

OPENING AN ESTATE.

FEOM what has been said in the last chapter, it will be
evident that too much care and trouble can scarcely be
taken in the selection of suitable land in the first
instance.

Several most important qualifications are necessary,
the absence of any one of which may neutralize the
others. Perhaps the majority of planters will agree
that the salubrity of the proposed scene of operations
is one of the most important considerations ; and next
is an elevation and climate suitable for the plant — both
these essentials being almost beyond the power of art
to remedy. Land of a gentle slope and proper aspect,
and on which a system of high cultivation, such as
manuring, trenching, and irrigation, if necessary, can
be practised, is also of the utmost importance ; whilst
a good deep soil of tolerable quality, and capable of
improvement by ordinary cultivation, is also a sine qua
non. Of less consequence, but by no means to be
overlooked, is the point of distance from towns and
villages from whence labour can be procured, and the
means of access and egress from the estate should also
be considered.

The several operations comprised under the one
head, "Opening an Estate," are — 1. Formation of

20 THE NATURE AND CULTIVATION OF COFFEE.

nurseries; 2. Felling and clearing ; 3. Marking roads ;
4. Lining and pitting; 5. Filling pits and planting;
6. Buildings.

1. Formation of nurseries. This should generally
be done at least six months previous to the commence-
ment of the clearing. The felling and clearing is
usually begun at the commencement of the dry season,
in October; the nurseries should therefore be made
in the previous May or June, a tolerably level site
being selected. The soil should be trenched at least
a foot deep, and after being well pulverized, and all
roots and stones removed, should be laid out in beds
four feet wide ; and after being copiously manured, or
well covered with ashes, planted either with seeds four
inches apart, or with young seedlings brought from
the nearest estate, at about six inches apart in the
rows, and four inches distance each row. This latter
is by far the most economical, both in time and money
— the seedling is much more certain to come on well
than a seed ; and as it is probably three or four months
old when transplanted, this portion of its growth is
saved to the planter. By the process of transplanting
also the plant forms a number of fibrous roots, which
enable it to bear the subsequent removal to its per-
manent place in the plantation. Should seeds be
sown, it will be necessary to transplant them when
about four inches high into other beds. A slight
shade is generally of service for a few weeks after the
nurseries have all been planted, but every particle of
shade should be removed three or four months before
it is intended to plant out. For the information of
beginners, it may be stated that a bushel of cherry

OPENING AN ESTATE. 21

coffee-seed will usually produce about 25,000 plants ;
a bushel of fresh parchment coffee, which is preferable
to cherry, will produce about double that quantity ;
and an acre of nursery will hold 290,000 plants,
planted six inches by four, or about 20,000 less when
allowance is made for paths between the beds, etc.

2. Felling and clearing are easy operations when
virgin forest is dealt with, but are tedious when tangled
thickets of bamboo, or other thorny bushes, are preva-
lent. The smaller growth is generally cut first with
billhooks, and this is frequently performed by women
and boys ; the able-bodied axemen next follow, cutting
the trees nearly through, and then felling a tree of
larger dimensions, so as to fall on what is notched ; it
brings all down in one mass. In heavy, thick forest,
several acres are frequently brought down together ;
but in gentle slopes, and in thinly-wooded land, each
tree has to be cut through separately. It will fre-
quently occur that staging has to be erected round the
trunks of some of the giants of the forest, as their
projecting roots and buttresses prevent access to the
real trunk. The forest, of whatever kind, being felled,
has next to be lopped, so as to lie compactly, and to
ensure a good burn, which usually takes place six
weeks or two months after the felling. A bad burn is
the cause of much expense in subsequent heaping and
burning, and attention should therefore be paid to this
operation.

3. Marking the roads. This should always be
done as soon as possible, and all the trees which are
lying across the line of roads should be turned off
before the lining commences. The time both of

22 THE NATURE AND CULTIVATION OF COFFEE.

superintendents and men will be economized by partial
formation of the roads before the other work is com-
menced, leaving them to be completed when there is
spare labour on the estate.

4. Lining and pitting. The distances usually
observed for planting coffee are six feet by six feet or
six feet by five feet. Close planting is serviceable in
hindering the growth of the weeds, and in enabling
the plants to shelter each other from the effect of high
winds ; and of course the extra number of plants to
the acre are followed, in the first two crops, by pro-
portionate increase of produce. Having, therefore,
fixed on the distance to be observed, the easiest
method is to mark off a cross in the centre of each
field, and proceeding from the centre with a line with
marks at the proper distances for the spaces between
the stakes. The ends being held at equal distances
from the last stakes, are put in by boys at the mark on
the line. Trifling inaccuracies must happen in conse-
quence of the irregularity of the land, but the only
method to avoid these would be by irregularly extend-
ing the distance between the plants, sometimes to
eight and nine feet ; and on the whole the plan is as
good as can be followed. At the distance of six feet
by six feet, an acre will contain about 1200 plants, but
the space occupied by roads, rocks, stumps, etc., will
probably curtail this amount about ten per cent. —
stakes being put in to mark the places where the pits
are to be made ; these are generally dug by contract,
and it may be useful to know that, in ordinary forest
soil, with an average amount of stones and roots,
thirty pits, twenty inches wide by eighteen inches

OPENING AN ESTATE. 23

deep,, is fair work for a man for a day, at a cost in
India of sixpence to eightpence, and in Ceylon of
from ninepence to one shilling. Crowbars with one
end widened to about three inches, and short, thick
hoes or momaties to remove the loosened soil, are the
most useful tools for this work. It is of some impor-
tance to consider beforehand what is the nature of the
cultivation to be followed, because, if it is purposed to
trench over the whole of the ground immediately,
large pits are not requisite, but they may be made
deep and narrow ; if, on the other hand, the process of
trenching is to be deferred, even two feet wide and two
deep is not too large, and anything less than this
would be false economy.

5. Filling pits and planting. If the felling and
clearing has been accomplished in good time, the land
will have been ready for lining and pitting in February,
and the pits will consequently be open for three or
four months before the rains set in, and the work of
planting commences. They will be much improved by
this exposure to rain and atmospheric influence, and it
will probably occur to the planter to fill up the pits
with the surface soil taken from the spaces between
the pits, leaving that taken out of the pits to be
improved by exposure. The practice of filling the
pits after very heavy rain, when the pits are half- full
of water, is very objectionable, as the soil cakes into a
hard mass. Care should be taken, if possible, to have
the pits filled a day or two before planting, as the soil
is then cooler and more settled.

We now arrive at the most important item in the
first year's operations — Planting. Plants from the

24 THE NATURE AND CULTIVATION OF COFFEE.

nursery, stumps, and seedlings, are alike used in
forming plantations. The first are preferable reared in
nurseries, as already shown. Until they are twelve or
fifteen inches high, with one or two pair of primary
branches, they should be taken up with a ball of earth
whenever practicable ; but where the distance from
the nursery to the planting ground precludes this
mode, the roots may be dipped into a mixture of
cow- dung and earth, to prevent the action of the wind
and air on the fine fibrous roots, and thus guarded,
they can be carried for miles. Extreme care is neces-
sary in planting not to turn the roots up ; the safest
plan is to lower the tree into the place made for its
reception rather deeper than it is intended to remain,
and throwing a little loose soil on the roots, to draw
the plant up to the proper level ; by this means, all
the roots will be pointing downwards, and doubling up
the tap root will be prevented. The earth should be
trodden round the plant, to prevent its being shaken
by the wind ; and it should never be buried below the
crown of the root, as the upper bark is liable to rot off
if covered over with earth, and the plant in conse-
quence perishes. Stumps, which are neither more nor
less than older plants cut down two inches from the
ground, may be planted with less risk even when the
weather is dry and the season more advanced. In
ordinary seasons, a number of buds or suckers make
their appearance on the stump within a month of its
being planted ; these should all be rubbed off, except
the lowest one, and this will in a short time grow up,
and throw out lateral branches, exactly like a
nursery plant. Stumps generally bear a little earlier,
probably because they are usually made from very old

OPENING AN ESTATE. 25

nurseries.* Plants, indeed, which are too old to plant
out in the ordinary way make excellent stumps.f The
plants once put in, the roads previously marked and
traced out should be completed, and the estate should
be weeded, and from the day the coffee-trees are put
in no other green leaf should be seen in the estate, but
every weed should be pulled up before it is three
inches high. If this plan be pursued, the subsequent
cultivation will require very few hands, and the cost of
weeding will not be one quarter that incurred if the
weeds are once allowed to seed on the estate. When
the plants are about two years old, they will require to
be lopped — i.e., the leading stem or shoot to be cut off.
The height at which this should be done must depend
on several circumstances ; if entirely neglected, the
trees are apt to become weak, tall bushes, with
irregular side-branches or primaries ; and in exposed,
windy situations they will be much shaken and broken
by the wind. The common practice is to keep the
trees at about four feet in height, but even this is too
high, unless the soil is very good and the situation
sheltered; three feet, or even two feet six inches, will
be found better in the majority of cases.

