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TUFTS UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES

3 9090 014 550 442

Webster Family Library of Veterinary MedWne

Cummings School of Veterinary Medioneat

Tufts University

200 Westt)oro Road

north Qfafton, MA 0isa6

ON

Seats and Saddles

BITS AND BITTING

AND

THE PREVENTION AND CURE OF

RESTIVENESS IN HORSES.

BY

FRANCIS DWYER

MAJOR OF HUSSARS IN THE IMPERIAL AUSTRIAN SERVICE.

" Vis consili expers mole ruit sua."

— Horace, Carmin., Lib. III. Ode iv.

NEW YORK:

JOHN W. LOVELL COMPANY,
150 Worth Street.

W0^

TO

HIS SERENE HIGHNESS

FRANCES PAUL CHARLES LOUIS ALEXANDER.
PRINCE OF TECK,

Major of Hussars in the Imperial Atistrian Service,

THIS BOOK

IS BY PERMISSION DEDICATED,

IN GRATEFUL ACKNOWLEDGMENT

OF MANY KINDNESSES

SHOWN TO HIS SERENE HIGHNESS*S

MOST OBEDIENT SERVANT,

THE AUTHOR.

I

ON

Seats and Saddles

BITS AND BITTING

ETC.

CONTENTS.

I

INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.

PAGB

Various styles of riding a consequence of various kinds of in-
ducements to ride — Natural riders and instructive riders —
There is great waste of horse-flesh and premature destruction
of the animal's legs where bad methods are followed, or where
no method at all exists — English civilian riders use up an
enormous quantity of horse-flesh — Some foreign cavalry ser-
vices do the same — The causes are generally false distribu-
tion of the weight to be carried — The horse's skeleton is the
framework of the machine we employ as a bearer — In order
to adjust the burden to this, some knowledge of the machine is
required, as also of the saddle by means of which that burden
is placed and retained on the horse's back — The seat is the
way in which the rider adjusts his own weight through the
intermedium of the saddle to the horse — Varieties of seats to
suit various purposes — The bit is the instrument by which
the rider's will is transmitted to the horse ; it is a lever which,
if accurately adapted, will be of great assistance and value to
the rider ; if unfitted in shape, size, etc., it is not only useless,
but often dangerous — Restiveness in horses most usually the
consequence of injudicious treatment of some kind or other —
To prevent or cure restiveness requires a knowledge of the
methods employed for breaking in or handling horses, conse-
quently also of the method in which the weight of the rider
should be brought to bear, and also how such horses should

be bitted 15-28

7

Co?i tents.
PART I.

SEATS AND SADDLES.

CHAPTER I.

the framework of the horse considered from a
mp:chanical point of view.

PAGB

The four legs are the supports of the spinal column which bears
the burden directly — There is one portion of the spinal col-
umn round which all the others move : this is the centre of
motion of the horse — The head and neck project beyond the
basis on which the animal stands ; the position of the centre
of gravity modified by this — The horse's fore legs are, more
particularly, bearers, the hind ones propellers — The action of
the horse will depend on the relative positions of these two
centres, which will be shown by the hoof- tracks, and is also
easily recognizable by the ear — The relative positions of the
two centres of gravity and motion may be adjusted as the
nature of the service demanded requires, by simply altering
the position of the head and neck ; and this is equally true
whether the horse be in motion or at rest 31-54

CHAPTER II.

THE SADDLE AND ITS INFLUENCE ON THE SEAT.

The saddle should be adjusted to whatever seat may be adopted
for a particular purpose, and not vice versd the seat to the
saddle — Its size should be proportioned to the weight it will
have to support: its shape should be adapted, on the one
hand, to the horse's back ; on the other, to the rider's seat
and legs — The weight should be so placed as to press equally
over the whole under surface of the saddle ; there must be
no lever action : all of which is best attained by making the
seat central, placing the girths also in the centre of the sad-
dle, and, finally, the stirrups as near this point as can be con-
veniently done — For military purposes, blankets in some

Contents. 9

PAGB

respects preferable to feltplates under the saddle — The
crupper is utterly useless — The breastplate is unobjection-
able 55-71

CHAPTER IIL

SEATS.

The seat on horseback is maintained by balance, by friction or
by the aid of the stirrups — A combination of all these means
affords the greatest security — The more perfect the balance
the less will be the quantity of muscular action required to
maintain the seat ; the closer the seat to the saddle and the
greater the surfaces brought into contact, the more easily
will the balance be maintained ; the nearer the point of sus-
pension of the stirrup to the seat, the less will balance and
friction be disturbed, and the more will the stirrup act in
support of these, how or wherever the rider may otherwise
sit — To have a good seat, his weight must be distributed
equally between the three bones forming the triangle of his
fork, and not on any two of these, or on the third alone —
It is better to commence riding with stirrups than without —
The jockey's saddle and seat — The hunting seat — Road-
riding — Rising in the stirrups versus bobbing up and down
—What is the object of both 72-93

CHAPTER IV.

THE MILITARY SEAT.

This is more easily reducible to rule than any other, the object
being alike in all cases, and the material selected with refer-
ence to that special purpose — The cavalry seat must facili-
tate not only the mere progressive power of the horse, but
also such a degree of handiness as will ensure to its rider a
perfect command over his weapons, and, in addition to all
this, secure for the troop-horse the longest possible period
of service — These latter objects are but too frequently sacri-
ficed in favor of mere vehemence of movement ; they are
only to be attained by very careful saddling, bitting, and a

lO Contents.

TAGS

correct seat or method of riding— Weight carried by some
cavalry horses compared with that carried by hunters and
racers — Average daily work of a man carrying a burden
compared with that of a horse under various circumstances
and at various degrees of speed 94-108

PART II.

BITS AND BITTING.

CHAPTER I.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

Vulgar idea of hard and soft-mouthed horses— The horse's head
and neck levers, by means of which the animal's body may
be steered like a boat by the tiller — Baucher's ideas of the
position of the head and neck — Rational handling contrasted
with ordinary horse-breaking — Bitting must be suited to
style of riding— Value of good and careful bitting in the
handhng of young horses, and the prevention of restiveness
— Its great importance for cavalry 11 1-122

CHAPTER II.

THE NECK— THE HEAD — THE MOUTH — THE TONGUE — CARRIAGE
— FEELING.

Varieties of shapes, etc., of horses' necks — Influence of this on
direction of pull of reins — Influence of military pack on the
same — Ditto of shape of horse's head and mode in which it
is set on neck — The head considered as a lever — Horses that
poke out their noses or bend their necks too much — Width
between jaws — Glands situated here — Conformation of
horse's chin, nose, lips, chin-groove, externally ; of mouth
and tongue internally — Average dimensions of some parts
of horses' mouths — The tongue-channel — Carriage of horse's
head and neck must be suited to kind of work demanded —
Carriage for military purposes, for racing, for hunting, for
road-riding 123- 145

Contents, X I

CHAPTER III.

THE CAVESSON — SNAFFLE — NOSEBAND — TRAINING-HALTER —
RUNNING-REINS.

PAGB

The snaffle the simplest and best of all forms of bit — Requires
good, steady seat — Various forms of snaffle — Their relative
value — The noseband, its use — Difficulties about it — Von
Oeynhausen's training-halter — Where the snaffle should be
put in the horse's mouth — Martingals — Seeger's running-
reins 146-157

CHAPTER IV.

THE LEVER — THE BIT AND CURB — THE BRIDLE.

With a plain snaffle there is no lever power — Orders of levers —
Lever of second order gives the action required for a bit —
The curb should not exert the slightest degree of painful
action — "Whatever maybe required of this should be exerted
by mouthpiece, the less the better— Consequences of curb
producing a greater amount of painful action than mouth-
piece— Length of the bars of bit, whence measured — Line of
bearing — Length of upper bar of bit — A bit '* falls through"
or stands stiff: why? — Effects of both — Angle at which reins
should act on bit — Dimensions of lower bar of bit— Curb,
length of— Position for mouthpiece in horse's mouth — Best
form of curb — Curb-hooks— Mouthpiece of bit— Port, use
of— Rings on mouthpieces, their use — Jointed mouthpieces
— Pelham — Dumpy-bit— Method of adjusting bit and bridle
— The bridoon 158-ii

CHAPTER V.

TAKING MEASURE FOR THE BIT — THE MOUTH-GAUGE — THE
TRIAL-BIT.

Description of these instruments and methods of using

them 190 196

12 Co7itents*

PART III.

RESTIVENESS : ITS PREVENTION AND CURE.

CHAPTER I.

HOW TO RENDER HORSES OBEDIENT.

PACK

Disobedience or restiveness not to be confounded with vice —
A horse is stronger than a man ; therefore nothing is to be
done by mere brute force— Usual cause of insubordination
is injudicious treatment— Character of the horse— English
method of training or handling young horses— Continental
or school methods— Advantages or disadvantages of these
two; their description; how they may be best made appli-
cable to the prevention and cure of restiveness 199-220

CHAPTER II.

GENERAL RULES FOR THE TREATMENT OF RESTIVENESS.

Avoid opportunities of conflict — Ascertain how restiveness was
caused, and when first shown, the temper and general dis-
position of the animal ; also its condition must be taken
into account — If practicable, the handling of restive horses
should be undertaken in an enclosed place, a riding-school,
or the like — What may be done when nothing of this kind
is available — The first great object is to get a horse to
go somehow, then afterward in obedience and in a cer-
tain form — Generally speaking, restive horses should be
treated as if they had never been handled at all ; that is to
say, they should be re-trained from beginning to end — The
position generally assumed by restive horses — How to get
them out of this — " Unfbcing" a horse from the spot — Treat-
ment of a horse that backs — How to use the spurs and the
whip 221-234

Contents. 13

CHAPTER III.

SPECIAL FORMS OF RESTIVENESS.

PAGB

Solting. — Why do horses bolt ?— How to manage bolters where
there is room, and when one is confined to the road — Bolters
that carry their heads up and those that carry them down —
Bucking and plunging— How to manage these — The dumb-
jockey 235-242

Rearing.— Ylow a horse prepares itself to rear — How the rear-
ing may be prevented at this stage — How the horse does
rear — Method of treatment with the lounge; or under the
rider 242-250

fCicking.—Th.Q. cause of kicking — The method of treatment. . .250-252
2

INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.

IT may be well, at starting, to state the objects with
which this little book has been brought before the
public interested in horses, and at the same time, in
order to prevent misapprehension, to say that the author
has not the slightest intention of setting up any one
kind of seat or style of riding as a model for all riders.
On the contrary, he is fully persuaded that each of
these has its own merits, and, as our French neighbors
would say, its own raison d'etre — that is to say, has
been adopted for good and sufficient reasons, so far as
each individual rider possessed an insight into the true
essentials of the case, and has been able to distinguish
these from what is merely matter of fashion or supposed
convenience.

Some men, and these are the naturally good or born
riders, possess the sort of knowledge in question in-
stinctively, and frequently without being able to account
either to themselves or others for the way in which
they have acquired it, or give satisfactory reasons for
the adoption of their methods. Such men are most
usually, although not invariably, of the peculiar build,
unnecessar}' to describe, which combines strength and
vigor with lightness and dexterity ; and must possess
in all cases that happy admixture of courage, prompt
decision, patience and perseverance that constitute

15

l6 Introductory Chapter.

the rider's temperament, and which arrive at their
greatest perfection when coupled with an unselfish love
of that noblest and most beautiful animal, the horse. It
is only necessary to put a man of this sort into the
saddle and he becomes at once a rider ; just as another
becomes a good shot, and a third an expert angler,
almost from the moment a gun or a rod is placed in
their hands.

But all men are not so gifted ; whole nations, indeed,
have been at various periods of the world's history
characterized as born riders ; but it will be found, on
examination, that in these instances unmixed race, re-
sulting in great uniformity of stature, build and tem-
perament, combined with what we are pleased to term
a low degree of civilization, prevailed to a much greater
extent than amongst ourselves. It would be invidious,
and moreover unnecessary, for the object we have in
view, to enter into a more minute comparison in this
respect of our own population with others of ancient or
modern times. As regards most if not all of those
moral qualities which we have stated to be typical of
the rider temperament, we stand confessedly very high
in the scale, leaving altogether aside all that England
has done for the breeding of horses ; moreover, we have
amongst us a much greater proportion of men who can
ride tant bien que 7nal than any other civilized nation ;
in fact, the class of men that ride for pleasure or conve-
nience is with us very large, whereas everywhere else
it is very small, almost minute ; for the equestrian na-
tions that still exist in different parts of the world mount
their horses as a means of gaining and maintaining their
existence much more frequently than for mere pleasure.

This is, however, precisely what brings into the sad-
dle a great number of people who do not belong to the
class of born riders, or have perhaps neither the time,
opportunity nor desire to do more than enjoy a pleas

Introductory Chapter, l*f

ant ride when they can, and who are therefore content
to depend on others, who are paid for doing it, to put
this within their reach. That this luxury is, however,
not always attainable even to a long purse, many a man
can testify ; and the causes of failures are frequently
sufficiently obvious to professional riders, although sel-
dom pointed out by them, for very cogent reasons. It
must be confessed, indeed, that it is most usually a
very thankless office to offer any man that rides any-
thing like advice, however well meant and sound, on
anything concerning his horse, bridle, saddle or seat.
The great majority would much more patiently tole-
rate very decided expressions of doubt as to their
mental or moral qualifications, if only conveyed with a
certain amount of tact, than the slightest imputation of
want of knowledge or skill in things pertaining to
horsemanship.

And yet there exist very incontestable evidences
that a great amount of unskillfulness, to use a mild
term, in the matter of riding does really exist amongst
us. We have the best horses in the world, and those
whose build and temper are most peculiarly adapted for
riding purposes ; notwithstanding which, the propor-
tion of animals with broken knees and other injuries to
their limbs is infinitely greater than anywhere else that
we know of. No doubt we demand a greater amount
of hard work from our horses than other people ; still,
broken knees are the opprobrium of the rider, and
point very evidently to great ignorance or total disre-
gard of the very simple mechanical principles that
govern the motion of a quadruped with or without a
burden on its back. Every one knows that the best-
constructed form or chair may be upset by sitting awk-
wardly on it and setting the laws of gravitation at defi-
ance ; while few people who have knocked down their
valuable horses by precisely the same process seem to
2^ B

1 8 Introdticto7'y Chapter.

be in the least aware of what they have really done :
" the brute stumbled and broke both his knees," is the
only explanation they are capable of aflbrding ; of course
it is never their own fault.

Again, how many horses, especially young ones, are
made restive, and become plungers, bolters or rearers
through the intolerable pain occasioned by bits that are
wholly unsuited to their mouths, and sometimes fitter
for a rhinoceros than so sensitive and delicate an animal
as the horse. Many a curb, stringhalt and spavin are
originated by the use, or rather abuse, of bits whose
lever power is so excessive that it is impossible to regu-
late their action, not to mention the very numerous
instances in which bits are placed in such a position in
the horse's mouth as to act on the animal's head in ex-
actly the opposite direction to that intended by the
rider, as shall be hereafter explained, and thus, in con-
junction with the misplaced burden of the rider, assist
in throwing down the bearer.

It is well known that a very great and constantly-
increasing number of English saddle-horses are an-
nually exported to Berlin, Vienna, Paris and other
great Continental cities, and many of these are there
sold at prices perfectly remunerative to the dealers, but
which are much lower than animals of equally good
figure and proportions command with ease in the Eng-
lish market. This was for a time a puzzle to the Con-
tinentals, and even to some amateur dealers, who made
bad speculations in consequence. By and by it was
discovered that a great majority of these splendid
animals were either more or less restive, or at least
" difiicult," as the phi'ase goes. Being frequently pur-
chased by military officers of superior rank, they were
naturally put into the riding-schools, where they gave
so much trouble that many professionals were led to
believe that English horses were incaj)able of any high

Inti'oductojy Chapter. 19

degree of school-training. Others who were more judi-
cious found it impossible to reconcile the well-known
docility of the English breed with the fractiousness
and intractability of these exported specimens, and
came to the very sound conclusion that the fault lay,
not in the breed, but in the previous injudicious hand-
ling of these individuals. Baucher, the French riding-
master, founded his great reputation — which, by the
way, has been much exaggerated — on his successful
conversion of the celebrated Partisan — an English horse
that was sold for a song, because nobody could manage
him — into a first-rate and most docile school-horse.
Some of the Germans, however, decided the question
in a still more positive manner by buying young high-
bred horses in England that had never been backed ;
and Seeger, Von Oeynhausen and other first-rate
authorities now all state that English horses are just
as capable of high training as all others, and more so
than the Arabians, who have a very peculiar trot.

It is incontestable that the English, as a nation, pos-
sess in a high degree the physical and moral qualifica-
tions that go to make good riders. Where, then, can
the fault lie? Evidently in something connected with
the mechanism employed in enabling the horse to carry
its rider, and the rider to maintain his seat and preserve
the mastery over his bearer ; in other words, something
-peculiar in saddles and seats^ bits and bitting.

It will perhaps seem to many persons impossible, or
at least improbable, that mere saddles and bridles, or
the manner in which they are adjusted to the horse's
body, can produce such very material results as those
suggested here. Well, it does seem strange ; but let
us listen, before passing judgment on the case, to some
documentary evidence bearing upon it. On the 20th
May, 1859, the French cavalry had in Piedmont 900S
effective horses, increased subsequently by the arrival

20 Introductory Chapter,

of a whole brigade (Perouse), so that on the 24th June
(Solferino), the total number borne on the lists was
10,206.* But it subsequently tra^5pired, from the
report of the Cavalry Commission ordered by Marshal
Randon to inquire into the causes of the tear and weai
of horses during the campaign, that, on the day of that
decisive battle, not more than about 3500 horses were
really fit for sen-ice, the remainder having been dis-
abled by less than one month's marching ; for, with the
exception of one or two squadrons that fought at Ma-
genta, the French cavalry was never under fire up to
the 24th June, and an immense proportion of these had
been rendered unserviceable by the saddle and other
portions of the equipment.

Most of us, too, have heard of what happened to that
portion of our own cavalry that was employed in the
reconnoitring expedition into the Dobrudscha. A
proverb current amongst the Continental military men
says that more men are put hors de combat by the
calfskin (the knapsack) than by either bullet or bay-
onet ; and there seems good reason to believe that the
oigskin stands in the same fatal relation to horses.

There is no lack of books in which very full and
particular descriptions of model seats on horseback may
be found, nor of riding-masters who both know how
to sit a horse themselves and impart to their pupils
their own particular method. But this will not answer
the purpose ; for there exists not only a certain number
of typical seats, more or less suited to various ends — as
racing, hunting, the cavalry service, etc., all of which,
as has been said, have their peculiar justification — but
there is also a great variety in the build of horses, and
especially in the relative power of their fore and hind
quarters, which demands consideration, if we would

* " Campagne de I'Empereur Napoleon III. en Italic en 1859"
(official).

Introductory Chapter, 21

avoid the serious and but too common error of using
up one set of members prematurely whilst leaving the
others intact. For instance, nothing is more frequent
amongst ourselves than to see horses otherwise perfectly
sound irreparably ruined in the fore legs.

Moreover, there exists an equal variety in the build
of the riders, which also requires consideration. Dr.
Heavysterne cannot be expected to sit his horse as Mr.
Threadpaper can do, nor a well " split-up" man like
one that is built on the lines of an otter ; nevertheless,
there is no reason why each and all of them should not
sit well and judiciously, though their seats must be ne-
cessarily different. There is only one class of riders
from which one must and can demand a great degree of
uniformity — namely, cavalry. The necessity arises from
the existence of a special and narrowly-defined object
being to be attained — the possibility, from the fact of
both men and horses being selected with reference to
this very object. But even here a certain margin is
inevitable. It is not possible to make the Indo-Ger-
manic Prussians, Bavarians, French, English or Irish
sit on horseback exactly like the Mongolian, Magyars
and Turks, or the Semitic Arabs. Professor Max Miil-
ler and the author of the Adamites seem to have over-
looked this interesting fact. Still, the mutual relations
of the frameworks of the man and of the horse are
such as to admit of one general principle being set up,
and this fjtust be adhered to as closely as possible if the
real end and object are not to be sacrificed to fashion or
prejudice.

It is more difficult to lay down anything like a prin-
ciple for the guidance of that large class of men who
ride simply for pleasure, convenience or health. To
one considerable section of them the notion of sitting
their horses as a riding-master is supposed to do would
be simply disgusting ; it would look like an affectation,

22 Introductory Chapter.

a sort of thing to which well-bred gentlemen have a
great objection. They can afford to ride tolerably safe
horses, and depend on their saddles and groom to a
great extent for the convenience and comfort of their
seat. These important functionaries must be often
sadly puzzled how to ensure this, and would be prob-
ably often delighted to find their employer capable of
giving them some intelligible hint on which they 'might
exercise their ingenuity and s avoir fair e with a decent
chance of success.

The next section comprises those who are indifferent
to appearances, and merely desire to ride safely and
comfortably. As regards the latter point, we may refer
them to what has been just said ; and as to the matter
of safety, this will be perhaps better attained by some
knowledge of where the danger lies and how it may
be avoided than by a practical experience of it in the
shape of a fall.

Others again, although they never followed a hound,
nor are likely to do so, adopt what they believe to be
" a hunting seat," merely because it is a prominent type,
and therefore caught their eye more readily than the
chaos that presented itself in all other directions. Many
of them would doubtless adopt with equal readiness
some other form that promised equal or greater security
and convenience, especially if they should happen to
discover, by the aid of a looking-glass, that their copy
is somewhat too much of a caricature.

The aim of this little treatise is, therefore, by appeal-
ing to the intelligence, common sense and good feeling
of all riding men, to enable each to discover for him-
self what best suits his own peculiar case, and will put
him in a position to make the best and the most of
every horse he may have to ride, in the safest manner,
so far, at least, as the matters herein treated are con-
cerned. The intention is to refrain from all dogrmatism

Introductory Chapter. 23

and authoritative assertions, and merely present general
principles derived from mechanical law^s that admit of
no controversy, showing their inevitable bearing on the
most important points, and leaving the reader as much
as possible to form his own judgment independently and
arrive at a practical application for himself. The work
is therefore not intended to represent a treatise on equita-
tion or the art of riding, but merely to be a plain and
easily intelligible exposition of the mechanical problems
connected with the case of a quadruped serving as a
bearer to a biped — in other words, of a horse under its
rider.

The plan to be adopted will be, first, as regards
" Seats and Saddles," as follows : The horse's skeleton
is a framework forming the basis of the living machine
we employ as a bearer ; it is therefore necessary to
know something of its construction, less from an ana-
tomical than a mechanical point of view. The princi-
ples involved are very simple and familiar to most
people in one way or the other, regarding chiefly equi-
librium— that is to say, such a distribution of a weight
with reference to its supports as ensures stability, or, in
other w^ords, prevents its upsetting or falling ; also
something about levers.

The chief weight to be carried by the machine is, of
course, the rider, whose seat should therefore be so ad-
justed as not to interfere with the free action of the
bearer and the presei-vation of its stability and equilib-
rium. But as the seat depends to a great extent on
the saddle, it becomes necessary to examine, in the
first place, the general principles of construction of
this mechanical contrivance, by means of which the
twofold object of securing the free action of the horse
and the safety of the rider may be best attained. This
will be found to depend partly on the absolute amount
of surface coming in contact on the one hand with the

24 Introductory Chapter.

horse's back, on the other with the rider's seat ; partly
on the way in which the weight of the latter is ad-
justed on the saddle — that is to say, whether it presses
more on one part than another, and consequently chiefly
on one or two points of the horse's back, or whether it
be distributed equably over the whole surface in contact
with the latter — in other words, what part of the saddle
the rider should occupy in order to secure the objects
he has in view, as stated above. It will further depend
on the general shape of those parts of its under and
upper surfaces that come in contact with the horse's
back and rider's seat respectively, which, of course, in-
cludes the question of its proper place, its mode of at-
tachment— that is to say, where and how the girths
should be fixed — and the causes of its displacement,
which depend partly on its own shape favoring, partly
on the rider's seat producing, lever action, which again
depends to a great extent on the exact point from which
the stirrups are suspended.

This will furnish data fo an estimate, not so much
of the relative value of different kinds of seats — which
would only divert attention from the real object and
provoke controversy — as of their absolute fitness for the
particular purpose they are intended to fulfill ; and will
also afford an opportunity of pointing out the danger
of exaggerations and the gross absurdity of applying a
style of riding more or less specially adapted to one
purpose to others that have no analogy with it ; in fact,
it will be shown that diflerent styles of riding are not
only inevitable but legitimate, because the ends to be
attained vary considerably. But at the same time,
although the general principles may be adapted to cir-
cumstances, they can never be absolutely violated with
impunity. Let each particular style of riding be as
perfect in itself as possible, without being made antago-
nistic to others or losing sight of the general conditions

hiti'oductory Chapter. 25

that apply to all without exception. There is a great
value in schools ; tor, making due allowance for indi-
viduality, they enable us to form a correct estimate of
what the scholars can do. For instance, in "welters'*
we impose penalties on professional jocks because we
know that they have been trained in a certain school,
whereas we have no standard of comparison for gentle-
men-riders.

It is proposed to illustrate this portion of the book
with drawings of horsemen, representing various styles
of European and Asiatic riding, taken from portraits,
photographs and pictures executed by artists who had
no preconceived theories to bolster up, and picked
nearly at random from such materials as were available.
They will be found to confirm, in a remarkable man-
ner, the truth of the general principles laid down, as
well by their discrepancies as their points of resem-
blance, and will no doubt prove interesting to many
readers in other respects.

The European cavalry soldier is compelled to put on
his horse's back, in addition to his own weight and
that of the saddle, the extra burden of a huge pack of
things forming his kit. It is obvious that the most
careful adjustment of the rider and saddle to the gene-
ral equilibrium of himself and horse will avail little if
the balance be destroyed from the moment the pack is
put on ; nor will it do to make this merely a counter-
poise to the rider, because he is frequently required to
ride either in an empty saddle or with various amounts
of pack, therefore the equilibrium must be at all times
maintainable, whatever the absolute weight may be.
The neglect of this is one of the main causes of the
sore-back disasters that usually occur at the commence-
ment of a campaign, and, to the great astonishment of
the uninitiated, frequently nearly disappear in the fur.
ther course of it.
3

26 Introductory Chapter.

There is another great difference between the condi-
tions under which the soldier and the civilian mount
their horses, the former being compelled to ride with
one hand, and have the other free to use his weapons ;
besides, his life frequently depends on a rapid change of
direction at various degrees of speed, and which he
must be able to effect without great effort. The way in
which the pack is j^laced on the saddle has much to do
with this, as will appear when we come to the subject
of " Bits and Bitting." All these matters shall be
treated in a separate chapter, and illustrated by figin-es.

The second part of the work is devoted to " Bits and
Bitting." There is much more in this than most people
may be willing to believe. A ship with a damaged or
badly-constructed and ill-fitting rudder is not more
awkward and difficult to manage than a horse with a
bit that is not perfectly adapted to his mouth and his
whole frame, or which ha€ been ill placed. It will be
necessar}'- here to refer again to the horse's skeleton,
and point out the beautiful series of levers, and the
wonderful lever action, by means of which, in conjunc-
tion with the seat and legs of the rider, his will may
be conveyed from his little finger through the reins, bit,
head and neck of the horse, down to the very last joint
of its hind legs, in the, to the animal, most unmistak-
able and peremptory manner.

Although bitting finds its place here after saddling,
this is not because of its being a secondary considera-
tion, but rather because no man can have a light hand,
or, in fact, use any bit properly, unless he have so
steady and close a seat as to put all suspicion of what
is technically termed " rein-riding" out of the question.
This self-same rein-riding — that is, the depending to
any extent on the reins for maintaining the seat — is but
too common, and a frequent cause of restiveness in
horses, and no end of disasters to riders. It must be

Int7'odiictory Chapter, 2*J

admitted that a certain exaggerated method of rising
in the stirrups and totally abandoning all contact with
the saddle, in which Sunday and holiday riders so much
delight, conduces very directly to this. Of course no
good rider cares to perform this description of eques-
trian antic ; still it is sufficiently common, even amongst
men who should know better, to demand attention, and
is noted here for the sake of illustrating the close con-
nection that exists between bittinsr and saddling-.

The mechanical principles on which the action of
the bit depends form the first subject of inquir}'. Then
we shall have to examine into the internal and external
conformation of the horse's mouth to which this instru-
ment is applied ; we shall thence be enabled to deduce
the dimensions of the several parts of the bit, and also
ascertain its proper place. Some few of these dimen-
sions are nearly constant — others, again, are variable —
and the proper means for ascertaining them shall be
pointed out. The use of the snaffle, the running-reins,
the nose-band, and other contrivances, demands some
attention, as also the real and supposed advantages of
various kinds of bits.

The third and last part of the book is devoted to the
" Prevention and Cure of Restiveness." Violent mea-
sures are seldom successful for the latter purpose, and
more likely to produce than to prevent insubordination.
In fact, what Is generally required is a complete course
of re-training, under circumstances different from those
under which the restiveness is usually exhibited. The
question then arises. On what system this re-training
should be undertaken — the usual English one, or some
modification of the school method? The first named,
taken alone, is inadequate to the purpose .* if for no
other reason, from being generally carried out on the
roads, fields, etc. — that is to say, just where provocation
and opportunity for conflicts present themselves at every

28 Introductory Chapter.

corner. Nevertheless, it has its own peculiar advan-
tages, which should be utilized. The school method is
much better adapted for the correction of restiveness,
because it affords more direct and efficient means foi
acquiring perfect control over the horse's movements.
It is, however, from a judicious combination of the two
systems that the best results may be hoped for. We
shall, therefore, give first a general sketch of the prin-
ciples of both, pointing out as we proceed how each
may be best applied for the object in view, as also for
that of getting over difficulties with horses that are not
restive. We shall next lay down the outlines of a
method applicable in nearly all cases of insubordina-
tion ; and, finally, specify for some particular forms of
restiveness the treatment that promises the best results ;
as also what should be avoided — for very much depends
on this. In a word, we propose showing that a rational,
methodical treatment of what is called vice offers much
better chance of success than violent measures ; and
with this general statement of the aim and object of
this treatise we now conclude our introductory chapter.

PART I

SEATS AND SADDLES,

CHAPTER I.

THE FRAMEWORK OF THE HORSE CONSIDERED FROM
A MECHANICAL POINT OF VIEW.

THE skeleton of the horse is a very wonderful and
beautiful piece of mechanism, which no one who
takes an interest in such matters can contemplate with-
out experiencing the pleasurable feeling that perfect
harinony of proportion always inspires. We were
about to add, fitness and adaptability to our purposes,
but remembered, just in proper time, that this would
be, after all, a very incorrect mode of expression ; for,
in truth, what is highly desirable is, that we should
limit and adapt our requirements to the capabilities of
this mechanism, and not simply to our own conve-
nience, which but too frequently leads to abuse, as we
shall now proceed to show.

The horse depicted in Plate L* is of an average
description, and stands in a natural position, its head
and neck stretched forward, and the hind legs, instead
of being perfectly perpendicular from the hocks down-
ward, slightly brought forward to assist in maintaining
the equilibrium. The animal is at rest; there is no-
thing constrained in its attitude ; but the eye tells us
at once that a somewhat greater proportion of its weight
rests on the fore legs than on the hind ones, owing, as
one sees, to the projecting position of the head and
* Taken from Seeger's " System der Reitkunst."

31

32 Seats and Saddles,

neck, which are much heavier than the tail at the other
extremity.

Looking now at the spinal column, the framework of
the back, on which the rider's weight is to be placed,
we perceive that, whilst the under line of the vertebraB
is nearly straight, although not quite horizontal, inclin-
ing somewhat downward toward the forehand, the
spinal processes of the first thirteen vertebras of the
back (dorsal vertebrae), reckoning from the point where
the neck is attached, incline backward, whereas those
of the fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth
dorsal, and the six lumbar vertebrae, incline forward ;
the fourteenth dorsal vertebrae, with its process, stand-
ing perfectly upright, and forming, as it were, the key-
stone of the arch thus presented. It is very obvious
that this inclination of the processes toward a central
point is intended to and does limit the motion of the
back downward and upward (/'. ^., vertically), so that,
in fact, this fourteenth dorsal vertebra becomes the
ce7ttre of motion of the horse's body — the point about
which the several movements of the fore and hind legs
are performed with various degrees of rapidity, either
simultaneously or successively, and which constitute
the paces of the horse ; and this is further shown by
the distribution and points of attachment of the muscles
of the back and adjacent parts of the fore and hind
quarters. Putting, therefore, the progressive movement
of the animal out of the question as being equally ap-
plicable to all its parts, the internal motion of the seve-
ral parts of the body increases in proportion to their
distance from the fourteenth vertebra ; a7id the same is
applicable to burdens placed on the horse's back^ espe-
cially a rider ^ ^vhose frame is szibject to its own pecu-
liar motio7is^ some of which are caused by the progress-
ive 7noveme7it of the bearer.

It has been already pointed out, that in consequence

Scais and Saddles. 33

of the projecting position of the head and neck, espe-
cially when the horse stands at ease, a somewhat greater
proportion of its total weight falls on the fore legs than
on the hinder ones ; and when it depresses its head still
more than is represented in Plate I. — for instance, for
the purpose of grazing — the animal puts forward one
fore leg, and usually at the same time the hind leg of
the opposite side, for the purpose of securing its equi-
librium ; and even horses standing still, especially un-
der a load, do the same, in order to rest each pair of
legs alternately.

We learn two facts from this : first, that the fore legs
are essentially bearers, and that the hinder ones, although
chiefly propellers, are also to a certain extent bearers;
and secondly, that a perpendicular line falling through
the centre of gravity of a horse, as here represented,
would lie nearer to the shoulder than the perpendicular
E F, which falls through the centre of motion — that is,
the fourteenth dorsal vertebra — and would probably cut
the twelfth, or perhaps the eleventh, in some horses.
Now, instead of going into the scientific detail of centres
of gravity, which might prove difficult to some and
tedious to most readers, we shall endeavor to render
intelligible all that is really important to be known, by
a very simple experiment that any one can repeat for
themselves, a b c d^ fig. i, represents a piece of thin
board 9 inches long by 4 inches wide, at whose corners
four legs of about 72 inches long are fixed on with one
screw each, so as to allow them to be moved either to
front or rear, but sufficiently tight to retain them in the
position in which they are placed. A small weight is
then placed exactly on the centre point of the board at
f^ the four legs being adjusted square, as at :v ;v a: at If
the weight be not so heavy as to overcome the slight
friction of the heads of the screws, the board will re-
main in its position — that is, it will stand ; but if it be

C

34

Seats and Saddles.

removed toward one end of the board, say to /\ it will
cause the board to turn on the screwheads, and, if not
prevented, slide down toward f; but if the two legs at
this end be bent backward to x^ x^^ the board will sup-

d^^-^

P

V^aA^.

/I

;

Ik

v..

X3 ac //

ar2 :x xi

X3 J

X3 X Xi

Fig. I.

port the weight as before. In like manner, if the weight
be removed in the other direction to ^'', the legs being
square, the same thing will occur, and the board will
turn on its legs and slide down toward /i, which, how-
ever, may be prevented by adjusting the same pair of
legs as before, and which here represent the hind legs
of the horse, to the position x^ x\ and in both these
cases the board will assume a slanting position, in which
the end a b will be lower. Or, the weight being at/^
the board may be made to stand by adjusting the other
■pair of legs, representing the horse's fore legs, to the
position oc" x^^ and in this case it will slant the other
way, the end c d being lower.

Now this is just what takes place when a rider is put
on a horse's back in analogous positions, leaving out of
the question for the moment the influence of the over-
hanging head and neck on the stability of the machine.
Referring back to Plate I, we see, in fact, that the
points a and d of the board correspond with the hip
and shoulder joints A and D on the one side of the
horse, as b and c do with the same joints on the other,
and these are the two points of support of the back,

The Fra7?iczvo7'k of the Horse. 35

while p corresponds with the fourteenth vertebra at E ;
and, still leaving the head and neck out of the question,
the rider placed here would sit not only directly over
the centre of motion^ but also over the centre of gravity
— that is to say, a central point equally removed from
each of its four supporting points ;* he would occupy
the apex or summit of a regular pyramid, the most stable
of all forms of construction.

Let us now suppose the rider, or the weight, whatever
it may consist of, placed farther back toward the horse's
loins, corresponding to the point f^ of fig. I. What
does the horse do if compelled to stand still under a
burden that is more than his hind legs can easily sup-
port with perpendicular hocks? Let the reader turn
to Plate VIL, where the English hussar there presented
shows the horse extending his hind legs precisely in the
way indicated in fig. i, x" x^. What between the rider
sitting at the hinder part of the saddle and the weight of
the enormous pack, the perpendicular passing through
the centre of gravity of the whole falls considerably in
rear of the fourteenth vertebra. This figure is photo-
graphed from life, and is very instructive. The horse,
certainly not a fair specimen of the regiment or of the
cavalry in general, was selected, probably, for no other

* It is to be remarked that the points on which the horse's feet
stand seldom coincide exactly — that is. lie precisely under the shoul-
der and hip joints respectively. The fore feet especially seldom
reach even with the toes, the perpendiculars from the shoulder-
joints. With Eclipse they did so naturally, with tolerably well-
built horses moderately " set up" they will generally do so; and if
the setting-up is carried beyond a certain point, they not only reach
but project before them, the two hind feet either following propor-
tionately in the same direction, or going to the rear, as may be seen
when the horse-dealer "stretches a horse," in order to show how
much ground it covers. There is a great difference, too, between the
jointed flexible legs of a horse and the rigid straight ones represented
in fig. I. An animal always exerts a certain amount of muscular ac-
tion to maintain its balance even when resting.

36 Scats and Saddles.

reason than because he could be easily brought to stand
still during the operation ; and the clearness of the lines
of thiC original everywhere except about the head, which
he probably tossed once or twice, shows that he did so,
which was rendered possible, under the burden he had
to bear and the mode in which it was placed on his
back, only by this very position of his hind legs ; he
could 71 at st3.n(\ straight under it, and the less so because
his hind quarters are weaker in proportion than the
forehand. The position of the head and neck has much
to do with it, but this we shall have to consider far-
ther on.

The cases in which a horse, when standing still and
weighted chiejly on his forehand, assumes with his fore
legs the positions indicated in fig. i by 3^ x^ or x^ x\
occur so frequently that it is quite superfluous to devote
a figure to their illustration. Put a man on a horse
without a saddle, and with nothing but a halter on the
animal's head, and he will inevitably slip forward till
his seat comes in contact with the withers. Let him
then stand still, and the horse, especially if a young or
untrained one, will most probably shove forward his
hind or fore legs in one of those two ways.

There remains a third case for consideration — namely,
where the horse, being weighted back to the line G H,
Plate I., brings his hind legs under him up to the line
I K, hut with the hocks bent. This is the position into
which manege horses have to be brought for certain
definite purposes, the general object being to enable
them to make short turns on the hind quarters or croup,
the forehand turning round this latter; whereas, with
a horse weighted on the centre line E F, Plate I., the
hind and fore quarters both turn equally round a com-
mon point, and with one weighted principally on the
forehand, the hind quarters wMll turn round the former.

Now, in order to avoid drawing false conclusions

The Frame-jjork of the Horse. 37

from these facts, we must take another view of the ques-
tion. What we have hitherto inquired into is, the etfect
of certain modes of distributing the weight on a horse's
back when in a state of rest on the position of his legs
with regard to that weight ; but the really important
thing to know is, how these various modes influence
the horse's action. It was, however, necessary to enter
into the preliminary inquiry, because most of the con-
ditions governing a horse's attitude in a state of rest
continue to be equally imperative after action has com-
menced, and some even more so ; for it is more dan-
gerous to the horse to lose his balance when in motion,
especially at high degrees of speed, than when standing
still.

We may put the questions to be resolved as follows :
ist. How does the distribution of the weight to be car-
ried affect the horse's speed? and, 2dly, How does action
affect equilibrium or balance?

The way in which these questions present themselves
points directly to their solution ; and, as regards the
first, it is to the horse's legs, and the mode in which
they are moved^ that we must look, just as in the for-
mer case we looked to the mode in which they are
Jixed. There is, however, a great difference observable
between the functions of the hind and fore legs when
we come to compare action with rest. In the latter,
we were justified in looking on both pairs eqiially as
bearers ; in the former, the fore legs are still employed
chiefly as bearers, and only in a smaller degree as pro-
pellers, whereas the hind legs act chiefly as propellers
and in a less degree as bearers. It should follow from
this that we may favor the propelling power of the
hind legs by weighting forward within ce7'iai7i limits;
and this we know to be the case — the long stride of the
race-horse is favored by the well-known forward seat
of tlie jockey. Well, what are the limits? In the case

38 Seats and Saddles.

of the jockey It is difficult to draw a " hard and fast'
line, because his total weight is inconsiderable, and the
distances to be got over are inconsiderable ; and this is
precisely the reason why heavier riders, especially when
they have to do long distances, should not ride forward
like the jockey, because they are sure, sooner or later,
to use up their horses' fore legs by making them exclu-
sively bearers : even race-horses will break down under
the light weight, and some jocks are unfortunate in this
respect.

And if this be true, it is equally so that placing the
weight too near the hind legs must diminish their pro-
pelling power, by converting them, in a greater degree,
into bearers ; and this may be done in two different
ways, one of which, having a very definite object, is
good in its way, w^hile the other is, to say the least, of
very questionable utility under any circumstances. The
manege or school rider educates his horse to bear an
increased proportion of the weight on its hind legs,
these latter being brought forward zuider the animal
with bent hocks ; but his object not being speed — and it
is w^ell known that manege-training diminishes speed,
for which reason, precisely, English riders scoff at the
haute-ecole^ somewhat unadvisedly, perhaps — the ma-
nege-rider is perfectly justified in acting as he does in
order to attain other objects. It is, moreover, important
to remark that if a horse's hind quarters be not suffi-
ciently strong and pliable to enable them to endure the
increased demand for bearing without annihilating their
propelling power, such a horse will be incapable of
high training in this sense.

The English hussar-horse in Plate VII. is precisely
in this position, and having poor hind quarters, incapa-
ble of sustaining the weight thrown on them even with
perpendicular hocks, much less with his legs bent under
him like a school-horse, he is compelled to stretch them

The I^ra?}iezvork of the Horse. 39

out like the props x^ x^ in fig. i, and is therefore, even
in a state of rest, more tlian half-way to the utmost
reach of his stride ; for the whole concern must roll
over if he attempted, in galloping, to bring up these legs
to the hoof-marks of tlie fore legs. There can be no
question, therefore, but that weighting in this manner
diminishes speed.*

Before going on to the second question, one word
more about the fore legs, which are, as has been said,
essentially bearers ; they are, however, to a certain
extent propellers, and must, at all events should, exer-
cise a springy lever action, lifting the horse's body so
as to enable the propellers to shove it forward. Now,
neither the propulsive nor lifting action of the fore legs
can be properly exercise-d unless their several compo-
nent levers (bones) form certain angles with each other,
and enable the hoof to touch the ground lightly, and
ready for a renewal of the action. The fore foot should
be placed on the ground as one places the palm of his
hand on a table ; if the leg come down straight and
stiff, end on, like the props x^ x^ of fig. i — which may
be as readily caused by a rider sitting too far back on
his horse, and being thrown by the action of the hind
quarter, with stiffened knees, into a stirrup that is hung
far forward in the saddle, as by one that, sitting orig-
inally far forward, comes down with a heavy thud
directly on the horse's withers — the fore legs must
suffer. They are not so constructed as to be thrust
against the ground, end on, like a pole, with impunity ;
and if either of these forms of riding be carried to an
extreme, it prevents these legs from lifting the forehand
in proper time or sufficiently ; and the propellers acting

* There is a justification for this kind of riding when the fore legs
are groggy and the hind ones still good ; and this expedient is often
adopted, especially by that class of riders who sit far back and still
manage to ruin their horses' fore legs, of which more anon.

40

Scats a7id Saddles.

meanwhile, down comes the poor brute on his head,
and alas for the knees ! vSooner or later horses are edu-
cated into stumbling in this way, the fore legs being by
degrees deprived of their elasticity.

And now as to the question of the mode in which
action affects equilibrium or balance. The first point
to be observed is, that in walking and trotting the horse
moves its diagonal legs simultaneously, or nearly so —
that is to say, the off fore and the near hind leg move
together and alternate in this action with the near fore
and off hind ones ; so that, whilst the one pair is being
moved forward the other sustains the weight of the
animal ; and supposing the horse to be in equilibrio or
balance, we might be led to suppose that the perpen-
dicular line passing through the centre of gravity would
fall exactly in the centre of a line connecting the fore
and hind foot that remains on the ground. But this is

Fig. 2.

not the case, except for the moment at which the move-
ment is half completed.* Fig. 2, A^ will make this
more intelligible. The full lines connect the pairs of

* In the manege movement called piaffe^ in which the horse moves
his limbs as in trottmg, but without gaining ground, the perpendicular
in question does, in the alternate movement, always bisect the line
connecting the two feet which are on the eround.

