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— 1894

1820

CEORCE WALL

j

Loiwvrnnmoie’

NOTICE.

Tuis publication is issued from the Colombo Museum, and
copies can be obtained by applying to the Director, Colombo
Museum.
JOSEPH PEARSON,

Editor.

Aye | s a ie
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b¢6 OPHIDIA TAPROBANICA

OL WW:

OR THE

By FRANK WALL, C.M.G.,

Corresponding Member of the Zoological Society of London,
Honorary Correspondent of the Zoological Survey of India,
Fellow of the Linnean Society of London,

Fellow of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.

Colonel, Indian Medical Service.

Author of ““ The Poisonous Terrestrial Snakes of Our British
Indian Dominions (including Ceylon).

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THIS WORK IS DEDICATED IN AFFECTIONATE REMEMBRANCE TO

MY FATHER,
THE LATE
GEORGE WALL
(1820 To 1894).

RECIPIENT OF THE COBDEN GOLD MEDAL FOR PHILANTHROPY,
FELLOW OF THE ROYAL ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON,
FELLOW OF THE LINNEAN SOCIETY OF LONDON,

WHO DEVOTED MANY LEISURE HOURS OF A LONG AND BUSY LIFE
TO THE INTERESTS OF CEYLON,

FOR MANY YEARS MEMBER OF THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL
OF CEYLON.

VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE CEYLON BRANCH OF THE ROYAI
ASIATIC SOCIETY, CHAIRMAN OF THE PLANTERS’
ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON, MEMBER OF THE
MUNICIPAL COUNCIL OF COLOMBO.

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nhac

OBITUARY NOTICE OF THE LATE
GEORGE WALL.

(Extract from the ‘* Ceylon Independent,’ Saturday,
December 22, 1894.)

GEORGE WALL is dead. What a depth of meaning is con-
tained in those words can only be appreciated by those who,
like him, have become as it were a part of Ceylon itself. The
name of George Wall was a household word in Ceylon, and by
his death a landmark is removed, a link connecting the present
with the past. He was a monument of energy, perseverance,
and unswerving loyalty to those in authority, and made for
himself a name which has become written in imperishable
letters in the history of the Colony. The Government of
Ceylon has lost one who was at once a trusty ally and a
determined opponent, one who had the courage of his convic-
tions, and who maintained them at times against overwhelming
odds, one who was never afraid to speak his mind and to do
what he believed to be his duty whether it was on the side of
the Government or on the side of the people. The public of
Ceylon have lost a true and faithful champion, a patriot to the
backbone ; the world of Science and Literature has lost a
bright and shining light, and we a gentle master, a ready
counsellor, and a true friend.

To attempt to write an adequate obituary of George Wall
would be to attempt to record the history of Ceylon. He was
born in the early days of British Government in this Island,
he came out to it when it and he were in their prime, he grew

(Navies)

up with it as it were side by side, shared in its sorrows and its
joys, and has died at a time when it is once more regaining a
stability, with which he has had much to do, and now, after
devoting his life to the land of his adoption, he has returned
to his native land, only to die, fortunately however, surrounded
by the members of his family. It is a history that we of a
younger generation would do well to ponder over. A life
devoted to the country in which he lived, a life of devotion,
alike when in affluence and poverty, in health or in sickness.
Of this phase of his character we are, perhaps, better able to
speak than any one else. For six years he laboured as Editor
of this journal, and the longer we had an opportunity of
witnessing his indomitable courage and energy, his deep
erudition, and the brilliancy of his marvellous intellect, the
more were we bound to respect him. Nothing but the most
serious illness would keep him away from his desk at office,
and it was only under the most pressing orders of his doctors,
and the earnest persuasion of his colleagues, that he was
induced, eighteen months ago, to go up to Nuwara Eliya,
where it was hoped that the invigorating climate would give.
him a longer lease of life. Even while in the hills he directed
and controlled the policy of the paper he loved so well while it
was being published 130 miles away, and the amount of work
he got through in that lonely cottage in the sanitarium cannot
be appreciated by any one more than it was by the staff of this
paper. As regularly as the postman made his appearance,
there came a budget of manuscript from Mr. Wall, invariably
accompanied by a letter full of the most valuable advice and
encouragement, occasionally blended with a _ kindly-put
criticism, which was always deserved. Never was there a
firmer or kindher head of a department. His vast experience
in life had taught him a knowledge of the ways of men and
things that he well knew how to use.

We hardly as yet realize the loss we have sustained, neither
we fancy can Ceylon itself. Asa public man George Wall was
unique. There were, of course, times when his opinions and
his advocacy of them were not appreciated as he would have
liked them to have been, but even his opponents could not but
admire his pluck and the determined way in which he fought.

(vil 3)

In controversy, as in everything else, he was a gentleman to
the backbone, and even in the heat of debate he treated his
opponents with an old-time courtesy which even they could
not fail to appreciate. His arguments were always sound, he
never adopted them unless he could quote chapter and verse
in their support, and he had a way of putting them forcibly
and to the point. The Government often looked to him for
counsel and advice—successive Governors have been com-
pelled to acknowledge his great ability in the solution of
political difficulties—and the graceful courtesy Sir Arthur
Havelock paid him, by calling on him, in full state, to inquire
as to his condition, when lying, as it was thought, hopelessly
ill at Dr. Kynsey’s residence, was evidence of the respect
entertained for him by the highest gentleman in the land.

George Wall was born in England inthe year 1820. Eighteen
years later he entered the great engineering firm, presided over
by Sir (then Mr.) Joseph Whitworth. Here he showed such
application to work and ability that within eight years he was
made a junior partner. Considerations of health soon after
compelled him to seek a kindlier climate than that of England,
and he came to Ceylon in 1846 to manage a group of estates
belonging to the Ceylon Plantations Company. For some
years he resided in Kandy, and in 1854 the firm of Geo. Wall
& Co. came into existence in Colombo, his partners at that
time being, we believe, Messrs. Harvey and Mackenzie. The
coffee enterprise was then at the height of its prosperity, and
for a very long time Geo. Wall & Co. enjoyed a most pros-
perous career. Our readers will remember how with the
failure of coffee came the downfall of that remarkable house.
At the present time, however, we have to do with the man
himself, the master mind which for so many years directed,
not only the great business which bore his name, but also, to
a very great extent, public opinion in Ceylon.

At a recent memorable gathering in Kandy Mr. Wall was
described as the founder of the Planters’ Association. This
he no doubt was, and for some years he enjoyed the distinction
of being Chairman of that august body. This was followed
by a seat in the Legislative Council, a position he filled with
the most conspicuous success, bringing to bear on all his work

(wii)

that remarkable ability which ever characterized him. Then
came the great League, when Mr. Wall—‘ Granite Wall” as
Lorenz used to call him—together with Lorenz himself, Sir
Harry (then Mr.) Dias, and all the Unofficial Members of
Council, resigned in a body, leaving Sir Hercules Robinson,
the then Governor, in a sore state of perplexity. This was
many years ago, but though frequently invited, Mr. Wall
never again accepted a seat at the Legislative Board, although
always ready to give the Government the benefit of his
experience and matured wisdom on matters affecting the
welfare of the country.

The story of the “ League ” is such an important one, and
the part played in it by Mr. Wall so characteristic of the man,
that we purpose in another issue to give as full a description
of the agitation as the facts at our disposal will allow. We
could not possibly do justice to it in this brief sketch.

In 1868 there was a serious rice famine, and it was mainly
through Mr. Wall’s endeavours that arrangements were made
for distributions of rice amongst the starving population. It
was at his own mills—Bloemendahl—that these distributions
took place. It may give an idea of the size of these mills,
which were built under Mr. Wall’s direction, when we say that
there were daily employed there at that time upwards of six
hundred. hands.

It is not generally remembered that Colombo owes its
Breakwater in a great measure to him. It was, we believe,
intended to build the Breakwater at Galle, but, mainly
through Mr. Wall’s opposition, it was eventually constructed
here. In the agitation for a Northern Arm and Dry Dock,
Mr. Wall’s powerful pen had doubtless very great weight with
Government.

In the matter of the Paddy Tax he laboured long, and with
the most conspicuous success. Thanks to the warm advocacy
of Sir Arthur Havelock, Mr. Wall’s arguments were favourably
listened to, and the poor goiyas and villagers of Ceylon have
much reason to be proud of him who pleaded their cause so
well, not only in Ceylon, but in England, and who, alas, has
lived only to see the fulfilment of his wishes, and but little of
the benefits which the welcome abolition is destined to bring

es)

about. His one other pet scheme was that of flood outlet
from the Kelani Valley.

Nothing short of a book could do justice to the many things
the veteran colonist did tor his adopted country, a brief
newspaper article is incapable of embracing them, they were
somany. Many we were thankful to say he saw fulfilled, others
he would have seen had he lived. It was a life spent in the
service of his country, and it might be truly said that he died
practically in harness, still striving after that which would do
good to his fellowmen.

As a public orator, Mr. Wall always commanded attention,
and even to the end he was always ready and an interesting
speaker. His last public appearance was in April last at a
dinner given in honour of one of the proprietors of this journal,
who was then about to depart for England, and to whom the
news, on his arrival in the Island a few weeks ago, of the
serious illness of his old friend and trusted ally came as a great
shock. In February last he was present at the complimentary
dinner given at Kandy to Sir (then Mr.) J. J. Grinlinton on his
return, from Chicago, when Mr. Wall replied to the toast of
“The father and founder of the Planters’ Association.’”’ As
an after-dinner speaker he was always brimming over with
humour.

It is not generally known that even in his straightened
circumstances Mr. Wall was charitable to a degree. No
deserving charity list was without his name, and the quiet
way in which he dispensed other charities is only known
by those who enjoyed the most intimate acquaintance
with him.

Mr. Wall was a most enthusiastic bimetallist, and his
frequent articles on the monetary question have been regarded
as some of the most able that have appeared either here or in
England. In politics he was conservative, but at the same
time held very strong views on the advantages of free trade,
and for his advocacy of the cause received the Gold Medal of
the Cobden Club, a most exclusive honour.

Mr. Wall was a Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society,
Vice-President of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal: Asiatic
Society, and also a Fellow of the Linnean Society.

3 | 6(6)20

(+ ge)

We have written but little about his literary abilities. Of
them we cannot think without feeling the greatness of him we
have lost. Still the public of Ceylon are the best judges, and
they know as well as we the weight of that powerful pen,
that marvellous intellect, that wonderful knowledge which
made him such a giant amongst men. ‘To us he was always
the Grand Old Man, as such he will ever be remembered, and
when we think of the briliant mind that has passed from us,
we cannot but remember those particularly applicable
words :—

He was a man, take him for all in all,

We shall not look upon his like again.

His life was gentle, and the elements,
So mix’d in him, that Nature might stand up

And say to all the world : “‘ This was a man.’

?

PREFACE.

In presenting this work to the public the author hopes to
achieve more than one object. The volume was at first
contemplated as a memorial to his father, the late George
Wall. With this idea uppermost in his mind he has
endeavoured to fill what he believes to be a long-felt want.

The book, it is hoped, will appeal specially to the field
naturalist and student, and is written in as light a vein as
possible consistent with a scientific work. Theremarks on
the identification of snakes and the keys and synopses to aid
their recognition, he trusts, will be found simple and lucid
enough to engage the attention of the naturalist, and enlist
more workers in this admittedly difficult field of natural
history research.

By collecting within one cover the scattered writings of
previous authors and notes from various sources, it is further
hoped that the volume may be found useful to the scientist
already versed in ophiology.

It is not usual in a work of this nature to incorporate
matters which are purely medical, but the author departs
from this custom in the hope that the medical practitioner
may find within these pages useful information concerning
ophitoxemia and its treatment.

Very little has been written about the snakes of Ceylon,
and that little has been mostly descriptive and very incom-
plete. Kelaart, for instance, in his ‘‘ Prodromus Faune
Zeylanice ’’ (1852), devotes four pages to the subject, and
very briefly refers to four species. Gunther’s work on the
Reptiles of British India appeared in 1864, and included
descriptions of many of the Ceylon snakes, with an occasional
remark on habits, food, &c. Ferguson in 1877 published a
pamphlet for private circulation, which is little more than a
list of the snakes known up to that time to inhabit the Island.
Haly published a list on very similar lines in 1886, and another
in 1891. Boulenger’s “Fauna of British India: Reptilia

Gexur \)

and Batrachia,’ published in 1890, includes the Ceylon
snakes, but is entirely descriptive. The same remark applies
to the same author’s “ Catalogue of Snakes in the British
Museum,” which was completed in 1896. Since then Aber-
cromby wrote a small treatise entitled ““The Snakes of
Ceylon” (1910), which is incomplete as a list, and very brief
in its remarks. There are, however, many valuable obser-
vations about some of the species which I have made use of
in the present work. Since “‘Spolia Zeylanica ’”’ appeared
many have contributed notes to that Journal, which I have
incorporated into my volume. Among those who have
furnished the most valuable information, Mr. E. E. Green
must be mentioned first. His notes have been excellent. '
Dr. Willey, Mr. Pearless, Mr. Abercromby, and others have
written occasional notes to the same Journal, which have
supplemented our knowledge of some of the species.

The reader of these pages will soon discover that our
knowledge of many of the species referred to is fragmentary
or even nil, and he will be in a position to know where
he can furnish information that will enable a later author
to compile a better and more comprehensive work. The
present volume will justify its existence if this result alone is
achieved.

There is still much to be known about the poisonous snakes
of Ceylon, and it is hoped that the Government Medical Staff
may contribute to our knowledge by reporting cases on the
casualty form drawn up by me on page XxXii,

No volume on the snakes of Ceylon can be considered
complete without the inclusion of the marine forms. Situated
as the Island is at the point of the peninsula of India, it is
reasonable to expect that the sea snakes known from the
Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal would be met with around
its shores. Accordingly I have treated the subject on this
supposition, and included all the sea snakes known from
Indian coasts, from the Persian Gulf to Tenasserim. Many
of the species referred to have not yet been actually recorded
from the coasts of Ceylon, but I think it will be admitted,
thai there has not been up to date at all a thorough survey
of the circumjacent waters,

(exe - |)

A hilly country like Ceylon is to be regarded from the
z0o-geographical point of view as an archipelago. Many
snakes inhabiting upland regions have a very restricted
habitat, neither: ascending nor descending beyond certain
limits. Many of the elevated ranges and peaks whose lower
slopes merge into the low-country are just as effectually isolated
as if they were surrounded by the sea, and thus form zoological
islands. The field naturalist from this remark will see how
important it is to attach a record of habitat and altitude to
the specimens he collects. It would be natural to suppose
that the denizens of the low-country are distributed throughout
that area, seeing that there are no natural barriers to obstruct
their wanderings. As far as is known, however, one snake,
viz., the saw-scaled viper (Hchis carinatus), occurs only in the
northern part of the Island, and it is possible, when more
records are available, that other species may similarly be
found to be restricted in their habitat, dependent on rainfall,
geological, and other conditions. From available records
many of the hill species appear to be very local, apart from
inhabiting a restricted belt of elevation. I[ think it extremely
probable that many more hill snakes remain to be discovered
in peaks and ranges that have up to now escaped special
exploration. How little the Island has been explored is
illustrated by my having discovered during my two months’
visit to Ceylon two new species (viz., Rhinophis drummond-hayi
and R. porrectus), a specimen of the Indian Krait (Bungarus
ceruleus), only recorded three times before, and a specimen of
the gamma tree snake (Dipsadomorphus trigonatus), the
occurrence of which in Ceylon has been doubted, since the
only mention of it is by Ferguson in 1877! Jam extremely
indebted to Mr. H. M. Drummond-Hay for placing his
collection at my disposal and for much information. I had
the pleasure of paying him a short visit, which proved to be
quite an event in my life. I found his bungalow a veritable
museum, stocked with specimens of every kind. He has
devoted his attention more possibly to the snakes of Ceylon
than to any other branch of Natural History, and I had the
rare opportunity of examining many hundreds of specimens
collected by him. Mr. Drummond-Hay is one of those rare

(Sev 2)

naturalists, who shuns rather than seeks the limelight, and
consequently has never essayed to publish the results of his
own observations. It has been my privilege to obtain first
hand from him most valuable information regarding Ceylon
snakes. In the matter of distribution especially, it is no
exaggeration to say that his information surpasses that of all
other records taken together. As this is an important matter,
it is worth recording the field of his observations, which is as
follows :—From January to May, 1897, Hapugastenne estate,
Ratnapura District ; from May, 1897, to October, 1903,
Hopewell estate, Balangoda district (3,000 to 4,200 feet) ;
from October, 1903, to September, 1904, Punagalla estate,
Yatiyantota district (below 3,000 feet) ; from September, 1904,
to June, 1906, Warwick estate, New Galway district (5,000 to
6,000 feet) ; from June, 1906, to March, 1913, Galatura estate,
Ratnapura District (500 to 1,000 feet); and from March,
1913, to March, 1920, Warwick estate, New Galway district
(5,000 to 6,000 feet).

Mr. E. E. Green; who is so well known in Ceylon, deserves
my gratitude for giving me valuable information that has
hever appeared in print, and for giving me some extremely
valuable Ceylon specimens.

Lastly, I am much indebted to Dr. Joseph Pearson, for
giving me access to the collection in the Colombo Museum,
and to Mr, Gerard A. Joseph for giving me many valuable
_ Specimens, ;

The vernacular names given by natives to snakes in Ceylon
are most unreliable, as they are in India, and it is most difficult
to be certain what name is correct for even common species.

It will be noticed that I employ but one 7 in the termination
of specific titles where many adopt a double 7. My authority
for so doing is Professor Edward Meyrick (Bombay Natural
History Society’s Journal, Vol. XX., p. 534), who wrote as
follows: ‘* As to the Latinizing of proper names, I think the
position is as follows: The termination of a family name in
Rome was ius, because the name was an adjective ; Czsar’s
family name was Julius, because he belonged to the Gens
Julia, the Julian family. A personal name, however, would
be treated as a substantive, and made Latin by the simplest

@

er)

practicable alteration, such as the addition of ws, if no
acknowledged Latin form already exists. Hence the family
names Brown and Smith should be Brownius and Smithius ;
but (and from the point of view of scientific species names
this is the important fact) the genitives of names ending in
tus should properly be written to end in? only, not ini ; thus,
the genitive of Caius is Cai, of Smithius Smith, and as this
is the case usually in question, the matter seems to be resolved
thereby.”

Finally, the author would gratefully welcome any obser-
vations or information any of his readers may be disposed to
offer him, and especially specimens of the rarer species.
Should the volume ever deserve a second edition, the infor-
mation so acquired would be added with acknowledgments.
The collector should realize that the value of any specimen
is greatly enhanced by a record of its locality and date of
capture. A piece of paper with these entries written in
ordinary lead pencil should be attached to each specimen,
Letters or specimens sent to the Honorary Secretary of the
Bombay Natural History Society, 6 Apollo St., Bombay,
would be forwarded. |

4
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GLOSSARY.

Aglyphous .. (Gr. “a” without, “glypho” I carve)
implies without any fangs.

* Anisodont .. (Gr. “anisos ” unequal, ‘‘ odous” tooth.)
Teeth of irregular length,
* Anododont .. (Gr. “a” without, ‘“‘nodos” a toothless

space, and ‘‘odous” tooth.) An un-
interrupted series of teeth.

Canthus or Canthus a
rostralis .. (Gr. ‘“‘kanthos” the corner of the eye.) A
ridge from the eyebrow along the top of the
snout.
Carinate .. (Lat. “carina ” the keel of a ship.) A ridge

along certain scales, like the midrib on the
under side of a leaf.

Cempressed. .. (Lat. “‘compressus’’ pressed together.)
Applied to the body when flattened later-
ally, as in the salmon.

{Coryphodont .. (Gr. “‘ korypha ”’ the summit, and “‘ cdous ”
tocth.) Increasing in length from before
backwards.

Cranterian .. (Gr. ‘‘ kranteres ”? the wisdom teeth.) Used

to denote the teeth behind the gap when
present at the back of the maxilla

Cuneate .. (Lat. “ cuneus’”’ a wedge) wedge-shaped.
Depressed .. (Lat. ‘“‘ depressus ’’ sunk down.) Applied to

the body when flattened from above down-
wards, as in the crocodile or toad.

Diacranterian .. (Gr. ‘“‘dia’’ apart, and ‘‘ kranteres ’’. the
wisdom teeth.) Applied to teeth in the
maxilla in which the last two or three are
separated by a gap from the foregoing array:
Not to be cqnfused with oinododont.

* In studying the teeth, I find there is a dearth of suitable terms to
denote many variations of form and disposition. The writer, therefore,
suggests many to which he attaches an asterisk.

t Originally applied by Owen to denote teeth with the cusps raised,
as in certain extinct animals that lived in the Eocene period. Subse-
quently used by Dumeril and Bibron for teeth of snakes which increase
in size from before backwards.

4 7 ) 6(6)20

ainda
Eetozoa
Edentulous
Emarginate
‘Entozoa

Exovation
Hematozoa

Imbricate

Isodont

Tsomorphous

Juxtaposed
*Kumatodont

Lepidosis

Mandible
Maxilla
Nuchal
*Oinododont

Gt agSOS

(Gr. Sieneis

(Exp *}

. (Gr. ‘dis’? double, “‘nodos” a toothless

spaco, and ‘‘ odous ”’ teeth.) Applied to a
set of teeth with two edentulous spaces.

. (Gr. “ektos”? outside, “zoon” animal.)

Applied to parasites that infest the epi-
dermis of animals.

_« (Lat. “e” = without, “dens ~ tooth)

Applied to parts of the jaws without
teeth.

. (Lat. “e” out of, “margo ” the border.)

Applied to a gap in the margin, such as a
guard clips out of a ticket.

(Gr. ‘‘entos’”’ within, “ zoon’’ animal.)

Used for parasites that infest the mternal
cavities or organs of animals,

. (Lat. ‘ex ” out, ““ovum ” egg.) The act of

hatching.

. (Gr. ‘“‘haima” blood, “ zoon ”’ animal.)

Parasites that live in the blood.

.. (Lat. “imbrex”’ a tile.) Overlapping like

the tiles on a roof. It is to be noted,
however, that the scalesin snakes overlap
in a contrary direction to tiles on a roof.

(Gr, “isos”? equal, ‘‘odous’’ tooth.)
Applied to teeth that are sub-equa] in
length.

bP)

equal, ‘‘ morphe’’ form.)
Similar in shape.

. (Lat. ““Juxta’’ by the side of, “pono” I

place.) Side by side like jthe tiles on a
floor.

. (Gr. ‘‘kuma’” wave, “‘odous”’ tooth.) A

set of teeth reducing in length anteriorly
and posteriorly.

” seale.) The shield and seale
vesture of a snake,

. The lower jaw.
. The upper jaw.
. (Gr. “nucha’’ nape.) The back of the neck.
. (Gr. “oinos”’ one, ‘‘nodos *” a toothless

space, ‘‘odous’” tooth.) With a single
gap anywhere in the dental array, except
behind. (See diacranterian.)

* In studying the teeth, I find there is a dearth of suitable terms to
denote many variations of form and disposition. The writer, therefore,
suggests many to which he attaches an asterisk.

Opisthoglyphous ..

Palatine

Proteroglyphous ..

Pterygoid
Rectiform

*Scaphiodont

Serrate

Synecranterian

Syndrome

Tylotose

. (Gr. “syn” together, ‘‘dromos

axes)

(Gr. “‘ opisthe ” behind, “ glypho ” I carve.)
Applied to the maxilla that bears fangs
posteriorly.

. The tooth-bearing bone at the front of the

root of the mouth.

(Gr. “‘ proteros ” infront, “‘ glypho ”’ I carve.)
Applied to the maxilla with fangs ante-
riorly.

. The tooth-bearing bone behind the palatine.
.. (Lat. “rectus” straight, “‘forma’”’ shape.)

Applied to seales that are not oblique.

. (Gr. “skaphe ” a boat, ‘ odous” tooth.)

Decreasing in length from befcre back-
wards. This type of dentition when seen
in the lower jaw reminds one cf the shape
of the bows of a ship.

. (Latin ‘‘serra’”’ a saw.)’ Toothsed like

a Saw.

.. (Gr. “syn” together, “ kranteres” the

wisdom teeth.) Appliedto teeth that have
no toothless gap near the back of the
maxilla. (As opposed to diacranterian. )

b

> a running.
A combination of characters. Usually
applied medically, but may be conveniently
used zoologically.

. (Gr. “‘tulotos ’? knobbed.) With a boss or

swelling.

* In studying the teeth, I find there is a dearth of suitable terms to
denote many variations of form and disposition. Thewriter, therefore,
suggests many to which he attaches an asterisk.

( ‘=xi /)

EXPLANATION OF THE ABBREVIATIONS FOR
LEPIDOSIS USED IN THE FIGURES.

Co

. Anal.
. Anterior

sublin-
guals.

.. Costals.
. Caudal shield.
. Cuneate.
-. Hrontal.
. Internasals.
. Interparietal.
.. Loreal.
. Mental.
. Nasals.
. Ocular.
. Parietals.
. Postoculars.
. Postparietal.
. Preoculars.

Prf.

Prp.
Pos:

R.
8.
SI.
Spe.
Su.

ies
Ult.

| Ven.

| Ver.

Sub.

. Prefrontal.
. Przparietal.
. Postericr

sublin-
cuals.

. Rostral.
. Supraocular.
. Supraloreal.
. Supracaudals.
. Subocular.
. Subcaudals.
. Temporals.
.. Ultimate costals.
. Ventrals.

Vertebrals.

| Arabic numerals. Supralabials.

Roman numerals.

Infralabials.

6(6)20

Co Bema’ ry

CASUALTY RETURN OF SNAKE-BITE.

Station :

Sex:

Age :——____..

Date and hour of bite :

Hour of admission :————_—.

Part bitten :

Species of snake :——_———

Result :—————..__ If fatal,
method of death, syncope or
asphyxia :— —. Time
elapsed since bite :

Symptoms : Local :-—

(a) Pain:
(b) Swelling -——_—.
‘(c) Sanious oozing :
(d) Appearance of
when cut into:

(e) Characters due to mecha-
cal causes :—

tissues

General] :—
(a) Consciousness :——_—-—.
(6) Respiration :
(c) Syncope, pallor :

Warmth and acieetee of
skin :-——-——.
Pulse :-——_—_—_.
Vomiting : :
Onset of weakness :——_—-.
(d) Paralysis, onset of weak-
ness :
Sequence :
Drooping head :
Drooping eyelids :
Articulation :——- ——.
Phonation :——_—_—.
Deglutition :——_—_— :
Salivation :——-—-—.
(e) Heemorrhages : c
(f) Other symptoms :—--—_.
Treatmen

EHRRATA.

With the exception of the sub-family Hydrophiine, which I
have revised, I have adopted in this work the nomenclature
used in Boulenger’s Catalogue, 1893 to 1896. Since this book
was written I have been engaged writing a hand list of the Indian
snakes, and I find that in some cases the generic and specific
names used by Boulenger do not appear to be valid. The follow-
ing corrections are, therefore, called for :+—-

Page 89: For “TROPIDONOTUS ” read “‘ NATRIX.”’

Page 102: For ‘“‘ AMPHIESMA ” read ‘“‘ RHABDOPHIS.”’

Page 146: For “‘ LYCODON ” read ‘‘ OPHITES.”’

Rare i171: For ~ ZAOCYS ” read “ PTYAS.”’

Page 233: For “‘ O. subgriseus ’’ read “ O. tzeniolatus.”’

Page 250: For ““ ABLABES,” read ‘‘ LIOPELTIS.”’

Page 255: For ‘‘ CERBERUS ” read ‘‘ HURRIA.”’

Page 285: For ““ DIPSADOMORPHUS ” read ‘‘ BOIGA.”’

Page 344: For ‘“‘ATURIA” read ‘‘MICROMASTOPHIS
Gen. Nov.”’

Page 368: For *‘ CHITULIA ” read “ ATURIA.”’
Page 390: For “ PRASCUTATA ” read “‘ THALASSOPHIS.’”’

SNAKES OF CEYLON.

THE IDENTIFICATION OF A SNAKE.

ASSUMING a snake to be dead, its identification is in most
cases an easy matter. The inquirer, however, must be
prepared to handle his specimen and critically examine it.
His powers of observation must be directed to various features
upon which the classification of snakes is based, most of which
concern the scales and shields which cover the various regions
of the specimen. The word “shield” is used to denote the
large plate-like epidermal divisions one sees on the heads of
colubrines and on the underparts of most snakes, “scale”
being reserved for the small divisions such as one sees on the
upper part of the body and tail. In order to study these
properly the student must equip himself with a high-power
watchmaker’s lens and a pair of fine pointed compasses. The
watchmaker’s lens is recommended because it permits the
use of both hands during the manipulation of the specimen,
and it must be remembered that during use both eyes are kept
open, if the lens is to be easily retained in the eye. The
compasses are necessary, because all measurements referred
to have been arrived at by their use, and because the relative
breadths and lengths of shields without measurement are
often very deceptive. The collector should try to secure his
specimens without damaging the lepidosis of the head, for he
will soon discover how important the shielding of the head
is in identification.

The first thing to do is to lay the specimen on its back
and search for the opening of the cloaca, a transverse
sht in the posterior part of its length. This demarcates the
end of the body and the commencement of the tail. The
body and tail should then be measured and noted. The
shields on the belly (ventrals) should then be counted and

6 6(6)20)

ie SNAKES OF CEYLON.

their breadth noted, the shield before the anus (anal) examined
to see if it is entire or divided, and the shields beneath the
tail (subcaudals) examined to see if they are entire or divided
and then counted. It is best to begin at the tip and count
to the anus, so that the smallest shields are dealt with while
the eye is fresh to the work, instead of when strained and
tired. The necessity of the lens to the observer will at once
become apparent. Al these things noted, attention should
then pass to the scales over the back (the costals or simply
“scales ’’). These should be counted from one side of the
ventrals to the other in three situations, viz., two heads-
lengths behind the head, midbody, and two heads-lengths
before the vent ; their relative breadth and length noted ;
and whether the vertebral or median row is enlarged or not ;
and any other details. After this the head shields should be
studied, each in detail, and noted. These and other details
will readily be grasped by reference to the various figures
which follow, the scales and shields in which are all lettered.

It is advisable first of all to place your specimen in the
family to which it belongs, and this can be done by studying
the keys below. |

It must be borne in mind that the keys are based on the
characters of normal specimens. Many individuals, however,
show some aberration or other. This fact, the variation of
individuals, indeed is one of the essential bases upon which
the Darwinian doctrine of evolution rests.

KEY TO FAMILIES.

For Indian Species.
TAIL ROUND IN SECTION. Families.
(A) Ventrals not enlarged (see fig. 3).
Anal divided into 3 or 4 (see fig. 3).

Costals broader than long (see fig. 3).
Eye beneath shields. Pupil round (see

fig. 2).
(a) Costals in 16 to 36 rows at midbody Typhlopidz
(b) Costals in 14 rows at midbody .. * Glauconiide

* Not represented in Ceylon.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 3

TAIL ROUND IN SECTION. Harnilies!

(B) Ventrals enlarged, but not twice last costal
row (see fig. 11). Anal divided into two ;
twice breadth of ventrals (see fig. 11).
Costals broader than long.
(a) Supralabialsfour .. .. Uropeltide
(6) Supralabials six .. .. Ilysiide
(C) Ventrals 2 to 24 times breadth of last costal
row (see fig. 17). Anal as broad as ven-
trals (see fig. 17).
Costals broader than long. Eye mobile,
surrounded by many shields.
Pupil vertical.

(a) Costals in 15 rows at midbody _ ..*Xenopeltide
(6) Costals more than 40 rows at mid-
body . Boide

(D) Ventrals more than three times as broad as
last costal row. Anal as broad as ven-
trals. Costals as long or longer than
broad. Eye mobile, surrounded by
many shields.
(a) No mental groove. Three pairs of
large asymmetrical sublinguals.
Pupil vertical a ..*Amblycephalidz
(6) Amental groove. Two pairs of sub-
linguals (see fig. 20). Pupilvariable

(except Chersydrus* ) .. Colubridze (ex-
cept Hydro-
phine)

(c) A mental groove. One pair of sub-
linguals (see fig. 91). Pupilvariable Viperidz

TAIL COMPRESSED INTO A FIN .. Sub-family Hy-
drophiine of
Colubridz

For Ceylon Species.
Ventrals not enlarged -- Typhlopide
Ventrals enlarged :—
Last costal row 2 breadth of ventrals. Anal
twice or nearly twice breadth of ventrals :-—

Eye in a single shield .. Uropeltide
Eye surrounded by shields .. Llysiide
Last costal row 4 breadth of ventrals. Anal
as broad as ventrals en .. Boide

Last costal row one-third or less the breadth of
the ventrals. Anal as broadasventrals:—
Two pairs of sublinguals .. Colubride
One pair of sublinguals .. Viperide

_——

* Not represented in Ceylon.

} Chersydrus has no ventral shields developed, its costals broader
than long, no mental groove, and no subli nguals.

4. ' SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Family TYPHLOPIDA.

(Named from the type Genus T'yphlops.)

General Characters.—This family includes the most diminu-
tive of ophidian forms, many of which in their adult form
attain to only 150 mm. (6 inches) or less. It includes also the
most degenerate forms. Head broad, and evenly rounded ;
snout short without a canthus, terminating in a broadly
rounded, or rarely in a beaked extremity. Eyes situated
beneath one or more shields, small, purblind. Nostril lateral
or inferior, and small. Mouth small, and situated beneath the
snout. Neck not evident. Body slender, or robust ; short,
moderate, or elongate ; cylindrical, and of even calibre through-
out. Its scales are highly polished, and thus do not favour
the adhesion of soil to their surface. Belly rounded. Tail
very short, conical, and in many ending in a small, acute spine
directed downwards, and backwards.

Identification. Known by the costals being broader than
long, the ventrals which are not enlarged, and the presence
of four supralabial shields.

Habits.—Subterrestrial. They burrow nimbly. Locomo-
tion above ground is good, but on a smooth surface little or
no progress is made, despite much muscular effort. They are
extremely defenceless creatures, that only escape annihilation
from a host of rapacious foes by having adapted themselves
to a subterranean existence. As far as is known all are
oviparous.

Food.—The larve, pup, and imagines of ants, and similar
insects. |

Poison.—They are not poisonous.

Lepidosis.—The head is covered with large shields, of a eb
and character peculiar to tbis family.

Costals —Broader than long, broadly rounded posteriorly ;
rectiform, smooth, and highly polished. In from 16 to 36
rows. Ventrals : Not enlarged, and therefore usually counted
with the costals, thereby making the rows an even number.
Anal; Absent, replaced by three or four scales. Swbcaudals :
Not different from the supracaudals.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 5

Dentition.— Mawxillary : Transverse ; number of teeth 4 or 5 ;
markedly scaphiodont. Palatine: edentulous. Pierygoid :
edentulous. Mandibular : edentulous.

Distribution.—South Europe; South Asia ; Africa; Australia ;
Tropical America.

The family includes three genera. Only one of these is
represented in India, including Ceylon, viz., T’yphlops.

Genus TYPHLOPS.

(Greek ‘“‘ tuphlos ”’ blind, ‘‘ ops ”’ eye.)

General Characters.—Diminutive snakes, with few excep-
tions exceeding 8 or 9 inches in length. Head rounded, in a
few species beaked; about as broad as the body. Eyes
distinct or indistinct, lying beneath shields, which thus
protect them from injury when the snake is burrowing.
Nostrils lateral or inferior, slit-like. Body cylindrical ; short
or elongate; of even calibre throughout; covered with
highly polished scales, the purpose of which appears to be
to prevent becoming clogged with the earth into which
they burrow. ‘Tail very short, with or without a terminal
spine.

Habits.—The species live for the most part beneath the
surface soil. The snout is used in burrowing, and during this
operation the little spine at the end of the tail is pushed into
_the ground, and serves as a sort of fulcrum. The snout being
in most species broadly rounded does not appear to be well
adapted for burrowing, and unless the soil is loose this cannot
be accomplished. The species whose snouts end in a beak
do not appear to me to be any better equipped for burrowing,
judging from results.

Some of the species have been observed to exhibit a gre-
garious habit, and have been found in colonies in decaying
wood. A rotting log offers great attraction on account of the
beetle and other insect larvee and pup developing therein.
It may, too, prove additionally attractive from the warmth
generated by the process of decay. Such an environment may

6 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

also serve the purpose of bringing the sexes together for
matrimonial relationship. Vision is more or less obtuse at
the best, but becomes more and more obscured as a period of
desquamation approaches, from scratches sustained during
burrowing operations.

They are extremely defenceless reptiles. The mouth lies
beneath the snout, and could not inflict an injury to any but
the smallest creatures, apart from the fact that there are no
opposable teeth with which to bite.

Food.—They live on worms, grubs, and insects in the
various stages of their metamorphoses.

Breeding.—As far as is known they are oviparous. In the
case of the Burmese species diardi, I ascertained that very
minute embryos are in process of development before the eggs
are discharged.

Poison.—All are non-poisonous.

Lepidosis.—The head is covered with large shields, having
a form and disposition peculiar to the genus.

The scales on the body are very highly polished, and this
appears to be a special adaptation to prevent the adhesion
of earth to them. Owing to this polish it is very difficult to
see the outlines of the scales unless viewed in reflected light.
The scales, too, have a dark, subterminal zone, which seems to
indicate their borders, but which in reality does not. The
diminutive size of the creatures, combined with these two
other conditions, make it extremely difficult, without practice,
to count the scales, or to see the characters for which one is

‘specially looking.

Distribution.—South Europe ; South Asia ; Africa ; Tropical
America ; Australia.

Mr. Drummond-Hay tells me that he has never had any
single Typhlops brought in to him. His coolies bring in the
cecilian Icthyophis glutinosus frequently, and also elongate
lizards, such as some Lygosomata, and even worms. From
this it would appear that the Ceylon Typhlops are exclusively
low-country snakes.

About one hundred species are known, of which about
eighteen are Indian and three occur in Ceylon, viz., mrus,
braminus, and leucomelas.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. . d:

Synopsis of chief characters in the Lepidosis of species
of Typhlops.

mirus. braminus. leucomelas

Snout rounded .. Yes .. Yes 2X ES
Breadth of rostral to head.. £ fein vag cee
Nasals :—-

Suture above nostril com-

plete .. +. Ves Sect CSa eas oe EGE

Suture below nostril to .. 2nd lab.. Preoc .. 2nd lab

Meeting behind rostral .. Yes 52 JNO 5 ING
Labials :— .

Touching preocular TeNOne y one deord:, 5) 200 soiard

Touching ocular .. 4th .. 8rd & 4th .. 3rd & 4th
Subocular .. One .. None .. None
Temporals. . be oe a) 2nORS
Costal rows eS 2 126 ya oe
Caudal spine 2. UNG. Peeves ne Yes

TYPHLOPS MIRUS Jan.

(Latin ‘* mirus ”’ wonderful, possibly on account of its
diminutiveness.)
Jan’s Ceylon Typhlops (or Blind Snake).

Synonymy.—Nil.

History.— Described by Jan in 1860.

General Characters.—Only about five inches long in its adult
state. Head of the same calibre asthe body. Snout rounded.
Kyes indistinct or invisible. Nostrils antero-lateral. Body
rather elongate, its diameter being about 1/37 to 1/60 the
total length. Tail conical with no spine.

Identification (for Ceylon).—The costals in 18 rows will
indicate the species.

Colouration.—Brown dorsally, snout and lower parts
yellowish.

Habits and Breeding.—Nothing known. |

Growth.— Maximum length : Up to 140 mm. (54 inches).

Lepidosis.—Rostral : About half the breadth of the head.
Prexfrontal, frontal, and «interparietal: Subequal; rather
broader than the dorsal scales. Supraocular, preparietal, and
postparietal : Subequal ; rather broader than the dorsal scales.
Supraoculars and preparietals : Subequal ; rather broader than
the dorsal scales. Postparietal: Usually subequal to the
preparietal, sometimes broken up into two. Nasals: Some-
times in contact behind the rostral; usually not; quite

8 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

divided ; the upper suture from the nostril about half the
lower which passes to the 2nd supralabial. Preocular : Well
developed; widely separated from the 2nd _ supralabial.
Ocular: Well developed. Subocular : Present; touching the
2nd, 3rd, and 4th supralabials. Temporals: Two. Supra-
labials: Four. ,

Costals : In 18 rows in the whole body.

Fie. 1.—Typhlops mirus.
(After Gunther. )

SNAKES OF CEYLON, 9

Distribution.—(a) General : Peculiar to Ceylon.

(6) Local: Haly has recorded it from Colombo, and in
the Indian Museum there are three from Peradeniya,
Apparently an uncommon snake. I have examined five
specimens.

TYPHLOPS BRAMINUS (Daudin).

(Latinized form of Brahmin, in allusion to its brown

colouration. )
Russell's Typhlops (or Blind Snake).

Sinhalese : “* Depat-naya’’ (two-headed snake), Tamil :
“Manallay pambu”’ (earth snake); “sevi pambu ” * (ear
snake) ; ‘‘ pooran ”’ * (centipede).

Synonymy.—Lryx braminus, Tortrix russellii, Argyrophis
truncatus, A. bramicus, Onychocephalus capensis, Ophthal-
midium tenue, Typhlops inconspicuus, T. tenuis, T'. pammeces,
T. reuteri, T'. lenzi, T. ewproctus.

History.—First introduced to scientific notice by Russell in
1796. It is figured on Plate XLIITI. of bis first volume.

General Characters.—It is less than 7 inches long in its adult
state. Head of the same calibre as the body ; snout rounded.
Hye distinct, lying beneath the ocular and supraocular shields.
Nostrilslateral. Body moderately elongate ; its diameter 1 /35
to 1/55 the total length. Tail ending in a spine.

Identification (for Ceylon)—The costals in 20 rows will
suffice to identify it.

Colouration.—Three varieties have been described.

(a) typicus (Daudin).—Brown or blackish-brown dorsally,
rather lighter ventrally. Snout, anal region, and end of tail
whitish. Much the commonest variety.

* According to Dr. J. R. Henderson these two names are used
by the Tamils of Madras. Both names are applied to it under the
supposition that they enter the human ear, like the centipedeis supposed
to do.

7 6(6)20

10 SNAKES OF CEYLON,

(b) arenicola (Annandale).—In this each scale on the back
is faintly tinged with buff, those on the head being faintly
vermiculated with the same hue. In life it is a pale flesh
colour. Belly white. Dr. Annandale met with this in South
India.

(c) I have met with specimens of a uniform pale gray
hue, and with the eyes invisible. This may be due to
impending desquamation, and in that case does not
deserve recognition as a variety. I acquired specimens
from Assam.

Habits.—The common blind snake is not often seen by
Kuropeans, or if seen is not recognized as a snake, its size and
general appearance allowing it to pass for an earthworm. It
spends most of its life beneath the surface soil, through which
it burrows nimbly, and is often brought to light by the cooly’s
hoe, or the ryot’s plough. It is likely to be met with by the
amateur gardener in and about his pots, in the heap of leaf
mould, or in the soil freshly turned over by the trowel. It not
infrequently secretes itself beneath stones or débris. After
heavy rains it is not infrequently seen on the ground by those
who can recognize it, after being swamped out of its subter-
ranean burrows. On such oceasions it is met with singly, but
it has been occasionally discovered in large colonies inhabiting
rotten wood.

It is an active little creature, making vigorous attempts to
escape if dislodged from its hiding place. When handled it
shows its resentment by vehement struggles, and is most
difficult to hold owing to the high polish of its scales. When
its struggles have quieted down, it presses the little spine with
which its tail is endowed into the hand, anchoring itself as it
were, and from the purchase so derived wriggles about rest-
lesslv in all directions, pushing its nose about, and insinuating
itself forcibly between the clefts of one’s fingers. Above
ground, its progress is smooth and active, and in water it
swims well. Under excitement it protrudes the tongue like
other snakes.

This is almost certainly the species which some years ago
invaded the water supply in Calcutta, many specimens finding
their way into the pipes of distribution. Much surprise and

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 11

consternation were evinced by timid residents when a living
specimen appeared through the tap supply. It sometimes
invades houses in considerable numbers from the garden or
pot plants. Captain Stevenson, I.M.S., told me that in
Manipur it is extremely common in houses. He has found
three in a single evening wriggling about the floor when he was
dressing for dinner, and one subaltern in his regiment collected
about one hundred in his house in about a month.

Food.—Most of those that I have dissected have had full
stomachs, and the contents when investigated proved to be
the larve, pups, and imagines of ants, and probably beetles,
and other insects. Dr. Annandale discovered one in the
burrow eaten by a caterpillar in a stalk of sugar cane. The
caterpillar had vacated or, perhaps, had been eaten by the
snake, and subsequently in captivity the snake was observed
to eat the caterpillar droppings.

Foes.—It is very frequently preyed upon by young kraits
(B. ceruleus). Thaverecovered many inthismanner. Fowls
and other birds will readily eat them.

Breeding.—The brahminy snake is believed to be oviparous,
but I am not aware of any certain evidence in this direction.
All the gravid females I have known were in Assam, and these,
eight in number, were collected in the hot weather from April
to July. In length they ranged between 152 to 162 mm.
(6 inches and 62 inches). Six of these were brought to me on
the same day by the same boy, who had evidently unearthed
a colony, and only one male was brought with them. The
eggs, which whilst in the abdomen resemble grains of cooked
rice, varied from 2 to 7 in number, the largest measuring
13 mm. by 4 mm. (18/32 by 5/32 of an inch).

Growth : (a) Maturity—My smallest gravid female was
152 mm. (6 inches).

(6) Maximum Length.—lt grows to about 150 to 170 mm.
(6 to 6% inches).

Parasites : Hntozoa.—The nematode worm Kallicephalus
willeyx has been found infesting the stomach by Von
Linstow.

Lepidosis.— Rostral : About one-third the breadth of the
head opposite the eyes, not reaching as far back as the eyes.

‘yd SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Prefrontal, frontal, and interparietals: Subequal. Swupra-
oculars, preparietals, and postparietals : Subequal, or the last
broadest. Nasals : Not in contact behind the rostral; quite
divided ; the suture above the nostril much longer than that
below ; the suture below the nostril extending to the preocular.
Preoculars and oculars: Subequal. Suboculars: Absent.
Temporals: One. Supralabials : Four; 2nd and 3rd touching
the preocular, 3rd and 4th touching the ocular. (Fig. 2.).

Fic. 2.—Typhlops braminus.

(xX circa 6 diametres.)

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 13

Costals: In 20 rows in the whole body. Anal: Not
differentiated. (Fig. 3.)

Fic. 3.—-Anal region of Typhlops braminus.
(¢55:)

Dentition.— The head is too diminutive to favour the
preparation of a skull.

Distribution : (a) General—South Asia; Islands of the
Indian Ocean, 7.e., Ceylon, Cocos, Andamans, Mauritius,
Madagascar, Comoros ; Africa south of the Equator.

(b) Local.—It is a denizen of the low-country, but ascends
to an elevation of at least 3,000 feet.

It is very abundant in India and Ceylon.

TYPHLOPS LEUCOMELAS Boulenger.

(Greek “‘ leukos ”’ white, and “‘ melas ”’ black, implying pied.)
The Pied Typhlops (or Blind Snake).

Synonymy.— Nil. |

History.—Described by Boulenger in 1890.

General Characters.—Less than 6 inches long in its adult
state. Head of the same calibre as the body, snout rounded.
Eyes distinct ; lying beneath the ocular shield. Nostrils
lateral. Body short, its diametre being 1/23 to 1/32 the total
length. Tail ending in a spine directed backwards and down-
wards.

Identification (for Ceylou).—The costals in 22 rows will
suffice to indicate the species.

Colouration.—Blackish-brown dorsally, pure white ventrally
(Boulenger). The one in the Colombo Museum is light
brown dorsally, paler brown beneath.

Habits and Breeding.—Nothing known.

14 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Growth.— Maximum Length : 130 mm. (5¢ inches).

Lepidosis.— Rostral : About one-third the breadth of the
head opposite the eyes; extending as far back as the eyes.
Prefrontal, frontal, and interparietal : Progressively decreasing
in breadth. Supraoculars and preparietals : Subequal. Post-
parietals: Two; small. Nasals : Not in contact behind the
rostral; quite divided; the upper suture more than twice
the lower; the lower suture passing to the 2nd supralabial.
Preoculars and oculars: Subequal. Suboculars : Absent.
Temporals: Two. Supralabials : Four ; 2nd and 3rd touching
the preocular, 3rd and 4th touching the ocular. (Fig. 4.)

Fic. 4.—Typhlops leucomelas. (After Boulenger.)
(xX circa 6 diametres.)

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 15

Costals: In 22 rows in the whole length. Anal: Not
differentiated.

Distribution,—(a) General : Only known from Ceylon.

(b) Local: Apparently very rare. Until recently only one
specimen was known, which was acquired by Colonel Beddome
on Haycock mountain, near Galle, at 2,000 feet elevation.
I found one in the Colombo Museum without history
measuring 626 mm. (23 inches).

Family GLAUCONIIDA,

Not represented in Ceylon.

Family ILYSHDA, .
(Named after the type Genus J/ysia.)

General Characters.—Small snakes not exceeding about
24 feet in length. Head moderately depressed, as broad as
body, cuneate in profile. Snout longish, without canthus,
broadly rounded anteriorly. Eye small with round or verti-
eally elliptic pupil ; in a single shield, or surrounded by many
shields. Nostril small in a single shield. Chin with or
without a mental groove. Neck not constricted. Body
cylindrical, stout, of even calibrethroughout. Belly rounded.
Tail very short, conical. Vestiges of a hind limb, which are
visible as small claw-like appendages on each side of the vent.

Identification.—Last costal row about two-thirds the
breadth of the ventrals. Anal nearly twice the breadth of the
ventrals.

Habits.—Subterrestrial, burrowing nimbly ; movements
above the soil laboured. Dull and lethargic. Diurnal.

Food.—Eels and snakes (Malcolm-Smith).

Breeding.—Viviparous as far as known,

Poison.—Non-poisonous.

Lepidosis.— Rostral : Touches four shields. Nasals: In
contact behind rostral. Internasals: Absent. Prefrontals :
Two. Frontal : Present. Supraoculars : Present. Parietals :
Present or absent. Loreal: Absent. Preoculars: Absent.
Postoculars: Present or absent. Temporals: Present.

16 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Supralabials : Four to six; one or two touching the eye
except in Ilysia. Sublinguais: Two pairs. Infralabials :
Three ; none touching the posterior sublinguals.

Costals : In midbody. Broader than long, broadly rounded
posteriorly, rectiform, smooth. The vertebral row smallest,
about two-thirds the breadth of the ultimate. Ultimate and
one or two rows above progressively decreasing in breadth.
Ultimate. Breadth of scales one and a half times their length,
and two-thirds that of the ventrals. In 19 to 21 rows at
midbody. Ventrals: Enlarged but narrow. Anal: Entire
or divided ; nearly twice the breadth of the ventrals in Cylin-
drophis. Subcaudals : Entire or divided, less than 15.

Dentition.—Premawzillary : Teeth present in Ilysia, absent
in others. Mazillary: 9 to 12; shghtly kumatodont.
Palatine : 6 or 7; isodont. Pterygoid : 6 to 9; scaphiodont.
Mandibular : 9 to 12; slightly kumatodont.

Distribution.—South Asia ; Tropical South America. The
family comprises three genera: Ilysia, peculiar to South
America ; Anomalochilus, peculiar to Sumatra ; and Cylin-
drophis, known from Ceylon, Indo-China, and Malaysia.

Genus CYLINDROPHIS.
(Greek “ kulindros ”’ a cylinder, “ ophis ” snake.)

General Characters.—Small snakes growing to about 24 feet.
Head broad and depressed. Snout moderately long, broadly
rounded, without canthus. Hye very small, with vertically
elliptic pupil. Nostril small, situated on the outer side of the
nasal shield. Chin with a mental groove. Body cylindrical,
moderately elongate, stout. Belly rounded... Tail very
short and conical, ending in a subacute point.

Identification.—Costals in 19 or 21 rows at midbody,
ventrals less than twice the breadth of the last costal row,
and the eye surrounded by five shields, taken bogerhee will
establish the Genus in Ceylon.

Habits.—Very little is known of their habits, except that
they burrow and live mainly beneath the soil. Flower makes
remarks on C. rufus; the species found in Burma, Indo-China,
and the Malayan Peninsula and Archipelago, which might

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 17

apply to the Ceylon species if looked for : ‘‘ At ordinary times
this snake is fairly cylindrical in section, and uses its tail in
progression, putting the sharp tip against the ground, and
pushing its body forward from it; but it has the power of
depressing the body, when its appearance-is very singular ;
the neck and anterior part of the body are but slightly com-
pressed, but posteriorly it is very much so, Consequently,
when seen from above the outline of the snake is much that of
a seasnake seen from the side. When touched or worried it
will not attempt to strike or bite, but keeps its head flat on
the ground, usually hidden under the folds of the body ; its
tail, however, it raises off the ground, and holds aloft curved
over backwards in the most extraordinary manner, so that
any casual observer would imagine the tail was the head, and
think the snake to be threatening to strike. Sometimes the
tail, is not curved over, but held in the manner most snakes
hold their heads when advancing.”

Food.—Dr. Malcolm-Smith, speaking of the Burmese and
Indo-China species rufus, says it feeds on eels, and other
snakes, “‘its appetite is gargantuan. It seems to prefer a
meal at least as large as itself, if not larger, and the manner
in which it can pack its food away and appear but little bigger
afterwards is extraordinary. One I had in captivity, itself
400 mm. in length, overcame, and devoured a keel back
(Tropidonotus piscator) of 500 mm. (20 inches), the latter
snake being well known for its activity and aggressiveness.
Another was found having just swallowed a water-snake
(Homalopsis buccata), the former 780 mm. long and the latter
925 mm. Two other specimens were caught in the water in
the act of swallowing eels, their prey on each occasion being
several inches longer than themselves.”

I am not aware of any special observations with regard to
the diet of maculatus, nor are there any records showing that
it haunts marshy land.

Breeding.—The Ceylon species maculatus is viviparous.

Lepidosis.— Rostral : Touches four shields. Nasals : In con-
tact behind the rostral. Internasals : Absent. Prefrontals :
A pair. Frontal : Subequal to the supraoculars in length and
breadth. Parietals: As long as or longer than the frontal.

8 6/6)20

18 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Loreal: Absent. Preoculars: Absent. Postoculars: One.
Temporals: One. Supralabials: Six; the 3rd and 4th
touching the eye. Sublinguals: Two pairs. Infralabials :
Three.

Costals : Broader than long ; broadly-rounded posteriorly ;
rectiform ; smooth. Vertebrals not enlarged. Last four rows
subequal and broader than the rest. Ultimate row about
four-fifths the breadth of the ventrals. In 19 or 21 rows at
midbody. Ventrals: Feebly enlarged. Anal: Divided ; one
and a half times the breadth of the ventrals. Subcaudals :
Divided or some entire ; numbering from 4 to 10.

Dentition.— Maaillary : Anododont, feebly kumatodont.
Palatine : Anododont, feebly kumatodont. Pterygoid : Ano-
dodont, scaphiodont. Mandibular: Anododont, kumato-
dont.

Distribution.—Ceylon, Burma, Indo-China, Malay Penin-
sula, and Archipelago to Celebes. There are three species
only, one of which occurs in Ceylon, viz., maculatus.

CYLINDROPHIS MACULATUS (Linné),.
(Latin ‘‘ maculatus ”’ spotted.)

Linné’s Cylindrophis (or Earth Snake).

Singhalese : “‘ Depat-naya ”’ (two-headed snake).

Synonymy.—Anguwis maculata, A. decussata, Tortria
maculatus, Ilysia maculata.

History.—Described and christened by Carl Linné as far
back as 1754.

General Charaecters——A small snake growing to about
24feet. Head broad, but not so broad as the body, depressed ;
wedge-shaped seen in profile. Snout moderate in length,
broadly rounded terminally ; without canthus. Eye very
small with a vertically elliptic pupil. Nostril small, round,
directed upwards; situated on the outer side of the nasal shield.
Chin with a mental groove. Neck stout, not constricted.
Body very stout ; cylindrical ; moderately elongate. Belly
rounded. ‘Tail very short, conical, ending in a subacute point.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. : 19

Habits —(a) Haunts: A burrowing snake that lives be-
neath the soil.

(6) Disposition: A very placid snake that exhibits no sign
of temper. Haly says: “‘Placed ona table it makes no attempt
to escape, but lies with its head beneath its lowest coil, and
its tail spread out so as to resemble the head of a cobra,
which it imitates in its motions. If irritated for some time it
finally ejects from the anus a few drops of a yellow acrid
liquid.”’ J think the secretion alluded to is from the anal
glands which open on each side of the roof of the cloaca.

(c) Progression : Above the soil its progression is hampered,
and slow.

Food.—I know of no observations in this direction.

Breeding.—(a) Method of Reproduction : Abercromby was
the first to show that it is viviparous in habit, and I am ina
position to confirm this observation.

(b) Season: Abercromby’s gravid specimen was captured
on April 1.

(c) Period of Gestation : Not known.

Growth.—(a) The Young: The young are retained until
they attain a very unusual degree of development. In a
gravid specimen of mine, I found two foetuses measuring 127
to 137 mm. (5 and 53 inches). The former was a male,
and the latter a female. Abercromby’s gravid female con-
tained three embryos. A recently born specimen measured
127 mm. (6 inches).

(b) Maturity: My dam just alluded to measure 272 mm.
(10 inches). If this species grows as rapidly as other
snakes, and doubles its length in the first year of life, this
specimen must have been only one year old.

(c) Maximum Length : My largest specimen was 622 mm.
(2 feet and 4 an inch) in length.

Lepidosis.—Rostral : Touches four shields ; projected back-
wards to separate half the length of the nasals. Nasals : In
contact behind the rostral. Prefrontals: As long as the
frontal ; touching the nasals, 2nd and 3rd supraoculars, eye,
and supraocular. Frontal : Touches six shields ; the fronto-
supraocular sutures about twice the length of the fronto-
parietals. Supraoculars : As long as the frontal but reaching

20 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

further back, as broad as the frontal along a line connecting
the centres of the eyes. Parietals : Longer than the frontal.
Preocular: None. Postocular: One. Temporal: One;
nearly as long asthe supraocular. Supralabials : Six ; the Ist
and 2nd touching the nasal, 3rd and 4th the eye, and the 4th
and 5th the temporal. Sublinguals: Two pairs, anterior
larger, and in contact with three infralabials ; posterior hardly
enlarged, separated from the 3rd infralabial by one scale.
Infralabials : Three, 3rd largest and in contact with three
scales behind. (Fig. 5.)