The objects gained by topping are to keep the tree

* Some planters cut down the plants in the nurseries, or " stump"
them, a month before they are required to plant out, and they will then
have acquired a second stem or sucker, before being planted out ; but
the plan is not to be recommended, as the young tender shoot is very
liable to damage in transplanting.

f It may not be generally known that coffee propagates readily by
cuttings ; but if the cutting be taken from one of the side-branches,
it will never form a centre stem, but will always evince the peculiar
characteristics of the lateral branches j but if, on the other hand, a
sucker or shoot be planted, it will form a plant perfect in all respects
and in no way to be distinguished from a seedling.

26 THE NATUKE AND CULTIVATION OF COFFEE.

to such an height that the fruit can be conveniently
gathered,, and that pruning, etc., can be easily per-
formed, and further to throw the strength of the plant
into the fruit-producing branches, which by this means
spread rapidly on each side and shelter each other,
whilst they shade the ground and check the growth
of weeds. Some planters advocate the trees being
left tall until six or eight inches can be taken off,
necessitating cutting into the formed wood, where at
the same time they remove one of each of the primary
branches, about an inch from the main stem, leaving
an unseemly fork projecting four or six inches above
the growing plant, the object of this being, as they
maintain, to form such a callosity, or knot, above the
producing branches, as will prevent the weight of the
fruit tearing the branches apart, and splitting the
main stem ; but it is very doubtful whether this object
is attained, as the portion of stem thus left is a fruitful
source of annoyance in sending out suckers from the
joint where the two primaries have been removed, and
as soon as it ceases, the fork being deprived of all
circulating sap, gradually dries up and decays down to
the growing wood, rendering the tree more liable than
before to the accident it was sought to guard against.
A better plan appears to top the trees early, in the
green sappy shoot, before it has become lignine, or
fibrous, immediately above a pair of growing primaries.
By this means there is no joint left above to form buds
and shoots, and the top gradually forms into a knot,
or callosity, sufficiently tough to withstand the weight
on each side of the tree. It must always be borne in
mind that a coffee-tree cannot replace a primary

OPENING AN ESTATE. 27

branch ; but it always replaces a maiden stem if lost,
by a vigorous sucker, and many old worn out estates
have been completely renovated by cutting down the
trees two inches from the ground, and allowing a good
shoot to proceed from the stump and take the place
of the tree thus decapitated, due regard at the same
time being paid to improvement of the soil, etc. The
shoot thus left will bear a small crop in two years,
and a full crop in the third and fourth, so that only
one and a half crop is lost by thus cutting down an
estate ; and with estates which have been much
neglected in pruning, etc., and have in consequence
lost many of their primaries, this will be found by far
the most satisfactory method of renovation, as a pro-
perty thus treated will present all the appearance and
regularity of a young and flourishing estate.

In the course of the second year it will be necessary
to fill up all the vacancies in the first year's planting-
out from deaths and omissions. This is usually called
supplying, and should be done with great care, as the
neat appearance of the estate much depends on the
regularity of the plants ; and the vacancies, until timely
filled up, will become nurseries for weeds, thus increas-
ing the labour besides diminishing the produce of the
estate. It will be found a good plan to grow a number
of plants in large bamboos cut so as to form a flower-
pot, and to use these in filling up the gaps, as all
chance of failure is thus prevented. The plants need
not be turned out of the bamboos, but the bamboo-pot
should be cracked on one side, and the whole may be
then buried, as it will soon rot and be consumed by
grubs, etc.

CHAPTER VII.

BUILDINGS.

THE erectiotf of suitable buildings is scarcely less im-
portant than the opening and planting the estate, for
although they are neither large nor expensive, yet
much of the health and comfort of the superintendent
and coolies will depend on the sites chosen for their
abodes ; and the economical working of the estate
will be greatly dependent on the situation of the pulp-
ing-house and store. It will probably be found neces-
sary to run up temporary lines, or coolie -huts, on the
nearest clear spot, before commencing any work ; but
as a rule, only permanent and substantial buildings
should be erected. They will be found much the most
economical in the end, and give much more satisfac-
tion whilst they are in existence.

The situation for the superintendent's house will
be selected with a view to health and general accessi-
bility, and should be placed on a site commanding a
good view of the estate, and if possible of the store
and pulping-house ; but on no account too near these
last, the noise of the pulping machinery and coolies,
and the effluvium from the drying coffee and ferment-
ing pulp, being very disagreeable.

The pulping-house and store should be placed in
a central spot, easy of access from all parts of the

BUILDINGS. 29

estate, and the point of transport of coffee, either by
bullocks or carts from the store, should also be taken
into consideration.

It is, of course, understood that a small stream of
water is absolutely necessary at the pulping-house,
to pulp and wash the coffee, and should large works or
water-wheels be contemplated, the position will be
mainly determined by its capabilities in this respect ;
desirable, however, as it is to secure the assistance of
water for the machinery, it is not often that this can
be attained without sacrificing equally important
advantages, and instances are not unfrequent of the
works being placed in inaccessible situations, simply
to secure water privileges, although the assistance so
derived was more than counterbalanced by the expense
and inconvenience of extra carriage of the crop both
before and after pulping.

The coolie lines will generally be placed as near
the scene of their operations as possible, due regard
at the same time being had to the health of the people,
and access to water for their requirements.

The coffee-berry when gathered from the tree is
the colour and shape of a ripe damson, for although it
may be considered ripe when red, it will benefit by
remaining on the tree until it has passed into damson
colour. If the berry is squeezed, two coffee-beans are
found, covered with a thin skin exactly resembling
parchment, between which and the outer rind there is
a very sweet mucilaginous fluid, already alluded to.

The operation called pulping is removing this outer
cherry rind and washing off the mucilage, leaving the
bean in the parchment skin, in which it is dried and

30 THE NATUKE AND CULTIVATION OF COFFEE.

conveyed to the shipping port. The machine called
the pulper passes the cherry between a barrel covered
with perforated copper, something like a very large
nutmeg grater, and an iron bar or chop, the distance
of which is adjusted by means of spiral screws, so as
to insure the bean's being pressed against the barrel,
but yet not so close for the inner bean to be cut or
pricked. The difference of size in the coffee renders
this seemingly simple operation one of considerable
difficulty, for if the chop is set too close, the larger
berries will be crushed, whilst if adjusted to pulp the
large coffee only, the smaller berries will pass through
unpulped. As at present manufactured, coffee-pulpers
are most unsatisfactory machines ; but the usual plan
pursued is to set the chop to pulp the larger coffee,
and either to have another pulper for pulping the
lesser berries, or to return the smaller passed berries
to the feeding-trough or chopper, tightening the chop
at the same time. Much the best machine yet in-
vented is the disk pulper, patented by Messrs.
Walker, of Kandy, Ceylon. The coffee passed through
this is much less cut than by any other, and will
average a higher price in sale. The coffee, after
passing through the pulper, is passed on to a cistern,
all the pulp, or, as it is called by planters, the tails,
coming out at the back of the machine and remaining
behind. After twelve hours' soaking, accompanied by
slight fermentation, which decomposes the mucilage
and facilitates its removal, the beans in the parchment
are washed clean and put out on barbacues, or drying-
grounds, to dry. These last are sometimes laid in
brick and lime or covered with asphalte ; more com-