The Fraf}2ezvork of the Horse. 41

feet as they alternately support the horse, whilst the
dotted ones represent the connection of those in motion.
When it comes to the turn of the near hind foot at a^
and the off fore one at <$, to move up to their next
position at c d^ the line a b becomes a dotted one, «^ b^^
from the moment this pair of legs leaves the ground,
the near fore and off hind legs at c and b becoming the
supporters ; and so on alternately. But the dotted lines,
in coming up successively to the position of the full
ones, intersect the latter at various points of their
length : the diagram shows them at the moment each
successive step is //«//* completed, the intersection of the
two showing where the perpendicular from the centre
of gravity falls. And this intersection — consequently,
too, the weight to be supported — is always traveling
toward the fore leg that happens to be on the grou7?d^
and therefore the centre of gravity vibrates alter-
nates from right to left^ and vice versd^ in trotting
and zcaiking.

In cantering and galloping the case is different : the
two legs at the same side are advanced simultaneously,
the other two remaining behind. Still, supposing the
animal to be in equilibrium, we observe the following
to occur (see fig. 3, B^ : the horse ''leads" here with
the two off feet — that is, canters on the right hand, the
two near ones remaining behind so long as he remains
on this hand; there is, therefore, not the same alter-
nate vibration of the centre of gravity from right to left,
and vice versd^ as in trotting and walking, for it is
always the same pair of feet, moreover, just as in trot-
ting the diagonal ones, that mainly support the weight.
In the diagram we see that the off hind and near fore
legs, connected by the full lines, are both placed close
under the centre of gravity in the succession of bounds,
as shown Titb c d efg^ etc., and act chiefly as bearers ;
while the near hind leg, «, acts chiefly as a propeller,
4»

42 Scats and Saddles.

and the off fore leg, d^ as a lifter, these two being con-
nected by dotted lines in the successive bounds, e h^g k^
etc., and the intersections of these full and dotted lines
remain invariable.

This will serve to explain why it is that, although a
moderate trot is less fatiguing to horses than any other
pace for a long journey, on account of the pairs of legs
being used as bearers and propellers alternately^ some
horses will, under the rider, break into a canter, the
alternate shifting of their own and his weight from right
to left becoming more fatiguing than the constant use
of each pair of legs for the same functions ; and the
proof is, that many of these horses will go a steady trot
in harness when they have only their own weight to
adjust. It also explains why horses, when hurried in
their trot, and over-weighted in the forehand, whereby
the bearers (fore legs) become unable to support the
weight thrown more and more rapidly on them by the
hind legs, which now act solely as propellers, naturally,
and to save themselves from falling, "lead" with a fore
leg, immediately followed by a hind one — that is to say,
break into a canter, which gives them, instead of the
alternate lines of support a b^b c^c d (^, fig. 2), a per-
manent triangle, k I ?n (jB, fig. 2), as a basis.

It may be objected that some horses will trot under
the rider that will not do so in harness ; no doubt this is
because that rider knows how to adjust his weight to
the peculiar exigencies of the horse ; some, from various
causes, being assisted in trotting by the rider's weight
being adjusted in a particular way, of which a very
remarkable instance is adduced in a footnote, p. 52, of
that very admirable work, " The Handy Horse-Book."
There was some defect of the animal's construction in
this case that required the weight to be adjusted in a
peculiar way : the halter and the riding barebacked tells
the tale.

The Framczvorh of tJic Horse. 43

For the sake of simplicity we have hitherto proceeded
on the supposition that each of the two diagonal legs
(of ever}^ pair) is lifted and set down simultaneously.
This is not the case. One hears distinctly four beats in
the case of walking and trotting ; and two, three, or four
in cantering and galloping, according as the horse's
weight is adjusted in the latter movements. Of the two
legs acting in concert, the fore one is lifted and set down
somewhat sooner than the hind one ; w^ere this not the
case, a horse could never tread in his own hoof-marks,
much less beyond them, as we shall presently show to
be the case. A musician could easily express on paper,
by the appropriate notes, the cadence not only of each
particular pace, but for each individual horse ;* and
good judges are well aware that irregularity of beat
points out something amiss in one or more legs. The
ear often conveys to us valuable impressions on this
very point that totally escape the eye even of the most
practiced. We all have heard of blind men being good
judges of horse-flesh. t

Having now seen the effect of action on equilibrium,
where such exists, it is necessary to point out its effects
and consequences in cases where it does not exist. In
the diagrams A^ B^ fig. 2, the horse is made to tread
with the hind foot into the track of the fore one (this
is, in fact, a consequence of equilibrium) ; but we see
very many horses bring their hind feet (in all paces)
more or less ahead of the track or print of the fore ones ;
indeed, almost all young and untrained horses will do
so, and, moreover, many whose work requires them to
act thus — as, for instance, race-horses. This is best

* In the " Sonnambula" Bellini has imitated very successfully the
beat of several post-horses trotting and galloping just before Rudolfo
enters on the scene,

t The theory of equilibrium, as set forth above, is not affected in
the Slightest degree by this want of perfect coincidence in the move-
ment of the legs.

44 Seats cnid Saddles.

seen by the hoof-marks left on moist ground or <sand,
which will be found in double pairs instead of single
ones after such horses. Now of course it woidd be as
absurd to suppose that, under such circumstances, a
horse takes shorter steps with his fore legs than with
the hind ones as to ignore what the immortal Hudibras
pointed out long ago — namely, that when, having but
one spur, you make one side of your horse to get along,
the other is sure to follow ; a fact well known to Irish
"bull-riders" at Ballinasloe.

There is another class of horses, that, instead of over-
stepping, come short of the track of the fore feet with
the hind ones, and almost all horses do this at starting
— in fact, they cannot do otherwise ; these, too, leave a
double track.

Now those that overstep will be usually found to be
such as are over-weighted on the forehand, while those
that step short are usually such as are over-weiglited
behind, without the hind legs being brought under the
weight in a bent position like the manege horse, or that
have some weakness, want of due proportion or other
deficiency, in their hind quarters.

When a horse oversteps with his hind legs the track
of the fore feet ( C, fig. 2,), the succession of full lines
connecting the two diagonal feet in each alternate
movement is not, as shown in A^ continuous, but
broken ; there is, therefore, an interval of time during
which the weight of the horse (and rider) is not sup-
ported diagonally in the usual manner, but vibrates, as
it were, from one fixed basis to a more forward one.
The animal is oft' the ground with all four legs for a
moment in rapid trotting, for instance — the consequence
is, that there must be less stability; and we know from
experience, that when this is carried to a great extent,
the horse " over-reaches," as it is called, and comes
down ; but, on the other hand, the advantage is gained

The Fravicwork of the Horse, 45

of gettiiig over the ground more rapidly ; for on com-
paring C with A^ it is evident that more ground has
been covered in the former than in the latter with the
same number of strides, which are therefore longer.
The advantage conferred by throwing the weight for-
ward is, therefore, that it tends to increase the speed ;
the disadvantages attendant on it are diminished sta-
bility and the rapid using up of the fore legs, for it is
on these alternately that the whole weight pivots, as it
w^ere, during the moments of vibration from each fixed
basis to the succeeding one, as explained above.

When a horse steps short — that is to say, does not
attain to the track of the fore feet with the hinder ones
(Z>, fig. 2) — the exact contrary of tlie above takes place ;
the full lines connecting the diagonal feet overleap each
other constantly — the animal covers part of the same
ground twice in its successive strides; these, therefore,
are sliorter, and it requires a greater number of them to
cover a given space. On the other hand the stability
is more perfect, but the hind legs are unduly converted
into bearers, and sufier in consequence. That they
really are so is shown by the fact of the short stepping
taking place. They cannot act sufficiently as propel-
lers.* What is said here applies equally to canter or
gallop as to trot. It has been pointed out above that,
in the case of the horse covering its own footsteps
exactly and leaving only a single track, the fore legs
are always lifted somewhat sooner than the hind ones,
and not exactly simultaneously with them, which pro-
duces, as we have seen, the cadence peculiar to each
pace, audible to the ear. If the beat be regular, and,
the ground remaining the same, the intensity of the
sound alike for each footstep, the presumption is that

* Horses that at first naturally overstep, will, after a certain amount
of work, come to step short ; the fore legs having suffered, they ease
them by throwing the weight on the hind ones.

46 Seats and Saddles,

all four legs are equally good ; but if one tread be
heavy and another light, we may take it for granted
that there is something amiss with the foot or leg that
makes the latter. With horses, however, that either
overstep or tread short (C and Z>, fig. 2), the case is
different ; we hear constantly tivo stronger a?zd two
weaker beats^ supposing the legs and feet to be sound.
The former — stronger ones — will be found to proceed,
if we pay attention, from the fore legs in the horse that
oversteps — the two hind ones, chiefly used as propel-
lers, ""dinting" into the ground with the toes; with the
short stepper, on the contrary, we perceive that they
proceed from the hind legs, which are stamped down ;
and if one leg be defective, we hear, in such cases, three
different degrees of intensity of sound, which vary ac-
cording to the leg and the mode of action.*

We must now remind the reader that we have, up to
this point, taken no account of the influence exercised
by the overhanging weight of the horse's head and neck
on the animal's equilibrium, having proceeded altogether
on the supposition of this being analogous to that of
the little instrument represented in fig. i. It has been
shown, however, that the centre of motion — that is to
say, the point round which all other parts of the animal
move when in action, or, what comes to the same
thing, the point where the least motion is felt — is situ-
ated somewhere in a perpendicular filling through the
fourteenth dorsal vertebra, Plate I. ; and it has been
intimated that the perpendicular through the centre of
gravity of a horse naturally falls through some one or
other of the vertebras from the tenth to the thirteenth,
that are situate nearer to the neck. A horse can go

* Dishonest dealers are well aware of this, and, to cover it, will
sometimes make a horse temporarily lame on one foot to conceal a
permanent defect of the corresponding one ; the horse will then tread
"gingerly" on that pair.

The Framework of the Horse, 47

with these two centres \\\ the relative position described
here. It favors certain special purposes — as, for in-
stance, racing, and perhaps riding to hounds, to a cer-
tain extent — just as it suits the purpose of the manege
rider to bring the centre of gravity farther back toward
the loins than the fourteenth vertebra ; but for all gene-
ral purposes it is of the greatest importance that the
two perpendiculars passing respectively through these
two centres should be made to coincide — and this is the
aim and object of all school-riding, except for the haul
manege. Above all, it is indispensable for military
purposes.

In fact, in racing, and to a certain extent in hunting,
a horse is not required to move otherwise than in
nearly straight lines or gentle curves. A jockey that
understands the work will ride differently in the latter
and the former, and will immediately change his seat
when he comes "into the straight."* On the contrary,
the manege rider requires very short deliberate turns
at loiv degrees of speed, and attains his object as above
described ; but for general riding it is of great import-
ance— for the cavalry, indispensable — to be able to turn
in sharp curves at higher degrees of speed.

Instead of instituting a mathematical and physical
inquiry into the advantages of making the centres ol
gravity and motion coincide, let us take from every-flay
life one or two instances that illustrate the principle
very satisfactorily. In a common two-wheeled cart the
whole body of the machine turns round on the axle,
and the centre of motion lies in a perpendicular falling
through the mid-point of this. A carter that under-
stands his business always adjusts the load in such a
manner that it neither presses too much on the horse's

*The speed of race-horses is notoriously different on straight and
circular courses. The absolutely speedier horse does not always
come first to the post on the latter.

48 Scats and Saddles.

back by lying too far forward, nor on his neck by being
too far back in the cart — in fact he makes the centres
of motion and gravity to correspond as nearly as possi-
ble, knowing from experience that his horse draws the
cart with greater ease, and can turn corners, etc., more
readily, when the load is thus adjusted than in any
other manner. For special purposes, as going up hill,
he shifts the weight forward, but he is cautious in turn-
ing the horse when the load is on the back : there is
always danger of falling. Sometimes, when his object
is to turn the cart round sharply on its own ground, he
shifts the weight to the rear, the Jiorse having then per-
fect liberty to circle round in the required direction ; but
he never adopts this for a journey, be it ever so short.

Again, in a ship or boat of any kind, people that
have experienced sea-sickness soon find out where the
centre of motion lies, and nestle round it ; and the mas-
ter who sails her knows well that his cargo or load,
whatever it may be, must be so stowed away that the
centre of gravity of the whole coincides with the centre
of motion of the vessel. This is what is called " trim,"
as we all know ; and the yachtsman knows well the
effect of sending a man or two into the bows, when run-
ning before the wind, and the use of keeping his hands
aft when in stays ; but he will be chary of altering the
builder's trim, which makes these two centres coincide
mathematically ; he may never find it again, as has
happened in some remarkable instances. Now the
horse under a rider must have the trim that suits the
objects of the latter ; and for general purposes the
ship-builder's trim or the carter's trim will be found the
most advantageous. The bringing the rider's body, from
the hips upward, slightly forward or backward, will
answer exactly the same purposes as the shifting the
hands in a yacht or the sacks in a cart. It can answer
no good purpose to alter the regular trim. To persist

The Framework of the IIo

49

in sailing a boat out of trim ends in a capsize, or in
carrying away spars at least ; just as riding out of trim
usually terminates in a "purl," and always in the prem-
ature destruction of the horse's legs.

And just as too heavy a bowsprit or jib-boom will
destroy the trim of a boat, the overhanging position of
the horse's head and neck destroys the animal's proper
trim after a rider is placed on its back ; and the ques-
tion is, therefore, how this may be remedied, seeing that
we cannot shift a head and neck like a jib-boom. Fig.
3 shows three levers, d N^d O^ d P^ of equal length,

/\

^4 l\

/ i i^

d i

Jf2^' 'N"

fc

b

Fig. 3-

all moving round the same common centre or prop d,
which corresponds to the junction of the vertebrae of the
neck with those of the back in the horse. Now the
longer the lever the greater its power — that is to say, a
given weight will act more powerfully at the extremity
of a long lever than of a short one, in the exact propor-
tion of their relative lengths. The true expression is,
however, that a given weight acting on a lever of this
kind exercises a downward (perpendicular) pressure in
direct proportion to the distance at which the perpen-
dicular from (or through) it falls from the prop. There-
fore, if the head and neck, d i\^, be stretched out hori-
zontally, the relative weight is rejDresented by the whole
5 D

50 Scats and Saddles.

amount by which the pohit A^Hes outside of the basis
b b; and if the head and neck be hfted to the position
d O, it will be represented by the shorter distance d JV' ;
and if still more elevated to d P^ then by the still shorter
one d JV . Consequently, the relative overhanging
weight of those portions of the horse's body may be
diminished in proportion as their position is brought
nearer to that represented by ^ P in the figure ; and the
further effect of this is, that the centre of gravity of the
whole machine resting on the basis b b \s thrown far-
ther back on the line da. A horse's neck is not, how-
ever, an inflexible straight line like an ordinary lever.
IVIoreover, the head, which forms no inconsiderable por-
tion of the overhanging weight, can be bent at various
angles to the neck. We have it, therefore, in our power
not only to diminish the external preponderance of
these members by altering their relative position as
described above, but also actually to diminish the dis-
tance at which the perpendicular falls outside the basis — •
first, by bending the neck, by which the length of the
lever is curtailed ; and still further, by making the head
assume more and more acute — that is, smaller — angles
with the line of the neck, whether this latter be straight
or curved.

This is shown by fig. 4, where the natural — that is,
unimproved — position of the head and neck makes the
perpendicular fall at the distance Z^iV outside the basis
of the animal ; and this corresponds nearly to a line of
gravity, x y^ falling tlirough one of the dorsal vertebrae
nearer to the neck than the fourteenth, to which refer-
ence has been made. And by elevating the neck some-
what, curving it at the same time, and making the head
assume an acuter angle with it, we bring back the cen-
tre of gravity perhaps to ^ -^, the perpendicular falling
through the fourteenth vertebra, or centre of motion —
and this is the safest and most generally applicable

The Framework of the Horse.

51

position : for cavalry purposes it is absolutely indis-
pensable. Finally, if we bring the neck still higher up,

curving it still more, as shown in the figure, we can
bring the centre of gravity back to the line G //, as the
manege-rider does; who, however, at the same time,
gets the toes of the horse's hind feet up to the line IK
in a bent position, which naturally brings the croup
down* (see fig. i, x^ x^^.

This same figure taken together with Plate II. brings
us to the final result at which we have aimed all
through this chapter — namely, the equilibrium of the
horse in motion as compared with the same in a state
of rest. Under the latter supposition (rest), we could
only show, from the formation of the spinal column
(back), that the fourteenth vertebra indicates, by its
peculiar shape and position, a different function from

* It is necessary to remark that in this case the basis of the figure
remains as before at C and M, the hind legs acting not merely as
mechanical props, but maintaining a portion of the weight by mus«
cular action, which, however, must not be too long continued.

52 Scats and Saddles.

that of the other vertebrae, all of which evidently admit
of movement toward it, within certain limits, while
this one, not being adapted for this purpose, may so far
be considered to be intended for the centre of motion.
But the construction of the horse's legs, and the relative
position of the various bones composing them, furnish
us with very clear proof of this same vertebra being the
real centre of motion when the horse is in action. For
there is one bone in each of the hind and fore legs
through which the remainder of the limb acts as a lever
on the whole frame, either for the purpose of propelling
it (hind legs), or supporting and lifting it (fore legs).
These are the thigh-bone /, and the arm-bone v (fig. 4),
whose upper ends have their fulcrums or points of sup-
port in the hip-bones A and shoulder-blades D (Plate I.)
respectively, the power >/^ing applied through the me-
dium of the remaipJry 'portions of the legs at their
lower ends. Nov/ <"V"p -/rf atest result of lever action is
exercised at a righ': yrgle to the lever, and drawing the
lines P ^ and R S through the lower ends of these
two bones at right angles to them., we Jind that they
intersect (or cross) each other precisely at this sa^ne
fourteenth vertebra. The figure shows us, indeed,
the horse in a state of rest and not in action ; but it is
necessary to remember that the propelling action of the
hind leg comtnences., a7td is precisely the ?nost pozuer-
ftd., when the thigh-bone is in this position, diminish-
ing in intensity as the leg is stretched out toward i?,
and the angles become f itter ; whereas, on the con-
trary, the supporting and lifting action of the fore leg
ends., the arm-bone being /»-s shown in the figure, and is
also most intense, diminifV mg as the fore leg is stretched
out toward P., and the *».ngles become flatter. It is
therefore evident, that both in a state of rest and of
action the four teeiith vertebra is constantly the centre
of motion; and it is precisely from our practical know-

The Fi-aDicwork of the Horse. 53

ledge of this beautiful mechanism that judges of horses
attach so much importance to the length of these two
levers, and to their lying at right angles to the hip-bone
and shoulder-blade respectively, which is recognized
by the form of the haunch, and what we call a good
shoulder ; the length of the stride and its power depend-
ing, as is very evident, on those particulars to a great
extent.

A farther proof of the same fact may be gathered
from Plate II., which shows the principal muscles, and
the way in which they are arranged. It is those in the
back, loins, hips and shoulders that concern us here
more especially ; and we perceive that the principal
ones of these all coalesce, as it were, into the large flat
tendon covering the identical portion of the back pointed
out as the centre of motion. This tendon, like all others,
is devoid of contractile power ; and tlie corresponding
sets of muscles of the fore and back hand exert their
contractile powers upon it in opposite directions, while
it remains stationary, so to say — the whole process
having a certain analogy with the ftimiliar instance of
a pair of curtains drawn forward by cords to the middle
of a window.

According to the laws of mechanics, when two forces
of equal intensity cross each other, as the lines P ^,
R S Ao in fig. 4, the line in which the combined result
of both is farther propagated will lie equally distant
from and between the two original forces ; and this is,
in the instance before us, perpendicularly upward, as
shown by the upper arrow ; and the antagonistic force
of gravitation — in plain language, the weight of the
rider — will be best met when it acts in precisely the
opposite direction, or perpendicularly downward in
the direction of the lower arrow ; and therefore, if the
weight of the rider lie, from his mode of sitting, across
this perpendicular — for instance, toward the shoulders
5*

54 Seats and Saddles.

— the force coming from this direction will be met
more directly and consumed in proportion, that coming
from the other being spared.

The two forces of the hind and fore legs may not be,
however, and in many horses, in consequence of want
of symmetry, are not, equal in intensity. In untrained
horses the}' seldom are. Judicious handling and riding
are nothing else, in f^ict, than finding a proper balance
of forces, as well for the untrained well-built horse as
for one that is defective in symmetry.

It would carry us too far to go into the detail of the
various modes in which the forces exerted by pairs of
the hind and fore legs respectively cross each other — as
also the centre of gravity itself in walk, trot, canter, etc.
The proper methods of shifting the rider's weight from
right to left, so as to favor the diagonal action of the
pairs of feet, may be easily deduced from the study of
these. But it is not our object to write a treatise on
equitation ; and for intelligent riders what has been
already said will suffice to clear up the doubts that may
arise in practice. Indeed the scope of the whole of this
chapter has been to set men thinking for themselves
instead of working by rule of thumb, and not to dictate
atiy particular method to them.

CHAPTER II.

THE SADDLE, AND ITS INFLUENCE ON THE SEAT.

IF it were merely a question of riding bare-backed,
we might at once go on to apply the principles of
equilibrium of the horse in motion, as developed in the
foregoing chapter, to the various kinds of seats. It
would be only reasonable, one should suppose, to ac-
commodate our saddles to our seats, just as we do every
other instrument to the purposes for which it is intended ;
but this is precisely what is very seldom done, and in
the great majority of instances the rider sits his horse
just in the fashion his saddle allows, or perhaps com-
pels, him to do. Three-fourths of the time and trouble
that are devoted in military riding-schools in endeavor-
ing to get the men to sit in a uniform manner might be
spared, and the desired result much more certainlv
attained, by properly adjusting the saddle to the horse
and man, instead of forcing the latter into a contest
with a mechanical difficulty that requires a constant
exertion of muscular power ; and this latter, being
limited in extent and duration, is sure to succumb in
the contest, leaving the horse's back to bear the punish-
ment. It is, therefore, a matter of some importance to
understand clearl}' the meclianical principles applicable
to this piece of horse furniture, as it will enable every
rider to ascertain exactly what he wants, and how to

55

56 Scats and Saddles.

attain his object, whatever that may be — as also to save
his horse's back, and his own person, and perliaps
neck.

To begin with the under surfoce of the saddle — the
portion coming in contact with the horse's back — we
find two principal points for consideration : its shape or
form, and its size or extent. One general mechanical
principle applies to both — namely, that the larger the
surface over which a given amount of pressure is equa-
bly spread or divided, the less will be the action on any
given point of the other surface in contact ; and this
translated into plain English means, as regards shape^
that the under surface of the saddle should bear as
nearly as possible the same relation to that part of the
horse's back it is intended to occupy as a mould does
to the cast that is taken from it, always saving and
excepting that strip lying over the horse's backbone,
which must remain altogether out of contact. The
notion of making one portion come into closer con-
tact than another, "giving a gripe," with the intention
of preventing the saddle slipping, is altogether erro-
neous, because it is the sum total of the pressure which
produces the cohesion between two surfaces ; its being
concentrated on one point or line does not increase this
amount, but is very likely to make a hole in the horse's
back. Which part of the horse's back it should be fitted
to has been " dimly shadowed forth" in Chapter I., but
shall be more clearly and accurately determined in the
course of this present one.

As regards size or extent of surface the meaning is,
that the greater this is with a given weight, the less will
be the pressure on any given point, and consequently
the less risk of sore back, provided always that the
pressure be equably distribiUed over the whole surface.
To make a saddle a yard long, and put the weight alto-
gether at one of its extremities, is not the way to attain

The Saddle. 57

this very desirable object, as shall be more fully explained
presently.*

There must, however, be some limit to the size of a
saddle, for its own absolute weight is a matter of serious
consideration : it goes into the scale with the jock. Let
the size be proportioned to the weight to be carried^
and if you have a tender-backed horse, make it a little
bigger than would be otherwise necessary. Of course a
jock can ride his race on a thing that is more a con-
trivance for hanging up a pair of stirrups than a saddle,
while a sixteen-stone rider must divide his weight over
as large a surface as convenient.

There are two ways in which the weight of the saddle
maybe decreased without its useful inider surface being
narrowed. The first is to avoid extending the frame
(tree), or indeed any other part of the saddle, beyond
the surfaces where it really has to support pressure ; and
this being exercised chiejly in a perpendicular direc-
tion, it is not only useless but absurd to make these
extend too i^x down over the ribs laterally. The second
is to use, for the tree, materials combining great strength
and moderate elasticity, with the least possible weight.
A civilian saddle, made altogether of wood, is a very
clumsy affair, and it is therefore the practice to reduce
the volume of the wood, and rc;j^ain the strength thus
sacrificed by iron platings. This metal is, however,
very inelastic : if the plates be made thin and light,
they bend, and thus retain the wood in a distorted
shape ; if thick, they are heavy, and very liable to break
with a severe shock, or, if not, to convey this rudely to
the horse's shoulder or back, instead of acting as the

* As a familiar illustration of the principle may be mentioned the
difference of depth of track of broad and narrow tired wheels, or of a
roller as compared with both ; or, a board of one foot square will sink
deeper into soft ground under a man's weight than one of double that
size ; and this latter will sink as deep as the former if weighted only
at one end.

58 Scats and Saddles.

buffer does between two railway trucks. The platings
should be made of steel, not too highly tempered, and
it ought to be possible to devise means of strengthening
the wood of that part of the tree we allude to without
increasing its bulk, and with a diminution of its weight.
As to military saddles, they are best made wholly of wood
and without any iron whatever. The necessity of attach-
ing a pack makes the question of neat appearance alto-
gether secondary, and the weight that must be carried
renders it imperative to economize every ounce that is
possible. Moreover, once introduce iron into the com-
position of a saddle and you must have a smith and a
forge to enable you to repair a broken one, which is
often out of the question in the field. The original
Hungarian saddle had not a particle of iron on it ; no
doubt it w^as subject to breakage, but it could be repaired
or a new one made at the side of a ditch, and in time
for the next day's march. We nineteenth-century men
have improved it everywhere, especially in England, up
to more than double its original weight, to a nearly
total incapacity for repair or alteration, and to being the
most efficient instrument conceivable for making holes
in horses' backs.

Supposing, now, the under surface of the saddle to
have the proper form and size, the next point to be
determined Is, where to put the weight. As we cannot,
in consequence of this being a man, divide and spread
it out equably over the whole upper part of the saddle
as we would inert matter of any kind, we must place
the rider's centre of gravity exactly over the centre of
the bearing surface of the saddle, for this is the' only
single point which, being loaded, transmits the pressure
equably to the rest of the surface. Take a small com-
mon table, and place it exactly level on sand, grass or
soft ground, then put a weight precisely in the centre
of the table, and measure the depth to which the feet

The Saddle. 59

lad been forced into the soil ; you will find it to be the
same for all four feet, if the surface on which the table
stands be equally soft throughout : then shift the table a
few inches, having previously removed the weight, and
place this near one of the ends instead of in the middle ;
measure again and you will find that the pair of legs
nearest to the weight have penetrated much deeper than
the others ; therefore, in order to equalize the pressure,
the rider's weight should be placed in the centre of the
saddle.

But this is not all. Place a piece of stout board about
two feet long on the ground, stand on one end of it,
and you will find that the other loses its contact with
the ground and is more or less tilted up into the air —
the board has become a lever. Now, make a motion
as if about to jump, but without quitting your position
on the board ; this latter will, being out of contact with
the ground at the farther end, be shoved onward in that
direction. This is precisely what happens when a rider
sits at one end of the saddle, generally the hinder one ;
this one is pressed down into the horse's back, the other,
generally the front end, is tilted up, and at every move-
ment of the horse and rider the whole saddle is shoved
forward till stopped by the withers, which it will
probably wound ; and then it is either the groom's, or
the saddler's, or the horse's fault, and the saddle is
thrown aside and some new patent contrivance adopted,
which of course does not remedy a defect that depends
on the rider himself.

We may now go a step farther. Suppose the saddle
be placed with its centre exactly over the combined
centres of gravity and motion (line E F., fig. 4), and
the rider in the centre of the saddle ; there will be, first,
an equable distribution of the combined w^eight of horse
and rider on all four legs, both in a state of rest and
action ; secondly, the movements of the horse, centring

6o Scats and Saddles.

in this point, have the least possible tendency to disturb
the seat of the rider or the position of the saddle ;
thirdly, the weight of the rider being equably distributed
over the whole surface of the saddle in contact with the
horse's back, is therefore less likely to injure any one por-
tion of this ; nor does it convert the saddle into a lever,
and shove it forward or backward. Again, let us sup-
pose the saddle as before, but the rider sitting altogether
at its hinder end for instance, and there will be, first,
the horse's equiHbrium destroyed ; secondly, the rider
himself, being nearer to the hind legs, will first receive
an impulse from the direction R S^ and be thrown for-
ward till he meets that coming from the direction /^.§,
and these two forces, instead of resolving each other
from one common point into their sum total, neutralize
each other partially in successive shocks at the expense
of the horse's legs. It will be said that the use of
the stirrups is to prevent the rider being thus thrown
forward. No doubt they do, and this kind of rider
always sticks out his legs toward the horse's shoulder
on the line ^ P ; in other words, he transmits the
shock from the hmd legs to the frre ones through the
medium of the stirrups (this, by the way, is the reason
why stirrup-leathers are broken), of course shoving the
saddle constantly forward, and these men's girths can
never be drawn tight enough to prevent the saddle
tilting up in front. Thirdly, of course his weight is not
distributed equably over the whole under surface of the
saddle. This is the man that manufactures sit-fasts, or,
at the very least, transforms his horse's back from its
natural color into a strange pattern of white and gray
blotches.

Some men would find it inconvenient to sit otherwise
than well back in their saddles, and some kinds of
riding seem to be more easily done in this form than in
any other. Now it is evident enougli from the fore-

The Saddle. 6 1

going, that if the part of the saddle occupied by the rider
be placed over the line E /^ fig. 4, the horse's balance
is not necessarily deranged or the centre of motion in-
terfered with so long as the rider keeps this position ;
but there always remains the difficulty about the unequal
distribution of the weight and the saddle slipping.
Most English gentlemen ride more or less in this
fashion, and, from our way of rising in the stirrups
while trotting, are constantly transferring their weight
from one end of the saddle to the other. Of course the
horse's balance is thereby subjected to constant changes,
and not unfrequently a misunderstanding between horse
and rider ensues, terminating in a disaster ; but we must
not anticipate.

There is another consideration of great importance
with regard to the place of the saddle — namely, that it
should interfere the least possible with the action of the
muscles of the horse's fore and back hand. Looking
at Plate II., we see the back covered with a broad ten-
don, into which, as has been already j^olnted out, the
muscles of these two parts are inserted, and on which
their contractile action is exercised. The saddle should
not extend much, if at all, beyond the limits of this flat
tendon, because, by doing so, it will be sure to impede
more or less the free action of the muscles, whereas
the tendon is rather assisted than impeded in its func-
tions by a weight being placed on it ; and it is also
evident that a rider sitting at one end of his saddle in-
stead of in the centre will joroduce the same injurious
effect.

The next question to be determined is, To what part
of the saddle should the girths be attached? Now it is
very evident that, if the placing of the weight in the
centre of the saddle has the effect of transmitting an
equal amount of pressure to all that part of the horse's
back with which the latter is in contact, the attaching
6

62 Scats and Saddles,

the girths so as to act directly on the centre of the
saddle will have precisely the same effect ; and ihe fric-
tion that results — that is, the adhesiveness produced by
pressure — will be equable throughout, and of course
least likely to injure any one particular point. It was a
very prevalent idea some years ago, that " the point-
strap" — that is to say, the girth that was placed well
forward in the saddle — was the thing to depend on to
prevent the saddle slipping ; but experience has proved
this notion to be erroneous ; and Sir Francis Head, a
very good authority on these matters, has pointed out,
if we mistake not, that the proper jDlace for attaching
the girths is in the middle of the saddle. It is, no
doubt, quite possible, by placing the girths forward, to
accumulate the whole amount of friction on one or two
points ; but this is precisely what bruises horses' withers
without having power to prevent the saddle slipping.

Direct proof of the correctness of what is advanced
here may be obtained in the following manner : Take a
longish saddle on which the girth-straps (or points) are
fixed forward ; girth the horse tolerably tightly ; now
put a rider in the saddle — the heavier he is the more
apparent will the result be — and get him to sit well
back. You will find, by putting your fingers flat be-
tween the girth and the horse's chest before the man
mounts, that, on his taking his seat as above, the girth
will be drawn forcibly upward; a proof that the saddle
must have relinquished in a corresponding degree its
previous " gripe" of the horse's back, or rather shoulder.
Now let your man dismount, loosen the girths a little,
and put a surcingle right over the middle of the saddle ;
draw this equally tight as the girth had been previously,
and put your rider once more into the saddle, making
him, however, sit exactly in the middle over the sur-
cingle : your finger, if placed as before, will now tell
you, if it should not be apparent to the eye, that the sur-

The Saddle. 63

cingle has become looser., the saddle has assumed a
more intimate contact with the horse's back throughout,
and is sure not to shp or wound.

The Hungarian Puszta rider, or cattle-herd, and most
Orientals, never use anything but a surcingle, the great
advantage of which is that, having loosed it to let their
horses graze, they can tighten it with one pull, and are
in the saddle and well under way whilst one of us is still
fumbling at a multiplicity of straps : and moreover, their
saddles remain where they put them ; ours seldom do so
except by chance. Civilian riders would not approve
of the surcingle ; the same end may, however, be
attained by putting the girth-straps in the middle of the
•iaddle, aizd sitting as ?iearly as possible over t/ie?n.
For military purposes girths might be altogether dis-
pensed with and only a surcingle used.

There is an idea prevalent that if the girths are placed
as far back as indicated here (over the false ribs), they
must interfere with the movement of the horse's chest
and lungs much more than if placed well forward over
the true ones. This is, however, precisely contrary to
fact: the true ribs are firmly supported at both ends to
make room for the lungs by being drawn forward : the
lars:est volume of lung^ lies directly beneath them ; the
greatest expansion is required and takes place here.
Under the false ribs lie the thin lobes of the lungs,
which increase their volume in a much less degree ;
they are, therefore, supported only at one end, and ex-
pand but little, serving chiefly as supports for the dia-
phragm or midriff''. But any one who has not yet arrived
at the dignity of a " corporation" may easily convince
himself of the truth of this by putting on a tight-fitting
waistcoat and playing cricket in it: he will soon find
the top buttons gone, and much less frequently the
lower ones, whilst a waist-belt will prove a convenience.
The point from which the stirrup is suspended has

64 Scats and Saddles.

nearly an equal influence on the stability of the saddle,
and a much greater one on the form of the seat than the
position of the girths. If the stirrups be wrong, all the
rest being right will be of little avail.* What is the
legitimate use of the stirrups besides enabling us to
mount our horses ? The first and most obvious one is
to give the rider lateral support, to prevent his slipping
off to the right or left by his seat revolving round the
horse's body as a wheel does round an axle. In riding
bare-backed, or on a saddle without stirrups, if the
rider falls it is most generally to one side., and not
directly forward or backward ; and it is very evident
that the more directly U7ider the ridei'^s seat the stir-
rups be suspended, the more efficiently will they per-
form t/iis duty, the resistance offered by them being
perpendicularly upward, or precisely in the opposite
direction to that in which the weight falls, which is per-
pendicularly downward ; whereas, if the stirrups be
suspended at a distance from the rider's seat, they act at
an angle to the line of fall : they may, and always do,
in such a position change the direction of the fall, but
they cannot meet and prevent it so efficiently as when
placed under the seat. The second use of these con-
trivances is to enable the rider, for various purposes,
to rise in his saddle by standing in the stirrups. And
here a distinction irust be drawn as to whether it is the
rider's object to transmit his own weight indirectly
through the stirrups to the saddle at the same foint at
which he previously applied it directly with his seat, or
at some other point. In the first case it is very obvious
that the stirrups are best placed exactly under the

* Any defects that may exist in the English cavalry seat, and the
very glaring ones that are very obvious in the French seat, and were
the immediate causes of all the sore backs in the campaign of 1859,
depend on the wrong position of the stirrup in the respective mili-
tary saddles.

The Saddle. 6<^

rider's seat ; for, putting aside any changes of the
position of his own body from the hip upward he may
please to make, everything remains as before, and the
equilibrium of the horse is not disturbed. In the second
case, on the contrary, supposing the stirrups to be placed
far forward, and the rider far back in the saddle, stand-
ing in the stirrups will at once throw the weight from
one end of the saddle to the other ; make this press par-
tially on the horse's back instead of equably, as in the
first case, which see-sawing must tend to make the sad-
dle shift, and must also alter the equilibrium of the
horse, throwing its weight more forward, consequently
rendering the animal incapable of turning sharply and
handily, and, if done suddenly, frequently even bringing
it to a dead halt. In hunting, sharp turns are seldom
required, whilst speed is ; and, therefore, there is a jus-
tillcation for throwing the wxight forward or backward,
especially in jumping ; but even this has certain limits,
of which more hereafter. Again, in road-riding, the
English fashion of trotting requires a man to rise in his
stirrups ; but there is really no reason why he should
therefore sacrifice the lateral support spoken of above
to the extent one often sees, or throw such a surplusage
of weight on his horse's forehand. There can be no
doubt that he rides less safely by so doing, for a sharp
wheel-round of a shying horse is more likely to bring
him down ; but this question of trotting must be also
reserved for a future chapter.

For military purposes the stirrups fjiust be placed in
the centre of the saddle directly under the rider's seat :
there is no alternative. The cavalry soldier is often
compelled in the use of his weapons to stand in his stir-
rups. If by doing so the equilibrium of his horse be
altered, he disables the animal and himself at the most
critical moment. The power of turning rapidly to
administer or avoid a sword-cut or lance-thrust is seri-
6* E

66 Seals and Saddles.

ously impaired if the stirrups be placed forward, and
the whole concern makes a heavy pitch into the trough
of the sea, just at the moment it should " run up into
the wind's eye." The late Sir Charles Napier relates
in one of his books a lamentable story of a fine gallant
English sergeant who lost both his arms in this way ;
and officers who have served in India or Algiers often
complain that there is no preventing the native horse-
men getting behind their people's back, where, of
course, they have it all their own way, like a bull in a
china shop. Sir Charles throws the blame altogether
on the enormous pack the regulars are compelled to put
on their horses' backs. This has, no doubt, its own
special influence ; but any one who has seen cavalry
skirmishing, and understands the mechanism we are
laboring to explain, must have also seen that the position
of the stirrup acting on the rider's seat* has a great deal
to do with it.

We mentioned above that the man riding bare-backed,
or on a saddle without stirrups, most frequently tumbles
off' to the right or left ; well, it will be found that ivith
stirrups, especially when the latter are very far forward
and very shorty the catastrophe generally supervenes
right ahead, the performer being projected in trajecto-
ries, not yet described in ballistic works, away over his
steed's neck, to the great damage of collar-bones. It is
like having one's hand pierced by leaning on a reed —
the short stirrup that is relied on for safety furnishing
an admirable lever-point for the equine catapult.

And this brings us to the length of the stirrup. The
length of the arm is generally prescribed as being the
proper length for the stirrup. This might answer well

* Almost all " rider nations" place their stirrups exactly under
their seat. This will be evident from an inspection of some of our
Plates, as also that the example has been followed in the best Conti-
nental cavalries.

The Saddle. 67

enough if stirrups were always suspended at the same
perpendicular distance from the upper surface of the
saddle, and also right under the rider's seat, and if
men's arms and legs al-jcays bore a fixed proportion to
one another; all of which "ifs" turn out on nearer in-
spection to be algebraical jv's — that is, very variable
quantities. To adjust the stirrups precisely^ the rider
had better first mount, and then, letting these instru-
ments loose altogether, shake himself down into the
loivest part of the saddle, wherever that may be situ-
ated ; his assistant may then adjust the stirrups to a
convenient length. There is no use in attempting to
ignore this lowest pointy because every motion of the
horse tends invariably to throw him into it, and if he
does persist in ignoi'ing it, he will find himself a mere
stuTup-rider, which is, in its way, quite as bad as a
•ein-rider, the combination of both being the very
climax of bad riding — in fact that monkey-like fashion
of clinging to your steed vulgarly termed " sticking a
horse." For the absolute length of the stirrup no
special rule can be given applicable to all circum-
stances and to all kinds of riding; in speaking of the
different kinds of seats in a subsequent chapter we
shall have to return to this point. The only general
rule that can be given is, never make your stirrups so
long as to render your tread on them insecure^ nor so
short as to allow them to cramp up your legs and de-
prive them of the requisite power of motion, making
you depend on the stirrups and not on your seat for
your position in the saddle. The Orientals all ride in
the short stirrups in which they can stand resting on
the entire sole of their feet on account of the shovel
shape and the size of this contrivance ; but their stir-
rups are hung directly under their seat, and in a very
different position from that which they occupy in our
saddles (see Plate IV). Short stirrups on an English

68 Scats a7id Saddles.

saddle give quite a diflerent form to the seat in conse-
quence.

With respect to the upper surface or seat of the sad-
dle, we have to remark, that as the under one must be
large in proportion to the weight, so this should be
roomy in proportion to the bulk of the rider ; a heavy
man will always require a large under surface, but not
equally constantly a large upper one, for it is bone that
weighs ; and as, whatever the seat may be, it should be
permanent in some one part of the saddle, there is not
only no use, but a positive disadvantage, on account of
weight, in having it larger above than is absolutely
necessary. It is, however, the form of the upper sur-
face that decides most as to the permanence of the seat.
If what we may call the ridge of the saddle be perfectly
horizontal, the seat will be determined chiefly by the
length and position of the stirrup, because the two sur-
faces, rider and saddle, are in imperfect contact ; and it
is therefore usual to dip this ridge at some point and
spread it out into a more or less concave surface. Now
the form of the seat will depend altogether on the rela-
tive position of the loivest poijit of this dip ; if it be
placed far back, the rider will remain there, and if it be
placed in the centre, the seat will be also central ; and
for military purposes enough has been said to show that
this is its proper position. Nothing can be more cer-
tain than this, that it is the saddler, and not the in-
structor of equitation, that can most effectually and
certainly produce the uniformity of seat which is so
desirable ; but unfortunately few people ever think of
this. The sum of the whole matter is this — the laj'ger
the surfaces of the rider and saddle brought into per-
niaitent contact., the firmer will be the seat., and the
less will it depend on the stirrups or the rei?zs.

The saddle-flaps serve in some cases to increase, in

The Saddle. 69

others they absolutely diminish, the surface of contact
between the rider and horse ; their chief use is to pro-
tect the man's legs from injury by the girth-buckles,
straps, etc. For military saddles nothing can be more
preposterous than a stiff flap interposed between the
rider's legs and horse's side, because the surcingle and
shabrack cover all these things effectually, and perfectly
attain this object of the flap of the English civilian
saddle. This stiff flap is therefore an unnecessary
additional weight, and it keeps, moreover, the leg out
of its proper position. To sum up the whole of the
foregoing, we may describe the general rule for seats to
be this — the saddle in the centre of the horse^s back ;
the girths., stirrups a?id rider about the centre 0/
the saddle; in short,

" The maxim for the horsy tribe is
Horatian — ' Medio tulissimus ibis.' "

There are certain appendages to the saddle that re-
quire a short notice. And first of all, which is better,
the bhuiket or the feltplate under the light cavalry
saddle? The advantages of the former are, that by
folding it in different ways you may vary its thickness
at difierent points, and by this means adjust the saddle
not only to all the different peculiarities presented by
the backs of various horses, but also equally to the
changes of form of one and the same back, induced by
changes of condition. You can do nothing of the sort
with the feltplate ; this presupposes all horses' backs
alike, which is very wide of the mark ; and, moreover,
each incHvidual back permanent in its form, whatever
change the condition may have undergone — which is
equally so. The blanket men say "Yes; and, more-
over, you can defend your horse from the cold in winter
bivouacs, and keep him serviceable for a much longer

70 Scats and Saddles.

time."* "Ay," say the opponents, ''but the man
covers himself up and leaves his horse to shiver." There
is probably some truth in this ; and, at all events, the
man is kept w^arm, whereas the felt can never be mis-
appropriated in this way. The advocates of the felt
say, farther, in cases of alarm the horses can be saddled
quicker, which is indisputable to a certain extent; for
whether the blanket be used as a covering for the horse
or man, it takes some time and two men to fold it
properly if once unfolded. The result is this : if the
felt happens to fit, the horse will be quickly and -well
saddled — if not, quickly and badly ; on the other hand,
two or three minutes more rnay ensure all the horses
being well saddled, provided the men know how to fold
their blankets, and are made to do so. Two or three
minutes may be, however, of great importance ; let us
endeavor to estimate their precise value. Cavalry on
outpost duty never unsaddles, therefore it can suffer
no loss of time on account of the blanket ; and cavalry
in camp or bivouac is, or at least should be, always
covered by outposts, and is therefore scarcely liable to
surprise, and two or three minutes can make no possible
difference where it is a question of preserving the effi-
ciency of the horses for weeks, months and years. But
the superior officers are impatient, their personal credit
is involved in the turning out rapidly ; ay, that's it. Let
the blankets be properly folded at daybreak regularly ;
and let the horses be saddled too with loose girths,
whether you know if you are to turn out or not, and
there is an end of the blanket difficulty and of many
others too.

With regard to the crupper. If your saddle fit prop-
erly, and if you sit in the proper way, you don't need

* The greatest possible luxury in the matter of blankets is, how-
ever, powerless to keep horses alive whose rations consist of their
neighbors' tails, as in the Crimea.