Fic. 5.—Cylindrophis maculatus,
(Life size. )

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 21

Costals : Broader than long, broadly rounded posteriorly ;
rectiform ; smooth and glossy. Vertebral and the next row
subequal; next four rows rather larger; lowest five rows
subequal, and largest. Ultimate row about four-fifths the
breadth of the ventrals. In 19 rows two heads-lengths be-
hind the head, 21 in midbody, (or 19) and 19 two heads-
lengths before the vent ; the increase in rows occurs about six
heads-lengths behind the head where a new row appears
above the 4th from the ventrals; the reduction in rows
posteriorly occurs about three heads-lengths before the vent,
and is due to the confluence of the 5th and 6th rows
above the ventrals. Ventrals : 185 to 212 ; very little broader
than the ultimate row. Anal: Divided; one and a half
times as broad as the ventrals. Subcaudals: 4 to 6; divided
or some entire. (Fig. 6.)

Fie. 6.—Anal region of Cylindrophis maculatus.

Dentition.— From one skull in my collection. Mazillary :
9. Palatine: 7. Pterygoid: 5 to 7, Mandibular: 11.

Distribution.—(a) General : Peculiar to Ceylon.

(b) Local: A resident of the Plains. Has been found up to
about 1,700 feet elevation. A very common snake.

Family UROPELTIDA.

(Named after the type Genus Uropeltis.)

‘General Charaeters (for Ceylon Species).—Small snakes from
1 to 2 feet in length. Head very small. Snout rounded,
subacute or acute, without canthus. Eye very small, and
situated in an ocular shield. Nostril small, situated in a single

22 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

shield. Mental grooveabsent.* Neck and anterior body much
swollen, and knuckled. Body cylindrical ; short, moderate, or
long. Belly rounded. Tail very short, ending in a peculiar
shield upon the characters of which the genera are based.

Identification The small head and swollen knuckled neck
and forebody immediately attract attention, and the peculiar
tail will further tend to indicate the family. The costals are
broader than long, the breadth of the last row about two-
thirds the ventrals, and the anal shield is twice or almost twice
the breadth of the ventrals. Further the eye being situated
in a single shield will proclaim the family.

Habits.—Subterrestrial.. All are burrowing snakes that live
for choice beneath the soil. The snout is used for burrowing,
and not being very well adapted for this purpose a loose soil is
chosen as quarters. On the surface they move slowly, and
with apparent difficulty, and they are so defenceless that they
fall an easy prey to any rapacious mammal, bird, or reptile.
They are very timid reptiles that make no attempt to bite
when handled.

Food.—All those I know subsist upon earthworms exclu-
sively, and one rarely finds a specimen that has not fared
sumptuously, or without the intestine and cloaca being dis-
tended with semiliquid mud derived from their victims.

Breeding.—All those whose habits I know are viviparous.

Poison.—They are non-poisonous.

Lepidosis.—The arrangement of the head shields is peculiar
to the family. Rostral: Short, moderate, or long, usually
compressed, and sometimes more or less keeled above ; touch-
ing four or six shields. Nasals: Single; sometimes meeting
behind the rostral. Internasals : Absent. Prefrontals : Two.
Frontal: Present. Swpraoculars: Absent. Parietals: Two.
Loreal: Absent. Preoculars : Absent. Postoculars : Absent.
Temporals: Absent. Supralabials: Four. Sublinguals :
Absent. Infralabials : Three or four. Costals : At midbody
all the rows are rectiform, broader than long, and with
broadly rounded posterior borders; smooth. Vertebrals
not enlarged ; the breadth of the scales about four-fifths that

* Except in Melanophidium.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. . 23

of the ultimate row. Last five or six rows gradually increasing
in breadth. Ultimate row two-thirds to three-fourths the
breadth of the ventrals. In 17 to 21 rows. Ventrals: En-
larged but narrow. Anal: Divided ; twice or nearly twice
the breadth of the ventrals. Subcaudals: Variable ; entire
or divided; few in number. Caudal shield : Enlarged and
peculiar in shape.

Dentition.— Mawillary : 3 to 8; anododont, scaphiodont.
Palatine: None. Pterygoid: None. Mandibular: 4 to 11;
anododont, scaphiodont.

Distribution.—Southern India and Ceylon, mostly confined
to Hills.

Key to Uropeltide.

(For Ceylon Species.)

Caudal shield as in fig. 8 .. Uropeltis grandis.
Caudal shield as in fig. 10 .. Silybura melanogaster.
Caudal shield as in fig. 12 .. Rhinophis.

(A) Caudal shield as long as shielded part of head.
(a) Rostral twice length of frontal—

Ventrals 236 to 246 .. R. punctatus
Ventrals 281 .. RB. porrectus
(6) Rostral distinctly longer than frontal—
Ventrals 153 to 172 .. BR. planiceps
Ventrals 178 to 204 .. R. trevelyanus
Ventrals 214 to 223 .. BR. oxyrhynchus
(B) Caudal shield much shorter than shielded part of head—
(a) Ventrals 148 to 168 2. ake blythe
(6) Ventrals 173 to 191 .. KR. drummondhayi

Genus UROPELTIS.

(Greek ‘“‘ oura ”’ tail, “‘ pelte ’’ shield, in allusion to the
curious terminal caudal shield.)

General Characters.—A small snake growing to 14 feet.
Snout rounded. Eye less than half the horizontal diameter
of the ocular shield. Nostril small, in the antero-inferior
quadrant of the nasal shield. Body short, stout, cylindrical,
swollen, and knuckled anteriorly. Tail truncate.

24 SNAKES OF CEYION.

Identification.—The peculiar character of the terminal
caudal shield (see fig. 8) will establish the genus.

Lepidosis.—Rostral : Touching four shields; not keeled,
length rather shorter than the frontal, about one-third the
shielded part of thehead. Nasals : Meeting behind the rostral.
Frontal : Longer than broad ; equal to or rather longer than
the parietals. (Fig. 7.)

Fie. 7.—Uropeltis grandis.
(x 2.)
Costals: Last four or five rows progressively increasing in

breadth. Anal: Twice the breadth of the ventrals. Sub-
caudals : Variable. Caudal shield: Nearly as long as the

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 25

shielded part of the head; studded with conical tubercles
radiating from a blunt conical process in the lower central part
of the shield. (Fig. 8.)

Fie, 8.—Uropeltis grandis showing top of the tail.

(X 13.)

Dentition.— Mawillary : Anododont, feebly kumatodont.
Palatine: None. Pterygoid: None. Mandibular: Anododont,
feebly kumatodont. (Fig. 9.)

Fie. 9.~Jaws of Uropeltis grandis.

(a) Maxilla.
(6) Mandible.

Distribution. Peculiar to Ceylon. There is only one
species, viz., grandis.
9 6(6)20

26 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

UROPELTIS GRANDIS Kelaart.

(Latin “‘ grandis ” large ; evidently meaning by comparison

with its close allies.)
Kelaart’s Uropeltis (or Karth Snake.)

Synonymy.—Uropeltis philippinus, U. saffragamus, U.
paradalis, Pseudo-Typhlops philippinus.

History.— Described by Kelaart in 1853.

General Characters.—As detailed under the genus. The
diameter of the body is about 1/20 the total length.

Identification.— Easily recognized at once by the terminal
caudal shield which is peculiar to this snake. (See fig. 8.)

Colouration.—Nearly uniform brown or blackish dorsally ;
lighter ventrally. When looked into closely the scales are seen
to be dark basally, where overlapped by the preceding scales.

Habits.—Nothing known.

Food.—Mr. Green observed one picking grubs out of cow
dung.

Breeding.—Nothing known.

Growth.—(a) Karly Life: My smallest specimen was 140
mm, (54 inches) long.

(6) Maximum Length: 460 mm. (1 foot 6 inches long).

Lepidosis.—As detailed under the genus.

Oostals : Two heads-lengths behind the head 21 ; shortly
behind this the 4th and 5th rows above the ventrals blend, and
the rows then remain 19 to the vent. Ventrals : 129 to 147.
Subcaudals : 6 to 9.

Dentition.—From one skull inmycollection. Maaxillary: 7.
Palatine: Kdentulous. Pterygoid: Edentulous. Mandibular: 8.

Distribution.—(a) General: Peculiar to Ceylon.

(6) Local: Apparently very local and a hill snake. Has
been recorded from Matura, Kandy, Matara, Badulla, and
Uva District.

Apparently uncommon or very local. Mr, Drummond-Hay
tells me he has never acquired a specimen,

SNAKES OF CEYLON. ei,

Genus SILYBURA.

(Greek “‘silubon ” thistle, “‘ oura ” tail, in allusion to the

spines at the tail tip.)

General Characters.—Small snakes ranging between | and
2 feet. Head small; snout pointed, obtusely pointed, or
bluntly rounded. Eye in the ocular shield. Nostrils small,
round, pierced in the anterior-inferior quadrant of the nasal
shield. Chin with no mental groove. Neck stout. Body
short to moderate, stout, cylindrical. Belly rounded. Tail
cylindrical or compressed basally, convex above, or with a
flattened disc.

Identification.—The terminal caudal shield is of a character
peculiar to the genus. (See fig. 10.)

Habits.—Subterrestrial. Sluggish. Very gentle.

Food.—Seem to subsist entirely on worms.

Breeding.—The method of reproduction is in many Indian
Species viviparous.

Poison.—Not poisonous.

Lepidosis.—Rostral : Touches four or six shields. Nasals :
Meeting or nearly meeting behind the rostral. IJnternasals :
None. Prefrontals: Present. Frontal: Present. Swpra-
oculars: None. Parietals: Present ; as long as, or slightly
longer than the frontal. Loreal: None. Ocular: A large
shield containing the eye. Temporal: None. Supralabials :
Four; Ist and 2nd touching the nasal, 2nd and 3rd the
prefrontal, and 3rd and 4th the ocular. Sublinguals :
None.

Costals : Broader than long ; broadly rounded posteriorly ;
rectiform ; smooth ; vertebrals not enlarged ; last three or four
rows enlarged ; ultimate row two-thirds to three-fourths the
breadth of the ventrals. Ventrals: Enlarged but narrow.
Anal : Divided ; twice the breadth of the ventrals. Supra-
caudals ; Strongly keeled ; forming an oval disc in many of the

28 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

species. .Subcaudals : Divided; 5 to 15 in number, Caudal
shield: Enlarged; with two small spines placed on a
transverse ridge. (Figs. 10 and 11.)

Fig. 10.—Upper part of tail of Silybura.
<2)

Fic. 11.—Anal region of Silybura.

Dentition.—From the skulls of five species in my collection,
Mazillary: Anododont, kumatodont. Palatine: Edentulous.
Pterygoid : Edentulous. Mandibular: Anododont, kumata-
dont.

Distribution.—Hills of Southern India and Ceylon. The
genus contains twenty-two species, of which one only occurs
in Ceylon ; viz., melanogaster.

SNAKES OF CEYLON, 29

SILYBURA MELANOGASTER (Gray).
(Greek “‘ melanos ”’ black, “‘ gaster ”’ belly.)
Gray's Silybura (or Earth Snake),

Synonymy.—MVyinha melanogaster, Plectrurus ceylomcus,
Rhinophis melanogaster, R. blythi.

History.— Described by Gray in 1858.

General Characters.—Head small ; snout pointed. Eye less
than half the length of the ocular shield. Neck and anterior
body swollen and knuckled. Body cylindrical, short, robust,
especially so in the adult. Belly rounded. Tail short, cylin-
drical, or slightly compressed.

Identification.—The terminal caudal shield will differentiate
it from all other Ceylon snakes.

Colouration.—Dark brown dorsally, with yellow mottling
on the sides, often forming a more or less confluent, irregular
band. Black ventrally. In the young the dorsal scales are
dark brown centrally, bordered with yellowish.

Habits.—Have not been remarked upon.

Food.—Nothing specially noted.

Breeding.— Nothing known.

Growth.—(a) HarlyLife: Theyoungare from 90to 100 mm.
(34 to 4 inches) in length.

(6) Maximum Length: 270 mm. (102 inches).

Lepidosis.— Rosiral: Touches six shields; not keeled;:as
long as the frontal, two-fifths the shielded part of the head.
Nasals : Entirely separated by the rostral. Frontal : Longer
than broad, longer than the parietals. Costals : Two heads-
lengths behind the head 19, midbody 17, two heads-lengths
before the vent 17. Ventrals: 141 to 166. Subcaudals: 6 to
10. Supracaudals : Strongly carinate on the flattened disc.
Caudal shield : Enlarged ; deeper than broad ; ending in a
transverse ridge, with two small spines placed side by side.

Dentition.—I have no skull.

Distribution.—(a) General: Peculiar to Ceylon.

(6) Local: Itisa hill snake, which is apparently very local.
Colonel Beddonne pronounced it very common without speci-
fying the altitude or district where he made this observation.
Mr. Drummond-Hay tells me he has never met with it.

30 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Genus RHINOPHIS.

(Greek “‘ rhis ”’ nose, “‘ ophis ’’ snake, referring to the

pointed snout.)

General Characters.—Small snakes mostly about 1 foot,
some nearly 2 feet in length. Head very small. Snout more
or less acutely pointed. Eye small to very small, situated in
an ocular shield. Nostril pierced in the antero-intferior
quadrant ,of an entire nasal shield. Chin with no mental
groove. Neck and fore body swollen and knuckled. Body
cylindrical, short, moderate, or elongate. Belly rounded.
Tail very short, obtusely conical.

Identification.— Easily recognized by the peculiar enlarged
shield at the end of the tail, which is rough from minute
spinose processes. (See fig. 13.)

Habits.—All are earth burrowers living beneath the soil.
The acutely-pointed snout is not specially adapted for burrow-
ing, and it is therefore only in loose soil that it can effect
progression. The swollen neck and fore body are due to a
remarkable muscular development, by which the snake is
enabled to push its way through the soil. They are all
extremely defenceless reptiles that fall an easy prey to rap-
torial mammals and birds and other snakes of ophophagous
habits. They never attempt to bite, no matter how great the
provocation.

Food.—All those whose diet has been ascertained feed on
earthworms and they eat voraciously. Hardly a specimen is
found that has not fragments of worms in the stomach, and
none without the intestinal tract loaded with semi-liquid mud
derived from the worms upon which they subsist.

Breeding.—All whose habits are known are viviparous, and
they are not prolific, usually producing from two to six young
at a time.

- Lepidosis.—Rostral : Usually more or less compressed.
sometimes keeled above. Nasals : Completely separated
by the rostral; touching the Ist and 2nd_ supralabials.
Prefrontals: Touching the 2nd and 3rd_ supralabials.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. SE

Frontals : Variable in length. Parietals. Variable in length.
Ocular: Contains the eye; touching the 3rd and 4th
supralabials. Swpraoculars: Absent. Loreal: Absent. Pre-
oculars, postoculars, and temporals: Absent. Supralabials :
Four ; progressively increasing in size from before backwards.

Costals : Broader than long, subequal except the ultimate
row, which is broader than the rest, broadly rounded poster-
iorly ; smooth. In from 21 to 19 rows two heads-lengths
behind the head, two less, 7.e., 19 to 17 at midbody and to the
vent. The rows reduce anteriorly by a fusion of the 4th and
5th rows above the ventrals. Ventrals : About four-thirds
the breadth of the ultimate row of scales; narrow, so that
three or four rows of scales can be seen each side when the
specimen is laid on its back. Anal: Divided ; fully twice the
breadth of the ventrals. Subcaudals: 3 to 10; mostly
divided, some usually entire. Caudal shield : Enlarged and
peculiar in shape, covered with minute spinose processes ;
as long or nearly as long as the shielded part of the head.
(Fig. 12.)

Fic, 12.—Upper part of tail of Rhinophis.

Dentition.— From five species in my collection. Maxillary :
Anododont, kumatodont. Palatine: Edentulous. Pterygoid :
Edentulous. Mandibular : Anododont, scaphiodont.

Distribution—South India and Ceylon, mostly confined to
the hills. There are nine species, seven of which are peculiar
to Ceylon. Two of these are now described for the first time,
viz., drummond-hayi and porrectus.

32 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

RHINOPHIS OXYRHYNCHUS (Schneider).

(Greek “‘ oxus ” sharp, ““rhynchos”’ snout.)

Schneider's Rhinophis (or Harth Snake).

Synonymy.—-T'yphlops oxyrhynchus, Depatnaya lankadivana,
Mytilia unimaculata.

History.— Described and christened by Schneider in 1801.

General Characters.—The largest of the genus growing to
22 inches. Head small, snout very acute, keeled above.
Eye very small, less than one-third the horizontal diameter of
the ocular shield. Body moderately long, its diameter at
midbody being about one thirty-fifth to one fortieth the total
length. Tail short.

Identification.—The caudal shield about as long as the
shielded part of the head, rostral longer than the frontal, and
ventrals less than 230 if taken together will denote the species.

Colouration—Head dark brown without marks. Body
scales dark brown, the basal part darkest, and with lighter
margins. The ventral rows are outlined with whitish. A few
quite white ventral patches before the anus.

Habits. Kelaart says it frequents ant hills, and may be
found as deep as 2 or 3 feet beneath the soil.

Food.—Nothing known.

Growth.— Maximum Length: A very fine male (?) specimen
in the Colombo Museum measures 573 mm. (224 inches).

Lepidosis.—Rostral : Sharply keeled above, length greater
than frontal, about half the shielded part of the head. Frontal:
About as broad as long, as long as the parietals.

Costals: Two heads-lengths behind the head 21 or 19, mid-
body 19 or 17, two heads-lengths before the vent 19 or 17.
All rows subequal except the ultimate, which is rather the
broadest. Ventrals : 211 to 227. Subcaudals : 5 to 7.

Caudal shield: About as long as the shielded part of the
head.

Dentition.—I have no skull.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 33

Distribution.—(a) General: Peculiar to Ceylon.
(6) Local : Reported by Kelaart common at Trincomalee.
The single specimen in the Colombo Museum I found
labelled Uropeltis grandis. This may be the specimen referred
to by Ferguson from Mullaittivu,

RHINOPHIS PUNCTATUS Muller.

(Latin “punctatus” literally pricked, implies minutely

spotted. )
Muller’s Rhinophis (or Earth Snake),

Synonymy.—Pseudo-Typhlops oxyrhynchus.

History.— Described and christened by Muller in 1832.

General Characters.—Grows to about 15 inches. Head very
small. Snout acutely pointed, sharply keeled above. Eye very
small, being about one-third the horizontal diameter of the
ocular shield. Body rather long, its diameter at midbody
being about one forty-seventh to one forty-ninth the total
length. Trail short. |

Identification. The caudal shield about half the length of
the shielded part of the head, rostral longer than the frontal,
and from 236 to 246 ventrals if taken together will establish
the species.

Colouration.—The head blackish-brown with no marks.
Body scales dark brown centrally, whitish marginally. The
eighth row from the ventrals is wholly whitish.

Habits.— Nothing known.

Food.—Nothing known.

Breeding.— Nothing known.

- Growth.— Maximum Length : 390 mm. (154 inches).

Lepidosis—Rostral: With a sharp keel above; length
greater than the frontal, about half*the shielded part of
the head. Frontal: As broad as long, as long as the
parietals.

10 6(6)20

34 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Costals : Two heads-lengths behind the head 19, midbody
17, two heads-lengths before the vent 17. Ventrals: 236 to
246. Subcaudals: 5 to 7. Caudal shield: About as long as
the shielded part of the head.

Fie. 13.—Rhinophis punctatus:

(x B)

Dentition.—I have no skull.
Distribution.—(a) General : Peculiar to Ceylon.

(6) Local: Apparently rare. There are four in the British
Museum, two of which are from Peradeniya. Not represented
in the Colombo Museum,

,

ERRATUM.

ee Page 34, Fig. 13: For ‘‘ Rhinophis punctatus” read * Rhi-
nophis porrectus.”

‘ eo

oe. a0

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 35)

RHINOPHIS PORRECTUS Spec. nov.

(Latin “‘ porrectus ” stretched.)
Willey’s Rhinophis (or Earth Snake).

Synonymy.—Rhinophis punctatus (Willey. Spol. Zeylan.,
Vol. I., 1903, pp. 88 and 89).

History.—The type specimen was captured by Dr. Willey in
1903 and confused by him with RA. punctatus (Muller).

General Characters.—A small species growing to 14 inches.
Head very small. Snout acute with sharp keel above. Eye
very small, less than one-third the horizontal diameter
of the ocular shield. Body very elongate, its diameter
at midbody about one seventy-sixth the total length. Tail
short.

Identification.—Most easily recognized by the _ very
numerous ventral shields which number 28] in the “ type.”

Colouration.—Head blackish-brown without markings, tip
of snout dull orange. A narrow blackish-brown vertebral line
passes from the nape to the supra-anal region, occupying the
median part of the vertebral row. The outer part of the
vertebral, the whole of the next row, and the edge of the
seventh from the ventrals are whitish. The contiguous halves
of the seventh and sixth rows from the ventrals are blackish-
brown. All the remaining rows are blackish-brown with
whitish margins. Caudal shield dull orange with a subter-
minal dark band.

Habits.—Nothing known.

Food.—Nothing known.

Breeding.— Nothing known.

Growth.—Maaimum Length : 355 mm. (14 inches).

Lepidosis.—Rostral : Sharply keeled above, length fully
twice the frontal, more than half the shielded part of the
head. Frontal: As broad as long, decidedly shorter than
the parietals.,

36 SNAKES OF -CEYLON.

Costals : Two heads-lengths behind the head 19, midbody
17, two heads-lengths before the vent 17. All rows subequal
except the ultimate, which is slightly the broadest. Ventrals:
281; about four-thirds the breadth of the ultimate row.
Anal: Divided ; twice as broad asthe ventrals. Subcaudals :
6. Caudal shield ; Three-fourths to four-fifths the shielded
part of the head.

Dentition.—I have no skull.

Distribution.—(a) General : Peculiar to Ceylon.

(6) Local : Known from a single specimen in the Colombo
Museum, encountered by Willey on the road between Puttalam
and Chilaw. Hence apparently a Low-country species.

RHINOPHIS PLANICEPS Peters.

(Latin “* planus ” flat, “‘ ceps ” head.)

Peters’s Rhinophis (or Earth Snake).
Synonymy.—T'yphlops philippinus, Rhinophis philippinus.
History.—Described by Cuvier under the name T'yphlops

philippinus in 1829, under the belief that the type came from
the Philippine Islands. Peters in 1861 referred to it under the
same title, and described another species as &. planiceps, which
subsequent writers could not dissociate from the former. As
Cuvier’s name is misleading, it has been dropped in favour of
that given by Peters.

General Characters.—Grows to about 11 inches. Head
very small. Snout acute, obtusely keeled above. Eye very
small, less than one-third the horizontal diameter of the ocular
shield. Body short, its diameter at midbody about one
twenty-fourth to one thirty-fourth the totallength. Tailshort.

Identification.—T he caudal shield as long as shielded part of
head, the rostral longer than the frontal, frontal as broad as
long, and ventrals 180 or less will differentiate this from the
other species.

Colouration.—Head dark purplish-black without marks.
Body dark purplish-black with a series of irregularly ovate, or
subtriangular, vertical, whitish spots most conspicuous
anteriorly. The ventrals and the scales of the lowest four or

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 37

five rows each side outlined with white. Anal region, side of
tail, and caudal shield whitish. No dark horseshoe on caudal
shield.

Habits.—Very gentle and disinclined to bite.

_ Food.—The stomachs of many investigated by me contained
nothing but earthworms, and the intestines and cloaca were
distended with semi-liquid mud from the same source.

Breeding.—(a) The Sexes: Of thirty-two adults in Mr.
Drummond-Havy’s collection sexed by me, nineteen proved to
be males and thirteen females. Males have relatively longer
tails, and more numerous subcaudals. The sexes appear to
grow to about the same length. The longest male examined
was 252 mm. (10 inches), and the longest female 240 mm.
(92 inches).

(b) Method of Reproduction: I found eggs containing
embryos in such a stage of development as to leave no doubt
that the species is viviparous.

(c) Season: As no dates were available, no light could be
thrown upon this matter.

(d) The Brood : The two gravid females dissected by me
each contained two embryos.

Growth.—(a) The Young: When born the young are
evidently about 90 to 95 mm. (32 to 3? inches) long. I have
measured post-natal specimens as small as 90 mm. (33 inches).

(6) Early Life: The growth cannot be followed as no dates
were availabie.

(c) Maturity: The gravid females were 182 and 196 mm.

(74 and 7% inches) long. If this snake grows at the same rate
as the majority of snakes, and doubles its length in the
first year of life, these measurements indicate that it is
sexually mature when a year old.
_ (d) Maximum Length: The longest male I have examined
was 252 mm. (10 inches) and the longest female 240 mm.
(92 inches). Gunther, however, records one 420 mm. (165
inches), sex not specified.

Lepidosis.— Rostral : Obtusely keeled above ; length longer
than the frontal, less than half the shielded part of the head.
Frontal : As broad as long, as long as the parietals.

38 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Costals : Two heads-lengths behind head 19, midbody 17,
two heads-lengths before vent 17. Ventrals: 161 to 182
(3 161 to 176, 2 168 to 182) (152 Boulenger). Subcaudals : 3
to 6 ($ 4 to 6, 9 3 to 4). Caudal shield: About as long as
the shielded part of the head.

Dentition.—From one skull in my collection. Mazillary :
6? to 7? Palatine: Edentulous. Pterygoid : Edentulous.
Mandibular : 8?

Distribution.—(a) General: Peculiar to Ceylon.

(6) Local: Mr. Drummond-Hay tells me it is a common
snake in the Ratnagiri, Balangoda, and Yatiyantota Districts
in hills below about 3,000 feet elevation. | Twenty-two in the
Colombo Museum labelled trevelyanus from the Bulatota
estate, Rakwana District, Province of Sabaragamuwa, are
planiceps.

RHINOPHIS TREVELYANUS (Kelaart) (named in honour of

Mr. Trevelyan).

Trevelyan’s Rhinophis (or Earth Snake).

Synonymy.—Depatnaya trevelyana, Mytilia gerrardi, Rhino-
phus homolepis.

History. Described and christened by Kelaart in 1853.

General Characters—Grows to about 11 inches. Head
small. Snout acute, keeled above. Eye very small, less than
one-third the horizontal diameter of the ocular shield. Body
short ; the diameter at midbody about one twenty-sixth to one-
thirtieth the total length. Tail very short.

Identification.—The caudal shield as long as the shielded
part of the head, rostral longer than frontal, and ventrals 188
to 204 will distinguish this from the other species.

Habits.—Gunther says it has been found 3 or 4 feet beneath
the soil.

Food.—The many I examined had taken nothing but earth-
worms.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 39

Breeding.—(a) The Sexes: Out of a series of thirty-four in
Mr. Drummond-Havy’s collection, nine were males and twenty-
five females. Males have slightly longer tails. Females
attain to a somewhat greater length.

(6) Method of Reproduction: It is viviparous in habit. I
found many gravid and extracted foetuses from 85 to 90 mm.
in length (33 to 32 inches).

(c) Season: Not known, as no dates were available.

(d) The Brood: The eight gravid females examined by me
contained from two to four eggs or sacs. It was noticed that
the longest dams were the most prolific.

Growth.—(a) The Young: At birth the young are about
87 mm. (34 inches), for the male foetuses measuring 85 to
90 mm. had not extruded claspers. The smallest post-natal
specimen measured 113 mm. (4% inches).

(b) Early Infe: Lack of dates made it impossible to follow
the early growth.

(c) Maturity : The smallest prospective mother measured
194 mm. (72 inches). If this species doubles its length in the
first year of life as so many snakes do, it is producing young
when only one year old.

(d) Maximum Length: The longest male I have seen was
225 mm. (9 inches), and the longest female 250 mm. (10 inches).
Boulenger gives the extreme measurement as 275 mm. (11
inches) without specifying the sex.

Lepidosis.— Rostral: Keeled above; longer than the
frontal, less than half the shielded part of the head. Frontal :
As broad or almost as broad as long, as long as the
parietals.

Costals : Two heads-lengths behind the head 19, midbody
17, two heads-lengths before the vent 17. Ventrals : 188 to
204 (g 188 to 193, 2 191 to 204). Subcaudals: 2 to 5
(¢ 5, 22 to 3). Caudal shield : As long as the shielded part
of the head.

Dentition.—F rom two skulls in my collection. Mazillary :
5 to 6. Palatine: Edentulous. Pterygoid : Edentulous.
Mandibular : 7 ?

Distribution.—(a) General: Peculiar to Ceylon.

4() SNAKES OF CEYLON.

(6) Local: Mr. Drummond-Hay tells me it is a common
snake in the low hills of the Balangoda, Ratnagiri, and Yatiyan-
tota Districts below about 3,000 feet. All the specimens in
the Colombo Museum (twenty-three) labelled trevelyanus,
except one, proved to be R. planiceps.

RHINOPHIS BLYTHI Kelaart.

(Named in honour of Mr. Blyth.)

Blyth’s Rhinophis (or Barth Snake).

Synonymy.— Mytilia templetoni.
History.— Described and christened by Kelaart in 1853.

General Characters.—A small snake growing to about
14 inches. Head small. Snout acute, not keeled above.
Kye less than halt the horizontal diameter of the ocular shield.
Body short; its diameter at midbody about one twenty-second
to one thirty-second the total length. Tail short.

Identification.—The caudal shield much shorter than the
shielded part of the head, with ventrals ranging between 148
and 168 will differentiate this from its allies.

Colouration.—Head blackish-brown above, with a more or
less distinct, narrow, white 1/ with its apex on the rostral, and
the limbs confluent with a vertical, white, lateral spot on the
neck. Body blackish-brown above, with a series of whitish,
vertical, or sub-triangular, lateral spots most conspicuous
anteriorly, the most anterior sometimes meeting over the
neck. These are sometimes confluent to form an irregular
lateral stripe. Belly dappled with blackish-brown and white,
many scales being margined with white. Anal region whitish.
Tail with a basal white band incomplete dorsally.

Habits.—Lives like the other species beneath the soil.
Very inoffensive, never attempting to bite.

Food.—Those I have investigated had eaten nothing but
earthworms. It seems to feed voraciously on this fare, and
the intestines in consequence are found loaded with semi-
liquid mud.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 4]

Breeding.—(a) The Sexes: Of seventy-two specimens in
Mr. Drummond-Hay’s collection examined by me, thirty-two
proved to be males and forty females. The sexes, as a rule,
grow to about the same length, but the largest specimen
proved to be a female. The tail is somewhat longer in
males.

(b) Method of Reproduction: The species is viviparous. I
have seen many gravid females near term, and there is a
specimen in the Colombo Museum preserved in the act of
parturition, about 55 mm. (24 inches) of a youngster protruding
from the cloaca.

(c) Season: There are unfortunately no dates available for
Mr. Drummond-Hay’s specimens. The parturient dam above
alluded to was killed at Hatton in August, 1912.

(d) The Brood: This is apparently the most prolific of the
species of this genus, the brood varying from three to six.
On one occasion I have found three, on three occasions five,
and once six. The smallest mothers are the least productive
as I so frequently find with snakes.

Growth.—(a) The Young: The longest unborn young I
have measured were 88 and 94 mm. (34 and 32 inches). I
have seen post-natal specimens that measured 100 mm.
(4 inches).

(6) Harly Life : I have not been able to follow the growth
for lack of dates.

(c) Maturity : The smallest of six gravid females was 225
mm. (9 inches). If as is probable this species grows like other
snakes, and doubles its length in the first year of life, the
species is propagating when about one year old.

(d) Maximum Length : Most adults of both sexes are about
275 mm. (11 inches) long. The largest I have measured was
a female 368 mm. (144 inches).

Lepidosis.—Rostral : Not keeled above ; length equal to
that of the frontal, about two-fifths the shielded part of the
head. Frontal : Longer than broad, longer than the parietals.
Costals : Two heads-lengths behind the head 19, midbody 17,
two heads-lengths before the vent 17. Ventrals : 148 to 168

ll 6(6)20

42, SNAKES OF CEYLON,

($ 148 to 155, 2 159 to 168). Subcaudals : 3 to 9 ($5 to 9, 23

to 5). Caudal shield : About two-thirds the shielded part of
the head. |

Fic, 14.—Rhinophis blythi.
(X 3.)

Dentition.—From one skull in my collection. Maaillary :

6. Palatine: Edentulous. Pterygoid : Edentulous. Man-
dibular : 10.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 43

Distribution.—(a) General : Peculiar to Ceylon.

(6) Local : Apparently the commonest of the Ceylon Rhino-
phids. Mr. Drummond-Hay tells me it was very common at
Hopewell estate, Balangoda District, between about 3,000 and
4,200 feet. It has been recorded from Punduloya and
Hatton.

RHINOPHIS DRUMMONDHAYI Spec. nov.

(Named in honour of Mr. H. M. Drummond-Hay

by the Author.)

Drummond-Hay’s Rhinophis (or Earth Snake).

Synonymy.—Nil.

History.-On examining Mr. Drummond-Hay’s collection,
I found nine examples of a snake which is new to science.
I also extracted one similar specimen from the stomach of a
Ceylon Krait (Bungarus ceylonicus), and another probably of
this species from another Ceylon Krait.

General Characters.—A small species very similar to planiceps
and trevelyanus and growing to similar proportions. Headsmall.
Snout acute, hardly compressed, with no keel above. Eye
small, less than half the horizontal diameter of the ocular
shield. Body short; its diameter at midbody about one
twenty-fifth to one thirty-fifth the total length.

Identification.—The caudal shield much shorter than the
shielded part of the head, and ventrals ranging between 173 to
191 will indicate the species.

Colouration.—Head dark brown with no marks. The scales
on the body are brown dorsally, margined with blackish-
brown, except anteriorly, where the scales are variegated with
whitish streaks. No lateral whitish spots. Ventrally beauti-
fully dappled brown and whitish. Anal region whitish. Tail
blackish above and below, with a whitish lateral stripe ending
subterminally.

Habits.— Nothing special noted.

44 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Food.—The stomachs of several investigated by me contained
earthworms, and the intestine and cloaca were distended with
semi-liquid mud from the worms ingested.

Breeding.—(a) The Sexes ; Of thirteen specimens examined.
four proved to be males and nine females. The sexes appear
to grow to much the same length, but the largest was a female.
In males the tail is rather longer.

(b) Method of Reproduction : It is viviparous in habit.

(c) Season : Not known, no dates being available.

(d) The Brood: From two to five young are produced at a time.

Growth.—(a) The Young : The exact length at birth could
not be ascertained from the specimens available.

(b) Harly Life : Not known, no dates being on record.

(c) Maturity: The smallest of four gravid females was
280 mm. (114 inches).

(d) Maximum Length: The longest male was 298 mm.
(112 inches), and the longest female 330 mm. (13 inches).

Lepidosis.— Rostral : But slightly compressed ; not keeled
above ; length equals frontal, about two-fifths the shielded
part of the head. Nasals : Completely separated by the
rostral ; touching the 1st and 2nd supralabials. Prefrontals :
Touching the 2nd and 3rd supralabials. Frontal: As broad
as long, length equals parietals. Supralabials : Four.

Costals : Two heads-lengths behind head 19, midbody 17,
two heads-lengths beforé vent 17. All rows subequal except
the ultimate, where the scales are broadest. Ventrals : 173 to
191 (¢ 173 to 180, 2 181 to 191) ; about four-thirds the breadth
of the ultimate row. Anal: Divided ; fully twice the breadth
of the ventrals. Subcaudals : 4 to 7 ($ 5 to 7, 2 4 to 6) ; usually
divided, some frequently entire. Caudal shield : Much shorter
than the shielded part of the head.

Dentition.—From two skulls in mycollection. Mazillary: 7.
Palatine: Edentulous. Pterygoid: Edentulous. Mandibular : 8.

Distribution.—(a) General : Peculiar to Ceylon.

(b) Local : Mr. Drummond-Hay tells me it is fairly common
on Lennock estate in the centre of the Uva Patnas at about
4,000 to 4,200 feet. One specimen from Mr. Ormiston was
killed on Kalupahani estate, Haldummulle District, about
3,000 feet.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 45

Family BOIDEZ.

(Named after the type Genus Boa.*)

General Characters.—This family includes the largest snakes
that are known, such as the Pythons, the Boas, and the Ana-
conda. The head is more or less depressed, the snout rather
long, without canthus, and broadly rounded anteriorly. The
eye is small with a vertical pupil. The nostril is placed rather
high on the side of the snout between two or three shields.
The chin may reveal a mental groove or not. The body is
massive, attenuating towards the neck and_ posteriorly.
Rudimentary hind limbs are present, the extremities of which
are visible as claw-like processes on either side of the vent.
Those I have dissected out consist of two bones, the analogues
of the femur, and tibia of mammals. The former is not
articulated to any pelvic bone, but lies completely free. The
tibia is articulated to the femur. The belly is rounded. The
tail is short, and prehensile in many of the species.

Identification.—The costals are longer than broad, and the
scales in the last row about half the breadth of the ventrals.
The anal is as broad as the ventrals.

Habits.—They are subterrestrial, terrestrial, or semi-aquatic.
Very sluggish by nature, they do not pursue their prey, but
conceal themselves, some by burrowing, some in water, and
others in trees, and rely on their victims coming within their
grasp. Once the victim is seized, life is quickly exterminated

7 (From Boa one of the genera of the family. Boa is derived from
Latin “‘bos’’ a cow, and is based on the old fable that some, or one, of
the species sucked the milk from cows.)

Linné (1738 to 1783) says that Pliny (23 to 79 a.p.) mentions the
story of the boa sucking the milk from cows.

_ Topsell in his “‘ Historie of Serpents” (1608) says: ‘‘ The Latines called
it (Boa constrictor ?) “boa” or “ bova”’ because by sucking cowe’s
milke it so encreaseth, that in the end it destroyeth all manner of herds,
eattell, and regions.’’ Cordante, too, says :

“The Boas serpent which Italy doth breede

' Men say, uppon the milke of cowes doth feede.”’

46 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

by constriction. Their movements are slow ; in fact, in some
progression cannot be called anything but a crawl. The
reason for this appears to be that the ribs are excessively
bowed to permit of the attachment of their extremities to the
sides of the very narrow ventral shields. The effect is that
a very narrow “ foot” sustains the massive weight of the
body, and militates against active progression.

Breeding.—Some are viviparous others oviparous.

Food.—Mammals chiefly, but birds and reptiles are also
taken.

Poison.—Not poisonous.

Lepidosis.— Different in the two sub-families (q. v.)

Dentition.—Different in the two sub-families.

Distribution—South Eastern Europe, Central and South
Asia, Africa, Australia, Western North America, Central and
South America, and West Indies.

The family is divided into two sub-families, Pythonine and
Boine.

Sub-family Pythonine,
Genus PYTHON.

(Named from the fabled monster of Grecian mythology
killed by Apollo in the Pythian Vale near Mount
Parnassus.*)

General Characters.—Large snakes attamimg to 10 and 15
feet or more. Head nearly as broad as the body, depressed.

Snout long, broadly rounded, and without any canthus. Hye
moderate with vertical pupil. Nostril large, placed high on

* Milton refers to the fable in the following lines :—-
¥ but still greatest he the midst
Now dragon grown, larger than whom the sun
Engendered in the Pythian Vale on slime
Huge Python ; and his power no Jess he seemed
Above the rest still to retain.”

(Paradise Lost. Book X., line 528, et. seq.).

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 47

the snout. Chin with a mental groove. Neck fairly evident.
Body cylindrical, massive. Belly rounded. Terminations of
the concealed rudimentary limbs seen as small claw-like
processes on each side of the vent. Tail short, prehensile.

Identification.—Costal rows more than sixty in midbody.
Ventrals about twice the breadth of the last costal row. Anal
entire ; as broad as the ventrals.

Habits.—Terrestrial, arboreal, subaquatic, sluggish. Move-
ments slow.

Food.—Omnivorous, showing some partiality to a mamma-
lian fare.

Breeding.—Oviparous except regiws, which is viviparous.

Poison.—Non-poisonous.

Lepidosis (Indian Species).—Rostral : Touches six shields ; ©
with a wedge-shaped pit on each side. Internasals : A pair.
Prefrontals ; A pair ; separated from the frontal and supra-
oculars by a series of small scales. Frontals: A pair. Supra-
oculars : Present. Parietals : Absent. Nasals : Three; the
anterior largest. Loreals : Many,small. Preoculars ; Three
or four. Postoculars : Three or four. Temporals : Replaced
by small scales. Supralabials : Eleven to fourteen ; first two
_or three with cuneate pits ; two touching the eye. Sublinguals:
Absent ; replaced by small scales. Infralabials : Many ; a few
of the anterior and posterior with roundish pits.

Costals : At midbody. Longer than broad dorsally ; recti-
form; smooth. Vertebrals not enlarged, about one-seventh
the breadth of the last row. Antepenultimate row about as
broad as long. Penultimate row broader than long. Ultimate
row broadest, and about half the breadth of the ventrals. In
60 to 75 rows in midbody. Ventrals : Enlarged ; 242 to 330.
Anal: Entire; as broad as the ventrals. Subcaudals :
Divided ; 61 to 102.

Dentition.—Premazillary: 4. Maxillary: 16 to 19;
scaphiodont. Palatine: 6 or 7; scaphiodont. Pterygoid :
8 to 10; feebly scaphiodont. Mandibular: 16 to 19;
scaphiodont.. ‘

Distribution.—Tropical and South Africa, South Eastern
Asia, Papuasia, Australia. The genus includes nine species,
of which one, viz., molurus, occurs in Ceylon.

48 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

PYTHON MOLURUS Linne.

(Greek “‘ molouros”’ some kind of snake, the identity
of which is now uncertain.)

The Indian Python.

Tamil : “ periya pambu”’ (large snake), ““ malai pambu ”’
(hill snake), “ kaloodai viriyan’’ (ass viper). Sinhalese :
‘* pimbera ’’* (Ferguson).

Synonymy.—Coluber molurus, Boa ordinata, B. cinerea,
B. castanea, B. albicans, B. orbicutata, Python bora, P. trgris,
P. ordinatus, P. bivittatus.

History.—The snake depicted in 1734 by Seba on Plate
XXXVII., fig. 1, of his “ Thesaurus’ appears to be this
species. It is said to be from India, but its name “ ninti
polonga’”’ indicates Ceylon. Our oldest zoologists used
“India” in a very inexact manner. It was described by
Linné in 1766. Subsequently Russell in 1796 figured it no
less than four times in his first volume. (Plates XXII,
XXITI., XXIV., and XX XIX.)

Identification.—There are over 60 rows of costals at
midbody. This alone will identify the snake. In addition,
the python presents curious depressions on the rostral,
and the two first labials, which are seen in no other Ceylon
snake.

Colouration.—On the head the marks vary a good deal with
age, and in all individuals vary much according to whether

* According to the famous John Ray the word anaconda is Sinhalese,
and not South American as one might suppose. His friend Dr. Tancred
Robinson gave him a catalogue of the Indian snakes he had noted in
the Leyden Museum. No. 8 on this list read as follows :—“‘ 8 serpens
indicus bubalinus anacondaia zeylonibus, idest bubalorum aliorumque
jumentorum membra conterens.’’ Yule says he can find no mention of
the name anaconda in old South American literature, and suggests that
it is derived from the Sinhalese ‘‘ anai” elephant, and ‘‘ kondra ”
which vanquished. Jam told that the Tamil is “‘ anai’”’ elephant, and
‘* kolra ”’ killer.

SNAKES OF CEYLON 49

- desquamation has been recently completed, or is impending.
The ground colour is grayish, whitish, or yellowish in adults,
and often a very pretty shade of pink, in the young especially.
There is a dark streak from the nostril to the eye in the young,
which often is completely obliterated in later life. Behind the
eye at all ages is a conspicuous, dark, oblique band to the gape,
and a more or less conspicuous patch below the eye tending to
become obscure with age. On the front part of the lower
lip there is often some fine mottling. On the back of the head
and the nape is a large lance-shaped mark bisected in the
median line, but this often fades so much anteriorly in adults
that the similitude to a lance is more or less effaced. The
light bisecting band, together with similar light bands, one of
which passes over each eyebrow—especially distinct in the
young—are very suggestive of the “ dasira’’ mark of the
Tamils.

Dorsally the body is grayish or yellowish, and bears a series
of Jarge, somewhat roughly-quadrate patches, extending from
the neck on to the tail. These patches, which are centrally
mych the same colour as the ground, are well defined out-
wardly, and broadly outlined with black or blackish, and it is
here that those lovely bluish and amethystine hues are seen
in certain lights which show off the snake to such advantage,
and which many an artist in the Royal Academy has tried,
with varying degrees of success, to depict. Outside this
median series of marks is another small series of a similar
character, and outside this again a third sometimes, much
less regular and smaller, and mixed up with a coarse mottling
extending into the flanks. The underparts are dirty-whitish,
or faintly yellow. Seen in the sun’s rays the iridescent eftects
on the dorsal patches defy alike the author’s powers of des-
eription and the painter’s art of reproduction. Virgil’s*
description, however, of the snake that encircled the tomb of

* «* Scarce had he said when from the shrined base a slippery snake
trailed huge seven coils, in each seven folds; and circling tranquilly
the tomb slid o’er the altar; dark blue streaks its back lit up, its
scales a sheen of spotted gold as (when the sun shines opposite) the bow
darts from the clouds a thousand varied hues.’? Aeneid Lib. V.
line 84, e? seq.

12 6(6)20

50 SNAKES OF CEYLON,

Anchises, and which Kennedy has so graphically rendered in
English verse as follows, leaves no doubt, but that it is a
python that is indicated, and as likely as not our Indian
species molurus :-—

Habits.—(a) Haunts : For the most part the Indian python
is a jungle inhabitant. It may be met with in the interior of
the densest forest tracts, or in sparser forest growth such as
that which clothes the rocky slopes of many low hills. Where
jungle is not available it most usually attaches itself to rivers
and jheels, especially the former. In jungle areas it is
frequently observed in trees and at times at some considerable
elevation aloft. It climbs stealthily and well, and having
established itself in the branches secretes itself so well that it is
no infrequent event for a monkey to come within striking
distance, and forfeit its life. By means of its prehensile tail
it is capable of suspending itself from branches, nearly all of its
body remaining free, and there is no doubt that many an
incautious animal comes within reach, and is victimized.
Mr. Sharpe, D.S.P., in the Fyzabad District, told me in 1906
that he once climbed up into a banyan tree in dense jungle
with his shikari, who told him that at that season, when the
fruit was ripening, many animals, especially deer, visited these
trees to eat the fallen fruit. After having been quiet for some
time, he noticed close to him a movement in what he had up
till then taken to be an aerial root, but which on closer
inspection proved to be a python suspended by its tail, and
evidently established there for the same purpose that had
actuated the sportsman. I have heard of pythons quartering
themselves in hollow trees, and frequenting those on which
egrets and night herons roost, to which at night the snake
stealthily crept and successfully took toll. |

In water this snake is quite at home, in fact it might be
considered semi-aquatic in habit. It swims deftly and
strongly, when its inclination prompts such activity, but is
often to be observed partially or wholly submerged near the
bank of a river, or jheel. As in captivity, it will lie for hours
showing nothing but the tip of its snout, which is pushed out
to raise the nostrils above the surface, and permit breathing.
It can remain beneath the water entirely for many minutes.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 51

Colonel Fife Cookson* says that observations were made at
Regent’s park, which showed that it could keep entirely
submerged for half an hour. I asked the attendant at Cross’s
Menagerie in Liverpool some years ago to make special
observations in this direction, and he told me later that
one kept its head below the water for 11 minutes, and
remained above 9 minutes subsequently before again retiring
below. Another kept below 12 minutes, and another 15
minutes.

If only partially submerged in water in its native haunts,
it keeps so still that any part of the body exposed is likely
to be taken for a branch or root. My informant at Cross’s
Menagerie also told me that one kept in its bath from
Wednesday till Sunday of one week, and often the sloughing
period is passed in their tanks, from which the snake
emerges resplendent in its new attire.

Oceasionally the python has been reported at sea, but
it is probable that it has drifted thence on a log, or in the
current of a flooded river. It shows no special affection for
the sea.

(b) Disposition ; Our Indian python is one of the most
lethargic of snakes, and as such an uninteresting creature in
the vivarium. In captivity it passes the day in lazy apathy,
sometimes lying upon, or partially encircling, the branch
usually put into its cage, sometimes convoluted into a heap on
the floor, or as frequently reclining partially or wholly immersed
in its bath of water. In any of these attitudes it is familiar
enough to every one who has visited the reptile house
in our various zoological gardens. It is wont to lie for hours
together without a movement in spite of the stream of specta-
tors peering into its cage, and their repeated attempts,
usually in vain, to rouse it to activity by drumming upon
the glass, flourishing handkerchiefs, and other objects before it.
This apathy many might suppose the outcome of a familiarity
which breeds contempt, even in animals that are naturally of
a fierce disposition, but even in its natural haunts it seems to
behave in very much the same way, exhibiting little if any

* Tiger shooting in the Doon and Ulwar, p. 31.

52 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

timidity, rarely rousing itself seriously to escape, and even
when attacked making no attempt to avenge offence or injury.
It thus becomes an easy victim to those who seek to kill it,
or an easy capture to those of a more courageous and venture-
some spirit. Even the female that shows such unremitting
devotion to her parental duty of incubation will suffer
herself to be captured with her brood of eggs with little or no
remonstrance. In Travancore in 1903 a 15-foot dam, with
eggs as it proved on the verge of hatching, allowed herself to
be boxed, and conveyed to Trivandrum without offering any
resistance. Similarly, in Balrampur, Mr. Oakes told me that
two large pythons, one a dam incubating eggs, were easily
captured alive and brought in from the jungle, the female
continuing her duties and successfully hatching out her eggs.
Six-to eight-foot pythons have several times been brought in
to me found basking on a log, or in a boat on the river. These
seemingly allowed themselves to be captured by a couple of
cooles with little or no attempt at escape, though nothing
could have been easier than one wriggle and a plunge into the
water. Father Dreckman met with one just under 20 pounds
in weight when walking with a friend in jungle. It was seen
leisurely crossing their path. His friend went for its tail,
while Father Dreckman negotiated the head, expecting a hard
struggle, but except for an ineffectual snap at his face, the
snake allowed its neck to be seized, and its head to be thrust
into a bag, into which the rest of its body was unceremoniously
huddled without remonstrance. :

Its size, beauty, and placid disposition make it a welcome
addition to the snake charmer’s stock-in-trade, so that
scarcely a member of the fraternity is without one. It is
therefore in India a very familiar creature to everyone.
The juggler produces his specimen with some ostentation
from a bag or basket, seeking to impress the onlookers, and he
trades upon the spectators’ natural fears, for if one comes
forward too close to inspect the creature, it is more than
likely that the owner affects the greatest alarm for his safety,
as though to foster the belief already prevalentin the assembled
throng, that it is to him, and him only, that the snake is a
peacefully inclined and harmless creature.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 58

(c) Strength: It seems very strange that a creature possess-
ing such a massive and muscular body, and such gigantic
strength that it can overpower a leopard with ease, does not
show a more aggressive spirit. Few people who have not
handled a python in life can have any conception of the
strength at its command. A brother of mine in the Straits
told me he had several times measured large pythons in life,
and that it takes as many coolies as one can put in the length
of the snake to hold it, and even then they were unable to
straighten it properly. Buckland* relates an incident which
happened off the Coast of Ceylon, where a python effected its
“ footing’ on a ship lying at anchor. When captured it
encircled a water butt on deck, and compressed this so
violently that the staves were contracted so as to allow
the middle hoops to fall on to the deck !

(d) Striking posture: The habit of constricting is charac-
teristic of the whole family—boas and pythons alike. The
snake, roused to activity by the sight of food, advances
towards its prey often with quivering tail, and makes a sudden
dash at it with open jaws, which are no sooner closed upon its
victim than it throws a coil or two—according to the size of
the quarry—round it, holding it as in a vice until its struggles
have completely ceased, when it relaxes its embrace and
proceeds to swallow it, almost always beginning at the head.
Dr. Chalmers Mitchell says : ““ There appears to be no special
attempt to crush the prey, to suffocate it, or to break its
bones.” I certainly agree that there is no attempt to crush
with the intention of breaking bones, and so making the
mass more easy to deal with, but if the victim is not
suffocated how is it killed ? My belief is that the vigour of
the embrace is such that the victim’s chest is incapable
of expansion, and asphyxia results, or what amounts to the
same thing the heart cannot beat against the pressure to which
it is subjected.

(e) Nocturnal or diurnal: In spite of its cat-like pupil
the python is very much on the alert during the day-time,
and very frequently when encountered in its native haunts is

* Curiosites of Natural History, p. 182.

54 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

found in the act of swallowing some animal captured in broad
daylight. On the other hand, it is frequently on the move at
night, for on many occasions, where it has entered a poultry
run, its depredations have been committed under cover of
darkness.

(f) Hibernation : The python in all parts of India where
there is an attempt at a cold season hibernates, retiring for
some months to any convenient retreat, a hollow tree, or
hole in a bank, or, in the hilis, any natural crypt or cave of
convenient size.

In Dibrugarh once I found one in February beneath a log
on the banks of the Brahmaputra. It was extremely som-
nolent. Sometimes one hears of several congregating in the
same retreat. In the Pioneer (February 19, 1906) is an
account of six pythons being discovered in a cavity in the
bank of a stream in Mysore. One after another was seized
and dragged out, and all ranged between 10 and 12 feet in
length. I have also read of a similar occurrence in the
Himalayas, though I cannot now lay my hands on the refer-
ence. A python was observed in a cave, and the raconteur
with his Gurkha orderlies succeeded in extricating several,
three or four, if I can rely on my memory.

It seems to me remarkable that in Southern .India the
python does not hibernate in the Plains, at least Colonel
Dawson tells me it does not in Travancore, and Dr. J. R.
Henderson says it does not in Madras in captivity, yet in
Bombay, which can lay no better claim to a cold season, a
specimen caged in the Bombay Natural History Society’s
rooms hibernated for some months. Phipson made some
very interesting observations on this specimen at this period.
Between December 21 and April 13, a period of 113 days,
the snake refused food, and remained in a very sluggish,
sleepy condition. It was noticed that its temperature fell
from 82° F. (which had previously been the normal) to 73°.
Two rats eaten on December 21] were retained undigested
until February 28, when they were disgorged. On ordinary
occasions in the hot weather it had been recorded that a
similar meal took about eight days to digest. Desquamation
during these months of lowered vitality did not occur, an

SNAKES OF CEYLON 55

interval of nearly seven months elapsing between the slough-
ing periods, though in the rest of the year this process was
observed four times.

(g) Progression: The progress of a python may be sin
gular. All snakes known to me move only by a series of
lateral undulations, so that their bodies assume S-shaped
curves. The python can also progress with the body extended
and perfectly straight. During progress wave-like move-
ments of the ribs can be seen beneath the skin, following one
another in quick succession, and reminding one of the action
of the legs of a centipede. Progress of this character is very
slow, in fact cannot be called anything but a crawl, and the
body oscillates slightly from side to side. It also moves by
lateral undulations like other snakes but only slowly. The
slow and laboured locomotion I believe to be due to the
very narrow ventral shields. The extremities of the ribs
being inserted into the edges of the ventrals causes these
bones to be very much bowed. As a result, the middle two-
fourths of the body breadth supports the whole of the massive
body weight, leaving one-fourth overlapping each side.

IT have been assured by some observers that the python
can, when so inclined, move as expeditiously as other snakes.
Personally I have never witnessed this.

(h) Hissing: I have heard captive specimens in the hands
of jugglers utter a low sibilant hiss.

(1) Sloughing : Many observations have been made in
various quarters on this function, which appears to depend
upon the general state of health and vital activities of the
snake. I have already remarked upon the great reduction
in temperature observed by Phipson in a python in the
Bombay Natural History Society’s rooms during the period
of hibernation, and, with the vitality reduced to such a low
ebb that the snake was incapable of digesting its food, it is
not surprising that there was a coincident abeyance in the
desquamative process during this period. Specimens in
Madras and Travancore desquamated during the whole year.
and appear not to have hibernated.- In India the python
sloughs five or six times annually as will be seen from the
following table of records :

SNAKES OF CEYLON.

56

ejoysido

ut prey’

op
‘op
“op
‘op
‘op
‘op
e]oystdo
ur UOS

-MVeq "10D

‘uMAIpUBAILY,* ”

‘op
‘op
L6
—9681 “SUN
SBVIpey

‘q10doyy *

991 “d
Ss EN
‘“w0g [eu

-ino puosdiyd **

“AqUIOyINY

‘Ane |

cape

-oune |

|

“ACN |

arceual

qudy

~

|

‘TOIe Ty |

“Aren1g9a,7 |

“Arenue ¢ |

“urey190UN Oye x

*19q UIS90q |

"IOQUIOAO NY i

p [oe [3 |

*10q019Q |

‘requieqydeg 5

“‘qsnsny

|

‘ANE

‘oun |

‘ABW

les Ee)
=

|

= Gi

‘TYOIe |

OL-6061
60-061
£0-GO6I
£0-G061
Z0-L061
60-1061
10-0061

10-0061
86—-L68 1
L6-968T

96-681

L8- 9881

‘UOTZBATOSA ()
jo TOK

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 57

Food.—The python, as the following remarks will testify,
is practically omnivorous. It feeds on mammals, birds, and
reptiles indiscriminately, but seems to prefer mammals of
relatively large proportions.

Its courage and power may be estimated by the fact that
it has been known to overcome and devour a full-grown leopard
(Felix pardus), sustaining but trivial injuries in the encounter.
Thus Major Begbie related the circumstances leading to the
death of a python by coolies, which subsequent dissection
showed had eaten a leopard measuring 4 feet 2 inches from
nose to rump. The snake was 18 feet long, and except for
seven claw cuts appeared to have escaped unhurt.

Encounters with tigers also occur, but in the only instances

known to me, the snake had the worst of it. Whether it
was the aggressor in these contests it is impossible to know.
Mr. Inverarity* after killing a tiger found some 2 feet 3 inches
of the tail end of a python in the stomach. Another proof
of a similar encounter is through Professor Von Linstow,t
who found a tape-worm taken from the intestine of a tiger
killed in the United Provinces was of a species known to
inhabit the python, which it must previously have eaten.
_ Many are the records of its having eaten deer. Jerdon ¢
mentions one having eaten a cheetah (Cervus aais). Dr.
Elmes told me that he saw a hog deer (C. porcinus) cut out
of a python killed by a neighbour, and the horns he thought
must have been fully a foot long. The 18-footer that Mr.
Harry had killed on his estate in Assam had swallowed a
barking deer (C. muntjac), whose horns were 4 inches or
more long. Mr. Copeland had a 15-foot snake killed on his
estate while I was in Assam, which was proved to have
swallowed a hog deer.