BUILDINGS. 31

monly, they are long platforms about three feet wide,
on which is laid coir matting, which admits the escape
of the moisture easily and hastens the drying process.
Two or three days' exposure usually suffices to prepare
the coffee for transport to the coast, which is variously
effected, according to the means at the planter's dis-
posal. Generally in Ceylon and India two-wheeled
carts or pack bullocks are employed, which carry four
to six bushels, in two sacks or gunny-bags, the driver
having the coffee measured to him on the estate, and
receiving a certain rate per bushel on delivery on the
coast. Not only is this mode of carriage most pre-
carious, but it is very expensive, the average paid by
coffee estates in Ceylon for carriage of a bushel of
parchment to the coast being about two shillings. In
Southern India sixpence to ninepence is the average,
but there many estates have the advantage of water
carriage. Before leaving the subject of pulping, it may
be remarked that it is always necessary to pulp the
berries within twelve hours of their being picked, and
that if they are at all dry on one side, as is often the
case with the latter part of the crop, they will not pulp
clean, but will either be crushed or pass out with un-
pulped coffee, and it will frequently be necessary to
pass the coffee, as it comes from the pulpers, through
sieves, to remove all the tails which come out on the
wrong side, as these considerably retard the drying of
the coffee and impart a bad colour to it.

To sum up briefly, it is requisite that the coffee
berries should be quite ripe; that they should be
pulped soon after being picked ; that they are not cut
or pricked in pulping; that the parchment coffee should

32 THE NATUEE AND CULTIVATION OF COFFEE.

not be too long in the cisterns ; and that it should be
cleaned, washed, and then surface dried, as soon as
practicable. The subsequent operations of peeling,
garbling, sizing, and packing are generally performed
at the shipping port, and will be considered in another
chapter.

CHAPTER VIII.

PEELING, GAEBLING, SIZING, AND PACKING FOE EXPOET.

THESE several operations are generally out of the
planter's control, and are performed by the agents at
the shipping port, who frequently purchase the coffee
in the parchment, or undertake to deliver it upon ship
at a given rate per ton. The average selling price
of coffee in parchment at Colombo, or on the coast of
India, is 60s. per cwt. of nine bushels ; and the
charges of peeling, sizing, garbling, packing in cases,
and shipping are £5 per ton. There are several large
establishments at Colombo, in Ceylon, and at Telli-
cherry, Calicut, and Mangalore, in India, for the
preparation of coffee for shipment, some employing
two to three thousand hands daily. The machinery
by which the parchment is removed is called a peeling-
mill ; it consists of two wheels of solid heavy wood,
shod with sheet copper; these work in a circular
trough thirty or thirty- six feet in diameter, and are
generally turned by four men. This breaks the parch-
ment skin, the coffee is then winnowed, and if care
has been taken in curing the coffee, the whole of the
parchment and silver skin will be removed, and the
coffee will present a clean horny appearance. It is
now garbled, as it is called, or examined by women
who pick out all discoloured beans, and it is then

3

34 THE NATCJRE AND CULTIVATION OF COFFEE.

passed through cylinders or sieves made of perforated
zinc or wire, by which it is separated into different
sizes, the pea-berry, which is nearly round, being
separated by a peculiar rolling motion, either in the
sieves or by hand labour in baskets. The coffee is
now packed either in bags containing 1 cwt. each, or
in cases containing about 2-| cwts., or in casks con-
taining 6 to 10 cwts., and is shipped. Of the modes
of package, casks are undoubtedly preferable ; but as
these are not always obtainable, cases are frequently
used. Bags should only be used for inferior coffee,
triage, etc., as it is much more liable to damage in
bags than in cases or casks. Triage is the broken
coffee, with which commonly all the very small and
discoloured coffee is also mixed. It is of importance
that the wood of which the cases or casks are made
should be well seasoned, and it is advisable to char
them slightly inside by burning straw or shavings
inside them, the object being to prevent any contami-
nation of the coffee by the oil or gum in the wood.

CHAPTER IX.

COFFEE IN SOUTHERN INDIA.

THE similarity in the seasons and general physical
character of the two countries, renders the practice
and mode of cultivation in India similar to that in
Ceylon. The south-east monsoon generally sets in
fifteen or twenty days sooner in Ceylon than in India,,
which occasions the crops there to be earlier ; and
hence it follows that, though the crops are seldom
picking in India before the 15th of October, and more
commonly a month later, in Ceylon it is commenced
as early as August on some estates. There is a dis-
advantage attending early crops in the prevalence of
rain up to the end of November, and, from what has
been already said, it will be gathered that fine weather
considerably assists crop work; in fact, without it
artificial means must be resorted to for drying the
coffee, or it would either ferment or become mouldy.
To those planters as are so unfortunately situated as
to have estates which ripen their crops in the rainy
season, an apparatus patented by Mr. Clerihew, and
exhibited at the International Exhibition in 1851, may
be confidently recommended. It is too complex to be
understood without diagrams and plans, for which
there is not space in this work. Suffice it to say, that
the rationale of the process is to draw a draft of

36 THE NATURE AND CULTIVATION OF COFFEE.

heated air from a furnace through the damp coffee,
and to drive it off when saturated by the means of
powerful ventilators.

There are at present over 120 coffee estates in
Wynaad, about 50 in Coorg and ISTuggur, and 20 on
the Neilgherries, and between 30 and 40 in other
parts of India. Unfortunately we have no reliable
data as to the latter, the cultivation being widely
distributed over various ranges of hills, but the aggre-
gate cultivation in these parts is about 2000 acres.
In Wynaad there are about 75,000 acres occupied for
estates, of which 32,000 are in cultivation. In Coorg
and Mysore a little over 30,000 acres have been taken
up, of which scarcely one- third is yet in cultivation ;
and on the Neilgherries the cultivated area is under
2000 acres. In 1865, the exports from India were
22,400,000 lb., but a very large portion of the pro-
duce is retained for home consumption. The average
yield of coffee in Wynaad is slightly above that in
Ceylon, according to the statistics furnished by the
Ceylon Planters' Association ; the average of the
former being about 8 cwts. per acre against 6 cwts. in
the latter. In both countries, however, estates are to
be found which have yielded 18 to 20 cwts. an acre
under good cultivation. It is not the intention, in
the present work, to enter into a comparison of the
relative advantages of each country for the growth of
coffee, but simply to present facts to the reader's
notice, leaving him to form his own opinion. The
actual routine of cultivation is the same in both
countries. The system of pruning is, perhaps, better
understood and practised in Ceylon than in India -

COFFEE IN SOUTHERN INDIA. 37

more care is also taken to keep the estates clean, but
cattle do not thrive in Ceylon, and manure, being
procured with difficulty, is not often applied. The
planters are more favourably situated with regard to
roads, police, and general executive administration in
Ceylon than in India ; this fact arising probably from
their different status in the two countries. In Ceylon
the planting community are influential men, forming a
large body of the tax-paying class ; their produce is the
chief article of export, exceeding in value two millions
yearly ; their interests are represented in the Council
by their own delegate, and special legislation has been
put in force for their benefit. Until lately, members
of both branches of the services engaged in the pur-
suit, and interested themselves in forwarding the
interests of the planters, and from the Governor down-
wards scarcely a man in the colony, but was in some
measure connected with the fascinating speculation ;
and although the connection of Government servants
with commercial pursuits is now forbidden, the spirit
that was then awakened has not slumbered, and
planters are recognized as worthy the encouragement
and protection of the Legislature.