The Saddle, ^i

a crupper. If neither of these " ifs" be a verity, then
the crupper may prevent the saddle running forward,
but will also wound the steed's tail, or set it a-kicking,
especially if a mare — perhaps, under favorable circum-
stances, both together ; in either case you must take off
the crupper, and what then? It is better to begin
voluntarily with a well-fitting saddle and a good seat,
than be kicked into it ; and therefore the cavalry crup-
per is an absurdity which every one else in the world
has thrown away ages ago ; and the Austrian, Bavarian,
and, we believe, many other German cavalries, dis-
carded some five or six years since.

The breastplate might perhaps, in most cases, be dis-
pensed with, but in others it is useful in keeping the
girths in their place ; besides that, it gives a point of
attachment for some of the pack, and is indubitably ad-
vantageous for lasso draught ; it can do no harm, more-
over, unless it be too tight, which is generally the result
of cavalry commanding ofl!icers being as pedantic about
the rosette attached to it being at the same height
throughout their front, as infantry ones are about the
mess-tins being mathematically correct on the tops of
the knapsacks.

CHAPTER III.

SEATS.

WHEN one observes the great variety of seats on
horseback that present themselves to our notice
every day, and their totally contradictory character in
the most important respects, a certain amount of bewil-
derment necessarily ensues, which resolves itself into a
curious dilemma. We can scarcely admit that they are
all wrong", and it seems equally impossible to assert that
they are all right ; which, then, is the right and which
the wrong? or is a seat on horseback something outside
of the laws that govern the rest of animate and inani-
mate nature, subject to no rule, defiant of all generaliza-
tion, and, in fact, a thing fer se — a sort of mysterious
existence beyond our ken ? What, for instance, can be
more contradictory than to see one man sitting at one
end of the saddle, as in an easy-chair, with his legs
tucked up at the other, till his knees are nearly on a
level with the pommel ; while a second, sitting in his
fork, sticks out his legs as stiff and as far away from the
the horse as he can, taking for his model what is very
aptly named in " Harry Lorrequer" " the pair-of-tongs-
across-a-stone-wall seat" — for an illustration of which
see Plate V. And there are no end of intermediate
seats between these two, with the most wonderful curv-
atures of the rider's back, knowing positions of the head
72

Seats. 73

and artistic contortions of his lower extremities, each
and all of which have their partisans and admirers.

We set out with the declaration that we have no
desire or intention to set up any one kind of seat as a
model ; but this is no reason why we should not try to
find out and lay before our readers what are the real
essentials, leaving them to adopt whatever suits their
purpose best. Now the seat on horseback is main-
tained either by balancing or by friction — that is to say,
the greater or less amount of the rider's sitting parts
brought into contact with the saddle — or by the support
given by the stirrup ; and it is easy to perceive that
such a combination of all three means as leaves each
individual 07ie its greatest amount of efficiency will
necessarily secure a much greater amount of stability
than can be attained by depending on one to the neglect
of the other two, or even depending on two in such a
manner as to sacrifice the third. The best and safest
seat will be always that which depends exclusively on
no one means of support, but uses them all in the best
manner.

In order to answer the question, Which of the three
is the most important? it becomes necessary to review
the positive value of each in detail ; and first as to
balance.

It has been shown, in the preceding chapters, to what
an extent the action of the horse depends on the balance
or poise of rider and bearer taken together, and how
every modification of the latter affects the former, and
therefore, that not only some one particular poise must
be adopted, but also maintained, for each kind of riding.
Again, it has been shown that the stability of the saddle
and the safety of the horse's back depend to a great
extent on the stability of the rider's weight — that is to
say, on his poise or balance. In addition to these two
items comes a tliird one — namely, the value of poise or
7

74 Sea/s and Saddles.

balance to the rider himself. Why does anything tum-
ble down from the position it has hitherto occupied?
Because it loses its balance : and the rider that does so
is sure to meet the same fate, unless the friction of his
seat, the stirrup or the hoi'se's mane is called to the
rescue. Can there be any doubt as to the great value
of poise or balance? We think not.

As to friction, this depends, in the case of two inani-
mate bodies coming in contact, ^ri^/, on the nature of
their respective surfaces, which we must leave altogether
out of question here ;* and, secondly^ on the absolute
weight with which the upper one presses on the lower
one. The amount of surface of contact does 7iot increase
friction, but, of course, if the whole weight be brought
to bear on one or two points of a rider's seat, these will
soon require soap-plaster. Here, however, we have to
do with an inanimate body, the saddle, on the one
hand, and a very lively one, the rider's seat and legs, on
the other, whose muscular action may form a very im-
portant adjunct to the dead weight in increasing fric-
tion ; and the amount of this action does increase with
the surfaces in contact, because a greater number of
muscles are brought into action ; therefore, w^e can
never bring too great an amount of the surfaces of our
seat and legs into contact with the saddle. The friction
arisino^ from absolute weio^ht no rider will be inclined
to increase by loading himself. Whether that derived
from muscular action shall become an important ad-
dition to the former, or merely an independent alterna-
tive, is, after all, the great point at issue, and that which
constitutes the real difference between seats. Muscu-
lar action will prove an addition to the friction derived

* A very smooth surface to the saddle lessens the friction, for
which reason school saddles are usually covered with tan-colored
buckskin, whilst many Orientals adopt sheepskins with wool on,
coarse rugs or mats, etc.

Seats. ^5

from weight If both be exercised simultaneously nearly
at the same point, and in the same direction ; if not, the
rider will have to depend alternately on one or the
other, instead of both taken together, which is, of course,
much less advantageous.

In some forms of seats the rider depends almost en-
tirely on the pressure of his knees against the fore part
of the saddle, and relinquishes altogether the advan-
tages derived from steady contact of his seat with the
other end of it. For riding a race or a fox-hunt this
may answer ; but muscular power is subject to waste,
and this method will never do for continuous exertion,
being much too fatiguing to the rider, and therefore
uncertain.

Nor is this all. "Making," as Sir F. Head says, in
describing t/ie Jninting-seat^^ " the knee a pivot, or
rather hinge, and the legs beneath them the grasp," is
like holding a horse-pistol between the tips of the fore-
finger and thumb, instead of grasping it in the full
hand. If the weapon kicks on being discharged, it will
revolve on the hinge with a vengeance ; and if the
horse perform a similar feat, the upper two-thirds of the
rider's body do the same round the knee-pivot . The
leg, from the knee downward, is much less fitted for
holding or grasping than the thigh is ; moreover, it has
other functions to perform that interfere with this. The
best hunting, steeple-chase and military riders we have
ever seen all agreed in this one point at least — that of
depending on the thigh, and not the " undcr-leg," for
their seat ; and hence is derived the grand cardinal
rule for a good seat : " From the hips upward movable^
in order to enable the rider to vary his balance or use
his weapons ; from the knee downward movable^ for
the use of the spur and the control of the horse's hind
legs ; and between these two points, hip and knee,
* " The Horse and his Rider," p. 31.

^6 Scats and Saddles,

Jixed^ for the seat." According to this rule, the middle
of the rider adheres, both by weight and muscular
action, to the middle of the horse ; according to the
other system, the lower third of the rider clings, by
muscular action aloiie^ to the horse's shoulders, aided,
perhaps, to a certain extent, by the stirrup.

But this brings us to the stirrup.- Riding was cer
tainly invented and practiced before saddles existed ;
and it is nearly equally certain that the first saddles,
pads, or whatever they were, had no stirrups, these con-
trivances having been subsequently invented for the pur-
pose of giving the rider further aid in addition to that
derived from balance and friction. Even now-a-days
many a man can ride bare-backed to hounds or in the
melee without stirrups ; and this very short statement
of facts ought, we think, to go far to prove that stirrups
are very subordinate in value to balance and friction
taken togethei'^ which is precisely why we have used
the term stirrup-riding in an opprobrious sense. The
" tongs-across-a-wall seat" depends on balance and the
stirrup, renouncing all contact of the legs with the
horse's body ; the wash-ball seat goes farther, and ab-
jures balance. In Chapter II., when speaking of the
position of the stirrup in the saddle, we could only give
some of the reasons why this should be central. We
have now arrived at a point that renders it possible to
give the remaining ones, which are of no less import-
ance. They are these : The interior surfaces of a toler-
ably well-built man's thighs and legs, from the fork to
the heels, are curved in concave or hollow sweeps, that
may be varied from the knee dowmvard by turning the
toes more or less outward ;* and if we look at a horse
from the rear, it will be very evident that his midship

* It is therefore very absurd to insist on any specific measure for
this. Even a round-thighed man may get up a hollow curve by turn-
ing out his toes a little in excess.

Scats. 77

section — that is to say, the lines we should see if the
animal were chopped fairly in two right through his
fourteenth vertebra — coincides very accr.rately with the
sweep of the rider's legs. At top, no doubt, the figure
is flatter than the man's fork, but the ridge of the saddle
fills up the empty space to a certain extent ; besides
which, no good rider sits in his fork^ but on his seat.
Further, although the horse's body is rounded away
under the belly, the possibility of varying the curve of
the leg from the knee downward enables the rider to
preserve contact very low down : he can encircle his
horse nearly two-thirds when sitting on this line.

If, on the contrary, the stirrup be placed too far for-
ward, the thigh runs diagonally forward toward the
horse's shoulder. Now let us look at the horse from
the front, standing exactly opposite to his forehead.
We see at once that the animal's body, besides being
narrower at the shoulders than at the midship section,
presents, first of all, a concave curve from this to the
shoulder, and then a convex one over the shoulder.
The former of these has no adaptation whatever to the
curve of the rider's thighs, and this he cannot change ;
to remedy which the fashion of padding the saddle-flaps
was introduced. Sir F. Head says it is going out again.
The efiect of this padding or increased thickness be-
tween the rider's leg and the horse's body is, however,
to bring the former, frotn the knee doivnward^ right
away from the latter, as any one can see who looks at
this kind of rider from the front ; and it is therefore
evident that the greatest amount of adhesive surface is
obtained by placing the stirrup nearly under the rider
and making the tread on it perpendicular, instead of in
an acute angle with the horizon.

There is another point to be considered. Is there
anything gained by the rider's leg from the knee down-
ward being in close contact with the horse's body at
7»

^8 .Scats and Saddles.

the midship section, or lost by its being just behind the
shoulder, whether in or out of contact? The gain is
simply this, that in the first case we can exercise imme-
diately an absolute control over the horse's hind legs,
and make him place them as we please — and these
being the propellers, we have entire mastery ; whereas
the loss occasioned by the stirrup being far forward
consists in our generally coming much too late with
our leg, when we have occasion to use it in this way,
the horse having swerved right round before we can get
at him and compel him to go ahead ; in our having to
pull right against the stirrup-leather; and, worst of all,
in our being compelled to loosen our whole seat in con-
sequence of our thigh-bones refusing to bend. The effect
of these two positions of the stirrups and forms of seat on
the stability of the latter, when it becomes necessary to
stand or rise in the former, we must reserve for a little.
There is a notion prevalent that a military seat is a
fork-seat; this is simply a popular error that requires
refutation. On the other hand, some people will per-
sist in sitting on that part of their back which is still,
perhaps, called back, instead of on that portion of it
which is honored w^ith a supplemental designation.
What is a man to sit on? Well, he has two bones
in his seat, which we venture, in imitation of German
phraseology, to call his "sitting-bones," and a third in
rear — that on which umquhile Lord Monboddo built
his celebrated theory, since improved on by Danvin, of
the human race, having been originally developed from
monkeys ; this third bone completes, with the other
two, a triangular basis for the human seat on horse-
back, and, be it said, a much more efficient one than
for the theory in question.* If the angle of the hip-

* It has escaped the observation of the Darwinians that monkeys
on horseback never sit on their tails, which, of course, upsets their
whole theory.

Seats. 79

bone comes to be perpendicular over the sitting-bone
at the same side, the rider's weight will rest on this
triangular basis, which, being the largest available
for the purpose, affords the greatest degree of stability
to the seat. If, however, the perpendicular from the
hip-bone falls to the reai' of the sitting-bone, the leg
and thigh are immediately thrown forward to the horse's
shoulder, the rider's back is converted into the segment
of a circle, and his weight sways about unsteadily on
the Monboddo corner of the triangle. Finally, if the
aforesaid perpendicular fall in front of the sitting-bone,
the fork-seat is achieved, the thighs come back toward
the horse's tail, the rider's body is carried forward by
every movement of the animal, because it rests only on
two points instead of three, and this may be styled the
" muff school of equestrianism."

Whatever difference of opinion may exist as to where
the rider should sit in his saddle, or however necessary
it may be to vary the exact position of the seat accord-
ing to the object in view, there can be no doubt what-
ever that the only firm and steady seat is on the tri-
angle; the Monboddo bone must neither be over-
weighted nor made too conspicuous.

The seat, therefore, as such, depends on balance or
poise, on the amount of surface brought into contact
with the saddle, both of which in their turn depend on
whether the rider's weight rests on three, two, or only
one corner of a triangle, and all this is necessarily modi-
fied by the position of the stirrup. We have endeav-
ored to show the relative value of each element in
succession, and now leave the reader to make such a
combination of them as best suits his purpose, remind-
ing him merely that although he may safely modify first
principles, he never can totally despise them without
committing an absurdity.

A question presents itself here which, although ap-

8o Scats and Saddles.

pertaining more properly to the department of practical
instruction, is so intimately connected with the matters
we have just now been discussing, that it is impossible
to pass it over without a few words ; it is this : Should
we give our first instruction in riding with or without
stirrups? The advocates of beginning without stirrups
say you must first give the pupil a seat, and then, when
he has acquired balance and a hold of his horse, you
can give him the additional assistance of the stirrups.
Now the most difficult thing to attain is balance, and
the stirrup was devised for the purpose of assisting in
acquiring and maintaining it; and it is, therefore, just
as reasonable to act in this manner as it would be to set
a boy to learn swimming without corks or bladders, and
when he had learned to support himself in the water
give him these artificial aids ; and this is seldom thought
rational. But there is another objection — namely, that
the pupil first acquires one seat, and afterward is ex-
pected to change it for another and better one. Why
not begin at first with this ? Every practical cavalry
officer knows that it is much easier to teach a man that
has never been on horseback than one who has ac-
quired methods of his own, which give the instructor
the double work of unteaching and teaching. Of course
if the people ride at home nearly in the same way and
in the same kind of saddle that they are required to do
in the ranks — as, for instance, the Hungarians, Cossacks
and others — this does not apply ; but with all Western
nations of Europe it does. It is highly probable that
the English system of hanging the stirrups far forward
in the saddle has been adopted, partially at least, for the
purpose of adapting these instruments to a seat acquired
iviihout them — that is to say, to a purpose they were
not intended for. Long experience in training recruits
has resulted in the conviction that it is xnuch better, and
in the end more expeditious, to giv^ the young rider

Seats. 8 1

stirrups from the beginning ; and when he has acquired
a certain amount of confidence and balance you may
take away the stirrups to perfect the latter, without
running the least risk of destro3'ing the former.

To return from this digression, and at the same time
bring our investigation of the general conditions on
which a safe seat depends to a conclusion, let us recall
to mind the final result of Chapter II. as it affects the
seat. Whatever the form of this may be in a state of
rest, from the moment action ensues the lever power
transmitted through the hind and fore legs respectively
will constantly tend to disturb the rider's seat nioj'e or
less everywhere, but least of all when this is exactly
over the perpendicular line passing through the centre
of motion (the line E /% fig. 4), whereas it will be
most felt by the rider the more his seat is placed away
from this line, especially in rear of it.

Here are two scraps of newspaper correspondence :
" He never seemed to move in his saddle from the start-
ing-post till he had won the race ;" and again — " They
still ride as if they formed part and parcel of their
horses: it is the old Centaur-like form."

English gentlemen like to ride with ease, and will
have probably no objection to grace. The former pre-
cludes the idea of all visible muscular exertion, and
presupposes a feeling of security ; the latter is equally
incompatible with slovenliness, affectation or stiffness;
moreover, steadiness of the hand depends on solidity of
the seat, and this, as we have seen, depends to a great
extent on the not being exposed to conflicting move-
ments derived from the horse.

The fockefs Saddle a?id Seat. — English jockey-
riding is universally acknowledged to be perfection ; it
is, in fact, a specialty in which the English character
is strongly reflected ; for although its mere mechanism

F

82 Scats and Saddles.

may be easily imitated, the cool judgment, energy, pa-
tience and promptitude that really constitute a good
race-rider are natural gifts. What interests us more
especially is, that this style of riding is in perfect accord-
ance with the principles we have been advocating : the
saddle is placed just over the fourteenth vertebra, it is
of such small dimensions that the rider can only sit on
one spot,* and under this, or very nearly so, the girths
are attached and the stirrups suspended ; nay, still far-
ther, a surcingle passing over the exact centre of the
saddle is generally employed. The length of the stir-
rups should, according to the best authorities, be such
as just to enable the jock to clear his saddle when he
stands in them, but never so long as to make him de-
fend on the reins in the least for his upright position;
therefore, when he does stand in the stirrups, he trans-
fers, through them, his weight to the centre of the sad-
dle, without, of course, disturbing the general equilib-
rium of his horse. When he wishes to bring the centre
of gravity more forward — which favors, as we have
shown, the propelling action of the hind legs — he does
this by bending his own body forward froTn the hips
upward., and throwing forward his head, his legs re-
maining straight down close to his horse ; and this bend
is altogether different from that of the rider who sits far
back in his saddle, with his knees drawn up to the
horse's shoulder. When it comes to the finish, the jock
sits down to " ride " his horse, just as a cavalry soldier
should^ the great difference being that the latter has but
one hand to ride with. Much of the success of starting
depends on the rider throwing his weight forward at
the proper moment, and not overdoing it, as good riders
well know. The bridle is a much greater difficulty with
the race-horse than the saddle, but this we must reserve
for the second part of our book.

* Hibernicc, the racing saddle may be described as having only a
middle, and d — 1 an end at alL

Scats. 83

T/je Hunting Seat. — This is a difficult subject, and
one that cannot be treated dogmatically Hunting is
ivell done in a great variety of forms, and then money
is, to most hunting men, a matter of secondary import-
ance. The great majority only require their horses " to
go;''^ when they are done up they can buy others, and
so on. Race-riders mount for other people's pleasure,
and large sums of money are at stake : hence the severe
discipline and the carefully-considered system of riding.
The preservation of the horse, too, is a great considera-
tion: the hunting man rides for his own pleasure, and
is only answerable to himself for his expenditure of
horse-flesh.

The author of the "Handy Horse-Book," remarking
at p. 99 on the great difl^erence in speed between Eng-
lish and Irish fox-hunting, says " that the sound princi-
ples of hunting are repeatedly sacrificed to the unnatural
speed to which hounds are now forced." There are,
no doubt, many good reasons to account for this. Most
men care more for ''the spin" than for the hunting
itself, which aflbrds merely a pretext. Perhaps, too,
English hunting is less a pursuit of the fox than a des-
perate endeavor to distance Thackeray's all-pervading
snob, which seems, however, not always to succeed ; for,
as " Magenta " says, in the paragraph of his book quoted
above, " the hounds are so forced as to overrun the
scent ; then, when at fault, the entire ruck of the field
have an opportunity of coming up," etc., etc.

But what we have to do with is the seat, and not the
hunting itself, which has been alluded to merely be-
cause the pace has evidently a good deal to do with the
form of the seat. For, in fact, men of fifty years old
and thereabout can scarcely fail to remember that the
length of our saddles has been increasing constantly
with the rapidity of the pace ; and although an increase
of the bearing surface of the saddle, as has been already

§4 Seals and Saddles.

shown, is an admirable thing in itself, no great advan-
tage is derived, so far as the horse's back is concerned,
unless the rider be placed in the centre of the saddle.
But our saddles have been lengthened chiefly for the
purpose of enabling us to get farther away from the
stirrup, so as to use this as a point of support, not
against falling to the right or left, but to prevent one's
being pulled right over the horse's head in fast gallop-
ing or jumping ; and thus many riders vsdiose object
really is to throw their weight somew^hat forward, be-
cause this favors speed, actually come to sit almost on
the loins of their horses, where they seriously impede
the action of the propellers, and are then compelled to
throw their body forward in the most inconvenient and
unsightly manner.* No doubt if this system were not
found to answer the purpose more or less, it would
scarcely be persevered in. When, however, we find
some of the best authorities recommending, and many
of the best living riders practicing, something very
different, one begins not only to doubt its being even
relatively good, but also to 1-ook with a more critical
eve to its positive disadvantages. They are these : It
involves unnecessary w^ear and tear of the horse's fore
legs, because the rider's weight is with every bound
thrown forward into his stirrups in the direction ^ P^
fig. 4 — that is to say, exactly counter to the direction in
which the arm-bone ends its action ; whereas, by sit-
ting over the centre of motion, the shock is equally
divided over all four legs, and not on one pair alone.
This is what we meant by saying that a man may sit
far back and still ruin his horse's fore legs. Secondly,
it is not the safest method, because, if the horse fails wath

* Sir F. Head says, in " The Horse and his Rider," p. 33 : " The
generality of riders are but too apt to sit on their horses in the bent
attitude of the last paroxysm or exertion which helped them into the
saddle, called by Sir Bellingham Graham a Tvash-ball seat.''^

Seats. 85

one or both fore legs, the rider loses all his support at
once, the stirrup acting only as a pivot round which,
by means of his stitY leg, his whole body is made, by
the impulse received from the hind legs, to rotate and
perform the catapult experiment. And if a horse sud-
denly swerves, turns on his haunches, or comes to a
dead halt at a jump, the rider is most likely, through
the same agency, to continue the original line of move-
ment, while the horse adopts a new one, or " reposes."
Thirdly, this method of riding tends very forcibly to
making the horse convert the rider's hand into a fifth
leg for itself, the pull of the head on the rein coming at
an acute angle to the push or tread of the leg in the
stirrup ; and this, when carried to excess, degenerates
into pure rein-and-stir7'up riding vjitJiout any seat^
especially with horses that carry their heads low. It
is, however, just precisely with a hard-pulling horse
that a curbed bit would be so desirable, and 'with this
scat it is a matter of impossibility to use one. The rule
for the jockey we have seen is, never, in standing in
his stirrups, to depend for seat to any extent on his reins.
Why this should be neglected in hunting is not easy to
understand. The Cossacks and Circassians, who all
ride with a snaffle, and do wonderful things with it, sit
perfectly independent of the rein ; any one can make
his horse equally light in the hand with a snaffle as
theirs are, by making his seat as independent of the
reins and stirrups, or use a curbed bit in hunting if he
pleases. It is the close, steady seat that makes the
hand light and the horse's mouth soft ; and therefore it
is much more valuable in teaching to make the young
riders dispense altogether zuith the rei?is than zvith the
stirrups^ and may be done sooner.

Apropos of rising in the stirrups — " either to a^■oid a
kick, or in jumping a large fence, the rider, by merely
rising in his stirrups, at once raises or abstracts from

86 Seats and Saddles.

the saddle the point his enemy intends to attack, and
accordingly the blow aimed at it fails to reach it." * On
the contrary, Mr. Apperley says, "When hounds find
and go away, place yourself ivell dow7i in your saddle,
on your fork or twist, and don't be standing up in your
stirrups (as formerly was the fashion, and the cause of
many a dislocated neck)^ sticking out your rump as if
it did not belong to you." Who shall decide when such
high authorities difler? But perhaps the difference is
more specious than real. Mr. Apperley says, well down
in your saddle, which, we take it, will bring a man very
near to the middle of that piece of furniture, and prob-
ably to the horse's centre of motion. Here the neces-
sity for avoidi72g the blow does not arise, it is the point
of least motion ; but if a man sits well back in his
saddle, a la wash-ball, he gets much nearer to the action
of the hind legs, and nothing else remains for him than
a speedy retreat wlien this becomes dangerous. Some-
thing like this must be the key to this difference of
opinion ; for a rifle or other gun that kicks will only
hit your shoulder the harder the looser you hold it, and
perhaps knock you down if you hold it quite clear, or
at least knock the wind out of you. If a man sits in
the right place, he does not need to rise in his stirrups
for aiiy such purpose; and if he does not, the rising
in the stirrups, and thereby abandoning his whole seat,
may or may not lielp him.

Perhaps we should never have attempted writing a
single line about the hunting seat but for one consider-
ation— it is this : The majority of our cavalry, yeo-
manry and mounted volunteers are hunting men, and if
there really were such an enormous difference between
a good cavalry and a good hunting seat, as many people
seem to suppose, it would be simply a very hopeless
case. But is there this great difference } Mr. Apperlej
* Sir F. Head, as above.

Seats. 87

says, " Be assured that the military seat with very long
stirrups will not do here, however graceful it may ap-
pear on a parade." Fortunately this great authority
gives us in his own book a drawing intended to repre-
sent this graceful seat, which (see Plate V), on closer
inspection, turns out to be Harry Lorrequer's " tongs
across a wall." Well, no doubt, this won't do for hunt-
ing, nor indeed, as far as we can see, for any other good
purpose beyond exhibiting the high polish of a man's
boots, spurs and stirrup-irons — the rider being in uni-
form, scarcely making his seat a good military one ; but
of this more anon. Mr. Apperley has, however, given
us two other figures representing his notions of good
and bad hunting seats, which are here presented to the
reader.

On the other hand, there can be no doubt of the total
inapplicability of the wash-ball seat to military pur-
poses ; and, after all, one comes to the conclusion that
the essential difference between any two good forms of
seat is not so enormous as is commonly represented. If
a man " sits on horse ape-like," as the Hungarian phrase
is, he will scarcely succeed in any kind of riding; and
we believe that the great secret of good horsemanship in
general consists in avoiding exaggerations of all kinds.
The saddle, the position of the stirrup, and the peculiar
object in view, may and must induce modifications of
the seat ; but riding is still riding, and the mechanism
of the horse's construction cannot be altered by mere
fashion.

Road-Ridij?g. — The road-rider, although not re-
quired to take fences, or permitted to ride at full gallop
like the fox-hunter, has his own difficulties to contend
with : he has to do his work on a hard, inelastic surface,
and not on grass fields or ploughed land ; he must be
prepared to make sharp turns, and to meet all sorts of

S8 Sca/s and Saddles,

provocations to shying and restiveness, of which the
hunting man knows little or nothing; in fact, handi-
ness, safety for himself and a due regard for his horse's
legs are much more important considerations for him
than great speed. It is all very well to say that a road-
ster or hack should possess the qualities requisite to
ensure the above, but all does not depend upon the
horse ; if the seat of the rider be faulty, a break-down
will ensue sooner or later.

Let us take the hard road, in the first instance, into
consideration. When one body strikes, falls or impinges
on another, to use a scientific phrase, it receives the
blow back sooner or later. This is, as we all know,
what is called recoil or rebound ; the elastic surface
gives back the blow later and more gradually ; the
inelastic one sooner and more suddenly. The horse's
leg being elastic, itself receives but a small shock from
the elastic turf, this being divided between both nearly
equally ; on the hard road nearly the whole recoil is
transmitted back to the horse's body through its limbs,
and this is nearly equal to tlie weight of both rider and
bearer. There are various means by which this recoil
may be diminished in intensity, to the great ease of the
horse. One of the most obvious is to distribute the
weight as nearly as possible over the middle of the
horse's back, which is constructed, as we have shown,
in such a manner as to admit of a certain amount of
elastic action in a vertical direction — in plain words, up
and down. Two men can carry a greater weight with
an elastic pole on their shoulders than with a stiff one ;
and if the burden be not exactl}' in the centre of it, the
man to whom it is nearest will get more of the recoil
from the si'ound than the other one. Now, taking: into
account that the road-rider does not want great speed,
and has at the same time an inelastic surface to deal
with, there can, we think, be little doubt that, by

Scats. 89

placing his saddle and himself over the middle of the
horse's back, he will save his bearer and himself a large
amo'int of recoil. If, however, in this position he
thrustij his whole foot into the stirrups, he thereby
throws away a further chance ; for, by merely resting
with the ball of his foot on the bar of the stirrup, his
knee being slightly bent, he superadds the elastic action
of his own legs at knee and ankle to that of the horse's,
and this is the legitimate and useful form of " i>obbi?ig
up a?zd douon.'^

A wholly useless and absurd method of performing
this feat is when the stirrup is ever so far away from
the part of the saddle on which the rider sits, for then
there is an end of the elastic action of the rider's leg ;
and, unfortunately, there are some cavalry services in
which this is practiced, to the great increase of rup-
tures amongst the men, and broken knees amongst the
horses.

The plan adopted in England is to avoid the recoil
by rising in the stirrups, which, of course, is the most
sensible wa}^ for a man who has to ride long distances
and is not encumbered with weapons. It has, however,
its inconveniences, especially if the stirrup is placed
very far forward ; for then, in the first place, the foot
being thrust home in the stirrup, the elasticity of the
rider's leg is not utilized ; and even when this is not the
case, the " tread," being oblique, cannot have the efiect
intended ; secondly, the whole seat is abandoned for a
certain time, nothing remaining in contact with the
horse except the leg from the knee downward, which is
of little use ; thirdly, the horse learns to lean on the
hand, for the rider must depend on his reins, for a
moment of time at least, which, of course, renders cor-
rect bitting impossible ;* finally, the rider's weight is

* Ladies have, in general, a much lighter hand than men, their seat
is firmer and clo:>er, and their horses are usually properly bitted.
8*

90 Seats and Saddles.

being constantly transferred from the hind to the fore
quarters of the horse. There may be average equi'ib-
rium, but it is never per7nane7itly in the right pace,
and hence the danger ; for a sudden start or stunible at
the moment the rider is in the air is the most common
cause of the accidents that occur so frequently.

Now, in truth, there is no reason why this English
system of rising in the stirrups (in trotting) should not
be practiced equally well, not to say better, with the
stirrup near the middle of the saddle instead of at one
end. The difference is this, that a much less amount
of rise will suffice, and the seat is, therefore, not only
less completely abandoned, but also for a shorter time ;
the horse's balance is not destroyed ; and fine bitting
may be resorted to.* There is, however, a farther pecu-
liarity belonging to this English method that is worth
understanding, because the successful trotting of many
horses depends on its being so. The " bobber up and
iown " rises and falls with each tread of the horse ;
the English rider only ivzth the interi7iediate ones: he
ilways comes down on his saddle simultaneously with
one and the same hind leg : and the consequence is,
that in trotting after this fashion one diagonal pair of
legs is constantly saved from the recoil, and the other
as constantly exposed to it in an aggravated form.

Every practical rider must have observed that with
certain horses there is a difficulty, in starting to trot, in
the accommodation of the rider's rise in the stirrups to
the first movements : he will have to feel his way, as it
were, to the proper leg, and perhaps be obliged to sit
out two or three shakes before he can get at it ; for
many horses trot unequall)' — that is, take a longer stride
with one pair of legs than with the other. The rider

* The author has done many a mile of hard work in this way in a
military saddle with stirrups exactly central ; and ridden to English
foxhounds also tolerably well in full military fig in a stiff country.

Seals. 91

should observe this in difficult cases, and try to find out,
which he soon can, with which hind leg he should rise
or fall : men who have this instinct are able to ti-of-
horses that perfectly good riders fail with.

Lieutenant-Colonel von Oeynhausen tells us* that the
veterinary surgeon Trager, of the famous stud at Tra-
kehnen, has observed that the near hind and off fore
legs of most horses are stronger than the other two ;
and he attributes some well-known but hitherto seem-
ingly inexplicable facts in connection with horses to
this circumstance — as, for instance, that they naturally
prefer, in cantering and galloping, to lead with the near
leg, the weight being then supported by the two strong-
est limbs (near hind, off fore) ; that spavin occurs more
frequently on the off than the near side ; and that horses
in wheeling about through restiveness always do so to
the left, on the near hind leg, etc. Mr. Trager advances
in support of his views the well-known fact that men's
right arms and left legs are naturally most relied on,
being also stronger ; and he believes this to be the case
with very many other animals — dogs, for instance, whose
method of going diagonally seems to prove it. Now it
is quite possible that this is also the cause of what has
been alluded to above — namely, that in trotting after
the English fashion the horse endeavors to accommo-
date the strong and weak pairs of legs to the rise and
fall of the rider in the saddle ; and if so, it is worth the
attention of practical men.

It is, however, quite clear that if we desire to train
horses to perfectly equal action on both sides — as is
necessary for military purposes, where all must be
brought as nearly as possible to one standard of action,
or for draught, where the team should trot alike — it will

* B. von Oeynhausen, KK. Oberst-lieutenant, etc.; " Der Pferde-
liebhaber" (Vienna, 1865), at p. 162 — a book that cannot be too
highly recommended.

92

Seats and Saddles.

be better to employ the " bobbing up-and-down system"
than English riding;. The Americans understand and
apply this in the training of their great trotters: few
English horses can compete with them, because their
trot is uneven. But, of course, there is no use in at-
tempting a combination of "■wash-ball," or " tongs across
a wall," with " bobbing ;" it will never succeed in any-
thing but shaking the rider's lungs out : the nearly per-
pendicular tread on the stirrup, with an elastic ankle
to break the jolt, is imperative. The Orientals, who
use shovel stirrups, and stand straight on the entire sole
of the foot, never attempt trotting — their paces are walk
or gallop. Arab horses have, however, a tremendous
trot if you can bring them to it ; but you must sit like
wax, and have the delicate hand of a first-rate pianist
to do the trick ; for nothing stronger than a single hair
from a fair lady's head is fit for a rein.

There exists in many minds a strong prejudice on tlie
subject of its easing the horse to tuck up the rider's legs,
and that nothing tires it so much as a long dangling
weight unde?' its belly. In the first place, it comes to
this, that a giant should not mount a pony ; then, again,
why dangle the legs? They have a better chance of
lying close to the horse's body if the stirrup be placed
nearly under the seat, which does not involve their
being too long ; and further, how if the rider's body be
made to dangle in the air ove?' the horse's back^ in con-
sequence of the attempt to tuck up the legs? This is
still more dangerous: one sees everyday horses reeling
in trot under riders that adopt the very " lofty " English
style ; the centre of gravity gets a couple of feet farther
away from the basis, which is just equivalent to the
latter being decreased proportionately. Every one
knows that a man with a long back and short legs rides
heavier than a long-legged one.

It is scarcely necessary, after what has been already

Scats. 93

said, to demonstrate over again how conducive to handi-
ness, perfect mastery over the horse, independence of
the rein, and therefore good bitting, a central position of
the saddle, stirrups and seat must be ; and these are, w^e
take it, the conditions under which road-riding may
be done safely and agreeably. High speed not being
the object, nothing can be gained by throwing the rider's
weight forward ; on the contrary, it has this further posi-
tive disadvantage in addition to those already pointed
out. Corns with our horses are as equally prevalent as
broken knees, and the latter are very frequently a con-
sequence of the former. Now we have shown (see fig.
2, C) that the consequence of throwing the weight for-
ward is to make the horse overstep with its hind foot
the track of the corresponding fore foot ; and this being
very much our habit, our horses do very frequently
overstep, and by so doing the risk is run of tearing off
the fore shoes. We have got into the habit of using
very short shoes, the web of which does not overlap
sufficient, at the heel the angle formed by tlie frog with
the wall of the hoof, but falling short, throws the wliole
pressure inside this angle. This is what produces
corns. For racing, certainly, and perhaps for hunting,
the short shoe may be inevitable, but there is no reason
whatever why the roadster should be shod in this fash-
ion, nor even a cavalry horse, except that people will
persist in either sitting directly on the horse's withers,
or, when they sit on the loins, transferring their weight
to the shoulder, through the medium of stirrups hung
far forward, every time they rise in the saddle when
trotting. Corns and broken knees are totally unknown
in the Austrian cavalry, where the shoe is given a solid
bearing on the angle of the ivall of the hoof at the heel.

CHAPTER IV.

THE MILITARY SEAT.

IS there such a thing as a standard military seat or
not? and is there any real necessity for it, and what?
There can be no doubt that a cavalry in some respects
technically inferior may achieve, and often has gained,
victories over another, not having any fault of the kind.
So very much depends on the way in which this arm is
handled and on its moral qualities that it is quite im-
possible to say, " This cavalry, because it rides very
well, must, or even w ill most probably, beat that other
one, because it does not ride quite so well." Are we
then to conclude that the seat and everything connected
with it is a matter of minor importance? The old Aus-
trian cavalry regulations contained a paragraph to this
effect : '' Cavalry that cannot ride (that is to say, well)
is a burden to the State;" but we have been often
tempted to paraphrase this and say, " Cavalry that can
only ride is not less so." Both expressions taken to-
gether will then mean, that it is not enough for a cav-
alry man to be a bold rider ; his riding must be done
so as to make him an efficient combatant as well : for
whatever doubt may exist on account of the almost im-
possibility of estimating precisely " the other things
equal" of the question to be solved, as to whether a
cavalry that rides positively w^ell may or may not prove
94

The Militajy Scat, 95

superior in combat to one that rides only comparatively
so, this much is quite certain^ that the former will
briiig into and retain in the field a niuch greater pro-
portio7z of serviceable horses than the latter, which is
in itself an element of success that may be indeed squan-
dered away like all others, but ?nust^ if properly taken
advantage of, confer great superiority. In fact, what
we would say to every cavalry officer of whatever na-
tion is this : Your cavalry is very fine ; it has done
wonders, and beat all other cavalries in the world ;
but it would do still greater miracles, and beat all
the rest if you only improved your seat, etc., a little
more ; beside which it would cost less — a matter of
some importance — and perhaps look quite as well as
at present.

No one, we suppose, will contend that the jockey
style of riding can serve as a model for the cavalry
soldier ; the kind of work to be done and its duration
are totally different. Perhaps the hunting seat deser/es
more consideration. This much is certain : it iS of
great advantage to cavalry to be able to get a-wi03S a
difficult country, and much of its utility will depend on
its being able to do this cleverly and in an ordei)/ man-
ner. This has been recognized and acted on of late
years to a much greater extent than formerjy, and, as
we think, very wisely too. Up to a certain time the
haute ecole dominated cavalry riding exclusively, and,
no doubt, very reasonably, in the then existing semi-
cultivated state of Europe, and under the conditions of
combat then prevalent. But both of these have vnider-
gone great modifications ; and first of all, what the
Germans call the " campaign school" was introduced
for cavalry purposes ; and more recently still, that
very indefinite form called the hunting seat, or rather
what is supposed to represent it, has been making con
siderable inroads into the domains of the riding-ma?

96 Scats and Saddles.

ter.* All we propose saying for the present is, that the
wash-ball seat is evidently not the proper thing for mili-
tary purposes, while, perhaps, " tongs across a wall" may
be, in reality, nothing more or less than the progeny of
a liaison with that respectable old lady the haute ecole
— in fact, a mule seat.

Let us pass in review the points of resemblance and
of difierence between the two kinds of riding. The
former are but few in number, the latter very numer-
ous. The hunting man rides his own horse for his own
pleasure, and does not mind spoiling a steed or two for
the sake of maintaining his character as a forward rider.
Cavalry soldiers must ride together almost always ;
what regulates their speed is the average of a whole
regiment, and not the swiftness of a single animal.
The Oriental national cavalries won't understand this,
and get beaten by riders who, taken singly, are very
inferior. Again, the hunting man's proper work is all
done at full gallop ; cavalry does at least five-eighths of
its work at a walk (route marching), perhaps two-
eighths in trot (manoeuvring), and certainly not more
than one-eighth at full gallop (in charging). The con-
clusions to be drawn are, that even supposing the so-
called " hunting seat" to be the best for high speed, no
government can afford the waste of horse-flesh it in-
volves, nor would there be the slightest use in doing so.
On the contrary, this style of riding can only lead to
loose and broken charges, or to a voluntary abandon-
ment of full gallop in charging. Further, the fox-hunter
does not require sharp turning, and he has both his
hands at his disposal ; while the cavalry soldier's life

* The father of a young cornet, recently gazetted, told the author
that his son had been advised by a brother officer to conceal the
fact of his being a "'cross-country" rider on joining his regiment,
as otherwise the riding-master would keep him twice as long under
his hands.

The Military Scat. 97

depends to a great extent on his horse being able to
turn suddenly and rapidly with the aid of one hand.
The folse or equilibrium of horse and rider taken to-
gether can 7tever be too pe7-fect or too permanent In his
case. One of the great mistakes committed is the sup-
posing that what is called a balance-seat is the one
thing necessary. The whole machine must be in bal-
ance, and not the rider alone.

But the greatest difference is in the absolute weight
or load to be carried. A hunting man buys a horse
up to his weight ; cavalry can do nothing of the sort,
for their horses are compelled to carry any load we
please to inflict on them. People rig out a soldier with
everything that combined bad taste and absurdity can
suggest — put him on a horse that must not cost over a
certain price, and call him a hussar, dragoon or lancer,
according to the cut of his coat; and so it comes that
what is called heavy cavalry sometimes rides lighter,
and is altogether lighter, than what people are pleased
to consider light cavalry.

There must be some average weight determinable for
the average horses and average work of cavalry, but it
is very hard to get at anything like a satisfactory solu-
tion of this problem, in consequence of the great num-
ber of unknovv^n quantities involved in it. Nevertheless,
there can be no harm done in attempting, at least, a
statement of the question.

French authorities* tell us that a ^<90fl? sumpter-horse.
Working on a good road, can carry 100 to 150 kilo-
grammes (equal to 15 stone \ lb., or 23 stone 8f lb.), at
a walk, to a distance of 40 kilometres (equal about 24^-^^
English miles) in ten hours. But if the same horse be
required to do its work in trot, the burden must be
reduced to 80 kilog. (equal 176^ English pounds), in

* Migout et Borgery, '* Theorie des Affiits et des Voitures d'Artil-
lerie."

98 Scat:> and Saddles.

order to enable it to do 22^ to 2^^-^ English miles in a
day (of ten hours). If the burden consists of a rider
with its saddle, etc., instead of inert matter alone, the
horse can do the 24^% miles at a ivalk^ on 2l good road,
under the greater load of 90 kilog. (198^ English
pounds), and he will only require seven to eight hours.
It is, therefore, evident that it is the dead weight of the
pack which distresses the horse most ; and our own ex-
perience of jockeys carrying extra weight confirms this.

Further, a man carrying a weight without the aid of
machinery, can transport 44 kilog. (97 lb. 10 oz. Eng-
lish weight) to a distance of 12^ English miles for a
day's work ; and on comparing this with the day's work
of the sumpter-horse, we find that the former is to the
latter in the proportion of i to 5.

Now it is well understood that a foot-soldier, who has
to use his weapons, cannot carry anything like this 97
lb. 10 oz. English weight without converting him into
a mere " colporteur," the utmost admissible load being
22 kilog. (48 lb. 13 oz.), or one-tht7'd the mayt's own
average weight;'^ and as the saddle-horse can carry 90
kilog. 24^ miles only at a walk and on a good road, if
we take into consideration that some of the cavalry
horse's work must be done in trot and gallop, and much
of it on more or less difiicult ground, it is probable that
90 kilog. (198* English pounds) would be quite suffi-
cient load, although the average marches should not
exceed 15 English miles per diem, because the irregular
food and the exposure to the weather in bivouacs more
than compensates for the difference of distance.

It seems, however, to be the practice of most cavalry

* The Continental cavalries take 145 i^ lb., or 10 st. 5^ lb., as the
average weight. The British soldier must be much heavier than this,
probably \\\X.o 12 st. The British infantry soldier's kit at present
weighs exactly 11.67 kilog., leaving 10.33 l^i'og-* or about 23 lb., for
arms and ammunition.

The Military Scat. 99

services to put on their horses at least a third — in many
cases even more than that proportion — of the animal's
own weight. Strange to say, we must go to the man-
uals of the artillery and pioneers for the weight of the
cavalry soldier. An Austrian authority, Baron Smola,
calls the average weight of the horse 740 to 864 Eng-
lish pounds ; and it has always been laid down as a rule
b}' the best cavalry officers of that service that 200 Aus-
trian or 246 English pounds = 17 stone 8 lb., is the max-
imum load admissible. This would be exactly one-third
of the weight of the lighter horse, and about two-sevenths
that of the heavier one ; so that, in fact, if this rule were
adhered to, it would make light cavalry heavier (for
the horse) than heavy cavalry. But we suspect that
both one and the other have transgressed this limit at
various times. Very recently, indeed, the Austrian
light cavalry has thrown away sabretaches, echabraques,
cruppers, pistol-holsters, and no end of other useless
lumber, to the great ease of the horses' backs; and the
cuirassiers have been all converted into dragoons. Tak-
ing 246 lb. as the total weight, and deducting 66 kilog.,
or 1 45 J lb., for the average man, there would remain
for arms, saddle, kit, etc., 100 lb., which ought to
suffice.

The French "Aide Memoire " gives us 992^ English
pounds for the weight of the horse, and 1296^ for the
trooper complete ; consequently, the burden is 304^ lb.,
or less than one-third : and deducting from this, as
before, 145J lb. for the man, there remains 158I lb. of
dead weight. It is no doubt this, and something con-
nected with the seat, which is very far back., the stir-
rups being very far forward., that we must look to for
an explanation of the sore-back disasters of 1859. -^^
may appear absurd to accuse the French cavalry of rid-
ing with a " hunting seat," but in truth theirs is an
exaggeration of a bad one.

»00 Scats and Saddles.