The Rev. Castets, 8.J., wrote to me of a sambur fawn (C.
unicolor) being devoured whilst the dam stood by helpless.
Tennent mentions a chevrotain (Tragulus meminna) being
eaten by one in Ceylon. Colonel Channer recorded one that
had killed a langur monkey which lay in its coils at the time

* Vol. X., p. 69.
+ The Field, December 21, 1907.
t Journ. Bom. N. H. Soe., Vol. XVI, p. 520.

13 6(6)20

58 SNAKES OF CEYLON

of encounter. The snake proved to be 12 feet 10 inches long.
The attendant at Cross’s Menagerie in Liverpool told me
that one of their pythons got loose, and ate a monkey with
~ the collar and chain that were attached to it, on which account
probably it disgorged its meal some two days later. In the
Pioneer of July 13, 1907, an 18-foot python killed at: Raj
Shahi was found to have eaten a jackal (Canis aureus).

In the Philosophical Transactions,* a gentleman is reported
to have found a snake on an island near Bombay lying dead
with the quills of a porcupine (Hysirix leucura) sticking out
through its ribs. We may assume that the snake was a
python, as no other Indian species could swallow such an
animal. I have also seen masses of porcupine quills that had
passed in the dung of pythons. These softened by the
digestive juices had been matted into masses which were
hard to unravel, the quills having regained their rigidity
after drying.

In the Field of December 21, 1907, Mr. Thwaites relates
having seen a python in Ceylon spring at a hare (Lepus nigri-
collis) that was racing by. Ferguson reports an 8-footer at
Quilon that had: killed a kid.

Birds are frequently preyed upon by this snake. Mr.
Thwaites mentions a peacock in the coils of a python in
Ceylon, and Colonel Evans knew one in Burma eat a pheasant
(Genneus lineatus). One, when I was in Dibrugarh, was
killed in the act of swallowing a chicken. Mr. Staunton
killed one in Assam that had swallowed three of his ducks,
and another made an unwelcome visit to Dr. Elmes’s fowl-
house, accounting for five ducks, four fowls, and one pigeon
of his stock, all of which had been swallowed, giving the
snake a beaded appearance. Dr. Elmes shot another which
he saw lying in a bhil (lake), and found the following in its
stomach :—Two large and two small water rats, and two or
three toads. Reptiles sometimes furnish the repast. Mr.
Millard records one in the Bombay Natural History Society’s
rooms swallowing a monitor lizard (Varanus bengalensis), a
rat, and two frogs in quick succession. In its native jungles

* Viol.) Ras. LTA ps 2k

SNAKES OF CEYLON. | 59

it sometimes comes into conflict with other large snakes, for
Mr. Donaghey told me that, coming back to camp one day
in Burma, his coolies produced two snakes which they said
they had discovered fighting, and which they killed. These
proved to be a Python molurus and a hamadryad (Naa
bungarus). They reported that the python had closed its
jaws on the hamadryad and secured it fast. JI saw and
examined the two skins. The hamadryad measured 10 feet
33 inches and the python 7 feet 11 inches. In the former
skin, at the junction of the middle and the posterior thirds,
was a rent 3} inches long, corresponding to the python’s
grasp. It is impossible, of course, to surmise which was the
aggressor in the fight, but the python, though smaller, was
giving a good account of itself.

The most curious meal that I have had reported to me was a
double handful of earthworms, and a handful of the berry
called by natives “jaman’”’ (Eugenia jambolana). My infor-
mant was Mr. J. H. Mitchell, a planter in Assam.

In captivity the python usually eats heartily and frequent-
ly, accepting anything that is offered, as the following annual
bills of fare will show: Phipson says one in Bombay ate 23
rats, 3 hens, 3 crows, and 1 kestrel. One in Madras* ate
82 jerboas, but would not touch house rats; another ate
59 jerboas, 8 squirrels, and 2 quails ; a third accounted for
37 rats, 21 squirrels, and 3 quails. In Travancore one ate
a spotted deer and 11 fowls; another 1 nilghai fawn, 1 hare,
1 rabbit, 13 fowls, and 1 pond heron ; a third ate 14 fowls
and 1 crown pigeon; a fourth 2 dogs, 2 hare wallabies,
2 bandicoots, and 54 fowls; a fifth 4 bandicoots, 19 fowls,
and 1 spotted dove ; and a sixth J hare wallaby, 1 bandicoot,
and 15 fowls.

It not infrequently happens that where two are caged
together both strike at the same animal, and begin to swallow
from opposite ends till their noses meet, when if one does not
relinquish its hold, one gets its jaws over the other and swal-
lows its mate. This happened once in Regent’s Park and

* Kindly communicated to me by Dr. J. R. Henderson.
+ For this information I am indebted to Colonel F. W. Dawson.

60 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

once in the Bombay Natural History Society’s rooms when both
struck at the same partridge, and similar occurrences have
been reported in other Institutions where snakes are kept.

The young which hatched out in Travancore are reported
to have eaten the rats offered to them.

One sometimes hears of human beings being swallowed by
pythons, but though I have collected several instances of
other large snakes overcoming men, I have no authentic
instance of this snake doing so, but it is amply capable of
overpowering the strongest man. A young European told
me once in Hong Kong that he had witnessed, as a boy, with
his brothers a large snake (almost certainly a molurus)
swallow a Chinese baby on Stone Cutter’s Island in the
harbour. The mother left the child while engaged in some
work, and the boys were afraid to encounter so formidable
a snake. Major Sealy of the 4th Gurkhas tells me that
a reliable old Gurkha Officer told him that once when
officiating at a funeral pyre, a python emerged from the water
hard by, seized the corpse, and made off with it.

Usually in captivity live animals have until recently
been given to the snakes in various Zoological gardens, but
now that it is known that pythons, among other snakes, will
accept dead food, the order has changed. The fact that they
would eat dead animals was noted fifteen years ago by
Ferguson, who says: “ They will eat a dead rat, or rabbit,
just as readily as a live one.’ He further states that in
these circumstances it makes no attempt to constrict, but
proceeds to swallow at once. In Regent’s Park for some
years now, many of the snakes have been fed entirely on dead
animals. Dr. Chalmers Mitchell, who paid special attention
to this, says it was not noticed that it made any difference
whether the food was freshly killed, warm, or bleeding, or if
dead forsome time. It was noticed that in many cases the prey
was not taken until night, and this was particularly the case
when pythons took large animals like goats. He further states
that the pythons showed their readiness to feed by special
restlessness and activity, often leaving the tanks in which they
have been lying previously, and that they are specially alert
when they hear movements in the passage behind their cages,

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 61

or when the back doors are moved, and in the words of the
keeper “ they are asking for food.’’*

In swallowing a small animal the mouth is widely opened,
and the jaws fixed beyond the head of the victim, which is
easily engulfed. Prior to the actual seizure of the head, the
python plays about over it with quivering tongue. It does
not slaver over it as is commonly supposed, but the saliva
flowing freely under the stimulus of food, wets that part which
has been received in the mouth, so that if the victim has been
disadvantageously seized, and the snake rejects it to make a
second attempt, the part of the quarry previously ingested
is coated with saliva.

When the animal is large, the snake seizing the head
strives to fix its teeth as far back as possible over the victim,
when, having got a firm purchase, the jaws—six in all, and
all movable—work alternately over the head, one or more
at a time relaxing their hold to be pushed further forward and
obtain an extended purchase, while the others retain the hold
already gained. The process is sometimes a tardy one, and
if so the snake is frequently observed to protrude its wind-
pipe, so that an inch or even two may be seen beyond the
mouth, beneath the mass that is engaged within the jaws.
This extension of the glottis is, however, not a peculiarity
confined to the python, for it has been noticed in several
other snakes, colubrines and vipers.

It is popularly supposed that after a large meal the python
lies torpid, in a condition of satiety, until digestion has far
advanced. I very much doubt if this is the true explanation
of the disinclination of the snake to move in such circum-
stances, a disinclination even greater than it displays at
other times. I think it is much more likely that in many
cases the snake is so distended that it is afraid to move
on account of internal injuries it may receive in the
attempt. Undoubtedly, accidents do occur which must end
fatally. In the case already referred to where a dead snake
was found with the quills of a porcupine it had devoured
penetrating its flanks between the ribs, it is probable that the

* Dr. Chalmers Mitchell, P.Z.S., 1907, p. 785, et seq.

62 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

injuries were received whilst moving before the quills had
softened under the influence of the digestive function. A
python already referred to, which was killed by Mr. Cope-
land’s coolies in Assam, refused to move from its refuge in the
jungle though surrounded by a howling mob of coolies. After
some time, the sustained apathy it exhibited stimulated the
courage of the men, who advanced by degrees nearer and
nearer till they actually probed it with sticks and bamboos,
and made the situation so untenable that the snake was
forced to bestir itself. In trying to get away the horns of
a hog deer, which it had swallowed, penetrated its flanks. It
was finally despatched, and measured 15 feet. The horns of
the deer were about 7 or 8 inches long. Such accidents are
not very uncommon in snakes of all kinds—from overdis-
tension, or from mechanical causes, the beaks of birds,
claws of various animals, &c.—and I have collected quite
a number of incidents of the kind.

The old traveller’s stories of pythons, boas, &c., swallowing
stags is not borne out by modern observations. I doubt if
a python ever kills any deer with horns it is not capable of
swallowing. If it does, then sooner or later it has to relin-
quish its victim. The old books that led one to believe that
the stag was swallowed up to its antlers, which projected
from the mouth, and remained 77 situ till the head rotted off
certainly misled us. The only way in which the body could
be retained and the head rejected would be by a slow decom-
position (not a digestive process) separating the head at the
neck joint, a process that would probably take several weeks
to accomplish, and would exhaust even a python’s patience.
The body of a stag in such a position would not reach the
stomach, and would not be subjected to any digestive action,
for the saliva is inert to animal tissues. Further, I doubt
whether the lung could fulfil its function satisfactorily, even
with the small oxygen requirements of a snake, when sub-
jected to the great and continued pressure of a carcass like
a stag’s.

The digestive powers of a python depend naturally on its
general health. Phipson found that in the hot weather in
captivity small creatures like rats and crows were completely

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 63

digested in about 8 days. McLeod* mentions a goat with
horns being swallowed, that took three weeks to digest.

In a vigorous snake every part of the animal swallowed is
completely digested, except epithelial structures, such as hair,
feathers, quills, teeth, the beak and claws, the scales of reptiles,
the cornea, or, in snakes, the disc before the eye which
is the analogue of the eyelids in other animals. If the dung
is inspected, these structures will be found massed together,
and often retaining in a wonderful degree the relationship
occupied in the animal ingested. In sickly snakes, or in those
whose vitality is impaired and when hibernation is approaching,
bones will be found passed in a more or less imperfectly
digested state. In the excrement also may be seen circular
spaces which are believed to be casts from the snake’s intes-
tine. Similar spaces were observed in the fossilized dung of
the old reptilian monsters—icthyosaurus and plesiosaurus—
by Buckland, who remarks upon them in his Bridgewater
Treatise.

Mr. Kinnear tells me they are frequently asked by visitors
to the Bombay Natural History Society’s rooms if pythons
reject the horns of deer and stags eaten. I cannot speak
positively upon this point, which, however, is one that could
easily be demonstrated in any vivarium using goats as victims.
I have never heard it suggested that they disgorge the horns,
but this is one of the many points touched upon in this
paper, about which I feel many of our readers could give
more satisfactory information than my limited experience
permits me to dilate upon. I believe, however, that the
horns like other epithelial appendages are passed intact in the
dung.

Though we have shown that the python as a rule feeds well
in captivity, sometimes it will refuse food for long periods,
and without suffering perceptibly. Ferguson records one
that fasted for over a year in the Trivandrum gardens, but
changed its skin more than once, and always looked glossy
and in perfect health. After this fast it ate a white rat, and
later again two more.

* The Voyage of Hy M. S. ‘‘ Alceste.”’

64 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Thirst.— It is evidently a thirsty reptile, and, in consequence,
probably is often impelled towards water for this reason.
The dam in Paris in 1841, after accomplishing her maternal
duties and successfully launching forth her brood, drank
eagerly, swallowing some two tumblerfuls of water, and the
young too were observed to slake their thirsts. In drinking
it does not fill the mouth, and throw back the head like birds,
nor does it protrude the tongue and lap, but puts its mouth
to the water, and imbibes like a mammal, the gulping move-
ments of the throat being plainly visible.

Breeding.—(a) The Sexes: I know of no difference in the
sexes, except that in the male the claw-like terminations of
the rudimentary hind limb are relatively larger than in the
female. It is not known whether one sex attains to a greater
length than the other.

(6) Method of Reproduction: The python is oviparous, and
many brooding dams have been reported upon. In all cases
the dam has shown great solicitude for the fate of her eggs.

After deposition the female coils herself around them, and
has been observed so in captivity, and in a state of nature.
As far as I am aware she appears to be generally alone during
this period. I have only once heard of her mate being seen
anywhere near her. I have several records of pythons found
lying up with eggs in jungle and being killed, and with one
exception no mention has been made of another snake being
found close at hand. The eggs are laid sometimes more or
less in the open, the dam proving rather a conspicuous object
to the shikari. Sometimes the female retires into a hole in
a tree, beneath a fallen tree, or in a termite’s nest, one in the
latter situation having been found near Colombo some years
ago. Several interesting observations have been made
during the period of incubation. The dam’s temperature
during the event, which happened in Regent’s Park in 1881,
was recorded several times, and compared with that of a male
in an adjoining cage. It was always rather higher being
about 1:4° to 3° Fahrenheit ‘in excess of the male.* In this
case the female having once settled herself around the eggs

* P, Z. S., 1881, p. 960.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 65

remained there for six weeks without taking food, only leaving
the eggs once for a few hours. In Paris, too, in 1841 it was
reported that the dam refused food and drink during the
whole period which lasted 58 days. Her task accomplished,
it was noted that she took little or no notice of the young
brood.

(c) Season: From what is known of the period of gesta-
tion, and the season when eggs are deposited, the mating
season is in December, January, and February, the coldest
months of the year, when we know that the python, at any
rate in Northern India, is hibernating. We have already
seen the effect on the vitality of the snake during this period,
which is reduced to the extent that the body heat is sensibly
diminished, and the capability for digestion lost. In the
circumstances it is most remarkable that the inclination for
sexual indulgence is retained, and yet this conclusion is in
perfect agreement with that observed by me in other snakes
that hibernate. One must assume that pythons retire in
pairs, and that the female is gravid when the term of hiber-
nation is spent. In Paris, 1841, the pair that mated were
observed “in copula” several times during the month of
January and February, and eggs were deposited in May, 1.e.,
the season when eggs are laid in India. Mr. V. A. Herbert,
I.F.S., told me he once encountered two pythons coiled
together in the Terai on May 2, which he believed were
“in copula,” and which he shot. The eggs are deposited in
the months of March, April, May, and June in India. A
gravid female containing large eggs was killed at Pasyala in
Ceylon on August 2, 1918.

(d) Period of Gestation: Some three or four months
elapse from the act of mating to the deposition of the
egos.

(e) Period of Incubation : Though several pythons have
laid eggs in captivity in various Institutions, the eggs have
frequently been sterile, or when fertile, for some cause have
failed to hatch. Jn Paris, however, in 1841 the incubation
was brought to a successful conclusion, the period being
fifty-eight days. The 15 eggs were laid on May 6, and on

14 } 6(6)20

66 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

July 3 eight hatchlings emerged out of the 9 fertile
eggs. (Gunther, Rept. Brit. Ind., p. 330.) I have seen it
stated elsewhere on the authority of Dumeril that one
hatched on July 3, and eight more during the next four days.
Of 57 eggs deposited in Calcutta on April 11, 46 proved fertile,
and hatched out between June 5 and 10, 7.e., 56 to 61 days
later. In the event reported by Mr. D’Abreu, 16 eggs were
deposited in 7 hours.

(f) Number of Eggs in a Clutch: Records from various
sources show that from 8 to 107 eggs are deposited at one
laying. This python -is therefore the most prolific snake
known to me.

(g) The Eggs: The eggs are like goose eggs, but soft
shelled, the egg investment when emptied being like white
kid. The poles are equally domed, and the eggs in a brood
vary somewhat in their dimensions. Mr. D’Abreu reported
the measurements of six that were deposited in the Nagpur
Museum, as 85 to 95 mm. (3°4 to 3°8 inches) in length, and
56 to 64 mm. (2°2 to 2:5 mm.) in breadth. Sterile eggs of
the same clutch were 55 to 78 mm. (2°2 to 3-1 inches) in
length and 48 to 64 mm. (1° 8 to 2°5 inches) in breadth. Two
in the Indian Museum measured by me were 85 mm. (3°4
inches) long and 59 mm. (2 inches) broad. Sixteen eggs
extracted from a large prospective dam, and preserved in the
Colombo Museum, I found to be 88 to 106 mm. (34 to 44
inches) long, and 54 to 62 mm. (24 to 24 inches) broad. Two
of these eggs that I opened contained no trace of an
embryo.

The weight of one of the Colombo clutch was just 5 ounces.
One of the eggs deposited in Calcutta was 53 ounces, and
Mr. D’Abreu reported that one of his eggs weighed 64
ounces.

Growth.—(a) Before Hatching: Mr. D’Abreu on cutting open
an egg after deposition found an embryo within, about
3 inches long, with bud-like processes on each side of
the cloacal aperture, representing the rudimentary hind
limb, and relatively much larger than the indications of these
structures in adults. After the eggs had been incubated for

— ae

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 67

forty-nine days, an embryo was found within measuring
144 inches in length. Eggs deposited in Regent’s Park were
found, after six weeks incubation, to contain embryos about
11 inches long.

(6) Length of Hatchling: The young that hatched from
eggs deposited in Calcutta measured about 2 feet. Other
hatchlings from eggs acquired in Travancore were reported
to average 2 feet 5 inches. The weight of the Calcutta
hatchlings proved to be 4 ounces 2 drachms.

(c) Early Life: The Travancore brood grew 11 inches in
4 months, and it would appear from this that growth in early
life is more rapid than later, for Pollock states that a specimen
he had that was 12 feet pene when acquired grew about
3 feet in two years.

(dq) Maturity: The youngest sexually mature specimens
I know of are those that mated at Nagpur. The female
measured 2,590 mm. (8 feet 6 inches), and the male 1,725 mm.
(5 feet 8 inches). A dam shot on her eggs in April near
Colombo was 11 feet long. The specimen in Regent’s Park
was 12 feet long when she deposited eggs. After sexual
maturity growth continues for many years. In captivity
specimens rarely grow longer than 12 feet. A specimen in
captivity in Travancore for 12? years was only 94 feet long
when it died.

(ce) Maximum Length : It is difficult to say with certainty
to what length the python may attain. It seems probable
that many of the great lengths given by travellers and sports-
men were guessed at, and the snake not actually measured.
The creature is very thick relatively to its length, perhaps
three or four times the girth of a Russell’s viper of similar
length, and five or six times that of a dhaman (Zaocys mucosus).
If a python’s length were judged from its girth, the estimate
would grossly exceed the real measurement.

Dr. J. R. Henderson showed me the skin of a python in
the Madras Museum in 1917, which measured after death
16 feet, though during life its length had been estimated at
26 feet. I very much suspect that this was the specimen
alluded to by Abercromby as 27 feet in length. (Snakes of
Ceylon, p. 65.)

68 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Specimens of 18 feet are not very uncommon, as will be
seen from the following records, and there is little doubt that
it exceeds 20 feet. In the Bombay Natural History Journal*
Ferguson records an 18 footer from the Ashambu hills, and
Major Begbiet one of a similar length killed near Baksa
Duars. Other specimens of like proportions have been
recorded by the late D. Ferguson in Ceylon,t and in the
Pioneer from Rajshai (Rajapur).§ I saw the skin of a speci-
men of the same length in the possession of Mr. A. M. Harry
in Assam. Mr. Prince of the King’s Own Shropshire Light
Infantry shot a female in the United Provinces in 1906, which
measured 18 feet 3 inches. In Land and Water (August 10,
1866 or 1867?) one is mentioned from Mussoorie of 18 feet
9 inches. Tennent|| refers to a specimen brought him in
Ceylon that taped 19 feet. Another reported of a similar
length was encountered by Captain George and Mr. Delmege
when shooting in Ceylon. This was captured and brought
to Colombo, and exhibited in 1885, when I sawit. Jerdon
saw a 19 foot specimen killed in Travancore, and Dr. Elmes
told me of one he shot in Assam (N. Lakhimpur District) of
the same size. A specimen measuring 19 feet 2 inches in our
Society's collection, shot by the late Maharajah of Cooch
Behar in Assam, was originally reported in this Journal ** as
a Malayan python (P: reticulatus). Captain Percival +7 says
he saw one in Ceylon 22 feet long, and the specimen mentioned
by John Ray, and stated by him to be in the Leyden Museum
was, he states, 25 feet (I have not been able to get con-
firmation of this from Leyden, but notice that Dumeril and
Bibron refer to one in that Institution 20 feet). Elliott

© Vol. Xs, p69:

+ Vol. XVII., p. 1021.

t Rept. Funna, Ceylon, p. 22.

§ July 3, 1907.

|| Nat. His. of Ceylon, II., p. 153.

{| Journ. Ass. Soc., Bengal, XXII., p. 526.
** Rept. Brit. Ass., 1877, Trans., p. 115.
Tt The Island of Ceylon, 1805, p. 311.

FE Vol. XE, pe 718:

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 69°

claims that it grows to a length of 30 feet, and if this opinion
were confirmed I think India could lay claim to the two
largest species of the genus, for reticulatus is also reported
to attain to. a length of 30 feet. Within quite recent times
(1905) a specimen of the latter in the possession of Mr. John
Hagenbeck was, as far as could be ascertained, in life 28 feet.
The African species sebe is also a very large reptile which is
recorded up to 23 feet.

The weight of a python is remarkable, the specimen of
molurus killed by the Maharajah of Cooch Behar, which
measured over 19 feet, scaled 200 pounds (over 14 stone). Mr.
John Hagenbeck’s reticulated python just alluded to weighed
250 pounds.

(f) Longevity: Very few records have been made on this
interesting matter. Gunther, however, mentions a python
attaining the age of 19 years in Regent’s Park. It was four
years old when acquired, and lived a further period of fifteen
years in captivity.

Parasites.—(a) Hctozoa: Ticks frequently infest the python,
fixing themselves into the skin between the scales. Apo-
nomma gervaisi is the commonest of these.

(0) Entozoa: (1) A cestode or tapeworm (Bothridiwm
pythonis) may be found in great numbers in the intestine
(duodenum). They are sometimes free, sometimes attached
to the mucous membrane. Shipley found these in a specimen
from Neligatta, Ceylon.

(2) A cestode (Solenophorus megacephalus) also inhabits
the intestine. Von Linstow found this once in the intestine
of a tiger proving that it had recently devoured a
python.

(3) A nematode or round worm (Ascaris attenuata) was
found by Von Linstow in the intestine of this python.

(4) A nematode dubiously referred by Shipley to Ascaris
rubicunda was taken from the lung of a Ceylon specimen.

(5) A linguatulid (Porocephalus moniliformis) was found by
Shipley in the lung of a Ceylon python. It has 28 to 30
annuli on the body.

70 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Another species (P. armillatus) with 22 rings has been found
in two African pythons, viz., regius and sebe. The adult
parasites infest these snakes taking up their habitat in the
lung. Ova are discharged, and probably infect the food or
drinking water of the intermediary hosts (man, tiger, leopard,
giraffe, mandrill, aardwolf, and hedgehog). The ova hatch
inside these animals, reach their larval stage only, and become
encysted in the liver, mesentery, and lungs. When an
intermediary host is eaten—there may be many more than
those enumerated above—the larval form reaches its furthest
development, taking up its habitat in the lung of the snake,
and the cycle of development is repeated. (Fig. 15.)

Fig. 15.—Porocephalus armillatus.

(Life size.) (After Sambon.)

These intestinal parasites are most detrimental to the
health of their hosts, and in some cases cause death. Fergu-
son says once all the pythons in one of the cages in the
Trivandrum gardens died, and on post-mortem examination
they were found to be infested with nematodes that had
perforated the walls of the stomach and intestines.

(c) Hematozoa: Sambon discovered a _ blood parasite

(Hemogregarina pococki) inhabiting the red blood cells of
this python.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 71

Lepidosis.—Rostral : With two depressions, broader than
high, in contact with six shields. Jnternasals: Two. Pre-
frontals : Two ; separated from the frontal by a row of
scales. Frontals: Two. Supraoculars: As long as_ the
frontal. Parietals: Replaced by scales. Nasals: Large,
divided. Loreals: Many. Preoculars: Two or _ three.
Posioculars: Three. Suboculars: Many. Supralabials :
Eleven to thirteen ; the anterior two with depressions ; the
ist and 2nd touching the nasals, one sometimes touching the
eye, but in some a complete row of suboculars separates all
supralabials from the eye. . Infralabials : Fifteen to twenty,
some of the anterior and posterior with depressions. Sublin-
quals: Absent. (Fig. 16.)

Nostril

Fic. 16.—Python molurus.

R. The rostral showing pits; 1, 2, the lst and 2nd supralabials
showing pits.

Costals: In midbody. Longer than broad, rectiform,
smooth. Vertebrals not enlarged, the breadth of the scales
about three-fourths their length, one-third or less than a third
the ultimate row. Ultimate and three rows above enlarged,
broader than long, progressively increasing in breadth ; the
breadth of the scales in the ultimate row nearly twice their
length, about half the breadth of the ventrals. In 60 to 75
rows. Ventrals : Enlarged, narrow, without keels, 242 to 265

72 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

in number. Anal: Entire ; as broad as last ventrals. Swub-
caudals : 60 to 72; divided. (Fig. 17.)

Fic. 17.—Anal region of Python molurus.

Dentition.— From twoskullsinmycollection. Premazillary:
4, well-developed. Mazillary: 18 to 19; anododont, syn-
cranterian, strongly scaphiodont. Palatine : 6; anododont,
scaphiodont. Pterygoid: 8 to 10 ; anododont, scaphiodont.
Mandibular : 16 to 19; anododont, strongly scaphiodont.

(Fig. 18.)

Fic. 18.—Python molurus.

A. Mazxilla.
B. Mandible.
C. Premaxilla.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. TS

Distribution.—(a) General : Ceylon, and Peninsula India to
the Himalayas. Hastwards through Assam, Burma, Indo-
China, and South China. Westwards through the Punjab
and Sind to the borders of Baluchistan.*

(b) Local: It is a denizen of the plains, but ascends inta
hills, on rare occasions I believe up to about 6,000 feet.

Sub-family Boine.

Lepidosis (for Indian Species).—Aostral: Broader than
high, with or without a transverse ridge ; in contact with
six shields. Only small scales on the crown. [nternasals :
A modified pair present in some. Nasals: Two. Supra-
labials : Ten to fourteen, not pitted ; Ist and 2nd touch the
nasals, none touch the eye, being separated from it by one to
three rows of scales. Sublinguals: None. A mental groove
in some species.

Costals :; Atmidbody. As long as broad, rectiform, smooth,
or more or less strongly keeled. Vertebrals not enlarged, the
breadth of the scales subequal to their length, and about half
that of the ultimate row. Ultimate row, and two or three
above it smooth, broader than long, progressively increasing
in breadth. Breadth of scales in the ultimate row about one
and a half times their length, and half or less than half the
breadth of the ventrals. In 36 to 65 rows. Ventrals:
Enlarged, narrow, not ridged, numbering from 162 to 210, the
last two or three trifid. Anal: Trifid, as broad as the
ventrals. Subcaudals : Entire, numbering 15 to 53.

Dentition.—Premazxillary: None. Mazillary: 9 to 17,
syneranterian, scaphiodont. Palatine: 3 to 6; scaphiodont.
Pterygoid : 3 to 15; scaphiodont. Mandibular: 11 to 20;
scaphiodont.

Not represented in Ceylon.

* In answer to my queries Mr. Cumming tells me the specimen in
the Quetta Museum was killed in the Habb River between Sind and
* Baluchistan.

15 6(6)20

74 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Family XENOPELTIDA,

Distribution.— Burma, Indo-China, Malay Peninsula, and
Archipelago as far East as Java.

Represented by a single genus which contains but one
species.

Not found in Ceylon.

Family COLUBRIDA.,

(Named from the type genus Coluber.)

General Characters.—Head small or moderate, narrow,
moderate or broad. Snout short, moderate, or long, with or
without canthus, pointed, narrowly or broadly obtuse. Eye
small, moderate, or large, with round vertical or horizontal
pupil. Nostril small, moderate, or large ; open or valvular ;
lateral or superior. Neck not, slightly, or markedly con-
stricted. Body cylindrical, compressed or depressed, slender,
moderate, or robust. Belly rounded, angulate, or keeled,
Tail short, moderate, or long ; cylindrical, slightly or highly
compressed.

Habits .—Terrestrial, arboreal, subaquatic, fluviatile, lacus-
trine, or marine. Active.

Food.—Mammals, birds, reptiles, batrachians, fishes ; avine.
reptilian, and batrachian eggs; worms.
Breeding .—Oviparous or viviparous.

Poison.—The majority are not poisonous, many are
poisonous, and of these some very fatal to man.

Lepidosis.—The head is covered with large shields of a
form and disposition peculiar to the family, except in
Chersydrus.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. v5)

Costals : Longer than broad, except in Chersydrus, keeled
or smooth, with or without apical pits or facets, emarginate
apically or not ; imbricate or juxtaposed. Arranged in from
13 to 47 rows at midbody. Ventrals: Narrow or broad,
rounded or keeled. Anal: Entire or divided. Subcaudals :
Entire or divided.

Dentition.—Mazilla : Aglyphous, opisthoglyphous, or
proteroglyphous ; syncranterian or diacranterian ; isodont
or anisodont; anododont, oinododont, or dinododont ;
coryphodont, kumatodont, or scaphiodont. Palatine: Den-
tulous and variable. Piterygoid: Dentulous and variable.
Mandibular : Dentulous and variable.

_ Distribution.—Over the whole world, except the Arctic
regions and snow-clad Alpine tracts.
The family is divided into three series—
(A) Aglypha.—Maxilla without grooved or canaliculate
fangs.
(B) Opisthoglypha.—Maxilla with a pair of grooved fangs
at the posterior extremity.

(C) Proteroglypha.—Maxilla with a pair of canaliculate
fangs at the anterior extremity.

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78 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Series AGL Y PHA.

Sub-family 1.—Acrochordiine.
(Named from the type genus Acrochordus.)

General Characters (for Ceylon Species)—Head moderate
in size. Snout short, without canthus. Eye small, with verti-
cally elliptic pupil. Nostrils superior, lying close together on
the front of the snout. Neck not constricted. Body heavy,
compressed ; very harsh to the touch on account of its
rasp-like keels. Belly with a median ridge. Tail short,
compressed, and prehensile. ,

Identification.— Known by its very numerous scales (about ~
150 at midbody) which are broader than long, and juxtaposed; »
and the superior, annular, closely-approximated nostrils.

Habits.—Aquatic. Active.

Food.—Fish.

Breeding.— Viviparous.

Poison.—Non-poisonous.

Lepidosis.—As detailed under the species (q. v-)

Dentition.—As detailed under the genus (q. v-)

Distribution.—Coasts from north of Bombay to New Guinea.

The Sub-family contains five genera, two of which are
represented in India, and one only in Ceylon.

Genus CHERSYDRUS.

(Greek “‘chersos”’ dry land, and “‘hudor”’ water; apparently
christened under the belief that it is amphibious in habit.)

General Characters.—Body heavy, compressed, attenuating
anteriorly and posteriorly. Skin loose, harsh, and rasp-like.
A raised ridge along the belly. Head moderate, depressed.
Tail compressed. Eye small, inclined somewhat upwards ;
pupil vertically elliptic. Nostrils large, round, closely
. approximated on the top of the snout, resembling the mouths
of a double-barrelled gun.

Identification.—The costal scales small, juxtaposed, broader
than long, and exceeding one hundred at midbody will
sufficiently indicate the genus.

Habits.— Entirely marine.

SNAKES OF CEYLON 79

Lepidosis.—Costals broader than long, small, numerous,
and juxtaposed ; with claw-like keels; larger dorsally than
ventrally. Ventrals longer than broad, curved, imbricate,
in four or five series along a raised ridge. Head covered with
granular scales, and no enlarged shields.

Dentition.— Maaillary: Anododont and feebly kumato-
dont. Palatine: Anododont and scaphiodont. Pterygoid :
Anododont and scaphiodont. Mandibular : Anododont and
feebly kumatodont.

Distribution.—The genus includes but one species which
inhabits the coasts from Bombay to Indo-China, and the
Malayan Archipelago to New Guinea.

CHERSYDRUS GRANULATUS Schneider.

>)

(Latin: Adjectival form of “ granus ” grain, and “ ulus”
. diminutive, in allusion to the small scales.)

The Chersydrus or Rasp-Skinned Water Snake.

History.—First referred to by Schneider in 1799.

Synonymy.—AHydrus granulatus, Acrochordus fasciatus, A.
granulatus, Pelamis granulatus, Potamophis fasciata, Chersy-
drus fasciatus.

General Characters.—As indicated under the genus.

Identifieation.—So different from all other snakes as to be
unmistakable. The small scales with harsh chaffy keels,
the median ventral ridge formed of four or five transverse
rows of scales, and the ring-like closely approximated
nostrils are all peculiar to this snake. The top of the head
has no enlarged shields. |
_ Colouration.—Alternately banded with deep brown, and
pale buff rings which are subequal at midcosta. The dark
rings are confluent vertebrally. In the young these bands
are very strongly tontrasted and conspicuous, and the dark
bands black, so that the young snake bears a very zebra-like
appearance. There are also light, symmetrically-arranged,
small spots on the back of the head, and a larger spot on the
temporal region. As age advances the yellow bands become
more and more obscure. Many old specimens are uniform,
or nearly uniform deep brown.

80 SNAKES OF CEYLON,

Habits.—(a) Haunts: This is a marine snake that clings
to the coasts, and travels some distance up tidal rivers.
Gunther says: “It is sometimes seen three or four miles from
the shore.”’

(b) Disposition: Mr. Prater tells me it is a very inoffensive
snake. The fishermen about Bombay handle it with
impunity. It merely twists about to disengage itself when
grasped, and does not attempt to bite them.

(c) Progression: Its movements in water are active and
nimble. On land any progress is very laboured and slow.

Food.—I have only found the remains of fish in its stomach.

Breeding.—(a) Method of Reproduction: It is viviparous
in habit. Cantor had a gravid female containing embryos,
Dr. Henderson obtained one with embryos, and I have had
another.

(b) Season: A specimen killed at Bombay in May con-
tained sacs with embryos about 3 to 4 inches long.
Dr. Henderson’s specimen killed on August 19th contained
embryos apparently fit for discharge.

(c) Period of Gestation: Not known.

(d) The Brood: My Bombay specimen contained four sacs,
Cantor’s gravid female contained six, and Dr. Henderson’s
specimen twelve.

Growth.—(a) Length of Young: Four of the young
extracted by me from Dr. Henderson’s specimen measured
respectively 325, 330, 337, and 344 mm. (122, 13, 134, and
132 inches). As none of the young males had their genitals
protruding, it is fairly certain their birthday would have
been very soon.

(6) Maturity: My gravid example measured 743 mm.
(2 feet 51 inches). If this species grows at the same rate as
other snakes, 7.e., doubles its length in the first year of life,
this specimen would have been very liftle over one year
old.

(c) Maximum Length: It grows to 1620 mm. (4 feet).
Dr. Henderson’s gravid female was exactly this length.

Lepidosis.—(a) Typical: The costals are very numerous.
In one specimen of mine they numbered 98 two heads-lengths _
behind the head. 154 at midbody, and 71 two heads-lengths

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 8]

before the vent. The scales are broader than long, juxta-
posed, and bear curiously modified chaffy keels. They are
broader dorsally than ventrally. The keels occupy the
median two-fourths of the scale, and are claw-like with the
points set backwards. On the lower costal region these keels
are surrounded by a circular moat-like sulcus. The ventrals
are longer than broad, very narrow, more or less curved, and
imbricate, and in four or five transverse rows on a raised
ridge. There are no enlarged head shields, no rostral, and no
mental. There is no mental groove, but a furrow filled with
small scales. There is an annular nasal, almost entirely
occupied by the crater-like open nostril.

Dentition.—From three skulls in my collection. Mawillary:
13 to 15. Palatine: 7 to 8. Pterygoid: 6 to 8. Mandi-
bular: 14. )

Distribution.— The coasts of India from the locality of
Bombay on the Malabar side, coasts of Burma, and Indo-
China. The islands of the Malay Archipelago as far east as the
Philippines, and new Guinea.

Round the coasts of India it is a fairly abundant snake.

Sub-family 2.—Colubrine.
(Named after the type genus Coluber.)

General Characters (for Indian Species).—Head small or
moderate in size; snout short, moderate, or long, with or
without indications of a canthus. Eye small, moderate, or
large ; with round or vertically elliptic pupil. Nostril
lateral ; small to moderate. Neck not, or but moderately,
evident. Body cylindrical or compressed ; slender to robust ;
short, moderate, or long. Belly rounded, laterally angulate,
or keeled. Tail short, moderate, or long.

Identification.—Not possible from external characters alone.
Distinguished by the aglyphous character of the maxillary
dentition, the absence of spinal teeth, and peculiarities in the
postfrontal bone.

Habits.—Terrestrial, arboreal, or semi-aquatic. Alert and
active. Oviparous or viviparous.

Food.—Mammals, birds, reptiles, batrachians, fish, worms.
Avine, lacertine, ophidian and batrachian eggs.

16 6(6)20

82 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Poison.—None are poisonous.

Lepidosis.—Head covered with large shields of the Colu-
brine type.

Loreal : Usually present. Sublinguals : Two pairs.

Costals: Longer than broad ; rectiform or some oblique ;
smooth or keeled ; with or without apical pits and facets ;
emarginate or not. Vertebrals enlarged or not. Ventrals :
Three, or more than three times the breadth of the last row ;
rounded, angulate laterally, or keeled. Anal: Entire or
divided. Subcaudals : Entire or divided.

Dentition.— Maxilla: Aglyphous; syncranterian or dia-
eranterian ; isodont or anisodont; anododont, oinododont,
or dinododont ; coryphodont, kumatodont, or scaphiodont ;
with or without an edentulous space anteriorly. Palatine :
Isodont or scaphiodont, with or without edentulous spaces
anteriorly and posteriorly. Pterygoid : Scaphiodont, with
or without an edentulous space anteriorly ; an edentulous
space posteriorly. Mandibular : Anododont, oinododont, or
dinododont ; anisodont, kumatodont, or scaphiodont.

Distribution.— Europe, Asia, Africa, America, Australia.

Well represented in India and Ceylon.

Genus POLYODONTOPHIS.

b)

(Greek “‘polus” many, “‘odous”’ tooth, and “ophis”’ snake.)

General Characters.—The species are small snakes, rarely
reaching 610 mm. (2 feet) in length, with the exception of
collaris, which grows another half foot. The head is about
as broad as the body, the snout short, without canthus, and
broadly rounded. A neck is hardly evident. The eye is
rather small, and the pupil round. The body is rather long,
cylindrical, and smooth. The belly is rounded. The tail is
short, being about one-third to one-fourth the total length.

Habits.—They are diurnal in habit, and terrestrial.

Poison.—Non-poisonous.

Lepidosis.—There is nothing very distinctive to make
the recognition of the genus easy. The head shields are
typical of the Family. Rostro-nasal sutures about twice the
rostro-labial, The suture between the internasals about

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 83

three-fourths that between the prefrontals, and three-fifths to
three-fourths the internaso-prefrontals. The suture between
the przfrontals about three-fourths, to subequal to the
prefronto-frontal. Fronto-supraocular sutures twice or
nearly twice the fronto-parietals. Swpraoculars nearly as
long as the frontal, and half to three-fourths the breadth of
the frontal along a line connecting the centres of the eyes.
Nasals: Two. Loreal: About half the length of the
nasals. Three supralabials touch the eye.

Costals: Longer than broad, rectiform, smooth, and
without apical pits or facets. Vertebral row not enlarged.
UJtimate row enlarged, and the scales as long as broad. Rows
17 to 19, remaining the same in the whole body length.
Ventrals: Rounded. Anal: Divided. Swubcaudals: Divided.
The supracaudal rows are in even numbers.

Distribution.—Most of the ten species are Asian. Two
are American, two Madagascarian, and one peculiar to the
Comoro Islands. Of the five Asian species, four belong to
the Indo-Malay fauna, and one is Indian. This last, viz., swb-
punctatus, occurs in Ceylon.

Dentition.—The teeth in all the jaws are very numerous,
and extremely small. Mazillary: 30 to 50 isodont, and
syncranterian ; Palatine, pterygoid, and mandibular : Isodont
and anododont. The teeth in the species of this genus are
peculiar. In most snakes teeth are being continually shed,
and replaced, and at any given time if the jaws are dissected
out, every alternate tooth will be found to be loose. In
consequence, it is almost impossible to prepare any of the
jaws with a perfect set. In this genus, on the contrary,
practically all the teeth at any given time are found firmly
ankylosed, and it is easy to prepare an almost perfect set in
spite of their number and small size. Further, with very
rare exceptions, snake’s teeth, whether moderately or strongly
compressed, end in a needle, or dagger point. In Polyodon-
tophis the teeth are moderately compressed, and end in a
Sharp edge somewhat like a chisel, only it is rounded instead
of being straight. The edge is parallel to the jaw. A third
distinction lies in the curious fact that the chisel-edge is
always discoloured, being tinctured brownish.

S84. SNAKES OF CEYLON.

The mandible in this genus is also peculiar, the posterior
two-thirds of the dentary bone being loose, instead of forming
a synarthrosis with the articular bone. This is a condition
I have not seen in any other snake in the family Colubride,
and resembles that seen in only one other family, viz.,
Xenopeltide. :

Distribution.—Madagascar and Comoro Islands, South
Kastern Asia, Central America. There are ten species, of
which four are Indian, and of these one only occurs in Ceylon,
viz., subpunctatus.

POLYODONTOPHIS SUBPUNCTATUS Dumeril and Bibron.
_ Jerdon’s Polyodont.

(Latin “sub” beneath, and “ punctatus ” literally pricked ;
refers to the small spots on the belly.)

Synonymy.—Calamaria sagittaria, Oligodon subpunctatus,
O. spinepunctatus, Hnicognathus melanocephalus, H. humberti,
Ablabes humberti, Rhadinea melanocephala.

History.—First referred to, and figured by Seba in 1734
(Vol. I., Plate XI.). Not referred to again until 1853, when
Jerdon described it under the name Calamaria sagittaria.
(Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. XXII.,
p. 528), confusing it with Cantor’s species of that name.
Re-christened by Dumeril and Bibron in 1854, whose name
now stands.

General Characters.—A small species hardly 18 inches in
length. Head about as broad as the body. Snout moderate
in length, with a slightly-indicated, and obtusely-rounded
canthus. Eye moderate, with round pupil. Nostril, small.
Neck scarcely apparent. Body moderate in length, cylindrical,
and of even calibre throughout. Belly rounded. Tail
rather short, being about one-fourth the total length.

Identification.—It is the only Ceylon snake with the costals
in 17 rows in the whole body length, with a divided anal
shield, and divided subcaudals. The ten supralabials, with
the last deepest and longest, is also very distinctive.

Colouration.—Dorsally grayish or fawn-coloured. Each
scale is powdered with dark brown. Sometimes dark basal

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 85

patches are seen in the forebody, and the powdering is
heavier and more evenly distributed posteriorly, An
irregular series of black, sometimes light-edged, spots passes
down the spine. A more or less conspicuous series of black
dots is present on each scale of the fourth row above the
ventrals, and often on the lowest row also. The belly is
whitish, sometimes with a tinge of green, and bears a regular
series of lateral dark dots, one on each ventral. The head
is black with usually the canthus, the lips, and a bar between
the eyes yellowish (white in spirit specimens). The nape has
a conspicuous, broad, well-defined, black band bordered
anteriorly, and posteriorly with yellow, which is connected
on the median line with the black on the head. A narrow
black line borders the yellow of the neck band posteriorly.
I have seen specimens without the yellow on the canthus
and between the eye, and without vertebral spots.

Habits.—Nothing special has been remarked upon.

Food.—I found a skink in the stomach of one example.

Breeding.—(a) The Sexes: The male clasper is not bifid. It
is a cylindrical organ beset with recurved claw-like processes,
many at the extremity being specially large.

(b) Method of Reproduction : Not known, but I found eggs
of such a size and character as to make it probable that it is
an oviparous snake.

(c) Season: Not known.

(d) The Brood: I have found two eggs in one specimen,
and five in another, The largest of these measured 19 by 7 mm.
(3 by + of an inch) with no trace of an embryo.

Growth.—(a) The Young: The length of the young is not
known.

(0) Karly Life: My notes throw no light on the annual
growth.

(c) Maturity: The smallest gravid female I have seen
measured 324 mm. (123 inches).

(d) Maximum Length: Boulenger records one 440 mm.
(1 foot 52 inches), and I have seen nothing larger.

Parasites.—(a) Hctozoa: I found one infested with little
mites which appear to be the same as those found by me
on Oligodon sublineatus (q. v-). I give a figure of one of these

86 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

as seen under the microscope. They were attached to the
skin between the ventral shields. (Fig. 19.)

Fie. 19.—Microtrombidrum Mite from Polyodontophis Subpunctatus.
(Magnified about 80 diameters. )

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 87

Lepidosis.—(a) T'ypical—Rostral: Touches six shields ;
the rostro-nasal sutures longer than the rostro-internasal or
rostro-labial. IJnternasals: A pair; the suture between
them rather shorter than that between the prefrontals,
half to three-fifths the internaso-prefrontals. Prefrontals :
A pair; the suture between them shorter than the prefronto-
frontal; touching the postnasal, loreal, preocular, and
supraocular. Frontal: Touches six shields; the fronto-
supraocular sutures nearly twice the fronto-parietals.
Supraoculars: Three-fourths the length of the frontal ;
three-fifths its breadth along a line connecting the centres
of the eyes. Parietals: Touch two postoculars. Nasals :
Divided. Loreal: One; about half the length of the nasals.
Preocular: One. Postoculars: Two. Temporal: One ;
about two-thirds the length of the supraoculars; usually
touching both postoculars. Supralabials: Ten; the Ist
and 2nd touch the nasal, the 4th, 5th, and 6th the eye, and the
7th and 8th the temporal ; the 8th not reaching the edge of
the lip. Sublinguals: Two subequal pairs; the posterior
touching the 4th and 5th infralabials. IJnfralabials: Five ;
the fifth broader than the posterior sublinguals, and about
subequal to them in length; in contact with two scales

behind.

Costals : Longer than broad ; rectiform ; smooth ; without
apical pits or facets. Vertebrals not enlarged; the
breadth of the scales about three-fifths their length, and
about half the breadth of the ultimate row. Last seven rows
enlarging, In the ultimate row the breadth of the scales is
subequal to their length. The rows are 17 in the whole body
length. Ventrals: 151 to 214* ; rounded. Anal: Divided.
Subcaudals : 42 to 76 ; divided.

* Ceylon specimens give a range of 157 to 176, and subcaudals
52 to 64. Boulenger gives the range of ventrals from 151 to 240, but
the highest count for the British Museum as shown by his Catalogue
is 214. I think he must have accepted Blanford’s record of 240 for
a specimen killed in Calcutta, which is no doubt a sagittarius, probably
specimen No. 7073 in the Indian Museum labelled Bengal, in which
T count the ventrals 235, and subcaudals 54.

88 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Fie. 20.—Polyodontophis subpunctatus.
(ix 2.)

(b) Anomalies. Loreal: I have seen this confluent with
the prefrontals. Supralabials: May be eight, owing to
a confluence of shields, in which case the 3rd, 4th, and 5th
touch the eye; or nine, with the 4th and 5th touching the eye.
In some specimens the Ist infralabials fail to meet behind
the mental.

Dentition.—From one skull in my collection.

Maxillary: 44 to 45. Palatine: 24. Pterygoid: 21 to 22.
Mandibular : 39 ?

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 89

Distribution.—(a) General: Peninsular India and Ceylon.
In India most of the opeenuens have been collected in hills or
their near vicinity.

(b) Local: Haly says that it is a very common snake
round Colombo. This statement is not, however, supported
by other observers, nor borne out by the specimens available
in museums. It is a denizen of the Low-country. Haly
mentions one from Neboda near Kalutara, and Willey one
from Puttalam. Mr. Drummond-Hay tells me that it was an
uncommon snake at Galatura estate, Ratnapura District (500
to 1,000 feet), and he has not acquired it at higher elevations
elsewhere.

Genus TROPIDONOTUS.

(Greek “ tropis’’ a keel, and “ notus ”’ the back.)

Boulenger in his catalogue (1893) divides the genus
Tropidonotus into four Subgenera, Tropidonotus, Nerodia,
Amphiesma, and Macropophis. These are based on differences
in the maxillary dentition and lepidosis. His arrangement
of this cumbersome genus including over eighty species is
as follows :—

TROPIDONOTUS.

Maxillary teeth 18 to 40, posterior longest ; mandibular
teeth subequal. Head usually distinct from neck; eye
rather small, moderate, or large, with round pupil. Body
more or less elongate, cylindrical ; scales mostly keeled, in
some species smooth, usually with apical pits, in 15 to 33 rows ;
ventrals rounded. Tail moderate or long; subcaudals in
two rows. Hypapophyses developed throughout the verte-
bral column.

‘Kurope; Asia; Africa; North Australia; North and
Central America.

Sub-genus TROPIDONOTUS.

Maxillary teeth not more than 30, the hinder gradually
enlarged; eyes and nostrils lateral; internasal shields
broadly truncate anteriorly.

ae 6(6)20

90 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Sub-genus NERopia.

Maxillary teeth not more than 30, the hinder gradually
enlarged. Hyes rather small, and like the nostrils, directed
upwards and outwards; internasal shields usually much
narrowed in front.

Sub-genus AMPHIESMA.

Maxillary teeth not more than 30, last two or three abruptly
enlarged.
Sub-genus MAcCROPOPHISs.

Maxillary teeth 35 to 40, posterior but slightly enlarged.
Kye very large. Body very slender.

Only two of these divisions, viz., Nerodia and Amphiesma
are represented in Ceylon.

Genus NERODIA.*

(Greek “ neros ” wet, from the sub-aquatic habit of
many of the species.)

General Characters.—‘‘ Maxillary teeth not more than 30,
the hinder gradually enlarged. Eyes rather small, and like
the nostrils, directed upwards and outwards ; internasal
shields usually much narrowed in front’ (Boulenger).

Poison.—Non-poisonous.

Lepidosis.—I notice a feature in the scales of many species
allied to these that has escaped the observation of previous
herpetologists, and which may considerably assist in the
grouping of these closely allied forms. I allude to the apical
emargination of the costals. (Vide figure 28.)

In the species of Nerodia as now constituted, I find the
emargination present in fessellatus and xenura of those
known to me, but it is absent in piscator, venningi, and
punctulatus. ,

In all the species known to me the scales are longer than
broad, rectiform, and keeled. The vertebral row is not
enlarged, the breadth of its scales is about half their length,

* The differences between Nerodia, and Tropidonotus are not so
marked as those between Amphiesma and Tropidonotus, so that the
claims of Nerodia for Generic rank are not so great as Amphiesma,

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 9]

and about half the ultimate row. The ultimate row is
enlarged, and the breadth of its scales subequal to their
length. The rows are 19 two heads-lengths behind the head
(except in punctulatus, 17), 19 at midbody, and later reduce
to 17 by an absorption of the fourth row above the ventrals
(except punctulatus, where it reduces to 15).
_ Dentition.—From the skulls of five species in my collection,
viz., piscator, tessellatus, xenura, venningi, and modestus.

Maxillary: 21 to 29; syncranterian, anododont, cory-
phodont. Palatine : Anododont, isodont. Pterygoid : Ano-
dodont, isodont, except the last three or four which reduce
in size. Mandibular : Anododont, isodont, or feebly kumat-
odont.

Distribution.—Thirteen out of the twenty-four species
recognized by Boulenger are American, three (one dubiously)
African, seven Asian, and one European.

NERODIA (TROPIDONOTUS) PISCATOR* Schneider.
(Latin “ piscator,” a fisher.)

The Chequered Keelback.

Tamil : “*Tanni pambu ” (water snake) ; Singhalese : ** Diya
polonga ’’ (water snake). (Willey.)

Synonymy.—Hydrus wpiscator, H. palustris, Coluber
anastomosatus, C. wumbratus, C. braminus, C. mortuarius,
C. dora, C. hippus, C. bengalensis, C. rectangulus, Enhydris
piscator, Amphiesma flavipunctatum, Tropidonotus melano-
zostus, T'. mortuarius, T. quincunciatus, T. umbratus, T’.
tytleri, T'. flavipunctatus, T. striolatus.

* Boulenger in his catalogue (Vol. I., p. 232) concedes to this
the rank of a species under the name T'ropidonotus asperrimus, on the
grounds that in this form all the costal rows are keeledexcept the last,
whereas in J. piscator two or three rows are not keeled. I have
examined many hundreds of Indian piscator, and find that the number
of rows not keeled is variable. I have also examined several of the
Ceylon form asperrimus most critically, beside the Indian piscator,
and cannot discover any constant character whereby the two can be
separated. Asperrimus, however, I consider a distinct colour variety
of piscator peculiar to Ceylon, an insular form comparable to the
Andaman variety tytleri of Blyth. To those who follow Boulenger
the snake should be called Tropidonotus asperrimus.

9? SNAKES OF CEYLON.

History.—lirst referred to and figured by Russell in 1796
(Vol. I., Plates XX., XXVIITI., XX XITI., and Vol. IL., Plates
{II., XIV., and XV.). Christened by Schneider in 1799.

General Characters.—A moderate-sized species growing to
over 3 feet in length. Head ovate, and snout subacute,
with an indistinct obtusely rounded canthus. Neck fairly
evident. Eye with a decided inclination upwards, an iris
speckled with greenish-gold, and a round pupil. Nostril
slit-like, and placed unusually high on the snout, thus
approximating to the condition seen in the true fresh-water
snakes of the Sub-family Homalopsine. Body stout and
muscular; cylindrical; attenuating slightly towards the |
neck and posteriorly, and rough from the keeling of
the costals. Belly rounded. ‘Tail longish, being more than
one-fourth, and approaching one-third the total length.

Identification——The costals 19 two heads-lengths behind
the head, 19 at midbody, and 17 two heads-lengths before
the vent, and the rostro-internasal sutures half or less than
half the rostro-nasals will serve to identify this among Ceylon
snakes.

Colouration.—A variable snake. In Ceylon there are at
least three varieties.

(a) Variety flavipunctata (Gunther): Olive-brown or
olive-green dorsally, with one or more lateral series of pale
spots. ) ,

(>) Variety quincunciata (Schlegel) : Olive-brown or olive-
green dorsally, with six series of black spots forming a
chequered pattern. These spots are more pronounced
anteriorly.

(c) Variety asperrima (Boulenger): Like the last
posteriorly, but with a single series of very large lateral
black blotches anteriorly, those of one side more or less
confluent with those of the other.

In all the head is olive-brown or olive-green, with two
narrow, black, oblique streaks from the eye, the upper longer,
passing across the front of the gape, and the lower to the lip
on the 5th and 6th supralabial shields. Belly pearly-white,
sometimes with a pinkish suffusion laterally. Young are
marked like adults, except that they have a small light dot

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 93

on each parietal shield near the interparietal suture. Mr.
Drummond-Hay tells me that the last variety is much the
commonest up-country.

Habits.—(a) Haunts: It frequents the neighbourhood of
water, and abounds in rivers, tanks, paddy fields, and pools,
but where the vegetation is rank and damp enough to
harbour frogs, it may wander some distance from water, and
will occasionally enter the bungalow. Once in Assam a cow
that was observed indulging in a giddy frolic was seen to rid
herself of a piscator that had got on her back!

(6) Disposition: With the exception of the KHchis,
I think it is the most vicious snake I know. It is ever ready
to bite, and strikes with great determination and rapidity,
fastening itself with such tenacity that I have known it
necessary to prize apart the jaws to disengage its hold. Even
hatchlings exhibit this ill-temper, and I have frequently been
bitten by them when trying to effect their capture.

(c) Striking Posture: When encountered at close quarters,
it erects the forebody and flattens it cobra-wise to a remark-
able extent, and then hurls itself at any offending object,
into which it buries its teeth with great malice. Very many
cases of snake bite are to be attributed to this species.

(d) Nocturnal or Diurnal: It is for the most part diurnal
in habit, and is frequently to be met with disporting itself
in pools or floods, or in the act of swallowing some victim.
On the other hand, I have frequently encountered it at night
crossing roads, or been attracted to some spot by the piteous
and very human cries of some wretched batrachian, only to
find a piscator in the act of devouring a victim.

(e) Progression: It is an extremely active snake, that
usually strives to elude any threatening danger, in fact,
I know of no snake that can compare with it for muscular
Strength and agility. It is a most remarkable thing that it
can actually jump clear off the ground, and will do so repeat-
edly if pursued. I have heard many jugglers call this “ the
jumping snake ” and give a demonstration of this surprising
activity. On several occasions, too, when bicycling or
driving, I have seen this snake leap forward to evade
the quickly advancing wheels. Even my hatchlings have

94 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

demonstrated similar powers. In the water it swims nimbly
and with astonishing vigour, in no way inferior to that of
the true fresh-water snakes Homalopsine and the marine
snakes Hydrophinz. During flood time in the low-country
it is frequently to be seen swimming on the surface of the
water submerged, except for its head, and if hustled it will
dive, and disappear with wonderful alacrity.

(f) Aistivation: During the hot weather it goes into
retirement, and while the drought lasts extremely few speci-
mens come to bag, but as soon as the monsoon bursts, and
the air is sonorous with the croakings of multitudes of frogs
that have suddenly appeared as if by magic, the chequered
keelback quits its summer quarters and disseminates itself
broadcast.

(g) Hibernation: In parts of the country that enjoy a cold
winter piscator disappears, and goes into retirement till
the warmth of Spring entices it forth again. Some indivi-
duals, however, will be met with, during the warmth of the
day sunning themselves. I have encountered them when
duck shooting in Northern India lying on the vegetation

~ above the water level.