In India, unfortunately, the old exclusive spirit,
which would govern " India for the services/' has not
yet become extinct. The most obvious reforms are
urged in vain. Except in some few districts, the
planter experiences much difficulty even in procuring
possession of and title to land. The most incompetent
members of the services are frequently deputed to the
charge of the districts where the unlucky Europeans
most congregate, and every representation and request

38 THE NATURE AND CULTIVATION OP COFFEE.

for legal reform and redress is met with, tlie hack-
neyed old conventionality respecting class legis-
lation, etc. The state of the roads, police, and magis-
terial jurisdiction in most of the districts, settled by
Europeans, are by no means creditable to the executive
administration of the country ; and until the European
is accorded in India that justice and protection he
meets in other colonies, they form a serious drawback
to the advantages presented in other respects by cheap
and abundant labour, and the lower price of land.

CHAPTER X.

GENERAL CULTIVATION, WEEDING, PRUNING, MANURING,
IRRIGATION, PICKING, PULPING ETC.

ORDINARY cultivation consists in careful weeding, never
allowing a weed to be three inches high, in removal of
the suckers, and gourmand shoots, and in taking off
all secondary shoots on the primaries within three
inches of the stem, and then allowing them at only
regular distances of two to three inches apart, with a
regular succession of young wood coming on ; the fruit
is produced on one-year old wood, although in some
favoured districts, branches two or three years old are
seen covered with berries. It will generally be found
that rather dry climates favour this mode of bearing,
indeed, the excessive moisture prevalent in many of
the most esteemed districts, is very adverse to the
production of heavy crops. It is, therefore, difficult to
lay down any positive rules for side pruning, as it is
evident that this must be influenced by the nature of
the climate. In a dry temperature, with little fog or
supercumbent moisture, the trees may be allowed to
produce much more wood than can be permitted in
very damp situations, where every glimpse of sunshine
is required, and where too great luxuriance, in this
respect, will be followed by the appearance of what is
called rot. This is simply the leaves and fruit turning

40 THE NATURE AND CULTIVATION OF COFFEE.

black and falling off before they are matured, followed
frequently by the decay of the shoots, and in some
cases by death of the tree, the cause being evidently
too much moisture and lack of cultivation; the remedy,
therefore, is obvious. Planters are still divided both
in opinion and practice on the subject of weeding. On
some estates it is only practised twice a year, the tall
rampant weeds being cutonce or twice in the interim with
sickles, and the land being only hoed over once before
and once after crop, but the majority of experienced
cultivators endeavour to keep their estates perfectly
clean, hoeing up the weeds not less seldom than once in
two months, and then burying both weeds and pruning
between the coffee bushes.

The practice of manuring is of late years attracting
considerable attention. In former years when land
was comparatively cheap, and labour abundant, it was
not thought worth while to work up estates, but as
soon as the crops declined below the average, fresh
virgin forests were felled and the old cultivation
abandoned. The increased value of land, however,
and the great expense now attending fresh clearing and
planting, causes more attention to be paid to the up-
keep of the land in cultivation, and small cultivated
estates are more desired than large tracts yielding but
little and comparatively worthless. Manure, as the
most powerful agent in increasing the produce, requires
every attention, and notwithstanding any goodness of
soil should always be provided. With care much may
be done on the estate to provide this requisite, in the
shape of the decomposed pulp, wood ashes, decaying
heaps of grass and weeds, and in many cases by the

GENERAL CULTIVATION. 4l

utilization of the soil from marshes, which not unfre-
quently are found in the vicinity of estates, and which
when the lands surrounding them are covered with rich
vegetation, contain vegetable substances of the most
fertilizing character. From an analysis of the ash of
the coffee bean, we shall find that ordinary wood ashes
with a small quantity of phosphate of lime contain all
the essential constituents necessary for the production
of coffee. This easily procured stimulant, should always,
therefore, form a large portion of any manure which
may be applied. A compost unequalled in its effects
may be made, by mixing coffee pulp, wood ashes and
common salt with a large quantity of straw, weeds,
grass, or other vegetable matter, and applying them
when thoroughly decomposed. Mr. Perindorge, of
Ceylon, recommended large quantities of manure,
being formed by saturating heaps of weeds, forest
leaves, etc,, with repeated waterings of sal ammoniac,
and a cheap and economical method will be found to
cover each day's pulp, during the pulping season, with
a layer of vegetable rubbish of any kind, adding a thin
layer of mould or wood ashes, and watering it frequently
with salt water. Where pasture is obtainable, cattle
manure will be found both cheap and efficacious, but it
must be borne in mind, that when cattle are fed only
on the grass found in jungle pasture, the nitrogenous
elements which render animal excrement of every kind
so valuable, are absent, and with the exception of a
small quantity of ammonia and of phosphoric acid,
every constituent of such manure will be found in
ordinarily decomposed vegetable matter. To render
cattle manure of its full value, it should be mixed with

42 THE NATURE AND CULTIVATION OF COFFEE.

ashes, bone dust, or other alkali, and it is scarcely
necessary to remark that it is highly advisable that the
cattle pens should be regularly littered down with dry
grass, or other refuse, to absorb the liquid manure, and
to create the quantity. It is urged by some that the
latter is of equal value, when decomposed outside the
cattle pen, and that spreading it in the shed only adds
to the labour of cleaning out the sheds, without really
benefiting the manure made, but it will be found that
not only is the grass or straw more readily decomposed
by being trodden down, but at the same time, as already
shown, it imbibes the most valuable part of the manure,
and fixes the volatile salts contained in it.

The ordinary phosphate of lime sold in England by
the numerous patent manure manufacturers, is a very
valuable compost, and may always be used with
advantage, although the cost in some situations is
almost prohibitory. Whilst all estates can be and,
indeed, must be manured in some way or other
to ensure their continued fruitfulness, the practice
of trenching or digging over the whole estate
can only be carried out in favourable localities, but where
properly performed, it will in a great measure obviate
the necessity of any extraneous application, and will
materially decrease the labour of weeding.

It will be obvious that it is almost impossible to
trench the side of steep rocky hills, or of heavy forest
land, strewed with large trunks, and encumbered with
large roots and stumps; fortunately, however, these
are not the descriptions of soil which most need and
most benefit by this operation. The soil amongst large
rocks, or with loose superficial stones, is seldom hard

GENERAL CULTIVATION. 43

or bound, and where heavy forest has existed, and the
land is much encumbered with roots and stumps, the
gradual decay of these loosen the soil and enable the
coffee roots to penetrate in all directions. There is,
however, a description of land, which until lately, was
rejected by the majority of planters, but which has of
late been found extremely productive, and this is what
is known as bamboo land, or gentle undulated slopes
sparely covered with large trees and bamboo thickets,
the soil being generally heavy, and deep, but hard, and
bound, and very full of grass seeds and other weeds.
This land is generally inexpensive to clear, and is easily
pitted, but it is absolutely necessary that it should be
trenched over, at least twelve inches deep, both to
enable the roots of the coffee trees to get abroad, and
to eradicate the numerous weeds, which have peren-
nial roots, and which would render the usual work of
weeding almost ruinous, but where this operation is
well done, and the soil is satisfactory, land so cultivated
will be found, both more productive and more easily
kept up than what is commonly known as forest land ;
and moreover, land thus treated will stand long
drought, and produce more steady crops than estates
cultivated on what may be called the old system. The
routine of cultivation somewhat differs in this land,
from what has been indicated above ; the land after
being felled and cleared, should be trenched over at
once with mattocks, about six inches deep, it should
then be lined and pitted, and much narrower pits may
be permitted, than in land which is not trenched.
Directly after the coffee plants are planted, it should
be trenched over again to the depth of twelve inches.,.

44 THE NATURE AND CULTIVATION OF COFFEE.

and if it has been trenched once before, as here advised,
and the rain and air thus allowed to penetrate, the
second trenching will be scarcely more expensive than
weeding. Subsequent operations will consist in trench-
ing over the whole of the land, burying all weeds,
pruning, etc., once every year, a process which will
frequently obviate the necessity for manure, and will
materially lesson the labour of weeding.