A Prussian book* gives 1152 English pounds for the
weight of the heavy horse, and 1546 EngHsh pounds for
the cuirassier completely armed ; consequently the bur-
den is 394 lb., or more than one-third of the animal's
weight; and having deducted the 145J lb. for the aver-
age man, there remains 248^ lb. dead weight, or exactly
50 lb. more than Migout and Bergery's estimate of what
the total burden should be. The light Prussian horse
is set down at 921 English pounds, and the dragoon or
hussar complete at 1252 English pounds. Proceeding
as before, we find, therefore, that these horses carry 331
lb. = 23 stone 9 lb., also more than one-third their own
weight, of which 185^ lb. is dead weight, or within 13
lb. of what the French authority lays down as the total
admissible burden. Now it is remarkable that, not-
withstanding this unfavorable state of things, we have
hitherto heard nothing about Prussian sore-back disas-
ters in the campaign of 1866, although the cavalry did
an immense deal of work ; and this can only be attrib-
buted to a better seat and method of riding than the
French, for the dead weight is absolutely greater.

If anything is to be made of cavalry in future wars,
the burden of the horses must be diminished. The most
obvious way is by lessening the dead weight ; but why
should not smaller men be selected.'' After all, what is
really necessary is, that the soldier should be tall enough
to mount with ease and to clean his horse. Anything
beyond that is superfluous.

Let us compare with the above, in order to show how
far a " hunting-seat" method is applicable to cavalry
purposes, some English standards of weight for flat-ra-
cing and steeple-chasing, taken at random from the news-
papers. For five-year-olds we find 10 st. 12 lb., or 152
lb., for half a mile flat, and 12 st, or 168 lb., for aged
horses. For five-year-olds, 10 st. 12 lb. = 152 lb., and
* Ludwig Schone, " Feldbruckenbau."

The Military Seat. lOl

ibr six-year-olds, ii st. 4 lb. = 158 lb., for two miles'
6teei:)le-chase. For five-year-olds, 11 st. 7 lb. ==161 lb.,
and for an aged mare, 12 st.= i68 lb., for a three mile
hunter's stakes steeple-chase. These are, we believe,
fair samples ; but the horses that carry these weights do
it once for all : they are the best of their kind perhaps
in the world, and are trained and fed in a way quite
beyond the reach of cavalry. The immediate object,
too, is to take the most out of the individual horse for
the moment ; in fact, all the conditions are different.

And as to the seat, the hunting rider can adjust his
weight as he pleases ; he may vary his position in the
saddle, which constitutes the whole of the dead weight,
and need not exceed 14 lbs. ; his doing so must not
necessarily give his horse a sore back or bruised
withers. On the other hand, the dead weight carried
by the troop-horse is most usually equal to, in many
cases greater, than that of the rider ; a shifting of the
seat will therefore necessarily destroy not only the poise
of the horse, but, what is still worse, that of the saddle
— and this is what kills the horses, or at least sends
them into hospital. The cavalry soldier's seat 7nust be
therefore fixed, and not subject to variation ; in charg-
ing he must bend his body forward, from the hips
upward, in order to use his weapons and stand in his
stirrups, and this will all suffice to accelerate the speed
of his horse. The grand rule is to arrange tlie saddle
itself and the stirrups so that the rider can only sit in
the proper position^ that he falls naturally into it^ and
that it reqjiires no muscular effort to maintain it. If
this be not the case, the moment the man becomes
tired, or his horse makes a rapid movement, the whole
seat is lost, and the muscular effort that should remain
altogether available for the sabre or lance, is expended
in endeavoring to maintain or regain an injudicious
seat. The true seat is therefore in the middle of the

I02 Seats and Saddles.

saddle, whose upper surface should be so formed as not
to admit of any other one ; then the stirrup must be
under the seat, and not 8 to 12 inches in front of it.
The English hussar, Plate VII., is evidently expending
muscular action to keep his stirrup in a certain posi-
tion at an angle to its natural fall,, instead of the
stirrup supporti7ig his leg as the latter falls. Such a
position is not maintainable for any length of time, or
in sharp movement. In trot, for instance, the soldier,
not being permitted to rise In his saddle, must seek a
support which the stirrups cannot afford otherwise than
by assuming an angle at the other side of the perpen-
dicular— that is to say, the tread in the stirrup comes to
be in the direction of the poi?it of the horse's shoulder,
*' tongs across a wall," and the counter-action is then
upward in the line of the man's thigh, against which
the intestines descend, and produce, if there is the
slightest natural weakness in the individual, rupture.
The stirrups being far forward in the hunting or civilian
saddle is not so injurious in this way, because the rider
evades the shock by rising in the saddle, and this is just
what led to the English way of riding ; but the cavalry
soldier cannot do so.

It is all very well to say the man mzist retain the po-
sition prescribed for him ; If he Is constantly on the
strain to do so, he simply cannot ; besides which, the
stirrup is actually of very little, if any, use to him.
Two-thirds of the time and the whole of the talk ex-
pended In endeavoring to make a man retain an incon-
venient seat can be saved, and devoted to the much
more necessary objects of teaching him hozv to manage
his horse and use his weapons,, if you make the pre-
scribed seat Inevitable, and every deviation from It
uncomfortable ; and this can be easily done.

With the light cavalry (or Hungarian) saddle. It will
not do to put a man Into it as It comes out of the

TJie Military Seat.

103

saddler's hands, and order him to sit in a particular
manner ; it is just as necessary, or more so, to make
the saddle fit the man's seat, as to make his coat or
boots fit his body or feet ; and this is done, after careful
observation of the seat, by shortening or lengthening
the bearing-strap of the seat, or by altering the lacings,
till the seat comes right of itself, when you don't need
to correct it in the riding-school. Fig. 5 shows the
outlines of those Huno^arian saddles. At a the bearins:-

strap of the seat is laced down so as to have its lowest
point toward the rear of the saddle, the consequence
of which is to throw the rider's seat back on the Mon-
boddo bone, bringing the thigh forward and the knee
toward the horse's shoulder, wash-ball fashion. At 6
the reverse is the case ; the bearing-strap being laced
down in front, its hinder part throws the rider altoge-
ther into his fork, and the thigh and leg come too
far back, muff fashion ; a bends his neck and shoulders

I04 Seats and Saddles,

somewhat forward in order to get his balance, while
b strains them backward. At c the lowest part of the
bearing-strap is in the middle of the saddle, all of which
variation depends on the lacing, supposing the length
of the strap itself to be the same ; c therefore sits on
his triangle with his body upright and his legs coming
down in their natural fall, his whole weight being
spread over the entire under-surface of the saddle-
blades ; while it is evident that the weight of «, being
far to the rear, will press down the hinder ends of the
saddle-blades into the horse's back, tilting up the front
ends ; <5, on the contrary, drives the saddle-blade ends
into the horse's withers ; «'s saddle will probably run
forward, (5's horse run through the girths.

The place of the stirrup and its influence on the seat
is here altogether left out of consideration. It should
be made to accord with the seat, and not the seat with
it, otherwise the rider is always "contending against'*
his stirrups, instead of" depending on them."

How the bearing-strap of the saddle should be ex-
actly laced will depend altogether on the "plenitude"
or "poverty" of the seat of honor of each individual
rider. A very full-sized sitting part requires the lacing
to approach that shown at a in order to make the rider
sit like c; a very spare man, on the contrary, will re-
quire something like b for the same purpose ; for most
young men it will do best as at c*

* The bearing-strap of the seat is best made of a piece of good
girthing-web, doubled together so as to form, with its central portion,
a collar to embrace neatly the hinder knob of the saddle, the two
branches being sewed by their edges together down the middle of
the seat, and ending, the one with a strap, the other with a buckle,
which, when united, form a corresponding collar for the front knob.
Brass eyelet-holes stamped into the outer edges at certain intervals
would be an improvement. Of course a movable pad covers this
bearing-strap, the lacings and the side-plate of the saddle, as far down
as the tops of the girth at each side, but it is on the length of the

The Military Seat. 105

The same principle applies exactly to civilian saddles.
If you know yourself how 3'ou want to sit, you must tell
this to the saddler before he has constructed the seat, as
that depends on him and not on the saddle-tree maker.
It is also evident that, if the stirrups of a given tree hap-
pen to be hung too far forward, the defect can only be
remedied by bringing the lowest point of the seat of the
saddle nearer to them, for the tree itself must remain as
the rule of thumb turned it out of the workshop. Civil-
ians fancy that a cavalry seat must be stilf and con-
strained ; to be good // 7uust be perfectly easy and un-
constrained, and then it will not only answer its purpose,
but be really graceful.

One of the great difficulties is about the pack. There
is no use in putting the saddle in the middle of the
horse's back, and the stirrups and rider in the middle of
the saddle, unless you, at the same time, distribute the
weight of the pack equably before and behind the latter ;
the component parts of the dead weight must be accu-
rately balanced against each other. As regards the form,
it should be made as Jiat as possible^ instead of being
built up into two great mountains in front and rear of
the rider's seat, and this for the following reasons :
First, the nearer the pack is to the perpendicular line
falling through the centres of motion and gravity the
less will it incommode the horse by its vibrations, tend
to displace the saddle, or be liable to break the straps
and shake loose itself; and the centre of gravity is most
undoubtedly under the rider's seat ; therefore, on this
account alone, the lower and flatter the pack the better.
Secondly, if the pack be high in rear of the rider, as
shown by the English hussar, Plate VII., the difficulty
of getting into and out of the saddle is greatly enhanced,

bearing-strap and the way in which it is laced that the form of the
seat will depend. Of course all the edges of these wooden saddles
must be nicely beveled off.

ro6 Seats and Saddles.

and with it the chances of deranging the latter and caus-
ing it to turn round ; which leads to overtight girthing.
The Austrian " hulan," shown on the same Plate, 's
taken from a colored penny picture, the only thing we
can for the moment procure, and is, consequently, not
so correct as the hussar, who was photographed from
life ; still it serves to show what can be done in making
the pack flat, and adapting it closely to the horse's body.
The white cloak, it will be observed, is folded flat and
placed above the sheepskin, where it can be got at with-
out opening up the whole pack, and the valise is also
flat. Why these articles were ever rolled up into long
cylinders, the most intractable and inconvenient form
that can be devised, is utterly unaccountable, except on
the supposition of cavalry officers having been pecu-
liarly subject to softening of the brain, in consequence,
no doubt, of the solidity of the shakos and helmets worn
in those days. Thirdly, a mountain of pack in front of
the rider renders it utterly impossible to adopt a proper
system of bitting, or to make the pull on the reins act in
the proper direction ; even with the greatest care and
management, the bridle-hand of the cavalry soldier must
be necessarily placed at a greater distance from the
horse's withers than that of the civilian : we shall, how-
ever, have more to say on this point in the second part
of this little work.

The old heavy cavalry leather saddle is gradually dis-
appearing in almost all services, because it can neither
be adapted to each individual horse nor rider. There is
only one seat possible with it, the chair-seat, which
thiows the weight all to one end, and produces sore
backs much more frequently than a well-arranged
wooden or Hungarian saddle with a proper seat. Sev-
eral modifications of the Hungarian saddle have been
adopted — amongst others, a Danish model ; but it is
quite absurd to attempt to retain, as has been done in

The Military Seat. 1 07

many instances, the chair-seat of the heavy cavah'y sad-
dle in a wooden one — better far stick to the old form :
however, the difficulty will probably be ended by heavy
cavalry being gradually abandoned, for which there are
many other reasons than merely the technical ones we
have had to deal with.

We cannot wind up this portion of our work better
than with a few remarks on the following passage from
the " Handy Horse-Book," pp. 48, 49 : "Altogether it
might be desirable that commanding officers of some
cavalry regiments would study the pose on horseback
of Marochetti's sculptured dragoons, or those of other
eminent artists. The result would probably be a marked
improvement in the position of the saddle, and conse-
quently, in the general coup d'ceil of our cavalry," etc.
Now, if it were merely for appearance' sake, we should
say that no real advantage of other methods should be
sacrificed to this ; but, after all, what is Marochetti's
pose, and why have he and other eminent artists suc-
ceeded in producing works that please the eye of such
judges of horsemanship as " Magenta " and other sport-
ing men ? and why are our public places disfigured by
absurd equestrian statues? Simply because Marochetti
perfectly understood the equilibrium of the horse and
rider, and was bound to do so, as otherwise he could
never have got the weight of material to balance on a
pair of legs, but must have had recourse, like others, to
a post growing out of the ground and into the horse's
belly to sustain it, or wholly abstained from the attempt
to reproduce his figures in motion. And the ease and
dignity of his statuettes depend on the impression they
make on the spectator of their perfect security, and be-
cause they exhibit the rider as having a perfect control
over the movements of his horse ; and this is what a
cavalry soldier should have. What can be more undig-
nified or repugnant to good taste than to put a great

io8 Seats and Saddles,

military leader on a horse in the position in which
grooms used to ride to water? It disgusts, from being
altogether out of character.

But, as we have shown, the safety of the horse's back
and the life of the rider — that is to say, the efficiency of
the cavalry — depend altogether on perfect equilibrium ;
and this, we take it, is a much higher consideration than
appearance. Fortunately, however, what is really good
and to the purpose does please the eye in this as in many
other matters. Lastly, far from thinking that a good
method of riding to hounds is incompatible with, or an-
tagonistic to, ^ good system of military riding, we be-
lieve that the former has been of great use to the latter
in emancipating it to a certain extent from the pedantry
of the old haute ecole^ and laying the foundation for the
modern S3'stem of "• campaign riding," which is better
adapted to our present cavalry tactics. And, after all,
there is not so much difference between a good hunting
and di good military seat as many people suppose ; nor
should they, on the other hand, bo considered identical,
as many others believe, the objects to be attained and
the means being different. And this is quite certain,
that the wash-ball seat" is just as useless for the one as
'' tongs across a wall " is for the other. Exaggeration
spoils good riding, as it will the best argument, and is
ridiculous into the bargain.

PART II

BITS AND BITTING.

CHAPTER I

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

THERE is scarcely anything of more frequent oc-
currence than the transition from an incorrect
mode of expression to a popular error ; we see instances
of this daily occurring. No doubt the incorrect mode
of expression usually arises, in the first instance, either
from confusion of ideas or false appreciation of facts, or
both taken together ; but when once brought into cur-
rency, it is frequently accepted not only as a fitting
designation, but actually as a true explanation of the
nature or mode of operation of the thing designated,
and thus grows into what is called a popular error.

It is more especially in matters connected with me-
chanical contrivances that we observe this to take place,
and the reason is very obvious. Such modes of expres-
sion originate with what are called practical men, who,
seldom having leisure or scientific education sufficient
to enable them to construct at once correct definitions,
commonly judge by the eye or the touch, and translate
the evidence of one of these senses into a name. It is
in this way that the peculiar languages of handicrafts
usually grow up, and the apprenticeship to these con-
sists to a great extent in the acquisition of the proper
application of such technical terms ; so that, in fact,
this sort of language becomes the means of keeping

111

112 Bits and Bittum

^5

secret certain processes for the benefit of the initiated,
and to the exclusion of the general public.

There can be, perhaps, no very serious objection to
this in general, the great desideratum being that the
workman should know how to do his work properly,
not suffering himself to be misled by the kind of mys-
tical jargon applied to it ; but there are cases in which
it does an infinity of mischief, and tends to the propa-
gation of serious errors. To give a practical illustra-
tion : of the thousands that ride and drive horses in
this country, but very few have acquired the art other-
wise than by self-teaching — what is called practice ; and
of the nearly equally great number who are entrusted
with the care and management of these animals, pre-
cisely the same may be said. What shall w^e say of
the somewhat numerous class of individuals that under-
take to "break in" horses, as it is called, except that
they distinguish themselves generally by an abundance
of courage and determination — very necessary qualifica-
tions they are, too — and an equally great lack of any-
thing like rational principle to guide them in the exer-
cise of what they have converted into a handicraft.
There Is a fourth class, not numerous indeed, but very
important in their way : those artisans who spend all
their lives in the forge or workshop have seldom if
ever any even the slightest knowledge of horses, and
still are entrusted with the fabrication of those instru-
ments, too frequently of torture, vs^hich we apply to
almost the most sensitive part of the animal's body, his
mouth.

Now there is scarcely any one expression so common
among riders, drivers, grooms and horse-breakers as
that a horse*s mouth is hard or soft; and when one
comes to inquire into the best mode of attaining the
last-named quality, which is, of course, that most de-
sired, we find that the exceedingly sensitive gums of

General Principles. 113

the horse are supposed to become soft hi consequence
of being subjected to a greater or less amount of press-
ure from a piece of hard iron ; an idea in itself perfectly
monstrous and contrary to fact, inasmuch as long-con-
tinued pressure, if not too violent in degree, has the
tendency to produce a gradual thickening of the mem-
branes— in fact, renders the mouth callous, or the con-
trary of soft ; and if so violent in degree as to destroy
the textures, and actually involve mechanical softness,
the reverse of w^hat is understood by a soft mouth is
nearly always produced.

Here, then, most people who have to do with horses
start in life with an incorrect mode of expression, which
leads directly to a misconception of an important ques-
tion, and this in its turn to absurd and mischievous
methods of practice, and all this from a want of know-
ledge or a proper application of the simplest mechan-
ical principi.es. It requires, indeed, only the most
superficial inspection of a horse or other animal, either
standing or in motion, to perceive that we have to do
with a series of much more beautiful and perfect me-
chanical contrivances than human ingenuity is capable
of devising, for the elasticity and power of animal
muscle and tendon is altogether beyond our imitation ;
and this, applied to a most wonderful combination of
levers, constitutes the mechanism of animal power. A
little further consideration cannot fail to show us that
the means we employ to direct the power of a horse,
and make it subservient to our wants and wishes, are
f Jtogether mechanical in their nature ; and on entering
into an analysis of their mode of action, we find them to
consist in the application of the principles of the lever
and of equilibrium — matters belonging respectively to
the domains of statics and dynamics.

The great difficulty in the rational application of
these principles arises partly from the complexity of all
10* H

1 14 Bits and Bitting.

problems connected with " equilibrium in motion," and
partly on account of the very great diversity in the de-
tails of the construction and the relative proportions of
these animated machines. If we take the horse's neck,
for instance, it may be compared to the tiller of a boat ;
it is the lever by which the whole animal is steered, or,
in a state of nature, steers itself — the reins being the
tiller-ropes. The lever formed by the neck acts on that
part of the dorsal vertebrae we have shown to be the
centre of motion ; and when the horse is in motion, the
lever action of the limbs, derived from the muscles, is
propagated to this same point, the neck a7id the tail
being the regulators of the movement ; for by means
of the neck, the animal, as has been shown in Part I.,
adjusts its equilibrium according to the degree of ve-
locity it requires, and according to whether it wishes
to move on straight or on curved lines ; and a little
attention to the movements of young horses, when per-
fectly uncontrolled, wnll suffice to show that the position
of the neck is constantly varied to suit the exigencies
of the moment, the tail following its movements in the
most graceful manner as a counterpoise.*

It is precisely for this reason that a proper command
over the horse's neck is of such value to the rider, en-
abling him to vary the condition of equilibrium as suits
his views for the moment, and to weight one or both of
the hind legs, alternately or simultaneously, as may best
serve his purpose. It is on a perfect knowledge of this
principle that the success of handling young horses, or
the overcoming the vices of those that have been inju-
diciously handled, depends ; and there is no more fre-
quent cause of restiveness or indocility than an abuse of
the lever action of the neck with young animals!

* It would be easy to show that breeds of horses employed con-
stantly for one particular movement have their tails differentl)
seated and developed from those that are employed for a variety of
purposes. Our English race-horse is an instance.

General Pi'inciples. 115

Some years ago a great sensation was produced by a
system of riding, or rather handling horses, introduced
by M. Baucher, a French riding-master. According to
this gentleman, the power of resisting the will of the
rider, and therefore the seat of all restiveness, is located
in that part of the neck which forms the articulation with
the head ; and he found that, by getting the horse's head
into a particular position, and fixing it there, he could
more or less perfectly master the volition of the animal.
But it soon appeared that M. Baucher's system had the
radical defect of destroying all the horse's paces ; and
the Due de Nemour's condemnation of it, or rather the
sentence he passed on it, " Jc ne veux pas d'un systeme
qui prend sur V impulsio7i des chevaux," was most per-
fectly justified.*

Now the error into which M. Bauclier fell was this :
The horse's neck is, no doubt, a very powerful agent in
our hands; it is, as we have already shown, the lever,
and the only one too, by which we obtain a command
over the entire motive mechanism of the horse, especially
the hind legs ; but it is only by varying its position that
this can be usefully effected — by suiting this to the
pace, and the direction of the animal's movements ;
whilst M. Baucher insisted on one invariable position
of the head and neck. [Moreover, the pull on the reins
was not in the direction of the centre of motion, and
could not act with precision on the hind legs ; finally,
the position of the horse's head and neck was such as
rather to increase than diminish the overhanging weight
of these members. Compare fig. 3, Part I., with the
French hussar a la Baucher in Plate VI., which also
shows the immense height and bulk of the pack, and
the seat of the rider altogether on the hinder part of the
saddle, although no doubt in exaggeration. Baucher*s

* This, too, was the error of the Duke of Newcastle's system, which
drove us into the opposite extreme.

n6 Bits and LlttlTig.

" handling" was almost all done when the horse was
standing still, and its effect either became null when the
animal was put in motion, or, if preserved, the power
of locomotion was seriously impeded. No horse ever
voluntarily assumed such a position of his head and
neck as that prescribed by M. Baucher — in fact, it was
wholly unsuited to any form of movement ; it was like
attempting to steer a ship that had no way on her. He
overlooked altogether the problem of equilibrium in
motion, and tnistook dlmhiution or restriction of 7no-
tive pozver for a fcifoct command over it^ under all
circ2imstances and at every degree of speed. It is un-
necessary to add that the demon of restiveness, whose
habitation he fancied he had discovered in the neck-
joint, and whom he constantly attempted to exorcise,
W'as simply the creature of his own fantasy.

The various purposes to which horses are applied
demand, of course, different details of handling ; but one
broad principle applies to them all — namely, to get the
whole lever power of the animal to act in conjunction
with its weight in the required direction, and this with
such a degree of leaning on the bit that the power of
controlling all its motions with certainty and ease is
secured, without the necessity of interfering in so abrupt
a manner with the animal's efforts as to impede them
unnecessarily ; and to do this in such a manner that the
peculiarities of the individual horse and of his work are
brought gradually into harmony, is the only effectual
means we possess for avoiding all occasion for restive-
ness, and constitutes rational handling, as distinguished
from purely empirical horse-breaking, as it is usually
practiced. For this is the true secret, and not such
violent methods as those employed by Mr. Rarey and
others. Do not, if possible, give your horse an oppor-
tunity of resisting your will successfully, which is usu-
ally a consequence of your demanding from him some-

General Principles, 117

thing either beyond his comprehension or capacity ; and
should restiveness once occur, go back immediately to
something the horse will do, and, if necessary, com-
mence the whole process de 7iovo.

It will be well to explain here why the perfectly fresh
and sensitive mouth of the young horse conveys the sen
sation of hardness to the hand of the rider, and why the
same mouth, after it has really been rendered more or
less callous by the application of cold iron to its delicate
organization, comes to be called soft.

When a horse is mounted for the first time, the equi-
librium of the whole machine is disturbed, which be-
comes especially remarkable in the neck. The young
horse bores on his bridle, and tries to acquire a new
point to lean on — a fifth leg, in fact ; he is hard-mouthed.
But when the animal has learned how to carry itself
and the rider, or acquired an artificial equilibrium
suited to the altered circumstances, then it no longer
seeks this support, and the mouth is called soft. That
such is really the case can be very satisfactorily proved.
A horse can be brought into perfect equilibrium under
the rider without any bridle whatever, merely by using
a cavesson instead ; and if a snaffle be then put into its
mouth, this will be found to be exceeding sensitive, and
it will require some days' riding before it will " take
the bit^^ as the phrase is.

From what has been just stated, it will be easy to un-
derstand how the seat of the rider comes to exercise so
great an influence on the horse's mouth that the same
horse will go light with one and heavy with another
rider. First of all, it is a question of equilibrium. One
rider assumes a seat that favors, another one that more
or less seriously impedes, the efforts of the horse to get
into balance — for horses always try to do this. But,
secondly, supposing the seat, so far as the distribution
of weight is concerned, to be identical, the unsteady

1 1 8 Bits and Bitting.

rider will seek a support for himself in the reins, and
the horse immediately bores against this, and becomes
a hard puller ; whilst the steady seat makes a light hand
and a soft mouth.

It is, in like manner, easy to understand why not
only individuals, but whole breeds of horses, should be
found naturally light or heavy in the hand, which is
owing mainly to the general framework being more or
less favorable to equilibrium in motion — mainly, but not
wholly, because the interior conformation of the mouth
has always a certain influence, and this is scarcely iden-
tical in any two horses, even as merely regards those
points that have a direct bearing on the working of the
bit; and, moreover, because temper and even sex have
also to do with it.*

It is abundantly evident, from the foregoing remarks,
that the question of bits and bitting cannot be solved
without reference to the whole theory of riding and
draught ; in fact, it forms a very important part of both,
which must serve as an apology for the contents of this
introductory chapter. Indeed we must go a step farther
in this direction, and call the reader's attention to an-
other item. What has been said on the subject of the
lever action of the neck will suffice to indicate that the
direction in which the pull of the reins is made to act
on the centre of motion, through the medium of the
head, must necessarily determine both the direction and
intensity of the lever action transmitted in succession to
the other parts of the animal's frame. It is in conse-
quence of this that by merely elevating or depressing
the hands, emplojnng a certain amount of pressure with
* It will be necessary to go into farther detail on this point in a sub-
sequent chapter. In the mean while, we cannot refrain from observ-
ing how absurd it is to attempt rigid uniformity in the patterns of bits
used by cavalry, or, as is not unfrequently done, continuing through a
long series of years the use of a bit originally destined for a very dif-
ferent kind of horse from that found in the ranks at the present day.

General Principles. 119

the rider's legs, and throwing his weight backward or
forward, that it becomes possible to make the horse
alter the conditions of his own equilibrium, by bringing
his hind legs more under him, or the contrary. In like
manner it is possible, supposing the pull to be horizon-
tal— which is, by the way, the normal direction for a
well-set-up horse for cavalry purposes, as we shall pres-
ently see — to concentrate the lever action on one of the
hind legs in preference to the other, by simply throwing
our weight slightly to the same side, which enables us
to fix, as it were, certain legs to the ground, or detain
them longer in contact with it, setting the others free,
and determining with accuracy the mode and the mo-
ment of their employment. Many horse-breakers do all
this by a sort of instinct. In fact, if they could not do
it, they would scarcely ever succeed in handling a horse ;
but there are very few uneducated riders who compre-
hend precisely the rationale of these processes, and are
capable of effecting them in all cases with certainty,
which is, however, indispensable to success in the hand-
ling of young horses, or retrieving the mistakes that have
been committed by others with older ones.

We may say, then, that the art of bitting and bridling
is a very useful and essential one, because it enables us
to avoid the infliction of pain, whilst it secures to us a
perfect control over the horse's movements. It consists
in enabling us to exercise the mechanical action of the
reins in the proper degree and the right direction, for
every horse and for ever}^ movement.

The influence of good and judicious bitting and bri-
dling on the breaklng-In and training of horses is incal-
culable, whilst ignorance on these points, and abuse of
these instruments, are a very frequent cause of restive-
ness, and of the ruin of young animals, especially of
highly-bred ones with their delicate organizations. A
coking race-horse may be set down pretty nearly with

I20 Bits a}?d Bilting.

certainty as one that has been mismanaged and abused
in this respect. It is scarcely credible the amount of
terror with which some horses regard the bit, and the
blind fury with which they take it between their teeth,
throw up their heads, and bolt in consequence.

Considering the great number of" unthinking " riders
and drivers that exist in all parts of the world, it seems
perfectly miraculous, when one looks at the frightful
instruments of torture placed, in the absurdest manner,
in their horses' mouths, and used in the most wonderful
ways, that so few accidents occur. It is only a proof
of the admirable tempers of our horses. The Irish ones
are frequently deficient in this respect, being still more
grossly abused. But still one sees every day, in broken-
kneed horses, lamentable evidence of the perversity and
ignorance with which horses are treated in this great
horse country. There is no use in mincing the matter :
this is, to a great extent, a consequence of ignorance
of the true principles of bitting, saddling and — riding ;
for a broken-kneed horse is an opprobrium to its
rider.

As regards cavalry, few things are so important as
good and careful bitting. The steadiness of a troop or
squadron in its evolutions, and especially in skirmish-
ing, charging and rallying, depends mainly on it. The
writer of this has on more than one occasion converted,
in the course of a few days and at a very moderate
expense, a body of this kind that had become almost
unserviceable from bad bitting into a model of steadi-
ness, the bolters and restive horses all disappearing as
if by magic. No doubt, in order to effect this, every
single horse's mouth must be measured, and fitted in the
manner to be explained hereafter. Three or four sizes
or patterns will not sufiice for even i6o or i8o horses,
much less for a whole regiment, although our Cavalry
Regulations lay it down as a rule that each regiment

Ge7ieral Principles, 121

should have " a^^it' bits with different and easy mouth-
pieces and curbs, etc."

Draught-horses are, on the whole, less absurdly bitted
than those used for the saddle in this country ; and the
huge bits one sees sometimes in the mouths of those de-
voted to purposes of show and pleasure, although ridic-
ulous enough from being so wholly out of proportion,
have their reins usually buckled into the cheeks, so as
to render the lever action of these wonderful specimens
of ironmongery perfectly nugatory, which is so far for-
tunate. It is, moreover, strange that it should be the
fashion to " bear up " carriage-horses to a state of bal-
ance which more nearly approaches the equilibrium of
the manege than anything else, whereas draught requires
the centre of gravity to be carried forward, and the
weight thrown somewhat more on the fore legs. And
having touched on this point, we may as well say a word
or two on the subject of the blinds attached to the bri-
dles of harness-horses. All of a sudden a movement
seems to have sprung up in favor of abolishing this
appendage, which is asserted to be both cruel and use-
less. Now, in fact, it is neither the one nor the other,
but, quite on the contrary, it has a very decided use,
and from rendering the management of horses easier, it
tends to save them from the infliction of punishment.
The horse's hind-quarters are the portion of his frame
most open to attack, and the animal's instinct renders it
consequently extremely jealous of every approach in this
direction, which it is prone to resent rashly by lashing
out with its heels, with or without real provocation. It
would be, no doubt, a great cruelty to deprive a horse,
by means of blinds, of the faculty of providing for his
own safety when this care was naturally thrown upon
him. But this is not the case with a draught-horse in
harness ; the driver is there to assume this charge ; and
the certain consequences of taking blinds off will be to
11

22 Bits and Bitting,

make a great number of horses kickers, and to cause
numerous accidents to occur from horses running away
to avoid some white apron or handkerchief or the like
that appears in their rear. Teams of artillery-horses
without blinds become in consequence unapproachable
in column by officers who have to gallop up and down
with orders ; many a leg has been broken in this way,
and many artilleries have introduced blinds in conse-
quence, and with immediate effect. Horses without
blinds are always for starting off before the driver has a
hold of the reins, and soon learn to kick at the least
motion of the whip.

But enough has now been said to prove the great
importance of well understanding the principles on
which bits and bridles should be applied and con-
structed, both as a means of ensuring to the rider and
driver perfect command over their horses, and also of
saving these most useful and docile animals from ill
treatment and unnecessary pain.

CHAPTER II.

THE NECK — THE HEAD — THE MOUTH — THE TONGUE —
CARRIAGE FEELING.

WE have spoken of the horse's neck as being a
lever, which of course, strictly speaking, sup-
poses it to form nearly a straight line, and to possess only
a very limited amount of flexibility, neither of w^hich
properties, in fact, perfectly belong to it.* But a well-
shaped neck, well clothed with firm muscles, possesses
both straightness and inflexibility sufficient to render it
possible to apply to it the theory of lever action with
perfect propriety. Such a neck will only deviate from
the straight line to any considerable amount near its
point of junction with the head, this latter also acting
as a lever, and imparting to the whole that graceful
curvature so pleasing to the eye even of the uninitiated
— which is, however, not merely a matter of taste,
being, in fact, an evidence of perfection of equilibrium
and power.

It is scarcely necessary to say that there are almost
infinite varieties of necks to be found among horses as
regards these two very important items of straightness
and inflexibility ; it will, however, suffice for our pres-

* The horse's back really forms a double curve, one being turned
upward, the other downward ; the mechanical action results in a
straight line forming the axis of the whole.

123

124

Bits and Bittiiig.

ent purpose to point out two extreme cases, the one of
form — the ewe-neck ; the other of want of stabiHty — the
long, straight, thin neck, scantily clothed with flabby
muscles. The annexed figure shows how the direction
of the pull of the reins is modified in each instance, and
how this in its turn changes the direction in which the
neck acts on the back. We see that with the exagge-
rated ewe-neck the lever action goes downward under
the withers immediately on to the fore legs ; with the

Fig. 6.

long, thin neck that bends throughout like a fishing-rod
(as also with all horses broken and bitted on Baucher's
principle), it goes upward through the withers into the
air, in both of these cases missing altogether the centre
of motion ; while the intermediate position, combined
with the requisite degree of stability, affords a pull in
the desired direction, and, coupled with the weight of
the rider, meets directly the action of the hind legs, the
source of all propelling power.

The Neck, the Head, etc. 125

Nor is this mere theory, for every one that has mounted
a great variety of horses, and paid even a moderate de-
gree of attention to their different styles of action, will
at once recognize here the true reason of the star-gazer
appearing to have his fore legs nailed to the ground by
the lightest pull on the rein, while the croup and the
hind legs are flung wildly about, no pressure of the
rider's leg being capable of steadying them and keeping
the brute straight, either at rest or in motion. Again,
who that ever rode one of those long, thin-necked, un-
stable, rainbow quadrupeds that are so a^Dt to dazzle
the eye of the uninitiated, can ever forget the slipperi-
ness of all its movements, and the painful sensation of
being mounted on a machine composed of gutta percha
and glass? — all of which, making due allowance for
the irritable tempers of such horses, is a necessary
consequence of the pull of the reins being in a wrong
direction.

Let us look at cavalry horses. The soldier has one
hand for the reins and the other for his weapon ; his
efficiency depends altogether on his being able to use
the latter with precision and rapidity ; and this is an
impossibility, unless, to use Sir Charles Napier's words,
"the steed watches the ^(\^q^ of the weapon" — that is
to say, follows the lightest movement of hand and heel
instantaneously, as it were intuitively. The Minister
of War of a certain German State once represented to
his sovereign that it would be necessary to give the
whole of the cavalry sabres of a new pattern, the ex-
isting ones being two hiches shorter than any others in
use in foreign services, which would put our troops to
great disadvantage, quoth his Excellency. " Then let
my cavalry soldiers get two inches nearer to their op-
ponents than has been hitherto the practice," replied
Serenissimus. It is just this — it is an affair of inches ;
and these inches are widened into yards when the horse
11 »

126 Bits and Bitting,

does not or cannot follow the reins instantaneously and
accurately.

We have already pointed out several disadvantages
of the mountain of pack that is built up on the shoul-
ders of some cavalry horses ; an additional one is, that
it changes the line of direction in which the pull of the
rein acts, so as to make it go right up into the sky,
and altogether miss both hind and fore legs, thus pla-
cing all horses, whatever the excellences or defects of
their organization may be, on the same dead level of
uncertainty and inaccuracy. It is not the weight alone
of "the epitome of a Jew's old-clothes shop" that is
so destructive, although this in itself is bad and ab-
surd enough ; what is still worse is the way in which
that weight is distributed, so as not only to render all
attempts at equilibrium impossible, but also to throw
the bridle-hand of the rider so high that he cannot use
any description of bit advantageously. A Cossack will
load his horse to almost the same pernicious extent
that most regular light cavalry men are compelled to
do, and still neither the speed, the agility nor the power
of endurance of the little animal is impaired in any-
thing like the same degree as happens with the troop-
horse ; the wxight is better distributed for all purposes.
—(Plate VI.)

No doubt it is scarcely possible to avoid some degree
of pack on the front part of the military saddle, but it
is precisely for this reason that it is so highly important
to give the head of the troop-horse a proper position,
which can only be maintained by ver}^ careful and ac-
curate bitting, after that of the neck has been attained
by a judicious system of riding and breaking-in ; and
still one is astonished to see the pack of the officer
built up into the same absurd form as that of the pri-
vate, although there is no necessity whatever for this
being done.

The Neck^ the Hcad^ etc. \2*J

The reader perceives, by these frequent and unavoid-
able digressions, how intimately the question of bits
and bitting is interwoven with the whole system of
breaking-in and riding horses, especially for military
purposes ; and he will see farther on the great import-
ance of this point, particularly when we come to dis-
cuss the immediate action of the bit on the interior of
the horse's mouth.

We have next to consider the animal's head in con-
nection with this question. Hitherto we have, for the
sake of greater convenience, always mentioned the neck
as the lever by which the rider controls the motion of
the whole animal; but a simple inspection shows that
the head is the lever by means of which we gain a
command over the neck, and its size, weight, the man-
ner in which it is set on to the latter, and other partic-
ulars, have each of them its own share of importance.
It is scarcely necessary to say that a very large, heavy
head renders it a matter of extreme difficulty to get the
horse into anything like equilibrium, and big-headed
horses will be therefore generally, although not always,
heavy in the hand ; but it by no means follows from
this that small heads confer of themselves the opposite
quality; in truth, more depends on the way in which
the head is set on to the neck, the make and pi >portions
of the latter, and the facility thereby afforded i« r assum-
ing a great variety of positions, than on the absolute
size of the head itself.

Generally speaking, all our British breeds huve well-
formed and well-proportioned heads. Irish horses,
however, have frequently large ones, and what is of
still greater importance, peculiarities of conformation,
which, in consequence of ignorance and injudicious
management, sometimes tend directly to produce rest-
iveness or other equally unpleasant results.

It will be well at this point to call attention to a very

128 Bits and Bitting.

simple mechanical principle connected with lever ac-
tion— namely, that the effect produced depends not
only on the absolute power applied, but also on the
direction in which this is done. For instance, consider-
ing the horse's head as a lever which is to act on the
neck and bring it toward the rider's hand, it is very
evident that if the former be so stretched out as to
form, as it were, a continuation of the latter, as we see
race-horses coming into the post, there is, in fact, no
lever action whatever. In the same manner, if we can
imagine the horse's chin to be brought under, so as to
touch his neck, there would be very little, if any, lever
action. This is greatest when the head is at a right
angle with the neck ; and the more it departs from this
line — either forward, when the animal pokes out its
nose, or to the rear, when, in consequence of severe
bitting or other causes to which we shall presently ad-
vert, it touches its breast with its chin — the less will be
the useful lever action on the neck.

In fact, we always see runaway horses assume either
the one or the other of these two relative positions of
the head and neck, the lever action of the head on the
neck, and of the latter on the centre of motion, being
in both cases reduced to a nullity, which deprives the
rider of all command over his horse ; for it cannot be
too often repeated that we can only master the horse
and obtain a perfect command over his movements by
getting the point on which his hind legs, the organs by
which he propels himself, act completely under our
control, which shows the absurdity of universal bits
and all such contrivances.

With the great majority of horses the physical con-
formation of the jaws opposes no obstacle to the head
assuming the most desirable position ; but there are
some, and sometimes very good ones in other respects,
where this does occur. Let us take, in the first place,

TJic Neck, the Ilead^ etc.

129

the depth of the jaw-bone, measured perpendicularly to
the forehead on a line passing through the eye ; this
dimension is sometimes so great in proportion that if
coupled with a coarse, fleshy, short neck, the angle of
the jaw coming in contact with the latter, a jam ensues
before the head can be brought round to the proper
angle. But this is perhaps a less frequent, and cer-
tainly a less serious, occurrence than another to which
we must now advert.

A horse may have a moderate-sized or even a small
head, and the depth of jaw alluded to above may be so

Fig. 7.

trifling as not to ofler the slightest impediment to the
former assuming any position that may be desired, but
the jaws may both converge inward^ instead of diverg-
ing slightly as they should ; consequently the space con-
tained between the two jaws is narrowed in, which pre-
vents the neck fitting into this cavity to the same extent
as it will in a perfectly well-shaped head. The angle
of flection in such narrow-jawed horses is very limited
indeed, and becomes a serious impediment to the break-
ing and bitting of the animal.

There is another case still worse than this, and not
unfrequently combined with it — in fact, the narrowness

I

130 Bits and Bitting.

of the jaws very frequently becomes its exciting cause.
Most persons conversant with horses must be aware
that certain glands lie just under the angles of the two
jaws, and run up in the direction of the ear. They are
the seat of the affection peculiar to young animals known
under the name of strangles. Now it is by no means
unfrequent, especially amongst the commoner kind of
horses, to find these glands large and flabby in their
textures. With well-bred and well-formed animals it is
often very difficult to find them at all under the skin.
Sometimes the abnormal size of these glands is evidently
constitutional, sometimes it is a consequence of disease —
strangles, for instance — and sometimes it arises wholly
from the pressure of the angles of the jaws, especially
when these lie too close together, and the rider or driver
has attempted to force a certain position, either by the
use of severe bits, or, what is still worse, a combination
of these with the bearing-rein in harness.

If such a state of things be overlooked or neglected,
very serious consequences may arise. The forced press-
ure of the jaw-bone on these glands is sometimes per-
fectly excruciating to the animal, and it has recourse, to
the great astonishment of its ignorant rider or driver, to
all sorts of expedients to get rid of the intolerable pain.
It will refuse its work, or run away, or throw itself
down, or rear up, or do anything or everything in its
desperation, and the brute on its back or on the coach-
box knows no other remedy for it than " to flog the sulk
out of him," whereas the whole thing is probably the
result of bad bitting and bridling.*

Many young horses, too, have been prematurely
blinded by undue pressure on the glands in question,
between which and the eye there is an intimate connect-

* Why should not corporal punishment be inflicted on those who
disgrace themselves and our common humanity by ill-treating ani-
mals? It would be the nearest possible approach to retributive jus-
tice, and much more effectual than fine or imprisonment.

The Neck, the Head, etc. 13 1

ion, both by the absorbent vessels and the nerves. We
sometimes find the glands affected on both sides, and
just as frequently only on one. The horse will, in this
case, exhibit what may be termed one-sided restiveness,
bending and cantering perfectly willingly on the one
hand, and refusing more or less obstinately on the other.
We can perfectly recollect the case of a remount where
both horse and rider, excellent tempered, willing crea-
tures, had been tortured for months, until casually pass-
ing by we saw from a distance of fifty yards, by the
shape of the horse's head, which was very prominent,
what the matter really was ; on inspection there was
found a regular necklace of swollen and highly sensitive
glands, especially on the one side.

All these peculiarities of formation miist be, therefore,
taken into account when we set about bitting or break-
ing-in horses, and many of those who take this little
book into their hands will be able to call to mind in-
stances that came within their own observation tending
to confirm most entirely what is here stated, and some
will, no doubt, have cause to regret that they did not
study this subject more accurately before they set about
horse-breaking.

We now pass on to the other parts of the exterior of
the horse's head that have to do with the matter in hand.
On referring to Plate I., exhibiting the internal frame-
work and the external contours of the horse, the reader
will perceive, on looking to the head, that tlie osseous
or bony parts of this organ are covered very unequally
by the soft parts — the muscles, skin, membranes, bul-
bous roots of the hair and beard, fat, etc. — in fact, what
are usually called the integuments ; the bone has, more-
over, sharp edges on the under surface of the lower jaw,
and a certain portion of the nose consists of cartilage, as
may be seen from the Plate already referred to. The
practical importance of all this depends on the different

132 Bits and Bitting.

degrees of sensibility to pressure tliat result from these
varieties of conformation ; for instance, the lower lip is
covered w^ith a very thick skin, underneath which lie
the roots of the beard, fat and membrane, and this struc-
ture is continued up into a certain depression under the
chin, known as the chin-groove, and called by the Ger-
mans the curb-groove i^kinnkettciigrube). Now the
portion of bone immediately beneath the thick and not
very sensitive skin of the chin-groove is flat and rounded
off in all directions, being, in fact, that point where the
two branches of the jaw begin to unite together ; and if
a flat curb-chain, for instance, which has a proper width,
act in this groove, a considerable amount of pressure
may be applied without causing any very unpleasant
sensation to the horse.

But if we pass our finger up out of this groove toward
the angle of the jaw, we immediately find that both the
character of the bone and that of the skin covering it
have become very much changed ; the former has got
sharp, hard edges, and the latter, being no longer fur-
nished with beard, will be found to be thin, and very
sensitive ; so that a very slight pressure of this thin skin
on the sharp edges of bone causes very considerable
pain. We shall presently see that no horse can be prop-
erly bitted unless these peculinrities be borne in mind
and due allowance made for them.

As to the cartilage of the nose, it is of importance to
recollect what we are pulling atwhen w^e put a cavesson
on a young horse ; the point at which the bone ceases
and the cartilage commences is especially sensitive and
liable to injury. A cavesson is a most admirable instru-
ment for those who know how to use it ; but, most fre-
quently, it is like putting a sharp razor in the hands of a
madman to let an ignorant or half-taught rider catch
hold of the lounge. Many a young horse has been spav-
ined by an angry drag at his nose with this very power-

The Nech^ the Head^ etc. 1 33

fill instrument — a good illustration, by the way, of the
lever action of the horse's neck on his hind legs.