(h) Sloughing: A specimen in captivity in the Madras
Museum shed its skin on May 17, June 11, 1896 ; January 20
and February 24,1897. Mr. D’Abreu told me of a specimen
in Nagpur that desquamated twice during a confinement of
a little over two months. I had a specimen in Rangoon that
sloughed on February 2 and March 13 and thendied. Another
in Cannanore exfoliated on June 19, and again on July 13. |

Food.—Its main diet is batrachian, usually frogs being
ingested, doubtless because they are so plentiful and so easy
to capture. Fish, however, are frequently taken. I have
found as many as eight or nine tadpoles in the stomach of a
young specimen. Mr. D’Abreu tells me he once found six
large toads (Bufo melanostictus) and a fish inside one
specimen. I knew one swallow four small frogs (Rana
limnocharis) at one meal. In Cannanore, on several occa-
sions one was brought to me wriggling at the end of a fish
hook, which had been baited with a frog by native urchins.
I have never seen one attempt to constrict its victim, nor

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 95

does it wait till they are dead, but if advantageously seized
it commences to swallow at once, so that the frog, when this
happens to be the unfortunate, continues to squeal piteously
for some time after engulfment. On one occasion only have
I found a mammal ingested, and that a mouse.

Breeding.—(a) The Sexes: Females attain to a greater
length than males, and have shorter tails. Blanford des-
cribes a pair which he dislodged from beneath a large stone
in a stream. They had evidently made their home there,
and he remarks that they showed a disinclination to quit the
spot. It is remarkable that though they were evidently
cohabiting, the female was in an advanced state of egg-
bearing. This, with other cases of a similar kind, leads me
to think that snakes possess a mutual love and attachment
in no way inferior to that exhibited by many warm-blooded
animals, which preserve their conjugal relationship long
past the term of sexual gratification.

The anal glands in both sexes furnish a yellow secretion
like custard, with a penetrating and disagreeable odour.

The male clasper is a subcylindrical organ, not bifid at its
summit, and is covered with a multitude of extremely small.
recurved claw-like processes from base to extremity. These
processes are disposed so closely and are so fine that they
give a villose appearance to the surface. A few enlarged
processes are grouped together at the extreme base of the
organ on its inner and outer faces, and a solitary enlarged
process is to be seen on the posterior surface of the organ
at about the junction of its lower and middle thirds.

(6) Method of Reproduction: The chequered keelback is
oviparous. I have had many clusters of eggs brought to me,
and on two occasions a dam has deposited her ova in my
vivarium. The eggs were discharged into the water and
sunk in that element, but they are not naturally voided into
the water, because after a few hours their contents, by a
process of osmosis, mingle with that fluid rendering it milky,
and the eggs decompose.

(c) Season: Father Dreckman informed me of a pair
“in copula ’’ at Khandalla in October. Ihad a pair observed
in similar circumstances at Rangoon in January, the female

96 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

subsequently discharging eggs in my vivarium. My notes
contain records of 27 egg-bound females, with eggs in various
stages of development in the months of November to May
(November, three in Cannanore ; December, two in Dibru-
garh (Assam) ; January, one in Cannanore, one in Rangoon,
one in Fyzabad, and three in Dibrugarh; February, one in
Rangoon, one in Poona, one in Fyzabad, and three in Dib-
rugarh ; March, one in Mandalay ; April, eight in Dibrugarh;
May, one in Dibrugarh). Mr. D’Abreu has informed me
of an egg-bound female at Nagpur in December.

My gravid female deposited eggs in Rangoon in March,
and I had clusters of eggs brought to me in January at Can-
nanore, May in Dibrugarh, and August in Shillong. A
clutch was deposited in captivity in February at Madras,
I was told by Mr. Thurston, Superintendent of the Museum.

Begbie reported eggs hatching in May at Cawnpore, and
I had eggs hatching out in June at Dibrugarh, and in
September at Shillong.

I have had hatchlings in March at Cannanore ; in May from
the Andamans; June in Rangoon, Dibrugarh, and the Nilgiris ;
July from Fyzabad and the Nilgiri Hills; August in Shillong
and the Nilgiris; and September in Shillong.

(d) Period of Gestation: This is one of the very few snakes
whose period of gestation is known. In Rangoon a snake
was brought to me on January 3, said to have been found
in conjunction with another. I kept this alone in my
vivarium, and fifty-five days later, on March 9, fourteen eggs
were laid between 9 and ll a.m. Ten more eggs were
discharged between March 9 and 23. I think it probable that
the enfeebled health of the parent, consequent upon her
incarceration, may have caused this protracted and
spasmodic discharge of her ova, for on another occasion a
specimen in my vivarium laid all her fifty-seven eggs within a
few hours.

(e) Period of Incubation: This is not known. All my
attempts to imitate nature and bring the ova to fruition
have failed. Where clusters of eggs have been brought to
me in a state approaching hatching I have been sometimes
successful.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. . 97

(f) The Eggs: Those I obtained in Cannanore were all
much alike in size, shape, and tension, but those I acquired
in Rangoon varied considerably. Some were tense, others
flaccid, and they varied much in size, as may be inferred
from their weights, which ranged from 1 drachm 28 grains
to 2 drachms 37 grains. These variations were probably the
result of impoverished health. Normally they are soft and
white without gloss. When voided they are evidently
surrounded with a glutinous pellicle, for they adhere firmly
at any points where chance has placed them in apposition.
The poles are isomorphous, the shape elliptical, and tension
much like that of a ripe grape. In length they vary from
27 to 40 mm. (1 1/12 to 1 11/20 inches), and in breadth from
18 to 25 mm. (15/20 to 1 inch). They vary in number from
8 to 87. I know of seven instances where they exceeded 50.
_ The greatest number I have had was 75, but Blanford records
85, and Mr. D’Abreu has informed me of a specimen with 87.
With the exception of the Python and Russell’s viper, this
is the most prolific snake I know.

Growth.—(a) Intraoval Life: From eggs I hatched out in
Shillong (Assam) I ascertained that the young grew at the
rate of about 75 mm. (3 inches) in twenty-four days.

(b) The Hatchling: ‘The young snake effects its own liberty
by cutting the egg investment by means of the foetal tooth.
The exit apertures are variable in number and extent. In
one egg there were six cuts, more or less parallel in direction,
the longest over half an inch long. In another there was
but one cut, and this only a quarter of an inch in length.

The foetal tooth is not apparent when the little snake is
viewed in profile, as it does not project beyond the rostral,
in fact, this shield must be flattened to permit this structure
being brought into use. The cutting edge which is horizontal
and directed forwards is seen to be bidentate, owing to
a shallow, but broad, median emargination.

The eggs I had in Shillong did not all hatch out at once,
but one hatched on September 8, three on the 14th, two on
the 16th, one on the 17th, and one on the 18th.

The length of the hatchling varies from 170 to 215 mm.
(62 to 84 inches). |

18 6(6)20

98 _ SNAKES OF CEYLON.

_(c) Early Life: The growth is somewhat difficult to follow,
as the breeding season covers such a long period of the year.
The young appear, however, to grow about 10 inches a year,
thus they average about 17 to 18 inches in length at the end
of the first year, 27 to 28 at the end of the second, and 37 to
38 at the end of the third.

(d) Maturity: The smallest female in my records, to
demonstrate her fertility, measured 806 mm. (2 feet 7%
inches), and I estimate that she was about two and a half
years old. All other gravid females have been at least
three years old.

(ec) Maximum Length: I have measurements of some
hundreds of specimens, and have only about two records
where the length exceeded 1,220 mm. (4 feet), viz., 1,252 mm.
(4feet 14 inches), and 1,290 mm. (4 feet 2? inches). Nicholson
records one example 1,296 mm. (4 feet 3 inches), and Blanford
another of similar length. Mr. D’Abreu has informed me
of a specimen killed at Nagpur which taped 1,480 mm. (4 feet
10+ inches).

Parasites.—(a) Hntozoa : The chequered keelbacksuffers very
much from internal parasites. A linguatulid, or maggot-like,
white parasite, growing to about 10 mm. (3 of an inch) in
length, frequently attaches itself to the tissues in the
abdominal cavity. This is called Porocephalus crotali.
(Fig. 21.)

Fie. 21.—Porocephalus crotali (life size)
from Nerodia piscator,

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 99

Two kinds of nematode worms commonly infest the stomach.
One of these is seen in clusters with the cephalic extremity
attached to the mucous membrane. Each colony—and
there may be several—consists of many individuals of very
variable size, some of the largest attaining to a length of
135 mm. (5+ inches). I believe this is the worm described
by Von Linstow as Kalicephalis willeyi, but I may be con-
fusing this worm with the next species. The second gastric
worm, also common, is smaller than the foregoing, and grows

to about 34 mm. (12 inches). I think it is invariably not

attached to the coats of the stomach, but free. I believe this
is the worm described by Von Linstow as Heterakis anomala.

Species of cestodes or tapeworms also infest this snake.
Ihave found many convoluted beneath the mucous membrane
of the abdominal cavity and organs, and some of these
unravelled reach the length of 250 mm. (10 inches). The
lining membrane of the abdominal cavity and its organs are
frequently studded with myriads of small, white, ovate
bodies, which Professor Shipley pronounced larval forms of
a Pterocercus. He suggested that these probably reach
their final development inside the Serpent Eagles or some
other predacious bird or animal that lives upon snakes.

(6) Hxematozoa: The red blood cells of the chequered
keelback are sometimes invaded by a hemogregarine, the
Hemogregarina mirabilis of Castellani and Willey, which
is also found in the erythrocytes of many other snakes. It
appears to be somewhat unusual, for its presence was not
detected by Dobell in ten specimens submitted to him for
examination.

Lepidosis.—(a) T'ypical—Rostral: Touches six shields,
the rostro-nasal sutures twice,or more than twice, the rostro-
internasals. Internasals: A pair; the suture between
them equal to, or nearly equal to, that between the prefrontal
pair; subequal to the internaso-prefrontal. Prezfrontals:
A pair; the suture between them rather longer than the
pretronto-frontal ; touches the internasal, postnasal, loreal,
preocular, and supraocular. Frontal : Touches six shields ;
the fronto-supraocular sutures twice,or more than twice, the
fronto-parietals. Supraoculars: Nearly as long as_ the

100 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

frontal ; about as broad as the frontal along a line connecting
the centres of the eyes. Nasals: Divided. Loreal: One ;
about two-thirds the length of the nasals. Preocular:-
One. Postoculars: Three. Temporals: Two; the lower
about as long as the supraocular. Swpralabials: Nine ;
the Ist and 2nd touch the nasals ; 4th and 5th the eye, and
the 7th and 8th the lower temporals. Sublinguals : Two
pairs; the posterior longer, and in contact with the 5th, 6th,
and 7th infralabials. Infralabials: Seven; the 7th about
as broad as the posterior sublinguals, but shorter ; in contact
with three scales behind. (Fig. 22.) |

Fie. 22.—Nerodia piscator (life size).

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 101

Costals: Longer than broad; rectiform; keeled, except
the last one, to three rows ; emarginate. Vertebrals about
half their length, and half those of the ultimate row.
The last two rows are enlarged. Ultimate row broadest ;
the breadth of its scales about equal to their length. In
19 rows two heads-lengths behind the head, 19 rows at mid-
body, and 17 two heads-lengths before the vent. The
reduction in rows takes place behind midbody, and is due
to the absorption of the fourth row from the ventrals.
Ventrals: Rounded; 125 to 152. Anal: Divided.
Supracaudals : In even rows, keeled till after the fours are
established. Swbhcaudals: Divided ; 64 to 95.

(0) Anomalies—Internasals: I have rarely seen one, and
as rarely three. Prefrontals: I haveseen four in asingle trans-
verse series, and Mr. Green has told me of a specimen with
only one. WNasals: I have seen these very rarely meeting
behind the rostral. Postoculars: Not unusually there are
two, or four, or even five. Supralabials: Frequently some
of the series are confluent. Sometimes only the 4th or only
the 5th touches the eye. Ihave seenten rarely. Temporals :
Rarely but one. Anal: Very rarely is entire. Subcaudals :
Occasionally a few may be entire.

Dentition.—From eight skulls in my collection. Mazil-
lary: 21 to 26. Palatine: 11 to 16. Pterygoid : 22 to 33.
Mandibular : 22 to 27. In my Ceylon skull the mazillary
are 21] to 22, the palatine 11 to 12, the pterygoid 22 to 24,
and the mandibular 22. (Fig. 23.)

eee

Fig. 23.—Mexilla of Nerodia piscator.

Distribution.—(a) General: Peninsular India to Sind and
Baluchistan in the north-west, and Assam in the north-east.
Burma, Indo-China, to Southern China and Formosa. The
Malay Peninsula and Archipelago as far’ east as Java.
Ceylon and the Andamans Islands.

102 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

(6) Local: Essentially a snake of the plains. It ascends
into hills and flourishes at a considerable altitude. I have
had it in the Western Himalayas (Bhim Tal) at 4,500 feet,
and in the Nilgiris up to 6,300 feet. It is an extremely
common snake in India and Ceylon.

Genus AMPHIESMA.*
(Greek “amphiesma ”’ a garment.)

General Characters.—‘‘ Maxillary teeth not more than 30,
last two or three abruptly enlarged ” (Boulenger).

Lepidosis.—I notice that the scales are apically emarginate
in ten Asiatic species familiar to me, viz., platyceps, himalaya-
na, ceylonensis, beddomei, stolata, nigrocincta, submimata,
chrysarga, monticola, and tigrina. In all these species the
costals are longer than broad, rectiform, and strongly keeled.
The vertebral row is not enlarged, the breadth of its scales is
half or less than half their length, and half or less than half
the breadth ofthe ultimate row. The ultimate rowis enlarged,
and the breadth of its scales is subequal to their length. The
rows in all are 19 two heads-lengths behind the head, 19 in
midbody, and reduce aiter this to 17 by an absorption of the
fourth row above the ventrals.

Dentition.—I have skulls of all the ten species just alluded
to, which agree in the following characters. The maxillary
teeth have a short gap in the series posteriorly (diacranterian).
The precranterian teeth are isodont and number from
15 to 35. Cranterian 2, much enlarged, ungrooved, and not
obliquely-set teeth, two or three times the length of the last
prenodal tooth.

Distribution.—Of the twenty-five species referred to by
Boulenger, four are Madagascarian, and twenty-one Asian.
Two of these, viz., ceylonensis and stolata, occur in Ceylon.f

* On the maxillary dentition alone Amphiesma has, in my opinion,
as good claims to be considered a genus apart from T'ropidonotus, as
Macropisthodon, Pseudoxenodon, Helicops, and Xenochrophis, all
recognized as distinct genera by Boulenger.

t Abercromby (Snakes of Ceylon, pp. 48 and 63) alludes to T'ropr-
donotus subminiatus as occurring in Ceylon. This is a mistake, as
subminiatus occurs in the Eastern Himalayas, the Hills of Assam,
Burma, Indo-China to Southern China, and the Malay Archipelago
as far east as Celebes. I cannot suggest what snake he refers to under
this title.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 103

AMPHIESMA* CEYLONENSIS Gunther.
(Latin implying an inhabitant of Ceylon.)
The Ceylon Keelback.

Synonymy.—Tropidonotus chrysargus.

History.—First referred to by Dr. Gunther in 1858, and
considered by him a variety of 7’. chrysargus. Later (1864)
given the rank of a species by the same authority.

General Characters.—A small snake, 14 feet long. Head
rather small, snout moderate, somewhat narrowly rounded,
with rounded canthus and a fairly evident neck. Eye large.
Nostril occupies about the middle two-fourths of the suture
between the nasals. Body rather short, cylindrical, fairly
robust, and rough from the costal keels. Belly rounded.
Tail short, being about one-fifth to one-sixth the total length.

Identification.—Costals in 19 rows two _ heads-lengths
behind the head, 19 at midbody, and 17 two heads-lengths
before the vent, and two preoculars will suffice to identify
a normal specimen.

ColourationBrownish dorsally, with about twenty
blackish cross-bars, enclosing large ovate or round, rufous or
buff, spots laterally. A series of less perfect and narrower
eross-bars occurs in the intervals. Head brownish above, the
lips whitish. A conspicuous postocular stripe extends to
some distance behind the neck. Belly whitish or yellowish,
and immaculate. Tail more or less mottled beneath. The
young, according to Boulenger, have a somewhat conspicuous
yellow patch on the nape. Abercromby, however, says that
the yellow collar markings were absent in the hatchling
observed by him. The skin between the scales, Iam informed
by Mr. Green, is a vivid scarlet, but this is not seen until the
snake under excitement dilates itself.

Habits.—Very little known. Mr. Green tells me that a
specimen he had in his vivarium was a very gentle snake.
When alarmed it expanded its body bringing into view the
scarlet colouration of its skin.

Food.—Nothing known.

* See footnote to Nerodia piscator (p. 91).

104 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Breeding.—(a) Method of Reproduction: Abercromby
mentions finding two eggsofthis snake,so that it is oviparous
in habit.

(b) The Egg: Abercromby gives the measurements of his
eggs as 41 mm. long and 12 mm. broad (13 inches by 4 inch).
He unfortunately gives no date when they were found.

Growth.—(a) The Hatchling: Abercromby’s eggs contained
embryos 165 mm. long (63 inches), and a dead hatchling was
found with them. This is a remarkable length for the young
of a species that only grows to about 18 inches.

(6) Maximum Length: Boulenger gives the measurement
as 460 mm. (about 18 inches). The tail 85 mm. (3% inches).

Lepidosis.—(a) J'ypical: As detailed under the genus.
Preoculars: 'Two. Temporals: Two; the lower about as
long as the supraocular. Swpralabials : Eight; the Ist and
2nd touch the nasals, 4th and 5th the eye, and the 6th and 7th
the lower temporal. IJnfralabials: Six; the 4th, 5th, and
6th touching the posterior sublinguals ; 6th broader than the
posterior sublinguals, but much shorter, touching three
scales behind.

Costals: Keeled, except in the last two or three rows.
Supracaudals: Keeled till the fours are _ established.
Ventrals : 131 to 141. Anal: Divided. Subcaudals: 48 to 54.

Dentition——From one skull in my collection. Mazillary:
Precranterian 24 to 26; subequal. Cranterian: Two;
obliquely set, ungrooved, about twice the length of the
preceding. The palatine are as large as the mazillary and
number 20. The pterygoid are as large as the maxillary
and number 30 to 31. The mandibular are as large as the
maxillary and number 32 to 34. (Fig. 24.) :

Fic. 24.—Maxilla of Amphiesma ceylonensis.

Distribution.—(a) General: Peculiar to Ceylon.
(6) Local: It is evidently an uncommon snake, for Ferguson
failed to procure a specimen. MHaly only refers to three,

SNAKES OF CEYLON. — 105

Green only acquired one, and the British Museum collection
contained only five. The exact localities are in most cases
not specified, but Haly mentions one from Balangoda and
another from Udugama, and Green’s example was from
Peradeniya. These records make it appear a hill snake.
Mr. Drummond-Hay tells me it is uncommon up-country.
He obtained one at Punagalla estate, Yatiyantota district
(below 3,000 feet), one from Lennock estate in the centre of
the Uva patanas (3,000 to 4,000 feet), and one or two from
Balangoda district (about 3,000 feet).

AMPHIESMA STOLATA.
(Latin “ stolatus ”’ dressed, signifying decked.)
| The Buff-striped Keelback.
- Tamil: “nikkattan-kutty,” “kaliyan-kutty,”’ and “ nikkat-
tan pambu,” all implying “‘the snake that cannot kill ”
(Lam informed by Dr. J. R. Henderson). Sinhalese: * ahara
kukka*”’ (Ferguson).

Synonymy.—Coluber stolatus, C. bilineatus, Elaps bilineatus.
Tropidonotus ruficeps.

General Characters.—It is a graceful little reptile with the
body rather short and the tail rather long, viz., about one-
fourth the total length of the snake. Anteriorly the body
attenuates somewhat to the head, so that the neck is fairly
evident, and posteriorly reduces perceptibly in girth to the
vent, where, in females especially, a further reduction marks
the commencement of the tail. Dorsally the body and tail
are rough from the sharply-keeled scales. The head is rather
depressed, evenly rounded from the crown to the side of the
face, especially over the muzzle, and has the snout moderately
narrowed. The eye is large, with around pupil and an iris
flecked with gold, especially at the pupillary margin. The

* Inquiry brings to light the following story from old Ceylon records:
It appears that the old Ceylon Kings kept a jester about the Court,
and on one occasion, at a garden party, the King ceme across a snake
called “‘ Ahan-kukka ’”’ (synonymous with the Pali word for the tame
snake “‘man-balla’’), meaning literally “ahan,’ I am, “ kukka,”’
a dog. He called for the jester, and seeking to have some fun at his
expense, asked him before his courtiers and assembled guests the name
of the snake, but the jester was quickwitted enough to discover the
King’s intention, and replied untruthfully “ahara kukka,’’ meaning
“a dog looking for food,” since which the snake has been so known.

19 6(6)20

106 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

nostril is open and occupies about two-fifths of the depth of
the suture between the nasal shields, leaving about one-fifth
of the suture uninvolved above and about two-fifths below.
The tongue is a dull orange colour at the base and has black tips.

Identification.—The costals in 19 rows two heads-lengths
behind the head, 19 at midbody, and 17 two heads-lengths
before the vent, two internasals, and seven or eight supra-
labials will distinguish a normal specimen from all other
Ceylon snakes.

Colouration.—The ground colour is olivaceous-brown of
various depths of intensity, some specimens being dark,
others light. A buff stripe beginning in the neck or forebody,
at first obscure, but becoming well-defined and conspicuous,
passes down each side of the back to the tail tip. These
involve one whole and two half rows of scales and are sepa-
rated from one another by five whole and two half rows. The
ground colour is further ornamented with black or blackish.
somewhat irregular crossbars, which are always most obvious
anteriorly and often wholly disappear before the vent. The
head is olivaceous-brown, fading laterally to pearly-whitish,
yellow, or orange on the lips. There is, I think, always a
blackish vertical short loreal streak, and generally some of the
last supralabials are margined posteriorly with black. The
chin is whitish, and the throat pearly-white, pale, or bright
yellow, or orange, these vivid hues being seen alike in some
specimens of both the blue and red varieties. The belly is
pearly-whitish, with generally some roundish, scattered,
small, lateral black spots, chiefly anteriorly. Often an ill-
defined pinkish or lilac suffusion is to be seen at the edge of the
ventral shields. When desquamation is impending much of
the beautiful colouring may be obscured, but when once the
little snake has divested itself of its old and seedy-looking
raiment, it is just the little dandy that its specific name
implies.

(a) Variety typica: In this the overlapped margins of the
scales, especially towards their bases, are adorned with blue-
gray or pale blue, often of a shade almost identical with that
very beautiful flower Plumbago capensis. This ornamentation
is concealed by the imbrication of the scales when the snake is

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 107

quiescent, and only comes into view when the snake under
alarm or excitement inflates itself. It is much more
conspicuous, or may be wholly confined to the anterior
half or third of the body. This is the common type which
is universally to be met with throughout the area of its
distribution in plains and hills alike.

(6) Variety erythrostictus (Wall): In this, the far more
beautiful variety, bright vermilion replaces the blue adorn-
ment of variety typica. The vermilion, however, is usually, if
not always, more extensively distributed than the blue of the
last variety, so that it is usually more or less evident even in
the quiescent state of the snake. Specimens so ornamented
frequently have a speckling of the same hue on the belly and
in many, though not in all, the throat is yellow or orange.
It has been suggested that the brilliant hues here alluded to
are acquired during the breeding season, but this is not so.
They may be seen in hatchlings and at all times of the year.

Habits.—(a) Haunts: Its choice of a home, of course,
depends upon its food, but though this consists of frogs and
toads, I cannot recall ever having met with one actually in
the water. The reason is obvious, for during the season when
it is in evidence—the rains—the whole country is wet enough
to make frogs abundant everywhere, and even when the land
is drying, or dry, short of drought, many species of frogs that
do not congregate in collections of water are in hiding and.
toads too. I know full well that in captivity water is essential
to its well-being, and I have had specimens that were to be
seen at times more or less immersed in their basins. Ferguson
says: “‘ In captivity it is fond of lying in water”; and Mr. H. E.
Green, in a letter to me writes: “It submerges itself in its
bath at rare intervals, and remains there for many hours.”
Nicholson remarks that “‘in dry weather the offer of a drink
will at once gain their hearts.”’ Though it is not the swimmer
or hydrophile that piscator is, it is frequently to be met with
in damp situations, such as drying paddy fields and the banks
of canals; and Mr. Millard remarks that in October near
Bombay “it is exceedingly common in the rice fields, where
one sees them constantly, probably attracted by the crop of
, young frogs.”

108 SNAKES OF CEYLON,

During the rains the buff-striped keelback distributes
itself broadcast all over the land and will be found in grassy
and cultivated areas of open country, but does not favour
arid plains nor jungle tracts. It is commonly to be met with
in gardens, grass farms, golf links, and similar situations about
cantonments, and further afield in “crops” or any waste
ground that has some sparse cover and might harbour
frogs.

It sometimes wanders into outhouses and bungalows, and
especially in such of the latter where pot plants are available.
In Rangoon once I had as many as four sent to me in one
morning by a neighbour who flushed them in his verandah
whilst re-arranging his ferns, &c.

The crepuscular gloom beneath the foliage of closely
congregated pot plants and the humidity derived from daily
watering furnishes an ideal environment for mosquitoes and
other insects upon which frogs subsist, and there are always
some pots with a chip out of their basal rims large enough to
act as doorways to cosy: quarters—from a batrachian stand-
point—beneath. The same environment offers effectual
concealment for the little buffstripes and a plethora of its
food supply. One of the four snakes above alluded to had
swallowed a single frog, and another was replete with three
inside. A specimen sent to our Society by Mr. Dwane from
Madras was discovered on the horn of a living buffalo, a very
curious situation for any snake.

When not roaming about the country it often secretes
itself in holes in the ground, or takes refuge in the masonry of
drains, culverts, wells, outhouses, and such situations. I
have sometimes detected one with its head issuing from a
hole in the ground, but the slightest movement on my part
caused a sudden retraction below the surface, followed after
a few minutes by its re-appearance, when, if satisfied that the
coast was clear, it emerged and glided off.

(6) Disposition: This is a remarkably inoffensive little
creature. Of all the snakes [ know, it ranks among the
most gentle, for I have picked it up scores of times in its native
haunts, and I have never once been bitten or even struck at.
Mr. Millard writes to me: ‘‘ It is the most gentle snake that I

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 109

know. I cannot remember one ever having attempted to
bite even when caught in the open.” Little “ buffstripes ”’
is easily alarmed and when danger threatens, turns and
glides off as rapidly as possible to any protection the nature of
the ground may offer, andit is an adept in the art of concealing
itself in the smallest patch of scrub or grass, sometimes
vanishing in a most uncanny way. Probably it has found a
hole and secreted itself therein, but a careful and systematic
search sometimes fails to reveal the mystery of its disappear-
ance. When brought into the open it exhibits a lively
activity, making repeated attempts to escape.

(c) Posture of Alarm: When irritated, some specimens,
but by no means all, erect themselves flattening the neck and
forebody ventro-vertebrally. This flattening process involves
a much greater length of the forebody than is seen in the
cobra, and I have seen the whole body flattened to the vent.
In the cobra the degree to which it is manifested laterally is
far greater than is seen in any of the keelbacks and their
allies. During this erection and flattening of the forebody,
stolatus distends itself by deep drawn inspirations, bringing
into view those beautiful ornamentations of blue or vermilion,
as the case may be, to which I have referred in dealing with its
colour and varieties. This behaviour is never anything more
than a demonstration of alarm, possibly a menace, the snake
looking as if it intended mischief, but though I have irritated
it as much as I knew how, I never had one attempt to bite me.

(d) Nocturnal or Diurnal: The bufi-striped keelback is
essentially diurnal in habit. It is met with abroad at any
hour of the day, but is not usually encountered at night,.
though its relative piscator is frequently on the move under
cover of darkness.

(e) Progression: Though agile and active, its movements
are not rapid. It always appears to me that its progression
is much smoother than that exhibited by many snakes.

(f) istivation: This snake evinces a very marked dis-
position to estivate, disappearing for some months during
the drought of a hot weather, to re-appear with the: first
heavy rains that announce the inauguration of the monsoon.
This fact has evidently been noted by the observant native

110 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

99. — 66:

hence the names “ wana* kukroo, wanna pamu,’ and
“wanna cogli.” Only recently, too (February), Mr. Millard
tells me he has offered rewards for them in Bombay, but the
natives say they cannot guarantee getting them, except in
the rains, when they are plentiful.

In Rangoon Evans and I gotno single example in 1900 before
April 30, the day the rains broke, but from May 2 to August 2
no fewer than 2] specimens were brought in. Similarly, in
Cannanore in 1904, during the drought, between January | and
March 18, I got only one specimen out of a total of 60, but
from March 19 to June 4, between which dates a few desultory
showers fell, there were 3 out of 71 snakes collected, and
from June 5, the day the big monsoon burst, to the end of July
out of 8] specimens, no fewer than 38 were stolata. In
Fyzabad in 1906, during the drought, between January | and
June 18, the day the rains broke, I had received a solitary
specimen, but after this I obtained 6 out of 21 specimens in
June, and no fewer than 87 in July and August, out of a total
of 485 snakes of all kinds.

(g) Hibernation: In Northern India it disappears during
the cold months of the year, hibernating beneath the soil. In
December, 1904, several were unearthed by the Sepoys of the
62nd Punjabis, when out in camp near -Rae Bareilly in
December. They were found singly at a depth of from
9 to 18 inches below the surface, chiefly in the roots of
clumps of giant grass, and when dislodged were dull and
inactive. ©

(h) Sloughing: We know very little about this function,
and although many snakes are kept in captivity in various
institutions in India, very little attention is paid to this
curious habit, and seemingly no records kept. Similarly, in
Regent’s Park, London, I failed to get any information.

A specimen I had in Rangoon sloughed on June 27 and
again on July 24. Another cast its skin on May 7 and 25, and
again on June 23 in Rangoon. Some excellent records were
kept some years ago in the Madras Museum,t from which I
aah coats one Sie sen BST pei on June 29, October 21,

eee

“Wana” = rain (Telugu).
i; Andie elt Report, 1896.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. lil

December 22, 1896,and January 25,1897. Another exfoliated
on December 22, 1896, and January 25, September 3, December
14,1896, and on January 18 and February 27, 1897. This
was the same specimen that laid 14 eggs between August 17
and September 18. In another specimen ecdysis occurred on
March 17, September 17, December 26, 1896, and March 20,
1897. Itis very difficult to explain why in one instance four
months elapsed and in another six months during the same
period of the year in which a third specimen desquamated
from every three to five weeks. All the specimens, judging
from the consumption of frogs, which I have quoted under
food, appeared to have been in vigorous health, all the records
were made in the same year, and we may assume that all the
Specimens were caged under similar conditions. It seems
unlikely, too, that when special attention was being given to
this function, any of the occasions should have been over-
looked.

Food.—lIts diet is almost entirely batrachian in character.
and whilst some show a decided partiality towards frogs,
others find toads more attractive. In India it is usually the
frogs Rana cyanophlyctis or the young of R. tagrina that form
its principal sustenance, these being, perhaps, the commonest
frogs to be met with. For the same reason young toads of
the species Bufo melanostictus are most frequently devoured.
I have known R. breviceps and Microhyla ornata taken in
Fyzabad, and Oxyglossus levis and a species of Rhacophorus,
probably leucomystax, in Burma, On several occasions I
have found toads ingested, once a young Bufo andersoni in
Fyzabad having proved the victim. I once found a gecko ina
young one in Assam, but have never heard of a lizard being
taken, except on this occasion, and never amammal. Usually
a single frog or toad satisfies its appetite, but I have more than
once found as many as three in the stomach.

Colonel G. H. Evans, whose attention was once arrested by
pitiful wails, found on investigation a frog in the jaws of a
stolata. It had been seized “a posteriori,’ and the snake
when discovered made tracks without releasing its captive,
and succeeded in reaching a crevice in the ground some thirty
yards away, down which it managed to insinuate itself by

EZ SNAKES OF CEYLON.

some lateral manceuvre head last, still retaining hold of the
frog. It was dug out, and froggie when released hopped
away. Mr. Millard, who has known this species in captivity
for over twenty years, tells me that it feeds greedily on frogs,
in fact he “cannot remember ever having seen it feed on any-
thing else.’ On the other hand, Mr. E. E. Green, who has a
very intimate knowledge of the species in Ceylon, tells me
that in captivity “it will look at nothing but the toad Bufo
melanostictus,’ and he relates how on one occasion two
stolata seized the same toad in his vivarium, each proceeding
to swallow from opposite points of seizure, till their noses met,
when the larger snake began to engulf the smaller, but at this
stage of the proceedings he interfered. In the Madras Museum
one buff-striped keelback ate 131 toads in the year, another
130, and a third 91 green frogs. Murray says that in Sind.
like piscator, it lives in pools and feeds on fish. If this is a
fact, its habits in that locality are different from those mani-
fested in other parts of India.

Foes.—Doubtless so harmless and diminutive a reptile
frequently provides food for predaceous animals and birds.
Evans and I once knew it fall a victim to the snake Xenopeltis
unicolor, and I found one inside a banded krait (Bungarus
fasciatus) in Dibrugarh. Mr. Primrose some years ago
recorded one being swallowed by the green tree snake
(Dyrophis mycterizans).

Breeding.—(a) The Sexes: It is remarkable that though
the sexes are very evenly balanced in many parts of India in
some localities, notably Assam, there is a great disparity in
favour of the female. Thus, out of 37 specimens sexed in
Cannanore, 20 were male and 17 female ; and out of 118 sexed
in Fyzabad, 57 were male and 61 female. In Assam—hills
and plains—females are more than twice as numerous, for
out of 89 specimens sexed in Dibrugarh, 62 were female ; and
in Shillong, in the Khasi Hills, no fewer than 16 out of 21
specimens proved to be this sex. Ina clutch of 5 eggs brought
to me in Dibrugarh, there were 4 females and 1 male. The
female is usually at all times longer than the male. Starting
from the egg it frequently has a slight advantage, it more
than maintains this as growth advances, and finally attains

SNAKES OF CEYLON, 113

proportions considerably in excess of the male, as will be
mentioned under “ maximum length ”’ (page 120).

The relative proportions of the body and tail are subject to
slight variation in individuals of both sexes, but I can discover
no disproportion of sexual import.

The anal glands in both sexes furnish a greenish-yellow
secretion of the consistency of custard.

The male claspers are beset with numerous horny, claw-like,
curved processes, which must function as anchors. The
nearly allied species, the “grass snake,’ so common in
England (7. natriz), I have more than once encountered in
copula. When disturbed, instead of detaching themselves.
the larger and more powerful female made for the nearest
cover, dragging her partner unceremoniously behind.

It seems as if these processes, which are re-curved so as to
oppose any traction efforts, serve to maintain attachment
during such an emergency. Their development is such and
they are so numerous, that they must provide a very firm grip
during the turgid state of the organ, and I can well imagine
that if under inordinate strain the parties were pulled asunder,
the female parts would sustain severe laceration.

(b) Method of Reproduction: Stolata is oviparous in habit.
I have had specimens in captivity that have discharged eggs.

(c) Season: Itis a curious fact that though this snake gces
into retirement during the hot months in the plains, this
appears to be the season when matrimonial intercourse is for
the most part indulged in. This is evidently so in many cases,
judging from what we know of the period elapsing between
coitus and the deposition of eggs. The sexes must, therefore,
in many instances retire in pairs, for when the rains burst, and
the species re-appear, many, if not most of the females, are
already impregnated, and often to an advanced degree.

In Cannanore in 1904 a few showers at intervals of several
days fell between March 18 and May 18, and frequent showers
between May 20 and June 4. On June 5 the monsoon burst,
and stolatus, up to this time a rarity, became abundant. I!
obtained a gravid female in May and four in June. In
Fyzabad in 1906 the rains broke on June 18, when stolatus, up
to this date hardly in evidence, became numerous. I got one

20 6(6)20

114 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

gravid female in June, nineteen in July, and four in August.
In Rangoon in 1900 the rains broke on April 30, up to which
date I had no specimen of stolata. On May 30 I got a female
with eight eggs in an advanced stage of development. I have
never had the good fortune to meet with a pair in conjunction,
and have only had them rarely reported so. In Cannanore a
pair was reported in copula on May 24, and two pairs were
similarly reported on June 18.

In Burma Theobald reported an egg-bound female—precise
locality not specified—in May, and Nicholson a similar
specimen in Rangoon in the same month. Evans and I had
gravid females in Rangoon twice in May, twice in June, twice
in July, and once in October.

In Cannanore I had one egg-bound female in May, four in
June, and four in July.

In Fyzabad I had one gravid female in June, nineteen in
July, and seven in August.

Nicholson reported an egg-bound female in Bangalore in
August.

In Dibrugarh I had twelve gravid in April, thirteen in May;
two in June, and one in July. In Shillong three specimens in
an advanced stage of impregnation were brought to me in
August.

A specimen from Hakgalla, Ceylon (4,600 feet), was egg-
bound in September.

In Rangoon [ had a specimen that laid eggs in August. In
Cannanore a female deposited her eggs on July 29, and
another laid eggs in August. In Fyzabad one deposited eggs
in August. 'The Madras specimen, already referred to, ovi-
posited in August and September.

I have frequently had eggs in clutches brought to me
unearthed after deposition under natural conditions. In
Rangoon once in June,in Dibrugarh several in May (once as
early as the 1st) and June, and in Shillong once in August.

The full complement of eggs is discharged normally
within a few hours, but some specimens in captivity have
discharged them fitfully at intervals. A specimen I captured
in Fyzabad on July 7 laid one egg that night, and discharged
ten more on the night of the 12th of the same month. A

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 115
specimen in the Madras Museum* laid fourteen eggs as
follows :—August : one on the 19th, one on the 20th, two on
the 22nd ; September : three on the 12th, three on the 14th,
one on the 15th, and three on the 18th, occupying a full
month in the accomplishment of this function.

Snakes are credited with the power to retain their ova, or
foetuses, when circumstances are unfavourable for their
deposition, but, of course, they cannot do so indefinitely.
An unsuitable environment such as is likely to occur under
-captivity may explain the spasmodic discharge of the eggs in
the above instances, but even in the vivarium the dam usually
deposits her full complement within a few hours.

(d) Period of Gestation : This is not exactly known, but it is
probable that it will prove to be of the same duration as in the
chequered keelback piscator, viz., about two months. A
specimen of mine in Cannanore captured on June 21 laid five
eggs on July 29. As the specimen was obviously gravid when
caught, gestation must considerably exceed five weeks. A
Specimen in captivity in the Madras Museum, whose date of
capture was unfortunately not recorded, laid the first of
fourteen eggs on August 17. As it was noted that the speci-
men sloughed on June 28, at least seven weeks elapsed before
the discharge of this egg. The dam At full term retires to any
convenient refuge in the ground, and there deposits her eggs
some few inches below the surface. Unlike some other snakes
she does not appear to be attended by her consort at or sub-
sequent to this eventful period. I have only once known a
male in company with a female after impregnation. This
was in Fyzabad in July. The two snakes were described as
confronting one another with reared bodies, and they
remained actively engaged in this manner for some minutes.
Both were killed, and I sexed them and found the female in an
advanced state of impregnation. It is impossible to know
whether this was a chance encounter, which seems probable,
or whether their behaviour was of an amorous or hostile
character.

_ The parent having laid her eggs remains with them for some
time, perhaps even till they hatch. During hoeing operations

* Administration Report, Madras Museum, 1896 to 1897.

116 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

on the tea estates around Dibrugarh, on several occasions a
female was unearthed and brought to me with her eggs.
Frequently eggs were brought without the dam, but with the
report that a snake had been seen with them. On one
occasion eggs brought with the attendant parent were found
to contain embryos 24 to 3 inches long.

It seems certain that the parent is not unremitting in her
attentions, for on several occasions when eggs were unearthed
the cooly upon interrogation denied that there was any snake
with them.

(e) Period of Incubation: This almost certainly depends
upon temperature, and should, therefore, be more protracted
in the hills than in the plains.

In Rangoon a female laid nine eggs on August 11, which
hatched a month later, viz., one on September 10 and six on
September 11. The remaining eggs were non-fertile. I feel
certain from other observations and the conditions under
which these eggs were placed that the incubating period was
artificially abbreviated. They were placed on damp cotton
wool, inside a wide-mouthed, stoppered bottle and placed
within a couple of yards or so of an earthenware basin contain-
ing live embers. These fire receptacles are in ordinary use in
Burma in the rains and are placed beneath a wicker cage on
which one’s clothes are placed to dry. Though the bottle was
stood outside the cage, it must have derived considerable heat
from the contained embers.

(f) The Eggs: Inside the parent the ova lie in a single
string like the beads of a necklace, their long axes disposed in
the length of the body. They do not overlap one another,
nor lie transversely, as is the case with their more prolific
relative piscator. In their later stages, owing. to pressure
within a contracted space, their poles are strongly flattened
against one another, but no suggestion of this flattening is
seen after they are discharged.

Immediately after expulsion, the egg investment is moist and
sticky, so that many or all the eggs become firmly adherent to
one another to forma cluster. They are pure white in colour, -
and the ovicular investmént pliant like white kid. They are
soft to the touch, and their tension rather firmer than that of a

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 117

grape. The poles are equally domed, and the eggs measure
from 22 to 35 mm. (% to 12 inches) in length, and 16 to 18 mm.
(3 to #) of an inch in breadth. Eggs in the same clutch
always vary somewhat in their dimensions, but what one
Jacks in length is usually compensated for in girth. They
sink in water.

When freshly oviposited they contain a custard-like
material in which a minute embryo, perhaps one inch long if
unravelled, can be discerned if carefully investigated.

It is extremely difficult to place eggs artificially under
conditions favourable to their incubation. One of two things
usually happens, either they shrivel up, or become mouldy
within a few hours, according as to whether their environment
is too dry or too wet. It is certain that they require a humid
atmosphere, and, I believe, a light approaching twilight, if not
darker. After many unsuccessful attempts at incubation,
I find the best way to treat them is to put them on fresh earth
every day under an inverted flower pot. I turn up earth in
the morning to a depth depending on the humidity of the soil,
and select that which is slightly damp, and put this toa depth
of 3 or 4 inches in a vessel and the eggs on the top. The
inverted pot gives them the darkness I think essential, and
then the vessel is placed in a shady place. The following
morning the earth will be found already too dry, and if not
changed, the eggs shrivel very rapidly.

Stolata is not very prolific as snakes go. I have over
80 records of egg-bound females and clutches of eggs that
have been laid, and find that it may lay from one to fourteen
eggs, but from five to ten is the usual number.

Growth.—(a) Intraoval Development: In Dibrugarh, where
the climate and temperature are much the same as Burma,
Thad eggs brought to me on May 21, containing embryos 43
inches in length, but they did not hatch out till June 10, when
they measured 6 and 62 inches respectively. In this case the
embryos grew about two inches in twenty-one days, or about
one-third the length they attain to within the egg. Allowing
a similar rate of growth for the whole of intraoval life, and a
length of 1 inch when the eggs were laid, the embryos would
have been about thirty days acquiring a length of 43 inches

118 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

and the whole period would be about fifty days. Again, in
Shillong, on August 18, I had eggs brought to me which
contained embryos. Twenty days later, viz., on September 2,
I extracted an embryo measuring 3} inches, or about half the
length of a hatchling. Allowing 1 inch for the embryo
when the eggs were discharged, the growth was 24 inches in
twenty-five days, and the total period of incubation would
work out at about fifty days. (Fig. 25.)

2)

oe E
S

A B z
(2 "4 H : Pupil
| SF

Fic. 25.—Showing the development of Amphiesma stolata.

A. Coiled in egg.
B, C,D. The same after extraction.
E. The head of same enlarged.

(6) The Hatchling: The embryos liberate themselves from
the egg by means of an osseous structure, which is specially
developed for this purpose, and is very soon—a day or two—
shed after its function has been fulfilled. This is called the
foetal tooth or egg tooth, and is developed in the premaxillary
bone. Unlike the ordinary teeth, which are already developed
at this stage of life, it is flattened, and its cutting edge lies
horizontally, projecting forward beneath the arch in the front
of the mouth, which is formed to admit of the protrusion of
the tongue when the jaws are closed. With this instrument
the embryo makes one or many incisions, which penetrate the
egg shell, but even when it has established an adequate means
of exit, the little snake seems loathe to abandon its cradle, for

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 119

it sometimes wholly withdraws itself within the shell after
having almost vacated it, and often, after lying with its head
and forebody emerging, many hours elapse before it finally
disengages itself and effects its entry into the world.

In Rangoon I had one lot of embryos hatching out on
August 1 and 3, another on September 10 and 11, and on a
third occasion on October 22 (not November as previously
reported in the Bombay Natural History Journal, Vol. XIII.,
p. 351). In Dibrugarh I had embryos hatching on June 10.
and others on July 5 and 6.

In Cannanore I had a hatchling 64 inches long on November
21, one in Dehra Dun 5% inches long on October 8, one in
Bangalore 74 inches on September 29, two in Fyzabad measur-
ing 53 and 64 inches in October, and two measuring 52 inches
in November.

At the time of hatching the male has the genitals ensheathed
and concealed from view, but I have had an embryo of 6}
inches length in which they were extruded, showing that it is
only at a very late stage of embryonic development that their
invagination. occurs.

When the hatchling first leaves the egg, it may or may not
have part of the yolk sac adhering to the navel. This orifice.
or the recently obliterated remains of it, is very apparent in
the hatchling and remains so for some months, but eventually
becomes completely effaced. At exovation from 14 to 18
ventral shields intervene between it and the anal shield and
the scar itself involves two or even three ventrals.

When the hatchling vacates the egg it is from 51 to 7 inches
in length, and there is little difference in the Jength of the
sexes, for in one brood two males were 6 and 6%, and two
females 63 and 7 inches, respectively. In another brood one
male was 5 7/32, and four females 5 5/16, 53, 54, and 53,
respectively. In a third case a male was 61 and a female of
the same clutch 6} inches. It is curious this being the case
that all through my notes the average measurements of the
female in each month appreciably exceed those of the male,
and this becomes increasingly apparent till by the end of the
second year there is a disparity of 2 inches or more in favour
of the female.

120 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

(c) Early Life: As far as I can judge, the young double
their length in the first year of life and have trebled it by the
end of the second, and any further increase in length is small]
and slow.

(d) Maturity: The smallest gravid female I have had was
442 mm. (1 foot 54 inches) long, but many have been from 457
to 470 (1 foot 6 inches to 1 foot 7 inches), all lengths attained
at the end of the second year. It is evident, therefore, from
my numerous records that the majority of individuals mate at
thisearly age. Itis interesting to note from the measurements
of hatchlings given above, all of which were from Dibrugarh,
how close the measurements of individuals in the same
brood run, whilst there is an appreciable difference in the
average length of members of different broods.

(e) Maximum Length: I have about 200 recorded measure-
ments in my note books and find that the length differs
considerably in the sexes. Of males, I have only had eight
specimens of 530 mm. (1 foot 9 inches) and over, of which only
four reached 555 mm. (1 foot and 10 inches), the largest being
567 mm. (1 foot 103 inches). On the other hand, I have had
thirteen females exceeding 620 mm. (2 feet) in length. Two
taped 710 mm. (2 feet 4 inches) in Dibrugarh, and another
735 mm. (2 feet 5 inches) in Fyzabad. Another specimen
from Dibrugarh I judge to have been still larger, for the body
was 600 mm. (1 foot 114 inches) out of a total length of 710 mm.
(2 feet 4 inches). In three females in which the total lengths
were 622, 647, and 653 mm. (2 feet 4an inch, 2 feet 14
inch, and 2 feet 12 inch), the tails measured 152 and 160
(6 and 61 inches) respectively, so that at the lowest computa-
tion this specimen would have been, if perfect, 2 inches longer,
and possibly 3, making a length of 762 to 785 mm. (2 feet 6 or
7 inches).

Parasites.—(a) Entozoa: The buff-striped keelback har-
bours many entozoa. One of these is a maggot-like creature
called Porocephalus crotali (see Fig. 21). It is whitish in
colour, about three-quarters of an inch long, and attaches
itself to the tissues about the entrails of the snake, but is
not found in the intestine or solid organs. Several are to be
found in the same snake, but always solitary. The head,

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 1:1

which is its thickest part, is furnished on its ventral aspect
with four curved claw-like hooks, yellowish in colour, and
placed around the mouth. By these it attaches itself to the
mesenteric folds. The body, which gradually reduces in girth
posteriorly, consists of about thirty subequal segments. It no
doubt sucks the blood of its host.

- Another parasite, and one which must seriously affect the
health of its host, is a nematode worm called Kalicephalus
willeyi after Dr. Willey, the Director of the Colombo Museum.
This I have only found in the stomach attaching itself to the
inner coats of that organ, but Von Linstow says it also inhabits
the intestine of many snakes. It is of a gregarious habit, and
the several members of a single colony vary very much in
length, the longest being as much as 5 inches. It is about as
thick throughout as the catgut on a tennis racquet, reddish-
brown in colour, with a grayish-white caudal extremity.
The head, as shown by Von Linstow, is compressed and is
furrowed dorsally and ventrally. The mouth is large and has
six papille, three on each side, situated around its margin.
The body appears to be depressed and its surface smooth.
Often more than one cluster of these worms is found to have
invaded the stomach. This organ, as a result of these para-
sites, becomes knuckled and distorted, and its walls very much
thickened, cartilaginous, and rigid, so that it would appear
doubtful if it could distend sufficiently to accommodate the
relatively enormous bulk that is so often swallowed at a
meal.

A third parasite infesting stolata is a larval form of tape-
worm, which, though sent to Professor Von Linstow, he could
not further determine than that it was a species of Pterocercus.
These parasites are white and flattened and locate themselves
usually beneath the lining membrane of the abdominal
cavity, but sometimes beneath the dorsal integument, where
they form flat blister-like swellings. When these are cut into,
the parasite is found in a convoluted mass, which when un-
ravelled may measure up to 10 inches in length. They do not
seem to invade any hollow or solid organ. They exist in large
numbers 1 in some specimens, even to the extent of making the
host appear gravid.

21 6(6)20

122 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

(b) Hematozoa: Clifford Dobell (‘Spolia Zeylanica,”’
December, 1910) has found no less than three blood parasites
infesting this species. These are (1) Trypanosoma tropidonoti.
This is an actively motile organism, which lives free in the
blood stream, and measures, including its flagellum, 30 to
40 mm. (1 to ldinches)in length. The body is sharply pointed
at both extremities and has a granular central trophic nucleus.
The undulating membrane ends anteriorly in the flagellum
and posteriorly in an oval body—the kinetic nucleus—which
is situated at or rather behind the trophic nucleus. It is not
known how these affect the health of their hosts. The snake
may have acquired an immunity, as in the case of wild African
ungulates, against the 7'rypanosoma bruce, or suffer in health
like ungulates infected with T'rypansoma evansi, the causative
agent of surra. (Fig. 26.)

.
Cc

Fic. 26.—A. Red blood cell.

B. Trypanosoma (after Dobell)—
(a) Trophic nucleus.
(b) Kinetic nucleus.
(c) Undulating membrane.
(d) Flagellum.

C. Spirocheta tropidonoti.

Parasites of Amphiesma stolata.

(2) Spirocheta tropidonotr.—This is a slender, corkscrew-like,
actively-motile organism, which lives free in the blood stream.
It measures about 15 mm. (13 of an inch) in length. Dobell
suggests that the snake may be infected through the agency
of a tick, to which I may adda mite (Microtrombidium). — It is

not known how this affects the snake’s health. (Vide Fig. 26.)

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 123

(3) Dobell also found a hemogregarine in the blood of
stolata, which he opines may prove to be the same organism
isolated by Billet in 1895 from a specimen of this snake from
Tonkin, and named by the latter Danilewskya stolati. Hemo-
gregarines invade the red blood corpuscles. (Vide Fig. 39.)

Lepidosis.—(a) Typical: As detailed under the genus.
Prezoculars : One. Temporal: One; about as long as the
supraocular. Swpralabials: Hight; the Ist only touching
the nasals, 3rd, 4th, and 5th touching the eye, 6th and 7th
the temporal (Fig. 27). Infralabials : Seven; the 5th, 6th, and

Fic, 27.—Amphiesma stolata. ,
(xX 2.)-

124 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

7th touching the posterior sublinguals, 7th broader than the
posterior sublinguals, but not so long, touching three scales
behind. Costals : Emarginate ; keeled in all rows, except
the last, for a variable extent anteriorly (Fig. 28). Apical

Fic. 28.—Scales of Amphiesma stolata to show apical
emargination.

facets in pairs are often obscure. Supracaudals : Keeled till
after the rows have reduced to fours. Ventrals : 120 to 161.
Anal: Divided. Subcaudals : 46 to 89 (Fig. 29).

Fic. 29.—Anal region of Amphiesma stolata.

(6) Anomalies.—Loreal: Sometimes duplicated ft.
Preoculars: Rarely two. Postoculars: Rarely two or four.
Temporals: Rarely two. Supralabials : Frequently two or

more are confluent, making six, with the 2nd and 3rd, 3rd only,

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 125

or 3rd and 4th touching the eye ; seven, with the 3rd and 4th
or 4th only touching the eye; rarely nine, with the 4th, 5th,
and 6th touching the eye. Anterior sublinguals : I have once
seen these divided.

Dentition.— Maxillary : Precranterian 20 to 22;
Cranterian 2; fully twice the size of the preceding.
Palatine: 15 to 17. Pterygoid: 25 to 31. Mandibular:
28 to 31.

- Distribution.—(a) General: The whole of Southern Conti-
nental Asia, from Sind in the west to China in the east.
It also occurs in the Island of Ceylon, probably the
Andamans, though I can find no record from this group,
the Nicobars, Hainan, Hong Kong, Formosa, and_ the
Philippines.

(b) Local: This species is a resident in the plains, but
wanders to an altitude in the hills, which varies with the
locality. Its relative abundance in various districts in the
plains and the altitude to which it wanders is interesting. In
the low-country in Ceylon Mr. Willey reports it the
commonest snake to be met with. Mr. E. E. Green tells
me that in Kandy (1,700 feet) it is quite common, and
Mr. Pearless says that at Badulla (2,500 feet) it is very
common, but at Hakgala (5,600 feet) I only got one specimen
out of 80 collected.

In Cannanore, out of 377 snakes collected, 2 in every 13
were of this species, but at Paralai in the Anamallays (3,500 to
4,000 feet) I got no specimen out of 91 sent mein 1909. Lam
told, however, by the Rev. E. M. Gombert, 8.J., that it is
common in the Palnai Hills (Shembaganur) between 5,000 to
6,000 feet.

In Fyzabad, out of 704 snakes, 2 in every 9 were stolata,
but in the Western Himalayas at Almora (5,300 feet) I got
only 2 in 38 snakes of all kinds in 1909. In the Bengal Plains
it is evidently very common, for I got 7 specimens out of 25
sent me from the Jalpaiguri District, but out of a collection of
778 made in the Eastern Himalayas below Darjeeling (1,500
to 7,000 feet) only one stolata came to bag, this being found

126 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

below 2,800 feet. The difference in the altitude to which it
wanders in this, compared with the western part of the same
mountain range, is certainly noteworthy.

In the plains of Assam, out of 615 snakes collected, 1 in
every 4 was a stolata, and in the Khasi Hills at Shillong
(4,900 feet) it was nearly as common, for among 264 snakes
collected, 1 in every 7 was this species.

In Lower Burma, out of 615 snakes, mostly collected about
Rangoon, | inevery 15 was a stolata. Ihave had a specimen
from Haka in the Chin Hills (6,500 feet).

Genus MACROPISTHODON.*

4

(Greek ‘‘makros”’ large, “‘ opisthe ’’ behind, ‘‘ odous”’

tooth.)

General Characters.—Small snakes, 3 feet or less. Head
subovate, snout short, with rounded canthus, and bluntly-
rounded extremity. Eye moderate, pupil round. Nostril
open, round, in the upper two-thirds of the suture between
the nasals. Neck evident. Body cylindrical, robust, attenuat-
ing from the middle in both directions. Belly rounded.
Tail short to moderate, from about one-ninth to four-ninths
the total length.

* I question whether this genus is entitled to rank as distinct from
Amphiesma, on the characters of the maxillary dentition, upon which
it appears to be entirely based. The only difference I can find in the
figures in Boulenger’s Catalogue (Vol. I., pp. 245 and 265) is that the
posterior maxillary teeth are relatively larger than in Amphiesma.
This may be true of some of the species of Amphiesma, but in others,
notably subminiata and himalayana, the posterior maxillary teeth
are relatively as long or almost as long as in Macropisthodon plumbi-
color. I find good grounds, however, in the lepidosis for separating
M. plumbicolor from Amphiesma and its nearest allied genera.

SNAKES OF CEYLON Ez

Identification.—There is no easy guide to the recognition
of the genus, but the following syndrome will best indicate
it. Costals about one-third as broad as long, and one-third
as broad as the ultimate row, in 21 to 27 rows at midbody ;
and seven supralabials.

Habits.—Terrestrial, diurnal. The diet is mainly of a
batrachian order. The best known species is oviparous.

Poison.—All are non-poisonous.

Lepidosis.— Rostral : Touches six shields, the rostro-nasal
sutures longest. IJnternasals: Two; the suture between them
equal to, or nearly equal to, that between the prefrontals,
equal to, or nearly equal to, the internaso-prefrontals.
Prefrontals : Two; the suture between them equal to, ornearly
equal to, the prefronto-frontals. Frontal: Touches six shields;
the fronto-supraocular sutures twice, or nearly twice, the
fronto-parietals. Nasals: Two. Loreal: One. Preoculars :
One or two. Postoculars: Three. Temporals: Two; the
lower as long as the supraoculars. Swupralabials : Seven or
eight ; twotouching theeye. IJnfralabials: Six or seven; the
last three touching the posterior sublinguals. Sublinguals:
Two pairs ; the posterior larger.

Costals—Longer than broad, rectiform, keeled, with
apical facets, apically emarginate. The vertebrals not
enlarged. Ultimate row enlarged, the breadth of its scales
as long as their length, about three times the breadth of the
vertebrals. In 19 to 27 rows at midbody. Swupracaudals :
In even rows. Ventrals: 120 to 162; rounded. Anal:
Divided. Subcaudals : 35 to 60 ; divided.

Dentition.— Mazillary : Diacranterian ; the precranterian
set isodont. Cranterian ; two; strongly compressed, and
much enlarged. Palatine: Isodont. Pterygoid: Isodont,
except last two or three, which are reduced. Mandibular :
Isodont, except last two or three, which are reduced.

Distribution.— Peninsular India, Ceylon, Malay Peninsula,
Islands of Malay Archipelago as far east as Java.

There are three species only, one of which occurs in Penin-
sular India and Ceylon, viz., plwmbicolor.