It will doubtless occur to the practical agriculturist
to time the annual trenching so as to bury a crop of
growing weeds in the operation, and thus save one
weeding, and at the same time enrich the soil. The
months of May and June will be found the best for this
work, or at the close of the rains in October and
November, care must of course be taken to have
efficient drains across the water shed, to prevent the
soil when thus loosened, being carried away by the
heavy rains. The practice of irrigation, wherever it
can be followed, is not of less importance than that
already advocated of trenching. On many estates there
exists ample facility for its adoption, in the streams
usually abundant in the mountain regions where coffee
is generally cultivated, and its excellent effects will
soon be visible in the assistance afforded to the plants
in withstanding every drought, and in maturing heavy
crops of fruit, which would not otherwise be brought
to perfection. As a rule it will increase the productive
qualities of estates twenty-five per cent, but in many
low hot localities it will produce heavy crops, where
otherwise, little or none could be obtained, as has been
the case in the far-famed old Eajawelle Estate, in
Ceylon.

GENERAL CULTIVATION. 45

Picking the crop is usually performed by women
and children, as they can pick quite as much as an able-
bodied man, or it is done by contract, when all hands
are set to it and receive a given rate per bushel. In
Southern India the average paid for picking is three
pence to four pence per bushel, making the charges for
one cwt., under this head, three shillings to four shil-
lings. On old estates with a ripe crop of eight to
twelve cwts. per acre on them, an expert picker will
gather as much as six bushels in ten hours, but the
average throughout the season, on ordinary estates,
does not exceed two bushels. Bags should always be
provided for the purpose of containing the ripe coffee
cherries, and for carrying them to the store, as baskets
are very liable to be upset, and stones and refuse may
be picked up with the scattered fruit, which will
damage the pulpers. The inefficiency of most of the
machinery, at present in use for coffee pulping, has
been already noticed. One of Walker's double disc
pulpers will pulp fifty bushels per hour, with the labour
of six men in a properly constructed pulping house,
and other pulpers will do nearly as much, but at a
considerable sacrifice of coffee, as most of these
machines cut from five to ten per cent of the beans.
Considerable ingenuity may be exercised in erecting
the buildings so as to economise labour. The pulpers
should be so placed that there is ample room for the
washing vats or cisterns, without carriage of the coffee
from one vat to another by manual labour, and a ready
egress for the tails or pulp of the coffee should be pro-
vided by which it can be conveyed some distance from
the pulping house and works. The situation of the

46 THE NATURE AND CULTIVATION OF COFFEE.

store should also be contiguous to, and if practicable
lower than the pulping house ; above all both should be
some distance from the Cooly lines or superintendent's
bungalow, the effluvium from the rotting pulp and
drying coffee being most offensive and very prejudicial
to health. As already remarked, the pulp forms with
other materials, a very fertilizing manure, and the water
that has been used for pulping and washing the coffee,
is of value for purposes of irrigation, but if applied in
excess, is too stimulating and will kill vegetation.

Two hundred bushels of cherry coffee will generally
produce 92 to 95 bushels of dried parchment, which
will again turn out about one ton of marketable coffee,
there is a slight difference between the coffee on dif-
ferent estates, and even the produce of the same estate
in different seasons, or in the beginning and end of
the same season ; but the above will be found to be a
safe average, and of the out-turn in parchment, one
half in bulk and one-fifth in weight consists of the
parchment bulk, the average weight of a bushel of
clean coffee being 26 Ib. Of coffee dried in the pulp,
or dry cherry coffee as it is called, 120 bushels will
usually make a ton of marketable produce, the expense
of peeling and cleaning this are about 10 per cent,
more than for parchment coffee.

A very useful form of monthly account will be
found appended. It may be kept on either quarto or
foolscap size, the latter perhaps is preferable. Three
forms of daily journal are also shown, which will be
found of great utility in enabling the superintendent
and proprietor to calculate accurately the cost of each
item of labour.

CHAPTER XL

ESTIMATES AND EXPENSES.

IT will doubtless be expected that some estimate should
be here given of the cost of opening and subsequently
cultivating coffee estates. It must be evident how-
ever, that this is entirely dependent on the rates of
wages, which differ materially in different countries,
and which vary even in the different districts of Ceylon
and of Southern India. The number of hands requisite
for the different descriptions of work will be given
with the average cost in Wynaad and Coorg.

Works. Hands. Cost per acre.

£ s. d,

Clearing heavy forest .30 .0150

Lopping and burning off .10 .050

Lining and pitting .50 .150

Filling pits and planting .10 .050

Eoads . . . 40 . 1 0 0

Trenching six inches deep .50 .150

Do. twelve do. .50 .150

600

To this should be added the costs of

plants . . .100

And an average for tools per acre of . 010 0

Carried forward 7 10 0

48 THE NATURE AND CULTIVATION OF COFFEE.

£ S. d.

Brought forward . 7 10 0

Also of buildings . .200

Superintendence . .200

Medicine, stationery, extras . 0 10 0

Contingencies . . . 0 10 0

12 10 0

Making the cost of planting the first year £12 10s.
per acre.

The annual cultivation expenses on the same data
will be as follows : —

£ s. d.

Weeding . . .280

Nurseries and filling vacancies .060

Pruning and handling . .0120

Manuring . . .140

Postages, stationery, medicines, etc. . 0 10 0
Repair and wear of tools . .050

Superintendence . . 1 10 0

Ordinary repair of buildings . 0 10 0

Contingencies . . .050

Bringing the annual cost of cultivation to £7 10s.
per acre.

To this should be added the cost of coffee store,
pulping house, pulpers, barbacues, etc., which for an
estate of about 200 acres, would average £4 per acre,
making the cost of an estate of above-named extent
£39 per acre at the end of the third year, by which
time a sufficient crop to pay further expenses may be

ESTIMATES AND EXPENSES. 49

expected. In many situations the original price of
the land, and cost of making roads from the estate, to
the public road, will form a further charge, and with-
out considering the first of these, which vary with
every estate, according to the title under which it is
held, the latter will probably bring the net cost per
acre up to £40.

For a smaller estate than here estimated for, the
cost would be proportionably less only in some items ;
in many, such as superintendence, general extras and
ordinary buildings, the requirements of an estate of
100 acres, are scarcely less than for one of double that
size.

The value and crop on an estate may fairly be
estimated at 50s. per cwt. on the trees, the average
charges on which will be as follows : —

£ s. d.
Picking, carriage, etc., per cwt. of ten

bushels . . .040

Pulping and general charges ,006

Carriage to the port . .040

Preparation charges and shipping .050
Extras, superintendence, wear of bags,

etc., etc. . . .016

Making for crop expenses a total of .0150
per cwt., and as the best Ceylon and Indian coffee
have averaged 78s. to 80s. per cwt., an ample margin is
left for home expenses.

Assuming however, the value of the crops on the
trees at 50s. per cwt., it will be seen that as already
advanced it requires an average crop of three cwts. per

4

50 THE NATURE AND CULTIVATION OF COFFEE.

acre to defray the ordinary cultivation expenses, and
that an estate can only be profitable when it yields
above that quantity, and that its intrinsic value depends
solely on the amount it produces above this ratio. It
not unfrequently occurs that inexperienced parties be-
come possessed of estates that are really worse than
useless because they have not been able to form any
reliable estimate of the expenditure requisite to culti-
vate an acre, and they have been deceived by the
statement that the estate produced a certain number of
hundredweights without ascertaining correctly of how
many acres these were the produce, and thus, although
600 cwts. from 100 acres would yield a handsome
profit, the same quantity from 200 acres would not
more than pay the cultivation expenses; from this
cause it will be obvious that nothing can be more falla-
cious than the system of valuation by the number of
acres. As a general rule an estate yielding less than
5 cwts. an acre, is not worth more than £20 an acre,
whilst an estate giving 10 cwts. is certainly worth £60,
and so on in an increasing ratio. The net value of a
cwt. of coffee on the trees is about 50s. both in India
and Ceylon, and it will cost fully the value of 3 cwts.
for the ordinary annual cultivation expenses per acre,
exclusive of the crop expenses. An estate of 200 acres,
yielding 5 cwts. per acre only, would not give there-
fore an annual profit of more than £1,000, whilst the
same extent, if giving 10 cwts. per acre, would clear
£3,500.