The interior of the horse's mouth is the object that
next demands our attention, but there is only a certain
portion of it with which we have here to do. It is easy
to perceive, on looking at a horse's mouth in and out-
side, that the lower jaw consists of two flat, irregularly
triangular cheek-bones, whose anterior branches form
a groove or channel in which the animal's tongue lies,
enclosed toward its root between the two rows of molar
or grinder teeth, further forward by those portions of the
jaw that lie between the point where the molar teeth
cease and the incisors or cutting teeth commence, known
generally as the ba7's, and on the lower portion of which
the tusks are to be found in male animals ; the channel
being closed in front by the incisors, and the tongue thus
fenced from injury on all sides.

The bit, of whatever kind it may be, coming to be laid
somezvhere on the bars, and across the tongue, these are
the most important parts of the mouth to be acquainted
with. With the snaffle the portion of the bar exposed
to pressure varies according to the pull on the reins ;
with a regular bit furnished with a curb, this should not
be the case ; in fact, rational bitting demands that the
action of the bit should be confined exclusively to a cer-
tain point on each side, and it will be shown farther on
that the bit cannot act properly on any other point than
this one.

We have a rule of thumb in this country for deter-
mining the place of the bit — namely, at a certain height
above the tusk ; but as mares and even many geldings
have no tusks, this is a very clumsy method, which is
supplemented in practice by hanging the bit in the
horse's mouth nearly as high as the angles of the lips
will allow it to go. This is about equally wise as it
would be to put the lock of a gun somewhere near th«
12

134 ^/Vi' a7id Bitting.

vent — an Inch or two higher or lower does not matter
As far as the bit itself is concerned, half an inch, or even
a fidl inch, higher or lower, would not make much dif-
ference in its action ; but, as we shall presentl}^ see, the
curb has one fixed position in the chin-groove, and this
governs the whole arrangement.

There are three dimensions of the interior of the horse's
mouth which must be accurately ascertained before at-
tempting to fit him with a proper bit, in addition to cer-
tain details connected with the tongue. The first, and
a very important one, is tJie transversal width of the
mouthy from side to side, measured at the same height
as the chin-groove., and including the thickness of the
lips — that is to say, from the point a?, fig. ii, to the cor-
responding point at the oft^side.* This gives the width
of the mouth-piece, which must be made to fit exactly,
as, if too narrow, the lips are subject to injury and their
being displaced so as to cover the bars, thereby neutral-
izing the action of the whole instrument ; whereas, if too
wide, it slips from side to side and displaces what is
termed the port — the curved portion of the mouth-piece
intended to moderate the pressure on the tongue — from
its i^roper position : it also determines the length of the
curb. The second dimension is the width of the cha?i-
nel in which the tongue lies, or the distance between the
two bars internally, wdiich determines how much of the
mouth-piece may be allowed for the port ; the remainder
must be reserved for the action on the bars.

The third dimension is what we term the height of
the bars — that is to say, the distance between a straight
edge supposed to rest on the upper surface of the bars
at d^ fig. II, as above, and another straight edge placed
exactly parallel to it, and touching the undermost point
of the chin-groove — mathematically speaking, the tan-

* The proper mode of ascertaining all these dimensions accuratelj
will be stated farther on.

The Neck, the Head, etc. 135

gent to the cun-e formed by the groove. This latter
dimension — the height of the bars — is, perhaps, the most
important of all, because all the remaining dimensions
of the bit must be deduced from it.

The width of the mouth is, as may be supposed, a
very variable quantity, depending on the breed and size
of the horse. Nevertheless, Lieutenant-Colonel von
Oeynhausen,* who has had occasion to measure the
mouths of a very great number and variety of horses,
says,t that with the great majority of horses of the smaller
medium size, 15. i to 15.3 hands high, their dimension
amounts to 4 inches. With very small and very light
horses one finds occasionally 3! inches ; the great ma-
jority of good-sized saddle-horses, 15.3 to 16.2 hands,
have 4^ inches, and some very large ones go to 4^
inches ; while 5 inches is only to be found amongst very
heavy draught animals ; and on reducing these to Eng-
lish measures we have 4.148, 3.889, 4.407, 4.767 and
5.185 English inches.

Our own experience, which has been considerable,
though not to be mentioned in comparison with Von
Oeynhausen's, confirms this very accurately ; and on
referring to old pocket-books devoted to notices of this
kind, we find that, out of some 400 horses belonging to
certain squadrons of light cavalry, measured some eight
or nine years ago, the width of the mouth was for the
smaller ones exactly 4 English inches, and for nearly
the whole of the remainder 4.2 inches, one or two only
reaching 4.3 inches. A great number of bits were put
down for alteration as being a half to one inch too wide,
and some thirty or forty went to the heap of old iron,
as being utterly useless from their immense size. Some
ofiicers will, perhaps, smile at this as a piece of pedan-

* Of the Austrian army — perhaps the most learned man living in
the matter of horse-flesh, and the autiior of several admirable works,
t " Zaumungs Lehre," p. 19.

136 Bits a?ul Bitting,

try ; but if they had witnessed the results obtained, they
would probably adopt the same plan. As it is, let any
cavalry captain in the British service take the trouble
of ascertaining, which he may easily do, how many
bits in his troop are half an inch, a full inch, or per-
haps still more, too wide, he will probably then find
a clue to many little annoyances he meets with during
drill.

The width of the channel in which the tongue lies
always bears a certain proportion to the height of the
bar, measured as above described ; we must, therefore,
take this latter in the first instance.

Lieutenant-Colonel von Oeynhausen says that the
height of the bars is if inches* with the very great ma-
jority of horses, and that it is very unusual to find it
either more or less. The author has certainly never
found bars that exceeded 1.8 English inches in height,
but he has seen some that were less — perhaps about two
to three per cent, of the horses he has had to do with.
Now this is a very important dimension, because the
upper bar of the bit should never exceed the height of
the bar of the horse's mouth — why, shall be made clear
in another chapter; notwithstanding which, it is only
necessary to go into any saddler's or bit-maker's shop
to satisfy oneself that a very large proportion of bits,
even of those intended for saddle-horses, are constructed
in total defiance of this rule, and calculated for animals
that have much higher bars, wherever they are to be
found.

But if there is very great uniformity in the absolute
height of the bars, there is, on the other hand, a very
great diversity in their shape and texture, some being
flat-topped and broad — others, again, presenting a ridge-
like surface ; some also spongy, soft and comparatively
devoid of feeling, while others appear firmer, finer and
* Equal exactly tc 1.81 English inches.

The Neck, the Head, etc, 137

more sensitive — all this exercising an immense influ-
ence on the bitting.

The width of the channel for the tongue, or lingual
canal, as the anatomists would say, is pretty nearly
always three-fourths of the height of the bars ; and this
being very constantly 1.8 inches, the other will be found
to be about ij inches of our English measurement,
which gives us the dimension of the maximum zvidth
of the port of a bit, where there is one ; because, sup-
posing the mouthpiece to have exactly the proper width,
if the port be made w^ider than the lingual canal, its
corners will come on to the bars of the horse's mouth
and produce intolerable pain, wliich, once for all, is
wholly inconsistent with good bitting ; and this is pre-
cisel}' the reason why it is of so great importance that
the width of the bit should coincide so accuratel}'^ with
that of the horse's mouth ; as, if it be too wide, and a
port exists, every pull of the rein will be sure to bring
its angles into painful contact with the bars on the one
side or the other.

The tongue itself is what we have next to direct our
attention to. This organ will be found to vary very
much both in thickness and in texture. It some horses
it just fills its own canal neatl}', rising toward its axis
in a gentle curve, whose summit is two-tenths or three-
tenths of an inch above the level of the bars ; in others
it seems much too thick and fleshy for the interior of
the mouth, and projects in all directions. Now the
volume of the tongue is a matter of very great import-
ance, because the action of the mouthpiece is divided
between this organ and the bars of the mouth ; and the
great nicety in bitting is practically to determine for
each individual horse how much of the lever action is
to fall on the tongue and how much on the bars.

We started with the proposition that lightness or
heaviness in the rider's hand dependfe mainly on the
12*

138 Bits a7id Bitting,

degree of equilibrium that the horse may have attained ;
but the reader will perceive that v^'hat is called softness
or hardness of mouth must depend, to a certain extent,
on the dimensions of the bit corresponding accurately
with the interior conformation of this organ. The most
perfectly-adapted bit will not convert a raw remount at
once into a trained horse or give him a proper carriage
and feeling — all this is done gradually with the snaffle ;
but when the horse has once acquired the carriage and
the degree of feeling that may be required, then no
pains should be spared in bitting him correctly — other-
wise all the previous labor is lost.

And this brings us to a very difficult and very im-
portant point. Each style of riding, to use a common
expression — or everv particular kind of service that may
be demanded of a horse, to use a more correct one — •
demands a corresponding variety of carriage and degree
of feeling, and consequently of bitting. On the three
older continents we find the following styles predomi-
nant: School-riding, as a preparation for the circus or
for military purposes, and what may be called natural
riding. What we understand by this latter is not how
the farmer jogs to market with a sack of wheat behind
his saddle, but the methods of riding adopted and
transferred from generation to generation among those
nations or large communities who are compelled to live
on horseback, either in self-defence or to gain their
existence, or for both reasons. This is, in fact, un-
cultivated military equitation ; and the purely empirical
principles on which it is founded are such that they
readily accommodate themselves to the scientific prin-
ciples of school-riding, with which it, however, only
comes in contact in the east of Europe, if we except,
perhaps, our own Indian possessions and Algeria.

Cossacks, Circassians, Hungarians, Poles — these are
the European and Western Asian representatives of the

The Nech, the Hcad^ etc. 139

style of riding alluded to here. Thev furnish its best
and m('St easily-formed light cavalries, heavy cavalry
having been originally the parent, and subsequentlv the
pupil, of the school or manege. But in the west of
Europe this nursery for light cavalry has long ceased to
exist. Perhaps the latest remnants of it were the Bor-
der-riders on the Scotch and English marches. Indeed,
the few civilian riders that were to be found in France,
Germany, Italy, Belgium, Holland, etc., till within
comparativel}' few years, were riding-masters' pupils
of one kind or another ; and it M'as only in the British
Islands that a numerous class of natural riders was to
be found. The Continental riders have had, therefore,
all more or less of a military or school tvpe. There
existed until recently only one general style of riding,
saddling, bitting, carriage and feeling among them
varying, however, very much as to correctness in dif-
ferent countries. Of late years, no doubt, a great
change has taken place in this respect, and what is
called English ?'idi??g has been more or less success-
fully imitated or caricatured in various parts of the
Continent.

Now the English type of riding has been formed by
the national sports of racing and hunting, both of which
require vehement, straightforward riding in the first
instance, and onlv a certain amount of handiness or
dexterity in turning; and it is, therefore, neither desir-
able, nor indeed practicable, to give either the neck or
head of the horse anything like the same position that
other styles of riding admit of or require. Therefore the
system of bitting must be different to a certain extent.

In fact, whenever it is possible, the jockey prefers
riding his horse with a snaffle, and the best hunting-
riders seem to be of the same opinion ; and when they
do use a curbed bit, it is most generally either as a sort
of reser\'e for particular emergencies, or in combination

140 Bits and Bitting,

with a bridoon (using all four reins), by means of which
the action of the bit is very much weakened. There
are, however, a great number of racers and hunters
whose tempers, or desire " to go," require the perma-
nent use of a curbed bit, and hitting oft^the proper form
and size of this is sometimes a matter of great nicety ;
for the bit that will prevent bolting and enable the jock
to ride a waiting race may interfere with the horse's
starting freely, or " laying himself out when called
upon." No doubt the jockey that has a very close and
steady seat and places himself on the riglit part of his
horse's back, will be able to ride almost every liorse
with a snaffle, because, being independent of the reins
for his scat, his hand is light; and this is the secret of
snaffle-riding. Still, it is often a matter of convenience
or necessity to use a curbed bit, and it is therefore im-
portant even for the race-rider to know exactly on what
principle its action depends.

Again, with the hunting man, the bit that enables
him to hold a runaway may interfere with the horse in
jumping. If he be not a mere rein-and-stirrup rider,
he can no doubt get on best with a snaffle ; but many
a man does not like the labor of holding a pulling
horse, and therefore prefers a bit. The difficulty a
good rider that prefers the bit will have to contend with
is to avoid the getting too powerful a bit .^ ox the putting
a suitable one into a part of the horse's mouth where it
must act contrary to his intention. Well, what we
profess to show is, that light bits accuj-ately Jilted are
more to be relied upon than the most atrocious instru-
ments of torture ever invented, and of which but too
many are in daily use.

But we must, in justice to ourselves, say here, once
for all, that we know of nothing that can be done in the
way of bitting for the man that depends for his seat on
his reins — or on his stirrups, which comes to the same

The Ncck^ the Head^ etc. 141

thing. The rider with a really good, steady seat can
jump his horse with precisely the same bitting that
suits the school-rider or cavalry soldier, if he simply
take a very long hold of the curb-rein with his bridle
(left) hand, and use the right hand in front of it so long
as his horse requires being " kept straight," and then
the moment the horse rises to the leap, takes the latter
away, leaving the horse to jump altogether without
any feeling on the reins, which will ensure his landing
on all four feet instead of two only ; but this requires a
seat.* And it is precisely for this reason that it is ab-
surd to talk of cavalry and hunting riding being antago-
nistic. The latter, if well done, confers boldness and
vehemence in charging and a disregard for common
obstacles ; but it should not be overdone or caricatured,
for that would lead to bad skirmishing and slow rally-
ing after the charge, by means of which great eflbrts
of gallantry are frequently neutralized and converted
into disasters, of which it would be easy enough to cite
instances.

For the road-rider good and careful bitting must
always have an especial value, restiveness being but too
often the consequence of the contrary ; handiness and
perfect control being an essential to safety, and great
speed not being required, therefore the roadster not
only may but must be better " set up" and more finely
mouthed than the hunter. Here, too, the grand thing
is a seat independent of reins and stirrups, without
which the best bitting will be of little value.

What should the carriage of the cavalry horse be?
for this is what determines the bitting. It must favor the
short, sharp turnings and voltes of the school without
impeding the straightforward rush of the hunter ; there-

*This system has been practiced in Hanover for the cavalry with
great success, according to General von Dachenhausen, but we our-
selves used it many years since, and without being aware of this fact.

142 Bits and Bltti-Hg.

fore the adjustment of the weight and the bittinof must
be such as to enable the horse to pass from the one
style to the other, when required, with ease to itself
and the rider. The rule of the manege is, that the
frontal line of the head (forehead and nose) should be
perpendicular to the horizon, the neck being brought
up so that the mouth, and consequently the pull on the
reins, should be on a line with the horse's back, so as
to allow of the latter acting directly on the centre of
motion. There are, however, but few horses so per-
fectly formed in every respect as to be able to assume
this carriage and maintain it in all their faces. We
have already pointed out the obstacles likely to arise
from the conformation of the neck, head and throat,
and we may say that not one troop-horse in a thousand
is capable of being brought to this standard of carriage,
if it were necessary, which is by no means the case.
We must therefore take a lower one, or rather one
more universally applicable, and perfectly sufiicient for
the object in view. No better rule can perhaps be laid
down than that of Lieutenant-Colonel von Oeynhausen,
who says :* " I consider, as a general rule, that po-
sition of the head to be best with which the horse's
paces are clean andyr^e" (to be clean they must be
equable and their rhythm perfect; to be free they must
be made without apparent effort or marks of distress) ;
'"' which allows him to turn willingly and without an effort
or disturbance of his pace ; to diminish or increase this
without hesitation ; to rein back, preserving a proper
degree of feeling, and immediately to advance again
freely if called upon."

Now, although a star-gazer with a ewe-neck, or a

borer that can only go with his nose close to the ground,

are totally unfit for military purposes, w^e must take

average horses, and allow one to poke out his nose a

* " Zaumungs Lehre," p. 10.

The Neck^ the Head^ etc. 143

little more than another ; nor can we always help its
coiling up its head and neck like a snail so long as they
go clean and free — which is precisely what Baucher's
encapuchonne carriage of the head and neck does not
favor ; but the higher we get both head and neck with-
out sacrificing cleanness and freedom of pace the
better, if for no other reason than that there always
must be something in front of the military saddle which
keeps the bridle-hand at a certain distance above the
horse's withers, close down to which the civilian rider
can easily place it. Carriage is, however, not the result
of bitting alone ; it depends, as we have already shown
in Part I., on a judicious svstem of saddling, packing
and riding, the bitting forming "/<? couronnement de
Vedljice^^ without which the remainder is of compara-
tively little use to the soldier, because he must ride
altogether with one hand., and he requires his whole
body, from the hip upward, with the exception of this
one hand, for the use of his weapons.

Good bitting, saddling, packing and riding are what
render cavalry available and durable ; they secure effi-
ciency, and therefore economy ; of course they cannot en-
sure judicious handling of the arm, nor affect the morale
of the soldier beyond giving him a sense of security and
power, which is, however, very valuable.

The reader will perceive, from the digression into
which we have been led here, that the question of bit-
ting cannot be considered separately from those of dis-
tribution of weight, carriage and action ; and it was in
order to avoid erroneous impressions on this very point
that we have thought it best to defer up to this moment
all mention of those peculiarities of the interior construc-
tion of the horse's mouth which, taken together, consti-
tute, so far as this organ itself is concerned, what is
called a hard or a soft mouth.

There are two ways of expressing what a soft mouth

144 ^^^^ ^^^^^ Bilthig.

is ; we may either say this horse goes well on a light
bit — which may be mainly a consequence of good car-
riage, temper, etc. — or, we may say, a light bit will prob-
ably suit this horse best, because it has a thin tongue^
high and sharp bars^ a wide tongue-channel and Jine
lips. But, in truth, the relative thickness or thinness
of the tongue is the main point to be considered, be-
cause, as has been already pointed out, the height of the
bars is very nearly the same in all horses, and the width
of the tongue-channel always bears a certain proportion
to it. No doubt the bars have, in some instances, a flat
and in others a sharp or convex upper surface, which,
together with the greater or less fleshiness of the lips,
makes a great difference ; but in the end it comes to
this. Does the tongue fill up its channel merely to the
brim, projecting only a few lines over the surface of the
bars, and therefore permitting the mouth-piece to exert
a certain degree of pressure on the latter? And this we
would call a naturally soft mouth, so far as interior con-
formation goes.

A hard mouth, on the contrary, will be one in which
we find a thick, fleshy tongue, not only totally filling up
its channel, but protruding over it, and rising high above
the level of the bars, which makes the former appear
narrow and the latter low, whatever their real dimen-
sions may be ; and if to this be superadded a flat surface
to the bars and thick, fleshy lips, we may forthwith set
this down as a case in which an ordinary mouth-piece
will exert its pressure mainly on the tongue and lips,
conveying to the rider's hand the dull feeling of pulling
against lead.

As a general rule, well-bred horses have the first-
named conformation of mouth, and common brutes the
contrary one ; but it by no means follows from this that
the former are all light and the latter all heavy in the
hand ; for the most aristocratic animal of all, the Eng-

The Neck^ the Hcad^ etc. 145

Hsh race-horse, has generally a good tough mouth of its
own, because it is taught from earliest infancy to lean
on the bridle, and seek a fifth foot in the rider's hand ;
whereas, on the contrary, we often find a perfectly ple-
beian brute, with a tongue that overfills its mouth, and
everything else in proportion, not only extremely sensi-
tive to the action of the bit, but, in fact, totally averse to
its contact — that is to say, " behind the hand," because
it has miserable, flabby muscles, unstrung tendons and
weak hind quarters.*

All this tends to show that it requires a considerable
deal of judgment, practical knowledge of horses, and per-
fect understanding of what is required in each especial
case, to enal)le one to undertake the task of selecting
and fitting bits with any chance of success ; whereas it
is a matter that is most usually entrusted to certain
classes of individuals who possess no other qualification
than the habit of wearing green baize aprons or nether
garments of a very peculiar description — viz., saddlers
and grooms.

* A dishonest horse-dealer that really possesses talent will always
avoid showing you a horse with an incipient spavin or other defect
of the hind legs otherwise than on the lightest possible bridle: three-
fourths of these arising from "savage bitting."
13 K

CHAPTER III.

THE CAVESSON — SNAFFLE — NOSEBAND — TRAINING-
HALTEK RUNNING-REINS.

THE cavesson, not being a bit, is mentioned here
only because some riders are in the habit of com-
mencing the handHng of young horses with this instru-
ment, which, although most useful and admirable in the
hands of a really skillful person, is equally dangerous
and destructive in those of ignorant and brutal horse-
breakers. If a young horse be lounged, it may be well
to continue the use of the cavesson for a day or two after
the operation has ceased, putting in hand-reins for that
purpose, so that the animal may be gradually accus-
tomed to the snaffle ; but it is a great mistake to con-
tinue its use for any length of time in this way, because
the horse learns thereby to lean into the rider's hand,
which is what should be avoided from the very com-
mencement. When used for the above purpose, the ca-
vesson should have its nosepiece buckled just low enough
to rest on the point of the nose just above where the car-
tilage joins the bone, but particular care must be taken
to prevent the cheek-straps injuring the eyes, which they
are very liable to do.

Of all instruments employed in the handling, riding
or driving of horses, the common smooth snaffle is by far
the best and most generally useful ; it is that by means
146

The Cavcsson^ Sfiaffle^ etc. 147

of which the highest results can be obtained, wliilst, on
the other hand, less mischief can be done with it than
with any other. There are some few riders whose seat
is so firm and hand so delicate that they can venture on
putting a curb-bit at once into a horse's mouth, but these
are rare exceptions ; and although, in former times, it
was the custom to bit and curb the cavalry remount at
once and send it to its work, especially in war-time, this
system, which produced almost as many restive horses
as all other causes put together, has been finally aban-
doned everywhere, except amongst the Orientals, and
the greater part of the handling is now done on the
snaffle.

The great value of the snaffle is, that by its use the
horse acquires confidence and insight into the means by
which the rider proposes to direct its motions, and that
it willingly assumes a steady and regular feeling, the
action of the mouth-piece being gentle and capable of
gradation ; and, in consequence of its acting on nearly
the same part of the mouth as the curb-bit, it becomes a
much better preparative for the latter than the cavesson
can ever be, whilst it can never act in so violent a manner
as either the one or the other.

It is precisely for this reason that the simplest form of
snaffle — neither too long, too thin, nor too much curved,
and with only one joint in the middle — is the best; but
as there is no end of fincy and prejudice about various
kinds of snaffles, it will be perhaps well to see into the
real effect of some of those varieties of form and dimen-
sion that are so much relied on by the knowing ones. If
the snaffle mouth-piece were simpl}^ two straight pieces
of iron of equal thickness throughout, jointed together
in the middle, its whole pressure would, with most
horses, come to act on the tongue exclusively, and the
base of the mouth remaining untouched, there would be,
therefore, scarcely any action. To avoid this inconve-

148 Bits and Bitthig.

nience, it is usual to make each half of the mouth-piece
thicker toward the cheeks, and tapering oft' finer to the
joint connecting them, by which means a portion of the
pressure is transferred from the tongue to the bars ; and,
in addition to this, they may be slightly curved, which
has the same eftect. Let us suppose the length of such
a snaffle to be just sufficient to allow the cheek-rings to
come clear of the lips on either side, and we shall have
nearly the whole action of the instrument exerted in the
same direction as the pull on the reins — a matter of no
small importance, because it is the only true basis for
an understanding between the horse's mouth and the
rider's hand.

We may make our snaffle very thin in the centre, and
very thick on each side, but we scarcely gain anything
in power by so doing, because, although a greater amount
of action is transferred from the tongue to the bars, the
thick portion of the iron acting on the latter produces
very little impression ; this variety of form might, how-
ever, prove useful with a slight-built horse having a very
thick tongue.

Another plan is to leave the thickness of the iron un-
altered, but increase the curvature ; or to increase the
length of the whole snaffle, so that it projects an inch or
more at each side. Now either of these plans will, no
doubt, increase the painful action on the bars ; the latter
especially, much practiced by Irish horse-breakers, if
exaggerated, will convert the snaftie into an instrument
of torture ; but the result of this increased action is in a
wrong direction — it ceases to be a fore-and-aft pull, and
is converted into a pincer-like twitch on the lower jaw,
which becomes so painful that the horse tries to get the
mouth-piece on his teeth, which is usually resented by
sawing, restiveness being the most common result.

Some riders have recourse to a double-jointed snaffle,
others, again, to a double mouth-piece, the joints being

The Cavcsson^ Snaffle^ etc. 149

placed right and left of the centre ; but these two forms
produce the pincer-hke twitch, and are, therefore, to be
avoided, if possible.

There is one abomination that cannot be sufficiently
reprobated — namely, a snaffle twisted on one side and
plain on the other, the pretence for using it being, that
the horse is hard-mouthed on one side. Now it has been
already pointed out that this disinclination to turn to
one side is sometimes produced by a swollen gland
under the jaw, or by a narrowness of the jaws them-
selves ; and when anything of this kind is the cause, it
is evidently pure brutality to apply sheer force. But
many horses dislike turning — to the right, for instance — ■
where no local impediment of this kind exists ; and here
it will be found, that circling in trot on the right hand,
first of all very wide, and gradually narrowing in, the
rider's right hand directing the pull of its rein toward
the horse's left hind leg^ whilst his left liand keeps the
horse's head and neck tip to the proper position, is a
much more certain and also humane mode of attain-
ing the end for which ignorant riders employ the one-
sided twisted snaffle.

A snaffle twisted on both sides is a much less object-
ionable instrument, and may be safely used by a well-
tempered and judicious rider who has a firm seat ; it
should, however, be scarcely ever necessary to resort to
this or any of the above-mentioned methods of increas-
ing the painful action of what should be as nearly as
possible a painless instrument,* because there are other
and better means of attaining the same object.

Better means, because they are more durable in their
effects, although they may require more time in the first

* It cannot be too often repeated, that the first object to be attained
in handling horses is to gain their confidence, and to lead them by
d^gree5 to an understanding of the rider's wishes, which they wil/
always readily fulfill, if they are able.
13*

150 Bits and Bitting.

instance ; for, apart from all other considerations, there
is this great objection to all the contrivances referred to
here, that when you take them out of the horse's mouth
you find yourself at best just where you were before,
and still more likely not nearly so well oft', because the
animal's temper will have suffered.

In the great majority of cases, when a man finds that
his horse lies heavy in his hand with a plain, smooth
snaffle — in fact, when he cannot hold him — he looks out
immediately for something sharper — a twisted mouth-
piece, or some contrivance of the kind — and seldom
takes the trouble to examine how it is that the animal
contrives to set the cold iron at defiance. If he did so,
he would generally find that this is accomplished by get-
ting it out of its proper place on the bars, and shifting it
up to the thick part of the tongue, which the horse can
do only when there is nothing to prevent his opening
his mouth as wide as he pleases ; for, if he can do this,,
he can always set the rider at defiance. In former
times a noseband used to be employed, even with snaf-
fles, for the purpose of preventing this ; but the nose-
band has been very generally abandoned, except on
military bridles or harness, at least in this country.

The chief reason given for abolishing the noseband
was, that it was supposed to interfere with the horse's
breathing, especially during the long-continued gallops
of the hunting-field, etc. ; and it was on the same ac-
count considered to be, a fo7'tiori,, wholly unfit for racing
purposes. This was, perhaps, not a good reason for
rejecting it altogether during the first handling of young
horses, as it would have been easy to lay it aside after-
ward when they came to their held work ; but the truth
is, that the noseband was placed so high up above the
angles of the horse's mouth that it could not prevent
the animal opening its mouth and doing what it pleased
with the bit, unless it was buckled so tight as really to

The Cavcsson^ Snaffle,, etc. 151

interfere seriously with the respiration, even at the
more moderate pace of a trot or walk — besides other
imperfections, to which allusion shall be made lower
down. This was long a stumbling-block in the way of
the rational treatment of colts and fillies, and was prob-
ably what led indirectly to the invention of various in-
struments of torture known by the name of " capital
mouthpieces ;" but this difficulty has been at length got
over, and we are in possession of a contrivance which
enables us to effect what the old-fashioned noseband
never could.

This is the training-halter (Reithalfter), invented, we
believe, by Lieutenant-Colonel von Oeynhausen, of the
Austrian cavalry, or at least introduced by him into the
Central School of Equitation at Vienna several years
since. To understand perfectly the great value of this
halter, it is necessary to allude to one more disadvan-
tage of the old-fashioned noseband, in addition to those
already enumerated ; which was, that when the reins of
the snaffle came to be shortened, the cheekpieces of the
headstall bulged out to the right and left up to the point
at which they were held fast by the noseband, and
being stopped there, a certain proportion of the pull on
the reins was transferred from the mouthpiece to the
noseband, where it, of course, was wholly inoperative ;
so that this latter, instead of promoting the action of
the former, actually interfered with it, making the horse
lean still more on the hand than hitherto.

It is as well to mention here that the method now
introduced of passing snaffles, used for draught-horses,
through rings at the lower end of the cheekpieces, in-
stead of buckling them on directly as heretofore, is
grounded on the same principle — that of making the
action of the mouthpiece altogether independent of the
noseband.

But these ring-snaffles do not, of course, prevent the

152 Bits and Bitting,

horse opening its month too wide, nor can the old-
fashioned noseband do this effectually either ; the train-
ing-halter does so most eflRciently and in the simplest
manner. It consists of t\\ o cheek-straps whose upper
ends are made fast in the buckles of the snaffle-head-
stall.* These cheek-straps support, by means of two
rings, a noseband composed of three pieces: i. The
noseband proper ; 2. A strap about 7 inches long, sewed
into the ring on the off side ; and 3. A shorter strap, 2
to 3 inches long, and terminated by a buckle, which is
sewed into the ring on the nearside. The cheek-straps
are buckled into the headstall outside, so that the nose-
band comes to hang below the rings of the snaffle, and
the two back straps are then buckled together, so that
the longer one comes to lie in the chin-groove, as a curb
would with a bit, leaving, of course, a sufficient play to
the horse's under jaw without allowing the animal to
open it beyond a certain distance, and thus securing
perfect independence to the mouthpiece, and permitting
of its acting in the proper place and direction.

It must, however, be well understood that this halter
is not intended to be permanently employed ; its great
value is, that it enables us, by preventing the young
horse from escaping the action of a light snaffle mouth-
piece to avoid the necessity for employing sharp ones ;
in fact, all violent measures are thereby rendered un-
necessary during the period of training or handling ;
and when this is once over, we may lay aside our
halter, and either use the plain snaffle or put a curbed
bit into the animal's mouth, which has been by this very
means perfectly prepared for either ; and that this is a
real advantage we must admit. t

*It is, of course, necessary for this purpose that there should be a
bcckle on each side.

tit is but justice to confess that the writer of these lines having
become acquainted with the training-halter when he was an old rider,
was at first incredulous as to its value, but he soon became a convert.

I

The Cavcsson. Sna^c^ etc. 153

ft is scarcely necessary to remark that the snaffle
should neither be pulled up too high in the horse's
mouth, nor suffered to hang down so low as to interfere
with the tusks or front teeth ; its proper place will be
about one-fourth of an inch below the angle of the
mouth ; and in this position a plain, smooth mouth-
piece, if aided in its action by the training-halter, will
be found to answer every purpose and afford the best
possible means of mouthing young animals. Training
race-horses is so distinct and j^eculiar a branch of riding
that it seems almost presumptuous to ot^er even a sug-
gestion on the subject ; but we are quite certain that
the halter here described would be of great value to
trainers, saving them much trouble, and eventually
diminishing the number of bolters and difficult starters
very considerably, and thus giving many a horse a fairer
chance than he would otherwise have. Of course it is
not meant that the halter should be used otherwise
than during the first period of handling ; in actual
running it would interfere too much with the animal's
respiration.

The great value of being able to keep the horse's
head in a proper position has been frequently dwelt
upon in these pages. It is a matter with which almost
every rider is acquainted, and the number of martingals,
running-reins and other contrivances invented especially
to attain this object furnish an evidence of its great de-
sirableness. Some of these are intended to act on the
horse's nose, and are, therefore, nearly worthless ; others
again are fixed, and consequently more or less danger-
ous, besides requiring frequent alterations of buckles, etc.,
to make them suit ; a third class act on the reins, and,
interfering with the direction in which the pull on the
latter is exercised, are wholly inadmissible ; some few
act directly on the bit or snaffle. To be really efficient,
safe and applicable under all circumstances, the run-

•54 Bits and Bitting.

ning-rein or martingal should act directly on the snaffle
or bridoon itself,* be wholly independent of the reins,
and afford a facility for adjusting its action, or altoge-
ther putting an end to it, without altering either buckle
or strap, or even halting the horse if in motion.

As a general rule, when a horse has been once prop-
erly broken in and bitted, it should not require any con-
trivances of the sort : its use being continued after a
certain period is an evidence of something being wrong.
Sometimes this is incapable of remedy, being a conse-
quence of some peculiarity in the animal's build, and
then there is no help for it ; but a good running-rein,
possessing the qualities mentioned above, affords very
frequently most valuable aid in the first handling, and
will, if judiciously used, save the rider a great deal of
trouble, the horse an equal quantity of ill-usage, and,
finally, simplify all questions of bits and bitting in a won-
derful manner.

The best of all these contrivances hitherto invented
is perhaps that known under the name of Seeger's run-
ning-reins (Schleif-Ziigel), being perfectly simple, safe
and applicable to all styles of riding. M. Seeger, the
justly celebrated riding-master at Berlin, and undoubt-
edly at the head of his profession in Europe, first brought
it forward. It consists of three distinct pieces, the chin-
strap, the running-rein and the martingal. The chin-
strap consists of a leather curb furnished at each end
with a small buckle and strap, by means of which it is
attached to the cheek-rings of the snaflSe or bridoon, the
entire length, including the buckles, to be 6 inches ;
these .atter, when covered with leather, just wide enough
to admit a strap 4^ inches wide, and 2\ long, project-
ing over the buckle, behind which it is sewed on to the
body of the curb. This curb carries a rounded strap in

* It is both useless and dangerous to interfere with the action of
the bit by means of such contrivances.

The Cavesson^ Snaffle^ etc. 155

rear, supporting an ivory ring which may have an inter-
nal diameter of somewhat more than one inch (say li),
the external one being if, leaving, therefore, the thick-
ness of the ivory about \ an inch.

The running-rein is in one straight piece, Si feet long
from the buckle to the point, toward \vhich latter it
tapers off somewhat, its width being otherwise that of a
common bit-rein, -f^ of an inch. An 18-inch strap of
the same width is sewed on behind the buckle and
pierced with five or six holes. The martingal has the
same contrivance, as usual, of a buckle for forming a
loop through which to draw the girths ; but the other
end of the strap (inch wide), instead of being split into
two narrow ones, each carrying its own ring, is left of
its full width, and carries one ivory ring of li inches in-
ternal diameter and 3^ external, leaving, therefore, f of
an inch for the thickness of the ivory. The usual
length of the martingal from the ring to the buckle is
3^ to 4 feet, the latter affording scope for adjustment;
and there is, of course, a neck-strap for carrying the
martingal, which is too well known to need descrip-
tion.

Let us now suppose the horse to be saddled and bri-
dled with a plain snaffle, the first step will be to buckle
the chin-strap into the rings of the mouth-piece, the
martingale having been previously put on in the usual
manner, and its length so adjusted that the large ring it
carries may just reach the level of the joints of the
shoulders. The next step will be to buckle one end of
the running-rein into a D ring attached for that purpose
to the pommel of the saddle on the near side ; the other
end of this rein is then carried forward throuo^h the rinsr
of the martingal (from rear to front), from thence
through the ring of tlie chin-strap from left to right,
and back again through the martingal ring (from front
to rear), from whence it goes to the rider's right hand.

156 Bits and Bitting,

It is evident that a pull on this running-rein will act
directly on the mouth-piece, drawing it back and some-
what downward toward the horse's breast-bone ; the
great value of the whole arrangement being, that by
taking the running-rein and right snaffle-rein into the
right hand, and the other snaffle-rein into the left ditto,
we can place the horse's head in any position we desire,
and get a pull on the horse's mouth either horizontally
upward or downward as may seem expedient.*

The training-halter offers no obstacle to the employ-
ment of this running-rein ; indeed they may be very
advantageously used in combination, and afford a most
perfect command over the horse's head without the
slightest approach to violence, and by slackening the
end of the running-rein held in the right hand, its
action may be at once put an end to, unlike all other
contrivances of this nature, which are too apt to get
hitched.

The use of Seeger's running-rein for race-horses is
perfectly unobjectionable. It gives the rider an im-
mense power over his horse, which may be used mo-
mentarily, to check an attempt to bolt, for instance,
and immediately relaxed, or it may be kept constantly
in moderate action — for instance, with a horse inclined
to throw up his head too high — and all this without in-
terfering with his running ; on the contrary, by using
this rein one may dispense with sharp snaffles or curbed
bits w^hich so frequently have that effect. Seeger him-
self, however, thinks it unsuited to racing or hunting
purposes.

But it is chiefly in the handling of young animals,
whether for the saddle or draught, that these contriv-
ances are valuable, because they enable us to attain our

* The advantage as compared with other running-reins is, that the
position of the horse's head depends on the length of rein grasped,
and not on the force applied.

The Cavcsson, S7iaffle, etc.

^57

objects gradually and noiselessly, as it were, although
with perfect certainty; above all, they afford us the
means of avoiding all unnecessary violence, or any ap-
proach to ill treatment.
14

CHAPTER IV.

THE LEVER — THE BIT AND CURB — BITTING — THB,
BRIDLE.

WITH a phiin, smooth snaffle there is no question
of lever action ; the amount of power appHed to
the reins is conveyed unaltered in quantity to the ani-
mal's mouth ; to use a scientific expression, there is
none of that mechanical advantage obtained which a
mechanical power alone is capable of conferring. But
if we combine Seeger's running-rein, which acts on the
principle of a movable pulley, a certain amount of
power applied to that rein will produce double the effect
on the mouth that it would if applied to the snaffle-rein
alone.

A still greater amount, however, of mechanical ad-
vantage may be obtained by means of a lever ; and a
bit. furnished with a curb of a proper length, acts as
such. There are, however, several kinds of levers, and
it will depend altogether on the manner in which the
bit and curb are arranged whether we obtain a lever
action that is favorable to us or quite the contrary ; it is
therefore necessary to say a word or two on the princi-
ples of lever action.

In the first order of levers the power is applied at
one end, the weight being placed at the other, and the
fulcrum or prop between the two, dividing thus the
158

The Lever ^ the Bit and Curh^ etc. 150

lever into two arms, a longer and a shorter one. The
mechanical advantage obtained is proportionate to the
relative length of these two arms. Thus, \i P F., fig. 8
(«), be equal twice W F^ a power equal i applied at
P will counterbalance a weight equal 2 applied at W\
but, as regards our purpose, it is more especially neces-
sary to observe that the power and the weight move in

\ St order ^ Ol Z jW

2d order t ^ y^ F

opposite directions, or rotate round the fulcrum or prop,
as is shown by the direction of the arrows. Applying
this to a bit, the bars of which represent the lever, there
can be no question as to where the power is applied,
being the lower ring to wliich the rein is attached, noi
as to the direction in which it is intended to act, being
toward the rider's hand ; and if a bit act as a lever of
the first order, the fulcrum or prop must be represented
by the bars of the horse's mouth on which the mouth-
piece acts, and the pressure of the curb on the chin
\vould necessarily represent the weight to be raised.
But it has been shown tliat, in levers of the first order,
the power and weight move in opposite directions in
their rotation about the prop ; in this case, therefore,
the horse's chin, in consequence of the pressure exer-
cised by the curb, should move forward — that is to say,
away from the rider's hand ; and the greater the lever-
power of the bit and the stronger the pull on the rein,
so much the more would the horse be induced to stick
out his nose — an occurrence that is by no meatis infre-
quent, and at which some riders and drivers are very
much astonished.

Now, in fact, there is no weight to be raised in the

l6o Bits and Bitting.

purely mechanical sense of the expression — it is a ques-
tion of the infliction of a certain amount of pain from
which the horse shrinks ; and if the curb act more
painfully than the mouthpiece, in consequence of its
construction or position, we obtain the action of a lever
of the first order, which we should never desire. Some
people are indeed regardless of the amount of pain they
inflict on a horse, and go on increasing this painful
action in both directions, without, of course, obtaining
any real advantage, which is precisely what we would
desire to see put a stop to ; and in order to this let us
examine into the action of another kind of lever.

In a lever of the second order the power and prop
act or are placed at the opposite extremities of the lever,
the weight being between the two ; the mechanical ad-
vantage is proportioned to the relative distances of the
power and weight from the prop. For instance, if P F"^
fig. 8 ((5), be equal three, and W F equal one, these
numbers will express the relative amount of power
gained ; and it is to be observed that the power and the
weight move in the same direction in rotatmg round the
fulcrum. This is what we want for bitting ; the weight
in this case is represented by the pressure on the bars
of the mouth ; the curb acting thus merely as a fulcrum,
the horse's head follows immediately the pressure on
the bar in the direction of the rider's hand.

It is very evident that the direction in which the bit
acts depending altogether on the relative amount of
painful pressure exercised by the bit and the curb, the
horse's head will follow the rider's hand, even though
the curb lacerate his chin, if only a greater amount of
torture be applied to the bars of his mouth, the poor
animal being left to deduce from the balance of pain
what the rider's will may be. This is the system of
bitting employed by the Arabs and other Orientals at
the present day ; our Crusader forefathers borrowed it

The Lcver^ the Bit and Curb, etc.

i6i

from theirs, and, strange to say, it is still more or less
practiced among us.

It is, however, quite possible to economize for our-
selves all this surplus ingenuity in devising instruments
of torture, and to spare our horses the infliction of it,
merely by adjusting our bits altogether on the principle
of a lever of the second order — that is to say, by con-
verting the curb into a simple prop or fulcrum for the
lever action on the bars of the mouth, which may be
effected by rendering it perfectly painless, so that then
the small amount of pressure exercised on the bars, act-
ing in the proper direction, and not being counteracted
elsewhere, is the sum total of pain it becomes necessary
to inflict, and even this may be reduced to a minimum.

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A

0<\

^ 3-2=1

»2

^a

B

Fig. 9.

The adjoining fig. 9 shows that, supposing a power
equal to 5 to be applied to the reins, it may, in con-
sequence of various arrangements of the mouthpiece
and curb, be made to exercise an amount of painful
pressure as at A, where 3 parts act on the curb and
only 2 on the mouth, which will make the horse bore
into the hand ; or as at B, where 3 parts act on the
mouth and only 2 on the curb, so that i really remains
available. Whereas, by reducing the painful action of
the curb to o, as at C, we find that the whole amount
of action may be applied to the mouth, and therefore
itself reduced to 2.

Here we have a key to the whole theory and practice
U* L

1 62

Bits and Bitting,

of bitting, and there is no difficulty in understanding
that its immediate consequence will be to render bits
of small dimensions equally efficient and much more
certain and reliable in their action than the monstrous
pieces of ironmongery usually manufactured and sold
ever can be ; and we now proceed to enter into further
details.

The first question that naturally presents itself is, the
absolute length of the lever — that is to say, of the upper
and lower bars of the bit taken together ; the next, that
of their relative proportions to each other. Before going
into the consideration of these, it will be well to clear up
one or two preliminary matters, merely premising what
is self-evident on inspection — namely, that a bit may be
regarded as a pair of levers connected together by the
mouthpiece. At first sight this might lead to the con-
clusion that the centre of the rivet on each side is always
the point from which the length of the upper and lower
bars is to be measured. This is, however, only true for
those forms of mouthpiece which consist of a port and
two lateral straight portions ; but if the whole mouth-
piece form one curve, the line of bearing — that is to say,
the line connecting the two points of the mouthpiece

Lm.^.

^faring

Fig. 10.

which rest on the bars of the horse's mouth — does not
coincide with the axis of the bit passing through the
centre of the two rivets, which must be taken into ac-

The Lcvc?'^ the Bit and Ciirh^ etc, 163

count In estimating the relative lengths of the upper and
lower bars of the bit. — See fig, 10.

The measure for the length of the upper bar of the
bit, taken from the "line of bearing" to the point at
which the curb-hook acts, is the height of the bars of
the horse's mouth, which, as has been shown in a pre-
vious chapter, is pretty nearly a constant quantity —
namely, i^ English inches, decreasing with very small
horses and ponies to i-j^; therefore, rejecting too great
nicety, we may say that i| inches is the proper length
for the upper bar — very seldom less, and hardly ever
more.

It would be very easy to demonstrate mathematically
why these two dimensions should always correspond,
but we prefer the simpler and more obvious way of
showing what the consequences of a departure from the
rule must necessarily be.

If one puts a bit into a horse's mouth without attach-
ing a curb to it^ when the reins are drawn the bit turns
right round, and its bars or branches come to lie in the
same line as the reins. There is no lever action what-
ever, because there is no prop, and a snaffle or bridoon
would, on account of their centre joint, be much more
efficient. The same thing, too, will happen if the curb
be very loose : the bit is then said to " fall through " —
in fact, it is nearly useless. The opposite fault to " fall-
ing through " is when the bit " stands stift'" without any
play, the slightest pull on the reins causing the horse
great pain, and, most probably, just in the wrong place
— that is to say, externally ; for this stiffness or rigidity
of the bit is very often produced by a tight curb, and
therefore the horse, instead of following the rider's
hand, pokes against it. Good bitting will be equally
removed from stiffness and falling through : it lies
bet\veen these two extremes.