128 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

MACROPISTHODON PLUMBICOLOR Cantor.*

393

(Latin “ plumbum ” lead, “color” colour.)

The Green Keelback.

Sinhalese: ‘ Pala polonga’’ (herb snake) (Fletcher).
Tamil: “ Pacha naga ”’ (green cobra).

Synonymy.—T'ropidonotus plumbicolor, Xenodon wridis,
Trigonocephalus ellioti, Amphiesma brachyurum, Halys elliot.

History.—First described by Cantor in 1839.

General Characters.—A small snake, about 24 feet in length.
Head subovate. Snout short, with a rounded canthus, and
broadly-rounded extremity. Eye moderately large, iris
greenish-gold, especially evident at its pupillary margin, and
the pupil round. Nostril round, rather large, occupying the
upper two-thirds of the suture between the nasals. Neck
fairly evident. Body rather stout, cylindrical, thickest
about the middle, from which it attenuates anteriorly and
posteriorly. Belly rounded. Tail short, about one-seventh
to one-ninth the total length.

Identificaton.—The following syndrome will distinguish
it from all other Ceylon snakes. Costals in midbody 21 to
27, anal divided, and supralabials seven.

Colouration.—Adults are a uniform grass-green dorsally,
with a few irregularly-disposed black spots anteriorly, which
have a tendency to form transverse bars, and a few scattered
small whitish spots. The head is grass-green above, merging
to white on the upper lip. A black streak passes from the
eye to the gape. The chin, throat, and belly are uniform
white or buff, or the belly may be greenish or plumbeous to
blackish.

Young specimens are so different from adults that many do
not recognize them. They have a well-defined black chevron
on the nape, with the angle pointed forwards. Behind
this is a broad gorget of bright yellow or orange (dirty whitish
in spirit specimens), bordered Ee with black.

* The specimen Submitted to Cantor must have been an old one
preserved in poor spirit to have acquired a colour so different from
that observed in life, and so inappropriate a name.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 129

The green bright though it is, is not-due to green pigment.
A yellow pigment overlies the scales like a varnish. This
is soluble in spirit, to which it imparts its colour, leaving
the specimen first bluish, then blue, and finally plumbeous.
Boiling the skin rapidly dissolves out the yellow pigment,
and reveals the underlying blue of the scales. Some speci-
mens are darker than others, and when the yellow pigment
is removed acquire a plumbeous hue. The skin is slate-
coloured or dun, spotted and mottled with whitish, except
in the flanks, where it is white. Short white lines arranged
so as to form chevrons pointed forwards are seen in the skin
where it is dun. There is also a series of white ring-like
spots in the skin, on either side of the 9th and 10th costal
rows above the ventrals, a feature I have not observed in
any other snake.

Habits.—(a) Haunis: Its colouration is protective, for
it frequents grass and low terrestrial vegetation. It does not
usually clamber into trees and bushes, but one sent to me
from Coorg was reported found on a coffee branch. It very
frequently strays into bungalows, and I have had many sent
to me with a history of its incursion into habitations. Miss
Montgomery found one at Broach in an empty soda water
bottle in damp straw in her godown.

_ (b) Disposition: It is a singularly gentle and inoffensive
snake. When provoked I have never seen it bite, nor when
it has been picked up in its native haunts.

(c) Posture of Menace: When encountered and alarmed,
it erects its forebody and flattens the neck like a cobra to
a remarkable degree, and it is,no doubt, this attitude which
has gained for it the name of green cobra, which some estate
coolies call it in India. Some specimens are very timid and
crouch, flattening the whole body to the vent on to the
ground.

(d) Nocturnal or Diurnal: It is frequently encountered in
the daytime in grass and low scrub jungle, and appears to
be loath to quit such an environment by day. I have fre-

quently, however, encountered it at night crossing roads or
im open spaces.

29 | 6(6)20

130 SNAKES OF CEYLON,

(e) Sloughing: Mr. D’Abreu tells me that one in captivity
at Nagpur sloughed five times during four months, and
another three times in the same period.

(f) Progression : It is an active snake that can move quite
expeditiously if so inclined.

(g) Aistivation: The green keelback appears to disappear
during the drought, and like frogs and some other snakes,
notably Nerodia piscator and. Amphiesma stolata, suddenly
appears with the advent of the rains.

Food.—Its staple food consists of the common Indian toad,
Bufo melanostictus. A large number of the 106 specimens
collected for me in the Nilgiri Hills in 1917 had recently fed,
and almost invariably this toad had furnished the meal.
I have noted the partiality to this diet also in Bangalore
specimens. In many cases the snake is enormously distended.
A specimen sent to me measuring 3 inches in girth was dis-
tended to 5+ inches, and the head of the ingested toad was
fully twice the transverse diameter of the snake.

I have known frogs taken on three occasions, always
varieties of Jxalus. Fletcher mentions a captive specimen
in Ceylon eating three frogs, and at another time
a lizard of the Genus Calotes. Mr. Gray told me he once
knew one eat a snake.

Breeding.—(a) The Sexes: Of39 sexed by me inthe Nilgiris,
26 were males and 13 females. Females appear to attain
a greater length than males.

(6) Method of Reproduction: Eggs are produced.

(c) Season: This evidently covers a considerable part of
the year. A specimen I had in captivity at Bangalore that
died on February 16 had ovarian follicles obviously fertilized.
Abercromby mentions having had egg-bound Bees in
Ceylon in May and the beginning of June.

Mr. D’Abreu tells me that one in captivity at Nagpur
deposited six eggs on March 18 and a seventh on April 1.
Another specimen laid three eggs on March 20, and thirteen
more on the following day.

Miss Montgomery wrote to me of a brood, evidently just
hatched, that was found in a disused water vessel at Broach
at the end of March or beginning of April.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 131

I have had hatchlings varying from 136 to 168 mm. (5%
and 6? inches in length in the months of July, August, and
September, and other specimens in September from 185 to
255 mm. (7+ to 10 inches), showing that the longest had
hatched out some months earlier.

(d) Period of Gestation: Not accurately known, but Mr.
D’Abreu’s second specimen alluded to above was acquired
on December 26, so that at least eighty-five days had elapsed
since the act of mating.

(e) Period of Incubation: Not known.

(f) The Eggs: Mr. D’Abreu says the eggs were oval, and
equally domed at both ends. One egg from the first clutch
measured 36 by 21 mm. (1°45 by °69 inch). An egg from
the second clutch measured 25 by 22 mm. (1 by °7 inch).

Growth.—(a) The Hatchlings: I have had many hatchlings
between 136 and 168 mm. (5% to 62 inches). One of
Miss Montgomery’s brood was reported to be 187 mm. (73
inches) long.

I found three follicles fertilized in one specimen and
twelve in another. Mr. D’Abreu’s two clutches numbered
seven and sixteen. Miss Montgomery’s hatched brood
numbered thirty-one.

(b) Harly Infe: The young appear to double their length
in the first year of life. I cannot follow the subsequent
growth from my records.

(c) Maturity: My smallest gravid female measured 450
mm. (1 foot 53 inches), a length suggesting that her age was
about eighteen months to two years.

(d) Maximum Length : My largest male record is 750 mm.
(2 feet 53 inches). My largest female record is 890 mm.
(2 feet 11 inches). I have had several other females over
760 mm. (2 feet 6 inches). Colonel Light has recorded one
940 mm. (3 feet 1 inch).

Parasites.—(a) Hctozoa: Two young examples in the Nil-
giri Hills were infested with many small scarlet mites, which
were pronounced species of Microtrombidia by Professor
Hirst. These are extremely like the little mite called the
harvest bug in England (M. holosericeus).

132 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

' Lepidosis.—(a) Typical—Rostral: Nearly twice as_ broad
as high, in contact with six shields; the rostro-nasal sutures
longest (Fig.30). Internasals: Two; the suture between them

Fic. 30.—Macropisthodon plumbicolor (life size).

two-thirds to subequal to that between the preefrontals ; three-
fourthsto subequal to the internaso-prefrontals. Prefrontals >
Two; the suture between them subequal to, or rather less than
the prefronto-frontals ; in contact with internasal, postnasal,
loreal, preocular, and supraocular. Frontal : Touches six

SNAKES OF CEYLON. bss

shields ; the fronto-supraocular sutures less than twice the
fronto-parietals. Swpraoculars: As long as the frontal ; and
about half the breadth of the frontal along a line connecting
the centres of the eyes. Nasals : Two; the nostril equally
in both, occupying the upper two-thirds of the suture.
Loreal: One ; often confluent with the lower preocular ;
when not,it is much shorter than the nasals. Preoculars :
Two. Postoculars: Three. Temporals: Two; the lower
well developed, and as long as the supraoculars. Swupralabials :
Seven ; the Ist and 2nd touching the nasals, the 3rd and 4th
the eye, and the 5th and 6th the lowertemporal. Sublinguals:
Two pairs; the posterior longer, and in contact with the 5th,
6th, and 7th infralabials. Infralabials: Seven; the 7th
touching three scales behind ; twice as broad as the posterior
sublinguals, but not so Jong.

Costals : Much longer than broad, rectiform, strongly
keeled, except in the ultimate row for a variable distance ;
apically emarginate usually (sometimes not). Apical facets
in pairs, usually very obscure. Vertebrals not enlarged, the
breadth of its scales two-fifths to one-third their length, two-
fifths to one-third those of the ultimate row. Ultimate row
enlarged, the breadth of its scales equal to their length. The
rows number from 21 to 27 in midbody, are usually two less
two heads-lengths behind the head, and usually six (sometimes
eight) less two heads-lengths before the vent. The increase
in rows anteriorly is due to the development of a row on each
side of the vertebral. The decrease in rows is brought about
by the absorption of the row next to the vertebral once, and
either the 4th, 5th, or 6th row from the ventrals at the other
steps. Supracaudals: In even rows, all keeled to the tail tip.
Ventrals: 144 to 163; rounded. Anal: Divided. Sub-
caudals : 34 to 50 ; divided.

(b) Anomalies.—The loreal is frequently confluent with
the lower preocular. There are sometimes only two, some-
times four postoculars. The infralabials are sometimes
only six, and then the 4th, 5th, and 6th touch the posterior
sublinguals.

Dentition.—From two skulls in my collection. Maxillary :
Precranterian 12. Cranterian 2; strongly compressed,

134 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

and three or nearly three times the length of the preceding.
Palatine: 7. Pterygoid: 12 to 14. Mandibular: 16 to 19.
(Fig. 31.)

Kie. 31.—Maxilla of Macropisthodon plumbicolor.

Distribution.—(a) General : Ceylon and Peninsular India.
Its northern boundary in India is roughly the 30th parallel,
and its western and eastern limits roughly the 70th and 85th
meridians.

(6) Local: It is chiefly an up-country snake, which reaches
an altitude above 6,000 feet. It favours an altitude between
about 2,000 and 6,000 feet, and is quite a common snake
within this belt. Some stragglers reach the plains, but
nearly always in the near vicinity of hills. In Ceylon Fer-
guson records it from Palliekellie; Haly from Balangoda,
Badulla,and the Northern Province ; Pearless from Moragalla ;
Abercromby from Anuradhapura. Mr. Drummond-Hay
tells me it is common on the Uva patanas between about |
3,000 and 4,000 feet, but he has never obtained it elsewhere.

Genus HELICOPS.

(Greek “ helis” rolling ; and “ ops” eye.)

General Characters.—For Indian species. Smallish snakes
growing to about 24 feet. Head moderate in length, little.
depressed. Snout moderate, narrowing slightly, rounded
terminally, with little indication of acanthus. Eye moderate,
with round pupil. Nostril slit-like, placed rather high on the

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 135

muzzle. Body cylindrical, rather short, robust, rough.
Belly rounded. Tail moderately long.
_ Identification.—The scale rows 19 two heads-lengths behind
the head, 19 in midbody, and 17 two heads-lengths before the
vent, and a single internasal will establish the genus.

Habits.—Semiaquatic, diurnal.

Food.—Chiefly batrachian.

Breeding.—Oviparous.

Poison.—Non-poisonous.

Lepidosis.—As detailed under the species schistosus.

Dentition—For Indian species. Mazillary: Syncran-
terian, anododont, coryphodont. Palatine: Anododont,
isodont. Pterygoid : Anododont, isodont. Mandibular :
Anododont, feebly kumatodont.

Distribution.— America, Tropical Africa, South-east Asia.

Eleven species have been described, nine of which are
American, one African, and one occurs in India, including
Ceylon, viz., schistosus.

HELICOPS SCHISTOSUS Daudin.

(Latin “ schistosus” slaty. The name was suggested by
the colour shown in Russell’s plate.)

The Olivaceous Keelback.

Synonmy.—Coluber schistosus, Pseudoeryx schistosus, Tropi-
donotus dimidiatus, T. schistosus, T. mestus, T. surgens,
Tropidophis schistosus, Atretium schistosum.

History.—Introduced to scientific notice by Russell in 1801,
who figured it in Plate IV. of his second volume. Christened
by Daudin in 1803.

General Characters,—A smallish snake, growing to about 23
feet. The head is moderate, snout short, subacute, and

136 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

without canthus, and the neck fairly evident. The eye is
moderate, with a round pupil. The nostril is small, slit-like,
and placed rather high, approximating to the condition seen
in the true fresh-water snakes (Homalopsinge). The body is
fairly robust, cylindrical, and rough from the keeled scales.
It attenuates somewhat anteriorly and posteriorly. The
belly is rounded. The tail is longish, being about one-fourth
to one-third the total length.

Identification.—The costals in 19 rows anteriorly to behind
midbody, 17 behind, and the single internasal shield will
distinguish this from all other Ceylon snakes. It bears a close
superficial likeness to Gerard’s water snake (Gerardia prevosti-
ana).

Colouration.—(a) Variety typica : Dorsally this snake is a
uniform deep olive-green in life, fading in spirit to olive-
brown. The under parts are uniform yellow of varying
intensity in different specimens, and this is sometimes suffused ~
with a pinkish or lilac tinge in the flanks. The two colours are
abruptly demarcated on the penultimate row of costals. The
head is olive-green above, merging to yellow, or pinkish on the
lips. Gunther says the young have a blackish streak from the
eye continued on to the forepart of the body.

In Southern India the specimens exhibit a narrow reddish
line along the confines of the 5th and 6th rows above the
ventrals, where the scale rows are 19, and the 4th and 5th where
17. This line ceases at the vent, and is more conspicuous in
males than females.

(b) Variety anderson: In this the internasal shields are
two in number, and the Ist and 2nd supralabial shields touch
the nasal. It is peculiar to Yunnan. I have examined three
specimens in the Indian Museum, which conform to the
characters and colouration of variety typica, ras in the
particulars specified above. |

Habits.—(a) Haunts: The olivaceous keelback exhibits a
strong taste for an aquatic environment,and the position and
character of its nostrils conforming to the type seen in the
true fresh-water snakes (Homalopsine) in itself proclaims the
snake a water snake by habit. In Fyzabad I got no specimen

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 137

during nineteen months’ residence, but when the river over-
flowed its banks and flooded the country for miles in August,
1906, I had eight specimens brought to me in fourteen days,
all from the inundated area. It by no means haunts rivers
to the exclusion of tanks and similar collections of water, nor
does it show a greater liking for flowing water,forin Bangalore,
where it was very common, it was found haunting the small
collections of water in the Lal Bagh and other similar pools
elsewhere. The snake men there denfed that it was a water
snake, and said they never found it actually in the water, but
at the edge of the pools, where the dank soil favoured a
luxuriant growth. ‘They also frequently encountered it in
the foliage and lying along the stems of the bamboo brush near
the water. In the rains, I think it leaves the vicinity of
pools and wanders further afield, there being abundant
moisture in the grass and weeds that spring upeverywhere. I
have met with it in the grass at some distance from water
during the monsoon, and remember capturing one which
crossed the pitch at Berhampur, while a cricket match was in,
progress. Ferguson remarks that one he had in captivity in
Trivandrum was never seen to enter the chatty of water
provided for it, and Mr. Ingleby mentions that a caged
specimen he had invariably buried itself in the sand at the
bottom of its cage with nothing but the extremity of its head
and its eyes sticking out.

(b) Disposition: Though Cantor remarks that the species
is very fierce, and Ferguson quotes Ingleby’s words to the
same effect, [ have invariably found it very much the reverse ;
in fact, I know of no Indian snake with a more inoffensive
nature and nicer manners. I am not courageous where
snakes are concerned, and object strongly to being bitten
even by species that I know to be harmless, so I am always
chary of handling them, but this species, like the buff-striped
keelback (Amphiesma stolata), is so remarkably gentle
that I pick it up fearlessly, and have never been struck
at or bitten. Even the two I had conjoined in Bangalore
permitted my handling them and making close investigation,
without resenting the interference further than to try and
elude my grasp.

23 6(6)20

138 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

(c) Nocturnal or Diurnal: It is completely diurnal in
habit.

(d) Progression: It is a vivacious little reptile, active in
movement, and as alert as any snake I know. When alarmed
it raises the forebody well off the ground and flattens the neck
like the cobra, but to a much less degree. It is this posture
which, I think, has misled some who have pronounced it
fierce. :

(e) Aistivation : It appears to me to retire during the hot
weather, and is little, if at all, in evidence until the monsoon
breaks and vegetation springs up afresh.

Food.—Specimens I had in captivity fed on frogs,and Mr.
Ingleby found the frogs that he offered were taker. Gunther
includes fishes in its dietary. I cannot recall ever having got
a specimen that had recently fed in a state of liberty.

Breeding.—(a) The Sexes: As far as I can judge from my
notes, the sexes in Fyzabad and Bangalore are evenly balanced.
Females attain a considerably greater length than males, but

males have relatively much longer tails, and, therefore, more

numerous subcaudal shields. The males of the South Indian
variety appear to have a brighter red dorsal line,and females
appear to be able to flatten themselves more noticeably. The
male claspers are cylindrical, not bifid, and beset from base
to apex with small falciform processes.

(6) The Act of Mating: A pair were brought to me in
Bangalore in coitu. These were observed united, reclining on
a bamboo stem 8 or 10 feet above the ground. On the evening
of the 26th an attempt was made to capture them, but not
pressed, as the snake men feared they would not earn their
reward of Rs. 5 if they separated. They were successfully
captured next morning, and brought to me still united, and
I had them under observation for some time. As far as I
know, they did not disengage for at least 25} hours. During
this time I repeatedly examined them, and found the left
clasper of the male engaged with the right orifice of the
female. The ventral apposition of the two was so limited
that nobody seeing them together would have suspected that
they were coupled. They each lay in sinuous courses, without
their bodies or their tails being enwreathed, and there was

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 139

nothing demonstrative in their attachment as far as I could
see at any time. Unfortunately the union was unfruitful,
due, I believe, to my moving north to the United Provinces
immediately after. The cold weather so far depressed the
natural vigour of a Macropisthodon plumbicolor I also took
from Bangalore with me, that a frog it swallowed remained
undigested for some weeks, and was subsequently disgorged,
and when the snake died five months and six days subse quently
to its capture, it was found to be gravid with the impregnated
follicles, but little enlarged, and much in the same state as the
impregnated follicles of the schistosus at death.

(c) Method of Reproduction: The species is known to be
oviparous from a cluster of eggs which Tennent* refers to,
which was found near a river in Ceylon, and from which
twenty young snakes subsequently emerged. Abercromby
confirms this, and I can further support this testimony.

(d) Season: The mating season appears to be during the
rains from the single dated observation available, which came
under my own notice. None of the four adult females I had
in Fyzabad were gravid, which points to the deposition of
eggs being already accomplished before August, unless mating
had up till then not been in progress. The latter possibility
is suggested by the pair found in copula in Bangalore, and
brought to me on August 27. Abercromby has reported a
captive specimen in Ceylon Jaying eggs on April 26. I had
two gravid females sent me from Bangalore with eggs in an
advanced state of development. It is almost certain these
werecapturedin November. Ihadaspecimen from Bangalore
killed on December 9, 1919, with eggs in an advanced state
of development. On January 1, 1920, one in my vivarium
deposited eggs in Bangalore.

(e) Period of Gestation: Not known.

({) Period of Incubation: Not known.

(9) Number in Clutch: Thad a gravid specimen from Ceyloti
with 10 eggs. My impregnated female from Bangalore
contained 18 fertilized follicles, and three other egg-boynd

* Natural History of Ceylon, p. 308.

140 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

females from Bangalore contained respectively 20, 21, and
25 eggs. Myspecimen deposited 18 eggs; and Abercromby’s
specimen laid 32 eggs. In the latter case 13 were laid, and
the dam after death was found to contain 19 more.

(h) The Eggs: Tennent and Abercromby failed to give
any information concerning the physical characters of the
eggs. The eggs deposited in my vivarium were white, soft,
the consistency of a grape, the poles equally domed, and the
length 300 to 305 mm. (about 1 inch).

Growth.—(a) The Hatchling: Tennent does not enlighten
us on this point. My smallest specimens, which appeared to
me hatchlings, measured 167 and 174 mm. (63 and 6% inches),
both from Ceylon, with no dates of capture given.

(b) Early Life: From rather meagre records at my disposal
it appears that it grows about 6 to 7 inches a year, so that at
the end of the first year of life it would be about 13 to 14
inches, at the end of the second about 19 to 20, and the end of
third about 25 to 26 inches.

(c) Maturity: My smallest gravid specimen measured 717
mm. (2 feet 44 inches).

(d) Maximum Length: My largest specimen was 775 mm.
(2 feet 64 inches) long.

Lepidosis.— Rostral : Touches five shields ; the rostro-nasal
sutures longer than the rostro-internasals, and the rostro-
labials. Internasal: One. Prefrontals: A pair ; the suture
between them subequal to, or rather longer than, the
preefronto-frontal ; touching the internasal, nasal, loreal,
preocular, and supraocular. Frontal: Touches six shields;
the fronto-supraocular sutures nearly twice the fronto-
parietals. Swpraoculars: As long as the frontal, and about
half to two-thirds the breadth of the frontal. Nasal : Semi-
divided, a suture passing from the nostril to the first labial.
Loreal: One; rather shorter than the nasals. Preocular:
One, not nearly touching the frontal. Postoculars : Three.
Temporals : Two; the lower about as long as the supra-
oculars. Supralabials: Hight; the 1st only touching the
nasal, 3rd and 4th the eye, and the 5th, 6th, and 7th the lower
temporal. Sublinguals: Two pairs; the posterior rather
longer than the anterior, divergent. touching the 4th, 5th, and

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 141

6th infralabials. Infralabials : Six; the 5th and 6th sub-
equal ; 6th broader than the posterior sublinguals, but much
shorter than them ; touching three scales behind. (Fig. 32.)

Fic. 32.—Helicops schistosus.
(Life size.)

Costals : Longer than broad, rectiform, apically emarginate,
keeled, except in the last two or three rows at midbody.
Vertebrals not enlarged, the breadth of the scales about two-
thirds their length, and about half that of the ultimate row.
Last seven rows progressively enlarging. Ultimate broadest,
the breadth of its scales subequal to or rather greater than

their length. In 19 rows to behind midbody, where they

142 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

reduce to 17 by an absorption of the 4th row from the
ventrals. Ventrals: 129 to 157; rounded. Anal: Divided.
Supracaudals : In even rows, keeled as far as the fours.
Subcaudals : 55 to 85; divided.

(6b) Anomalies.—Internasals : Divided in Variety anderson ;
in some Variety typica there are three, one anterior and two
posterior. Prefrontals: Rarely three,in a transverse series.
In Variety andersoni three or four. Postoculars: Rarely two.
Supralabials: Rarely seven. Sometimes nine, with the 4th,
5th, and 6th touching the eye. Infralabials: The 5th, 6th,
and 7th sometimes touch the posterior sublinguals. Ventrals :
I have seen the last divided like the anal.

Dentition.—F rom three skulls in my collection. Mazillary -
19 to 24. Palatine: 11 to13. Pterygoid: 17to20. Mandr-
bular: 20 to 23.

Distribution.—(a) General: Peninsular India from
about the 15th parallel southwards, the Coromandel Coast,
and the Ganges basin, as far east as Calcutta. Yunnan,
Ceylon. .

(6) Local: Itisa moderately common snake in the plains of
India, and ascends to a moderate height in the hills. It is a
common snake at Bangalore (3,000 feet). In Ceylon Haly
records it from Kandy and Balangoda. I have seen speci-
mens from Kandy, and Mr. Drummond-Hay tells me it

was common at Punagalla, Yatiyantota District, up to about
3,000 feet.

Genus HAPLOCERCUS.

(Greek “‘ haplos ”’ single, and “ kerkos ”’ tail; refers to
the subcaudal shields, which are undivided.)

General Characters.—As detailed under the species.
Lepidosis.—As detailed under the species.
Distribution.—The genus is peculiar to Ceylon.

Only one species is known, viz., ceylonensis.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 143

HAPLOCERCUS CEYLONENSIS Gunther.

(Latin implying an inhabitant of Ceylon.)

Synonymy.—Aspidura carinata, A. ceylonensis.

General Characters.—A small snake, growing to about 18
inches. Head moderately depressed. Snout moderately
long, broadly-rounded terminally, without any canthus.
Eye moderate, with round pupil. Nostril in the upper half of
the suture dividing the nasals. Neck not at all contracted.
Body long, cylindrical, slender, of even calibre throughout.
Belly rounded. Tail short, about one-seventh the total
length.

Identification. Bears a close superficial resemblance to
Callophis trimaculatus. The costals in 17 rows in the whole
length of the body, entire subcaudals, and 7 supralabials
will suffice to identify the species.

Colouration.—Dorsally brown, with a blackish vertebral
line. A lateral series of small blackish spots. There is an
oblique yellowish, black-edged stripe on each side of the neck
in young specimens, which may disappear withage. Ventrally
uniform yellowish.

Habits.—(a) Haunts: Lives for the most part beneath the
soil. Mr. Drummond-Hay tells me many were unearthed
when cleaning out the silt from drains in company with large
number of Rhinophis blythi and occasional specimens of
Aspidura copet. Mr. Green says he has noticed them in the
evening sometimes crawling about the roads.

Food.—I opened up many and found earthworms in the
stomach, and liquid mud in the intestines.

Breeding.—(a) The Sexes: Of 38 in Mr. Drummond-Hay’s
eollection, 18 were males and 20 females. Females appear
to grow longer than males, and males have rather longer
tails.

144 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

(b) Method of Reproduction: I examined several egg-bound
females. The eggs, from their size and character, leave no
doubt that the species is oviparous.

(c) Season: This is not known, as no dates were
available.

(d) The Eggs: In three specimens I found only two eggs,
and in another three. Those most advanced were extremely
elongate, measuring 310 by 5 mm. (13; by 4 of aninch). No
trace of an embryo could be discovered.

Growth.—(a) The Hatchling: The smallest specimens I
have measured were 137 and 140 mm. (54 and 52 inches), but
as the navel appeared well closed, it is probable that the young
when hatched are even smaller. |

(6) Early Infe: Want of dates make it impossible to follow
the rate of growth.

(c) Maturity: The smallest of four egg-bound females
measured 370 mm. (143 inches).

(d) Maximum Length: The longest male was 342 mm.
(134 inches), six females exceeded 355 mm. (14 inches), the
longest being 417 mm. (164 inches), and 450 mm. (173
inches).

Lepidosis.—(a) T'ypical—Rostral : Touches three shields,
owing to the confluence of the nasal and Ist labial. Jnter-
nasals: One. Prefrontals: A pair; the suture between
them rather longer than the prefronto-frontal; touching the
internasal, nasal, 2nd and 3rd labials, przeocular, and supra-
ocular. Frontal: Touches six shields; the fronto-supra-
ocular sutures subequal to the fronto-parietals. Swpra-
oculars : Length about three-fourths the frontal, breadth
about three-fifths the frontal along a line connecting the
centres of the eyes. Parietals: Much longer than the
frontal. Nasals: Two ; the anterior confluent with the Ist
labial. Loreal: Absent. Preocular : One, not reaching the
frontal. Postoculars: Two. Temporal: One, longer than
the supraocular. Supralabials : Seven ; 1st and 2nd touching
the nasal, 3rd and 4th or the 4th only the eye, 5th and 6th the
_ temporal; last longest. Sublinguals: Two pairs; the anterior
twice as long as the posterior ; posterior touching the 4th

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 145

infralabial. Infralabials : Four ; 4th largest, longer than the
posterior sublinguals, and about as broad, touching two scales
behind. (Fig. 33.)

Fic, 33.—Haplocercus ceylonensis.

(X 23.) °

Costals: At midbody. Longer than broad, rectiform
keeled, except the last two or three rows. Vertebrals not
enlarged, the breadth of the scales half their length, and half
the ultimate row. Last five rows progressively increasing in
breadth. Ultimate row broadest, its scales about as broad as
long. In17rowsin the whole bodylength. Ventrals: 177 to
217; rounded. Anal: Entire. Supracaudals : In odd rows,
keeled to the tip of the tail. Subcaudals: 37 to 56; entire.

(b) Anomalies: The supralabials are sometimes six.

Dentition.—From two skulls in my collection. Mazillary :
11 to 12. Palatine: 9 to 10. Pterygoid ; 19 to 21, Man-
dibular : 10 to 12.

24 | 6(6)20

146 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Distribution.—(a) General: Peculiar to Ceylon.

(6) Local: Mr. Drummond-Hay found it abundant at
Hopewell estate, Balangoda district, between about 3,500
and 4,200 feet. Has been recorded from Pundaloya, about
4,000 feet, and Ramboda. Apparently an up-country
species.

Genus LYCODON.

(Greek “ lukos”’ wolf, and “‘odous” tooth. There is an
enlarged tooth near the front of both maxilla and
mandible, reminding one of the canine teeth
in wolves, foxes, and dogs.)

General Characters.—All these species are small snakes,
rarely exceeding 2 feet in length. Body cylindrical, rather
slender, elongate, the calibre reducing slightly posteriorly.
Belly angulate or rounded. Neck slightly evident. Head
rather depressed. Snout broadly rounded, without canthus.
Eye moderate, and entirely black in life, so that the pupil,
which is vertical in shape, is not discernible. Nostril
moderate, occupying the whole depth of the suture between
the nasals. Tail shortish, being about one-quarter to one-
sixth the total length.

Identification.—The costals in 17 rows anteriorly, 17 at
midbody, and 15 posteriorly, and three labials touching the
eye will suffice to indicate the genus.

Habits.—Terrestrial, nocturnal, active, fierce.

Food.—Small mammals, lizards.

Breeding.—Oviparous.

Poison.—Non-poisonous.

Lepidosis (for Indian Species).—Rostral: Touches six
shields. IJnternasals: A pair. Prefrontals: A pair, Nasals:
Divided. JLoreals: One or two. Preocular. One. Posto-
culars: Two. Temporals: Two. Supralabials: Eight or
nine, three touching the eye. Sublinguals: Two pairs,
subequal, or the posterior longer.

Costals: About as broad as long, or a little longer than
broad, rectiform, with or without keels, with single apical

SNAKES OF CEYLON: j47

pits. Vertebrals not enlarged. Ultimate row enlarged.
Venirals ; Rounded or angulate. Anal: Entire or divided.
Subcaudals : Divided.

Dentition— Vazillary: Diacranterian, dinododont, ani-
sodont. Palatine: Anododont, isodont. Péterygoid : Ano-
dodont, isodont, except for the last four or five, which reduce
in length. Mandibular : Oinododont, anisodont.

Distribution.—Southern Asia.

Twelve species have been described, of which two occur in
Ceylon, viz., striatus, and aulicus.

LYCODON STRIATUS Shaw.

(Latin “striatus ’’ striped.)

Shaw’s Wolfsnake.

Tamil: “ utha surita ’ (I am informed by Mr. Green).

Synonymy.—Coluber striatus, C. malignus, C. galathea,
Lycodon malignus, L. galathea, L. naper, L. aulicus.

History.—First referred to by Russell in 1796, who showed
two illustrations in his first volume (Plates X VI. and XX V1.).
Christened by Shaw in 1802.

General Characters.—A small snake, less than 18 inches in
length. Head small, snout much depressed, and broadly
rounded. Neck but little evident. Eye moderate. The
nostril occupies the whole depth of the suture between the
nasals. Body cylindrical, rather slender,smooth, attenuating
very slightly posteriorly. Scales glossy. Belly rounded.
Tail short, being about one-fifth to one-sixth the total length.

Identification.—The costals two heads-lengths behind the
head 17, at midbody 17, and two heads-lengths before the vent
15 ; the loreal touching the internasal ; and ventrals rounded,
not angulate, should make its identification an easy matter.
It shows a close superficial resemblance to Bungarus cxruleus,
and the other Ceylon species of this genus. Aulicus and
striatus are frequently confused, and I have found many in
various Museums wrongly identified. The easiest mistake to
make is in counting the supralabials. The last of the series is
so small and scale-like that it is frequently not included in the

148 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

count. ‘To prevent this open the mouth and count to the end
of the gape. I have purposely avoided reference to these
shields in the above features of identification.

Colouration.—Dorsally lustrous dark brown or black, with
from 1] to 18 white or yellow crossbars on the body. These
bars are more distant anteriorly, and expand in the flanks to
include deltoid islets of the ground colour. They are more
broken, and less regular on the tail. The head is dark brown
or black, except the upper lip, which is white. The belly is
pearly-white and unspotted. In Ceylon specimens the ground
colour is dark brown, and the crossbars are frequently sullied
with pale brownish.

Habits.—(a) Haunts : [have known this snake in the house,
like its commoner ally aulicus. One in Fyzabad came into
the Cantonment Hospital, and another was encountered in the
Officers’ Mess of the 85th K.S.L.I. Three or four were un-
earthed at different times during digging operations. It hides
during the daytime in holes in the ground, heaps of débris,
crevices of brickwork, stacks of wood, or road metal, &c.

(6) Disposition: All the specimens I have seen alive
exhibited a very timid disposition.. I never knew one strike, '
no matter what the provocation. Usually it made no en-
deavour to escape, but coiled itself, and, if touched or teased,
hid its head beneath its coils, looking out cautiously from time
to time to see if the danger apprehended had disappeared. It
sometimes flattens itself to the ground in a remarkable way.

(c) Nocturnal or Diurnal: Like the common wolfsnake, it
is decidedly nocturnal. I met with two at different times. at
night on the road between the mess and my house at Berham-
pore (Orissa), and on both occasions there was no endeavour
to retire from the situation, no attempt at menace. Except
the specimens encountered while digging, Aah all were killed
at night.

(d) Progression: I have never seen one see modi
It does not seem to indulge in the clambering efforts os its
closely allied relative aulicus.

Food.—The few that have come into my hands that had
recently fed contained skinks of the Genus Mabuia. One of
Mr. Green’s examples had swallowed a skink (Mabuia carinata).

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 149

Breeding.—(a) The Sexes: I can discover no external
differences in the sexes. After mating they are found in
company even after the deposition of the eggs. |

_(b) Method of Reproduction: The species is known to be
oviparous. Ihave had the eggs brought to me with the mother
in attendance. .

(c) Season: Ihave known a gravid female with small eggs
in August, and another in the same month with large eggs
seemingly fit for discharge. Mr. Green acquired a gravid
specimen in August. Eggs that had been deposited were
brought to me also in August.

(d) Period of Gestation : Not known.

(e) Period of Incubation: Not known.

(f) The Eggs: It is not a prolific snake. The eggs vary
from two to four. They are white, soft-shelled, very large
for the size of the snake, and very elongate, with the poles
equally domed. They vary from 25 to 30 mm. (1 to 14
inches) in length, and are about 10 to 12 mm. in breadth
(2 of an inch).

Growth.—(a) Length of Hatchling: Not known.

(0), Maturity: My smallest gravid female taped 276 mm.
(102 inches).

(c) Maximum Length: Boulenger gives this as 430 mm.
(nearly 1 foot 5 inches). My largest specimen was 394 mm.
(1 foot 34 inches).

Lepidosis.—(a) T'ypical—Rostral : The rostro-nasal sutures
longer than the rostro-internasal, about twice the rostro- :
labials. Internasals : The suture between them half to two-
thirds, that between the prefrontals, subequal to or rather
longer than the internaso-prefrontals. Prefrontals : Touch-
ing the internasal, loreal, preocular,supraocular, and frontal,
the suture between them longer than the prefronto-frontal.
Frontal: The fronto-supraocular sutures subequal to the
fronto-parietals. Supraoculars: Length three-fourths the
frontal ; breadth about half the frontal, along a line connecting
the centres of the eyes. Nasals: Anterior deeper. Loreal :
One; longer than the nasals; touching the internasal.
Preocular : Not nearly touching the frontal. Tem~porals :
Lower, half the length of the supraocular. Swpralabials : Eight,

150 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

the Ist and 2nd touching the nasals, 3rd, 4th, and 5th
the eye, and 6th and 7th the lower temporals. Sublinguals :
Pairs subequal, the posterior touching the 5th and 6th infra-
labials. Infralabials : Six; the 6th nearly as long as the
posterior sublinguals, and nearly twice as broad as those
shields, touching three scales behind.

Costals : Smooth. Vertebrals about as broad as long,
four-fifths that of the ultimate row. Ultimate row slightly
enlarged, about as broad as long. Two heads-lengths behind
the head 17, in midbody 17, two heads-lengths before the vent
15. The rows reduce to 15 shortly behind midbody by the
absorption of the third row from the ventrals. Ventrals :
144 to 189; not angulate (Ceylon specimens 144 to 159).
Anal: Divided. Subcaudals: 34 to 66 (Ceylon specimens
34 to 42) ; divided.

(6) Anomalies.—Loreal : Rarely divided into an anterior,
and posterior part. Temporal: Rarely one. Supralabials :
Sometimes two are confluent to make seven, or there may be a
supernumerary shield to make nine. In the former case the
3rd and 4th only touch the eye. In the latter the 3rd, 4th.
5th, and 6th rarely touch the eye. Anal: Rarely entire.

Dentition.— From one skull in my collection. Maxillary:
Prenodal 5; the first three progressively increasing in length,
the next two subequal, and about twice the length of the third.
Postnodal 4. Cranterian 2; subequal, and about twice
the length of the preceding. Palatine: 11. Pterygoid: 12 (2).
Mandibular : Prenodal 5; the first three progressively
increasing in length, the last two subequal, and about twice the
length of the third. Postnodal 12 to 13; small and subequal.

Distribution.—(a) General: Peninsular India to _ the
Himalayas. On the north-west it extends through the
Punjab, Sind, Baluchistan,and Persia to Transcaspia. To the
north-east it extends to about the longitude of Calcutta.

{b) Local: It frequents the plains, but I have a record of a
specimen from the Palnai Hills at 6,000 feet. In Ceylon it is
evidently less uncommon than past records make it appear.
Perhaps it has been confused with aulicus. Mr. Green
obtained it at Peradeniya. Mr. Drummond-Hay has never
had a specimen on his estates.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. od 151

LYCODON AULICcUS Linné.

(Latin “ aulicus”’ a house dweller, from its frequent
intrusion into human habitations.)

The Common Wolfsnake.

Tamil: “vala panayan’’ (smooth snake), “‘kattu viriyan”’
(banded snake), “‘shungu viriyan”’ (shell snake), from the
marks on the back. Sinhalese: “‘tel karawala,’ “alu
polonga.”’
~ Synonymy.—Coluber aulicus, Lycodon capucinus, L. unicolor,
L. hebe, Tyleria hypsirhinoides.

History.—First referred to and christened by Linné in 1754.
Russell in 1801 figured it in his second volume (Plate X X XIX.)

General Characters.—Head pear-shaped, depressed. Snout
markedly depressed, with broadly rounded extremity, and no
eanthus. Neck slightly constricted. Body rather elongate,
eylindrical, attenuating slightly posteriorly. Belly laterally
angulate. Tail about one-fifth to one-sixth the total length.

Identification.—The costals in 17 rows two heads-lengths
behind the head and at midbody, 15 two heads-lengths before
the vent ; the loreal touching the internasal, and the angulate
ventrals will establish its identity. Variety oligozonatus
bears a superficial resemblance to the other two Ceylon
species of this genus, and also to the Ceylon krait, Bungarus
ceylonicus.

Colouration.—This is a very variable snake, and as a result
has had many christenings. From an examination of well
over two hundred specimens, from widely separated localities
in India, Burma, Ceylon, and the Andamans, I notice that
every degree of variation is to be found between specimens
that have no dorsal markings, not even a collar, and those that
have a complete series of crossbars from the neck to the tail
tip. [can recognize only two varieties that I consider deserve
the name.

Variety (a) T'ypica (Linné).—In this the ground colour
varies from a light brown to a tone approximating to a dark
eigar. ‘The body is crossed by bars, which are yellow in life,

152 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

but which become whitish after a few hoursin spirit. There is
usually a collar of the same hue. The bars may be present
in the whok length of the snake, or may be few, and confined
to the anterior region of the body. In some examples they
are completely absent, and it is to these uncommon examples
that Boie applied the name wnicolor, and Theobald hypsir-
hinoides. The bars expand in the flanks, and often enclose
islets of the ground colour. Those in the anterior part of the
body are best defined, and as one proceeds backwards there
is a tendency for them to disintegrate more and more, until in
some specimens one sees them reduced to a reticulate pattern.
In most specimens from 9 to 18 bars may be counted in the
anterior half of the body, and about 5 to 10 scales are involved
vertebrally in the first intervals. The lips may be mottled
with brown, exhibit central brown islets, or be immaculate.
Typica is the common variety seen in the whole range of its
distribution.

(b) Variety oligozonatus (Wall).—In this the ground colour
is always a dark brown. The crossbars are white, fewer in
number, and usually very well defined, and distinct in the
whole body length. They number from 3 to 6 on the anterior
half of the body, and the most anterior interval involves from
12 to 22 scales vertebrally. I have only seen it in Southern.
India, and it is far less common than variety typica. It is the
common up-country form in Ceylon, Mr. Drummond-Hay
informsme. In both varietiesthe under partsare immaculate
and pearly-white, sometimes with a pinkish tinge.

Habits.—(a) Haunts: Of all snakes that seem to seek out
and profit by a human environment,the common wolfsnake is
the most conspicuous. I should think that fully half the
snakes met with inside habitations throughout India would
prove to be this species, and it certainly is far more frequently
encountered inside bungalows and outhouses than outside
them. Not only is it a very frequent tenant of houses,such as
those occupied by the European population in cantonments,
but it frequently obtrudes itself into densely populated parts,
such as bazaars, native towns, jails, &c., and is no rarity in the
business quarters of our large Indian cities. Inotinfrequently
have one brought in from the regimental lines, bazaars, and

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 153

jails, and have had it from inside regimental and cantonment
hospitals. Mr. Millard tells me he has “frequently had
specimens sent to the Museum which have been killed in
houses in the Fort at Bombay.” Like many other snakes,
it likes to insinuate itself into the crevices of loose brickwork,
such as the foundations and walls of buildings. Here it
conceals itself during the day, emerging at nightfall in quest
of food. Along the outer walls skirting the jail at Cannanore
I rarely passed without finding the sloughs of this snake
issuing from holes in the face of the masonry, and have often
found it in similar situations elsewhere.

When notestablished in the safe quarters offered by masonry
or a hole in the ground, it coils itself during the day in any
convenient dark shelter, beneath the boxes or stores, or
among the packages on the shelf in one’s storeroom, beneath
the discarded bucket or basket behind the stable, beneath
one of the flower pots standing in the verandah, in a heap of
kunkur beside the road, or stack of bricks or wood, behind or
beneath the piles of plant stored in the supply and transport
godowns or the Telegraph Office compound, anywhere, in fact,
that offers a convenient refuge. In such situations, besides
enjoying the semi-darkness so grateful to its tastes, it is
brought into convenient association with the very creatures
upon which it is wont to prey, the agile but incautious mouse,
the slippery skink, and the defenceless little gecko.

(b) Disposition: The common wolfsnake is a very lively
little customer, which usually, on being discovered, slips away
hastily if circumstances permit. If pursued, or any attempt
made to catch it, or obstruct its path, it strikes out boldly
without hesitation, planting its teeth into whatever thwarts
its progress, and I have been bitten many times in trying to
effect its capture. Ifin the open, and baulked in its endeavours
to escape, it will frequently coil itself into a heap and remain
stationary ; and if worried, will hide its head beneath its
coils. Often, too, while lying thus, it fixes its coils rigidly,
so that one can toss it into the air without it releasing its folds,
as one might do a piece of knotted cane. A visit paid to such
a Specimen in its cage an hour or so later will probably show
its courage restored, and it will inflict or endeavour to inflict

25 6(6)20

154 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

a wound. Like most other snakes, however, it soon gets
accustomed to being handled, and will then suffer itself to be
withdrawn from its cage without anger, though it usually
struggles to elude one’s grasp. Mr. F. Gleadow tells me he
“saw one in a climber in his verandah one night, and while
examining him to see whether it was a Lycodon or a Bungarus,
with the aid of a hurricane lamp, he let out at me like lightning
and scratched my nose. It was a very smart stroke indeed.
Nobody had touched him.” Gunther says of it: “It is of
fierce habits, and defends itself vigorously.” Mr. Miliard
writes to me: “It is of a somewhat fierce disposition, and
when first caught will usually turn and bite freely.”’ Colonel
Dawson, too, in a letter to me, remarks on the fierceness of
its nature.

Mice not infrequently fall victims to this snake, a fact
which in itself speaks more eloquently than any remarks can
do for the intrepid nature of such a diminutive reptile. Mice,
or at least individuals amongst them, are formidable anta-
gonists for small creatures to encounter, and I have collected
several interesting records showing that a single one will not
only defend itself against the snake or snakes into whose cage
it has been put as food, but will sometimes actually turn the
tables, fight, overpower, and devour the snake.

(c) Striking Posture: From a coiled attitude it will
frequently strike out vehemently and without hesitation
at the object of its fury, and is often a difficult snake to
capture without being bitten.

(d) Nocturnal or Diurnal: It exhibits very decidedly
nocturnal propensities. At night the wolfsnake emerges from
its fastness, and actively pursues its quest for food. The
servants are apt to encounter it in the verandah when serving
dinner, the inmates of a house in any of its rooms, the mem-
salib in her storeroom, the Sepoy in his lines, the soldier in
barracks, and the warder going his rounds in the jail. Mr.
Green notes that in captivity it sleeps all day and refuses food,
but becomes restless at nightfall.

(e) Progression: Itisa very active little snake that usually
makes a bold attempt to retain its liberty, and ‘can move
rapidly. Its climbing accomplishments are very remarkable,

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 155

for it often puzzles one to know how it can have got on to
some of the places from which one dislodges it—the top of a
window ledge, the jilmils of a door, the top of the lintel of a
door which has become loosened from the masonry, a punkah
pole, or curtain rod. Often, too, it will drop from the roof
into the verandah amid the family circle, from the covered
way to the kitchen, or from the disused punkah pole or cross-
bar supporting curtains in the drawing room. I have
frequently had opportunities of observing this snake climbing,
and find that it can do so with comparative ease even on a
vertical plane, especially if the surface is a little rough. Thus,
I have many times witnessed it climb up the perpendicular
wooden faces of its boxes, the boards being rough from the saw.
It clambers with ease, throwing itself into an S-shape, and
appearing to balance itself on its tail. As one watches this
performance one wonders at the support derived from the tail,
expecting every moment to see the snake fall, but no. The
caudal extremity resting on the horizontal surface grows less
and less, and finally follows the rest of the snake, which
adheres vertically wholly unsupported. Now some observers
would have us believe that the force which operates in this
acrobatic performance is brought about by a muscular effort
on the part of the snake, which retracts its abdomen in
such a way as to create a vacuum in its body-length, apposed
to the surface itis climbing. This, as in the case of an india-
rubber cup which has been pressed to exhaust the air, adheres
mechanically by the production of a vacuum. I happen on
more than one occasion to have seen Lycodon aulicus moving
up the glass face of its cage ; it can do so in a wonderful
manner till nearly all the body-length has left the floor, but
though I have specially looked for it, I have never been able
to see the slightest indication of the muscular action referred
to above, but have noticed that the whole surface of the
abdomen lay pressed against the glass. I have never seen the
snake completely succeed in scaling a face of glass, except in
the case of two hatchlings that I put into spirit. To my
amazement I found one of these still wet from its immersion
lying along the face of the jar above the level of the fluid, and
here it maintained a firm attachment, so firm, indeed, that it

156 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

almost supported the second one in its endeavours to reach
a similar position and escape its fate. In this case also L
specially noted that there was no attempt at any retraction of
the abdomen. The jar in which this scene was enacted is
some 5 inches jn diameter, so that the curvature of the glass can
have been little assistance to a creature little over 7 inches in
length. The wolfsnake appears to me to climb by the
aid of its ribs and the free borders of its belly shields,
and with these alone. Mr. Sinclair remarked upon one
he saw scaling a chick stretched vertically and lashed
in position. He says: “ The snake evidently climbed
by hitching the edges of the ventral shields on to those of the
bamboo lattice of the blind and not by winding his body,
which was entirely on the side of the blind next to me, round
the bamboos.”’ As already stated, it will frequently climb up
into the roofs of houses, but, perhaps, the most remarkable
example of its scansorial achievements is that mentioned by
Haly, a specimen having been caught in the lantern of the
Minicoy lighthouse in Ceylon.

Food.—L. aulicus, whilst showing a preference for lizards
of the gecko family, accepts with avidity other small creatures
that cross its path. I have on thirteen occasions known it
take geckoes, always of the Genus Hemidactylus, usually
frenatus, but also coctzi. On many occasions a mouse had
furnished the meal, and on other occasions skinks had been
devoured, in the United Provinces Mabuwia dissimilis (?), m
Burma Lygosoma cyanellum, and once another Lygosoma, too
digested to determine. Mr. E. E. Green tells me in Ceylon
he has known it take a Lygosoma in captivity. Willey says
its staple food in Ceylon consist of the Brahminy lizard,
Mabuia carinata. Ihave known a frog taken at least on one
occasion.

(f) Sloughing: Mr. Green tells me that a specimen of his
in captivity sloughed on March 30, June 21, 1909, and March
17, 1910.

Foes.—I have known it fall a victim to the common krait,
and the habits of the two snakes are so alike that I suspect the
wolfsnake very frequently meets an untimely death at the
jaws of its ophiophagous relative.

° SNAKES OF CEYLON. 157

_Breeding.—(a) The Sexes : As already remarked, the female
appears to grow to a greater length than the male. The sexes,
as regards numbers, appear to be equally balanced ; thus, my
note books show that of 73 specimens sexed, 36 were males, 37
females. It is evident that after mating the pair do not
dissolve partnership for a long time, if they do so at all, for
heavily egg-bound females have been found in company with
amale. I have found the anal glands, which are supposed to
be connected with the sexual functions, active in both sexes,
and at every period of the year. The secretion is custard-like
in colour and consistency. The copulatory male organs are
beset with many minute re-curved spines, and are not
bifid.

(b) Method of Reproduction: It is known to be oviparous in
habit.

(c) Season: I have known the sexes in company in Novem-
ber in Cannanore by report. In this case the native who
brought the male assured me it was united with another
which escaped. In January, in Fyzabad, two were found in
company in a storeroom ; and in Dibrugarh two pairs were
killed in company, one in June and one in July. The June
female was heavily egg-bound at the time, but only the
anterior half of the July specimen,which [assume to have been
a female, was brought in, the male being perfect. I have had
many females brought to me gravid, all, with one exception,
during the first seven months of the year. The one exception
was egg-bound in Rangoon on December 20. Of the rest, one
in Cannanore was gravid on January 20 ; three in Cannanore
in February ; one in Cannanore and two in Fyzabad in March ;
one in Cannanore, two in Fyzabad, and five in Dibrugarh in
April; one in Cannanore and three in Dibrugarh in May ;
one in Cannanore and one in Fyzabad in June ; and three in
Fyzabad in July. The eggs are deposited in the months from
February to July. A clutch of ten eggs on the point of
hatching were dug out of an anthill on February 20, 1920, at
Anasigalla, Kalutara District. One laid five eggs in the
Madras Museum on March 29, 1919.

(d) Period of Gestation : Not known.

(e) Period of Incubation : Not known.

158 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

(f) The Eggs: The eggs vary in number from three to
eleven, but are usually from four to seven. They are elongate
white ovals, equally domed at each pole, and soft to the touch,
the shell resembling white kid until vacated, when it dries and
hardens into a somewhat crisp parchment-like envelope.
When seen in abdomina they are frequently, but by no means
always, particoloured, gray and white. The gray colour
appears to me to be due to absorption of colouring matter
from the intestine, for it is always seen on that part of the shell
which lies in contact with the gut, is absent when the gut is
empty, and present in some eggs in the, chain corresponding
to a loaded part of the intestine. It may be originally
derived from the pigment in the skins of the creatures ingested.
When laid the gray colour is never visible as far as 1am aware.
The deposited eggs in one clutch varied from 25 to 32 mm.
(1 to 14 inches) in length, and 9 to 12 mm. (2 to $.an inch) in
breadth. The shortest eggs are decidedly broader than the
mostelongate. Ihave removed larger eggs from the abdomen,
where I found them up to 42 mm. (12 inches) long. At the
time of deposition they contain minute embryos. These are
difficult to discover. The best means to do so is to slit the
egg carefully with scissors, and allow the contents to float out
into a basin of water, doing all manipulations subsequently
with a very soft camel-hair brush.

Growth.—(a) The Hatchling: These escape from the egg
by means of the foetal tooth, though I have failed to find it in
the many examples I have examined. The appearance of the ~
egos after evacuation is similar to that seen in other species.
A clutch of five was brought to me once, which had been found
ina planter’s bungalow. A single hatchling was present with
the eggs, all of which, except a non-fertile one, were empty.

The young when they escape from the egg vary in length
from 6? to 72 inches, or about one-third the length of a large
adult. They are exactly like most adults in colour and
markings. I have seen two of the same brood, one with very
distinct yellow bars, in the whole body length, whilst the other
had a few rather obscure bars anteriorly only. One of these
was very vicious, and bit me more than once when handling it.
It attacked, killed, and soon swallowed a young gecko I gave it.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 159

(6) Early Infe: It is very difficult to follow the growth
after the second year from the figures to hand in my note
books. It is certain, however, that when one year old the
young have at least doubled their length, being over 1 foot
1d inches long, but they hatch over such a long period of the
year that the lengths become hopelessly mixed, leaving no
gaps to indicate successive broods. A large number of
specimens between 1 foot 6 inches and | foot 8 inches in length
at the same period of the year seems to indicate that this.
length is reached at the end of the second year of life.

(c) Maturity: The smallest gravid females I have known
were both 463 mm. (1 foot 64 inches) long, a length indicating
that they were about two years old.

(d) Maximum Length: It grows to about 765 mm. (23
feet), but specimens over 610 mm. (2 feet) are uncommon. I[
have records of over 19 of that length, the largest being
females. My biggest male was 692 mm. (2 feet 34 inches), and
I have had four females larger, the largest being 737 mm.
(2 feet 5 inches). Mr. Millard has given me two records in
excess of my figures. One was 800 and another 838 mm.
(2 feet 74 inches and 2 feet 9 inches) long.

Parasites.—(a) Hctozoa: I have found them occasionally
infested with mites. Some of these that I submitted to
Professor Nuttall are reported to be larval forms of some
undeterminable species, probably a Gekobia. An apparently
identical parasite is shown in figure 19.

Lepidosis.—(a) T'ypical—Rostral : The rostro-nasal sutures
rather longer than the rest. Jnternasals: The suture be-
tween them about two-thirds that between the prefrontals,
rather longer than the internaso-prefrontal. Prefrontals :
Touch the internasal, loreal, preeocular, and frontal ; the suture
between them much longer than the prefronto-frontal.
Frontal: The fronto-supraocular suture longer than the
fronto-parietals. Nasals : Small,subequalindepth. Loreal :
One ; touching the internasal, much longer than the nasals.
Preocular : One ; touching or nearly touching the frontal.
Temporals : Lower, about half the length of the supraocular.
Supralabials : Nine ; the 1st and: 2nd touching the nasals,
ord, 4th, and 5th the eye, and the 6th and 7th the lower

160 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

temporal. Sublinguals : The pairs subequal ; posterior touch-
ing the 5th and 6th infralabials. Infralabials : Six, the 6th
about as long as the posterior sublinguals, and about twice as
broad ; touching three scales behind. (Fig. 34.)

Fic. 34.—Lycodon aulicus.

(Natura! size.)

Costals :. Vertebrals nearly as broad as long, three-fourths
the breadth of the ultimate row. Last three or four rows
increasing in breadth. Ultimate row as broad as long. In
17 rows two heads-lengths behind the head, 17 at midbody,
and 15 two heads-lengths before the vent ; the reduction in

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 161

rows occurs shortly behind midbody, and is due to the absorp-
tion of the fourth row from the ventrals. Ventrals : Laterally
angulate; 170 to 224. Anal: Divided. Subcaudals :
Divided ; 56 to 80.

(6) Anomalies—Nasals : Sometimes touch the Ist only of
the supralabials. Loreal: Rarely divided into an anterior
and a posterior part. Postoculars: Rarely three. Temporals :
Rarely three. Supralabials: Two shields are sometimes
confluent, making eight, or a supernumerary may be present
making ten. In the former case the 3rd and 4th only may
touch the eye, and in the latter the 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th.
Anal: Rarely entire. Subcaudals : Sometimes a few near
the base of the tail are entire.

Dentition.—From seven skulls in my collection. Mazillary :
Prenodal 5; the anterior three progressively increasing
in length, the last two subequal, and about twice the length
of the third. Postnodal 8 to 12. Cranterian 2; about
twice the length of the preceding. Palatine: 10 to 15.
Pterygod: 18 to 25. Mandibular: Prenodal 5; the
anterior three progressively increasing in length, the last two
subequal, and about twice the length of the third. Post-
nodal 13 to 19; small and subequal. (Fig. 35.)

—-

Fic. 35.—Jaws of Lycodon aulicus,

Maxilla above.

Mandible below.
26 6(6)20

162 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Distribution.—(a) General: Peninsular India to the
Himalayas, and as far as the Punjab in the north-west.
Bengal, Assam, Burma, Indo-China, the Malay Peninsula,
the Malay Archipelago to the Philippines, Ceylon, the Maldives,
Andamans, and Nicobars.

(b) Local: It is an extremely common denizen of the
plains, but I have met with it in the Himalayas up to 5,000
feet. Willey says in Ceylon it does not appear to ascend
above 3,000 feet. Mr. Drummond-Hay tells me he never
obtained a single specimen at Hopewell estate, Balangoda
district (3,000 to 4,200 feet).

* CERCASPIS CARINATUS Kuhl.

(Latin “ carinatus ”’ keeled.)

The Ceylon Wolfsnake.

Synonymy.—Hurria carinata, Lycodon carinatus.
History.—Described by Kuhl in 1820.