In the valuation of estates also, care should be had
to take a fair average of three or four years, nothing
being more common than for the value to be fixed on

ESTIMATES AND EXPENSES. 51

the basis of a bumper crop, the result of extraordinary
manuring and pruning. As a r^e, a very safe mode of
valuation will be found to allow £10 for every hundred-
weight per acre that the estates actually produce above
the amount required for upkeep, which is already stated
to be about 3 cwts. Thus, an estate giving 6 cwts. per
acre will be valued at £30 per acre, and one giving
10 cwts. would be £70. With young estates not yet in
bearing, there cannot be a better mode of valuing
than to allow a liberal interest for the risk and toil on
the sum that the work done should actually have cost,
always supposing that such work has been efficiently
performed. There are of course exceptional cases,
where from immediate neighbourhood to railways,
large towns, etc., extraordinary prices may be given,
but these are out of the operation of the general rules
which should guide the planter in his investments.

CHAPTER XII.

DISEASES, ETC.

ALTHOUGH the ripe coffee fruit is eagerly devoured by
birds, monkeys, jackals, squirrels, and numerous other
vermin, the tree itself has few enemies, and is subject
to fewer diseases than most plants which are like it,
of exotic growth, and cultivated largely by mankind
for the sake of their produce.

The disease known as rot has been already referred
to, and is simply the result of excessive moisture and
imperfect ventilation, and deficient evaporation. The
obvious remedy will be to assist the drainage of the
soil and to keep the trees so thin by pruning that the
air can freely circulate, and every glimpse of sunshine
penetrate through the trees. In newly planted land,
trees will frequently be noticed which, after a fort-
night's dry weather succeeding the rainy season, begin
to droop and turn yellow, and finally die off, apparently
without any cause ; but if these plants are carefully
examined, they will be found to have lost all their bark
at the level of the ground, and to be completely ringed.
This is neither more nor less than the result of being
planted too deep — the bark has rotted and been rubbed
off by the chafing of the tree ; occasionally, also, trees
will be found which have worn a hole round their
stems with continual agitation in the wind and rain,

DISEASES, ETC. 53

and this forms a funnel to catch and keep all the rain
that trickles down the stem, and thereby rots the root.
Both these defects are, however, within the control of
the planter; but of the evils beyond his power the
worst are undoubtedly the Borer and the Bug.

The former of these is a white or brownish grub,
being the larva of one of the numerous small flying
beetles common in the tropics. These breed in rotten
and decaying timber, and find, therefore, every encou-
ragement in coffee estates. These beetles eat a small
hole, resembling the puncture of a gimlet, horizontally
into the tree ; they then undergo the transformation
into the grub, and continue their devastations perpen-
dicularly both up and down the tree, until the tree dies.
The part of the tree above their entrance generally
gives unmistakable indications at once of their presence,
and if these are noticed, and the tree cut off at the
place where the perforation is seen, the grub will be
found inside, and the lower portion of the tree will be
saved and ultimately send out a sucker to supply the
place of the lost stem. But it frequently occurs that
large trees with heavy crops on them fall victims to
this pest, and then it becomes necessary to root up the
old tree and plant a fresh seedling in its place. The
beetles may be observed flying about in numbers in
the evenings after rain in March, April, and May, and
if bright fires of weeds, grass, etc., are lighted on the
various roads and other vacant places in the estates,
they will be attracted by the blaze and light, and fly
into the fires. This method has been found very
efficacious, and is neither expensive or difficult of
execution. It may be remarked that the borer is most

54 THE NATUKE AND CULTIVATION OF COFFEE.

abundant in rather dry localities, and is not so trouble-
some in virgin forest land as in what has been already
described as bamboo land.

Far more destructive, however, than the borer is
the coffee-bug, a full description of which will be found
in the succeeding chapter, which embodies the report
made by Dr. Gardner to the Ceylon Government on
the subject, and which is given at length in the very
able work on the island lately published by Sir Emerson
Tennent. It is somewhat remarkable that although
the bug has appeared in all the coffee growing districts
of India, it has never proved really destructive except
in the district of Coorg, where it has almost caused the
abandoning of some estates; but in Wynaad, the
Neilgherries, and Mysore, it has never given cause for
anxiety, as its appearance has been only partial, and it
does not spread and engross the estates in the manner
it has been found to do in Ceylon.

CHAPTER XIII.

NOTE.
THE COFFEE BUG. — (Lecanium Coffee. — Walker.)

THE following notice of the Coccus, known in Ceylon
as the " Coffee Bug/' and of the singularly destruc-
tive effects produced by it on the plants, has been
prepared chiefly from a memoir presented to the Ceylon
Government by the late Dr. Gardner, in which he traces
the history of the insect from its first appearance in the
coffee districts until it had established itself more or
less permanently in all the estates in full cultivation
throughout the island.

The first thing that attracts attention on looking at
a coffee-tree which has for some time been infested by
this coccus, is the number of brownish, wart-like bodies
that stud the young shoots, and occasionally the mar-
gins on the underside of the leaves. Each of these
warts, or scales, is a transformed female, containing a
large number of eggs, which are hatched within it.

When the young ones come out from their nest
they run about over the plant, looking very much like
diminutive wood-lice, and at this period there is no ap-
parent distinction between male and female. Shortly
after being hatched, the males seek the underside of the
leaves, whilst the females prefer the young shoots as
a place of abode. If the undersurface of a leaf be

56 THE NATURE AND CULTIVATION OF COFFEE.

examined, it will be found to be studded, particularly
on its basal half, with minute yellowish- white specks
of an oblong form. These are the larvae of the males
undergoing transformation into pupae beneath their
own skins. Some of those specks are always in a more
advanced state than the others, the full grown ones
being whitish and scarcely a line long. Some of this
size are translucent, the insect having escaped, the
darker ones have it still within, of an oblong form,
with the rudiment of a wing on each side attached to
the lower part of the thorax, and closely applied to the
sides. The legs are six in number, the four hind ones
being directed backwards, the anterior forwards (a
peculiarity not occurring in other insects), the two
antennae are also inclined backwards, and from the
tail protrude three short bristles, the middle one
thinner and longer than the rest.

When the transformation is complete, the mature
insect makes its way from beneath the pellucid case.*
All its organs having then attained their full size, the
head is subglobular, with two rather prominent black
eyes, and two antennae, each with eleven joints, hairy
throughout, and a tuft of rather longer hairs at the
apices ; the legs are also hairy, the wings are hori-
zontal, of an obovate oblong shape, membranous,
and extending a little further than the bristles of the
tail. They have only two nerves, neither of which
reaches so far as the lips ; one of them runs close to the
costal margin, and is much thicker than the other,

* Mr. Westwood, who observed the operation in one species, states
that they escape backwards, the wings being extended flatly over the
head.

THE COFFEE BUG. 57

which branches off from its base, and skirts along the
inner margin ; behind the wings is attached a pair of
minute halteres of peculiar form. The possession of wings
would appear to be the cause why the full-grown male is
more rarely seen on the coffee bushes than the female.
The female, like the male, attaches herself to the
surface of the plant, the place selected being usually
the young shoots ; but she is also to be met with on
the margins of the undersides of the leaves (on the
upper surface neither the male nor the female ever
attach themselves), but unlike the male, which derives
no nourishment from the juices of the tree (the mouth
being obsolete in the perfect state), she punctures the
cuticle with a proboscis (a very short three-jointed
promuscis) springing, as it were, from the breast, but
capable of being greatly porrected, and inserted in the
cuticle of the plant, and through this she abstracts- her
nutriment- In the early pupa state the female is easily
distinguishable from the male by being more elliptical
and much more convex. As she increases in size the
skin distends and she becomes more smooth and dry,
the rings of the body become effaced, and losing
entirely the form of an insect, she presents for some
time a yellowish pustular shape, but ultimately assumes
a roundish conical form, of a dark -brown colour.*

* There are many other species of the Coccus tribe in Ceylon,
some (Pseudococcus) never appearing as a scale, the female wrapping
herself up in a white cottony exudation. Many species nearly allied to.
the true Coccus infest common plants about gardens, such as the
Cerium Oleander, Plumeria, Acuminata, and others with milky juices.
Another subgenus (Ceroplastes), the female of which produces a pro-
tecting waxy material, infests the Gendurassa Yulgaris, the Fureraea
Gigantea, the Jak Tree, Mango, and other common trees.