7'he length of the upper bar of the bit will, however,

64

Bits and Bitthig,

of itself C2iuse this Instrument either to stand stiff or to
fall through, if it exceed or come short of the heig^ht of
the bars of the mouth, as is shown in fig. ii, where d e
represents this latter dimension, d b an upper bar pre-
cisely equal, d c one of only half the same length, and
d a one double the same. When a pull of the rein acts
aty on the lower bar, the curb will be drawn closer to
the chin, and the mouthpiece to the interior of that
organ ; and supposing the amount of this " closing up "
to be equal in all three instances, the bit with a long
upper bar, d a^ will assume the position a' df^. It
will be stiffs and the curb acting up-jcai'd^ in the direc-
tion e «', will press on the sensitive part of the jaw.
Moreover, there will be no lever action, the two arms
of the lever being equal ; the horse will, therefore, bore
in the rider's hand. On the other hand, the bit with the
short upper bar d c, equal half d e^ will assume the
position c' d f^ — that is, it will fall throiigh. The
.".urb will, no doubt, remain in the chin-groove, and act

forward in the direction e c\ but forming a very acute
angle with the branches of the bit itself, will have

The Lever^ the Bit and Curh^ etc. 165

scarcely any value as a prop. The lever action, how-
ever, will be very great, the lower branch,yc/, being to
the upper one, d c, in the proportion of 4 to i. In fact,
it will be too great, and, therefore reduces the prop to a
nullity.

The intermediate upper bar, d 3, equal d e^ will
assume the position b' df^ ; it will neither be stiff nor
fall through : the curb will remain in the chin-groove,
acting obliquely forward in the line e b\ and will afford
a sufficient prop or support ; and the lower branch of
the lever, y of, being in the proportion of 2 to i to the
upper one, d 3, there will be sufficient lever action.

It will be now easy to understand how it comes that
people, in order to prevent a bit with a very short
upper bar falling through, are driven to using a very
tight curb, the result of which is, that the whole action
is transplanted from the interior of the mouth to the
chin ; as also that, in order to prevent one with a
very long upper bar standing stiff, they use a very
loose curb, which has the effect of making the bit f\ill
through ; and this — what is very common, nay, almost
invariable, in this country — an immensely long bit — is
pulled up as high as it will go into the horse's mouth,
and then a loose curb attached, and this great piece of
ironmongery of course not only falls through, but acts
nearly altogether on the exterior of the horse's jaw ;
whereas a much smaller and lighter bit, if adapted to
the mouth, would be much more efficient.

Some portion of the objection to the long upper bar
referred to above — namely, its affording no lever action
— may be remedied by making the lower bar propor-
tionably longer ; and this is precisely what the iron-
mongers do, and, moreover, are encouraged to do by
ignorant buyers. As has been already shown above
with reference to fig. 9, we are thereby driven to use
much severer, that is, more painful, bits than are really

'66

Bits mid Bitting.

necessary ; besides which, there is another reason why
we cannot go beyond a certain length with the lower
bar. This is on account of the angle at which the rein
acts on the latter.

We have already pointed out how much depends on
the angle at which the power is applied to a lever, and
that a riofht angfle is the most favorable one for this
purpose, which may be shown in a manner perfectly
independent of theory. If the bit, fig. 12, were pulled
in the direction c, it would evi-
dently have no other effect than
to pull it downward and out
of the horse's mouth, if the
headpiece of the bridle did not
prevent this taking place ; and
if the pull were made in the
direction b^ it would only lift
the bit up till the angles of the
mouth stopped it. In neither
case would there be the slight-
est lever action ; and the nearer
any other direction, g or //, ap-
proached these perfectly inop-
erative ones, b or c, the less
would be its value ; and it is
i2.-Angle formed by therefore e^'ident that the direc-
rein with bit tion a, which is equally remote

from both, must be the most
efficient — which is, however, precisely the right angle.
Now a very long lower bar, or a very low carriage
of the horse's head, a la Baucher, or a very high pack
in the front of the saddle,* will always have the effect
of bringing the rein to act on the bit at an unfavorable
angle ; and when we come to look at the bits that served
as models for old equestrian statues, we find that the im-
* See Plates VI. and VII., top figures.

»e

Fi!

The Lever, the Bit and Curb, etc, 167

mense long lower bars of these were bent backward so
as to form an angle with the upper bars for the purpose
of securing the action of the rein at a right angle, or
nearly so — which, however, did not and could not an-
swer the purpose intended. If the inventors of these
frightful bits had had any real knowledge of the laws
of mechanics and the application of lever power, they
v^ould have found that the same amount of useful action
would have been much more certainly obtained by a
much shorter lower bar, without incurring the very
serious disadvantage of lifting the bit, as it were, in the
mouth, which always must have the effect of causing
the curb to mount up out of the chin-groove, and there-
fore produce conflicting impressions, tending to neu-
tralize one another and puzzle the horse. Moreover,
the longer the 'ower bar the greater will be the space
through whici the ridsr's hand has to move in order to
produce a %v ^n amount of action. It will be therefore
slower, altbc;igh more powerful, and consequently more
unequal, rendering; it very difficult for the majority of
riders to hit off' exactly the precise amount of pull re-
quired.

Havi*rg thus arrived at the conclusion that the abso-
lute lergth of the lower bar should be diminished as
much as possible, and also laid it down as a rule that a
length of if inches is in all cases sufficient for that of
the upper one, it i'» not difficult to ascertain what the
relative proportior/ of the two should be, which would,
of course, give ».«. ^he absolute length of the former.
And here we er.rr^ Ater the only useful general rule that
bit-makers in 5j-' ri ral seem to be acquainted with —
namely, that thr Triver bar should be twice as long as
the upper one, f /hich, increasing the lever action in the
proportion of three to one, should be under all circum-
stances ample. But the bit-makers, although adher-
ing to this proportion, but too frequently make the

1 68 Bits and Bittincr.

ii

lower bar inordinately long, because they have no
standard of length for the upper one ; whereas, if we
adhere to the rule laid down above of i| inches for the
latter dimension, we have 3^ inches for the former
one, both measured from the line of bearing (see fig.
10), and 5^ inches for the entire length of the bit
measured from the point at which the curb-hook acts
above to that where the lower ring acts below (see
fig. 12). This will be the maximum required, and
will be found to suffice in all cases ; with very small
horses or large ponies the upper bar will have to be
reduced to \\ inches, the lower one to 3 inches, leav-
ing the total equal \\ inches, which will be about the
minimum.

Some authorities, among these Von Weyrother, re-
commended the measured width of the mouth to be
taken as a rule for tlie length of the lower bar ; this
varies, as we have already shown, from 3^^, 4! to 5^^
inches, and would be, therefore, somewhat more than
the rule given above ; but Von Oeynhausen adheres to
this latter, and we are convinced that he is perfectly
justified in so doing, because we liave it in our power,
by means of the mouthpiece, to efiect the nicest adjust-
ment that can be desired, and there is a much better
chance of having the proper proportions adhered to by
the bit-makers if we give them 07ie or two fixed quanti-
ties instead of a number of variable ones.

Next to the dimensions of the bars of the bit, the most
important point to be considered is the curb ; or rather,
the position of the bit in the horse's mouth, taken in
conjunction with the line of the curb, is what determines
in the first instance the height of the upper bar, and
consequently that of the lower one. The curb ??ittst
lie in the curb-groove^ without a?iy tendeiicy to mount
up out of it on to the sharp bones of the lower jaw —
otherwise, as we have seen, it ceases to be a painless

The Lcvei'^ the Bit and Curb^ etc. 169

fulcrum, and renders the best-constructed bit uncertain,
or even still worse, in its action. (See fig. 11.)

The only certain way of attaining this perfect pain-
lessness of the curb, on which so much depends, is — sup-
posing, of course, this latter to be properly constructed
and of the requisite dimensions — hy f lacing the Jiioztth-
picce on that part of the bars exactly opposite to the
chin-groove; it is only in this position that we have the
right-handed triangle, e d b^ shown in fig. 11. But there
is another reason for this : we find here the portion of
the bar of the horse's mouth best suited for the action
of the mouth-piece — that space that intervenes between
the grinders and the tusks, where these exist. With
respect to the latter, it is necessary to mention that there
is great irregularity as to their position in the mouth,
some horses having them relatively higher, others
lower ; nor do the tusks of the upper jaw always corre-
spond with those of the lower one, and mares have very
frequently no tusks whatever ; it is, therefore, quite
impossible to determine the proper place for the mouth-
piece w^ith reference to these teeth, although even the
cavalry regulations continue to do so : the chin-groove,
in consequence of its relation to the action of the curb,
is the essential point to be considered.

Almost all the defects and absurdities of bits and bit-
ting may be traced to ignorance of, or inattention to, this
v^ery simple rule. A man puts a bit into his horse's
mouth — let us suppose that it is a well-proportioned one
in every respect ; he fixes it at the prescribed " inch
above the lower tusk" if he be a soldier, or draws it up
into the angle of the lips if he be a civilian : he may just
happen to hit off the right place, and if so, even an ill-
shaped bit will work tolerably ; he is content with his
work, and thinks he has mastered the difficulty. But
in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred the mouthpiece
lies higher than it should ; and if, in addition to this,

15

170 Bits a fid Bitting.

the upper part of the bit be, as it so frequently is, a
quarter of an inch too long, then the curb mounts up
out of the chin-groove and causes so much pain that the
horse, to escape it, bores into the rider's hand. He will
then, perhaps, try a longer curb or a shorter one ; the
bit will either fall through or be stiff, and he concludes
that he must have a sharper one, and has a recourse to
some instrument of torture ; and so it goes on from bad
to worse, till he gets rid of the poor, ill-used animal.*

The best-fitting bit, even when placed in the proper
place, will not work well unless the curb be properly
constructed and exactly of the length required. Taking
all in all, a double chain worked quite flat, without
prominent edges, and which, when twisted zip to its
full extent, does not overtzvist^ is the best kind of curb.
Leather would be, in some respects, better than a chain ;
it is, however, not only perishable, but also subject to
stretch or contract when exposed to moisture ; and after
having been once or twice thoroughly soaked, becoming
hard and inflexible, it is more likely to injure the horse's
chin than a well-made chain.

It is very clear that the narrower the chain is made
the more likely is it to cause pain, which is just what
we want to avoid, and we should, therefore, endeavor
to make it as broad as possible. The vulgar notion of a
sharp curb is, as the reader perceives, a monstrous ab-
surdity. But there is a limit to this : if it be so broad

* This is no imaginary case : the author once saw a nice little thor-
ough-bred horse at Ostend, and a few months later at Dublin, as second
charger of a light cavalry officer of the garrison. It was set down as
an incurable bolter, and, passing through the hands of the riding-mas-
ter, adjutant and several officers, was finally sold, as dangerous to ride,
for ;^ 1 5 at a fifth-rate auction-mart. The purchaser, a ladies' doctor,
brought it to the author, who, after curing its dreadfully lacerated
mouth and jaws, bitted it properly with a very light bit, which enabled
the dov-tor to ride it within a week at a review of the regiment in ques-
tion, and for several years afterward, without ever bolting or being
troublesome : never was there a better-tempered creature.

TJie Lever ^ the Bit and Cnrh^ etc. i^i

as to fill up the chin-groove completelj/, there will be
always a danger of its upper ^([•g^ coming in contact
with the sharp cheek-bones at every, even the slightest,
pull on the reins, and getting up a sore which imme-
diately interferes with the action of the bit ; we must
therefore select a curb that does 7iot altogether fill up
the groove. It is not easy to give any special dimension
for the width of the curb-chain : eight-tenths of an inch
will be found to answer the purpose very generally, but
if we can use a broader curb without injuring the chin-
groove, so much the better ; it is more likely to be flat
and painless. Curbs are frequently made to taper oft^ a
little toward the ends : there is no objection to this, ex-
cept that, being more difficult to manufacture with pre-
cision, they are seldom so well made as the curb that is
equally broad throughout. Single-chain curbs made of
flat links may be good, if not too broad or sharp-edged ;
the plain double chain will b^ probably better made,
and therefore preferable : the great thing is to avoid the
infliction of pain ; and if we are sometimes compelled
to use a very narrow curb on account of the chin-groove
being sharp and narrow, it will be well to have a cloth
case to run over it, which may be taken ofl' after use
each time.

It is not possible to give an exact dimension in inches
for the length of the curb ; a little reflection will show
that it must always bear some special proportion to the
width of the horse's mouth and the height of the bars,
the latter of these quantities being nearly constant, whilst
the former one is variable, as has been shown above.
We must here anticipate, to a certain extent, the con-
tents of the next paragraph. In order to render the
action of the curb as painless as possible, it is absolutely
necessary that it should press upon the greatest extent
of surface that can be made available for the purpose,
for which reason, of course, we require this instrument

172 Bits and Bitting.

itself to be flat, and as broad as the chin-groove will
allow. If the mouthpiece have exactly the same width
as the mouth, the curb will wrap close round the chin,
pressing equably over a large surface ; but if, on the
contrary, it be too wide, the curb will trend away right
and left ; and if the excess of width amount to half an
inch or an inch, it will bear altogether on one spot, and
get up a sore,* although it is really longer than it should
be.

It will be found that the proper length for the curb is
about one-fourth more than the width of the mouth, the
curb-hooks not being included in this ; or, if we take
these into account, the total of the curb and the two
hooks will be once and a half the same dimension.

The curb-hooks form an important item in the arrange-
ment. It was formerly the custom to have one hook
attached permanently at the near side of the bit, and
another of a somewhat different form to the oft^ side of
the curb, but it has now become usual to attach a paii
of hooks of exactly the same shape and dimensions,
which is a great improvement: the proper length for
these is th:ee-fourths the height of the upper bar, or
about \\ inches.

The above length of curb applies to what is really em-
ployed between the two hooks, but it is usual to have
one reserve link at the offside, and two of these at the
near one, which latter are convenient, or rather indis-
pensable, for catching a proper hold of the curb when
being hooked on.

We have now gone step by step through the several
details connected with the bit considered as a lever —
namely, its cheeks or upper and lower bars, and the
curb with its hooks, which represent the fulcrum or

* The author once found some thirty or forty horses in one squadron
each with a little round ulcer on the chin in consequence of the bits
being too wide.

TVie Lever ^ the Bit and Curb^ etc, 173

prop. There remains the mouthpiece, which is of equal
if not greater importance as the part of the instrument
through which the immediate impression is made on
the mouth, and therefore generally placed in the fore-
ground by writers on this subject. It appeared, how-
ever, to us to be a matter of great importance to make
it perfectly clear, in the first place, that the entire action
of the bit should be concentrated on the mouthpiece,
that the operation of the curb should be confined wholly
to the function of a painless fulcrum, and that there are
certain narrow limits to the size of the upper and lower
bars which form the cheeks of the instrument. The
form and proportions of the mouthpiece must be deduced
wholly from the interior conformation of that part of the
mouth on which it is intended to act, and these are, the
tongue in the centre and the bars of the mouth on each
side. It has been already pointed out that the relative
hardness or softness of the mouth, so far as this depends
on the conformation of this organ itself, is a consequence
of the greater or less thickness of the tongue and the
greater or less sharpness and sensitiveness of the bars.
The soft, fleshy tongue is, of course, much less sensitive
to pressure than the bony bars, covered only with a very
thin membrane ; and consequently, if we used a per-
fectly straight unjointed mouthpiece of a moderate thick-
ness, this resting wholly on the animal's tongue would,
notwithstanding a certain amount of lever action, be the
very lightest form of bit that could be well devised ; in
fact, a good snaffle would, on account of the joint, be
more powerful. On the other hand, if by means of
what is called a "port" we remove all pressure from
the tongue and transfer it to the peculiarly sensitive
bars, we obtain, with precisely the same amount of lever
action as before, a much greater amount of power — in
fact, the sharpest form of bit that it is generally advisa-
ble to use. Now between these two extremes there is a
15*

174 Bits and Bitting,

wide range, and the whole art of bitting consists, so far
as the mouthpiece goes, in determining how much of
the pressure shall fall on the tongue and how much on
the bars, and we are thus enabled, by means of an al-
most infinite system of gradations, to obtain exactly the
degree of action required in each particular instance by
the nature of the service we demand, whatever the rela-
tive thickness of the tongue and sensitiveness of the bars
may chance to be.

But there is one essential to be attended to — namely,
that the portion of the mouthpiece destined to rest on
the tongue and the bars respectively should keep their
proper places, and this can be secured only by 7naking
the mouthpiece of precisely the same zvidth as the
horse's month. For it is very evident that if a mouth-
piece furnished with a port be too ivide^ a very slight
pull on one rein will suffice to displace it, so that the
bar at that side gets either altogether under the port, in
which case the whole pressure is thrown on the tongue,
or partially so, when the corner of the port will, by
being pressed into it, cause great pain — in fact, the ac-
tion of the mouthpiece, whether with or without a port,
becomes altogether irregular and cannot be depended
on. On the other hand, if the mouthpiece be too nar-
row, the lips are jammed in over the bars, the mouth-
piece rests more or less on them, and the whole action
is disturbed, besides which the horse is sure, sooner oi
later, to get ulcerated lips.

The Jirst gra7id rule must be^ therefore^ in all cases^
to ?nake the mouthpiece precisely so wide that^ when
placed in the mouthy it Jits close to the outer surface
of the lips without either pressing on these or being
subject to be displaced laterally.

But it is also evident that the different parts of the
mouthpiece must be exactly fitted to the interior of the
mouth ; that is to say, that those portions destined to

The Lever ^ the Bit and Curh^ etc. 175

act on the bars of the lower jaw should come into con-
tact with them, and with them alone, and in the degree
required ; and that, on the other hand, that portion des-
tined to act on the tongue should be of exactly the
proper dimensions and form. Of course there is a great
difference in this respect between smooth mouthpieces
and such as have a port ; in fact, it is only as regards
the latter that the dimensions are important. Where,
then, a port exists, its width should be exactly that of the
tongue-channel, as otherwise it would either intrench on
the space allotted to that portion of the mouthpiece
required for the bars, and produce the inconveniences
alluded to above ; or, if narrower, it would fail to an-
swer the purpose for which it is intended, namely, to
admit the tongue.* The width of the port 7mist be^
therefore^ exactly that of the tongue-channel — and this
is the second grand rule as regards the mouthpiece.
Now it has been already shown that the width of the
tongue-channel is very constantly three-fourths of the
height of the bars, which being equally constantly 1.8
inches, we have i^ inches for the maximum width of the
port, even in case where the total width of the mouth,
and consequently of the mouthpiece, amounts to 4I and
5-j^ English inches : for pony and hack bits about i inch
will suffice ; whereas the common practice of the bit-
makers seems to be to make it one-third of the total
width in all cases.

For the height of the port, of course, no rule can be
given, this being precisely the most variable dimension
of all, and depending altogether, so far as the interior
conformation of the mouth is concerned, on the relative
thickness of the tongue and sensitiveness of the bars ;
and further, as we have already shown, on the tempera-

* The Germans call the port of a bit the " tongue-freedom " — Zun-
genfreiheit — which expresses exactly the purpose for which it is in-
tended.

176

Bits and Blttiri}.

ment and general conformation of the animal ; finally,
too, on the description of service to which it is to be
applied ; to which must, in some cases, be added the
peculiar style of riding or driving of the individual that
uses it ; for nothing can be more certain than that the
best bitting in the world is wholly useless, nay, some-
times dangerous, in bad, that is to say, heavy or rude
hands.

Fig. 13 shows a succession of mouthpieces of the
forms now generally adopted, beginning with the light-
est— that is to say, the one whose pressure is almost
entirely exercised on the tongue — and proceeding on-
ward with an increase of port or " tongue-freedom" to

Fig. 13. — Various mouthpieces.

the very sharpest it is advisable or can ever be neces-
sary to use — namely, to one in which the height of the
port is equal to its width, say i\ inches; and beyond
this it is impossible to go, because the slightest pull on
the rein would, by altering the position of the lever,
bring the top of the port to press against the palate,
causing more or less pain, and therefore inducing the
horse to bore with its head in the contrary direction to
the pressure — that is, away from the rider's hand.

A mere inspection of these figures shows that the
thickness of the iron or steel is an important item ; the

The Lever ^ the Bit aiid Curh^ etc. 177

diameter of the straight portion of the mouthpiece may
vary from a half to three-quarters of an inch ; and it is
scarcely necessary to, point out that the greater the
diameter the less painful will be its action on the bars
of the mouth. When under half an inch it pinches to
a certain extent, and should therefore be only employed
when one is quite certain that this is desirable. In fig.
13 we ha\'e made the width of the port exactly \\
inches, that of the whole moutlipiece being only 4,
which would be rather under the mark. The thickness
of the mouthpieces Nos. i, 2, 3, 4 is three-quarters of
an inch, and these range from what is considered to be
the very lightest form. No. i up to No. 4, which repre-
sents a medium bit. We, however, should always
prefer No. 2 or No. 3 to No. i, for the arched form of
the latter throws nearly the whole pressure on the
tongue, and the very small amount that fcdls on the bars
of the mouth does so laterally., and not from front to
rear. This form of mouthpiece, too, is always unsteady,
and we have seen many horses whose tongues have been
nearly cut through bv its use with a tight curb. The
mouthpieces Nos. 5, 6, 7 are only half an inch thick,
which renders their action on the bars of the mouth
more telling; they represent sharp bits. It will not
escape observation that a greater thickness of the mouth-
piece adds, in fact, to the height of the port ; it is like
placing an arch on higher buttresses, but it renders the
action on the bars less painful, and enables us to meet
the exigencies of special cases — as, for instance, where
a horse has a thick, fleshy tongue and very sensitive
bars, and would not bear anything like sharp bitting.

There is another adjustment that maybe occasionally
employed with advantage, and which naturally finds its
place here. The plane of the port is usually made to
coincide with that of the whole bit ; in other words, if
we look at the instrument from either side, the port

M

178 Bits and Bitthig.

will be covered by the upper bars ; but it is easy to
perceive that, by inclining it a little forward, we may
increase the tongue-freedom without making the port
itself higher ; this, however, can only be resorted to
with a port of veiy moderate height, otherwise the roof
of the palate would be endangered by every pull on the
rein.

Again, we have the well-known contrivance of rings,
which prevent horses from seizing the bit between
their grinders, and thereby neutralizing the lever action,
as some will do occasionally ; they are also very useful
with what are called " dead mouths," and favor the
very desirable process of " champing the bit." These
rings may also be advantageously applied to the top of
the arch of the port, where this, either on account of
its absolute height or its being inclined forward is
likely to touch the palate. Where rings are employed
they must be very movable, and, to insure this, few in
number.

We have hitherto considered the mouthpiece as con-
sisting of one piece, but fashion has introduced a great
variety of jointed mouthpieces, and these are much
used in England. We may classify these mouthpieces
generally into such as, having a common snaffle-joint,
are capable of being deflected in every direction ; and,
on the other hand, such as, having a hinge-joint, can
only be deflected backward and forward relatively to
the plane of the bit. In both cases the deflection
affords in its own way a certain amount of tongue-free-
dom, like the port of an unjointed bit ; but here all
resemblance between the action of the two ceases ; for
while the pressure, and consequently the action, of the
latter is exerted in a direction parallel to the horse's
backbone, that of the former, taking a diagonal direc-
tion toward the centre, degenerates into a pincer-like
gripe, which is wholly unreliable with the snaffle-joint.

The Lever ^ I he Bit and Citrh^ etc. 179

and more or less so with the hinge one. From the
riding-school point of view, jointed bits are altogether
objectionable ; from the military one, they are scarcely
admissible, although the Prussian light cavalry adheres
to their use. For road-riding and hunting purposes
the well-known Pelham is in great favor ; and as there
must be some ground for this, it is worth while inquir-
ing into.

The great argument in favor of the Pelham is, that
the upper pair of reins give you the action of a snaffle —
which is, however, not quite correct, but let it pass — •
while the lower pair- afford that of a curb-bit, as the
expression is. To this latter we must oppose a decided
negative for two reasons : first, because the action that
results is that of a pincer, as shown above ; and second-
ly, because if the dimensions of the upper and lower
bars of our unjointed bits are very irregular and gen-
erally much exaggerated, they are, in the case of the
Pelham, simply monstrous, so that the curb is invari-
ably dragged right up out of the chin-groove, and on to
the most sensitive part of the under jaw, the eHects of
which we have so frequently pointed out. No doubt
the Pelham will produce ''''painful action" enough, and
so far as those whose ideas 0:0 no farther as regards the
unjointed bit are justified in making a comparison ;
but a painful action exerted in a wrong or even uncer-
tain direction is certainly a mistake.

If we had to address ourselves exclusively to really
good and intelligent riders, we w^ould say what they are
themselves perfectly aware of — With your steady seat,
and light hand resulting therefrom, you have more per-
fect command over your horses with a well-constructed
snaffle than with any Pelham. Your very conviction
of this sets you at ease, and that is a great point. If
you want a little help with a young horse here and
there, or with one whose neck is turned upside down

I So Bits and BiUi)ig.

or the like, you have only to apply the running-rein or
a martingal ; or, if you prefer it, the same qualities of
seat, hand and heai-t will enable you to put a well-pro-
portioned, light, "unjointed bit into your horse's mouth.
But the great majority of riders do not belong to the
class we have described above, and have neither the
steady seat nor the confidence that arises from it, there-
fore seek after something more powerful than the com-
mon snaffle. Indeed, as a general rule, one finds tlie
bitting severe and the tackle complicated in the inverse
proportion of the qualities of the rider ; and as to a light
hand, it is altogether out of the question with people
who " stick" on their horses after the fashion of a mon-
key mounted on a poodle, and derive their chief support
from the reins. To such persons we would say, im-
prove your seat in the first place ; until you learn to
keep it with ease, altogether independent of the reins,
you will be always looking out for something Pelhamy
that will afibrd you a gripe to hold on by ; just the very
reason you can't master your horses with a snaffle, and,
at a pinch, something w^ith the action of a curb-bit,
which you are afraid of, because it affords little or
nothing to hold on by. If your judgment were only
equal to your pluck, you would soon become independ-
ent of these hybrid instruments that pretend to com-
bine the action of snaffle and bit, and, like most other
makeshifts, answer neither purpose perfectly and re-
liably.

We do not, however, mean to say that a Pelham
should never be used ; as a matter of fancy, fashion or
old habit, many a good rider will cling to it ; but then
its dimensions should be as carefully adjusted to those
of the horse's mouth, and, moreover, to the other pecu-
liarities of the individual animal's build and temper, as
we have shown to be necessary with the unjointed bit ;
and this brings us to another form of jointed bit — that

The Lever ^ the Bit and Curb, etc. iSl

used, as already mentioned, in the Prussian light cavalry
(No. 8, fig. 13).

These are very similar to a straight-barred bit with
moderate tongue-freedom, but with a snaffle-joint at the
top of the port ; and their dimensions being in accord-
ance with the size and character of the horses, there is
nothing irregular in their action, especially as care is
taken to put them into the proper part of the horse's
mouth. We consider the unjointed bit to be a better
and more perfect instrument, especially in the hands
of a good rider ; but we must not overlook the fact,
that the time of service in the Prussian cavalry being
restricted to three years, and, in consequence of the
system of recruiting, a considerable number of men

^i 1

Fig. 14.

being brought into the ranks who have no previous
habits of horsemanship, there maybe reasons for adopt-
ing this jointed bit quite independent of its relative
merit.

We would recommend those who, for hunting or
racing purposes, wish to have a sufficient command
over their horses, combined with a more decided lean-
ing on the bit than is necessary for road-riding or pos-
sible for the cavalry soldier, to use what we should be
inclined to call a dumpy bit, fig. 14 — that is to say, one
whose upper bar is exactly of the dimension prescribed
above, but whose lower bar, instead of being double the
same, is only about 2I to 3 instead of 3^ inches long,
16

iSj Bits a?id Bitting.

selecting some one of the mouthpieces, Nos. 2, 3, 4 or
5, fig. 13, that may otherwise suit, and placing it accu-
rately opposite to the chin-groove.* Such a bit would
be found much more reliable than one of double the
dimensions that is badly placed ; and although some
authorities recommend for such purposes an ordinary
bit placed a little higher in the mouth than its true
place, we have found it better to reduce the dimensions
of the lower bar, as you have always a difficulty with
the curb if you once depart from the rule.

We have hitherto treated the lower bar of the bit as
a straight line, and this is the form usually adopted in
common life ; while for military purposes various curves
are adopted, the best and nicest-looking being nearly
in the shape of a capital S. This variety of form, it
should be understood, has nothing to do with the action
of the bit as a lever ; the point of attachment of the
lower ring, the centre of the rivet of the mouthpiece
and that of the upper ring or eye, should be in one
straight line and at the same proportional distances
from each other, in both cases alike. The real object
of the double curve of the lower bar of the military bit
is to prevent the horse from catching hold of it with his
lips, and then getting it between his teeth, a trick many
horses acquire. With the straight bar recourse is had
to a curb-strap in such cases, as every one knows ; but
it is much simpler and easier for military purposes to
adopt the curved bar, and there is no other reason be-
yond whim and fashion why civilians should not do the
same.

As to the upper ring or eye into which the headstall
of the bridle is fastened, this is now pretty nearly
always really ring-shaped. In former times it was
usually flattened down in various degrees from an oval

* A bridoon should be used with this as with every other regular
bit.

The Lever ^ the Bit and Curb^ etc. 183

to a mere horizontal slit ; but since the real principles
of bitting have become better understood, the simple
ring is preferred, and will be generally found to answer
all purposes perfectly, although, no doubt, there are
some cases where it might be convenient to use the
oval-shaped eye ; these are, however, very few indeed.
We have also hitherto considered the right and left side
pieces (upper and lower bar taken together) of the bit
as being in all cases parallel to each other, and conse-
quently at right angles to the mouthpiece. There are,
however, many horses, especially underbred ones, whose
heads will be found to project laterally, immediately
above the angles of the mouth, in a sudden instead of
the usual gradual manner ; and the width of the mouth-
piece is therefore insufficient to give the upper bars,
especially the rings, the requisite degree of play ; or
rather, the latter will most probably gall the horse's
cheeks more or less. There are two ways in which
this may be readily avoided : first, by inclining the
upper bars somewhat outward (fig. 14, a), or by making
the upper ring movable (fig. 14, b)^ instead of its form-
ing a continuation of the upper bar. Either of these
methods will be found to answer the desired end
without interfering with the proper action of the bit,
and are not only unobjectionable, but should be always
resorted to when necessary, because nothing is more
common than to see unthinking riders reject a bit whose
mouthpiece has the proper dimensions and adopt one
that is a quarter or half an inch too wide, simply be-
cause they find that the upper bars do not fit the out-
side of the horse's head ; in fact, this is what frequently
leads to a wrong selection of bits. People think of the
outside and visible part and neglect altogether the
much more important interior of the mouth and the
mouthpiece.

It may be useful to summarise here the w^hole of what

184 Bits and Bitti)?g.

has been explained in detail in the preceding pages.
We may say, then, that the average height of the bar of
the horse's mouth being if inches, the upper bar of tlie
bit need never be longer, except, perhaps, in very rare
instances of horses iS liands high and upward ; and this
gives us 32^ inches for the lower bar, and for both a total
of 5i inches, measured from where the curb-hook rests
in the upper ring to where the lower ring plays in its
sockets. For ponies or small hacks these dimensions
must be reduced to ij inches upper bar, 3 inches lower
bar, and total length of bit 4] inches. These are the
only fixed dimensions that can be safely given ; the re-
maining equally important ones are variable, and must
be ascertained b}- measurement in the way to be pres-
ently pointed out.

Let us now suppose that we have ascertained the ex-
act width of the horse's mouth and also the proper form
of the mouthpiece : we then have the length of the curb
without hooks equal 072cc a?id a quarter the width of
the horse's mouth, and the curb-hooks equal in length
three-fourths upper bar of bit, which will bring the total
length of curb and hooks up to once and a halj" the
same dimension ; and it only remains to put the bit and
bridle in their proper places.

We have already shown how much depends on the bit
being placed accurately. A quarter or even an eighth
of an inch higher or lower makes all the difference in
the world. The headstall or cheekpieces of the bridle
must, therefore, afford all the necessary facilities in the
way of buckles and straps for this purpose. Military
bridles and harness have nearly always two pairs of these
— that is, one pair by means of which the bit is attached
to the cheekpiece of the bridle by its upper rings, and a
second in the cheekpieces themselves, for the purpose
of regulating their length ; and both pairs may be em-
ployed to determire tlie height at which the bit is «;us-

The Lever ^ the Bit and Cii7-b^ etc. 1S5

pended in the horse's mouth. There is a great incon-
venience and disadvantage in having a multiplicity of
bridles, and many civilian bridles — if w^e may use the
word — omit altogether the first-named pair, the cheek-
pieces being then sewed directly into the upper rings of
the bit. This we hold to be a great mistake, because,
first of all, the bit, supposing it to be the proper size
and shape, cannot be so easily fixed in its proper place ;
and, secondly, it is impossible to change it for one that
does fit accurately, in the contrary case. In fact, this
practice is evidently a consequence of want of clear
views on the subject of bitting, and, on the other hand,
a great obstacle to the attainment of the necessary accu-
racy. We hold the lower pair of buckles and straps to
be indispensable. The upper pair of buckles might be
more easily dispensed with if one single buckle were
placed on the top of the horse's head between its ears ;
for by means of this the total length of the cheekpieces
may be regulated generally^ and the Jinal adjustment
of the position of the bit accomplished by means of the
buckles and straps, which latter should be pierced with
holes at intervals of half an inch.* Some people will,
however, prefer the buckles in the cheekpieces ; and if
so, it will be necessary to see that they do not lie higher
than the angle of tlie horse's eye, as they are otherwise
likely to interfere with the position of the forehead-
band, which should, like every other part of the bridle,
including the throat-band, fit loosely, and cause the least
possible amount of discomfort to the horse consistent
with the object to be attained.

The nose-band has pretty nearlv altogether disap-
peared from our English bridles, which is also a mis-

* It may sometimes be necessary to let the bit down or take it up
by a smaller quantity than the half-inch affords : in such cases inter-
mediate holes maybe made ; but the fewer of these the better, as they
weaken the strap.
16*

1 86 Bits a?zd Bittins^.

■&>

take. When horses have been once perfectly trained to
the bit, and taken to it kindly, this strap may be dis-
pensed with safely, if people do not like the look of it ;
but, until this is the case the nose-band is most valuable
as a means of preventing the animal from opening its
mouth too w^ide and bolting the bit, or catching hold of
it between its teeth — in fact, evading its action in one
way or the other. It is very evident that we have by
degrees got rid of the nose-band because we did not un-
derstand its proper use ; and, when coupled with the
monstrous bits we are in the habit of using, it may have
been found sometimes a positive inconvenience ; but any
one that pays even a slight attention to this matter will
find the nose-band invaluable in the early stages of bit-
ting. It must, however, be put in the proper place —
that is to say, just across the nose at the point where the
bone ceases and the cartilage commences ; and it should
always be buckled so lightly as to admit of a proper
amount of free motion.

We may now w^ind up this chapter with the rules for
placing the bit in the horse's mouth. When the head-
stall has been adapted generally to the animal's head by
means of the upper buckle or buckles, the next step will
be to adjust the bit by means of the lower ones, so that
the mouthpiece shall come to rest on the bars of the
mouth exactly opposite the chin-groove, unless, indeed,
some irregular disposition of the tusks should render
this impossible, in which case it must be moved only just
so much Jilgher as is absolutely necessary to clear the
obstacle. The curb may be then hooked in, first, of
course, at the off side, leaving one reserve link, then at
the near side, leaving tivo such, and taking care that it
lies quite flat in the chin-groove, without any, even the
slightest, tendency to mount upward when the reins are
drawn. The curb should never be quite tight ; there
should always be room for the first and second fingers

The Lever ^ the Bit and Curh^ etc. 187

of the right hand to pass flat between it and the chin ;
and by gently pulling the reins with the left hand whilst
the two fingers of the right are in this position, it will
be easy to ascertain whether any pinching action occurs,
in which case there is sure to be something wrong.

As to the measure of the proper length of the curb, we
have already stated it ge^ierally ; but each individual
case will require a separate adjustment, and if the links
be either very large or very small, it will sometimes oc-
cur that the difference of one of these will make the curb
either too tight or too loose ; we must then, of course,
try another curb. If the bit is rigid or stands stiff' on
the reins being drawn gently, the curb will be too short ;
and on the pressure being increased, the horse will
almost certainly either turn his mouth askew to avoid
the griping action of the mouthpiece or bear back sud-
denly to escape it altogether : we therefore give him
another link, and drawing the reins gently as before, we
obsei've whether, after the lower bar has moved through
an angle of about eight degrees — bringing the mouth-
piece just to meet, as it were, the interior of the mouth
— the horse gives his head gently and gradually in the
direction of your hand as it increases the pressure, with-
out either poking his nose or shrinking back. If this be
the case you are all right ; but if the lower bar moves
through a much greater angle than the above — say fif-
teen to twenty degrees — before the horse yields percept-
ibly, then your curb will be probably too long.

We sav probablv, because vou mav. after shortenine:
and lengthening the curb once or twice, find that the
horse will avoid the bit in the first case or remain insen-
sible to it in the second — in fact, you discover that the
mouthpiece is unsuited ; therefore, in adjusting the length
of the curb, you must take care to avoid drawing your
conclusions too hastily. When you come to a hitch of
this kind, lift up the horse's upper lip gently with your

1 88 Bits and B lit lug.

left thumb so as to get a view of the interior of his
inoLith, whilst you draw the reins with the right hand
so as to see how the mouthpiece lies, whether too much
or too little of its pressure falls on the tongue — in fact,
whether the mouthpiece is not in fault ; but this requires
some experience, and perhaps the help of an instru-
ment, of which we shall have to speak in the next
chapter.

And now a word as to the bridoon. This is, in the
first place, an aid in the early stages of training to facili-
tate the transition from the snaffle to the curbed bit ;
and in proportion as the young horse becomes familiar
with the latter, it is gradually laid aside, and then be-
comes a '^ second string to the bow " in case of any acci-
dent happening to the bit or its reins. Nothing is, how-
ever, commoner than to see amongst ourselves these its
well-understood uses completely reversed, and people
riding about our streets and parks holding on like grim
death by the bridoon-reins, whilst those belonging to
the bit dangle about the horse's neck, to be caught up
all of a sudden if the horse makes a bolt. Now this
simply proves that the bit is either so monstrous in
itself, or so absurdly placed in the horse's mouth, that
the rider is afraid to use it ; in many cases, too, his own
seat is so unsteady, and he depends so much on the
reins for support, that the best-fitting bit in the worid
would be useless or dangerous in his hands. If those
who really can ride would only bit their horses properly,
they might take the bit-rein in their hands without any
difficulty — nay, with great advantage to themselves, and
we should see fewer broken knees than at present ; for
it is frequently owing to the slovenly way of shuffling
along close to the ground, which horses ridden alto-
gether on the bridoon acquire, that these are ov»'Ing.
As to the other class of would-be riders, it will perhaps
be better for them to take to the snaffle exclusivelv, if

The Lever ^ the Bit arid Curb. etc. 1S9

they do not prefer a Pelham, which we, however, do
not recommend.

The bridoon being, as we have said, an aid, or " a
second string- to the bow," sliould never interfere with
the bit ; therefore it should be neither too thick nor &o
absurdlv long as it sometimes is ; and instead of hanging
down in the horse's mouth so as to impede the action of
the bit, it should be drawn up so as to fit lightly into
the angles of the lips without disturbing the natural
position of the latter : here it will be out of the way and
still perfectly available when needed.

To conclude, lightness^ accuracy^ easy motion., a
total absence of stiffness., coizstraint or painful action
are the characteristics of good bitting; and if these
be attained., ready obedience to the rider's hand arid
heel ivill be the result.

CHAPTER V.

TAKING MEASURE FOR THE BIT — THE MOUTH-GAUGE
THE TRIAL-BIT.

ALTHOUGH we have given above a certain amount
of permanent dimensions, or such as are nearly so,
for the bit, there still remains a certain number of vari-
able ones which must be ascertained in each individual
case — that is to say, the width of the mouth, on which
so much depends ; that of the tongue-channel, nearly
equally important ; and, finally, the relative thickness
of the tongue, which latter, however, just because it is
relative, is not susceptible of direct measurement.

For those who have had much experience in this de-
tail, the width of the mouth, and consequently that of
the mouthpiece, may be ascertained with sufficient accu-
racy by puttuig any bit that is not too small into the
horse's mouth, and, whilst holding it gently up to one
side of the mouth, measuring off with a small rule
divided into inches and eighths or tenths how much of
the mouthpiece, if any, protrudes beyond the side of the
lips on the other side ; if we then deduct this amount
from the actual dimensions of the mouthpiece w^e at
once ascertain what those of the bit we seek should be :
but it requires some practice to enable one to do this
accurately.

Von Weyrother, formerly chief of the school of equi-

190

Taking Measure for the Bit^ etc.

191

tation at Vienna, invented a special instrument for as-
certaining all the necessary dimensions, and this should
be in the hands of all those who have any number of
horses to deal w^ith ; we have named it, for want of
some better word, the *' mouth-gauge " (fig. 15, A),
This instrument is usually made of steel, and consists
of a bar a b — about six inches long will suffice — fitted
on one side at right angles with a fixed cheekpiece c d^
of the form shown by the figure, and having on the

Fig. 15.

other side a sliding cheekpiece e f of the same shape
and dimensions (six inches long), fitted with a screw
for fixing it where required. This bar ^ b is made oval
in the transverse section, wnth the greater axis about
one inch, in order to displace the lips nearly as the
mouthpiece does, and is usually graduated throughout,
but it will evidently suffice to do this with the fourth
and fifth inches.

It is scarcely necessary to point out that if this gauge

192 Bits and Bitting.

be placed in the horse's moutli like a bit, with the bar
a b ^\. exactly the proper point (opposite the chin-
groove), the fixed cheekpiece c d being then held gently
up to the oiT side of the mouth (the operator facing the
horse's forehead), the sliding one ^y* may be shoved up
just close enough to the cheek, at the near side, not to
displace the lips ; and then fixing it w^ith the screw
and removing the gauge, we can read oflfthe dimension
of the width of our mouthpiece from the scale engraved
on a b.

The figure shows further a rod g h fitted to slide up
and down the movable cheekpiece ef^ which is gradu-
ated into inches and eighths or tenths on its lower
limb. This contrivance enables us to measure the
height of the bar of the mouth, which is done in the
following manner : The instrument, adjusted to the
proper width of the horse's mouth, is placed as before,
with the bar a b exactly opposite the chin-groove, but
ti7iderneath the tongue^ and is then wheeled round on
its own axis till the upper limbs of the cheekpieces
stand nearl}' perpendicular to the general line of the
horse's nose. This, of course, brings its lower limbs
in the opposite direction toward the neck, and the rod
^ i^ is then gently shoved up till it presses lightly into
the chin-groove, taking care that the gauge stands
square, and that the mouthpiece lies equably on both
bars of the mouth. The rod g h is then screwed fast,
while the screw of the cheekpiece e J"\s loosened alto-
gether, so that the latter may be removed without
disturbing the rod g h; we then read off the height of
the bar on the lower limb of ef^ and have all the neces-
sary dimensions.

It would be quite possible to take another measure-
ment— namely, that of the thickness of the tongue, by
placing the bar a b over that organ ; but it has been
alreadj^ shown that it is its relative and not absolute

I

Takn?g Measure for the Bit^ etc, 193

thickness we want to know; and that, moreover, we
must take into account the temperament and "build"
of the whole animal when we set about determining
w^hat degree of relative pressure should be borne by the
bars of the mouth and the tongue respectively ; so that
this proceeding would lead to no useful result.

Even those who have had most experience will
sometimes find themselves at fault if they rely merely
on measurement ; and Lieutenant Klatte, a Prussian
instructor in equitation at Berlin, many years ago in-
vented for this very reason what is known as the " trial-
bit" (fig. 15, B^. This affords us at once the means
of ascertaining the proper bit for every horse practically.
There are a certain number of spare mouthpieces which
maybe fixed in succession into the sidepieces of the bit,
their width being easily adjusted by means of a number
of small plates, / /, of one-tenth of an inch thickness,
removable at pleasure from the inside to the outside of
the sidepiece ; and having once ascertained the width
of the mouth, we may then, having also ascertained the
height of the bars of the mouth with the gauge de-
scribed in a preceding paragraph, proceed to shift the
sliding ringpieces r r till the upper bar has attained the
prescribed length, after which the curb with its hooks
are fitted, and then there only remains to slide the rein-
rings s s up or down till the proper proportion of the
lower bar has been attained. Of course, as we go on
from step to step with the adjustment, the straps of the
headstall, and subsequently those of the reins, must be
buckled into the respective rings ; and when, as a final
step, the bridoon has been fitted and the curb hooked,
the horse may be mounted and tried.

In making this trial, those who have hitherto not

paid much attention to the subject will do well to take

account of the whole circumstances of the ca^e — the

temperament, build, etc., of the horse, the uses to which

17

194 j^^Vj and Bitting.

it is to be devoted, and whether it has ever been bitted
before or not. If the trial-bit be really well adjusted
and the rider have a good hand, the horse will at once
take to the bit, or at least give a promise of doing so,
and nothing more will be required than to read off all
the dimensions from the trial-bit in order to have a
proper one constructed ; if, on the other hand, its action
be found unsatisfactory, the lower rings, the mouth-
piece or the upper bar must be shifted till it does suit.