General Characters.—Grows to over 2 feet. Head pear-
shaped. Snout much depressed, moderately-rounded
terminally, without canthus. Eye rather small. Neck
fairly constricted. Body moderately long, cylindrical,
attenuating slightly posteriorly. Belly laterally angulate.
Tail short, about one-fifth to one-sixth the total length.

Identification—The costals 17 two heads-lengths behind
the head, 19 in midbody, and 17 two heads-lengths before the
vent, will suffice to identify the species among Ceylon snakes.
This is one of the few species with entire subcaudals. It is
remarkably like the poisonous snake Bungarus ceylonicus in
colour and markings, and also closely resembles Lycodon
aulicus and L. striatus.

* I have recently communicated a note to Spolia Zeylanica giving
my reasons for separating the genera Lycodon and Cercaspis.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 163

Colouration.—Dorsally it is black, with from 15 to 20 white
bands on the body, and 4 to 7 on the tail. These bands
involve about two scales vertebrally, expand in the flanks,
and continue on to the belly, and are narrower posteriorly
than anteriorly. There is a white collar extending to the
back of the head in young examples, which disappears as age
advances. The belly is black with white bands.

Habits.—Nothing known.

Food.—Nothing known.

Breeding.—Nothing known.

Growth.—(a) The Young: Two specimens, evidently
hatchlings (or recently born ?), in the same bottle in
Mr. Drummond-Hay’s collection measured 182 and 188 mm.
(71 and 74 inches) respectively. Unfortunately no date is
on record. q

(6) Maximum Length: One in Mr. Drummond-Hay’s
collection is much the largest on record. This measured
730 mm. (2 feet 4? inches), the tail being very slightly
deficient. |

Lepidosis.—(a) 'ypical—Rostral: The rostro-nasal and
rostro-internasal sutures subequal, and larger than the rostro-
labials. Internasals : The suture between them half or less
than half that between the prefrontals, rather shorter than the
internaso-prefrontals. Prefrontals: Touch the internasal,
postnasal, loreal, preocular, supraocular, and frontal; the
suture between them much longer than the prefronto-frontal.
Frontal: The fronto-supraocular sutures subequal to the
fronto-parietals. Supraoculars: Length three-fourths the
frontal, about half the parietals, breadth about half the
frontal along a line connecting the centres of the eyes.
Nasals : Divided, the postnasal deeper than the anterior.
Loreal : One, about as long as the nasals, not touching the
internasal. Preocular : One, not nearly reaching the frontal.
Temporals : Two, the lower about half the length of the
supraocular. Swpralabials : Nine ; the lst and 2nd touching
the nasals; 3rd, 4th, and 5th the eye; and the 5th, 6th,
and 7th the lower temporal. Swublinguals: The pairs
subequal; the posterior touching the 5th and 6th infralabials.
Infralabials : Six ; the 6th nearly as long as the posterior

164 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

sublinguals, and about twice as broad; in contact with
three scales behind.

Fig. 36.—Cercaspis carinatus.
(x #)

Costals : Allrows keeled posteriorly. Vertebrals: Breadth
rather less than their length, about three-fourths to four-fifths
that of the ultimate. Ultimate row enlarged, the scales as
broad as long. In 17 rows two heads-lengths behind the head,
19 at midbody, and 17 two heads-lengths before the vent.
The increase of rows occurs four or five heads-lengths behind
the head, and is due to the division of the fourth row from the
ventrals. The reduction occurs four or five heads-lengths
before the vent, and is due to the absorption of the fourth or
fifth row above the ventrals. Ventrals: 185 to 202; angulate
laterally. Anal: Entire. Swpracaudals: In odd rows;
keeled to the tip of the tail. Subcaudals: 51 to 64; entire.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 165

(6) Anomahes—Temporals : Sometimes three. Supra-
labials : Sometimes two are confluent to make eight.

Dentition.—From one skull in my collection. Maxillary :
Prenodal 5, the anterior 3 progressively increasing the
4th and 5th subequal, and twice as long as the 3rd.
Precranterian 7 to 8, small, subequal. Cranterian. 2,
subequal, nearly twice the preceding. Palatine : 13 to 14.
Pterygod : 27 to 29. Mandibular : Prenodal 4, the 3rd
and 4th subequal, twice the length of the 2nd. Postnodal 13,
small, subequal.

Distribution.—(a) Genera! : Peculiar to Ceylon.

(b) Local: There are very few records of this snake. The
British Museum collection contains eight, and the Colombo
Museum but one. Mr. Drummond-Hay, however, tells me he
found it a common snake at Hopewell estate, Balangoda
district (3,000 to 4,000 feet), and also at Galatura, Ratnapura
District (500 to 1,000 feet). Haly records it from Jaffna, and
Abercromby, with a doubt,from Matale. I have had one from
the Ratnapura District. It would appear from these records
to be a low-country species ascending into the low hills.

Genus DRYOCALAMUS.
(Greek “‘ drus ”’ a tree, and “ kalamos ”’ a pen.)

General Charaecters.—Small snakes only growing to about
18 inches. Head oval in outline, broadest midway between
the eye and the neck, considerably depressed. Snout rather
short, narrowing to an obtuse extremity, without canthus.
Hye large, with vertical pupil. The iris is quite black, and the
shape of the pupilcannot be seen inJife. Nostril small, lateral.
Neck fairly evident. Body elongate, cylindrical, slender,
of even calibre throughout. Belly laterally angulate. Tail
short, being about one-fifth the total length.

The species show a considerable resemblance to those of the
Genus Lycodon in superficial characters, but the dentition
shows that they are not very closely related.

Identification.—Costals as broad as long in 13 or 15 rows in
the whole body length will establish the genus.

166 SNAKES OF CEYLON

Habits.—Terrestrial, with clambering propensities. Noctur- -
nal. Active. Fierce on provocation.

Food.—Chiefly lizards ?

Breeding.— Nothing known.

Poison.—Not poisonous.

Lepidosis (for Indian species).—Rostral: Touches six shields.
Internasals : A pair. Prefrontals: A pair. Nasals : Semi-
divided. Loreal: One, touching the eye. Preocular:
Absent or present. Postoculars: Two. Temporals : One or
two. Supralabials: Seven. Sublinguals : Two pairs, sub-
equal or the anterior longer.

Costals : As broad as long, rectiform, smooth, with single
apical pits. Vertebrals not enlarged. Ultimate row very
slightly enlarged. In 13 or 15 rows at midbody. Ventrals :
Laterally angulate. Anal: Entire or divided. Subcaudals :
Divided.

Dentition.— Maxillary : Syncranterian, anododont, isodont.
Palatine: Anododont, isodont. Pterygoid: Anododont,
isodont. Mandibular : Anododont, feebly scaphiodont.

Distribution.—South-eastern Asia.

There are five species, of which two occur in Ceylon, viz.,
nympha and gracilis.

DRYOCALAMUS NYMPHA Daudin.

(Latin ‘‘nympha ”’ a bride. The yellow mark on the back
of the head suggests a bridal veil.)
The Bridal Snake.

Synonymy.—Coluber nympha, Lycodon nympha, Odontomus
nympha, Hydrophobus semifasciatus, Odontomus semifasciatus,
O. nympha, Hydrophobus nympha.

History.—Introduced to scientific knowledge by Russell in
1796 and figured twice in his first volume. Daudin christened
the snake in 1803. |

General Characters.—As detailed under the genus.

Identification.—The costals in 13 rows in the whole body
length, taken with the elongate loreal touching the eye, suffice
to distinguish this from all other Ceylon colubrines.

Colouration.—Lustrous dark brown or blackish-brown
dorsally, fading somewhat posteriorly. Thereare from 35 to 50

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 167

conspicuous white or yellowish-white crossbars on the body
and tail, more conspicuous and more widely placed anteriorly.
There is a similar bar on the back of the head. The ventrum
is uniform pearly-white, creamy, or yellowish. It is a
remarkably handsome little reptile.

Habits.—(a) Haunts : Most of the specimens that have come
into my hands have been found inside bungalows. One came
right under a friend’s chair after dinner one night. Others
sent to me were either found inthe house or about the pot
plants.

Dr. Henderson tells me that when captured it has a curious
habit of twisting itself into knots. Abercromby mentions
finding one in his bath.

(6) Disposition: I know nothing of this snake in life.

(c) Nocturnal or Diurnal: The vertical shape of the pupil
indicates a nocturnal habit, and this is borne out by actual
experience.

(d) Progression: One I tried to kill was wonderfully active,
and managed to evade several strokes [aimed atit. It climbs
wel], and not infrequently falls, or is dislodged from the roofs
of houses where it has taken up quarters.

Food.—I have no records of this, but Dr. Henderson tells me
that he once found a skink (Mabuwia carinata) in the stomach
of one.

Breeding.—Nothing known.

Growth.—The smallest specimen I have had, and a hatchling
I believe, was between 4 and 5 inches in length. Date of
capture not on record. My largest specimens were 520 mm,
long (1 foot 8 inches).

Lepidosis.—(a) T'ypical—Rostral : The rostro-nasal sutures
rather shorter than the rostro-internasal, and nearly twice the
rostro-labials. Internasals : The suture between them equal
to, or rather shorter than that between the prefrontals, half
‘to two-thirds the internaso-prefrontals. Przfrontals :
Touch the internasal, postnasal, loreal, preocular, and
supraocular ; the suture between them subequal to the
prefronto-frontal. Frontal : .The fronto-supraocular sutures
twice the fronto-parietals. Supraoculars: As long as the
frontal, half to two-thirds the breadth of the frontal along a

168 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

line connecting the centres of the eyes. Nasals ; Semi-
divided or entire, the nostril in the median third of its depth.
Loreal : One, not touching the internasal ; touching the eye ;
as long as or longer than the nasal. Preocular: One.
Postoculars : Two. Tempgrals : Two, the lower half to three-
fifths the length of thesupraocular. Supralabials : Seven, the
Ist and 2nd touching the nasals, 3rd and 4th the eye, and 5th
and 6th the lower temporal. Sublinguals : Two pairs, the
posterior touching the 4th and 5th infralabials. Infralabials :
Five, the fifth twice as broad as the posterior sublinguals,
and about as long ; touching three scales behind.

Costals : As broad as:long. In 13 rows in the whole body
length. Vertebrals : 200 to 243 ; angulate laterally. Anal:
Divided. Supracaudals: In even rows. Subcaudals: 65 to
88; divided.

(6) Anomalies—Nasals : Sometimes divided. Przocular :
Rarely absent. Sometimes two (Boulenger). Supralabials :
Sometimes six or eight. Subcaudals : Some near the base of
the tail, occasionally entire.

Fie, 37.—Dryocalamus nympha,

(Xx 3.)

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 169

Dentition.— From two skulls in my collection. Mazwillary :
9 to 10, compressed. Palatine: 8 to 9; very small, about
half the length of the maxillary. Pterygoid: 20 to 21 ; longer
than the palatine. Mandibular: 19 to 21.

Distribution.—(a) General: South India as far north as
Orissa (Chilka Lake and Berhampore); Ceylon. MHaly says
the 5 specimens in the Colombo Museum in his day were from
Jaffna, and Willey mentions it from Anuradhapura. Fergu-
son speaks of one from the south part of the Island without
specifying further. One in the British Museum is labelled
Trincomalee.

(6) Local : It is a denizen of the plains, but ascends some
altitude into the hills. In South India it is rather an un-
common snake, and it appears to be equally uncommon in
Ceylon. Mr. Drummond-Hay tells me he has never met with it.

DRYOCALAMUS GRACILIS Gunther.
(Latin * gracilis ’ graceful.)
The Scarce Bridal Snake.

Synonymy.—Odontomus gracilis, O fergusoni, Hydrophobus
gracilis.

History.—Described by Gunther in 1864.

General Characters.—As detailed under the genus.

Identification.—The costals about as broad as long, and in
15 rows in the whole body length wil) identify it. The costals
in 15 rows in the whole body length, and a loreal touching
the eye, when taken together will establish the identification.

Colouration.—It is exactly like nympha in every way. The
eye, too, in life is similar.

Habits.—(a) Haunts: Appears to be similar to nympha. It
frequents houses, and climbs into the roof. One specimen I
had (Berhampore, Orissa) fell from the roof into the middle of
a family circle after dinner.

Food.—Nothing known.

Breeding.—Nothing known.

Growth.—My two specimens were 570 and 619°5 mm.
(1 foot 10, and 1 foot 117 inches), respectively.

Lepidosis.—(a) Typical—Rostral: The rostro-internasal
sutures rather longer than the rostro-nasal, Internasals: The

97 6(6)20

170 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

suture between them subequal to that between the pre-
frontals, subequal to the internaso-prefrontals. Prefrontals :
Touching the internasal, postnasal, loreal, preocular, and
supraocular ; the suture between them subequal to the
prefronto-frontal. Frontal: The fronto-supraocular sutures
longer than the fronto-parietals. Supraoculars: As long as
the frontal, and about half its breadth along a line connecting
the centres of the eyes. Nasals : Semi-divided or divided.
Loreal : One, about as long as the nasals ; not touching the
internasals, touching the eye. Preocular: One, above the
loreal. Postoculars: Two. Temporals: Two; lower much
shorter than the supraocular. Swupralabials : Seven; Ist and
2nd touching the nasals, 3rd and 4th the eye, and 5th and 6th
the temporal. Swblinguals : Posterior rather shorter than the
anterior ; touching the 4th and 5th infralabials. Infralabials :
Five ; the fifth twice as broad as the posterior sublinguals,
and about as long ; touching three scales behind.

Costals : About as broad as long. In 15 rows in the whole
body length. Ventrals: Angulate laterally, 199 to 243.
Anal: Entire. Supracaudals: In even rows. Subcaudals :
Divided, 75 tc 87. )

(6) Anomalies—Pre ocular : Rarely absent.

Costals : These scales in a specimen in the British Museum
from the Anamallay Hills are in 13 rows to about four
heads-lengths behind the head. Here the row next to
the vertebral divides, and the scale rows become the normal
15. In another specimen in the British Museum from
Cuddapah I find the scale rows 13 to about midbody, when the
row next to the vertebral divides and so the normal 15 rows
are established. The two rows thus formed re-unite and re-
divide several times making the count alternately 13 and 15,
Anal: Rarely divided. A specimen in the Indian Museum
(No. 8,690 of Sclater’s catalogue 1891, and referred by him to
davisoni (Blanford) ) from False Island Arrakan coast has 15
scale rows in the whole body length, ventrals 237, anal divided
and subcaudals 86, one preocular above the loreal, and the
loreal touching the eye. JI think there in every reason to
doubt the locality given as this is not a Burmese snake.

Dentition.—I have no skull.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 171

Distribution.—(a) General: South India as far north as
Orissa ;. Ceylon.

(6) Local : Anamallay and Cuddapah Hills (Beddome’s
specimens in the British Museum). I have had two from
Orissa, and Elliot refers to one killed at Waltair. Haly
refers to two from Ceylon without specifying the localities.
Mr. Drummond-Hay tells me he has never obtained a speci-
men. Evidently very uncommon in Ceylon as well as in
India.

Genus ZAOCYS.
(Greek “* za” very, ‘ okus ”’ swift.)

General Characters.—For Indian species. Large snakes,
some attaining to over 6 feet in length. Head ovate,
moderately depressed. Snout rather long, narrowing to a
rather subacute extremity ; with an obtuselyrounded canthus.
Loreal region concave. Eye, rather large, with iris speckled
with gold, and round pupil. Nostril large, occupying the full
depth of the suture between the nasals. Neck fairly con-
stricted. Body elongate, robust, distinctly compressed,
attenuating to the neck, and posteriorly. Belly laterally
obtusely angulate. Tail long, being about one-fourth to
nearly one-third the total length.

Identification.—The only snakes with the scale rows in even
numbers on the body. In most of the species the vertebral
row is absorbed in the neck into the uppermost row on the left
side. In mucosus this absorption does not occur until behind
midbody.

Habits.—Terrestrial. Diurnal. Activeandstrong. Fierce
when provoked.

Food.—Mammals, birds, lizards, batrachians.

Breeding.—Oviparous.

Poison.—Non-poisonous.

Lepidosis.—Rostral : Touches six shields. Jnternasals: A
pair. Prefrontals: A pair. Nasal: Divided. Loreal: One
to three. Preoculars: One. Postoculars: Two. Tem-
porals: Two. Supralabials: Hight. Sublinguals: Two
pairs, the posterior longer.

Costals : Longer than broad, keeled in the median rows ;
with double apical facets ; the median and last two rows

| We SNAKES OF CEYLON.

rectiform, the 3rd to 7th from the ventrals slightly oblique.
Vertebrals, where the rows are odd, slightly enlarged. Last
two rows enlarged. Ventrals : Obtusely angulate laterally.
Anal: Divided. Supracaudals: In even rows. Subcaudals:
Divided.

Dentition.— Maxillary : Syncranterian, anododont, cory-
phodont. Palatine : Anododont, feebly kumatodont. Ptery-
goid : Anododont, isodont. Mandibular: Anododont, feebly
kumatodont.

Distribution.—South Eastern Asia.

There are seven species, one of which, viz., mucosus, occurs
in Ceylon.

ZAoCYS* mucosus Linneé.

(Latin ‘‘ mucosus ”’ slimy.)

The Dhaman,t or Common Ratsnake.

Tamil: ““saray pambu’’ (straight snake). The natives
say it takes a direct bee-line from danger.

Sinhalese : “* garandiya ’’ (Willey).

Synonymy.—Coluber mucosus, C. dhumna, C: blumenbachii,
Natrix mucosa, Coryphodon blumenbachii, Leptophis trifrenatus,
Ptyas mucosus.

History.—First brought to notice, and christened by Linné
in 1766. Russell figured it inhis first volume (Plate XXXIV.)
in 1796, and again in his second volume (Plate X VIII.) in 1801.

General Characters.—A formidable snake, growing to over
eight feet in length. Head rather long. Snout longish,
canthus obtuse, somewhat narrowly rounded. Eye large.
Nostril large, occupying the whole depth of the suture
between the nasals. Neck distinetly constricted. Body

* This snake was placed by Boulenger in the Genus Zamenis. Some
time ago I pointed out that its affinities are closer to Zaocys than
Zamenis. In all the species of Zaocys the costal rows are in even
numbers, and in the species I have examined there is an absorption of
the vertebral row in the neck, into the uppermost row on the left side.
In mucosus precisely the same absorption occurs, but behind midbody
instead of in the neck, and the rows then are evenin number. Boulen-
ger says of the maxillary dentition thatin Zaocys the teeth number 20-33
and in Zamenis 12 to 20. In the six skulls of mucosus in my collection
the maxillary teeth vary from 20 to 24, so that in this important
character also the species conforms more to the dentition cf a Zaocys
than to a Zamenis.
t ‘‘ Dhaman.” is the Sanskrit word for rope.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 173

robust, distinctly compressed, attenuating anteriorly and
posteriorly. Belly obtusely angulate laterally. Tail cylin-
drical and long, being about one-fourth the total length.

Identification.—The costals are 17 two heads-lengths from
the head, 17 in midbody, and 14 or 12 two heads-lengths before
the vent. This will suffice to declare its identity. It is the
only Colubrine Ceylon snake with three loreals.

Colouration.—The prevailing hue on the head and body,
including the tail, is dorsally an olivaceous-green, or olivaceous-
brown. In the anterior half, or three-fifths of the body length,
this is uniform or nearly so, but in the posterior part many
seales are irregularly margined with, black, so as to form a
reticulate pattern with a tendency to form crossbars. Indivi-
duals differ in colour ; I have seen some as yellow as mustard
and othersof a hue as darkas sepia. The shields bordering the
lips, the scales at the side of the throat, and the scales beneath,
the body, and tail are more or less margined posteriorly with
black; in fact, these marks form a very characteristic
trait in the physiognomy. On the belly the regularity of the
black marks forcibly reminds one of a tape measure, but
in individuals, they may be reddish or absent in whole or in
part. The belly is grayish-white, dirty-white, or yellowish,
the latter hue often more pronounced about the throat.- The
skin dorsally is blackish, mottled with fawn, or whitish in
irregularly transverse streaks, but this is usually not seen
owing to the overlapping of the scales. The overlapped
margins of the scales, however, partake of this cutaneous
colouration,and in youngspecimens light, bluish-gray, irregular
erossbars are usually conspicuous, especially anteriorly. In
young the prevailing colour is often more grayish or bluish
than one sees in the adult, but the markings and general
appearance are very closely similar.

A peculiarly light specimen approaching to an albino is
recorded by D’Abreu in Volume XXV., page 753, of the
Bombay Natural History Journal,and accorded the rank of a
variety under the name pallidus. I think it is a freak, lacking
the usual pigmentation of this species.

Habits.—(a) Haunts: There is scarcely a situation, whether
in hill or dale, forest or plain, arid, swampy, or cultivated tract,

174 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

tree, bush, or habitation in which it may not take upits abode.
It is quite at home in the proximity of man, and is to be met
with in the gardens of populated areas within our largest cities
almost as plentifully as in the more tranquil quarters of the
country. In such localities, in deference to man’s hostile
inclinations, it is forced to retire during the day into some
secure retreat, commonly taking up its abode in an antkuall,
drain, or other convenient hole in the compound, or even in
the outhouses, or bungalow itself. Like other snakes, it loves
old masonry, and is often flushed from, or seen retiring into,
the crevices and crypts furnished by old walls or brick wells.
In Rangoon, with the aid of a bicycle lamp to illuminate the
gloom of the little galleries left for drainage purposes in the
faces of the fort walls, I frequently foundone coiled up, and
provoked it to a speedy exit. In the bungalow it may tenant
the basement, but not infrequently finds its way up into the roof,
where it may reside above the ceiling cloth, and though few
may deem it as such, it is certainly entitled to the considera-
tion of a welccme friend. The late Chaplain of Cannanore,
the Reverend R. B. Redding, told me that once when in
conversation with’a lady, upon whom he was calling, a
scampering was heard overhead on the ceiling cloth, and a rat
fell through a hole on to the floor. It was closely followed by
the head and much of the body of a large snake, which,
however, managed to withdraw itself. It is more than
probable that this was a ratsnake.

Removed from man’s immediate environment I believe it
realizes there is no occasion for such prison accommodation as
populous localities thrust upon it, and here it has free scope to
indulge its diurnal inclinations. In Cannanore snipe shooting
I very frequently encountered it in broad daylight, leisurely
pursuing its quest for luncheon, and when not actually on the
move, I often found it coiled asleep in the paludal vegetation,
or beneath a bush. Again, on two or three occasions when
stepping into paddy fields at dawn, I have seen it coiled up on
the heaps of decaying vegetable matter, which represented
the remnants of last year’s crop and weeds, suggesting that it
had taken up these quarters overnight.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 175

It shows a decided partiality for the vicinity of water for
reasons very obvious when we come to consider its diet. It
will take readily to water should occasion demand, and swims
vigorously and well, carrying its head above the surface for
choice, but diving when the necessity is urgent.

I have had many killed high up in trees, 20 feet or more,
also on the roofs of houses. Mr. Millard tells me he once saw
a large dhaman up a wild date palm tree on Malabar Hill,
Bombay, and from the excitement shown by the small palm
squirrels (Funambulus palmarum), there was no doubt what it
was after. When I was in Fyzabad a specimen 6 feet 8 inches
was brought me, which was discovered high up in a tree, the
attention of a passer-by having been called to it by the noisy
demonstrations of several birds. I found it contained two
large chicks, each 34 inches long, in the stomach, and a larger
one 4 inches long in the gullet. They were partially enveloped
in their shells, which were of a uniform bright blue colour.
They appeared to me to be much too large for crowchicks, and
the colour of the eggs was not corvine. In Almora one dis-
covered in a hollow tree tenanted by a colony of bats was
found, when killed, to have eaten six bats.

(6) Disposition: It is undoubtedly when provoked a very
fierce snake, and if brought to bay will assume the offensive
with great courage and determination ; but this side of its
nature is rarely exhibited, as, like other snakes, it prefers to
acknowledge man’s supremacy by seeking swift escape when
this offers. I have many times jumped into the middle of its
coils when I have seen it enjoying a siesta, but have never
been menaced, or struck at once, the reptile’s acknowledgment
of the rude awakening being manifested by speedy disappear-
ance. On occasion, however, and specially if reasonable
chances of escape are denied, it will attack with great malice.
Father Dreckman once chased a specimen nearly 8 feet long,
and managed to place his foot over the hole it was making for.
Baulked in its attempt to escape, it coiled itself up and jumped
straight at his face. Luckily Father Dreckman drew back his
head in time to evade a blow in the face, but the reptile
fastened itself on to his shoulder with such purpose that its
teeth penetrated not only his clothes, but actually lacerated

176 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

the skin beneath. On another occasion, when the same
observer was rendering assistance to a hatchling which was.
trying to emerge from its egg, the vicious little creature
resenting interference bit him in the finger, and actually drew
blood. Onone occasion I saw a small one, only 18 inches long,
turn when pursued by a terrier and strike most viciously.
Mr. Hampton tells me that once when attempting to capture
one he found in a drain it struck viciously at him and
inflicted a wound beneath one of his eyes. In Bangalore I saw
one belonging to a sampwallah strike most vehemently at
and bite a mongoose, also one of the stock in trade. Mr.
Millard tells me it is a difficult snake to tame when fairly
grown, and wil] attack freely when cornered. Nicholson
remarks how it will fight for its freedom, and says it is always
a little uncertain to handle in captivity. Gunther says: “ It
is of fierce habits, always ready to bite, and old examples
brought to Europe never become tame.”

In Rangoon I had one brought to me which, it was reported,
was attacking a full-grown fowl. The few specimens I have
had caged exhibited a very nasty temper, and struck out
most maliciously at me whenever I approached the glass of the
cage ; often two or three strokes were delivered in rapid
succession and with such force that the creature must have
hurt itself considerably. Mr. Millard further tells me that in
the Society’s cages in Bombay large specimens are so restless
when captive, and strike so frequently at the wire netting,
that they do not live long.

(c) Striking posture: The stroke is delivered upwards, as
though to wound the face, a peculiarity also noticed by Mr.
Millard. When infuriated, prior to delivering its stroke, it
retracts the head and forebody into an S, slightly erects
itself, and gives vent to a peculiar sound, which I have heard
no other snake produce, and which reminds me of the sound
made by a cat at bay. Cantor likens it to the sound of a
vibrating tuning fork. During the production of this warning
note the snake compresses itself anteriorly (7.e., flattens itself
in a direction contrary to that manifested by the cobra), the
spine being arched about the neck and the throat markedly
pouched.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 77

(d) Nocturnal or diurnal : The dhaman is diurnal in habit.
One meets it usually in the daytime in quest of food, and
nearly all the specimens brought to me have been killed in
daylight. I have frequently observed it methodically prying
into places likely to harbour some rat or other creature.
When the quarry is flushed the dhaman pursues in hot haste.

(e) Progression: It appears to be very fleet in its move-
ments, but its speed is deceptive, for on one occasion, when I
chased one using its full endeavours to escape, I found I had
traversed 38 yards, while the reptile covered 18. It measured
5 feet 9} inches. This was in the open. Over rough ground
or in jungle I would lay odds on the dhaman if the distances
were reversed.

(f) Hissing: This species not only utters a sibilant hiss,
which is clearly audible at close quarters, but under extreme
excitement it makes a curious groaning sound, to which I have
already alluded.

(g) Sloughing: Miss Hopley says of a specimen caged at
Regent’s Park, London, that it cast its skin about once a
month.

Food.—The dhaman is very catholic in its tastes, devouring
almost anything that chance brings within its reach, but it
displays a very marked partiality to a batrachian diet, doubt-
less because toads, and more especially frogs, are extremely
plentiful, easily captured, and too defenceless to offer much
resistance. The possibility of taste influencing its selection
may be dismissed, since flesh, however toothsome, must fail
to impart its relish when clothed in feathers, fur, or integu-
ments. Perhaps, though the texture of these vestments may
gratify the mouth or gullet as keenly as the flesh may
conciliate the peptic glands. When hunger presses it is
stimulated to make full use of its courage, vigour, and speed in
shikaring the object of its gastric affections. The incident of
the rat falling through the ceiling cloth demonstrates this.
Blanford mentions one he saw pursuing a lizard (Calotes
versicolor) at full speed, which it caught, and then throwing its
body over its victim speedily devoured. This practice of
holding down its prey when troublesome to manage, or seized

28 6(6)20

178 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

in a position unfavourable for swallowing, is characteristic,
and it can exert a very considerable strength in this manner.
-Mr. Hampton tells me he has seen it hold a rat down with its
body, pressing it tightly on the ground, and Mr. Millard gives
me a very striking example of this behaviour. He Says :
‘““ One of these which we were keeping in the same cage as. our
python recently caught a rat (which was put in for food) by
the tail. The rat turned and bit the dhaman severely, and
the dhaman killed it by holding on to the tail and pressing the
rat against the body of the python and the floor of the cage.
Severe pressure must have been brought to bear, as the rat—
a full-sized one—was dead in three or four minutes.”’

Here I may draw attention to the frontispiece of Lyddeker’s
Royal Natural History, Vol. V., which shows this snake
entwined in a most unnatural manner round a perpendicular
bamboo stem, a large part of its body free, and holding a large
rat with a serenity and facility very unreal. I doubt whether
this acrobatic performance is possible for more than a few
seconds, apart from the manner in which it is shown bolting its
meal. Itis regrettable that the inaccuracies cf a skilled artist
should pass the censorship of so great a naturalist.

The quarry once captured is swallowed at once, so that in
the case of inoffensive creatures, such as frogs, it is no unusual
circumstance for them to reach the stomach, sufficiently alive
for their suppressed cries to be distinctly audible ; and, more-
over, remarkable as it may seem, when rescued from their
engulfment, it is a fairly common event for them, after the
lapse of some minutes, to recover sufficiently to hop away. I
have witnessed this on several occasions, and Kelsall has
recorded a similar experience.

Rats, though sometimes preyed upon, are not nearly so
staple an article of diet as suggested by its name. Mr. Hamp-
ton tells me that in captivity in Regent’s Park, London, he
was familiar with this snake, and saw it seizing and devouring
good-sized rats with avidity, but that his specimens in Burma,
far from liking rats, seem to be afraid of them, preferring an
exclusively batrachian fare. Lizards, birds, and other small
vertebrates form a welcome supplement to its voracity.
Recently, in Fyzabad, a three-footer was found in a shrub

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 179

attacking a nest of young birds. It had already swallowed a
gecko (Hemidactylus gleadovi), and was in the act of devouring
one fledgling. Thatit must be considered both gourmand and
gourmet may be inferred from the following bills of fare. A
specimen brought to me in Cannanore had eaten a large frog
(Rana tigrina), a large toad (Bufo melanostictus), and a halt-
grown lizard (Calotes versicolor) ; another acquired in, Fyzabad
with, a very tight-fitting waistcoat was found to contain. a large
toad (Bufo andersoni), a lizard of the skink family (Mabwa
dissimilis), and a young tortoise (Trionyx), and, as though
dissatisfied with this 3-course luncheon, bad endeavoured
to include a large lizard, probably of the Genus Calotes, since
some 5 inches or more of its tail bad been devoured.
The specimen alluded to above, which bit Mr. Hampton,
subsequently disgorged six frogs. A specimen in Almora had
eaten six bats. Ferguson comments upon the gluttony of this
species, and says its favourite food is a medium-sized frog, of
which, a fair-sized snake will eat about twenty-two at a meal.
Mr. Hampton says if at all hungry it will not disdain the
meal afforded by another snake, including even its own species.
This 1 know to be true, and quite a common event in captivity,
which is vouched for by Mr. Millard, Ferguson, and others, but
I think it is a rare exhibition of depravity in its natural state ;
however, Assistant Surgeon Robertson told me he once cut
open a large dbaman and found it contained another dhaman
3 feet 11 inches in length in its stomach. Flower * mentions
one eating a snake (Chrysopelea ornata). Mr. Green tells me of
one which, disgorged several snakes of the Genus Rhinophis in
its death throes, and Lightfoot} has lately presented a speci-
men to the Bombay Natural History Society preserved in the
act of swallowing a Psammophis condanarus. The stomach,
as will be seen if distended with a meal, lies more in front of
the middle point of the body than in some other snakes,
notably the Krait and Hemibungarus, where it lies wholly
behind this point: |
Breeding.—(a) The Sexes: Itis the rule with snakes that the
female exceeds the male in length. Darwin, on the authority

* Proc. Zool. Soc. 1899, page 684.
{| Bombay Natural History Journal, Vol. XVI., page 530.

L8SO SNAKES OF CEYLON.

of Gunther, makes this statement.* Whilst fully agreeing
with this remark, in this species I have no doubt that the
converse obtains. An average taken from the largest males
and females my notes record shows a disparity decidedly in
favour of the male. Again, of specimens over 6 feet 6 inches,
twelve are males and only two females. The longest female
is 6 feet 74 inches. Though usually met with singly, they are
sometimes found in pairs at times other than the breeding
season. On January 5, 1900, in Rangoon, a male and female
were found coiled together beneath a flooring. This date is
one later than the normal hatching season. The male was
6 feet 14 inches, and the female 5 feet 83 inches.

I have dissected out the anal glands in a male. They are
two in number, and lie above the cloaca, into which they —
empty, a papilla in the roof indicating the exit orifice. They
are elongate sacs, and about | inch long in the 8-foot male
examined, They act asreservoirs toa peculiar secretion, which
is of the consistency of custard, and in the specimen referred
to amounted to about half a drachm in each sac. The
secretion in this species is yellow, like custard, and has a
disagreeable smell. It is supposed that these glands are
associated with the sexual functions, but I question this,
because I find the secretion abundant in both sexes at all
seasons of the year and in the young.

The male genitalia (two) are cylindrical organs when
extruded, and are surmounted with a fringe of white, cartila-
ginous, recurved, spinous processes. Two specially large
processes are situated on the ventral aspect of the organ.
They serve to effect a very strong conjunction when 77 covtu.

(c) Method of Reproduction: The species is Oviparous in
habit.

(b) The Act of Mating: Major Frere encountered a pair
mm coitu on July 20, and wrote to me as follows concerning
the incident : ‘‘ They were surrounded by thick felled scrub,
so I had to kill them, being unable to take them alive. The
ventral aspect of their anal shields appeared to be closely
approximated. Their bodies were twined together and

* Descent of Man, page 538.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 181

writhing, except for the anterior quarter. ‘Their heads were
raised from the ground for | foot to 18 inches and appeared
to be sparring at each, other like two young cockerels. Their
movements were active and vigorous.”’ In Fyzabad two were
observed courting or mating. The native writer at the Club
sent to inform me there were two large snakes playing in the
compound. Unfortunately I arrived too late, for the tennis
boys had raised a hue and cry and the snakes had fled.
They were described as “playing very nicely” for many
minutes, their bodies erected and swaying about, and their
heads facing one another. I went to the cover they were
reported to have entered, flushed one dhaman, which made off,
and, killed a second, which, proved to be a male 6 feet 9 inches
long. The nextday at the same spot another was killed, which
proved to be a female 6 feet 1 inch long, which contained
twelve large eggs 14 inches long, and therefore in an advanced
state of development.

On another occasion a pair were found disporting themselves
ina pool, and killed. The male was 6 feet 94 inches long, and
the female 6 feet 74 inches was found to contain eggs in an
advanced state of development. It is evident from these two
incidents that cohabitation continues for a long time after
fruitful union.

When the eggs are laid the female coils up with them. The
female was with the eggs I acquired in Fyzabad, and one
embryo extracted at the time measured 7? inches in length.

(c) Season: The breeding season varies with the climate.
In the plains of India the act of mating was witnessed twice by
Coleridge Beadon in June at the base of the Nallamallay Hills.
My pair reported in similar circumstances at Fyzabad were
seen in July. Major Frere’s encounter with two in the act of
pairing, near Madras, occurred in July. Nicholson killed two
ege-bound females at Bangalore in May. I killed a similar
specimen at Banlgaore in May. I had two egg-bound females
at Fyzabad in June, ten in July, and one in August, and in
Assam three in May, June, and July. One gravid female was
killed at Rangoon in July. I acquired one example at’
Cannanore far advanced in pregnancy in August, and another
in November.

182 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Nicholson had a brood hatching out at Bangalore in
September. Father Dreckman had a brood which hatched out
near Bombay in the same month. My Fyzabad clutch
hatched in the same month. A clutch of ten eggs, found in
Colombo on October 18, 1917, showed four eggs already
evacuated. The remaining six hatched out about three days
later (I am informed) in the Museum. Evans and I
witnessed the hatching of a brood at Rangoon in December.

My measurements of young furnish a great deal more infor-
mation, from which I conclude that in the Western Himalayas
(Almora), in Chitral beyond the North-west Frontier, and in
the Nilgiri and Anamallay Hills the young usually appear in
May, June, July, August, and rarely as late as September. In
all these localities the winter is severe enough to compel
retirement and hibernation. On the other hand,in the plains,
where there is no winter, such as in Cannanore, and in Rangoon
I got young just hatched in December and January, and none
in the summer and autumn months.

(d) Period of Gestation: Not known.

(e) Period of Incubation: Not known. A

(f) The Hggs: The number of eggs in a clutch varies from
nine to fourteen. They are white, glazed, equally domed at
each pole, and have a rather crisp shell, like thick parchment.
They are laid in a heap, and, being sticky when voided, adhere
wherever they touch one another. The cluster resembles a
bunch of huge grapes. They vary a good dealin size. Those
I had in Fyzabad varied from 51 to 57 mm. (2 to 2} inches) in
length, and were about 29 mm. (1 1/20 inch) in breadth.
Nicholson’s clutch were 51 mm. (2 inches) long and 32 mm.
(14 inch) broad. My Burmese clutch were 41 to 45 mm.
long (12 to 13 inch). One of the Colombo eggs is 50 mm.
(2 inches) long and 28 mm. (1} inch) broad. A single
sterile egg taken from the abdomen of a specimen in the
Nilgiris measured 60 mm. (22 inches) long and 25 mm. (1 inch)
broad. It weighed seven-eighths of an ounce.

Growth.—(a) Intraoval Life: I made some observations on
the growth of the hatchling during intraoval life. An egg I
opened on August 8 contained an embryo 196 mm. (7? inches)
long. Another embryo of the same clutch extracted on

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 183

August 24 measured 316 mm. (123 inches) long. Growth
about 4 inches in 16 days. The average length on hatching
on September 11 and 12 being about 154 inches, the growth
for the last 18 days was about 3 inches. The young snake
effects its escape from the egg by means of the foetal tooth, an
osseous structure developed in the premaxillary bone, which
projects under the rostral arch to beyond the snout.

(b) The Hatchling: The first indication of the hatching of
my clutch was the escape of bubbles from cuts in the eggs.
Later the heads of the baby snakes appeared, but none seemed
specially anxious to leave their cradles. They frequently
peeped out and then withdrew into the shell before. finally
deciding to make their perilous entry into the world, which was
not for many hours. Those that hatched from one brood
measured from 361 to 428 mm. (144 to 16% inches). Those
from another varied from 368 to 387 mm. (144 to 154 inches).
The six hatched in Colombo I measured. They varied from
435 to 472 mm. (173 to 18% inches).

When hatched they are very active little creatures. Mine
allowed me to handle them without attempting te bite me, but
Father Dreckman was bitten by one of his hatchlings that had
some difficulty in getting free from the egg when he tried to
help it, and blood was drawn. Mine refused food and milk
and soon died.

The genitalia of the males are withdrawn into their sheaths
before the young hatch out.

(c) Early Life: I measured some youngsters after their
emergence from the egg and found one grew 14 inches in 20
days, though it had refused all food.

The young from my notes appear to double their length in
the first year of life, and continue this rate of growth during the
second year, when they are about 4 feet long. At the end of
the third year of life they are from 5 to 53 feet long.

(dq) Maturity: It is sexually mature like all other snakes,
long before reaching its maximum growth. Ihave had gravid
females 1588 and 1655 mm. in length (5 feet 24 inches, and 5
feet 54 inches), which I reckon were just about three years old.

(e) Maximum Length: I have records of well over 200
specimens, and I have only seen two over 8 feet long. These

184 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

were 2,472 and 2,490 mm.(8feet 1dinch, and 8feet 2inches). The
former had the tail slightly deficient, and might have another
inch added. Specimens over 7 feet are decidedly uncommon.
Mr. Pratt told me of a specimen he killed in Guzarat measuring
2,643 mm. (8 feet 8 inches). Mr. McDougall some years ago
told me of a specimen he kiiled at Myitkyina, Burma, which he
and Lieut. Pritchard measured, and which taped 3,038 mm.
(9feet 114inches). Abercromby has recorded some remarkable
lengths from Ceylon, viz., 2,897, 2,967, and 3,050 mm. (9 feet
6 inches, 9 feet 8? inches, and 10 feet). Mr. Pearless supports
this evidence by saying that on three occasions he has measured
Ceylon ratsnakes over 10 feet in length. The brood hatched
in Colombo already alluded to were considerably longer than
Indian hatchlings. Mr. Millard wrote to me of a specimen
killed at Mahim, which was 3,583 mm. (1] feet 9 inches).

It seems to me these very extraordinary specimens are
examples of gigantism.

Foes.—The Burmese, and many of the wild tribes inhabiting
India, eat the dhaman whenever opportunity offers.

IT have more than once known a mongoose tackle and over-
power one. In Jhelum I saw a mongoose in my compound,
evidently hampered by something it was carrying, which when
I pursued it dropped. It proved to be a dhaman 3 feet 6
inches long. The snake had been seized by the back of the
head, and was being dragged along, in spite of every endeavour
to free itself. After killing it I examined the head, and found
several teeth had pierced the skull.

Serpent eagles frequently pounce upon and carry ratsnakes
aloft.

Ophiophagous snakes, like the hamadryad (Naia bungarus)
and kraits (Bungarus ceruleus), prey upon the dhaman,
among other snakes.

I have seen a small spirit specimen in the Madras Museum
being engulfed by a large bull frog (Rana tigrina).

Legends.—There are various legends connected with this
snake. In some parts it is addicted to sucking cows, and
apropos of this, it is very remarkable that a feat so manifestly
impossible when the snake’s mouth is examined should have
received. credence in many countries in relation to several

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 185

species of snakes. It would be impossible for a grasp to be
maintained upon the teat without driving home many of the
needle-pointed teeth, and inflicting an amount of pain no
animal could passively tolerate upon so sensitive a structure.
Others attribute to it the curious practice of putting its tail up
the cow’s nostril and suddenly withdrawing it. What
originated this strange belief, and what possible end it might
fulfil, is hard even to speculate upon.

Again, it is very generally believed among natives that the
ratsnake mates with the cobra, and is, in fact, the male cobra,
and it is surprising to me that even some educated English
people seriously contemplate such an absurdity, and still
further so firmly believe it, as to attempt to vindicate the
truth of their assertions. J have more than once engaged in a
heated discussion on this subject, but after listening to many
assurances, the confession has been invariably elicited that
the sexes of the supposed engaging parties had never been
investigated.

I think the most convincing argument in disproof of this
fable lies in the fact that there are beyond dispute both male
and female cobras and both male and female dhamans. One
may assume they breed true, since no hybrid, as far as I am
aware, has ever been recorded. Ifthe outrageous attachment
between Mr. Dhaman and Mrs. Cobra were true, our Museums
should be well stocked with evidences of their guilt. It is
satisfactory to note, when reflecting upon this alleged flagrant
laxity of morals, that one never hears even a whispered
imputation breathed by these scandal mongers against the
characters of Mr. Cobra and Mrs. Dhaman.

The Rev. Mr. John appears to have originated the idea of an
attachment between the cobra and the dhaman, for Russell
says Mr. John told him, speaking of the dhaman, that it was
often found in company with the cobra. The fact is these
snakes are of similar habit and seek out similar quarters, but
companionship is merely a matter of accident.

Russell says : ““ The natives say it is not dangerous, but
assert that its bite occasions blindness in persons over forty.”
Again he says the Rev. Mr. John tells him that the sharpness
of its scales sometimes does harm to rice grounds.

29 6(6)20

186 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Parasites.—(a) Hctozoa: The dhaman is very frequently
infested with ticks, which fasten themselves between the costal
scales or the ventral shields. Some that I sent to Professor
Nuttall, he tells me, are Aponomma leve variety paradoxum.

Fic. 38.—Aponomma leve. Tick from Zaocys mucosus
(magnified about 18 diameters)—(A) Ventral aspect.
(B) Dorsal aspect.

SNAKES OF CEYLON, 187

(6) Hntozoa :—The lung of the ratsnake is frequently found
tenanted by one or more worm-like parasites, or linguatulids,
to which Professor Stephens has given the name Porocephalus
patton, The adult parasite attaches itself to the lung tissue
by means of hooks, and there remains and sucks the blood of
its host. It is a grayish-white object surrounded by about
thirty-six rings or annuli, two of which encircle the head. It
grows to about 115 mm. (44 inches), and is about 2°5 mm.
(4 of an inch) in diameter. A head, neck, and body are
distinguishable. The head is globular, rounded dorsally, and
flattened ventrally. The mouth is shaped like an inverted
pear, and is surrounded by four strongly-curved hooks, by
which the attachment to the lung is effected. A fairly well-
defined neck separates the head from the body. The body
preserves an even calibre in its entirety, and ends in a blunt
extremity. Minute orifices—the cutaneous pores—are seen
on the head rings, and those in the anterior and posterior
parts of the body. A nearly allied parasite 1s shown in
figure 21.

(c) Hematozoa: The red blood cells of the dhaman are
invaded by hosts of parasites called heemogregarines. Laveran.
described this under the name Hemogregarina zamenis, and
this is probably the same blood organism found by Patton in
Indian ratsnakes in 1908, and by Miss Robertson in Ceylon
specimens in the same year. (Fig. 39.)

Fie. 39.—Hemogregarina zamenis (after Miss Robertson).

(a) Red blood cell.

(b) The hemogregarine.

(c) Capsule of parasite.

(d) Nucleus of cell.

(e) Polar pigment of parasite.
({) Nucleus of parasite.

188 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Lepidosis.—(a) T'ypical—Rostral : The rostro-nasal sutures
subequal to, or rather greater than the rostro-internasals,
longer than the rostro-labials. Internasals : The suture be-
tween them half to two-thirds that between the preefrontals ;
three-fifths to two-thirds the internaso-prefrontals. Pre-
frontals : Touch the internasal, postnasal, two loreals, pree-
ecular, and supraocular ; the suture between them longer
than the prefronto-frontal. Frontal: The fronto-supra-
ocular sutures fully twice as long as the fronto-parietals.
Supraoculars : About as long as the frontal, and about as
broad along a line connecting the centres of the eyes. Nasals :
Divided. Loreals: Three. Preocular: One. Postoculars :
Two. ZYemporals : Two ; the lower ag long or nearly as long
as the supraocular. Supralabials: Hight; 1st and 2nd
touching the nasals, 4th and 5th the eye, and the 5th, 6th, and
7th, or 6th and 7th the temporal; the 4th divided. Swb-
linguals : The posterior touch the 5th and 6th infralabials.
Infralabials: Six, the 5th and 6th subequal; the 6th
broader than the posterior sublinguals, and nearly as long ;
touching two scales behind. (Fig. 40.)

Costals : Vertebrals where the rows are odd, slightly enlarged ;
the breadth of the scales about three-fourths their length, as
broad or broader than the ultimate row. The 3rd to 7th rows
above the ventrals slightly oblique, the breadth of these rows
about half their length. Last two rows enlarged and recti-
form. Ultimate row longer than broad. In 17 rows to
behind midbody, reducing to 16 by the absorption of the
vertebral row into the uppermost row on the left side ; later
reducing to 14 or 12 by the absorption of the 3rd row above
the ventrals. The median six to eight rows keeled posteriorly.
Ventrals : 180 to 213. Obtusely angulate laterally. Anal:
Divided. Supracaudals : In even rows, keeled as far as the
sixes. Subcaudals : 95 to 146 ; divided.

(6b) Anomaltes—Loreals : Not infrequently two (1 + 1),
especially in Punjab specimens ; sometimes four or even five.
Postoculars: Rarely three. Supralabials: The fourth is
sometimes not divided. Occasionally two are confluent to
make seven, or there may be a supernumerary one to make

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 189

Fic. 40.—Zaocys mucosus (life size).

nine. Anal: Rarely entire. Subcaudals: A few are occa-
sionally entire.

Dentition.—From six skulls in my collection. Maxillary :
20 to 24. Palatine: 14to 18. Pterygoid: 21to24. Mandi-
bular ; 17 to 22.

Distribution.—(a) General: Its range of distribution is
very extensive. It is found throughout the whole Indian
Peninsula, from Ceylon in the south to the Himalayas in the

190 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

north. On the west it extends through Rajputana and Sind
to Afghanistan and ‘Transcaspia. In the east it ranges
through Burma and Indo-China to Southern China and
Formosa. In the Indo-Malay Subregion it occurs in the
Peninsula and Java.

(6) Local: It is an extremely common snake everywhere,
and essentially an inhabitant of the plains. It ascends hills,
and I have had it frequently from an altitude exceeding
6,000 feet.

Genus ZAMENIS.*

(Greek “za ”’ very, and “‘ menes ”’ strong.)

General Characters.—For Indian species. The species vary
from less than 2 to over 8 feet in length. Head more
or less oval, moderately depressed. Snout moderately long,
narrowing to a more or less obtuse extremity, with an obtusely
rounded canthus. Eye moderate to large, with golden iris and
round pupil. Nostril variable in size and disposition. Neck
fairly evident. Body moderately robust, cylindrical, or com-
pressed. Belly rounded or laterally subangulate. Tail
moderate to long.

Identification.—There is no simple way of recognizing the
genus as it is now arranged. The following features will assist.
One, two, three, or four of the supralabials are divided, begin-
ning with the third or fourth. The posterior sublinguals are
completely separated by small scales in nearly all the species.
There are six or seven infralabials, the last of which is twice or
more than twice as broad as the posterior sublinguals.

* The genus as defined by Boulenger in his Catalogue (Vol. I.;
p- 379) includes several species with sufficiently distinctive characters
to warrant, in my opinion, recognition under distinct genera. On the
maxillary dentition alone, I would divide the genus into at least two
groups, equally deserving the rank of genera. Apart from this, a close
study of the lepidosis reveals to me differences so great that I would
urge a revision of the genus and its separation into many. As now
arranged, the genus includes at least thirty-one species, and its division
would be a great convenience if this could be established on a scientific
basis. I have already shown good reason to exclude one species, viz.,
mucosus, from this genus and place it with Zaocys.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 191

Habits.— Diurnal, active, and fierce when attacked.
\ Food.—Mammals, birds, lizards, and batrachians.

Lepidosis.—Rostral: Touches six shields. Internasals :
A pair. Prefrontals: A pair. Nasals: Divided. Loreals :
One. Preoculars : One, touching the frontal in some species.
Postoculars: Two. Temporals: Two orthree. Supralabials ;
Hight to ten. Sublinguals: Two pairs; the posterior
separated, by small scales in many species.

Costals : Longer than broad, rectiform, smooth, or some rows
keeled, with paired apical facets. Vertebrals not enlarged.
Ultimate row enlarged. In from 13 to 43 rows at midbody.
Ventrals : Rounded or laterally subangulate. Anal : Usually
divided, rarely entire. Supracaudals : In even rows. Sub-
caudals : Divided.

Dentition.— Vaaillary : Syneranterian or diacranterian,
coryphodont ; 12 to 29 in number. Palatine: Isodont, or
scaphiodont ; 8 to 21. Pterygoid: Scaphiodont; 14 to 28.
Mandibular : Scaphiodont ; 14 to 26.

Distribution.— Europe, Asia, North Africa, Senegambia,
North and Central America.

There are about thirty species, one of which occurs in Ceylon,
viz., fascrolatus.

ZAMENIS FASCIOLATUS (Shaw).

(Latin, Adjectival form of “ fascia ’ a band, and “ olus ”

diminutive, 7.e., with little bands.)

Shaw’s Zamenis (or Rat Snake).

Synonymy.—Coluber fasciolatus, C. hebe, C. curvirostris,
Coryphodon fasciolatus, Tyria fasciolata.

History.—Received its first notice from Russell in 1796, who
also gave a very good illustration (Plate X XI.) of a juvenile
Specimen. Christened by Shaw in 1802.

192 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

General Characters.—Head moderately depressed, broadest
midway between the eye and the neck. Snout moderately
long, obtusely rounded terminally, markedly declivous, with
broadly rounded canthus. Eye moderate. Nostril in the
upper two-thirds of the suture between the nasals. Neck
fairly evident. Body elongate, fairly robust, cylindrical,
attenuating slightly to the neck, and more markedly pos-
teriorly. Belly very obtusely angulate laterally. Tail about
one-fourth to one-fifth the total length.

Identification.— Among Ceylon snakes it is the only species
in which the costals are 21 to 23 two heads-lengths behind
the head, 23 in midbody, and 17 two heads-lengths before
the vent.

Colouration.—The prevailing hue dorsally is some shade of
brown, or olive-brown, some specimens being very light and
almost yellowish, others a deep rich brown. Young specimens
are beautifully ornamented with crossbars formed of black
and whitish longitudinal striations. These bars are most
conspicuous anteriorly, and gradually disappear before, at, or
at some distance behind the middle of the body. They become
increasingly obscure as age advances, and some old specimens
are nearly uniform in colour. The head is usually uniform
olivaceous and without any markings, but a young specimen
of mine in Fyzabad was marbled with lighter hues and a
nearly complete periorbital white ring. The belly is uniformly
whitish or yellowish. In my young specimen it was greenish-
yellow.

Habits.—(a) Haunts: I believe it frequents jungly tracts
chiefly, but will stray into populated areas, and, according to
Stoliczka, has been known to enter houses in Calcutta.

(6) Disposition: It appears to be a plucky and vicious
snake when molested. The few comments in this direction to
be found in the literature on the species are in agreement.
Stoliczka says it is rather a fierce snake when molested, and
Blanford speaking of a specimen he encountered says, though
young, it was one of the fiercest snakes he ever captured.
Several specimens I have seen alive betrayed little malice,
and allowed me to handle them without attempting to bite.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 193

(c) Striking Posture : When alarmed it erects the forebody,
and flattens the body behind the neck like a cobra. I under-
stand from Mr. Millard, who is very familiar with it, that it is
on account of its habit of flattening its body, and a general —
resemblance in colour and appearance to a small cobra when
moving, that the Konkani natives so frequently declare it is
a female cobra. Specimens of mine gave a lively exhibition
of their cobra-like behaviour. They erected themselves
probably as high relatively as a cobra would do, and flattened
the forebody very remarkably.

(d) Nocturnal or Diurnal : It is diurn&l in its habits.

(e) Progression: It is a remarkably lively little snake,
so active and alert that its capture is a matter of no little
difficulty.

Food.—A specimen sent to me from Patna had swallowed
a rat. Stoliczka, however, remarks that it feeds on frogs
and worms.

Breeding .—Nothing known. |

Growth .—(a) Harly Life: I obtained a small specimen 114
inches in length, which appeared to have been but recently
born or hatched, in July at Fyzabad. Mr. D’Abreu told me
he obtained a similar specimen—length not recorded—in May
at Patna.

(6) Maximum Length: The largest I have examined was
1,283 mm. (4 feet 24 inches). Mr. D’Abreu has told me of a
specimen he acquired at Nagpur that taped 1,347 mm. (4 feet
5 inches).

Lepidosis.—(a) Typical—fostral: The rostro-internasal
and rostro-nasal sutures subequal, or the former rather longer,
longer than the rostro-labials. Internasals: The suture
between them shorter than that between the prefrontals, and
shorter than the internaso-prefrontal. Prefrontals: The
sutures between them subequal to, or rather greater than, the
prefronto-frontals ; touching the internasal, postnasal, loreal,
preocular, and frontal. Frontal: The fronto-supraocular
sutures fully twice the fronto-parietals.. Supraoculars: As
long as the frontal, and nearly as broad along a line connecting
the centres of the eyes. Nasals: Divided. Loreal : One,

30 6(6)20

194 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

about half to two-thirds the length of the nasals. Preocular :
One, touching the frontal. Postoculars: Two. Temporals :
Two, the lower not quite as long as the supraocular. Swpra-
labials : Eight ; the Ist and 2nd touching the nasals, 4th and

5th the eye, and the 5th, 6th, and 7th the lower temporal ; 4th
divided. Sublinguals: The posterior pair quite separated
by small scales, touching the 5th and 6th infralabials.
Infralabials: Six; the 6th largest, broader than the posterior
sublinguals, but shorter than those shields, touching three
scales behind. (Fig. 41.)

Fia, 41.—Zamenis fasciolatus.
(Life size.) :

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 195

Costals: Longer than broad, rectiform,.smooth, with
double apical facets. Vertebrals not enlarged, the breadth
of its scales about two-thirds their length, and about half that
of the ultimate row. Last five rows progressively broader.
Ultimate row broadest, the scales being about as broad as
long. In 21 to 23 rows two heads-lengths behind the head,
23 at midbody, 17 two heads-lengths before the vent. The
rows usually increase about five heads-lengths from the head
by the division of the row next to the vertebral. They
decrease behind midbody to 21 by the absorption of the row
next to the vertebrals. Later they reduce to 19 by the
absorption of the third row from the ventrals. They again
- reduce to 17 by an absorption of the row next to the vertebral.
Ventrals : 191 to 232 ; laterally subangulate. Anal: Divided.
Supracaudals : Ineven rows. Subcaudals : 73 to 92 ; divided.

(b) Anomalies—Supralabials : The 4th is rarely undivided.
Rarely the 4th, 5th, and 6th touch the eye.

Dentition—From two skulls in my collection. Mazillary :
Diacranterian. Precranterian 12 to 13; feebly cory-
phodont ; cranterian 2; not enlarged. Palatine: 10 to 11;
anododont, feebly scaphiodont ; subequal to the maxillary.
Pterygoid : 15 to 16 ; anododont, scaphiodont. Mandibular :
17 to 18 ; anododont, scaphiodont.

Distribution.—(a) General: Peninsular India to the
Himalayas and Northern Ceylon.

(6) Local: In India it has not been recorded north of
Gwalior on the western side, and Vizagapatam on the eastern
side. In Ceylon Haly mentions one from Jafina.* Mr. Drum-
mond-Hay tells me he has never obtained a specimen.

Genus COLUBER.
(Latin ‘“‘ coluber ” applied to any snake.)

General Characters —For Indian species. The species vary
from about 2 to 7 feet in length. Head elongate. Snout
moderate or rather long, with a more or less distinct but

*In my book on the poisonous terrestrial snakes of British India
(footnote to page 21) I showed good reason to doubt the authenticity
of Cantor’s specimen from Province Wellesley.