58 THE NATUKE AND CULTIVATION OF COFFEE.

Until she has nearly reached her full size she still
possesses the power of locomotion, and her six legs
are easily distinguishable in the under surface of her
corpulent body ; but at no period of her existence has
she wings. It is about the period of her obtaining
full size that impregnation takes place (Eeaumur has
described the singular manner in which this occurs —
Hem., torn iv.), after which the scale becomes somewhat
more conical, assumes a darker colour, and at length
is permanently fixed to the surface of the plant, by
means of a cottony substance interposed between it
and the vegetable cuticle to which it adheres. The
scale, when full grown, exactly resembles in miniature
the hat of a Cornish miner, there being a narrow rim
at the base, which gives increased surface of attach-
ment. It is about one- eighth of an inch in diameter
by about one-twelfth deep, and it appears perfectly
smooth to the naked eye, but it is in reality studded
all over with a multitude of very minute warts, giving
it a dotted appearance ; it is entirely destitute of hairs
except the margin, which is ciliated. The number of
eggs contained in one of the scales is enormous,
amounting in a single one to six hundred and ninety-
one. The eggs are of an oblong shape, of a pale fresh
colour, and perfectly smooth. A few small yellowish
maggots are sometimes found with the eggs, these are
the larvse* of insects, the eggs of which have been
deposited in the female while the scale was soft. They

* Of the parasitic Chalcidiae, many genera of which are well knowii
to deposit their eggs in the soft coccus, viz., Encystus, Coccophagus,
Pteromalus, Mesoscla, Agonioneurus, besides Apidius, a minutely-sized
genus of Ichneumonidse. Most, if not all these genera are Singhalese.

THE COFFEE BUG. 59

escape when mature by cutting a small round hole in
the dor sum of the scale.

It is not till after this pest has been on an estate
for two or three years that it shows itself to an alarm-
ing extent. During the first year a few only of the
ripe scales are seen scattered over the bushes, generally
on the younger shoots ; but that year's crop does not
suffer much, and the appearance of the tree is little
altered. The second year, however, brings a change
for the worse. If the young shoots and the underside
of the leaves be now examined, the scales will be found
to have become much more numerous, and with them
appears a multitude of white specks, which are the
young scales in a much less forward state. The clusters
of berries now assume a black sooty look, and a great
number of them fall off before coming to maturity ;
the general health of the tree also begins to fail, and
it acquires a blighted appearance. A loss of crop is
this year sustained, but to no great extent. The third
year brings about a more serious change ; the whole
plant acquires a black hue, appearing as if soot had
been thrown over it in great quantities. This is caused
by the growth of a parasitic fungus* over the shoots
and the upper surface of the leaves, forming a fibrous
coating, somewhat resembling velvet or felt. This
never makes its appearance till the insect has been a
long time on the bush, and it probably owes its exist-
ence there to an unhealthy condition of the juices of

* Eacodium, species of this genus are not confined to the coffee
plant alone in Ceylon, but follow the " bugs " in their attacks on other
bushes. It appears like a dense interlaced mesh of fibres, each made
up of a single series of minute oblong vesicles applied end to end.

60 THE NATURE AND CULTIVATION OF COFFEE.

the leaf, consequent on the irritation produced by the
coccus, since it never visits the upper surface of the
leaf until it has fully established itself on the lower.
At this period the young shoots have an exceedingly
disgusting look from the dense mass of yellow pustular
bodies forming on them, the leaves get shrivelled, and
the tree becomes conspicuous in the row; the black
ants are assiduous in their visits to them ; two-thirds
of the crop is lost, and on many trees not a single
berry forms.

As far as it is possible to ascertain, the coffee
bushes were not affected before 1843, when Captain
Robertson first observed the pest on his estate, Lapalla
Galla, whence it spread eastward through other estates,
and finally reached all the other estates in the island.
It or a very closely allied species has been observed in
the botanic garden at Peradonia, on the citrus acida,
psidium pomiferum, myrtas zeylanica, rosa indica,
cureya arborea, vitex negundo, and other plants. The
coffee coccus has generally been first observed in moist
hollow places, sheltered from the wind, and thence it
has spread itself even over the driest and most exposed
parts of the islands, and in some estates after attaining
a maximum, it has gradually declined, but has shown
a liability to reappear, especially in low sheltered
situations, and it is believed to prevail most extensively
in wet seasons. It is easily transmitted from one
estate to another, while in its earlier stages, on the
clothes of human beings, and in various other ways
which will readily suggest themselves. Dr. Gardner,
after careful consideration and minute examination of
estates, arrived at the conclusion that all remedies

THE COFFEE BUG. 61

suggested up to that time had utterly failed, and that
none at once cheap and effectual was likely to be dis-
covered. He seems also to have been of opinion that
the insect was not under human control ; and that
even if it should disappear, it would only be when it
had worn itself out as other blights have been known
to do in some mysterious way. Whether this may
prove to be the case or not, is still very uncertain, but
everything observed by Dr. Gardner tended to indicate
the permanency of the pest.

CHAPTEE XIV.

CONCLUDING REMARKS.

NOTWITHSTANDING what has already been said, some of
the readers of this may be glad of further assistance in
forming their judgment on the merits and demerits of
the pursuit known as Coffee Planting, and for their
benefit the following extracts are appended. A writer
in his " Impressions of the West Indies/' says : —

" Anything in the way of cultivation more beauti-
ful or more fragrant than a coffee plantation I had not
conceived, and oft did I say to myself that if ever I
became, from health or otherwise, a cultivator of the
soil within the tropics, I would cultivate the coffee
plant, even although I did so irrespective altogether of
the profits that might be derived from so doing.
Much has been written, and not without justice, of the
rich fragrance of an orange grove, and at home we
ofttimes hear of the sweet odours of a bean field. I
have, too, often enjoyed in the Carse of Stirling, and
elsewhere in Scotland, the balmy breezes as they swept
over the latter, particularly when the sun had burst
out with unusual strength after a shower of rain. I
have likewise in Martinique, Santa Cruz, Jamaica, and
Cuba inhaled the breezes wafted from the orangeries, —
but not for a moment would I compare either with the
exquisite aromatic odours from a coffee plantation in

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 63

full bloom, when the hill- side — covered over with
regular rows of the shrubs, with their millions of their
jasmine-like flowers — showers down upon . you as you
ride up between the plants, a perfume of the most
delicately delicious description. 'Tis worth going to
the West Indies to see the sight and inhale the
perfume/'

From the " Colombo Observer " of this date we
extract the following : —

" The Gona Adika Coffee Estate, property of the
late Mr. Tucker, was sold for £30,000, the total extent
being nearly 1,000 acres, more than 800 of which
were in coffee. The property was bought on account
of the mortgage, and it is understood that the purchase
price was £9,000 less than the encumbrances on the
estate. This is but a type of numerous cases. Prices
have been good for years back, but numbers of coffee
proprietors got hopelessly involved in the bad times,
and latterly, increased expenditure here seems to have
kept pace with the rise in prices. Still some persons
must profit, or the pursuit would not be persevered in.
But the actual working planters who have made
fortunes, or even secured a competency, might be
counted with but a slight mental effort."