It should be borne in mind that the greatest defect a
bit can have is to fall through or capsize — that is to say,
describe a large circle before the horse shows itself sen-
sible to the lever action. When this takes place to the
extent of the lower bar forming nearly or altogether a
straight line with the rein, there is no lever action what-
ever, and a good snaffle would be more powerful. This
falling through may depend on the curb being too long,
or on the upper bar being absolutely too short, or on
the lower one being proportionately too long, especially
in cases where the conformation and dimensions of the
mouth absolutely require a very short upper bar, when
it may be necessary to make the lower one somewhat
less than twice the length of the former, according to
the rule we have given ; but such cases are few in num-
ber, and must be regarded as exceptions — it seemed,
however, advisable to mention them.

The next greatest fault is when the bit stands stiff in
the horse's mouth ; and this will be generally found to
proceed from the curb being too tight or the upper bar
being too long, which latter always produces the third
fault — the mounting up of the curb out of the chin-
groove.

In conclusion, a word as to horses acquiring the trick
of getting their tongues over the mouthpiece. This is a
great inconvenience, as it renders the action of the whole
machine uncertain. There is really no other method of

Taking JSIeasure for the Bit^ etc, 195

cure except careful bitting and good riding, which may
and often does by degrees lessen the evil, if not wholly
remedy it ; and these means will more frequently suc-
ceed with young than with old horses, yc»r it is almost
always a consequence of bad bitting in the frst in-
stance. Our advice would be to ride the horse for a
certain time on a snaffle, and then a very carefully fitted
bit may be put into its mouth with a fair chance of suc-
cess ; but there are some horses that never forget this
trick when once acquired.

There is another trick which is not so inconvenient,
although it is very unsightly — namely, when the horse
lolls out its tongue either directly in front or, as more
usually happens, to one side. This, too, is usually a
consequence of bad, that is, too severe, bitting, and, with
carriage-horses, of the bearing-rein being too short. In
many cases a suitable bit will suffice, combined with a
loose bearing-rein, where that has been the cause, and
the horse will be immediately lighter in the hand.
Sometimes, however, this fails, and the only remedy
that remains is to attach a " fringe" to the mouthpiece,
which, hanging down on the tongue, produces a tick-
ling sensation that makes the animal draw back its
tongue. However, we should be deceiving our readers
in leading them to suppose that all cases are curable ;
for some horses will persist in this ugly trick despite of
everything one can do. Any attempt to tie the tongue
in this or the former cases will be found useless and
probably dangerous.

Nothing is more certain than that every horse will go
much better with a well-fitting bit properly placed than
with the contrary ; further, that many otherwise dan-
gerous horses become perfectly tractable if properly
bitted ; and, finally, that inattention to this subject is
one of the most frequent causes of restiveness. It, how-
ever, by no means follows that every rider should neces-

196

Bits and Bitting,

sarily use a curb-bit. For hunting and racing purposes
the snaffle will be generally preferable. Moreover, bad
or indifferent riders had better not use the bit at all ; but
when, from whatever cause, it appears desirable to use
one, let it be by all means a well-fitting bit, carefully
adapted to the animal.

PART III.

RESTII^ENESS: ITS PRETEN-
TION AND CURE.

CHAPTER I.

HOW TO RENDER HORSES OBEDIENT.

THERE exists, no doubt, many horses that deserve
the epithet vicious, in the proper signification of
the term ; they are, however, by no means so numerous
in proportion as many people suppose, and it is of great
practical importance that simple restiveness or disobe-
dience should not be confounded with the peculiar
temperament or disposition which constitutes a truly
vicious horse. Such an animal's temper can scarcely be
changed, although it may be dominated by force — as,
for instance, by Mr. Rarey's method, which, by the way,
was known to and practised by Major Balassa, of the
Austrian cavalry, forty years ago ; but the overawed
and subdued brute is not thereby rendered a useful and
docile servant, nor is any clue afforded us for overcom-
ing special forms of restiveness or insubordination we
may have to deal with : and so the horse-tamer, after
attracting an undue share of public attention for a
moment, finds himself in the end neglected and for-
gotten.

There is, too, a danger in all these methods — namely,
the natural tendency they have to induce riders to rely
on forcible measures in all cases, the result of which is
but too frequently to convert a simply restive horse into

199

200 Restivefiess : its Prcvc7itio7i a?id Cure.

a decidedly vicious one, by awakening the devil that
slumbers within. I^or it vuist ?irver he forgotten that
in the etid the horse is stro7tger than the man; that
there is a very great danger of this becoming quite
clear to the former., %vhen mere force comes to be op-
posed to force; and that this very consciousness is
what constit2ites restiveness., a?id^ if exasperated by
cruel treatment., vice., pzire and simple.

It is therefore necessary, in the first place, to know
clearly what one has to contend with — whether with
real vice, or merely with simple insubordination : the
former, if curable at all, can only be dealt with suc-
cessfully by professional riders, who possess the proper
means and appliances ; the latter ought to be within the
scope of a great number of horsemen, if they would only
abstain from violence and adopt rational methods. The
French say, when speaking of a horse that shows rest-
iveness, '' il se defend" — he defends himself. There is
much truth in tliis expression, and it is one that riders
should constantly bear in mind, for insubordination is
most commonly the result of something having been
demanded from the horse that it either did not know
how to do or was unable to perform ; and the very first
step to be taken in all cases is, to endeavor to ascertain
exactly under what circumstances the disobedience was
first manifested and is usually shown.

Before we atfix the stigma of vice to a horse, let us,
therefore, consider for a moment what the poor thing
might with fairness retort, and the words ignorance,
timidity and brutality will immediately suggest them-
selves ; for, in truth, want of judgment as to what a
horse can fairly do, want of decision and promptitude in
demanding this, or unnecessary violence in enforcing a
demand, especially an unreasonable one, are almost
always the first causes of restiveness. Mankind in its
arrogance has thought fit to make the ass an emblem

Uoiv to Reiider Morses Obedient, 201

of stupidity, and why? Is it not because it seldom if
ever opposes anything more than passive resistance to
the tyranny of its oppressors ? it wants tiie strength and
the active courage that would enable it to act aggress-
ively and deserve the title of vicious enjoyed by its near
relative the zebra, whose indocility is not considered to
be stupidity. We doubt much whether the horse is
really more intelligent than the ass ; it has greater
strength and agility, and a more active courage, which,
if it knew how to use, would enable it to set mankind
at defiance equally as well as the zebra ; and it argues
a certain amount of stupidity when so powerful an ani-
mal suffers itself to be converted, as it often is, into the
abject slave of a miserable taskmaster. The intelligence
of the horse is, however, sufficient to enable it to find
out ^■ery soon whether its rider be or be not deficient in
that self-same quality or in courage ; and, in the former
case, the consciousness of superior strength encourages
it to use this '' il se defend" — that is to say, it sets the
rider at defiance and turns restive.

There is another thing to be considered with regard
to the horse's character : it loves to exercise its powers,
and it possesses a great spirit of emulation ; it likes
variety of scene and amusement ; and under a rider that
understands how to indulge it in all this without over-
taxing its powers, will work willingly to the last gasp,
which is what entitles it to the name of a noble and
generous animal. Now, while over-exertion, when
unfit, will very frequently make horses refuse work, on
the other hand, deficiency of exercise and constantly
riding the same dull round, either alone or in company
with other horses, will give rise to a whole string of
evils ; as, for instance, refusing to go any but a certain
way, or to leave their stable, or clinging to other horses
they meet with, etc. ; and this is just the reason why so
many cases of restiveness may be traced to the stupidity

202 Rest{ve?tess : its Prevention and Cure,

or pig-headedness of a groom. Horses don't like to be
ennuye^ and will rather stick at home than go out to be
bored ; they like amusement, variety and society ; give
them their share of these, but never in a pedantic way,
and avoid getting into a groove of any kind, either as
to time or place, especially with young animals. It is
evident that all these things must be taken into account
and receive due attention, whether it be our object to
prevent or to get rid of some bad habit a horse may
have acquired ; and a little reflection will generally suf-
fice to point out the means of remedying something
that, if left to itself, would grow into a confirmed habit,
or if attacked with the energy of folly and violence,
would suddenly culminate in the grand catastrophe of
vestiveness.

The method according to which a restive horse has
been originally handled must be also taken into consid-
eration before one can form a sound judgment as to the
best method of cure, as it makes an immense difference
in this respect whether the animal has been treated on
the English plan of merely gradually "habituating" it
to go in the manner desired and leaving it very much
to its own will and pleasure to do so, or whether the
Continental mode has been adopted of endeavoring to
obtain, by more stringent and systematic means, a per-
fect mastery over its movements in the first place.
Eachof these methods has its own peculiar advantages,
and, as regards the prevention and cure of restiveness,
disadvantages also. The English plan is, no doubt,
much less likely than the other to lead directly to con-
flicts, simply because it avoids them, but it does not
afford that degree of control over the horse's movements
that is indispensable for combating insubordination suc-
cessfully ; and if the horse does slip into bad habits,
the temptation to use violent measures, which some-
rimes succeed, but as frequently drive things to extremi-

How to Render Horses Obedient. 203

ties, is very pressing. In such cases there is no other
remedy than to commence the handhng de novo^ which
is a very troublesome and not always successful opera-
tion, especially in the case of aged horses, for such
resist, and very frequently resent, every attempt to gain
that perfect command over their movements without
which a cure is hopeless, unless the greatest judgment
and patience be brought to bear on them. It was to
English horses of this class, when taken to the Conti-
nent, that reference was made in the introduction to
this little book.

On the other hand, the Continental or riding-school
system, aiming, as it does, at complete mastery over
the propelling power — that is, the horse's hind legs —
will, if hurried or injudiciously employed, very possi-
bly tend directly to call forth the spirit of resistance and
insubordination ; for it is precisely this control over
their hind legs that horses dislike and seek to escape
from with the greatest pertinacity and cunning, and it
is only by almost imperceptible degrees that it can be
attained when desirable. For the correction of insub-
ordination it is, however, not only desirable, but indis-
pensable ; and it is therefore, generally speaking, a
comparatively much easier task to bring back truants
originally handled in this manner to habits of obedience,
than those that have been accustomed in their youth to
the English laissez faire method.

It would be very easy, perhaps more to the taste of a
certain class of readers, to lay down certain rules for
this or that form of restiveness, and say, do this if a
horse rears, and that if he rubs your knees against a
wall or insists on going home when you want to have
a ride, but we have no faith in ready cut-and-dry
receipts, and abhor all empiricism most thoroughly ;
moreover, there is plenty of it to be found, by those
who prefer it, in most books on this subject. The real

204

Restiveness: its Prevention a?zd Cure.

truth of the matter is this : whatever particular form of
restiveness a horse may have recourse to " to defend
itself," the one great patent fact in all cases is disobedi-
ence ; and therefore the one great object to be attained
is complete mastery over the animal's movements, and
not merely over its body by means of straps and ropes.

We have stated that the English system of handling
young horses is less likely of itself to produce insubor-
dination directly, v^hile the school system may, if
abused, tend to this result. On the other hand, we
must rely on the latter for the correction of restiveness ;
and the object of this chapter being to endeavor to show
how vice may be prevented and cured^ it seems advisa-
ble to lay before the reader a brief general sketch of
both systems, pointing out, as we proceed, what is use-
ful for our purpose in each, as also the means by which
the one may be made to work into the other.

In the English method the first step is usually to put
a very thick, and consequently a very gently-acting,
snaffle into the young horse's mouth, over which a
cavesson is placed ; a surcingle is then buckled round
the animal's body, to the rings of which, right and left,
the snaffle-reins are attached loosely, but still short
enough to keep the neck and head nearly straight and
encourage the animal to lean on the mouthpiece. A
judicious horse-breaker will then lead the young horse
about, at first in a quiet place, and gradually on to
roads, etc., where various objects present themselves,
as horses, vehicles, houses, etc., to which his pupil
becomes accustomed — a matter of great importance, as
many accidents occur where a young one that has
scarcely learned to tolerate a burden on its back is
brought, under a rider, all of a sudden in contact with
strange objects and imaccustomed noises. Moreover,
the horse oecomes habituated to follow the trainer, and
obey the lounge and reins in a gradual and gentle

I

How to Render Horses Obedient, 205

manner, and a good understanding is soon established
between them.

And this, be it remarked, is a method seldom prac-
ticed by school-riders or in military establishments, the
consequence of which is, that the young horse, when
trained ever so comj^letely in the riding-school, has to
undergo a new course of instruction when it becomes
necessary to take it out on the roads and streets, and
frequently gets into messes that undo almost all that
had been previously done.

Here, too, we find a practical hint for the treatment
of full-grown horses that shy at particular objects and
sounds, or object to passing certain spots. Treat them
as the English trainer does his young ones : lead them
about as described above, and reward them for their
docility with a bit of bread, sugar or something of the
sort ; you will thus avoid all conflicts, the danger and
evil consequences of which are enhanced a thousand-
fold if you attempt to mount your horse under such
circumstances. Of course, when shyness arises from
defective vision, which is often the case, this method
will be of no avail.

But to continue : After a day or two the trainer puts
a saddle on the horse and the surcingle over it, and
will then soon proceed to lounge it, which he generally
does single-handed, a point to be borne in mind. For
general purposes he will endeavor, by gentle means, to
get the young horse to settle down into a trot as soon
as possible,* and in proportion as the animal takes
kindly to trotting, his trainer will shorten the snaffle-
reins somewhat, so as to encourage the animal to lean
more and more on the bit, taking care, however, not to
make them so short as to prevent the horse stretching
itself well out, and bringing the propelling action of the

* The trainer of race-horses does not wish this, of course.
18

2o6 Restive7iess : its Preve7tilon and Cure,

pasterns of its hind legs into play.* The first lounging
is always done on a large circle : first, because, if the
horse does canter or gallop wildly, there is less danger ;
and secondly, because the trot will be longer and more
energetic, and the leaning on the mouthpiece more
complete. The object of this procedure is to encourage
the horse to throw its weight well forward, go ahead
resolutely and use its hind legs altogether as propellers.
It may be well to give a caution here : grass land or
clay, when trodden hard, if moist, is to be avoided —
the danger of slipping is too great; sand or tanner's
bark, if available — if not, a piece of dry, fresh-harrowed
field — is preferable.

There are certain forms of restiveness, or rather kinds
of tricks, that insubordinate horses try on and succeed
with, because they have never been brought to have a
proper leaning on the mouthpiece, of whatever kind
that may be. For instance, they will get " inside" the
action of the bridle altogether, so that the rider cannot
keep them straight, and they will then turn sharp round
and bolt o?l in another direction. When, therefore, one
finds a horse succeed in keeping permanently " behind
the hand," as it is called, the safest and surest way of
bringing it up well to the mouthpiece again is by a few
lessons on tiie lounge after this fashion, aided by judicious
demonstrations with the whip, and remembering to use
large circles.

It will be unnecessary to go into the detail of the first
backing of the young horse, and of the precautions that
should be taken to avoid exciting its fear or anger ; and
we therefore go on to the method of handling under
the rider. The great object all English horse-breakers
have in view is, to bring their horses to go straight
ahead and cover as much ground as possible ; they

*We shall see further on that the school system demands this
from the hocks.

Hozu to Render Horses Obedient. 207

never think for a moment of making them handy, in
the military sense of the term — that is to say, capable
of circling to the right or left in all their paces, chang-
ing these and their feet without an apparent effort, etc.,
for nothing of this is required of them. The methods
they employ are, it must be said, perfectly suited to the
object they propose to attain, the rider's weight being
thrown either directly or indirectly on the horse's fore-
hand, which, as has been shown in the first part of this
work, favors progression on straight lines. The saddle
is generally for this reason put well forward, the girths
coming round the anterior part of the chest. Now,
although the saddle is placed forward, the stirrups
being usually very short, the body of the rider, from the
hips upward, is in most cases farther back than the
perpendicular line through the fourteenth vertebra, fig.
4 ; but from the hips downward the legs are brought
forward toward the horse's shoulders, and the main re-
liance for the seat is with that portion of the leg from
the knee down to the ankle, in the hollow close behind
the horse's shoulders ; therefore, although the rider's
body is actually farther back than what we have de-
scribed to be the normal position, the direction in which
his weight is thrown by each impulse received from the
horse's hind legs, is diagonally forward on to the fore
legs, and not in the vertical line shown by the arrows
in fig. 4. Moreover, the rider's legs exercise in this
their usual position all the influence derivable from
mere pressure or from the spur, wholly on the horse's
fore legs, leaving the hind legs free from all control,
for they almost always come too late when the rider
endeavors to meet the horse's croup or fix its hind-
quarters.

The system of bridling and bitting is also perfectly
suited to the object kept steadily in view, the horse's
head being kept low, if necessary, with the martingal,

2oS Rcstlvcncss : its Prevention and Cure,

which, of course, as has been shown, tlirows an addi-
tional portion of the weight on the fore legs. When,
at a later period too, a curbed bit is used, this is put so
high up in the horse's mouth that the action of the curb
becomes more painful than that of the mouthpiece (see
Part II. of this book), and consequently induces the
horse rather to lean on the bit than yield in the direc-
tion of the rider's hand. Finally, this latter is, both
with the snaffle and the curb-bit, held as low as the
horse's withers will permit and quite steady — that is to
say, without much varying the pull on the reins. Of
course a judicious breaker or trainer will endeavor to
prevent his horse acquiring a dead hard leaning on the
bit, and seek to restrain this within the bounds of a
firm, decided one. Under the circumstances, however,
this is not an easy matter, and is precisely the rock on
which so many riders split, who then have recourse to
sawing, which frequently becomes the primary invita-
tion to restiveness.

We may sum up the whole by saying that the English
method of training young horses consists in doing the
whole work on the forehand, leaving the backhand al-
most totally uncontrolled to perform the simple function
of propulsion — for all the trotting and galloping work
is done on straight lines ; and there can be no doubt
that, where merely go-ahead, straightforward work is
demanded, this system is perfectly judicious. It is, how-
ever, another question, and one already sufficiently en-
tered into in previous chapters, whether its application
be not too one-sided, for all saddle-horses are not required
to do this sort of work ; and it is positively objection-
able in this respect, that it uses up the horse's fore legs
with frightful rapidity and to an extent that none but
English purses can endure.

It is, however, with its bearings on the subject of the
prevention and cure of vice that we have here to do.

How to Rertdcr Horses Obedic7tt. 209

Now there are certain forms of insubordination, or rest-
iveness, in which horses depend on their forehand —
others again, and by far the greater number, in which
they depend on their hind legs — for the purpose of de-
fying the rider ; amongst the latter we may specify, for
instance, rearing. Considering the whole rationale of
the English system attentively, one is therefore not sur-
prised to find that the forms of restiveness in which
horses use chiefly their hind legs grow very naturally
out of this system, which is unfit for either their pre-
vention or cure zvithoiit soine fni'ther aid. We would
not be supposed to condemn this system altogether or
unconditionally ; on the contrary, we have already
pointed out some of its advantages, and shall now pro-
ceed to show that it may be made great use of, both as
a preventive and remedy. As regards the former, for
instance, it aflbrds the only safe means of utilizing
horses that have weak hind quarters, or defects of the
hind legs. Many such animals would, if treated accord-
ing to the school system, be soon rendered either total
cripples or incurably vicious : whereas, by a judicious
application of the English method, many a young horse
gains time for the hind quarters and legs to develop
themselves, and becomes in the end capable of doing
even military work.

As to the cure of restiveness, the English method has
this value. The first step to be taken with a restive
horse, before any attempt can be made at mastering its
hind legs, is to get it to move sofneJiow., for it is only
when in motion that the rider can get at it. Now, al-
though it would be worse than useless to attempt to make
a horse go under precisely the same circumstances of
time and place, etc., under which it has refused obedi-
ence, still, by altering these circumstances, and placing
it under quite different ones, we can usually succeed in
this. For instance, as has been already mentioned, we
18* 0

21 o Restivcness : its Prevention and Cure.

can take a horse that proves restive on the road into a
ploughed field, and lounging it on a wide circle, compel
it to go w^ithout risking a conflict of authority in which
we might probably have the worst of it. Or we may
take the same animal into some enclosed space — a riding-
school, for instance — where it sees that escape is impossi-
ble, and there, after having perhaps first lounged it, get on
its back and ride it quietly. Under such circumstances,
to attempt to screw it into a particular form, or endeavor
to apply school methods directly, would most probably
end in a fresh display of insubordination, and we should
find ourselves pretty nearly at the end of our tether, and
without any further resource. The great thing is to get
the horse to go somehow — if only in a walk or a jog-
trot, no matter : if we can only get thus far, half the battle
is won, and by degrees we get into a good smart regular
trot, if we take care to keep out of the corners and
avoid sharp turning. Now the English method, as de-
scribed above, is precisely that best adapted for getting
a horse to cover ground, and therefore, for the purpose
indicated here, it is like getting way on a vessel by
means of the head-sail, without which the rudder is per-
fectly useless ; after a while we can haul aft our sheets till
we get a weather-helm and steer any course we please.
The English plan is, therefore, invaluable for getting
way on, but to get a weather-helm we must have re-
course to

The Continental or School Systein. — As the objects
this proposes to attain are essentially different from what
the majority of English riders aim at, so are also the
means employed for the purpose. Whilst the latter de-
mand from each individual horse the greatest possible
amount of speed on straight lines it is capable of afford-
ing— treating the question of wear and tear of the ani-
mal's fore legs as a matter of secondary importance —
the proper objects of the school are : first, to fix on

How to Render Horses Obedient. 211

standards of speed and work attainable by the averages
of various classes of horses ; secondly, to enable them to
move with ease to themselves, and with the aid of the
rider's one hand alone, on cui-\'ed lines in various paces
— that is to say, to make them handy ; and, thirdly, to
do all this in perfect obedience, and in such a manner
that the inevitable wear and tear should be equally
divided over all four legs, by which means the total
period of service may be considerably prolonged. In a
word, the English system is based on the competition of
individual horses on the race-course and in the hunting-
field, and therefore employs the fore legs exclusively as
bearers, and the hind ones equally so as propellers, speed
alone being the object ; whereas the school system, con-
templating the simultaneous action of bodies of horses
in varied forms, excluding altogether the idea of com-
petition, and not aiming at the highest degree of speed,
transfers a portion of the weight to be carried from the
fore to the hind legs, establishing thereby a more equa-
ble balance of labor. It is scarcely necessary to add
that the school is the nursery for military riding, which
the hunting-field does not and cannot profess to be.

Tlie majority of English riders hold the school in the
greatest contempt, simply because they are altogether
preoccupied with their own ideas of the turf and the
field, to which this is quite inapplicable ; and merely
mechanical school-riders return the compliment with
equal unfairness when they point to our broken knees,
stiti' fore legs, frequently exceptionally restive horses,
etc. It would be much more rational for both parties
to endeavor to learn something useful from each other,
for both systems contain much that is good and useful
for all.

It is seldom possible for the school-rider to adopt the
preliminary education of walking the young horse out
on the roads, etc., as is the excellent practice of the Eng-

ZI2 Resflveness : its Prevention and Cure*

lish trainer, and therefore the remount is taken at once
into the riding-school to be lounged. The lounging
itself, too, is carried out in a different manner, for it re-
quires one or two assistants at first. One of these carries
the whip ; the other, usually the groom, is necessary in
the first stages for the purpose of leading the young
horse round the circle until it knows what is required
of it. The assistant with the whip must understand his
business perfectly — his services are most important and
indispensable throughout. As a matter of course, during
the first lessons, a very wide circle is used, and the snaf-
fle-reins are attached loosely to the rings of the surcin-
gle, the inner 07ie being slightly shorter than the other,
as it would otherwise hang slack when the horse bends
in the neck and body in circling. The English trainer
usually adopts the contrary practice of shortening the
outer rein in order to prevent the horse running in to-
ward the centre ; but this object is much better attained
through the agency of the assistant with the whip, be-
cause the great object, especially in the subsequent les-
sons, is to meet and regulate the length of the stride of
the inner hind leg by the inner rein, which, however,
always must have a sufficient counter-pull in the outer
rein — the isolated action of any one rein resulting merely
in a change of position of the head, instead of acting on
the whole side of the horse.

When the horse has become accustomed to circling
on the lounge in this manner with sufficient freedom, the
trainer proceeds gradually toward his ulterior object of
bringing out a perfectly clean — that is, equable and regu-
larly-cadenced — trot, by accustoming the animal to trans-
fer a portion of its own weight from its fore to its hind
legs, without thereby checking its forward impulse more
than is exactly necessary. This is easily done by gradu-
ally shortening the snafl^le-reins ; and if the horse carries
his head too low, by adding bearing-reins, for which

How to Render Horses Obedient, 213

purpose the dumb-jockey is useful. And now the assist-
ant with the whip has the greater part of the work to
do, it being his business, by demonstrations with that
instrument toward the horse's chest underneath (not to-
ward the hind legs), to keep the animal well up to its
work, while the trainer himself moderates the pace by
gently shaking the cord or line, never suffering the horse
to lean heavily on his hand, and never himself taking a
dead pull.

These two functionaries must act perfectly in unison,
and both of them understand perfectly their work, which
requires judgment, patience and dexterity. Wonderful
results may be obtained by a well-judged use of the
lounge, but we are bound to say that, in unskillful
hands, an enormous amount of mischief may be also
perpetrated in the way of producing or confirming rest-
iveness, or even with the more tangible evidences of
curbs, spavins and other lamenesses. It is impossible
to give any precise rule as to the amount by which the
reins may be shortened or the horse's head brought up.
All that can be said is this : if the horse hurries its trot,
constantly increasing the pace, and finally breaking into
a canter, you may be sure that the head is too low, and
the weight still too much forward, consequently you
must bear it up gradually till this ceases. On the other
hand, if you find the horse trotting unequally and irreg-
ularly, in something like a mixture of trot and canter in
an amble, or if it seems only capable of getting on in a
short, cramped canter, then you may be equally sure
that your reins are too short, and you must immediately
ease them all to the state in which the}- were at the very
first lesson, and then try back till you bring out a per-
fectly clean rhythmic trot ; whatever position the horse's
head and neck may then have, is the true one, all the
pedants in the world notwithstanding. Indeed, it is a
good plan to finish each lesson and commence the next

214 Restiveness : its Prevention and Cure,

one with somewhat slack reins. The being too lazy to
take the trouble of altering the gear often causes double
work, and a horse will bear more pressure, on the whole,
with good temper, if you reward it by occasional spells
of relaxation.

It will not be out of place here to remark, that if your
horse be weak in the hind quarters or legs — that you
cannot go so far with the bearing up, in fact — you must
incline more to the English system ; whereas if it has
suffered only in its fore legs, you may carry the process
to the utmost extent that is compatible with clean trot-
ting ; and this is precisely the reason why many an
English horse, with ruined fore legs, may be rendered
capable of doing good and safe service as an officer's
charger for many a year, if handled judiciously, after
this fashion.

We now come to the period when the young horse has
been saddled and backed. The animal will, during the
process of lounging, have been accustomed to the saddle
being placed on the centre of its back and the girths
round its proper waist, instead of round its chest.
During the first lesson under the rider, the horse will
continue on the lounge, the great object being to make
the transition as gradual as possible, for which reason
the assistant with the whip will continue his services,
whilst tlie trainer also continues to direct the animal's
movement with the line. The rider, therefore, will at
first remain nearly passive, avoiding, on the one hand,
interfering too much with the reins, and, on the other,
pressing too closely his legs against the horse's body ; in
fact, his seat will be very much like that of the English
trainer in the first instance, but by degrees he will take
the direction of the horse's movements over from the
trainer into his own hands^ and with his legs do the
duty hitherto performed by the assistant with the whip.
For this reason he will then change his seat, bringing

How to Refidcr Hoi'ses Obedient. 215

his legs well back so as to get a perpendicular tread on
the stirrup, and holding them close to the horse's ribs
without screwing. A slight increase of pressure of both
legs here in this position always has the eflect of making
the horse bring its hind legs forward under its body,
just as the whip does ; and if, at the same time, the
horse's head and neck are brought up and back, the rel-
ative proportions of weight to be carried by the hind and
fore legs can be easily determined by the rider.

Let us now suppose the remount so far advanced as to
enable us to dispense altogether with the lounge and
the whip, and hand it over to the rider alone ; in fact, to
be in the stage of its education corresponding to that in
which the English trainer takes it out for long rides on
straight lines. The school rough-rider, on the contrary,
does his work in an enclosed rectangular space,* which
makes all the difference in the world, because during
each circuit of the manege four corners have to be got
through — that is to say, as many changes of direction
made. Let us take the rider, in the first instance, as
being on one of the long sides of the rectangle — on
which Ijand is immaterial : his English confrere holds
his hands close together steadily down on the horse's
withers, just letting the animal come up to meet the
mouthpiece ; the school-rider, on the contrary, raises his
hands more or less according to the natural position of
the horse's head and neck, his object being, as we have
seen, to bring their weight back toward the hind legs,
which latter the pressure of his own legs tends to bring
forward. Moreover, instead of holding his hands
merely passive, he takes a rein in each hand, and with
a gradual but decisive turn of the wrist, meets each
stride of the hind leg with a gentle pull on the rein at
the corresponding side, working upward and backward.

* The circus, properly so called, is only used for purposes of exhi-
bition.

Zi6 Resthcncss . its Prcz>c?itio7i and Cure.

Thus, whilst the pressure of the man's legs brings the
hind leg of the remount forward, the pressure of his
wrist, exercised through the rein, determines exactly to
what extent this shall take place, and, in fact, prescribes
the point at which the foot shall be placed on the
ground. This is what is called floating or oscillating
between the rider's hand and leg ; it is what gives per-
fect control over the horse's movements, and explains
why the terms " mere rein" or " mere stirrup" riding
are used in a satirical sense. A little attention will soon
teach even a beginner which hind foot is being brought
forward, and consequently with which rein he will have
to regulate its action ; for it will never answer the pur-
pose to pull across, as that would only derange the
position of the neck and head ; and this " feeling in the
seat," as it is called, is a sense that riders must cultivate,
as it will enable them to find out ivimediaiely wdiat
their horse is about, and whether he be meditating mis-
chief, which, if his leg be in the right place, he can nip
in the bud ; whereas, if it be somewhere away toward
the horse's shoulder, he is sure to come too late.*

The corners and changes of direction must not be
overlooked. At first these must be got through in a
wide sweep, for which the lounging was sufficient pre-
paration. By degrees, however, this sweep is narrowed
and the change of direction made more abrupt ; we
must therefore see how this is to be effected and what
results it produces.

When a horse moves on a segment of a circle, we
must consider the two inner legs as moving on an
interior somewhat narrower, and the two outer ones
on an exterior som.ewhat wider curve. The difference
between the two, although not very great, is neverthe-
less sufficiently so to compel the animal to shorten the

* For the same reason it will not do to rise in the stirrups, English
fashion, for we should miss each alternate tread.

How to Render Horses Obedient, 217

strides of the inner legs perceptibly, and the shorter
the radius of the circle the more perceptible is this
difference. When the rider is therefore about passing
through a corner, he will come to the young horse's aid
by urging forward the inner leg somewhat less than the
outer one ; at the same time he must bend the horse's
neck and head in the proposed direction, and therefore
he holds his inner hand somewhat lower than the outer
one, makes his own leg at the same side more perpen-
dicular, the outer one being brought well back to sus-
tain the action on that side. Now the result of all this
is, that the inner hind leg is made to bear a somewhat
increased proportion of the whole weight during the
passage of the corners as compared with the straight
line ; and, thus by changing from one hand to the other,
the young horse learns to bend his hocks in succession,
and in an easy and gradual manner. After passing
through the corner and getting on again to a straight
line, the action of the rider's legs is again equalized,
but his hands always remain in the position described,
as the horse's head must be kept slightly away from
the wall or barrier.

This process is graduated thus : first, round off the
angles in a wide sweep, then gradually narrower ; sec-
ondly, halve and then quarter the manege, by which
means the angles will come more frequently into play;
finally, convert your smallest rectangle into a circle and
wind up by diminishing its diameter, changing, of
course, from one hand to the other, in order to work
both hind legs equally.

There are two distinct means employed here : first,
the getting the horse's head and neck up and back — to
use a nautical expression again, more inboard ; second-
ly, to accustom the horse to bend its hocks and haunches
so as to take over a portion of the v>'eight. Unless
gi-eatly pressed for time, it is better not to commence
19

21 S Kestiveness : its Prevention and Cure.

both processes at once, and much preferable to devote
attention, in the first instance, to the position of tlie
horse's head and neck ; and when some progress has
been made with these, then go on to the hind legs.
Therefore the seat and the position of the rider's legs
will be at first more analogous to the English fiishion,
reverting, when the time comes, to the school position
as a matter of necessity. A certain portion of the work
of getting the horse's head and neck into position may
be very advantageously done while the animal stands
still, but no real progress can be made in getting it to
carry its burden in the desired manner unless these
bending lessons, as they are called, be immediately fol-
lowed up by brisk trotting ones ; and, for the same
reason, it is of great importance, when practicable, to
take the horse out of the school occasionally and let it
have a good straight-ahead go after the English fashion.
The dumb-jockey being much u.«f"d in this country, it
becomes necessary to say a wore' the subject. This
instrument represents a pair of ban without legs, and
therefore can at best only perform just one-half of the
work we have now under consideration, and even this
imperfectly. We must therefore call the whip to our
aid in order to supply the want of the legs, which the
whip will do, but then we can never attain the alter-
nately graduated pull on each rein successively nor
vary the pressure so readily. Moreover, the problem
to be solved being the distribution of weight, with the
dumb-jockey we can only adjust that of the animal
itself, the whole of whose equilibrium being overthrown
when the rider once gets on its back, we are then com-
pelled to begin the entire process de novo. The judg-
ment, tact and power of appreciation of a really good
rider will produce far better results, and, on the whole,
in a shorter time than the dumb-jockey ever can do,
except perhaps as a triumph of art in the circus, or for

Hotv to Render Horses Obedient. 219

the purpose of combating- some special form of vice ;
nevertheless it is evident, from what has been just said,
that this instrument maybe used with advantage by those
who wish to train on the English system. What we have
here given is merely a sketch of so much of the school
system as suffices to bring horses into obedience — in
fact, the A B C of the method — as it would lead us alto-
gether beyond the limits we have proposed to ourselves
to go farther than this into the detail of manege-riding,
even if we felt ourselves competent to do so, which is
far from being the case. Our object was to show by
what means, within almost every rider's reach, perfect
control may be obtained over the horse's head, neck
and hind legs, and this because it is by the aid of these
members of its bodv, especially the last-named ones,
that the vicious or insubordinate horse is enabled to
defy its rider.

Up to the point at which we have now arrived it will
have been most advisable to use a snaffle, either alone
or in combination with Seeger's running-rein, which
enables us, while we lift the horse's neck and head by
the upward and backward pull on the snaffle-reins, to
limit exactly the degree to which this elevation takes
place. When the neck, and with it the head, have been
got into the desired position — which is. we repeat,
always that in which the horse trots perfectly "clean"
and in "obedience" — the next step is to get the head
into its proper position witli regard to the neck, and
this is done by means of the curbed bit.

What sort of bit should be selected, and how it ought
to be put into the horse's mouth, has been already fully
explained, and all that will be further necessary to ac-
custom the horse gradually to this in precisely the way
pointed out already for getting it to accept other limita-
tions of its freedom. If all this be done carefullv, skil-
fully, above all, patiently but resolutely, the result w^ill

220 Restiveness : its Preveiitlon arid Cttre.

be a horse moving in complete obedience to the will
of the rider, at all degrees of speed, with perfect ease
to itself, and without apparent effort on the rider's part ;
for the animal will have learned to modify the propel-
ling and bearing action of its hind legs in accordance
with the pressure exercised by the rider's legs, while
the lever action of the head on the neck produced by a
properly-fitting and carefully adjusted bit being trans-
mitted directly to the anterior extremity of the spinal
column, and indirectly through the medium of the reins
toward the centre of motion^ will regulate the amount
of action most eftcctually. The two figures of Plate V.
illustrate in different senses what we have here endeav-
ored to convey by words. The upper one shows a horse
whose hind legs are subject to no efficient or direct con-
trol, the action both of the bit and of the rider's legs
being concentrated altogether on the forehand through
the diagonal tread on the stirrup and the pull on the
reins directed upward toward the rider's neck. The
lower figure, on the contrary, shows a horse whose
body moves under tlie perfect control of the rider ; the
tread on the stirrup is vertical, the pull on the reins not
far from horizontal and directed toward the rider's seat
and the common centres of gravity and motion. Both
figures sit nearly exactly on the same part of their re-
spective horses. The great difierence betv^^een the seats
lies in the position of the leg from the hip, and espe-
cially from the knee downward ; while the great difier-
ence in the carriage of tlie two horses lies in the respect-
ive positions of their necks. Some of the other plates
illustrate the same thing in different ways.

CHAPTER II.

GE*A €RAL RULES FOR THE TREATMENT OF REST-
IVENESS.

Th ri, rlrst and most important rule to be observed is,
to .xsce-r'tcdn the cause of the i'estive??ess and the
circufnsra^ces zander which it ivas Jirst displayed and
is usually repeated. This alone will frequently suffice
to suggest Xv^ p/opcr remedy, as it will also show us
how vicious habits may be best prevented, especially
with young annuals.

It is worse than useless to take your horse to the
street-corner, the cioss-roads, the bridge, the railway-
crossing or the house, etc., w^iere it is in the habit of
otTering opposition to your will, as this only leads evenl-
uall}^ to a trial of strength, in which the horse is always
superior. You must choose a more favorable ground
— namely, intelligence — in which man ought to be su-
perior to the brute creation, which, however, by no
means precludes the necessity of administering judicious
punishment when necessary, and altogether excludes
the idea of tamely truckling to the animal's insubordi-
nation.

The principal causes of restiveness are to be sought,
either in some physical defect of conformation, in the
condition of the animal, in its disj^osition or in its tem-
19 « 221

222 Restivencss : Its Prevention and Cure*

per, and sometimes in a combination of two or more of
these.

With young animals especially, defects of conforma-
tion— as weak backs, hind quarters, or something abnor-
mal about the head and neck — lead them into insubor-
dination in self-defence. Want of ability to do the
work demanded of them, in consequence of defective
condition, will produce the same effect both in young
and old horses ; starvation is, therefore, in most in-
stances, a posfitively injurious instead of a curative pro-
cess. No doubt a horse's temper may be subdued to a
certain extent by this means, but then it becomes unfit
to do work, so that nothing is gained in the end. As
regards disposition, some horses refuse their work from
sheer sluggishness ; others, again, from timidity or irri-
tability. This latter is very frequently the case with
mares, especially at certain seasons of the year, and
may be very often remedied by putting them to stud for
one or two years. It is obvious that one method of
treatment is not applicable to these very different cases.
Finally, a merely passionate temper requires different
management from a dogged one ; while sheer vice is
the most difficult of all to deal with, and usually a con-
sequence of injudicious treatment. When all this has
been well considered and the cause or causes of restive-
ncss ascertained, one can begin to work with some
chance of success, otherwise not.

The second general rule is very easily deducible from
the first — it is this : avoid giving the horse an opportu-
nity of resisting your will successfully so long as it pos-
sesses the means of doing so — that is to say, until you
have acquired, by the means already described, com-
plete control over its movements. Therefore have your
horse led into a riding-school or some enclosed space
where it has never shown restiveness, and do your work
there, and after each lesson dismount again, loosening

General Rules. 223

girths, etc., also caressing the animal, if obedient, and
avoiding to push it prematurely to the verge of resist-
ance, trusting rather to gradual progress than to violent
measures. All horses are very susceptible to, and grate-
ful for, kindness.

As an enclosed space is not always available, it will
be well to point out what can be done without it, in case
of necessity. Some horses refuse to leave their stable,
either from natural sluggishness or indisposition to leave
their companions. A man on foot armed with a whip
will often succeed in driving them away, but in this case
it is his will and not yours that has prevailed, and there-
fore little real progress is made. It is much more ad-
visable in such cases to lead the animal away to some
distance, taking with you a nosebag with some oats, of
which you give a handful now and then. You may
after a time mount your horse, and when on its back
give it a handful of oats from the saddle before attempt-
ing to go farther, getting its head, of course, in the
proper direction. If you find this not to succeed at first,
dismount again rather than risk a conflict, lead the ani-
mal out a couple of miles, and give it the whole contents
of the nosebag at some convenient place, taking each
day a diflerent road, and never feeding twice in the
same place. You may always ride home, and this will
be your opportunity for acquiring control over its neck,
head and hind legs : the more it hurries back to its sta-
ble the better will you be enabled to do this work.*

Or if it be a case of attachment to the stable compan-
ions, then put a rider on one of these, whose business it
will be to keep sometimes alongside of your own horse,
at others ahead, or again in the rear, making circuits,
riding away and returning — the nosebag with oats may

* It will be well to dismount at some little distance from the stable
and lead the horse home, never repeating this operation in exactly the
same place.

224 JR.estivc7icss : its Prcve7itio7i and Cure,

be superadded to this method of treatment ; and thus
the animal may be got and kept under wa}' constantly,
which gives the rider the desired opportunity of work-
ing it — for this is the main object to keep in view. Two
or three servants riding together, and thinking only of
their own amusement, will teach horses to cling to one
another ; or one riding the same dull constant round will
stupefy a horse into restiveness, of which it may be cured
by the above method.

But if you have an enclosed space of some kind to
work in, 25 to 30 yards long, and 15 to 20 wide, it will
be much better to use it in the first instance ; and then,
when you feel it to be safe, ride out occasionally till the
cure is complete. Of course your main object will be
to get the horse to go so772ehoiv in the first instance, and
then by degrees in obedience, the means of effecting
which have been already pointed out.

Should the restiveness be traceable to physical defects
— to weakness of the back, loins, hind legs, or to some
peculiarity of conformation of the head and neck, as is
especially the case with horses that seek to defend them-
selves by rearing or "bucking" — you must adjust your
seat very carefully, and sometimes even change your sad-
dle with that view. It is a great mistake in such cases,
under the pretext of getting what is called a good, firm
seat, to rest your whole weight on the horse's loins, by
placing yourself at one end of a long saddle, and tuck-
ing up your legs with short stirrups at the other end.
On the contrary, one must get well down into the centre
of the saddle, with somewhat of a fork seat ; and the
bringing your weight forward must be accomplished,
not by bending in that direction from your hips, which
will lose you all control over the horse's neck and head,
but by bringing the seat into the proper place.

With irritable, impatient tempers it is important to sit
as steadily as possible — a close seat is what suits them

General Rules. 225

best; they also require very careful and accurate bitting;
anything painful exasperates such horses.

So too, with horses that want to go ; indulge them
and moderate their fire gvadualh' ; whilst with sluggish
ones encouragement will suit best ; and as regards food,
let it always be in proportion to the work, and this latter
to the condition.

Of course it is impossible to lay down a ready cut-and-
dry rule applicable to the treatment of each individual
horse ; but it will be almost always advisable to have
recourse to the lounge in the first instance — if for no
other reason, because it affords the best opportunity of
seeing and studying the horse's action, and ascertaining
exactly the means by which it resists ; for instance, as
is frequently the case, by slinking back from the bridle,
and gathering up its kgs under its body and putting
up its back at the same time. In such cases it will be
best to continue the loungiffig at first on the English
principle, and subsequently after the school method de-
scribed above. If it seems advisable to get the horse's
head and neck up, the dumb-jockey will be very useful ;
if. on the contrary, these require to be brought down, it
will be useless ; and with horses inclined to rearing it
should never be used, on account of the danger of their
throwing themselves down.

When one finds the horse inclined to trot out well and
freely on the lounge, it will be time to get a rider on its
back, and then to alternate the lounging and riding les-
sons as may seem advisable until the former become
unnecessary. With i-estive horses it is, however, better
not to attempt using the lounge after the rider is on the
animal's back, but merely to detach the cord, leaving the
cavesson on their heads, and giving the rider a pair of
short reins, attached to this, into his hands, in addition
to the snaffle-reins. Except in very skillful and practiced
hands, and when both trainer and rider are accustomed

P

226 Restiveness : its Preventlo7i and Cure.

to act in unison, there is always great danger in using
the lounge in this way.

The general plan is, therefore, simply this : first loung-
ing with loose reins ; secondly, lounging with reins grad-
ually shortened until the hind legs are brought under
subjection, the horse still going free ; thirdly, riding with
loose reins ; fourthly, riding with shortened ones, varied
with bending lessons — at first, whilst standing still, then
in motion ; finally, occasional rides out and giving up
the school by degrees till it may be finally dispensed
with altogether. Patience, determined cool courage,
intelligence, kind treatment and perseverance are the
main requisites ; there is no royal road — the thing can
only be done by fair work.

There are some horses that cannot be got to go any-
ho-w^ but will either take to backing, turning sharp
round, generally on the near hind leg, rearing up, screw-
ing themselves up against a wall, climbing up houses,
or throwing themselves violently on the ground. Such
animals have been usually brutally, or at least inju-
diciously, treated, and in most cases it will be advisable
to hand them over to professionals, who should in com-
mon fairness be told the whole truth. A riding-school
is, however, not alw^ays within reach, and we must,
therefore, see what can be done with horses that have
acquired vice to this extent.