196 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

rounded canthus. Eye moderate or rather large, with round
pupil. Nostril open and lateral. Neck fairly distinct.
Body moderate to robust, cylindrical, or compressed. Belly
rounded, or subangulate laterally. Tail moderate or rather
long, from one-third to one-sixth the total length.

Identification .—As now arranged, the species are too varied
toallow of anysimple method of identification, and a revision
of the whole genus is very much needed. The ten Indian
species with which I am familiar, and of which I have skulls,
warrant this assertion.

Habits .—Terrestrial, diurnal. Active, alert, courageous.

Food.—Mammals, birds, reptiles, and batrachians.

Breeding .—Oviparous.

Poison .—Non-poisonous.

Lepidosis —Aostral : Touches 6 shields. Internasals : Two.
Prefrontals: Two. Frontal: Touches six (rarely eight)
shields. Supraoculars: As long or nearly as long as the
frontal, half to three-fourths the breadth of the frontals.
Nasals: Two; quite divided. Loreal: One (absent in
some). Preoculars: One. Postoculars: Two. Temporals :
One or two ; well developed. Supralabials : Hight to ten ; two
or three touching the eye. JInfralabials : Six or seven. Sub-
linguals : Two pairs ; the posterior equal to, or rather less
than the anterior, in contact with one another, or divided by
one or more scales.

Costals : Longer than broad, rectiform, smooth, or keeled,
with double apical pits. Vertebrals not enlarged; the
breadth of the scales abcut two-thirds to three-fourths their
length, and two-thirds to three-fourths the breadth of the
ultimate row. Ultimate row enlarged, the breadth of its
scales subequal to their length. The scale rows are very
different in the species numbering from 15 to 35 at midbody ;
in some the rows are the same number two heads-lengths
behind the head, in others two less thanin midbody ; in some
the rows two heads-lengths before the vent are two less, in
others four or six less, than at midbody. Ventrals : Rounded,
or subangulate laterally. Anal: Entire or divided.
Subcaudals : Divided.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 197

Dentition .— Maxillary : 12 to 24; syncranterian, anododont,
isodont, or scaphiodont. Palatine: 9 to 13; anododont,
isodont, or scaphiodont. Péterygoid: 12 to 27; anododont,
scaphiodont. Mandibular: 21 to 31 ; anododont, scaphiodont.

Distribution.—Europe, Asia, North and Tropical America.

When Boulenger’s Catalogue appeared in 1894 forty-five
species were recognized. Of these, one occurs in Ceylon, viz.,
helena.

COLUBER HELENA Daudin.

(Named on account of its beauty after Helen, the wife
of the Spartan King Menelaus.)

Daudin’s Coluber (or The Trinket Snake).

Sinhalese : ‘‘ mudu karawala ”’ (Willey). Tamil: “ kattu
pambu ” (banded snake).

Synonymy.—Herpetodryas helena, H. malabaricus, Cynophis
bistrigatus, C. malabarica, C. helena, Plagiodon helena.

History Russell first referred to the species in 1796, and
gave a good illustration of it in Plate XXXII. of his first
volume. Christened by Daudin in 1803.

General Characters.— Head rather narrow, with a somewhat
elongate and bluntly-rounded snout. There is little or no
indication of acanthus. Nostril fairly large, occupying about
three-fourths of the upper part of the suture between the nasal
shields. Eye moderately large, rather less than half the
length of the snout, and placed laterally. Pupil round, or
horizontally elliptica), and the irisadorned with gold. Tongue
pinkish at the base, becoming bluish-black, except at the very
tips, which are white. I noted ina specimen from the Nilgiris
that the mucous membrane of the mouth wasblackish. Neck
fairly evident. Body robust, compressed somewhat, and
smooth. Bellyangulated obtusely on either side. Tail short
and about one-fifth the total length of the snake.

198 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Identification——The scale rows 21 or 19 two heads-lengths
before the vent, and an entire anal shield will distinguish it
from other Ceylon snakes.

Habits—(a) Haunts: It is usually to be found in or
near jungle, though this may not be very dense. It is very
frequently encountered by coolies working on estates. It will
quarter itself in and about well-pepulated areas, being some-
times found in cantonment limits, and it is no unusual
circumstance for it to stray into habitations. One was killed
in the Municipal Library in Almora two years ago, and another
in my sweeper’s house. This one would expect from the
nature of its food.

(6) Disposition: All who have remarked upon the species
are in agreement as to its vicious temper. Russell speaking
of a specimen he had in Vizagapatam says: “‘ It appeared
singularly alert in its movements, and snapped at everything
presented to it.’ Colonel Light remarked of one that “ it
showed great fierceness, and struck repeatedly at the stick
when being killed.”” I have found it a very plucky snake.
One fine specimen proved a most truculent snake to capture.
It buried its teeth in the butterfly net used to encompass it,
and fought till it got itself hopelessly tangled in the net.

(c) Striking posture: Russell, speaking of one, says: “In
preparing to attack, it wreathed its neck, arid part of the
trunk, into close turns, and at the same time, retracting its
head, presented at a distance, something of the appearance
of a hooded snake. When it snapped, the body being more
raised by the assistance of the tail, the wreaths were rapidly
unwreathed, and the head darted obliquely forward with
motion so rapid that the animal, without rising from the
ground seemed to fly on his prey. In this ‘manner it could
unexpectedly seize an object which in appearance lay far
beyond its reach. A chicken, intended for experiment,
having made its escape, was accidentally pursued into the
chamber where the snake had been left at liberty, and was no
sooner perceived than thesnake flew furiously at him, snapped
several times as he passed, and soon seized and secured him.
by wreathing round the body. In two minutes the bird was

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 199

found dead, having been strangled by the snake’s tail. A
second chicken was attacked in like manner, and had he not
been relieved in time would: have suffered the same fate. He
was bitten in several places.”’

A specimen J nadin Bangalore was wonderfully active.
When teased it showed fight by erecting and throwing the
fore-part of the body into broad sigmoid curves, which it
straightened in the act of striking. It struck out repeatedly
and in an upward direction, much like the dhaman (Zaocys
mucosus). I noticed that prior to striking the neck was
markedly compressed, the spine in this region arched, and the
throat distinctly pouched, just, in fact, similar to what I have
seen in the dhaman under similar circumstances. When erect
the body scales anteriorly were separated, revealing the
pinkish or lilac colour of the intervening skin, and enhancing
the beauty of the reptile.

Food.—Under natural conditions a decided partiality is
shown for mammalian fare, but lizards, frogs,and even snakes
are acceptable under press of hunger. Mr. Green has fre-
quently seen his captive specimens eat lizards, but he remarks
that in hunting lizards it is very inexpert, and repeatedly fails
to effect a capture. As soon as the lizard stopped the snake
lost interest init, and appeared attracted by moving objects
only. Mr. Millard writing to me some time ago said that a
specimen in Bombay refused lizards and frogs, but took a
mouse that was offered at once. One voracious individual
tried on two occasions to eat snakes with whichit was incar-
cerated. Once the species was Chrysopelea ornata, and once
Dendrophis pictus. Mr. Green remarks that he has several
times observed this species capture a small skink. ‘‘ On one
occasion the Coluber had captured a lizard, and was tightly
constricting it, the whole body of the snake being twisted into
a complicated knot. It commenced work upon the tail, which
became detached fromthe body of the lizard and was promptly
swallowed.’ MissMontgomery wrote to me of one as follows:
“Tt was coiled round a rat in the butler’s house where the root
and wall join. It fell with its prey at bis feet in the shape of a
ball. The butler killed the two at one blow. The rat had

200 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

been bitten in several places.” Abercrombysays that it hasa
peculiar habit of encircling and holding its prey in its coils,
but that it does not crush its prey.

Breeding.—(a) The Sexes: Of 44 specimens sexed in the
Nilgiri Hills, 26 were males and 18 females. Males have
shorter bodies and longer tails than females. The male
claspers are cylindrical organs, not bifid at the extremity, and
are beset with re-curved, cartilaginous processes.

(b) Method of Reproduction : It is not known which method
of reproduction occurs.

(c) Season: The fact that no female was gravid out of 107
specimens collected for me in the Nilgirisin June to September,
1917, seems to indicate that the eggs or young had been
discharged earlier in the year. Mr. D’Abreu has told
me of a specimen which appeared to have been recently
born or hatched on March 29 at Nagpur. I had several
similar specimens in the Nilgiris in the months of July
and August.

(d) Period of Gestation.—Not known.

Growth.—(a) The Young: My smallest specimens measured
about 330 to 355 mm. (13 to 14 inches) in length, and
appeared to have very recently been born or hatched. One
in the Colombo Museum is 287 mm. (114 inches).

(b) Early Life: From a good series of 107 obtained in the
Nilgiris in 1917, it appears that the young grow about 10
inches in the first, and second years of life.

(c) Maturity: Not known.

(d) Maximum Length: Specimens over 1,220 mm. (4 feet)
are unusual, and over 1,525 mm. (5 feet) rare. The largest I
have seen measured 1,500, 1,575, and 1,590 mm. (4 feet 11
inches, 5 feet 2 inches, and 5 feet 3 inches).

Parasites.—(a) Ectozoa: I have found some specimens
infested with a tick identified by Professor Nuttall as Apo-
nomma leve and others with a minute scarlet arachnid, which
appears to be the same as those seen on Oligodon sublineatum
and Polyodontophis subpunctatus (fig. 19.) |

SNAKES OF CEYLON, 201

(6) Hntozoa: I have found many nematode worms in the
stomach, which were identified for me as Kallicephalus willeyi.
Von Linstow records the same worm from the intestine of this
snake.

Lepidosis.—(a) Typical—Rostral ; The rostro-nasal sutures
are greater than the rostro-internasals, and about twice the
rostro-labials. Inéernasals : The suture between the inter-
nasal pair is about half that between the prefrontal pair and
about two-thirds the internaso-prefrontals. Prefrontals :
The suture between the prefrontal pairis rather greater than
the preefronto-frontal ; and touches the internasal, postnasal,
lorea, preocular, and supraocular. Frontal: The fronto-
supraocular sutures are nearly twice the fronto-parietals.
Supraoculars : As long as the frontal, but not quite sc broad
along a line connecting the centres of the eyes. Nasals:
Quite divided. Loreal: About two-thirds the length of the
nasals. Temporals : The upper touches the 6th supralatbia ;
the lower is about as long as the supraoculars. Swupralabials :
Nine ; the Ist and 2nd touch the nasgals, the 5th and 6th, or
5th, 6th, and 7th touch the eye, and the 7th and 8th the lower
temporal. Sublinguals : Posterior subequal to the anterior,
and touching the 5th and 6th infralabials. Infralabials: The
6th is nearly as long as the posterior sublinguals, twice or
nearly twice as broad, and touches three scales behind.
Costals : Rectiform; keeled in some of the median rows
posteriorly ; with paired apical facets. The vertebral row
not enlarged; the breadth of its scales about two-thirds their
length, and about two-thirds those in the ultimaterow. The
ultimate row is enlarged, and the breadth ofits scales rather
less than their length. The rows two heads-lengths behind
the head are 21 to 27, and two less than in midbody ; in mid-
body from 23 to 29 ; two heads-lengths before the vent 2] to
19, or six to eight less than inmidbody. The increase of rows
anteriorly is due to a division of the 5th, 6th, or 7th rows above
the ventrals. The reduction is effected by an absorption of
the 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, or 7th rows above the ventvrals.
Ventrals : 217 to 265 ; subangulate laterally. Anal: Entire.
Subcaudals: 74 to 97; divided. Supracaudals: In
even rows.

31 6(6)20

202 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

(b) Anomalies : Supralabials may be 10 or 11, and two or -
three labials may touch the eye from the 6th. Subcaudals :
Some of the early shields are occasionally entire.

Fie. 42.—Coluber Helena.
(Life size.)

Dentition—From.5 skulls in my collection. Maaillary :
19to25. Palatine: 10to14. Pterygoid: 15 to 30. Mandi-
bular : 22 to 30.

Distribution.—(a) General: Ceylon, Peninsular India to the
Himalayas. In the north-west it extends to Sind, and in
the north-east to Assam,

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 203

(6) Local: It is an extremely common snake in India
between about 1,500 and 6,000 feet, but decidedly rare at the
level of the pJains. Inmost localities where it has been found
at plain level this has been near to hills.

In Ceylon Haly in 1886 said of it: ““A very common up-
country snake. The collection (7.e., Colembo Museum)
possesses no specimen fromthe low-country.”’ Later in 1891
he records one from Colombo. This might be accounted for
by jugglers or others transporting a snake from the hills.

Genus ASPIDURA.

(Greek “‘ aspis ’’ shield, and “ oura ”’ tail, in allusion to the
subcaudal shields, which are unusual in being entire.)

General Characters.—Small snakes, the largest attaining to
about 20 inches. Head moderately elongate, broadest about
the posterior edges of the parietals, from which it gradually
narrows, to a subacute extremity ; moderately depressed.
Snout rather long, without canthus. Eye small with round
pupil. Nostrilsmall ; situated at the lower part of the suture
dividing the nasals. Neck not constricted. Body rather
short, cylindrical, fairly robust, of even calibre throughout.
Belly rounded. Tail short or very short, varying from one-
sixth to one-twelfth the total length.

Habits.—Terrestria]. Diurnal. Inoffensive.

Food.—Earthworms and grubs.

Breeding—Oviparous as far as is known.

Poison.—Non-poisonous.

Lepidosis,—Rostral : Touches five shields. IJnternasal: One.
Prefrontals : A pair ; touching the internasal, postnasal, 2nd
and 3rd supralabials, the preeocular when present, the 4th
supralabial when a przocular is not present, the eye, and
supraocular. Loreal: Absent. Preocular: Presentorabsent.
Postoculars: Two. Temporal: One. Supralabials: Six; 6th
longest ; Ist and 2nd touching the nasals, 4th the eye, 5th
and 6th the temporal. Swblinguals : Two pairs; the anterior
twice or more than twice as Ieng as the posterior. Posterior

204 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

touching the 4th infralabial. IJnfralabials: Four ; 4th as
broad as the posterior sublinguals, and longer than those
shields.

Costals : Longer than broad, rectiform, smooth. In males
the lateral scales in the analregion are keeled. Vertebralsnot
enlarged, their breadth about two-thirds their length, about
two-thirds the breadth of the ultimate row. The three
median rows subequal and smallest, the remaining rows
progressively increasing in breadth. Ultimate row with
scales as broad as long. In 15 or 17 rows. Ventrals:
Rounded. Anal: Entire. ‘“Subcaudals : Entire.

Dentition.—From the skulls of four species in my collection.
Maxillary: Syneranterian, anodcdont, feebly kumatodont.
Palatine : Anododont, isodont. Pterygoid: Anododont, igo-
dont, excepi for last twe or three, which reduce. Mandibular:
Anododont, feebly kumatodont.

Distribution,-—Peculiar to Ceylon.

Five species have been desccibed, viz., brachyorrhos, cope,
guentheri, trachyprocta, and drummondhayt.

ASPIDURA BRACIIYORRHOS (Boie).

(Greek ‘‘ brachus ”’ short, “‘ orrhos ”’ tail.)
Boie’s Aspidura.

Sinhalese : ‘‘ leymedilla ’’ (Ferguson).

Synonymy.—Scytale brachyorrhos, Calamaria scytale, Aspi-
dura scytale.

History.—Described by Boie in 1827.

General Characters.—As detailed under the genus. The
snout is obtusely rounded terminally. The tail is about one-
ninth the total length.

Identification—The costals in 17 rows, one preocular and
two postoculars touching the parietal, when taken together
proclaim the species.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 205

_Colouration.—Yellowish or reddish-brown dorsally, with
four more or less distinct, darker, longitudinal stripes, and a
vertebral series of blackish dots. Some specimens have a few
lateral spots anteriorly which alternate with the vertebral
series. A dark oblique streak on each side of the neck
and sometimes a median nuchal spot. Ventrally uniform
yellowish, sometimes sparsely speckled on the body, and
with darker mottlings on the tail.

Habits.—(a) Haunts: Apparently lives beneath the loose
soil. The slough found by me had the head embedded in the
earth. The three obtained for me by a collector at Kandy
were reported dug out of some leaves and débris that had.
silted up a drain on the hillside.

(b) Disposition : The three live specimens just referred to
allowed me to pick them up and handle them freely, without
attempting to bite. They crawled through my fingers rest-
lessly, protruding the tongue frequently.

Food.—The stomachs investigated showed that earthworms
had been eaten.

Breeding.—(a) The Sexes: Females appear to grow longer
than males, and have shorter tails. The male clasper is a
cylindrical organ beset with fine spinous processes.

(6) Method of Reproduction: The size and character of
eggs extracted by me leaves little doubt that it is an oviparous
snake,

(c) Season: Not known. No dates have accompanied my
gravid females.

(d) The Eggs: Three gravid females that have passed
through my hands contained two, four, and five eggs respec-
tively. In one subject these were very large, measuring 28 by
6 mm. (14 by 4 of aninch). No embryos could be discovered.

Growth.—(a) The Hatchling: The length is not known.

(6) Maturity.—One of my gravid females was 317 mm. (124
inches long).

(c) Maximum Length: The largest record is 390 mm.
(15 inches).

Lepidosis.—(a) T'ypical- As detailed for the genus except.
Prefrontals : Touch the 2nd and 8rd supralabials, preccular,
and supraocular. Supraoculars: Length about two-thirds

206 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

the frontal, and half the parietals. Parietals : Touch two
postoculars. Preocular: Present. Temporal: Rather longer
than the supraocular. (Fig. 43.)

Fia. 43.—Aspidura brachyorrhos.
Coz)

Costals : In 17 rows in the whole body length. Ventrals :
139 to 155. Subcaudals : 27 to 38.

(b) Anomalies: In one specimen the 13th and 25th sub-
caudals were divided.

Dentition——From one skull in my collection. Maxillary :
20to 21. Palatine: 16to17. Pterygoid: 31. Mandibular :
21 to 22.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 207

Distribution —(a) General : Peculiar to Ceylon.

(b) Local: It is fairly common about Kandy. A man I
sent out for snakes brought in three aliveone evening, and I
found a recently cast slough the same day in a bank by the
lake. Green obtained one at Peradeniya, and JI have seen
others from the same locality. Haly records one from the
Horton Plains, and another from Colombo. I examined one
collected at Veyangoda byMr. Carlos Beven. Mr. Drummond-
Hay tells me he has never had a specimen, which is remarkable.

ASPIDURA COPEI Gunther.
Cope’s Aspidura.
(Named after Mr. E. Cope.)
Synonymy.—Aspidura brachyorrhos.
- History —Described by Gunther in 1864.

General Characters.—As detailed for the genus. The snout
is obtusely rounded terminally. The tail accounts for about
one-sixth the total length.

Identification—-The costals in 17 rows, the absence of a
preocular, and the contact of two postoculars with the rae
indicate this species.

Colouration.—Dorsally brownish, powdered with aeLre
A series of paired, black, light-edged spots down the back.
An cblique black streak on each side of the neck. Labials
with blackish posterior borders. Ventrally yellowish, mottled
with brown.

Habits—Nothing known.

Food.—Nothing known.

Breeding.—(a) Jethod of Reproduction : Not known.

(6b) Season: A gravid female preserved in the Colombo
Museum was killed in January, 1906, at Avissawella.

(c) The Eggs : The specimen just alluded to contained 21
eggs (7 in one ovary and J4 in the other). These measured
20 by 10°3 mm. (? by 4 an inch), and were remarkably round.
From this it would appear to be the most prolific species of
the genus.

Growth.—(a) Maturity : The one gravid female on record
measured 635 mm. (2 feet 1 inch).

(6) Maximum Length : 635 mm. (2 feet 1 inch).

208 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Lepidosis.—As detailed for the genus, except Prefrontals :
Touch the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th supralabials, the eye, and the
supraocular. Swpraoculars : Less than half the length of the
frontal, and about one-third the parietals. Parietals : Touch
two postoculars. Preocular: Absent. Temporal: Twice
the length of the supraocular.

Costals : In 17 rows in the whole body length. Obtusely
keeled near the anal region. Venérals: 123 to 150. Sub-
caudals : 20 to 35; some or all entire.

Dentition—From one skull in my collection. Mazillary :
23 to 24. Palatine: 17 to 18 (?). Pterygoid : 30 to 34 (?).
Mandibular : 23.

Distribution.—(a) General : Peculiar to Ceylon.

(b) Local : Has been reported from Dikoya, Balangoda,
and Avissawella. Mr. Drummond-Hay tells me it was not
uncommon at Hopewell, Balangoda district, at about 4,000
feet, otherwise he has not met with it. No less than four
were dislodged from one field when cleaning out the silt from
drains.

ASPIDURA GUENTHERI Ferguson.

Gunther's Aspidura.
(Namedin honour of Mr. Gunther, for many years the Custodian
of the Reptile Department in the British Museum.)

Synonymy.—_Nil.

History.—Christened in 1876 by the late Mr. W. Ferguson,
F.L.S., for many years a notable figure, and a distinguished
man of science in Colombo.

General Characters.—As detailed for the genus. The snout
is subacute. The body is very short, and the tail accounts for
about one-eighth to one-ninth the total length.

Identification—The costals in 17 rows, the absence of a
preocular, and only one postocular touching the parietal will
declare the species.

Colouration.—Dorsally nearly uniform darkish brown.
When looked into this is seen to consist of a powdering of
dark brown on a lighter ground. Three series of small dark
spots on the back, one vertebral, and the others on the fifth
row above the ventrals. The vertebral series continues on to

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 209

the tail, the lateral ceases at the vent and the former alternate
with the latter. Belly nearly uniform brown, but seen closely
the ventrals are rather darker basally. Head brown with a
yellow dark-edged bar on the occiput, proceeding to the gape,
and a yellow spot behind the eye.

Habits—Nothing known.

Food.—Nothing known.

Breeding.—Nothing known.

Growth.—Grows to 150 mm. (5? inches). Tail 20 mm,
(2 of an inch).

Lepidosis—Prefrontal : Touches the 2nd and 3rd supra-
labials, przeocular, eye, and supraocular. Swupraoculars :
About three-fourths the length of the frontal, and less than
half the parietals. Parietals : Touch one postocular. Pre-
ocular : Present. Temporal: Longer than the supraocular.

Costals : In 17 rows in the whole body length. Ventrals :
101 to 127. Subcaudals : 19 to 27.

Dentition.—I have no skull.

Distribution.—(a) General: Peculiar to Ceylon.

(b) Local: The types are from the coast of the Western
Province. Ferguson gave 12 to the British Museum and 7
to the Colombo Museum. Mr. Drummond-Hay tells me he
found it a common species on the upper elevations of Hope-
well, Balangoda district (about 4,000 feet). It is obviously
a fairly common snake but local.

ASPIDURA TRACHYPROCTA Cope.

The Common Roughside.

(Greek “‘ trachus ” rough, and “ proctos ”’ tail in allusion to
the keels on the scales in the anal region of the male.)

Synonymy.—Aspidura brachyorrhos, A. scytale.

History.—Described by Cope in 1860.

General Charaeters.—As detailed for the genus. The snout
is rather narrowly obtuse terminally. The tail accounts for
about one-twelfth the total length.

Identification——The costals in 15 rows, and the presence of
a preocular will indicate the species.

32 6(6)20

210 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Colouration.—Very variable. Dark specimens are uniform
dark brown or blackish dorsally. Light specimens are dirty
yellowish or ruddy dorsally, and these have several series of
small black quincunciate spots. The belly is bright canary
yellow, orange, rose, carrot-red or berry-red more or less
mottled with black. In some the mottling is fine and sparse,
in others heavy and predominating over the ground colour.
There is usually a more or less conspicuous black stripe along
the side of the tail. The brilliant colouring is seen in both
sexes, and from the earliest age to maturity.

Habits.—(a) Haunts: It spends most of its life beneath the |
soil. The coolies that brought in specimens in such abundance
when I was staying with Mr. Drummond-Hay all dug them
up. Some of the boys said they had dug up the soil in their
vegetable garden, others had removed the débris from the
drains, and others again had captured specimens by turning
over stones. The sloughs I found had the head always
embedded in the soil.

(b) Disposition: It is an extremely inoffensive little snake,
that never attempts to bite however much provoked. Those
seized with forceps merely wriggled to try and effect their
freedom.

Food.—They live exclusively on earthworms. I have
opened the stomachs of many, and found almost all held
worms, and the intestines were always loaded with semi-
liquid mud from their diet. Many that were put into
formalin ejected the contents of the stomach, so as to leave a
deposit of earthworms at the bottom of the jar.

Breeding.—(a) The Sewves: Of ninety brought in on
February 29 and March 1, 1920, I found 47 were males, and 43
females. Most adults grow to much the same size irrespective
of sex, but the female shows some slight tendency to outgrow
the male. The clasper is a cylindrical organ beset with fine
spinous processes. The secretion from the anal glands is
pale yellowish.

(b) Method of Reproduction: From the size and character
of some of the eggs I have examined there is no doubt that it
is oviparous. I have however in the most advanced eggs
found extremely minute embryos before oviposition,

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 211

(c) Season : This appears to occupy a considerable period
of the year. Among the ninety above referred to I found
many gravid. In some ovarian follicles were obviously
fertilized, these being enlarged, opaque, and yellow compared
with others in the ovaries. Every stage of development was
found in various specimens, and in some the eggs appeared
to be ripe for discharge. Some females appeared unduly thin,
and in poor health suggesting that they had deposited eggs
already. Further, the ninety specimens varied so much in
length as to suggest that breeding goes on all through the
year. Two specimens were between 4 and 5 inches, five
between 5 and 6 inches, nine between 6 and 7, four between 7
and 8, five between 8 and. 9, nine between 9 and 10, ten between
10 and 11, seventeen between 11 and 12, twelve between 12
and 13, twelve between 13 and 14, and five over 14 inches.

(d) The Eggs: I have not seen any egg after deposition.
The largest I measured after extraction from the parent were
about 25 mm. (1 inch) long, and about 16 mm. (8 of an inch)
broad.

No less than fourteen of the ninety specimens just alluded
to were egg-bound, and I have examined many others in a
similar state. From four to twelve eggs are usually deposited.
One female, however, contained twenty eggs in two distinct
stages of development. Seven in one ovary and five in the
other were large, whilst five in one ovary and three in the
other were much smaller. I have no hesitation in pronouncing
this a condition resulting from two distinct conceptions, the
first I have any knowledge of among snakes.

Growth.—(a) The Hatchling: The smallest specimens I
have examined, which I believe to have been hatchlings, were
106 and 110 mm. (434 and 43 inches) long. Two measuring
106 and 109 mm. (44 and 4 3 inches) were found in company
with a female specimen (presumably the dam) on August 10.

(b) Harly Life: I have not been able to follow the broods,
as breeding appears to be going on all the year.

(c) Maturity : I have found two egg-bound females 280 mm.
(11 inches) long and others little longer. The general rule .
that the longer the mother the larger the brood, is well exem-
plified from my notes. The largest 412 mm. (16} inches)

pAlly. SNAKES OF CEYLON.

contained 12 eggs ; one 367 mm. (144 inches) long contained
twenty eggs in two sets; one 348 mm. (132 inches) long
contained thirteen eggs ; whilst specimens less than 305 mm.
(12 inches long), contained from four to seven eggs.

(d) Maximum Length: My largest male specimen taped
380 mm. (15 inches), and my largest females 405 and 412 mm.
(16 and 16} inches).

Foes.—I extracted one from the stomach of another snake,
viz., Ancistrodon hypnale.

Lepidosis.—(a) Typical: As detailed for the genus, except—
Prezfrontals : Touch the 2nd and 3rd supralabials, preeocular,
eye, and supraocular. Supraocular: About half the length
of the frontal, less than half the length of the parietals. Parie-
tals : Touch both postoculars. Preocular: Present. Tem-
porals : Longer than the supraoculars.

Costals : In 15 rows in the whole body length. The lateral
rows about the anal region have claw-like re-curved spines in
the males. Ventrals: 120 to 151. Subcaudals: 11 to 26
(3 21 to 26, 9 11 to 16).

(6) Anomalies—Prexoculars: I have found. these very
rarely absent on both sides. Postoculars : I have seen these -
confluent with the parietal on one side. Supralabials: I
have seen seven occasionally, the 5th touching the eye on both
sides in two specimens, and the 4th on one side in one specimen.

Costals : In one female the 2nd and 3rd rows above the
ventrals blended shortly behind the head and re-divided and
re-united several times so that the scale rews numbered
alternately 13 and 15 in the whole body length.

Dentition.—From two skulls in my collection. Maaillary :
24to25. Palatine: 20to0 21. Pterygoid: 31? to 35. Mandi-
bular : 25 ? to 27.

Distribution.—(a) General: Peculiar to Ceylon.

(b) Local: This is the little snake so frequently encountered
inNuwara Eliya. I found fivefreshly cast sloughs in banks and
drains on my first walk half way round the lake in February,
and then captured a live specimen. Mr. Drummond-Hay
tells me that when he first went to Warwick estate he offered
ten cents reward to his coolies for every snake. His first
Sunday there produced over three hundred of this species.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 213

Again, when I visited him early in 1920, he told his coolies to
bring in snakes, and five youths brought in ninety trachyprocta
on February 29 and March 1. Its favoured altitude appears
to be about 4,000 to 6,000 feet, but I have known it up to
about 7,000 feet. It has been reported from Ramboda,
Hakgala, Nuwara Eliya, Warwick estate, New Galway
district (5,000 to 6,000 feet), Diyatalawa, and Kandy. Mr.
Drummond-Hay got it plentifWly at Lennock estate in the
centre of the Uva patnas (3,000 to 4,200 feet).

ASPIDURA DRUMMONDHAYI Boulenger.

Drummond-Hay’s Roughside.

(Named in honour of its discoverer, Mr. H. M. Drummond-Hay.)

Synonymy.—Nil.

History.—Described by Mr. Boulenger in 1904.

General Characters.—As detailed for the genus. Snout
subacutely rounded terminally. Tail about one-tenth the
total length.

Identification.—The costals in 15 rows in the whole body
length, the absence of a preocular, and the divided condition
of the subcaudals will establish its identity.

Colouration.—Dark purplish-brown above and_ below,
strongly iridescent, with minute white dots or vermiculations ;
five rather indistinct narrow blackish stripes, one vertebral
and two iateral pass down the back. The latter are on the
confines of the 2nd and 3rd and the 4th and 5th rows above
the ventrals.

Habits.—Nothing known.

Food.—Nothing known.

Breeding.—Nothing known,

Growth.—The maximum length is 220 mm. (84 inches),
tail 22 mm. (% of an inch).

Lepidosis.—(a) Typical: As detailed for the genus, except—
Prefrontals: Touch the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th supralabials,
the eye, and the supraocular. Swpraocular: About two-
thirds the length of the frontal, and half the parietals. Parie-
tals : Touch two postoculars. Preoculars: Absent. Tem-
porals : Longer than the supraoculars.

214 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Costals : In 15 rows in the whole body length. Those
about the anal region are keeled, but not claw-like.

Ventrals : 112 to 1385 (¢112 to 119, 2 135). Swbcaudals :
18 to 26 ($ 26, ¢ 18).

(b) Anomalies—Subcaudals: It is not unusual to find
some entire at the base of the tail,

Dentition.— Maaillary : 27 to 29? Palatine: 25? Ptery-
goid : 29? Mandibular: 27?

Distribution.—(a) General: Peculiar to Ceylon.

(6) Local: All the specimens obtained by Mr. Drummond-
Hay, he tells me, came from Hopewell estate, Balangoda
district, at about 4,000 feet.

Genus DENDROPHIS.

(Greek “‘ dendron ”’ tree, “‘ ophis ’’ snake.)

General Characters (for Indian species)—Small snakes, the
largest hardly reaching 3 feet. Extremely elegant in colour-
ing, and graceful in conformation. Head elongately pear-
shaped, markedly depressed. Snout moderately long, much
depressed, broadly rounded terminally, with an obtusely
rounded canthus. Lore concave. Eye large, with round
pupil. Nostril lateral, round, occupying the full depth of
the suture between the nasals. Neck distinct. Body
elongate, slender, cylindrical, attenuating towards the neck,
and very gradually posteriorly. Belly with pronounced
lateral keels. Tail long, about one third, or more than a
third, the total length.

Identification.—The enlarged vertebrals, and keeled ventrals
will proclaim this genus or Dendrelaphis. The maxillary
teeth increase in size posteriorly in Dendrophis, but decrease
in Dendrelaphis, or are of equal length. See fig. 45 (a) and (c).

Habits.—Arboreal. Diurnal. Very active. Courageous.
Food.—Chiefly lizards, and tree-frogs.
Breeding.—Oviparous.

Poison.—Non-poisonous.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 215

Lepidosis.— Rostral: Touches six shields. Internasals: Two.
Prefronials : Two. Frontal : Touches six shields. Nasals :
Divided. JLoreals: None, one, or two. Preoculars: One.
Postoculars : Two. Temporals: Two; anterior very small,
two median as long as the last labial, and two posterior as
long as the last labial. Swupralabials : Hight or nine; two
or three touching the eye. Sublinguals: Two pairs, the
pesterior subequal to, or longer than, the anterior.

Costals : At midbody. Longer than broad, smooth, with
single apical facets. Vertebral and ultimate rows enlarged,
rectiform, the intervening rows oblique. Vertebrals en-
larged ; originating in the neck by a gradual increase in
size, or by a confluence of 2 or 3 rows; ending in the anal
region. Scale rows 13 or 15. Ultimate row enlarged. Ven-
trals : Strongly keeled laterally. Anal: Entire or divided.
Supracaudals: In even rows. Subcaudals: Divided; strongly
keeled laterally.

Dentition.— Vawillary : Syncranterian, anododont, cory-
phodont. Palatine: Anododont, feebly kumatodont. Ptery-
goid: Anododont, isodont. Mandibular: Anododont.
kumatodont.

DENDROPHIS BIFRENALIS Boulenger.

(Latin “ bis” twice, “frenum ”’ literally “a bit,’’ refers
here to the loreal shield.)

Boulenger’s Bronze-back.

Sinhalese : “ haldanda ”’’ (Willey) (rice stick).

Synonymy.—Dendrophis picta.

History.—Described by Boulenger in 1890. It is nicely
figured in Plate IV. of the same author’s Catalogue of Snakes,
1894, Vol. IT.

General Charaeters.—As detailed under the genus. The
tail is about one-third the total length.

Identification The costals numbering 15, except behind
where they drop to 11 or 9, the keeled character of the ven-
trals, and the twin loreals taken together, denote this species
among Ceylon snakes.

216 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Colouration.— Uniform bronze dorsally, with narrow, black,
oblique streaks anteriorly. A yellow line along the outer
row of costals from nape to vent. Head bronze above
lips and chin yellow. A dark streak from the lore, and
behind the eye to the side of the body. Ventrum greenish-
yellow between the keels, bronze above the keels to the light
flank lines.

Habits.— Nothing special known.

Food.—I found a small frog in the stomach of one.

Breeding.—My Travancore specimen was egg-bound, but
the date unfortunately was not recorded. It contained
five large eggs, but I could discover no trace of an embryo
within. The species from this is almost certainly oviparous
in habit.

Growth.—Boulenger says 1,030 mm. (3 feet 4 inches). My
Travancore specimen was 962 mm. (3 feet 1% inch), tail
368 mm. (144 inches).

Lepidosis.—(a) Typical.—Rostral: The rostro-nasal and
rostro-internasal sutures subequal. Internasals: The suture
between them little shorter than that between the pre-
frontals, subequal to the internaso-prefrontals. Prefrontals:
The suture between them longer than the prefronto-frontal,
touching the internasal, postnasal, two loreals, przocular,
and usually the supraocular. Frontal: The fronto-supra-
ocular sutures more than twice the fronto-parietals. Swupra-
ocular: As long as the frontal, and about as broad along a line
connecting the centres of the eyes. Nasals: Divided.
Loreals: Two; one anterior, one posterior ; taken together
they are longer than the nasals; the anterior touches the
internasals usually. Preocular: One, nearly touching the
frontal. Postoculars: Upper larger. Temporals: Anterior as
small as the postoculars, median and posterior longer, nearly
as long as the supraoculars. Supralabials: Nine: lst and —
2nd touching the nasals, 5th and 6th the eye. Sublinguals :
The posterior touch the 5th and 6th infralabials. Infra-
labials: Six; the sixth largest, shorter than the posterior
sublinguals, much broader than those shields, touching two
gcales behind.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 217

Costals: Vertebrals about as broad as long, about as broad
as the ultimate row. Ultimate row with scales about as
broad as long. In 15 rows two heads-lengths behind the head,
15 at midbody, 11 or 9 two heads-lengths before the vent.
The reduction of rows from 15 to 13 is due to the absorption
of the fourth row from the ventrals, and from 13 to 11 to the
absorpticn of the fifth row. Ventrals: 154 to 176. Anal:
Divided. Subcaudals : 144 to 165.

(6) Anomalies: The anterior loreal rarely just fails to touch
the internasal.

Fic. 44.—Dendrophis bifrenalis.

(x 14.)
33 6(6)20

218 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Dentition.— From three skulls in my collection. Mazillary :
22 to 25; strongly coryphodont. Palotine: 12to 14. Ptery
goid: 21 to 27. Mandibular : 23 to 27.

Distribution.—(a) General: South India. Ceylon.

(6b) Local.—lhe only Indian specimen known was sent to
me from Trivandrum, Travancore.

I examined five in the Colombo Museum, one from Puna-
galla, one from Yatiyantota, and one from Balangoda. In
a small local collection made just outside Galle, I found no
less than five examples out of fourteen snakes. Mr. Drum-
mond-Hay tells me it is extremely common in the Yatiyantota
district, below about 1,000 feet. He never obtained it Up-
country. 7

DENDROPHIS CAUDOLINEOLATUS Gunther.

(Latin ‘‘ cauda. ”’ tail, ‘‘ lineolatus *’ diminutive of “‘ lineatus ”’
lined, 2.e., with fine lines on the tail.)

Gunther's Bronze-back.

Sinhalese: “ haldanda ’” (Willey) (rice stick).
Synonymy.—? Dendrophis gregorii, D. caudolineatus.
History.— Described by Gunther in 1869.

General Charaeters.—As detailed under the genus. The
tail is abcut one-third the total length.

Identification.—The costals are in 13 rows, reducing poste-
riorly to 9. Ventrals keeled. Loreal: one. These characters
taken together will indicate the species.

Colouration.—Uniform bronze dorsally, except for a few
black oblique streaks anteriorly. Tail with two black lines
on each side. Ventrum greenish-white.

Habits.— Nothing known.

Food.—Nothing known.

Breeding.—A gravid female, 868 mm. in length (2 feet
104 inches long), tail 298 mm. (11? inches), is preserved in
the Colombo Museum. This was killed by Mr. Drummond-
Hay in May, 1903. It contains three very-elongate eggs,
measuring 41 by 10 mm. (12 by 2 of an inch), with no trace
of an embryo.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 219

Growth.—The longest I have seen is the gravid female just
alluded to.

Lepidosis.—Only differs from bzfrenalis in the following :—
Loreal: One. Temporals: One or two anterior. Swupra-
labials : Hight or nine; the 4th and 5th, or 5th and 6th,
touching the eye. Costals : In 13 rows to behind midbody,
reducing to 9 two heads-lengths before the vent. Ventrals :
149 to 161. Subcaudals : 119 to 128.

Dentition From one skull in my collection. Maxillary:
28 to 29. Palatine: 18 to 21. Pterygoid : 32 to 34. Man-
dibular : 27 to 30.

Distribution.—(a) General: Peculiar to Ceylon.

(b) Local: Haly says it appears to inhabit damp forests
on low hills. It is evidently a rare snake.

There are three specimens in the British Museum, the
exact habitat not specified. Haly records it from Balangoda,
Udugama, and Illagolla. J have had three sent to me at
different times from Ceylon. Mr. Drummond-Hay took
several specimens about Balangoda, between about 2,000
and 3,500 feet, but found it uncommon.

DENDROPHIS EFFRENIS Werner.

(Latin “‘e’’ without, and ‘“‘frenum ”’ the loreal shield.)
Werner's Bronze-back.

History.— Described by Werner in 1909. (Uber neue oder
seltene Reptilien de Nat. Mus. Hamburg, 1909, page 221.)
May prove to be an aberrant _specimen of the last species.

General Charaeters.—As detailed under the genus. The
tail is about two-sevenths the total length.

Identification—The costals in 13 rows reducing poste-
riorly to 9, ventrals keeled, and no loreal, if taken together
furnish a guide to the identity of the species.

Colouration.—As in the last species.

Habits— Nothing known.

Food.—Nothing known.

Breeding.— Nothing known.

220 SNAKES OF CEYLON.
Growth.—The total length is 884 mm. (2 feet 11 inches),
of which the tail accounts for 244 mm. (9? inches).

Lepidosis.—Loreal: None. Postoculars: Three. Sublin-
guals : The posterior touch the 4th and Sth infralabials.
Costals: In 13 rows, at midbody. Ventrals: 175. Sub-
caudals ; 129.

Distribution.—(a) General: Ceylon.

(b) Local: Said to be from Colombo. The only specimen
known was sent to Dr. Werner by John Hagenbeck.

Genus DENDRELAPHIS.

(Greek “* dendron ” tree, and “ elaphis ”’ snake.)

General Characters.—The remarks made under Dendrophis
apply equally to this genus. The species of both genera
are extremely alike, and are only separated on account of
differences in the posterior maxillary teeth. In Dendrophis
these are enlarged, in Dendrelaphis they are not. (See fig. 45.)

CUI a
.
S porae
B a
CRM c

Fic. 45.—A.—Maxilla and mandible of Dendrelaphis tristis.
B.—Maxilla of Dendrophis.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 221

Dentition.—-Mazillary : Syncranterian, anododont, feebly
scaphiodont. Palatine: Anododont, feebly kumatodont.

Pterygoid: Anododont, isodont. Mandibular: Anododont,
kumatodont.

Six species have been described all from the Oriental Region.
Of these, only one, viz., tristis, occurs in Ceylon.

DENDRELAPHIS TRISTIS (Daudin).
Variety taprobanensis (Wall).

(Latin ‘ tristis ’ sad, from its sombre colouration.)

Seba’s Bronze-back.

Sinhalese: “haldanda’’ (rice stick) (Green). Tamil:
Frequently called ‘“‘ komberi muken” (snouted branch
climber), but this name is properly applied to the green
whipsnake, Dryophis mycterizans.

Syhonymy.—* Coluber tristis, Dipsas schokari, Leptophis
mancas, L. pictus, Dendrophis chairecacos, D. maniar, D. boit,
D. pictus, D. helena.

History.—I think there can be no doubt that the earliest
figure of this species is shown in Seba’s “ Thesaurus ”’ (Plate
CIX., fig. 1}, which appeared in 1734. The figure is taken
from a Ceylon specimen referred to by Russell in 1796,
and figured by him in his Volume [. (Plate XXXI.).
Volume II. Plates XXV. and XXVI. also depict this snake.
Christened by Daudin in 1803.

General Characters.--Head depressed. Snout broadly
rounded. Neck very evident. Body round, smooth, of
nearly even calibre, and very graceful in outline. Belly
sharply keeled on each side. Tailalso sharply keeled below,

* There has been much contusion in the past as to the name of this
snake. Gunther (Rept. Brit. Ind., 1863) alluded to it as Dendrophis
pictus. Boulenger (Faun. Brit. Ind., Reptilia, 1890) referred to it
under the same title. The same authority, however, in 1894 (Cat.
Snakes, Brit. Mus., Vol. II.) adopts the name Dendrelaphis tiristis
for the South Indian and Ceylon form, separating it from Dendrophis
pictus (Gmelin). Abercromby (Snakes of Ceylon, page 75) uses the old
name for it. At least, I presume, it is this species he refers to.

229, SNAKES OF CEYLON.

and nearly one-third the total length of the snake. Eye
large, with an are of golden-brown demarcating the pupil,
which is round in share.

Identification.—The costals are in 15 rows and reduce to
1] or 9 in the posterior part of the bedy. The ventrals and
subcaudals are sharply keeled, and there is one loreal. These
combined characters will differentiate this from other Ceylon
snakes.

Colouration.--—Dorsally the snake is a beautiful bronze,
each scale more or less bordered basally and apically with
black. In many Ceylon specimens there is a conspicuous
yellow vertebral stripe involving the vertebral and half the
next row of scales. This begins on the nape, and is seen only
in the anterior part of the body. There are usually small,
black, oblique, streaks anteriorly, and a black line demareating
the dorsal bronze from the creamy ventral colouration. The
head is bronze above, and the upper lip is yellow or buff, with
the posterior edges of the lst to 4th or 2nd to 4th labials
black. There is a narrow, short, and rather obscure black —
postocular streak also. The belly is uniform creamy-buff,
greyish, or greenish, and the ventral hue is continued on the
side of the body to the last costal and half the row above it.
The over-lapped portions of the dorsal scales are a bright
sky-blue, but this is not evident until the snake, under excite -
ment, expands itself. When seen in such circumstances, it
is a very strikingly beautiful reptile.

I have examined a specimen without any trace of the
light vertebral stripe, no biack stripes anteriorly, and no
postocular streak. The belly was deep plumbeous with some
yellowish mottling on each ventral shield subterminally and
along the keels, and a light line below the dorsal bronze
posteriorly.

Habits.—(a) Haunts : Seba’s bronze-back, like all its allies,
lives almost entirely in bushes and trees. 1 became most
familiar with it in Trichinopoly in my early Indian days,
when I spent a good deal of my leisure time birds nesting.
During my daily excursions I frequently came across it, and
have indeed met as many as three or four in a single outing.
I frequently discovered it lying on a branch when peering

SNAKES OF CEYLON. Dae

through low scrub, but if the snake lies still the chances are
it would escape detection, looking extremely like a small
branch itself. There is no doubt that its colouration is
decidedly protective.

An observation of Mr. E. E. Green’s in a recent letter
exemplifies this. He says: “On September 8, 1903, I
placed a branch with green foliage in the snake’s cage. For-
merly all the different snakes coiled up together amongst
the dry foliage of a dead branch, but now they have sorted .
themselves, the green whipsnakes (Dryophis mycterizans)
have moved on to the green branch, while the T’ropidonotus
and Dendrophis (Dendrelaphis, F.W.}\—both brown snakes—
have remained on the dead branch.”’

Often gazing up into trees a movement in the foliage,
twenty or more feet above, drew my attention to a snake
which when shot proved to be this species. I encountered
it more than once in holes in trees, sometimes detecting the
snake from the ground level with its head peering forth,
or when aloft investigating a likely hole for a bird’s nest. In
the latter circumstances a cane thrust into the hole and
briskly stirred about effected its exit. Once the snake
vacated its quarters’so hastily that it fell to the ground, On
one occasion in Colombo, [ discovered one in the open and
pursued it, but it got into grass and disappeared beneath
a log. With some difficulty the log was overturned, but the
snake could not be seen, and yet the ground was such that
it was impossible for it to have escaped in any direction
unseen. After a considerable search a narrow hole was
discovered in the log in which the snake proved to have taken
refuge. On more than one occasion I have found its slough
entwined among the twigs of a crow’s nest, which it had
evidently visited with the intention of disencumbering itself
of a worn-out vestment, as the slough was perfect or nearly
so. On one of these occasions I found the snake in a hole
in the same tree, and matched it with the slough.

(6) Disposition: Mr. Ingleby, quoted by Ferguson, says
that it is a very lively and plucky snake, and the fact that
Mr. Green found one devouring a large bloodsucker lizard
(Calotes versicolor)—a truculent creature when brought to

224 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

bay—sufficiently establishes its reputation for courage.
Lately, I saw one recently captured by a juggler in Bangalore
strike viciously and repeatedly at the man. On the other
hand, some specimens are not vicious, and can be handled
without betraying malice. Mr. Green says that his captive
specimens were quite gentle, and never attempted to bite
when handled.

(c) Striking Posture: The specimens I have seen strike
did so from the ground. It first raises the forebody, then
expands itself, bringing into view the sky-blue ornament-
ation of the scales. At the same time it compresses the neck,
and slightly pouches the throat. Then there is a rapid
retraction, and a sudden lunge forward at the object aimed at.

(4) Nocturnal or Diurnal: The bronze-backed tree snakes
are completely diurnal in habit, their colouration affording
them excellent protection.

(e) Progression: I know of no more active snake than this
Indian bronze-back, and it is most remarkable how expedi-
tiously it can disappear in the face of danger. On the ground
it moves very rapidly, with forebody erect, to the nearest
cover. If a tree is reached, its speed in ascent is truly
amazing. Mr. Green refers to its restless habit and the
quickness of its movements. The tenacity with which it can
maintain its hold in foliage under most disadvantageous
circumstances I have more than once been witness to. I
managed to hustle one to the extreme tips of the pendant
twigs of a neem tree (Melia azadirachta), but though these
swayed freely under its weight and movements, the snake
remained firmly wreathed round them until I dislodged it with
my stick.

Some species of this genus and Dendrophis have been
reported to “fly.” Dendrophis pictus, a very nearly allied
Indian species, is one of these. It would be more accurate,
however, to say these snakes “‘spring.”’ Under the species
Chrysopelea ornata I have remarked on this habit. It is
interesting to observe in this connectionthat Pridham* speaks
of a snake called by the natives “ ahedcella *”’ in the following

* Ceylon and its Dependencies, page 750.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 225

terms: ““The movements of this snake are rapid, and from
its power of springing it is called flying snake.” The snake
alluded to is no doubt the bronze-backed tree snake or
Chrysopelea ornata, and not the green whipsnake (Dryophis
mycterizans), to which the name “ ehetulla ” properly belongs.
Natives are very inexact in their use of names, and frequently
apply them wrongly. Dr. J. R. Henderson, writing to me
in answer to my queries, said that in Southern India “there
is a common belief that D. pictus (by which he means D,
tristis) can. jump, but I have never seen it do so.”

(f) Sloughing: Some excellent notes on this little studied
function were made in the Madras Museum some years ago.*
During the official year 1896 one shed its skin on April 2,
May 6, June 28, July 27,and October 29. Another on May 13,
June 16, July 21, and October 17. In a third instance,
a specimen which was acquired on August 12, sloughed
on October 24. Now, it is very curious, and apparently
something beyond coincidence, that in all three cases there
was no desquamation in the months of August and September,
though, in the first two cases, there had been a regular ecdysis
in several preceding months.

Food.—This tree snake appears to me to subsist under
natural conditions, chiefly on lizards, but does not disdain
other reptilian fare. Mr. E. E. Green tells me that in capti-
vity “it feeds readily upon small lizards (Agamidz, Geckon-
idx, and Scincidz).”’ He saw one once take and eat a gecko,
which it swallowed immediately alive. He also once en-
countered one eating a full-grown “ blood-sucker”’ lizard +
(Calotes versicolor), and tells me further that young examples
are said to feed on grasshoppers. Ferguson quotes Mr.
Ingleby as saying that it is very keen after frogs, and parti-
cularly tree frogs. Mr. C. Beadon tells me that he once
found one eating a blind snake (J'yphlops sp.), which returned
to its kill after having been disturbed. On occasion it will
attack and plunder birds’ nests. I once witnessed an en-
counter between this snake and a pair of black-backed robins
(Thamnobia fulicata) in the Borella Cemetery in Colombo.

* Administration Report, Madras Govt. Mus., 1896-97.
+ Spol. Zeylanica, April, 1906, page 220.
34 6(6)20

226 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

My attention was attracted by the distressed behaviour of
the birds, which I approached cautiously, and saw on the
sround between a group of gravestones a tristis with its head
well erected. I was so near that I both saw and heard
more than one peck delivered (it appeared to me on the head)
by the birds in their agitated flights to an fro. An incautious
movement on my part and the snake had slipped away, and
no amount of search could reveal its whereabouts. In a
croton bush within a yard or two of the encounter I found
the robin’s nest with eggs. Specimens in the Madras Museum*
have fed freely. One ate 79 toads and 1 lizard between
August 12 and March 3]; another 94 frogs from April ] to -
January 21, following; a third 18 frogs between February 13
and March 31; and a fourth 104 frogs, presumably during
the year.

Breeding.—(a) Method of Reproduction: This bronze-back
is Oviparous in habit. Mr. Green had eggs deposited in his
vivarium.

(b) Season: A gravid specimen killed in September (7)
from the Madura District contained eggs. Another specimen
killed at Peradeniya at the end of December was found to
contain nearly mature eggs. The eggs deposited in Mr.
Green’s Vivarium were voided in January. I had a specimen
with eggs from Kil Kotagiri, Nilgiri Hills, in February. A
specimen in the Madras Museum deposited six eggs on August
4,1919. I had a very recently hatched specimen on August
28.

(c) Period of Gestation: Abercromby says this is from
four to five months.

(d) Period of Incubation.—Abercromby says the eggs hatch
in from four to six weeks. (Spol. Zeylan., Volume IX.,
page 146.)

(ce) Number of Clutch: My scanty records show that from
6 to 7 eggs are laid.

(f) Dimensions of Eggs: The eggs are remarkably long.
Green’s deposited eggs were submitted to me, and I found
the smallest measured 29 by 10 mm. (13 by 55, of an inch),
and the largest 35 by 12 mm. (13 by } an inch). These eggs

* Administration Report, Madras Govt. Mus., 1896-97.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 227

when cut open were found to contain minute embryos curled
up in a small oval chamber about the middle of the yolk.
(See Fig. 46.)

G

Fic. 46.—Egeg of Dendrelaphis tristis showing chamber and embryo,

(Life size. )

Growth.—(a) Length of Young: The smallest specimen

I have seen measured 261 mm. (104 inches). This was killed

on August 28 at Marmagoa, West Coast, India, and appeared

to be a hatchling. It is very remarkable that this is the only

very young example that has passed through my hands in 25
years.

(b) Early Infe: I have not been able to ascertain the
annual growth of this species, not having a long enough
series to indicate the broods of successive years.

(c) Maturity: The smallest gravid specimen I know of
measured 521 mm. (3 feet 44 inches).

(d) Maximum Length: My largest measurement is 1,240
mm. (4 feet). Abercromby gives a similar length. Boulenger
says it attains to 1310 mm. (4 feet 23 inches), the tail 420 mm.
(164 inches).

Lepidosis.—(a) Z’ypical—Rostral: The rostro-nasal sutures
longer than the rostro-internasals, more than twice the
rostro-labials. Internasals: The suture between them
subequal to that between the prefrontals, and subequal to
the internaso-prefrontals. Prefrontals: Touching the
internasal, postnasal, loreal, preeocular, and supraocular ;
the suture between them longer than the prefronto-frontal.
Frontal: The fronto-supraocular sutures more than twice
the fronto-parietals. Suwpraoculars: As long as the frontal,

228 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

and rather broader along a line connecting the centres of the
eyes. Nasals: Divided. Loreal: One, nearly as long as
the nasals. Prexoculars: One, not nearly touching the
frontal. Temporals: Anterior small, the median and pos-
terior two-thirds as long as the supraocular. Supralabials :
Nine ; the Ist and 2nd touching the nasals ; the 5th and 6th
the eye, and the 7th, 8th, and 9th the lower temporal. Swb-
linguals : The posterior pair touch the 5th and 6th infra-
labials. Infralabials: Six, the sixth largest, broader than
the posterior sublinguals, but not so long.

Fie. 47.—Dendrelaphis tristis.

Costals : At midbody. Vertebrals about as broad as long,
about as broad as the ultimate row. Oblique rows. The
breadth of the scales less than half their length. Ultimate
row enlarged, the breadth of its scales subequal to their
length. In 15 rows, two heads-lengths behind the head,
15 at midbody, 11 or 9 two heads-lengths before the vent.
The rows decrease to 13 by the absorption of the 4th row
from the ventrals, to 11 by the absorption of the 5th row,
and to 9 by the absorption of the 4th or 5th row. Venitrals :
163 to 205. Subcaudals : 110 to 150.

(6) Anomalies—Supralabials : Sometimes eight, the 4th and
5th touching the eye; or ten, the 4th, 5th, and 6th touching
the eye.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 229

Cosials : I have seen a specimen in which the scale rows
Were abnormal, counting 13 for a considerable length ante-
riorly Just behind the neck the 6th and 7th rows from the
ventrals united, the scales then counting 13. The blended
rows later redivided and reblended several times, but the
count was usually 13. The specimen, a male, was otherwise
normal, the ventrals counting 163, and the subcaudals 126.

Dentition.— From a Peradeniya specimen in my collection.
Maxillary: 21. Palatine: 13. Péterygoid : 27to 30. Mandi-
bular: 24 to 25. This closely agrees with a specimen from
Kil Kotagiri in the Nilgiri Hills, in which the Mazillary
number 21 to 22; Palatine, 14; Piterygoid, 28 to 29; and
Mandibular, 24 to 26. In nine other Indian specimens
they vary, the Maxillary being 17 to 22 ; Palatine, 11 to 13 ;
Piterygoid, 19 to 26; and Mandibular, 20 to 24.

Distribution.—(a) General: Peninsular India, Assam,
Ceylon. In India it extends north to the Central
Provinces and Central India. Further east, it extends to
the Himalayas.

(6) Local: It frequents the plains, but ascends into the
hills in India up to at least 5,000 feet. Both Ferguson and
Haly report it common in Ceylon. Mr. Drummond-Hay
tells me he has never seen it above about 2,000 feet.

Genus OLIGODON.

(Greek “ oligos” few, ‘‘odous”’ tooth.)

General Characters: (for Indian species).—Small snakes
varying between about 1 and 2 feet in length. Head ovate,
moderately depressed, broadest a little behind the eyes.
Snout short, rapidly narrowing to a subtruncate extremity,
without canthus. Eye moderate in size, with round pupil.
Nostril small. Neck little, if at all, evident. Body short,
stout, cylindrical, of fairly even calibre, or attenuating
slightly posteriorly. Belly round or laterally angulate.
Tail short, being about one-fifth to one-tenth the total length.

230 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Identification.—The two most distinctive features are
that the suture between the internasals is half or less than
half the internaso-prefrontals, and the suture between the
prefrontals much shorter than the prefronto-frontals. The
breadth of the costals is three-fourths or more than three-
fourths their length.

Habits.—Terrestrial. Diurnal. Active. Courageous.

Food.—Chiefly lizard’s (snake’s ?) eggs and frog’s spawn.
Sometimes lizards and other reptiles.

Breeding.—As far as is known oviparous.

Poison.-—Non-poisonous.

Lepidosis (for Indian species).—Rostral: Touching six
shields (eight in splendidus). Internasals: A pair usually
(four in a transverse seriesin splendidus, absent in brevicauda).
Prefrontals: Two. Frontal: Touches six shields. Nasals :
Entire or divided. Loreal: Present or absent. Preoculars :
One. Postoculars: One or two. Temporals: One or two.
Supralabials : Six, seven, or eight ; one or two touching the eye.
Sublinguals : Two pairs; the posterior subequal to or smaller
than the anterior. .