Of still more value is the testimony of Sir Emerson
Tennent, as he had the most ample opportunities of
making himself acquainted with all opinions and details
in the matter, and he writes as follows : —

" Whatever may be the ascertained advantages of
Ceylon in point of soil, temperature and moisture, and
however bountiful may be the yield of the plants, the
speculation must always be estimated in connection

64 THE NATUKE AND CULTIVATION OF COFFEE.

with the cost and vicissitudes with which it is unhappily
associated. Anxiety must be inseparable from an un-
dertaking exclusively dependent on immigrant labour,
and liable to be affected at the most critical moment
by its capricious fluctuations. No temptation of wages,
and no prospect of advantage, has hitherto availed to
overcome the repugnance of the Singhalese and
Kandyans to engage in any work on estates, except
the first process of felling the forests. Every sub-
sequent operation must be carried on by Coolies from
Malabar and the Coromandel coast, whose arrival is
uncertain and whose departure being influenced by
causes arising in India, may be precipitated by the
most unforeseen occurrences.* These labourers have
to be remunerated at high rates in the silver currency
of India, the value of which fluctuates with the
exchanges, and fed on rice imported for their exclusive
consumption, burdened with all the charges of freight,
duty, and carriage to the hills. The crop, when saved^
on the estate, has either to encounter the risks in-
cident to transport by hand, through mountains as yet
unopened by roads, or the chances of deterioration to
which it is exposed in bullock carts during long
journeys to the coast.

" Where circumstances enable the proprietor to be
resident on his own estate, and to superintend its
operations and control its expenditure in person, few
colonial pursuits present attractions superior to those
exhibited by Ceylon, either as to actual enjoyment or

* In 1858 the number of Tamil labourers arriving in Ceylon was
96,000. The number taking their departure from the island was 50,000.

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 65

reasonable returns for investment. But where the
capitalist is helplessly reliant on the honour and services
of a representative on his distant possessions, under
circumstances in which few have the resolution to resist
stimulants and the usual devices for diversifying mo-
notony and overcoming the ennui attendant on isola-
tion and solitude, property of this kind is accompanied
by inextricable risks and anxieties, and the owner will
be often tempted to ascribe to bad faith or neglect,
the disappointments, outlay, and losses which are in
reality attributable to ordinary vicissitudes rather than
to the infidelity of agents."

The attention of the reader is particularly called to
the last paragraph, and where the investment contem-
plated is in conjunction with a Joint Stock Company
the utmost care should also be taken to ascertain the
qualifications of the directors and managers for their
self-imposed duties, as instances are not uncommon of
fully three-fourths of the number of the directors of a
company being entirely ignorant of everything regard-
ing coffee, except perhaps, of how it is drunk, and as a
matter of course, those who do really understand the
management are frequently in a minority on many im-
portant questions ; further, let not the incautious
speculator be tempted by what is called " a guarantee
of a minimum dividend," for a grosser delusion was
never practised on the British public. In most cases
it means simply that the vendor of the property or
directors of the company are to receive so much more
than the real value of it, that if they get that amount
they can afford to pay the interest out of it ; and, if on
the other hand, the guaranteed dividend has really to

66 THE NATURE AND CULTIVATION OF COFFEE.

be earned out of the profits, the guarantor will naturally
do his best to keep the expenditure as low as possible,
and thus most probably to starve the property, on the
principle of apres moi le deluge, little caring that the
unlucky shareholder finds himself at the expiration of
the term of guarantee in possession of a neglected and
exhausted estate. If the project is really bonafide, it
will yield 15 to 20 per cent, without a guarantee, which
will always tend to a parsimonious and injurious policy.
If on the other hand, the affair is what is styled in city
phraseology " a swindle," the return of a portion of
" the plunder " in the shape of " guaranteed dividend/'
will be a very small consolation to the shareholder. At
least nine-tenths of the subscribers to the various Tea
and Coffee Companies have no means of satisfying
themselves as to the character of the speculation, ex-
cept from such documents as may be produced by the
directors and their friends or the representations of the
financial associations through means of which these
undertakings are commonly introduced, and whatever,
therefore, be the source of information, it is seldom
wholly impartial or disinterested. Of all projects, the
inexperienced speculator should be careful in dealing
with those introduced by financial associations. In the
first place a very considerable sum has to be paid as
commission, which in one way or other comes out
of the shareholders' pocket, and in the second, as the
responsibility of the introducers ends with the allotment
of shares, the interest of the shareholders is not cared
for and they will frequently find themselves exposed
to vexatious litigation, or pledged to arrangements
most injurious to all except the directors and other
officers whom the introducers have selected.

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 67

From what has been already said it will have been
gathered that the speculation, or enterprise as it should
more fitly be termed, of coffee planting, is a very legi-
timate subject for the formation of joint- stock com-
panies. There are, it will have been seen, considerable
advantages to be gained by prosecuting the project on
an extended scale. The European management both
in England and abroad forming no inconsiderable part
of the expense, it will always be found advantageous
to afford full employment to this description of labour ;
and an able, active manager can superintend 1500 or
2000 acres with very little more trouble than half that
extent would entail. Again, the expenses in England
of a well- constituted company need be little more than
the amount saved by their acting as their own agents
in the sale of their produce. A vast proportion of the
failures amongst the planting community have resulted
from insufficient capital, and the enormous interest
which the borrower has been obliged to pay for funds
sufficient to bring his concern to a successful issue ;
but, with a joint- stock company neither of these exi-
gencies are likely to occur, and in the present state of
the market the only cause which should affect the pro-
spects of the undertaking is the very material question
of management ; but where this is really efficient with
a due regard to economy, few enterprises present a
more certain prospect of liberal returns than coffee
planting.

APPENDIX,

Daily Eeport_

_ Estate
186

WORKS, ETC.

LABOURERS.

4

1

N.

Superintdts.

1st.

2nd.

3rd.

4th.

Total.

Nurseries

"a -1 Pitting ...

g [Planting

Weeding

Pruning

Building

Trenching ,

Koads

Cattle

TappalCooly.

X. ( Preparing for Crop

2 -s Picking

(.Pulping, etc

Total

Weather

Superintendent

Form No. 1.

70

APPENDIX.

Daily Report^

Estate
186

WOEKS, ETC.

LABOUEEES.

Nurseries ,

Weeding

Pruning ,

Building

Trenching

Beads

Manuring

Cattle

Tappal Cooly..

p^ ( Preparing for Crop . .

jj Picking

(Pulping, etc

Total..,

1st.

ind.

3rd.

4th.

Total.

Weather

Superintendent

Form No. 2.

3

00

»

APPENDIX.

71

Daily Report_

Estate

186

WORKS, ETC.

LABOUREK8.

E.

Superintdts.

.1
1

1st.

nd.

rd.

4th.

Total.

~3 1 Pitting..

Weeding

Building

Roads

Cattle

Tappal Cooly

Total....

Weather

Form No. 3.

Superintendent

00

Monthly Report from the

Estate for

18

Analysis of
Expenditure.

This
Month.

Previously

Total thi
Year.

Details of Expenditure.

Clearing

Pitting

Planting

Weeding
Buildings

Tools

Stock

Transport

Miscellaneous . . .
Superintendence .

Total Eupees...

Total Eupees.

Tool Eeturn.

Cattle Eeturn.

Momaties
Pickaxes
Hoes

COWB.

Bullocks.

Calves.

Buffaloes.

Last Account.
Sold

Axes

Billhooks
Crowbars
Pruning Knives
Grass Knives,..
Adzes

Bought
Died

Increase

Total...

Sledgehammers
Saws

Distribution of Labour during the Month of

18

WEATHER.

r/j

0-
'£

tL

B

bi,

be

d

bJD

c

tir

C

bit

|
'C

bi

£

1

Ilaneou8. 1

1

o
H

1

£

o>
O

_2

s

^s

erf

5

^3

i

£

'S

1

3

§
£

2
3
W

r//
-H

S
1

5>
P.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

Totals

Dr. Superintendent in Account with Estate Cr.

RAP

By

RAP

GENERAL REMARKS.

Clearing.
Pitting _

Planting,

Weeding.
Buildings_

Koads

Crop

Miscellaneous.

HABBILD, PBINIEB, LONDON.

a Hist of ISoofc*

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Jack Buntline : the Life of a Sailor Boy. 2s.
The Fire Ships. 5s.

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Black Panther : a Boy's Adventures among the Red Skins.
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The Voyage of the Constance. By Mary Gillies.
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Boyhood of Martin Luther. By Henry May hew.
Stories of the Woods. From Cooper's Tales.
The Story of Peter Parley's own Life.

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SCIENCE AND DISCOVERY.

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List of Publication. 13

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List of Publications. 15

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