The first step to be taken in such cases is to restore
confidence^ and make the horse feel that it will 7iow be
subjected to kind and judicious treatment. This must
commence in the stable, and the foundation is best laid
by the man who feeds and cleans the animal ; and here
let it be remarked, that an example of violence or sever-
ity given by the owner or trainer but too frequently in-
duces the groom to follow it up, and should, therefore,
be very carefully avoided. If, on the contrary, the
groom succeeds in getting the horse to move about in

General Rules.

227

his stall and turn round, a good foundation is thereby
laid for the further treatment, and the trainer will do
well to follow it up himself precisely in the same man-
ner, giving the animal a handful of oats, a piece of
bread, or a lump of sugar, which most horses are very
fond of, whilst others prefer common salt. When you
have got thus far, let the groom lead the horse out into
a convenient enclosed space : at first it will be best to
put nothing further on it than a snaffle, a surcingle and
a cavesson. When on the ground^ the trainer may ap-
proach it quietly, and, giving it some tit-bit, make much
of it, and then, with the assistance of the groom, fix the
reins of the snaffle loosely to the rings of the surcingle,
and firmly attach the line to the centre ring of the ca-
vesson, carefully avoiding all compulsion. When this
has been accomplished, gather up the lounge-line in a
neat and regular coil in your left hand, so that if the
horse makes a bolt it may run out without entangle-
ment ; and seizing the line about three or four feet
from the cavesson-ring with your right hand, place
yourself in front of the horse, the groom standing behind
you.

Before proceeding further let us consider for a mo-
ment what position restive horses generally assume at
the moment they defend themselves. In almost all cases
it will be found that they gather their legs under their
body, sinking their croup, which may be seen from the
position of the tail, getting their head and neck well
down, and futti7ig their back up like an angry cat. If
the reader will now refer to Plate I., and compare this
with fig. 4, he will at once see what the object of this
position is. The horse's body is bent round the centre
of motion (fourteenth vertebra) like a bow pulled to the
archer's ear, ready to exert the whole of its elastic
power. If the arrow be once discharged, your control
over it is gone — so, too, if the horse makes the plunge

22S Rcstlveiicss: Us Prevention and Cure,

it contemplates ; therefore your first task will be to un-
string the bow.

The first stejD to this is to get the horse to stretch
itself. Try to get the head up a little ; if you meet with
opposition, give way, as if you did not perceive it, and
try again. In proportion as you get the head and neck
up gently the back will flatten down, and the horse will
move one or both hind legs backward, or one or both
fore legs forward. The horse does so merely to save
itself from falling ; you will do wisely by giving it credit
for a first act of obedience ; therefore pat its neck, rub
its head, speak kindly and give it something. If it has
only moved one hind or one fore leg, by bending the
head and neck gradually toward the other one this too
may be got backward or forward : by degrees the horse
will be got to stretch itself; the bow is unbent. It will
altogether depend on the time and trouble required to
get thus far whether the first lesson should be further
extended or not. After a quarter of an hour or twenty
minutes it will be time to reward the horse by loosing
all the straps, leaving it to the groom to lead it about
for exercise and then home. Better take the trouble of
giving two short lessons each day, after which all par-
ties remain on more friendly terms, than one long one
ending in a fight.

Having explained at length the method of proceed-
ing, it will now suffice to indicate briefly the successive
steps to be taken. When the horse has learned to stretch
itself willingly, the next object will be to get it to move
in obedience. If it refuses to go forward, by edging
over its head and neck in the proper position, it will
step sidewise to save itself from falling ; reward it again.
In a day or two it will follow your hand forward for
the sake of the oats you show it ; then by degrees it will
learn to circle with- the croup round the forehand ; you
will "unfix" the feet and flatten the back by degrees,

General Rules, 229

taking care always to stop each movement and limit its
extent with the cavesson ; real obedience is thereby
established, and the horse will soon follow you in a
wide circle, when, the assistant taking your place at its
head, you at length arrive at lounging, and proceed as
already described.

A horse that backs — and some will actually trot back-
ward— must be somewhat differently handled, but still
on the same principle : there is even less difficulty than
in the cases just now alluded to, because the animal does
move somehow. The position assumed by a backing
horse is that described above ; the remedy is, therefore,
to alter the carriage of the head and neck, getting these
uf as high as possible without violence, and the weight
being more thrown inward, the back is flattened and
the hocks bent instead of being stiflened as before. This
soon brings the animal to stand still, which, however,
should not be permitted ; on the contrary, it must be
made to go backward in obedience to the cavesson one
or two steps, the head well up ; which done, reward it
by suffering it to go ahead ; and repeat this backing pro-
cess until it goes willingly forward, when it may be
handled as already directed.

In applying this method when on the horse's back,
care must be taken to use each hand and heel (spur) in
unison, " stopping" with the latter the backward tread
of each hind leg alternately on the off and near sides,
and not suffering the horse to put one hind foot to the
ground too far away from the other, for one hock is then
sure to be stiff'. The pull on the rein must be, of course,
upward and backward at the side corresponding to the
hind leg you want to act on, and only upward at the
other side. If the rider hurries the horse back, fails to
sit perfectly upright in the saddle, and makes a muddle
of the action of his hands and heels, there will always
be danger of the horse rearing up and falling back : in
20

230 Restiveness : its Prevention and Cure,

fact, this special form of restiveness is very often called
forth by injudicious management of a backing horse ;
whilst, on the other hand, making a rearer rein back
i7i obedience is one of the best remedies we have for
rearing.

To prevent misapprehension, it is necessary to ex-
plain how it is that the spur will stop the hind leg and
limit its action, which is simply because the effect of the
spur or heel being always to make the horse advance
the hind leg at the same side when the animal is back-
ing, this becomes, in fact, equivalent to stopping it ;
whereas, when it is going forward, the contrary effect is
produced, and the stopping work done by the rein, as
already explained in the preceding chapter.

It has been shown above that, with the cavesson, it
is possible to lay the foundation for forward action by
making the horse, in the first instance, circle with his
hind quarters round the forehand. When mounted,
precisely the same method may be employed with great
success. The rider commences by lifting the horse's
neck and head with both reins until the animal's mouth
is somewhat higher than his own knee, keeping the
calves of his own legs well closed on its ribs ; then, by
a gradual shortening of one rein, say the right one, he
gets the head round till the forehead comes to be paral-
lel to the horse's backbone, and places his right hand
firmly on the saddle behind his own right knee, and so
gets a dowmuard pull on this rein, while with the left
one he keeps the horse's head and neck in the proper
position. Frequently a mere increase of pressure of
the right calf will now suffice to unfix the horse's legs
and make it circle with the croup round the fore legs,
which remain on the spot, and finally induce it to go
ahead. Of course the outer, here the left, leg of the
rider must be kept well closed up, so as to determine
the velocity at which this circling is done and the

General Rules, 23 1

extent to which it should be carried, as also to be in
perfect readiness to act in unison with the other leg,
and with both reins, to determine the horse to move
straight ahead when it evinces the disposition to do so.
But still more frequently, perhaps, the pressure of the
calf will not suffice, and then one must use the spur
freely, and this will generally succeed. Dead pulling
on the reins will not do ; the rider must increase and
diminish the pressure alternately, and always in unison
with the action of his own heels or spurs ; and this
latter should be screw-like — not stabbing or digging at
the horse's side, which involves a loosening of the hold
and accustoms a horse to wince away or flee the spur,
instead of yielding obedience to the pressure of the calf.
This is what the Germans call " wickeln" — that is to
say, winding or rolling up a horse — and, if properly
done, is very efficacious for overcoming restiveness
generally ; if employed in the nick of time, it will even
prevent rearing.

On the whole, it is evident that a key to the best
methods of mastering the horse's powers and utilizing
them fairly, whether merely for handling young ones
or for the prevention and cure of restiveness, is to be
found only in a thorough knowledge of the mechanism
of that animal's movements. This we have endeavored
to explain in Chapter I., Part I., of this book; and
those who will take the pains to compare what is said
there with what they see restive horses do, will be there-
by enabled to discover for themselves more than we can
pretend to teach them.

We would also venture to recommend the chapter
on " Seats" to the attention of rational riders and train-
ers, but especially of those who have to deal with rest-
ive horses. In that chapter we could do little more
than hint at general principles so far as they are appli-
cable to various kinds of riding; here we can lay down

232 Restiveness : its Pt'eventio?i and Cure.

positive rules for the seat and give reasons why it should
be so and not otherwise.

We have seen how a horse that meditates resistance
gets its legs under its body, coiling itself up, as it were,
round one fixed point, the fourteenth vertebra. The
nearer the rider's seat is to that point or centre of mo-
tion, the less will it be liable to disturbance from the
violent efforts that ensue. If he sits farther back to-
ward the loins, his weight being there will interfere
with his management of a rearer or a backer, and ex-
pose him directly to the action of a kicker ; if, on the
contrary, he sits close to the horse's withers, he unduly
overweights the forehand and loses most of his control
over the hind legs. Let us compare together, for in-
stance, the upper and lower figures of Plate V. on the
supposition of the horses wheeling sharp round sud-
denly ; those of Plate VI. on the supposition of their
attempting to rear or kick ; and those of Plate VII. on
that of their attempting to back against the will of their
respective riders. As to the hindermost figure of Plate
III., selected purposely to illustrate an exaggeration,
he can do nothing with his horse.

As regards the position of the rider's legs, the upper
figure of Plate V. and the lower one of Plate VI. sprawl
them out forward, and the upper one of Plate VII. side-
wise, with stiff' knees away from the horse's ribs, so that
they must alter their uohole seat when they require to
give the spur, which must be applied in this position with
a stab, instead of growing, as it w^ere, out of and being
the climax of the pressure of the calf, the importance
of which we have seen.

The position of the rider's body from the hips upward
is by no means indifferent. The getting up the horse's
head and neck to the required position demands a cer-
tain amount of fixity of the spinal column, for the work
to be done by the arms brings into play the muscles of

General Rules. 233

the entire back. The rider that comes into antagonism
with his horse is only, then, safe in his seat when his
own centres of gravity and motion fall in the same per-
pendicular line with the horse's centre of motion, other-
wise he will have to contend with the centrifugal mo-
tion by dint of muscular exertion alone.

Now, for a man standing upright, the centre of grav-
ity is in the perpendicular from the base of the skull,
and the centre of motion is at the point where this
line intersects a horizontal line drawn through both hip-
joints. If the rider sits upright on his "triangle" (as
explained above), and in the middle of his saddle, this
being in the right place, his legs will, unless the stir-
rups obstruct, come of themselves into such a position
that his own centres of gravity and motion will be
directly over and very close to the centre of motion of
the horse. What Englishmen are pleased to call " a
stuck-up seat" may be the result, perhaps, especially
if the rider be awkward ; but it is not a question of
taste or fashion, but of attaining certain definite ob-
jects which remain otherwise unattainable ; for no one
will pretend that the position assumed by the hunting
man for the purpose of making his horse throw its
weight on the fore legs, with its head and neck well
down and extended^ can also serve the exactly opposite
purpose we have in view in the correction of vicious
animals.

A word with regard to the whip and its use will not
be out of place. The etTect of this instrument depends
altogether on the part of the horse's body to which it
is applied and the way in which it is used. One or tw^o
strokes, given at the proper moment and in the right
place, will sometimes work wonders, while a severe
flogging almost always does mischief. It has been
pointed out that in lounging the whip may be made to
do the work which the rider does with his legs and
20*

234 Restiveness : its Prevetition and Cure,

spurs, and that, for this purpose, it should always be
applied under the horse's chest, about where the girth
lies, and never to the buttocks or hind legs, as this
usually ends in kicking. The same rule applies equally
to the riding-whip ; but this may be also used to great
advantage on the horse's shoulders — as, for instance,
in cases where the horse is preparing to rear — the effect
being to unfix its fore legs from the ground and make it
put them forward, just as, when applied under the
belly, it brings the hind legs in the same direction.
Therefore it is absurd, when a horse defends itself by
gathering its legs under it, to strike it under the belly,
whereas one or two strokes smartly applied to the
shoulders may probably have the effect of getting the
fore legs stretched ahead. The promptness and rapid-
ity with which the stroke is given, wherever applied,
determines, to a great extent, its value ; for if the horse
sees it coming, it will flinch away if possible, just as it
does from a far-fetched stab with the spur ; and it can
do this much more easily with the hind quarters than
with its forehand, which is precisely the reason why a
flogging — that is, repeated blows aimed at the same
place — is generally useless, to say the least, while one
or two on the shoulders tell at once. The manner of
holding the whip or rod has much to do with this. We
have often been amused at hearing would-be sportsmen
turn Continental riders to ridicule for holding their
whips or switches with the point upward, as if they
only wanted to imitate a sabre, whereas this is in reality
the position from which a quick, smart stroke on the
shoulders can be most effectually applied ; for if the
point be held downward, it must be first brought up
and then again down, so that it probably comes too late.

CHAPTER III.

SPECIAL FORMS OF RESTIVENESS.

IN the preceding chapter the general method of treat-
ing restiveness has been sketched in outline ; what
is there put forward will be found applicable to nearly
all cases, and also suffice for the cure of most forms of
disobedience. There are, however, some others which,
in addition, require special methods of treatment, espe-
cially when they have become inveterate ; and these
are — bolting or running away, bucking or plunging,
rearing and kicking.

Bolting. — The first step to be taken is to ascertain
why the horse bolts. A nervous and excitable temper-
ament is sometimes the cause, and the only remedy will
be quiet and judicious treatment. Much more fre-
quently, however, bolting is resorted to by horses that
have some physical defect or peculiarity of conforma-
tion, as a means of avoiding what gives them great
pain ; in fact, it is frequently rather an effort of despair
than anything else, and an evidence that something has
been demanded of the animal that was beyond its
strength.

Fig. 7 shows the heads and necks of two runaway
horses ; in the one case the animal's nose is poked
straight out — in the other, the chin comes back so as

235

236 Restheness: its Pi-evention and Cure,

nearly to touch the breast ; In both it escapes altogether
the action of the mouthpiece ; but the difference of po-
sition assumed points to a corresponding difference of
conformation. The undermost figure shows that the
way in which the head is set on the neck, and the build
of both, offer no obstacle in themselves ; and the pre-
sumption is, therefore, that there is something weak or
defective in the loins, hind quarters or legs. On the
other hand, in the upper figure there is evidence that
such obstacles do exist in the head and neck, the hind
quarters being, perhaps, very powerful. In a word,
horses with short necks, narrow jaws and ill set-on
heads, or, again, with long, unstable necks, endeavor
to escape the pain occasioned by injudicious attempts
to force these into a certain shape bj- running away in
the position of the upper figure ; while those with well-
formed heads and necks will, if their hind quarters be
weak, usually adopt that of the lower one — the getting
down of the head alone bringing the weight well on to
the fore legs, and consequently easing the weak part.
It sometimes happens that there are defects at both ends,
and want of judgment or temper in the rider will easily
drive such a poor, weak creature to despair ; for those
who have had much experience with young horses
must have remarked that the powerful and well-built
ones seldom take to bolting unless there is something
wrong with their tempers.

The first impulse of the great majority of riders whose
horses bolt is, to put a sharper bit into their mouths, or
at least to shorten the curb, and perhaps rig the horse
out with some sort of martingal or running-reins that
gives them a good hold of the head, to secure which
more effectually they plant their feet firmly in the stir-
rups, probably at the same time throwing their own
weight as far back as possible toward the horse's loins.
Energy is an admirable thing, but the energy of stu-

special Forms of Restlvcncss. 237

pidity seldom avails much ; and the above plan of pro-
ceeding is nearly sure to make matters worse and con-
vert a terrified animal into a vicious one. For whether
the anguish the poor horse endeavors to escape from
has its seat in the hind quarters or in the head and
neck, severe bitting is sure to aggravate it, and a rude,
hard hand will do the same. The best, in fact the only
remedy for a bolter is, a very carefully-fitted and well-
adjusted bit, a perfectly painless curb, a light hand, and
last, but not least, a very firm, steady seat, somewhat
forward with horses that have weak hind quarters.

It is always a good plan to put a bolter on the lounge,
not, indeed, as is generally done, with the idea of letting
it exhaust itself, for weakness is more frequently the ex-
citing cause than strength, but for the purpose of study-
ing carefully its action, and finding out by degrees in
what position or trim it will go steadily and quietly in
diii'erent paces. The object will be, of course, with a
horse that is weak behind, to train it on the forehand, get-
ting its neck just suf^ciently high up to prevent its being
able, when the bit is apphed, to bend its head round
toward the hand, so as to escape altogether the lever
action of that instrument, but, on the other hand, not so
high or so far back as to throw the weight on the hind
legs. This will also afford a key as to the dimensions
of the lower bar of the bit.

With a short-necked, narrow-throated, heavy-headed,
perhaps straight-shouldered horse, possessing good ser-
viceable hind quarters, the first object will be to get these
to bear the weight gradually in the manner indicated in
a previous chapter. This will, of course, require a
higher and gradually ascending position of the neck ;
but as the difficulty probably arises in the junction of
the head with this part of the body, no attempt should
be made to bend the nose downward, for that is what
annoys the horse. The best gear will be a bearing-rein

238 Restiveness : its Prevention and Cure,

like that used for carriage-horses, but with the rings as
close under the horse's ears as possible, so as to lift the
neck unbent at the part known as the poll. In both
cases the dumb-jockey is useful if judiciously employed.

vSubsequently, when the horse has learned to bend its
hocks, you may bit it with a light well-fitted bit, wdiich
will bend the neck downward without altering the junc-
tion with the head ; in fact, what is technically termed
"a false bend" will be attained, which, however, suf-
fices to render the animal controllable so long as the
rider preserves the mastery over its hind legs by keep-
ing his ow^n close to its body. In riding such horses, it
is useful, when you find them beginning to rush, to
bring them by gentle 7neans to stand still, throwing
your own body, from the hips upward, somewhat for-
ward, and easing the reins altogether for a moment ;
whereas the common practice of unskillful riders is to
throw themselves back and pull like grim death.

Reining back may also be employed, but not with
horses that are weak behind, nor otherwise than in a
proper position, so that the horse retires gently — the con-
trary of backing, and never as a punishment Generally
it will be preferable to stand still, and encourage the
horse, by feeling its mouth, to champ the mouthpiece,
when the stitihess of the head and neck will gradually
relax, and it may be put in motion again.

Here it may be well to say what the rider should do
if his horse runs away with him. The general impres-
sion seems to be that the safest thing is merely to en-
deavor to keep the animal straight till it gets tired of
galloping, and keep one's own seat as long as possible ;
consequently the rider plants his feet as firmly as he can
in the stirrups, and shoves these out toward the horse's
shoulders in order to get fixed points from which he can
have a dead pull on the reins, and of course his body,
from the hips upward, goes to the rear, right over the

special Porms of Restiveness. 239

horse's loins. Now, although this method of proceed
ing suggests itself very naturally, it is nevertheless all
wrong, as, indeed, must be quite clear to those readers
who have read the preceding pages with any degree of
attention ; for whether the difficulty has its seat in the
horse's hind quarters, or in the throat and neck, it is
sure to be aggravated in this way ; besides, that one can
seldom reckon upon having room enough to try this
experiment without encountering some obstacle or a
•iharp corner, that brings horse and rider down with a
smash.

Let us take the case of a horse running away in a field
or open space, in the first instance, as being more easy
to deal with. Here the principal object must be to take
your horse off the straight line and on to a circle — at
first, of course, a wide one, but by degrees gradually
narrowing. On a circle one has room enough even for
the tiring process, seeing that it never ends, but the
thing is to know how to get and keep the horse on to it.
In the first place, then, it requires simply coolness and
self-possession sufficient to enable the rider to sit well
down in his saddle, bringing his legs well back and
keeping his body upright — the legs being required there
to regulate the action of the horse's hind legs in the
manner already described, whilst the upright position
of the body afibrds a basis from which the arms can
work. Next, instead of pulling a dead pull on both
reins alike, the rider must take intermittent pulls on the
one at the side he wishes to turn toward, gradually in-
creasing the strength of the pull, and then as gradually
relaxing to begin again ; holding the other rein merely
" counter," so that the pressure shall be exerted only
through the mouthpiece, whatever the bit may be, and
not through any other portion of it, which would be
useless. This intermittent pull on the rein must, how-
ever, be always accompanied by a similar pressure of

240 Kt\tivc7icss : its Prevention arid Cure,

the leg, or, if necessary, spur, at the same side^ the
I'ider's hand and leg acting in perfect unison ; and this
will never fail to turn the horse gradually, just as is re-
quired. The circle affords, however, not merely an
opportunity for avoiding dangerous obstacles ; its great
value is, that it also enables the rider, by gradually ob-
taining command over his horse, to demonstrate to the
latter the utter futility of its attempt to get rid of him
by running awa}'-, and that, too, without violence or
severity. One single attempt at bolting away, if taken
advantage of in this manner by a judicious rider, may
prove the means of effectually subduing a troublesome
animal. On the other hand, such a rider will abstain
carefully from driving his horse to run away.

It is more difficult to manage a horse that runs away
on the roads or in the streets of a town, because the
rider is more or less compelled to follow straight lines.
He can, however, unless the road be very narrow in-
deed, by using the rein and leg at each side alternately^
compel the runaway to move on a serpentine, which is
nothing more nor less than a series of curves alternating
to the right and left, which will also enable him to clear
dangerous corners; one of these, indeed, if well taken,
ma}^ possibly afford him an opportunity of gaining the
mastery ; in fact, it will be found that most runaways
are stopped after turning a corner.

The special management of the horse's head will, of
course, in all cases, depend on whether it is carried too
high or too low : if the former, the object will be to get
it down ; if the latter, to get it up. The presumption
being that the horse that runs away with its head up has
no special defect in the hind quarters or legs, the rider
may attack these more energetically, which requires his
own leg to be in the right place, and the horse's head to
be brought round somewhat to the same side. Now,
although a dead pull downward with both reins together

special Foi'ms of Restivcncss. 241

will seldom bring the head down, an intermittent pull
on one rein will bring it to one side, after which it will
come down, the horse not being then able to stiffen its
neck at both sides. With the horse that carries its head
too low, the presumption being to the contrary of what
is stated above, the rider must use his own legs more
cautiously, and whilst he endeavors to bend the horse's
head to one side with one rein, he will try to work it
zipzaard with the other. This, of course, must be done
with the bridoon if the horse be bitted, otherwise with
the snaffle-rein ; indeed, it will be found that bringing
the bit and bridoon alternately into action is preferable
to using them simultaneously. It should be scarcely
necessary to add that the rider's weight must be always
thrown somewhat into the stirrup at the side you wish
to turn the horse toward, which is difficult when the
stirrups are hung very far from the seat.

Bucking- or Plu7tgi7ig. — In bucking, the horse gath-
ers its legs under its body, puts its back up and its head
down, and then commences a series of see-saw move-
ments, throwing itself from the hind to the fore legs in
rapid succession, either without moving forward or in a
succession of bounds, which latter, however, is more
properly plunging. It occurs usually with young horses,
and is much less common with English ones than with
some foreign breeds, especially the Russian steppe
horses. Sometimes very tight girthing, or too heavy a
load on the horse's back, will cause it to buck ; or the
attempt to screw it up too suddenly into school form.
The best method of handling young horses that have
acquired this vice is on tiie lounge with the dumb-jocke}^
the gi'eat object being to get them to move forward, and
prevent the head coming down. As the bucking or
plunging usually commences when the horse is put into
a trot, it should be kept as long as possible at a walk oil
the circle, which is best effected by letting a man go
21 Q

242 Restiveness : its Prevc/itio/i and Cure,

iilongside its head, holding the bridle, if necessary.
The reins should not be buckled tight, as " forcing" a
bucker will often make it throw itself down or rear up
and fall back. For the same reason, if it does begin to
buck, just let it tire itself out, and when it is well
wearied, one or two smart blows of the whip applied
under its chest by the assistant will make it go ahead,
and thus, by degrees, it will give up the habit.

If a horse takes to bucking or plunging under the
rider, his object should be to make it go ahead by a few
smart strokes of the whip on the shoulders, even at the
risk of its running away, which he can meet in the man-
ner described above ; and this will even give him an
opportunity of getting the head up, by first bending the
neck to one side. It is, of course, absurd to sit far back
on a bucker, sticking out the legs in front ; a man that
does so will be shot oft' over the horse's ears at the first
or second plunge. The seat must be central, and the
rider's back as straight as possible, although the natural
tendency is to round it ; the rider's weight, too, must be
thrown " into his heels," right under his seat ; this is
the only chance of "• sitting out a bucker."

Rearing is the most dreaded form of vice that occurs,
and therefore the dodge that cunning horses resort to
most frequently, as they at once perceive that the rider
is afraid of it. Still it is by no means so difficult to
conquer effectually as is generally supposed ; no doubt
a very courageous and cool-tempered rider alone can
hope to succeed.

Rearing would occur much less frequently if it were
well understood that it is almost always the last stage
of disobedience, and veiy seldom, if ever, the first. In
fact, its occurrence is evidence of injudicious manage-
ment of some kind, either from untrained horses being
brought into positions for which they are as yet un-
fitted, or from something being demanded of them that

special Fo7'ms of Restivcncss, 243

was beyond their power ; or from the rider not know-
ing how to recognize and subdue the very first symp-
toms of disobedience ; or, finally, from his using violent
and intemperate methods of doing so.

We have already pointed out how bad management
of a backing or bucking horse may end in rearing; but
bringing a remount, or sometimes even an old horse,
into the company of other horses, and then trying to
get it away against its will, will often do the same ; or
wanting to force a horse over a jump it does not like,
etc., etc. Now let us see what a horse does with itself
immediately before it actually does rear up. The rider
is perhaps just congratulating himself how nicely he is
getting along, when all of a sudden he feels as if the
horse had collapsed under him ; his seat is " nowhere ;"
its head or mouth has shrunk away from the feeling on
the mouthpiece, and it has got its legs under its body,
and is come to a dead stand-still — the rider usually,
unless his scat be correct, falling forward witli his
body, which of course makes matters worse. Then
most riders will give a great dig with their heels or
spins just anywhere they can get at the horse, or per-
haps a blow with their whip, whereupon the animal
elevates itself on its hind legs and becomes a rearer
If the spurs, or even the whip, had been applied in
proper time — that is to say, before the horse came to a
stand-still — there would have been some use in them,
and it would probably never have come to rearing at all.
But if a man's legs are spread far away from the horse's
sides, and he thinks proper not only to dangle his reins,
but to sit with his back rounded in the so-called "know-
ing fashion," he will then have no '•'feeling in his seat,"
and is consequently quite ignorant of what his horse is
gohig to do^ and of course must come too late v*'ith both
spurs and whip, if he happen to possess these imple-
ments. An immense majority of rearers learn this vice

244 Rcstivencss : its Prevention and Cure,

when being ridden about in a slovenly manner by
young riders or grooms ; a man that keeps a lively feel
of his horse with both his hand and heels, and pays
attention to the pla}' of its ears and to every variation
of its pace, will seldom, if ever, let it come to rearing,
because the moment he detects the least slackness he
will at once apply the proper remedy, which will be to
make the horse come up to the mouthpiece at once ; but
then his own legs must be well closed up to enable him
to do so.

If you have ascertained that the trick of rearing was
first practiced somewhat after the manner described
above, you may very reasonably hope to cure your horse
without much difficulty. The animal must be led^ ready
saddled and bridled, into a riding-school, or some en-
closed space of convenient dimensions, in order to avoid
giving it an opportunity for attempting disobedience on
the way thither. The rider will then mount, and begin
by riding quietly roimd about at a walk, not as if he
were merely wanting to see whether the horse would
rear or not, but with the very distinct idea constantly
before his eyes of getting it in the first instance well up to
the mouthpiece, so as to have a firm leaning, recollect-
ing always that this will depend quite as much on his
own legs as on those of the horse ; after which he will
proceed to correct the carriage or " form " of the animal
in the way described in the introductory chapter to Part
III., halting occasionally, bending the neck and head ;
and, finally, when he finds that he has got a hold of his
horse between his own legs and the reins — that is to sa}',
feels that he is the regulator of the steed's movements at
a walk — he may urge it gradually into whatever trot it
pleases to go itself, and subsequently bring it into the
form he himself pleases ; in fact, he will re-train it till
it is in perfect obedience, when there will be no more
danger of its rearing — under a good rider at least.

special Forms of Restiveness. 345

Should the horse, during this period of training, ** try
on" his old tricks, the rider must be prepared for it,
watching its movements attentively, and especially all
slackening or cringing in its paces, which should be
promptly attacked, though not roughly. Acting merely
on the defensive is quite out of place in handling vicious
horses ; one must meet them boldly. One or two
promptly administered cuts of the whip over the shoul-
ders will frequently nip any renewed attempt at rearing
in the bud. With all restive horses, but more especially
with rearers, it is essential that the regular seat should
not be in the least disturbed by the necessity for using
either whip or spur. A seat that may do admirably
well for riding a willing horse over the stiflest countiy
in England may be perfectly useless for the sort of work
described here.

Horses that have become confirmed rearers, and fre-
quently thrown themselves back with the rider, will re-
quire great caution, and must be handled in a somewhat
more methodical manner, though still on the same prin-
ciple. We have shown what the horse does when it is
preparing to rear ; let us now for a moment look at it in
the act of rearing. After slinking away from the rider's
hand and seat, so that he loses all hold of it, the animal
suddenly stiflens its hocks, throwing its whole weight
on them, and at the same moment stiflens also its neck,
and especially the throat, somewhat in the position
shown by the upper horse in fig. 7? so that it becomes
quite impossible to get a downward pull at it, and thus
defies the rider most completely. It is always the same
story — stiffened hocks and a stifl' neck.* Tlie safest way
of managing confirmed rearers is on the lounge, without

* In the English method of handh'ng horses little attention is paid
to the horse's hocks or neck ; while, on the contrary, the pasterns are
severely worked, which is precisely the reason why school methods
must be employed for rearers.
21 *

3i6 Restlveness : its Prevention and Cure,

the dumb-jocke}^, which would be very likely to injure
the horse severely in case of its throwing itself back.
Of course the reader will at once perceive that the gen-
eral plan of treatment will consist in getting the animal
to bend its hocks and neck in the manner already de-
scribed above ; and we may, therefore, confine our ob-
servations here to what should be done when it actually
does rear, which will be usually at the moment one
attempts to put it into a trot on the circle ; for which
reason bending lessons, when halted or at a walk, must
be persevered in at first. Supposing, now, the horse
to be on the lounge, and suddenly to stop and rear up,
the trainer, wlio must have an assistant that knows well
how to use the whip, should shorten the line in coils in
his left hand, holding it firmly in the right, just long
enough to keep him clear of the horse's fore legs should
it make a plunge forward, and placing himself exactly
opposite to the animal's head, so that, by stepping back
a pace or two, he is sure to retain a good " feeling " on
the line when its fore legs again touch the ground, the
assistant with the whip stepping meanwhile smartly up
behind the animal. The trainer should, in this position,
merely keep a feeling on the line, as one would with a
heavy salmon, never attempting to pull the horse's head
forcibly downward or to jerk at the lounge, as the steady
pull would only serve to make it lean on your hand and
persist so much the longer in rearing, whilst a sudden
drag is very likely to knock it over — a thing to be avoided
if possible. One must wait patiently, watching atten-
tively the horse's movements, and taking care always to
preserve his own position, so as to be ready when the
moment for action arrives. But the assistant with the
whip should meanwhile deliver a few heavy, deliberately-
aimed blows on the animal's buttocks — not striking
wildly, but taking care to hit one and the same spot re-
peatedly, and watching anxiously for the moment when

special Forms of Restiveness, 347

the rearer shows signs of getting tired of standing on its
hind legs, and is about to go down. This is the mo-
ment at which the last and most effective cut of the whip
should be inflicted ; and this, too, is the moment for the
trainer to give a short sharp drag on the lounge down-
ward ; and if the whip has been applied at the right
moment, the horse will have been compelled to obey
the lounge, the trainer's master^' will have been asserted,
and if the horse ever again attempts to rear during
lounging, a very gentle pull of the cavesson on its nose
reminds it of its previous defeat, and will probably en-
sure obedience ; if not, the lesson must be repeated in
the same manner.

Should one or the other hind leg appear to be giving
way, as often happens, while the horse stands erect, the
trainer should give a good smart pull on the lounge to
the same side, which will throw the animal flat on its
side, instead of allowing it to fall on its back, which is
always attended with danger. Sometimes, no doubt, a
fall of the latter kind will cure the animal for ever ; but
it is better, for many reasons, that the horse, having lost
the power of maintaining itself and offering further
opposition to the trainer's will, should be compelled to
take the inevitable fall in the direction he prescribes.

Most horses, when they do at length consent to bring
their fore legs to the ground, especially if the whip has
been vigorously applied at the proper moment, will make
a sudden plunge forward, w hich is so much the better ;
the trainer must then step smartly to one side — the ofl'
one, if possible — and catch the horse cannily in mid-air
with the lounge, handling it quickly and neatly, and
taking especial care not to stumble into the slack coils
in his left hand. This manoeuvre, if well carried out,
will aflbrd complete mastery, and render the animal per-
fectly obedient once for all. All that remains to be done
is to get the horse to stand still, the trainer shortening

248 Restlvcncss : its Pi'eve?itlo7i and Cure.

the lounge by degrees, and getting in front of the head,
and the assistant placing himself behind the trainer's
back, and putting his whip out of sight ; then '' make
much" of the animal, give it a handful of oats or a bit
of something nice, loosen the reins and girths and send
it back to the stable. Horses have excellent memories,
and sufficient intelligence to understand that they have
been rew^arded for obedience, and that their attempt at
having their ov^^n way has failed. This is a main point
to keep steadfastly in view with all restive animals:
avoid getting defeated yourself, and be kind and gener-
ous to the vanquished. Of course this would only be a
first step in the cure ; to make it perfect the horse must
be re-trained or handled from beginning to end in the
way already pointed out.

As it sometimes happens that a man is taken com-
pletely by surprise, a horse rearing that has never shown
any previous symptoms of restiveness, it will be well to
point out what should be done in such a case. It requires
presence of mind and great coolness, also a really firm
seat, wholly independent of the stirrups on the one hand
and the reins on the other, to enable one to deal with a
rearer; but the thing can be done, and without much
danger, except on pa\ ement or a slippery surface, where
it is better not to attempt a contest. When the horse
stops with the intention of rearing, it first withdraws its
mouth from the action of the reins by getting its head
more or less into the position shown by the low^er head,
fig. 7 ; but when it begins to elevate itself on its hind
legs, it assumes the exactly opposite position, shown by
the upper head of the same figure, which, of course,
equally enables it to defy the action of the mouthpiece.
The advice usually given is to slacken the reins alto-
gether ; but this is simply " plaNing into the horse's
hand," because its object is precisely to defeat the rider's
hand, first by slinking awa}- from it, and finally by re-

special Forms of Restiveness, 249

sisting it openly. Evidently this advice is dictated by
the apprehension that the rearing up of the horse, de-
priving the rider of the usual support of the knees and
stirrups, will lead him to seek this in the reins, and so
pull the horse over backward ; and no doubt this will
prove correct for the great majority of riders.* But if
a man sits to his saddle by his thighs, and has his own
body in balance, there need be no such apprehension ;
and if he then has only presence of mind sufficient to
preserve a feeling with the reins during the time the
horse's head is passing from the position shown by the
lower to that shown by the upper head, fig. 7, there
will be a moment when it will be in the intermediate
position (see fig. 6, middle head), and the animal's back-
bone will then also have assumed an angle, not greater
than 45 degrees, with the horizon ; the hocks, therefore,
will be still bent somewhat (refer to Plate I. and fig. 4
to realize the mechanism of the hind leg). This is the
moment to screw both spurs as forcibly as possible into
the horse's sides^ the effect of which is, as we know, to
bend the hocks, if the hand be held counter ; therefore
the animal will, in nine cases out often, make a plunge
forward, and having preserved throughout a proper de-
gree of feeling with the reins, the rider will be enabled
to catch the horse in the air and bring it to the ground,
so that the hind legs should touch this, if possible, a mo-
ment sooner than the fore ones, or at least so that they
should get the greater part of the shock. This is in
itself a very severe correction, and one \}i\2^\. good school-
riders apply with great effect with other forms of insub-
ordination, not hesitating even to provoke an attempt at
rearing in order to have the opportunity ; if it be well
done it may perhaps suffice once for all.

* The very fact of the horse ever getting the length of rearing is
presumptive evidence of the rider's legs being in the wrong place at
the time.

*5o Restiveness : its Prevention and Cure.

It may, however, happen tliat the horse has contrived
to stick out its head (top one, fig. 7) and stiffen its hocks
completely, so as to enable it to stand upright before
the rider has made up his mind what to do. Well, even
then the game is not lost, if only the rider has a seat
and patience to wait, just as in the lounging process, till
he feels his steed coming down out of the clouds, which
it is sure to do some time or another, when, if his hands
and legs are right, he will be ready to act as described
in the preceding paragraph on the horse getting down
to 45 degrees. In case the rider finds the horse actually
fiilling, either directly backward or to one side, let him
throw himself oft' with a vigorous push of both hands, so
as to get clear. This we have done ourselves more than
once ; but the trainer misses an opportunity by being
driven to this extremity.

Kicki7tg. — There is a difference between kicking and
kicking. One horse will kick in harness, and not under
a rider ; another will do just the reverse. The former is
probably extremely ticklish and sensitive to anything
coming in contact with its hind quarters ; mares are fre-
quently so, especially in spring. The latter will prob-
ably have some weakness in the loins or hind quarters
that is rendered painful when weight is put on its back.
When this vice proceeds from natural causes of this de-
scription, there is no help for it but to employ the horse
in whichever way it is content to do its work quietly.
Again, one horse will kick at the spurs, another at the
whip ; of course the exciting cause, whatever it be, must
be avoided.

But something can be done with young horses that
simply take to kicking during the handling ; very fre-
quently the trainer has made some mistake, or been in
too great a hurry, or put the saddle too far back, or
girthed the animal too suddenly or too tightly. All this

special For7us of Restiveness* 251

should be, in the first place, well inquired into and
ascertained, and the vice will disappear with its exciting
cause. There are, however, some young ones that take
to kicking simply because they don't choose to go.
These should be put on the lounge with the dumb-
jockey, which will prevent their getting their heads
doivn^ what a kicking horse always attempts to do. If
the horse stops on the circle and begins to kick, the
trainer should proceed precisely in the same manner as
with the rearer — that is, after shortening the lounge,
and placing himself in front of the animal, simply wait
patiently. Meanwhile the assistant with the whip must
place himself behind the kicker, and holding a suffi-
ciently long whip in readiness, wait till the horse has
extended its hind legs to their utmost stretch. This is
the momeitt to apply a good stroke of the lash just under
the animal's belly, taking care never to hit the hind legs,
nor to strike at all except at the moment these are fully
extended. The effect is perfectly astounding, and a few
well-delivered strokes will generally make the kicker
only too anxious to get away from the whip, and go
ahead quietly. Some horses w^ill, however, when baf-
fled in this way, cease kicking, but still refuse to move
forward. The trainer must then proceed to " unfix their
feet" in the manner described in Chapter II., Part III.,
or make them rein back gradually. Other horses will,
perhaps, take to "running" backward. All one can
then do is to follow them quietly, merely keeping their
heads straight, so tliat they should not run up against a
wall or the like, but always taking care not to press so
heavily on the lounge as to throw the animal's weight
071 the fore legs, as this, of course, will be a good oppor-
tunity to renew the kicking. When the horse gets tired
of backing, it will stop of its own accord. This moment
must be attentively watched for by the assistant with
the whip, who should then " pitch in " a dexterous stroke

252 Restlvetiess : its Prevention and Cure,

under the belly, and this will generally suffice to get the
animal to go forward.

In conclusion, it (^nnot be too strongly impressed on
the minds of those who undertake to handle restive
horses that very little can be done by main force, no-
thing at all by cruel or even severe treatment, whereas
everything may be fairly hoped from patience, judg-
ment and kindness. It is especially in this department
of riding that the truth of our Horatian motto, " Vis
consili expers mole ruit sua," verifies itself. One can
almost fancy that the passage was suggested to the Latin
poet by having seen some Roman rough-rider dragging
a rearing horse over on himself.

^^

INDEX.

Amgui of rein with bit, 166.
Apperley, Mr., on seat, 86, 87.

Bars of bit, 162.

Bars of mouth, 133, 134.

Basis of seat, triangular, 78.

Baucher. 19, 115.

Bearing, line of, 164.

Bit, place of, in mouth, i6g.

Bit, trial, 193.

Bitting, importance to cavalry, 120.

Blanket, 69.

Blinds to bridles, 121.

Bobbing up and down, 88.

Bolting, 235.

Bone, Monboddo, 78.

Bones, sitting, 78.

Breastplate, 71.

Bridoon, 188.

Broken knees, 18, 93.

Bucking, 241.

Cadence of horses' paces, 43-46,
Campaign school, 95.
Canter, hoof-tracks in, 41.
Carriage of cavalry horses, 141, 142.
Causes of restiveness, 227.
Cavalry bitting, 120.
Cavalry-horse's load, 99, loo.
Cavalry pack, 105.
Cavalry riding, natural, 138.
Centre of gravity, 33.
22

Centre of motion, 32, 5*
Channel, tongue, 137.
Chin-groove, 132.
Corns, 93.
Cruppers, 70.
Curb-hooks, 172.
Curb, length of, 171.
Curb, place of, 171.

Direction of pull on reins, 124.
Dumb-jockey, 220.
Dumpy bit, 181.

English method of handling, 205.
Equilibrium at rest, 37.
Equilibrium in motion, 52.

Falling through, 163, 164.
Feet as bearers, 37.
Feet as propellers, 37.
Feltplate, 69.
Flap, saddle, 68.
French cavalry, 19

Gallop, hoof-tracks in, 41.
Girth, place of, in saddle, 61, 62,
Girth, place of, on horse, 63.
Groove, chin, 132.

Halter, training, 151.
Handling, English method, 205.
Handling, rational, 116.

253

254

Index,

Handling, school method, 210.

Hard mouth, 112, 113.

Head and neck, Bancher's position of,

"5-
Head and neck, overhanging, 49.
Head, Sir F., on seat, 84, 85.
Hoof-tracks, 41.
Hook-curb, 172.
Horse-breaking, 116.
Hungarian saddle, 58, 102, 103.
Hunting seat, 83.

Jaw, lower, 131.
Jockey, dumb, 220.
Jockey's saddle and seat, 81.
Jointed mouthpieces, 178.

Kicking, 250.

Length of bars of bit, 162.
Length of curb, 171.
Length of stirrup, 66, 67.
Lever action in saddles, 59.
Levers, orders of, 158.
Line of bearing, 163.
Load of cavalry horse, 99, 100.
Load of sumpter-horse, 97.
Lounging, 212.
Lower jaw, 131.

Marochetti's statuettes, 107.
Military seat, 94-108.
Monboddo bone, 78.
Mouth-gauge, igi.
Mouthpiece, 173-182,
Mouth, width of, 135,

Narrow throat, 129.

Neck and head, Baucher's position,

"5.
Neck and head, overhanging, 49.
Noseband, 15a

Orders of levers, 158,

Pack, cavalry, 105.

Pelham, 179.

Place of the bit in horse's mouth, 169.

Place of the curb, 171.
Place of the girth, 61-63.
Place of the saddle, 59-61.
Plate, felt, 69.
Plunging, 241.

Port of mouthpiece, 173, 174,
Position of stirrup, 64-66.
Pull on the reins, 124-

Rach-horse weights, 100, loi.
Rearing, 242.
Reins, running, 154.
Restiveness, causes of, 222.
Riding, natural cavalry, 138.
Road-riding, 87.

Saddle-flaps, 68.

Saddle, Hungarian, 58, 102, 103.

Saddle, lever action in, 59.

Saddle, place of, 59-61.

School method of handling, 210.

Seat, good and bad, Mr. Apperley on, 86

87.
Seat, hunting, 83.
Seat, jockey's, 81.
Seat, military, 94-108.
Seat, " tongs across a wall," 87, 96.
Seat, wabh-ball, 84.
Short shoeing, 93.
Sitting-bones, 78.
Skeleton of horse, 23.
Snaffle, 147.
Snaffle, twisted, 149.
Soft and hard mouth, 111-113.
Standing stifi^ 163.
Statuettes, Marochetti's, 107.
Steppers, short and long, 44
Stirrup, length of, 66, 67.
Stirrup, position of, 64-66.
Strangles, 130.
Sumpter-horse load, 97.
Surcingle, 62, 63.
Surface of saddle, 68.

Throat, narrow, 1*9,
"Tongs across a wall," 87, 96,
Tongue-cliannel, 137.
Trager, 91.

Training-halter, 151.
Trial-bit, 193.

Triangular basis of seat, 78.
Trim of a boat, 48.
Trim of a loaded cart, 47.
Trot, li oof-marcs in, 41.
Trotting, 90.
Twisted snaffle, 149.

Index.

Unfixing horse, 228.

Wash-ball seat, 84.
Weight for race-horses, 100, 101.
Whip, use of, 213-215.
Width of mouth, 135.
Winding up a horse, 231.

'd:)

THE END.

Webster Family Library of Veterinary Medicto

Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine at

Tufts University

200 Westboro Road

Morm Grafton, MA 01S36

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