Cositals: At midbody longer than broad, rectiform,
smooth, without apical pits or facets. Vertebrals not enlarged.
Ultimate row enlarged. In 13 to 21 rows. Venéirals:
Rounded or angulate laterally. Anal: Entire or divided.
Supracaudals : In even rows. Subcaudals : Divided.

Dentition.— Maxillary : Syncranterian, anododont, markedly
coryphodont ; with or without an edentulous space ante-
riorly ; posterior teeth very much compressed, and like the
blade of a Gurkha’s kukri, hence the name I have applied to
these snakes. (See Fig. 49.) Palatine: Teeth small and
few, isodont ; with or without an edentulous space anteriorly
and posteriorly ; rarely edentulous. Pterygoid: Teeth few
and small, isodont; with or without an edentulous space
anteriorly ; rarely edentulous. Mandibular: Anododont,
feebly kumatodont.

Distribution.— Lower Egypt, South Asia, Malay Archi-
pelago to the Philippines.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. ey |

The genus comprises about forty species, four of which
occur in Ceylon, viz., arnensis, teniolatus templetoni, and
sublineatus.

OLIGODON ARNENSIS (Shaw).*

(Latin, denoting an inhabitant of Arni in South India,
where the type specimen was found.)

The Common Kukri Snake.

Synonymy.—Coluber arnensis, C. russelius, C. monticolus,
Coronella russeli, Simotes russellit, S. albiventer, S. arnensis.

History.—It was first figured by Seba in 1735. (Thesaurus
II., Plate LXIIL., Fig. 4.) In 1796 Russell figured it twice
in his first volume (Plates XX XV. and XX XVIII).

General Characters.—As detailed under the genus. A neck
is fairly evident. The tail is about one-seventh the total
~ length.

Identification—The costals 17 two heads-lengths behind
the head, 17 at midbody, 15 two heads-lengths before vent,
and the supralabials seven, with the 3rd and 4th only touching
the eye, will distinguish this from other Ceylon snakes.

Colouration.—The ground colour is brown of various hues,
inclined sometimes to a ruddy or a purplish tint. It fades
to a more or less degree in the flanks. The back is crossed
with black bars which are narrowly, but usually distinctly,
outlined with whitish or pale yellow. They do not reach

* This snake has since 1854 been included in the genus Sizmotes.
The genus, however, was separated from Oligodon by Dumeril and
Bibron on the erroneous observation that the species of Oligodon had
no teeth in the palate. Later, Boulenger, while admitting that some
species had palatine teeth, retained the genus on the erroneous obser-
vation that species df Oligodonhad no pterygoidteeth. All the species,
included in the two genera that I have been able to obtain skulls of,
have pterygoid teeth, except templetoni, so thatthe grounds for sepa-
rating the two are without foundation. All should, therefore, be
included in a single genus, and for this Oligodon has priority, dating
as it does from 1827.

252 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

the ventrals, but break up in the flanks into streaks. They
vary somewhat in width, but are, I think, always distinctly
narrower than the intervals left between them. Their
number seems to vary with the locality. In the United
Provinces, Punjab, North-west Frontier, and the Western
Himalayas my examples have shown from 41 to 54 on the
body, and 9 to 12 on the tail. From Orissa I have had one
with 37 bars on the body, and only 6 on the tail. Russell’s
Arni specimen had only 22 in the whole length, and Gunther
mentions one from Ceylon with only 17 on the body. I have
seen as Many as 62 bars in a specimen from Behar. In the
vast majority of specimens these bars are of even width in
mid-dorsum and taper costally, but I have seen a specimen
in Fyzabad, and another from Bannu, in which they were
indented in the median line anteriorly and posteriorly, and
converted into twin beads or figures-of-8. This form of
mark is common in many of the species of Oligodon. In the
intervals between the bars the flanks are variegated with
short streaks. The belly is usually of a uniform pearly
white, but is often black spotted, or, Boulenger says, the
ventrals may be bordered at their free edges with brown.
The spotted specimens are, I find, not peculiar to any locality,
for I have seen a specimen in Almora in which most ventrals
had a spot at one or other side, and Boulenger records such
from Nepal and South India, where the majority of specimens
are unspotted. The head is adorned with three conspicuous
black marks which are often, if not usually, bordered narrowly
with white or pale yellow. The anterior mark is crescentic,
and passes across in front of the eyes to reappear below them.
The median and posterior are sagittate, the apex of the
former reaching to the frontal and the arms to behind the
gape, whilst the apex of the latter passes to the parietals
and the arms to the sides of the neck. . The posterior sagitta
is much the broader one. These three marks are nearly
always discrete, unlike the same marks in some other species
which are connected by a median shaft. In very old speci-
mens these head marks tend to disintegrate and become
obscured. There are usually some dark streaks to be seen
in some of the supralabial sutures.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. ISO

Habits.—(a) Haunis: Nearly all the specimens I have had
came from within Cantonment limits. I have come across
many alive on the roads or the wayside, and have even met
with it on the open parade ground more than once. More
usually it does not stray from within easy touch of efficient
cover. It appears to make its home for the most part in
masonry, frequently domiciling itself in bungalows and
outhouses. I have received many with the report that they
were found in the house. Mr. Reid tells me that in Behar,
where it is common, it frequents buildings and old walls.
I once had one sent to me that had fallen into a well in the
compound, having probably fallen from the masonry. One
received. by me was found at night in the bedding of one of
the Gurkhas encamped on granite hill, Almora. This like
other kukri snakes is, of course, harmless, but a specimen
in Bannu was responsible for the death of a sepoy. I am
indebted to Captain Sumner, I.M.S., for the details of the
incident. It appears that the sepoy, with others, was on duty
at Kurram Garti (8 miles from Bannu) and under canvas.
He came off sentry at about 11 P.M., removed his uniform,
and laid down on his bed on the ground. He jumped up
immediately rubbing his buttock, and declared that some-
thing had bitten him there. His companions searched his
bedding, and there found a snake which they killed. They
examined him, but could see no signs of a bite, and tried to
persuade him, though without success, that he had not been
bitten. The next morning he did not get up, and his com-
panions could not rouse him. The hospital assistant was
sent for and found him comatose. He did what he could for
him and sent him in a dhooly to Bannu, but he expired on
the way. Captain Sumner here examined the body, and
could find no local signs of the bite, and was much perplexed
as to the cause of death. The snake was put into a bottle
and kept in the hospital, and when I heard of the case I wrote
to Lieutenant-Colonel Magrath in Bannu, who sent me the
specimen. To my surprise I found the author of the mischief
was a common kukri snake, 1 foot 7} inches long. It seems
to me that the man must have died of fright, believing him-
self bitten.

35 6(6)20

234 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

(6) Disposition: IT do not consider it a malicious snake,
though it will sometimes menace, or even inflict a bite when
molested or its liberty is jeopardized. I have had many
alive, picked up several in their natural haunts, and had
more than one in captivity, some showed great timidity,
others faced round pluckily and menaced or struck without
inflicting an injury, or more rarely actually bit me. Russell
had one that he brought face to face with pigeons and chickens,
but which he could not induce it to bite.

(c) Streking Posture: I have seen it inflate its body to
a remarkable degree under the influence of excitement. It
was noticed that the expansion affected a length of the body
considerably in excess of the limits of the lung, for it was
observed to reach to the 13th cross-bar. Subsequent dissec-
tion showed the lung ended at the 11th cross-bar. In addition
to this inflating effort, some specimens may be observed to
flatten the posterior part of the head on to the ground by the
action of the quadrates, and in so doing they make the neck
much more apparent than normal.

(d) Nocturnal or Diurnal: Jt is diurnal in habit. I have
nearly always encountered it in motion in broad daylight,
but some specimens sent to me were killed in bungalows
after nightfall.

(e) Progression: It is an active and vivacious little reptile,
easily taking alarm, and hastily attempting concealment.
It is often wonderfully adroit in evading swift movements
directed towards seizing it by the neck, and has made me
realize how cautious one should be in attempting the capture
of poisonous snakes in this manner.

It climbs with facility as do most snakes that have their
ventrals angulate, this condition approximating to that of
the true keeled condition seen in the tree snakes Dendrophis
and Chrysopelea. Two were discovered in Fyzabad, evidently
a pair, in the act of scaling a mud wall, another fell off the
top of a doorway in Berhampur on to a lady when opening
a godown. The situation, some 6 feet from the floor, was a
remarkable one for any snake, and an inspection of the place

SNAKES OF CEYLON.., 235

gave no clue to its probable path of ascent. It is more
frequently met with in the rains than at other times during
the year.

(f) Sloughing: I do not know how often desquamation
occurs. I have found its sloughs on various occasions, and
noted that the black cross-bars are faintly indicated on the
discarded vestment.

Food.—I found two eggs of a lizard or snake in the stomach
of one specimen. In another I found a similar egg, and an
amorphous mass which had formed a rough cast of the
stomach. This represented the coagulated yolk of eggs
upon which it had feasted. I found a plug of hair in the
cloaca of one specimen, indicating that a smail mammal had
been ingested.

Breeding.—(a) The Sexes: In Fyzabad out of 15 sexed,
8 proved to be males and 7 females. In Almora of 12 sexed,
9 were males and only 3 females. The female has a relatively
longer body and shorter tail, as might be inferred from the
difference in the ventrals and subcaudals in the sexes. There
appears to be little, if any, difference in the growth of the
sexes, for although my two largest records of 2 feet were both
females, I have had males 589 and 604 mm. (1 foot 103 inches,
and I foot 11? inches) in length.

There is good reason to think that the pair cohabit long
after the act of mating, as I had a male and a female killed
in close proximity, the latter in an advanced state of preg-
nancy.

(b) Method of Reproduction: It is evidently oviparous in
habit. I have had a specimen with large eggs containing
no trace of an embryo.

(c) Season: I had a female with eggs seemingly fit for
discharge on August 18, and another on the 22nd of the
same month with eggs about half an inch long, which would
probably not have been laid till late in September. I had
specimens 165 and 168 mm. (64 and 62 inches) long, which
I took to be hatchlings in April, and 181 and 193 mm. (7}
and 7# inches) long in July.

236 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

(d) Period of Gestation: Not known.

(e) Number of Eggs: I have had one female with four eggs,
and another containing five eggs.

(f) The Eggs: The eggs just alluded to measured 36 mm.
by 10 mm. (11° by 2 inches), and were remarkably elongate.

Growth.—(a) Length of Young: My smallest specimens,
which appeared to be hatchlings, were 168 and 170 mm.
(64 and 63 inches).

(b) Karly Life: From my records it would appear that
the young grow some 4 or 5 inches in the first year of life, and
are then 10 to 12 inches long, and 3 or 4 inches in the second
year, when they are 15 to 18 inches. At the end of the third
year they are over 20 inches.

(c) Maturity: My smallest gravid female measured 564
mm. (1 foot 9? inches), and would be, I think, about 3
years old. °

(d) Maximum Length: Specimens exceeding 620 mm.
(2 feet) are very unusual. Gunther mentions one 645 mm.
long (2 feet 1 inch), and I have had two 620 mm. and 630 mm.
(2 feet and 2 feet and 2 of an inch).

Lepidosis.—(a) T'ypical—Rostral: The rostro-nasals and
rostro-internasal sutures are subequal and much longer than
the rostro-labial. Jnternasals: The suture between them
is rather less than or subequal to that between the preefron-
tals ; half or less than half the internaso-prefrontals. Pre-
frontals : The suture between them is shorter than the pre-
fronto-frontals ; touching the internasal, postnasal, loreal,
preocular,andsupraocular. Frontal: The fronto-supraocular
sutures are a little longer than the fronto-parietals. Supra-
oculars : Shorter than the frontal, about half the breadth of
the frontal along a line connecting the centres of the eyes.
Parietals : Length subequal to the frontal. Nasals : Divided.
Loreal: About as long as high, shorter than the nasals.
Preocular : One, not reaching the top of the head. Post-
oculars : Two. Temporals : One, nearly as long as the supra-
ocular. Supralabials : Seven; the Ist and 2nd touching the
nasals ; 8rd and 4th the eye ; and 5th and 6th the temporal.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 25

Sublinguals : The posterior touching the 4th infralabial.
Infralabials : Four usually ; the fourth longer and broader
than the posterior sublinguals, touching two scales behind.

(Fig. 48.)

Fia. 48.—Oligodon arnensis.

(x 13.)

Costals : At midbody, breadth about three-fourths their
length, about two-thirds the ultimate row. Last three rows
gradually enlarging. Ultimate row about as broad as long.
In 17 rows to behind midbody, reducing to 15 by the absorp-
tion of the fourth row from the ventrals. Ventrals : [67 to
202 ; subangulate laterally. Anal: Divided. Subcaudals :
41 to 59 ; divided.

238 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

(b) Anomalies—Parietals : There is sometimes a detached
fragment forming a pseudo-temporal. Loreal: Rarely
absent (confluent with the prefrontal). Supralabials : One
or more are rarely confluent. It is not unusual to see the
sixth not reaching the labial margin, but wedged between
the fifth and seventh. IJnfralabials: Sometimes five
(Fig.48C). Anal: Rarely entire. Subcaudals: A few rarely
entire towards the base of the tail.

Dentition.— From three skulls in my collection. Maxillary :
7 to 11; an edentulous space anteriorly. Palatine: 4 (? 3)
to 6; an edentulous space anteriorly and posteriorly.
Pterygoid : 10 to 17 (218); no edentulous space anteriorly.
Mandibular: 13 to 14; no edentulous space anteriorly.
(Fig. 49.)

EE, SS

Fic. 49.—(D) Maxilla of oligodon arnensis.

(E) Gurkha’s kukri for comparison.

Distribution.—(a) General: Peninsular India and Ceylon.

(b) Local: It is a snake that inhabits the plains. In
India I have had it fairly plentifully in the Western Himalayas
up to 5,000 feet, the highest altitude being 5,500 feet, but
I had no specimen from the Nilgiri Hills out of 1,699
specimens collected there in 1917. Haly reports it very
common in Ceylon, and remarks he had had no specimens
from the hills. Mr. Drummond-Hay has never met with it
up-country. |

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 239

OLIGODON THNIOLATUS * (Jerdon),

The Variegated Kukri Snake.

~ Synonymy.—Simotes binotatus, Xenodon dubium, Oli-
godon spilonotus, O. fasciatus, O. subgriseus, Coronella teniolata.

History.—Russell appears to have been the first to notice
it, and he gives a good figure in his first volume (1796, Plate
X1X.). Jerdon christened it in 1853.

General Charaeters.—As detailed for the genus. There
is no indication of a neck. The tail is about one-seventh
the total length.

Identification.—The costals in 15 rows in the whole body
length, a divided anal, and from 38 to 56 subcaudals will
indicate the species.

>

Colouration.—Like many other snakes O. teniolatus
presents considerable differences in its colour and markings.
Of the various forms I think four deserve special mention,
but the fact that the first three of these are completely
connected shows they are all merely variations of a single
variety. The fourth form is, I think, probably a distinct
species as Gunther originally believed it, however, I prefer
tor the present to leave it as placed by Boulenger.

t(a) Variety typicus: This is the teniolatus of Jerdon,
and is well figured by Russell.t It conforms to variety A

* It seems to me that the designation of this species should be
O. teniolatus (Jerdon). He describes a snake in the Journal of the
Asiatic Society of Bengal (Vol. XXII., 1853, page 528) under this
name, with 15 rows of seales, ventrals 185, and subcaudals 41, and
cites Russell’s Plate XIX. of Volume I., so that there can be no doubt
to what he alluded saying “it is common at Madras.” This name
antedates Dumeril and Bibron’s Oligodon subgriseus bestowed in 1854 ;
but the latter is the one with which all have grown familiar.

t As I am not certain whether all of these forms occur in Ceylon,
I have given the varieties in detail, hoping thereby to elucidate the
matter. I have seen a specimen of fasciatus from Ceylon.

-t Loc, cit.

240 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

of Boulenger. The ground colour is buff, pale-brown, cedar-
brown, or more rarely a light dun. There is a conspicuous
variegation caused by lighter and darker streaks on the
anterior-inferior margins of some of the scales. The darker
streaks show a marked tendency to congregate at intervals
and arrange themselves into cross-bars, which are usually
narrowly outlined with buff. These cross-bars narrow or
actually break up in the flanks, and are often ill-defined.
In many specimens an intermediate series of a less distinct
character alternate with them. If looked for, longitudinal
stripes similar to those in variety (b) are, I think, usually
apparent, though often obscure, and the vertebral streak
is often interrupted. The belly is unspotted, and the head
marks as in variety (b). It is much the commonest form
and the most widely distributed. Russell’s specimen was
from Vizagapatam, and Jerdon recorded it from Madras.
Blanford obtained it in Ellore and Ajmere. In the Bombay
Natural History Society’s collection there are specimens
from Bombay, Deolali, Karwar, Khandalla, Khandesh, and
Goa Ghats. I have lately seen a specimen in the Indian
Museum from Dhikala (Garhwal District), and have acquired
specimens myself from Delhi, Cannanore, Madras, Trichinopoly,
Tutucorin, Vizianagram, Hyderabad (Sind), Dehra Dun,
and Shembaganur. In the British Museum it is recorded
from the Anamallays.

(b) Variety ceylonicus (Wall): The ground colour is
buff, and four more or less obvious, pale, brownish stripes
pass down the body. The two upper and broader pass from
the nape where they are confluent to the tail tip. On the
body they involve the edge of the vertebral and two and
a half adjoining rows. The lower and narrower stripes pass
from the neck to the vent, and are placed on the contiguous
halves of the 2nd and 3rd rows above the ventrals. The
pale vertebral line is continuous and confined to the middle
of the vertebral row, except antericrly, where it expands to
the margins of the uppermost costal row. In many of these
specimens, an indication of the cross-bars typical of the
next form may be seen, if looked for, in the anterior part of
the body. The belly is pearly-white and unspotted. The

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 241

head is marked with three dark chevrons ; of these the
anterior passes across the preefrontals and reappears beneath
the eye, the median has its apex on the frontal shield, and
its limbs pass obliquely backwards to the gape, frequently
blending with the posterior, which is the broadest and situated
on the nape, its apex extending forwards to the parietals.
These chevrons are usually complete and discrete, but may
be more or less incomplete or confluent. A dark streak
is always present on the 6th, or between the 6th and 7th
supralabials, and there is frequently a streak in the suture
between the Ist and 2nd supralabials. This form appears
uncommon, and I only know of it from Ceylon. It deserves
recognition as an insular variety. ;

(c) Variety spilonotus (Gunther): Agrees with the dubsum
of Jerdon.* This form is very similar to the last, but the
eross-bars are modified to form two or four, more or less
confluent or completely detached, roundish spots, the median
of which are larger and better defined, the lateral often being
ill-defined or irregular in form. These marks remind one
forcibly of a similar ornamentation seen in O. venustus, O.
splendidus (Gunther), and O. juglandifer (Wall). Longitu-
dinal stripes, as in the previous forms, are usually apparent
if looked for. The vertebral stripe is often more or less
interrupted. The belly is unspotted, and the head marks
are as in variety (b). Jerdon’s specimen was from Canara.
I have had it from Matheran, and there are specimens in
the Bombay Natural History Society’s collection from
Bombay and Satara.

(d) Variety fasciatus (Gunther), Boulenger’s variety B:
The ground colour is buff or pale yellowish-brown. A median
series of largish, well-defined, round spots passes down the
back, some of the anterior ones being often divided. Outside,
these are irregularly -shaped, ill-defined, smaller dark marks.
There are no longitudinal stripes down the body, and any

* But not the binotatus of Dumeril and Bibron, as erroneously sup-
posed by Boulenger (Cat., Vol. II., p. 243). This last is, without
doubt, synonymous with Szmotes venustus having, it is stated, 17 scale
rows.

36 6(6)20

242 SNAKES OF CEYLON,

variegation noticeable is confined to the flanks. There are
spots near the edge of most of the ventrals on each side.
The head marks are as in the foregomg. The specimens
recorded by Gunther are from the Deccan and Matheran.
Others have been recorded from Bombay, Poona, and Ceylon.

Habits.—(a) Hauwnis : It is frequently found in the imme-
diate environment of man. I have had many from gardens
in Cantonments, and it is not an unusual visitor in houses,
taking up its abode among the pot plants. It evidently
frequents marshy places in order to obtain frog’s spawn.

(b) Disposition: The few specimens that have come into
my hands alive have all been particularly well behaved,
allowing me to handle them freely without attempting to
bite. Mr. Gleadow, however, mentions one that he wounded
and attempted to carry home over a stick, which repeatedly
fell off and on being replaced “ savagely attacked ’’ him twice.
It is a quietly disposed creature with sufficient spirit, however,
to resent interference, and prompt it to make active attempts
to escape when encountered.

(c) Nocturnal or Diurnal : Though often captured at night,
it is diurnal in habit, and it is frequently encountered by
coolies in the pursuit of their usual avocations.

Food.—lIts diet consists of lizard’s and snake’s eggs and
frog’s spawn. I have found several with masses of batra-
chian spawn in the stomach. Where lizard’s eggs have
furnished the repast, the stomach is sometimes distended with
coagulated yolk, that makes a cast of that organ. If this is
broken up the empty egg cases will frequently be discovered.
Where eggs are on the point of hatching the baby lizards are
eaten, either with or without their egg investments. One
small example measuring 158 mm. (64 inches) had eaten a
single lizard’s or snake’s egg measuring 18 mm. (2 of an inch)
in length.

Breeding.—(a) The Sexes : Of 28 examples collected in the
Nilgiri Hills, 10 proved to be males and 18 females. Females
have relatively longer bodies, and consequently more
numerous ventral shields,

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 943

(6) Method of Reproduction: It is not known whether it
is OViparous Or Viviparous.

(c) Season: From my records it would appear that the
season for the appearance of the young is a very protracted
one. All my specimens ranging between 126 and 188 mm.
(6 and 72 inches) were taken from May to September.

(d) Period of Gestation: Not known.
(e) Number of Brood: Not known.

Growth.—(a) Length of Young: My smallest specimen,
apparently a hatchling, was killed in Cannanore in March,
and measured 122 mm. (448 inches). I have had as
many as 14 other examples measuring between 6 and 74
inches that appeared to be recently born or hatched.

(b) Early Life: I cannot follow the annual growth from
my records.

(c) Maximum Length : Much my largest specimen, collected
in the Nelliampathi Hills, South India, was 585 mm.
(23 inches) long, the tail 85 mm. (33 inches). Specimens
exceeding 508 mm. (20 inches) are very uncommon.

Lepidosis.—(a) T'ypical—Rostral: The rostro-nasal and
rostro-internasal sutures are subequal and longer than the
rostro-labials. Internasals: The suture between them sub-
equal to that between the prefrontals or a little shorter, less
than half the internaso-prefrontals. Prefronials: The
suture between them less than half the prefronto-frontals ;
touching the internasal, postnasal, preocular, and supra-
ocular. Frontal: The fronto-supraocular sutures rather
longer than the fronto-parietals. Supraoculars: About three-
fourths the length of the frontal, and half or less than half
its breadth along a line connecting the centres of the eyes.
Parietals: Length subequal to the frontal. Nasals: Divided.
Loreal : About as long as deep ; about half the length of the
nasals. Przocular: Not reaching the top of the head.
Postoculars: Two. Yemporals: One; about three-fourths
the length of the supraocular. Supralabials : Seven; the
lst and 2nd touching the nasals ; 3rd and 4th the eye ; and

244 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

5th and 6th the temporal. Sublinguals: Posterior touching
the fourth infralabial. Infralabials : Four, the fourth longer
and broader than the posterior sublinguals. (Fig. 50.)

.

Fie. 50.—Oligodon teniolatus.
(X 33.)

Costals—Vertebrals : Breadth about three-fourths their
length, and about three-fourths the breadth of the ultimate
row. Last two or three rows gradually enlarged. Ultimate
rew as broad as long ; in 15 rows in the whole body length.
Ventrals: 158 to 218; subangulate laterally. Anal:
Divided. Subcaudals: 34 to 56; divided.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 245

(6) Anomalies—Prefronials : Quite separated in one speci-
men by the anterior angle of the frontal. Loreal: Rarely
absent, owing to confluence with the prefrontal. Postoculars :
Rarely three. Temporals: Rarely two. Supralabials ;
Sometimes two are confluent to make six, or there may be
a supernumerary making eight. Anal: Rarely entire. Sub-
caudals : Sometimes a few at the base of the tail are entire.

Dentition.—From five skulls in my collection. Mazillary:
An edentulous space anteriorly, followed by 6 or 7 teeth.
Palatine: Edentulous anteriorly and posteriorly ; a single
tooth (or none?) in the middle. Péerygoid : Edentulous
anteriorly as well as posteriorly ; 6 to 10 teeth in the middle.
Mandibular : A short edentulous space anteriorly, followed
by 12 teeth.

Distribution.—(a) General : Peninsular India and Ceylon.
(6) Local: In India it extends to Baluchistan in the north-
west, and Purneah in Bengal in the north-east. In Ceylon

it has been reported from Colombo and Trincomalee. Most
other records give no precise habitat.

It is a denizen of the plains, but ascends high into the
hills. J have had it from over 6,000 feet in the Pulneys, and
collected no less than 47 from the Nilgiri Hills in 1917.

It does not appear to be common in Ceylon, judging from
available records. Mr. Drummond-Hay has never seen it
up-country.

OLIGODON TEMPLETONI Gunther.

(Named in honour of Dr. R. Templeton, who obtained
the first known Ceylon specimen. )

Templeton’s Kukri Snake.

Synonymy.—Nil.

- History.—Described by Gunther in 1862. It was referred
to again, and figured by the same authority in 1864 in his
Reptiles of British India. (Plate XIX.. Fig. C.)

246 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

General Characters.—-As detailed for the genus. Body of
moderate girth and equa) calibre throughout. Neck not
evident. Tail about one-sixth to one-seventh the total
length.

Identification.—The costals in 15 rows in the whole body
length, a divided anal shield, and subcaudals less than 36
will indicate this or the next species. templetoni is known
from sublineatus by the belly being boldly dappled with black
and white. |

Colouration.—Dorsally brown, with a more or less distinct
yellowish vertebral stripe, more distinct posteriorly and
especially on the tail. About 18 narrow dark cross-bars.
An oblique dark stripe belcw the eye, and indistinct markings
on the top of the head. Ventrum with squarish black and
white evenly distributed spots. Mr. Green tells me that in
life the ventral white spots seen in spirit specimens are yellow
or pinkish.

Habits.— Nothing known.
Food.—Nothing known.
' Breeding.—Nothing known.

Growth.—(a) The Young: One in the Colombo Museum
measures 126 mm. (5 inches), but as the navel is completely
obliterated it is almost certain that the young at birth are
even smaller than this.

(6) Maximum Length: A female in the Colombo Museum
measures 290 mm. (114 inches). This is the largest I am
aware of. )

Lepidosis.—(a) T'ypical—Rostral : The rostro-nasal and
rostro-internasal sutures are subequal and rather longer
than the rostro-labials. Internasals : The suture between
them shorter than that betweenthe prefrontal pair ; less
than half the internaso-prefrontals. Prefrontals: The
suture between them about three-fifths the prefronto-
frontals ; touching the internasal, postnasal, loreal, przocular,
and supraocular. Srontal: The fronto-supraocular sutures

SNAKES OF CEYLON. DAF

rather longer than the fronto-parietals. Supraoculars :
Rather shorter than the frontal, and about one-third the
breadth of the frontal along a line connecting the centres
of the eyes. Parietals: Subequal in length to the frontal.
Nasals: Divided: Loreal: As long as deep, or a little
longer ; about half the length of the nasals. Preocular :
Not reaching the top of the head. Postoculars : Two ; both
touching the parietals. Temporal: One. Supralabials :
Seven ; the Ist and 2nd touching the nasals ; 3rd and 4th the
eye ; and dth and 6th the temporal ; 6th often cuneate and
not reaching the border of the lip. Sublinguals: The pos-
terior touch the fourth infralabial. IJnfralabial: Four; the
fourth longer and broader than the posterior sublinguals,
touching two scales behind.

Costals ; Vertebral row : Breadth of scales about three-
fourths their length, and about three-fourths the ultimate
row. Last two or three rows gradually enlarged. Ultimate
row: Breadth of its scales subequal to their length. In 15
rows, in the whole body length. Venétrals: 127 to 152
(¢ 127 to 138, 2 143 to 152); not angulate. Anal :
Divided. Subcaudals : 20 to 34 (g 28 to 34, 2 20 to 24) ;
divided.

(6b) Anomalies—Loreal : Sometimes touches the eye below
the preocular. Postoculars: Sometimes only the upper
touches the parietal. Swblinguals: The posterior rarely
touch the 3rd as well as the 4th infralabials.

Dentition——From one skull in my collection. Mazillary :
7; an edentulous space anteriorly that would take two teeth.
Palatine: Edentulous. Péerygoid: Edentulous. Mandi-
bular: 7; a short edentulous space anteriorly.

Distribution.—(«) General: Peculiar to Ceylon.

(b) Local: It has been reported from Ratnapura, Hewissa,
Balangoda, Peradeniya, and Udugama at sea level. I
examined eight in the Colombo Museum. Mr. Drummond-
Hay obtained two or three at Hopewell, Balangoda (3,000
to 4,200 feet), but says it is decidedly rare there.

248 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

OLIGODON SUBLINEATUS Dumeril and Bibron.

(Latin “sub” beneath, and “ lineatus ”’ lined, referring
to the dark lines on the belly.)

Dumeril’s Kukri Snake.

Synonymy.-——Nil.

History.—It was described by Dumeri] and Bibron in 1854.

General Characters.—As detailed under the genus. Neck
not constricted. Body slender, and of even calibre through-
out. Tail about one-ninth the total length.

Identification.—As indicated under the last species. It
bears a striking superficial resemblance to the poisonous
snake Callophis trimaculatus.

Colouration.—Dorsally brown, with a series of paired
dark brown light-edged smallish spots, which occasionally
alternate. A chevron-shaped dark band on the snout,
reappearing beneath the eye. A similar transverse band
on the posterior half of the frontal and extending on to the
parietals. A band on the nape, sometimes interrupted,
sometimes extending forwards to meet the band previously
noted. Ventrally yellowish, with three series of dark spots,
the lateral often confluent to form a stripe, the median
ending at the vent.

Habits—Nething known. Mr. Green informed me that
Dr. Escherich found one in a nest of termites of the species
Termes redemanni.

Food.—Nothing known.

Breeding.—Nothing known.

Growth.—The maximum length appears to that reported
by Boulenger as 315 mm. (12¢ inches), tail 35 mm. (12
inches).

Parasites.—(a) Hctozoa: I have found many mites attached
to this snake at times. Some submitted by me to Professor
Nuttall, I am informed, are larval forms of some undeter-
minable species, probably a Gekobia. It is shown in Fig. 19.

Lepidosis.—(a) Typical—Rostral: The rostro-nasal and
rostro-internasal sutures subequal and longer than the
rostro-labials. Internasals: The suture between them

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 249

subequal to that between the prefrontal pair, less than
half the internaso-prefrontals. Prefrontals: The suture
between them half the prefronto-frontals ; touching the
internasal, postnasal, loreal, prezeocular, and supraocular.
Frontal: The fronto-supraccular sutures subequal to or
rather longer than the fronto-parietals. Swpraoculars : About
three-fourths the length of the frontal, and less than half
of that shield along a line connecting the centres of the eyes.
Parietals: Aslongas thefrontal. Nasals: Divided. Loreal.
Rather longer than deep; half the length of the nasals.
Preocular : Not reaching the top ofthe head. Postoculars :
Two ; one or both touching the parietals. Temporals: One;
about two-thirds the length of the supraoculars. Supra-
labials : Seven ; the Ist and 2nd touching the nasals, 3rd
and 4th the eye, and the 5th and 6th the temporal. Sublin-
guals : The posterior touching the 4th, or 3rd and 4th, infra-
labials. Infralabials : Four ; the 4th as long as the posterior
sublinguals, and rather broader than those shields ; touching
two scales behind.

Costals: Vertebral row: Breadth about three-fourths
their length ; about two-thirds the ultimate row; the last
four rows gradually enlarging. Ultimate row: Breadth of
scales subequal to their length. In 15 rowsin the whole
body length, or reducing to 13 shortly before the vent. The
reduction of rows is due to the absorption of the third row
from the ventrals. Ventrals : 130 to 160 (¢ 130 to 144, ¢
149 to 160); obtusely angulate laterally. Anal: Divided.
Subcaudals : 23 to 36 ($ 32 to 36, 2 23 to 30); divided.

(b) Anomalies—Supralabials : I have found the second and
third completely confluent.

Dentition.—From two skulls inmy collection. Maxillary :
7 to 8 ; an edentulous space anteriorly that would take about
two teeth. Palawne: None. Pterygoid: 4 to6; a long
edentulous space anteriorly. Mandibular: 9 to 10 ; an eden-
tulous space anteriorly that would take two or three teeth.

Distribution.—(a) General: Ceylon. The Nicobar Islands (?)*

(b) Local: A low-country snake, which, Haly says, will
ascend to about 4,000 feet. Ferguson reported it common .

* T discredit this locality.
37 6(6)20

250 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

about Colombo. Mr. Drummond-Hay regards it as one of
the commonest Ceylon snakes. He was specially acquainted
with it in the Ratnapura and Yatiyantota Districts below
about 1,000 feet, but has had it at Hopewell over 3,000 feet.
Practically all the small podecnons I examined contained
specimens.

Genus ABLABES.

(Greek “‘ a’ without, “‘ blabe ”’ harm.)

General Characters (for Indian species).—Small snakes
between about 1 and 2 feet in length. Head small, moderately
depressed. Snout moderate in length, strongly declivous,
obtusely rounded terminally, without canthus. Eye mode-
» rate in size, with round pupil. Nostril small, round, pierced
in the middle of a single shield. Neck but little evident.
Body rather slender, cylindrical, of even calibre throughout.
Belly rounded. ‘Tail about one-third to one-fifth the total
length.

Identification.—There is nothing distinctive in the lepidosis
by which one can easily recognize the genus. In fact a
study of my skulls leads me to think that the genus as now
constituted calls for revision and regrouping.*

Habits.—Terrestrial. Diurnal.

Food.—I am not aware of the diet.

Breeding.—Nothing known.

Poison.—Non-poisonous.

Lepidosis.—Aostral : Touches six shields. Jnternasals: A
pair. Prefrontals: A pair. Frontal: Touches six shields.
Nasal: Entire. Loreal: Present or absent. Preocular :
One. Postoculars: Two. Temporals: One. Supralabials :
Six, seven, or eight; two touching the eye. Sublinguals :
Two pairs, subequal, or the posterior longer or shorter than
the anterior. IJnfralabials : Five; the 5th largest, touching
two or three scales behind.

* In A. calamaria the posterior pterygoid teeth are remarkably
enlarged. I have not seen a similar condition in any other snake, and
on this feature alone I would separate this species from the others of the
genus with which it is now associated. I see skull differences also in
A. rappi, major, and frenatus that seem to justify oe rank being
accorded to them,

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 251

Costals : Longer than broad, rectiform, smooth, with no
apical facets or pits. Vertebrals not enlarged. Ultimate row
enlarged. In13to17rowsatmidbody. Ventrals : Rounded.
Anal: Entire or divided. Supracaudals: In even rows.
Subcaudals : Divided.

Dentition.— Maxillary, Syncranterian, anododont, isodont.
Palatine : Anododont, isodont. Pterygoid : Anododont, iso-
dont. Mandibular : Anododont, feebly kumatodont.

Distribution.—South Asia. Japan.

ABLABES CALAMARIA Gunther.

(Latin “* calamus ”’ a pen.)
Gunther’s Reed Snake.*

Synonymy—Cyclophis calamaria, C. nasalis, Homalosoma
baliolum.

History.— Described by Gunther in 1858.

General Characters.—A little snake hardly reaching 1S
inches in its adult state. Head little depressed. Snout
moderate in length, obtusely rounded terminally, without
canthus. Eye moderate in size. Nostril pierced in a single
elongate nasal shield. Neck hardly evident. Body slender,
cylindrical, of even calibre throughout. Belly rounded.
Tail about one quarter the total length, ending in an extremely
fine point. It was doubtless this observation that caused
Gunther to attach the name calamaria to it.

Identification.—The costals in 15 rows in the whole body
length, taken with the very long entire nasal shield (as long
or longer than the diameter of the eye) will establish its
identity.

Colouration.—Dorsally olive-green, usually with a fine
blackish line along the confines of the 5th and 6th rows above
the ventrals.. This line breaks up into spots anteriorly and
continues well on to the tail. A less distinct but similar line
runs along the confines of the 3rd and 4th rows. An ill-defined
but distinct dark patch is seen on the parietal region in some

* In my article on the Nilgiri snakes (Bombay Nat. Hist. Jour.,
Vol. XXVI., Pp: 569) I called it the “‘ Western reed snake,’ overlooking
the fact that it occurs in the Western Himalayas.

252 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

young specimens, but this and the dorsal lines become obscure
or even effaced with age.

Some young specimens exhibit white linear stripes on the
confines of the 2nd and 3rd, 4th and 5th, 6th and 7th, 7th and
8th rows and the 8th row and vertebrals, all of which begin in
the neck and end at the vent. The belly is uniform pale
yellow.

Habits.—Nothing known.

Food.—No observations have been recorded as to its diet.

Breeding.—(a) Method of Reproduction: It is not known
whether it is oviparous or viviparous.

(b) Season: A specimen 125 mm. (5 inches) long, which
seemed to have just embarked upon life, was captured in the
Nilgiris early in August.

Growth.—(a) Length of Young: Gunther mentions a-
specimen 102 mm. (4 inches long), and I have had one seem-
ingly just born or hatched that was 125 mm. (5 inches).

(6) Harly Infe: It appears to double its length in the first
year of life, being then about 215 to 256 mm. (83 to 104 inches)
long.

(c) Maximum Length: Gunther gives 407 mm. (16 inches),
the tail 102 mm. (4 inches). I have seen no larger example.

Lepidosis.—(a) T'ypical—Rostral: The rostro-nasal sutures
are longer than the rostro-internasals and the rostro-labials.
Internasals : The suture between them about three-fourths
that between the prefrontals, half or less than half the inter-
naso-prefrontals. Prefrontals: The suture between them
about three-fourths the prefronto-frontals ; touching the
internasal, nasal, preeocular, and supraocular. Frontal: The
fronto-supraocular sutures rather longer than the fronto-
parietals. Supraoculars : Length about four-fifths the frontal,
breadth about half the frontal along a line connecting the
centres of the eyes. Nasal: Entire, elongate, apparently
confluent with the loreal, touching the preocular. Loreal :
Absent. Preocular. One; not reaching the top of the head.
Postoculars : Two. Temporal: One. Supralabials : Seven ;
the Ist and 2nd touching the nasals, the 3rd and 4th the eye,
and the 5th and 6th the temporal. Sublinguals: The pos-
terior rather shorter than the anterior ; touching the 4th and

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 253

5th infralabials. Infralabials: Five; the 5th shorter than the
posterior sublinguals, and about as broad as those shields ;
usually touching three scales behind. (Fig. 51.)

Prf

Fie. 51.—Ablabes calamaria.
Cxr2n)

Costals : Vertebrals nearly as broad as long, about three-
fourths the breadth of the ultimate. Ultimate row with scales
as broad as long. In 15 rows in the whole body length.
Ventrals : 126 to 163. (127 to 134 in Ceylon specimens).
Anal: Divided. Subcaudals : 53 to 76 (67 to 76 in Ceylon
Specimens).

(b) Anomahes—Preoculars: Rarely two. Supralabials ;
Sometimes eight. Jnfralabials : Four only in some speci-
mens, owing to a confluence of the normal fourth and fifth.

254 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Dentition.—From one skull in my collection. Maalhary :
21 (?) to 24(?). Palatine: 15 to 16. Pterygoid: 15 to 16;
larger than those in any of the other jaws. Mandibular :
18 to 21. |

Distribution.—(a) General: Hills of Peninsular India and
Ceylon. :

(6) Local: In India I have seen examples from Maha-
bleshwar, Wynaad, Nilgiris, and Bangalore. In the Himalayas
from Almora, Gonda, Philibhit, and Baksa Dooars. It is not
uncommon about Bangalore.

In Ceylon it appears to be uncommon. I saw no specimen
in any collection. No precise localities are on record.

Sub-family 3 Rachiodontine.
(Greek “ rachis” the spine, “‘ odous ” tooth.)

Identification.—There is nothing distinctive, whereby the
the sub-family can be recognized on external characters. It
is separated on osteological characters from the other sub-
families, the most distinctive difference being that the spine
in its second eighth has several of the hypopophyses remark-
ably developed, so that they penetrate the gullet, and act as
cesophageal teeth.

Food.—Lives on birds’ eggs, which are sawn in halves by the
cesophageal teeth.

Distribution.—Pecuhiar to Africa.

Series B. OPISTHOGLYPHA.
Sub-family 4 Homalopsinz.
(‘Takes its name from the type genus Homalopsis.)
General Characters.—Head moderate to large; snout mode-
rate to long, without canthus. Nostrils valvular and
superior. Eye small, with vertically elliptic pupil. Neck
fairly evident. Body cylindrical, moderate in calibre, or stout.
Belly rounded. Tail short, somewhat compressed basally.
Identification.—Known by the cylindrical tail and the val-
vular superior nostrils. The ventrals too are rather narrow,
so that when homalopsids are laid on their backs two or more
costal rows can be seen on each side of them.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 255

Habits.—Aquatic. They inhabit lakes, rivers, and coasts.
As far as is known all are viviparous.

Food.— Exclusively fish.

Poison.—Very feebly poisonous, innocuous to man.

Lepidosis.—Head covered above with large shields of the
Colubrine type.

Costals : Longer than broad ; rectiform throughout ; keeled
or smooth. Ventrals : Narrow, about three times the breadth
of the last costal row ; rounded or obtusely keeled laterally.
Anal: Divided. Subcaudals : Divided.

Distribution.—South-east Asia, Papuasia, North Queens-
land.

Ten genera are known, two of which are represented in
Ceylon, viz., Cerberus and Cerardia.

Genus CERBERUS.

(Greek “ kerberus ” the famous three-headed dog that guarded
the entrance to Hades in Grecian mythology. The name
appears to have been suggested by the forbidding
aspect of the snake, which has the jaw
very under hung.)

General Characters.—Smallish snakes, 2 to 4 feet in length.
Head pear-shaped as seen from above, expanding considerably
towards the occiput. Snout narrow, in profile showing an
unusually prominent lower jaw, little shorter than the upper.
This feature to a large extent gives the snake its forbidding
expression. Nostrils directed almost as much upwards as
laterally, narrow slits convex forwards. 'They approach the
condition seen in the seasnakes. Eye rather small, directed —
as much upwards as laterally, with the eyebrow remarkably
prominent. Iris minutely speckled with gold, revealing a
vertically elliptical pupil. Neck fairly evident. Body stout
and rough from the strong keels on the costal scales. It is
dull dorsally, glossy on the belly, including the last three
costal rows. Belly rounded. Tail short, rather compressed
at the base, and rapidly tapering to a subacute point. \ It is
about one-fifth the total length of the snake.

256 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Identification.— Ventrals at least three times as broad as the
ultimate costal row, with three or more rows of costals visible
each side, and a rostral in contact with four or five shields will
indicate a Homalopsid. Cerberus is known from the other
genera by the disintegrated parietal shields.

Habits.—Fluviatile, estuarine, and semi-marine.

Food.—Fish.

Breeding.— Viviparous.

Poison.—Very slightly poisonous. Innocuous to man.

Lepidosis—fostral : Touching four shields. Jnternasals : A
pair, subtriangular with apposed bases. Prefrontals : A pair.
Frontal: Disintegrate posteriorly. Parietals: Disintegrate.
Nasals : In contact behind the rostral. The nostril slt-lke
and superior. Loreal: Present, single. Preoculars: One.
Postoculars : Two. Temporals: Small and scale-like. Sub-
oculars : Present ; cutting off contact of all supralabials with
the eye. Supralabials. Nine or ten; the first seven entire.
Infralabials : Seven. Sublinguals : Three pairs; the median
and posterior oblique and quite separated by small scales.

Costals : Longer than broad, rectiform, keeled. The verte-
bral row not enlarged ; the breadth of its scales about two-
thirds their length, and about two-thirds the ultimate row.
Ultimate row enlarged, the breadth of its scales subequal to
their length. In 23 to 29 rows at midbody. Usually six (or
four) rows less at a point two heads-lengths before the vent.
The 5th row above the ventrals is absorbed in the first two steps,
and the 4th at the third. Ventrals: Rounded. About three
times the breadth of the ultimate row. Anal: Divided.
Subcaudals : Divided.

Dentition.— Maailla : Diacranterian. Preecranterian, kuma-
todont. Cranterian, not enlarged; obliquely set; grooved
on their anterior faces. Palatine: Anododont, isodont,
Pterygoid : Anododont, scaphiodont. Mandibular : Anododont,
kumatodont.

Distribution.—India to Indo-China. Ceylon, Andamans,
Nicobars, Malay Archipelago to the Philippines, and North
Australia. Three species are known, one of which, viz.,
rhynchops occurs in Ceylon,

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 257

CERBERUS RHYNCHOPS (Schneider).

(Greek “‘ rhunchos ” snout, and “ ops”’ face.)

The Dog-faced Water Snake.

Sinhalese : “‘ diyabariya”’ (Ferguson).

Synonymy.—Hydrus rhynchops, H. cinereus, Elaps boxformis, «
Hurria schneideriana, H. bilineata, Coluber cerberus, C. obtu-
satus, Python rhynchops, P. elapiformis, Homalopsis cerberus,
H. molurus, H. schneidert, H. rhynchops, H. boeformis, Cerberus -
cinereus, C'. russelit, C. acutus, C’. unicolor, C. boeformis.

History.—Depicted by Russell in his first volume in 1796 on
Plate XVII., and again in his second volume in 1801 on Plate
XL. Christened by Schneider in 1799.

General Characters.—As indicated under the genus.

Identification—The frontal which is partially, and the
parietals which are wholly, broken up furnish an easy means
of knowing the snake, but perhaps a more certain method is as
follows: A snake which, when laid on its back, reveals well-
developed ventrals at least three times the breadth of the last
costal row, and at the same time shows three or more rows of
costals on each side of the ventrals, will prove to be Cerberus or
Gerardia among Ceylon snakes. The former has 23 to 27 scale
rows at midbody, and the latter 17.

Colouration.—The back is bluish gray when the snake is
submerged, lightish gray when dry. It is crossed by numerous
ill-defined but conspicuous darker bars, involving one to two
scales in the length of the snake, the intervals involving five to
seven scales. These bars grow less distinct posteriorly, and
the foremost are broken up into spots in some specimens. The
dorsal colouration ceases abruptly about midcosta, and is
replaced by buff subcostally and ventrally. The belly is buff,
coarsely spotted, or dappled with deep greenish black. The
head is coloured above like the back, and the gray is sharply
defined just above the supralabials. The uppei lip and chin
are buff. A conspicuous dark postocular streak is prolonged.
backwards to the side of the forebody.

38 6(6)20

258 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Habits.—(a) Haunts: It is eminently an aquatic species,
usually inhabiting the brackish waters of tidal-rivers, creeks,
and estuaries. Ferguson and Cantor say that it frequents
fresh water also, and Cantor, Haly, and Flower all report it
from the sea in close proximity to our coasts. I became acqu-
ainted with it in Burma, and frequently observed it in the
waters of the channels connected with the tidal-river system,
as well as in the Rangoon river itself. I frequently saw it
swimming in the ebb and flood tides. It swims powerfully,
usually allowing itself to be carried with the stream, but it
sometimes anchors itself to a convenient bamboo stake, anchor
rope, or submerged branch by its tail, and from this purchase
swings about in the current on the lookout for fish passing by.
As the tide ran out many were observed lying along the branches
of the trees and bushes just above the water, and when hustled
dropped off into the stream below. Numbers were left stranded
on the mud flats. by the receding tide, and in the teak yards
nearly every bole harboured beneath it some of these snakes.
Thave seen it exhibit some intelligence in the following manner :
Lying extended in the length of a nearly empty ditch, after a
period of quietude, it flicks its tail round first on one side and
then the other, in such a way as to make an unwary fish recede
from the movement towards its head, when coming within
sight the fish falls an easy victim to the manceuvre.

(b) Disposition: In spite of its forbidding appearance this is
a peculiarly inoffensive reptile. Blanford and others have
remarked upon its quiet nature, and I can support their observa-
tions. It does not usually take alarm when encountered, but
will permit one to approach close enough to place a stick over
it, and allow itself to be captured. In captivity it is a singularly
uninteresting lethargic creature, allowing itself 10 be handled,
and rarely betraying a malicious spirit. Drumming on the
glass of the vivarium even when its nose-is against the glass,
usually evokes little, if any, response. In a tank it is hardly
more interesting.

(c) Striking Posture: Taken at a disadvantage on land it
will occasionally exhibit great activity and try to escape.
When prevented from so doing it protrudes the tongue and
hisses, and flattens itself on the ground. When held down by

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 259

a stick it will sometimes strike and bite viciously, and under
such excitement emits a disagreeable odour not necessarily
accompanied by a discharge of the cloacal contents. When
picked up it wreaths itself with some force around the hand.

(d) Nocturnal or Diurnal: It appears to be completely
diurnal. ,

(e) Progression : Its mode of progression is curious.- The
body is thrown forward in a curve in advance of the head, and
the head subsequently advanced, the body being again thrown
forward before the snake quite extends itself. It gives the
impression of moving sideways.

Food.—lIt feeds exclusively and voraciously on fishes. About
Rangoon on the mud flats, it frequently pursued a little fish
commonly called the walking perch, from its mode of active
progression on the mud: by means of fins that are used as legs.
I once found a large fish 8 inches in length inside a specimen
measuring 3 feet 3 inches. I have also known an eel taken.
I frequently saw Cerberus wriggling at the end of a fisherman’s
hook bated with a fish to the disgust of the angler.

Breeding.—(a) The Sexes: I have failed to discover any
sexual differences in proportions or lepidosis.

(6) Method of Reproduction: Like all the other homalopsids
I know it is viviparous in habit.

(c) Season : I found eggs with no trace of embryo in a gravid
female in February at Rangoon. Three gravid females from
Moulmein, captured between March 26 and April 4, 1900,
contained sacs with embryos about 63 mm. (24 inches) in
length. A gravid female in Madras was found to contain many
embryos in April, 1917. I had young very recently born, viz.,
193 and 200 mm. (73 and 7% inches) long in May and July,
respectively.

‘(d) Period of Gestation : Not known.

Growth.—(a) The Young: Gunther extracted the brood
from a gravid female, and found them 178 to 190 mm. (7 to 7}
inches) in length. This taken with the lengths of my two
specimens mentioned above shows that the young are about
177 to 203 mm. (7 to 8 inches) when born. They number
from 8 to 26 in a brood.

260 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

(6) Early Life: I find the young double their length in the
first year of life, and have about trebled it by the end of the
second year. It would probably take another two years before
Specimens attained to 3 feet, and I have examples of such,
3 feet 1 inch and 3 feet 3 inches, in June from Burma.

(c) Maturity: Unfortunately I have lost my detailed notes
regarding the length of my gravid females, so am unable to
say when the species is sexually mature.

(d) Maximum Length: Most specimens range between 2 and
3 feet, and anything over this is unusual. The longest of
which I am aware is that reported by Stoliczka from Burma,
which was 1,270 mm. (4 feet 2 inches).

Lepidosis.—(a) T'ypical—Rostral : In contact with 4 shields,
the rostro-nasal and rostro-labial sutures subequal] ; sometimes
a partial median suture is seen in the upper part of the shield.
Internasals : Two ; sub-triangular ; their bases apposed in the
median line, the sutures between them equal to or rather greater
than that between the prefrontal fellows, subequal to the
internaso-prefrontal sutures. Prefrontils: Two: the suture
between them subequal to the prefronto-frontal ; in contact
with internasal, loreal, and preocular. Frontal: In contact
with 7 shields, frequently more or less disintegrated posteriorly.
Parietals ; Disintegrated into many parts. Nasals : In con-
tact behind the rostral ; touching the first labial only. Loreal :
One. Preocular: One. Postoculars: One or two. Tem-
porals : Replaced by small scales. Suboculars: One to three.
Supralabials : Nine or ten; none touching the eye, the last
three or four divided into an upper and lower part. Infra-
labials : Many, small. Sublinguals : Three pairs, the anterior
in contact with 3 or 4 infralabials. Costals : Two heads-lengths
behind the head 25 (rarely 23); midbody 23 to 25 (rarely 27) ;
two heads-lengths before the anus 19 or 17. Where the rows
are 25, they reduce to 23 and again to 21 by a fusion of the
4th and 5th, or 5th and 6th rows above the ventrals ; from:
21 to 19, the 3rd and 4th rows fuse. Strongly keeled in all rows,
except the last, for a variable extent anteriorly. Ventrals :
132 to 160; well developed. Anal: Divided. Subcaudals :
49 to 72; divided. (Fig. 52.)

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 261

(6) Anomales: Some of the subcaudal shields are rarely
entire.

Fie, 52.—Cerberus rhynchops.
(x 13.)

Dentition.— Mazillary : Precranterian, 15to 16. Cranterian,
a pair ; grooved ; not larger than the preceding. Palatine: 9
Pterygoid : 22 10 25. Mandibular : 20 to 23.

Distribution.—(a) General: Ceylon, Coasts of India, and
tidal-rivers from Sind and Mekran on the western side to

262" SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Tenasserim. Indo-China. The Malay Peninsula, the Anda-
mans, Nicobars, and Malay Archipelago to the Philippines, and
the Pelew Islands.

(6) Local: It is an extremely common snake on the Indian
littoral, especially on the Burmese coasts. Ferguson says it is
a@ common snake in Colombo, and Haly endorses this remark.

Genus GERARDIA.

(Named in honour of Monsieur Gerard.)

General Characters.—As detailed for the species.

Identification——The costals in 17 rows anteriorly and at
midbody, 15 posteriorly, a single internasal, and one supra-
labial touching the eye will indicate the genus.

Habits.— Aquatic, fluviatile, estuarine.

Food.—Fish.

Breeding.—Nothing known. |

Poison.—Feebly poisonous, probably quite innocuous to man.

Lepidosis.—As detailed under the species.

Dentition.— Maxillary: Diacranterian. Preecranterian small,
anododont, isodont. Cranterian, represented by two pseudo-
fangs, grooved on their anterior faces.

Distribution.—Coasts and estuaries of Peninsular India and
Burma.

GERARDIA PREVOSTIANA (Hydoux and Gervais).

(Named in honour of Monsieur Prevost, Superintendent of the
Paris Museum when the snake was discovered.)

Gerard’s Water Snake.

Synonymy.—Coluber prevostianus, Gerarda tricolor, Campy-
lodon prevostianum, Heleophis flavescens.

History.—First referred to and figured by Eydoux and
Gervais in 1837.

General: Characters.—A small snake growing to about 2
feet. Head moderately depressed, about as broad as the
body. Snout moderately long, obtusely rounded terminally,
without canthus. Eye small, inclined upwards; pupil verti-
cally elliptic. Nostrils latero-superior and valvular. Neck

€

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 263

little evident. Body rather robust, slghtly depressed,
attenuating anteriorly and posteriorly. Belly rounded. Tail
_ short, being about one-eighth to one-ninth the total length.

Identification.—The costals are 17 anteriorly and to beyond
the middle of the body, reducing to 15 (rarely 13) posteriorly.
Only one supralabial touches the eye, and the rostral touches
only 5 shields. Its recognition is therefore easy. It bears a
distinct’ superficial resemblance to Hypsirhina enhydris, H.
plumbea, and Helicops schistosus, but is easily distinguished if
the lepidosis is relied upon.

Colouration.—Dorsally when wet the snake is a uniform
dirty olive-green, when dry grayish. The belly is buff, and
the last 3 costal rows yellow, outlined like the ventrals with
dull olive-green. The head above is coloured like the back,
and the lips are yellow.

Habits.—(a) Haunts: It is entirely aquatic, haunting tidal
rivers and estuaries, and straying out along the coasts. It is
sometimes left on the shore by the receding tide, and I encoun-
tered one so stranded in Cannanore. It was lying in a shallow
pool of water, partly submerged. Nicholson records one
which had wandered into a dusty street in Rangoon.

(6) Disposition: Apparently a lethargic snake on land, and
disinclined to bite. The one I encountered took no notice of
me though I walked right over it when out snipe shooting.
When I confronted it, it made no attempt to break away, and
was captured without trouble. It was a very hot day.

Food.—No observations have been made, but it is fairly
certain to subsist upon fishes.

Breeding.—Nothing known.

Growth.—I took a half-grown specimen 318 mm. (124 inches)
long in Rangoon in June. Its maximum length, as given by
Boulenger, is 520 mm. (1 foot 84 inches).

Lepidosis.—(a) Typical—Rostral : Touches five _ shields ;
the rostro-labial sutures longest. Internasal : A single shield
separating the nasals. Prefrontals: A pair; the suture
between them shorter than the prefronto-frontals ; touching
the internasal, nasal, loreal, przeocular, and supraocular.
Frontal : Touches: six shields; the fronto-supraocular and.
fronto-parietal sutures subequal. Swpraoculars : Nearly as

2964 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

long as the frontal, about one-third the breadth of the frontal
along a line connecting the centres of the eyes. Nasal: Entire.
Loreal: One. Preocular ; One ; not reaching the top of the
head. Postocular : Two. Temporal: One. Supralabials :
Eight ; the Ist touching the nasal, and the 4th the eye.
Sublinguals : Two pairs ; the posterior shorter, touching the
4th and 5th infralabials ; quite separated by small scales.
Infralabials : Five ; the 5th largest,‘and touching two or three —
scales behind. (Fig. 53.)

Fig. 53.—Gerardia prevostiana.

(x 13.)

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 265

Costals : About as long as broad, rectiform, smooth, without
apical pits. Vertebrals not eniarged, the breadth of its scales
subequal to their length, and less than those of the ultimate
row. Ultimate row with scales broader than long. In 17
rows to behind midbody, where they reduce to 15 by a fusion
of the third and fourth rows from the ventrals. They further
reduce to 13 before the vent by the blending of the sixth and
seventh rows from the ventralis. Ventrals : 145 to 154; not
keeled. Anal: Divided. Supracaudals : Inevenrows. Sub-
caudals : 30 to 34; divided.

-(b) Anomahes—Temporals : Rarely two. Supralabials :
Sometimes seven, with the 3rd and 4th touching the
eve: :

Dentition.—I have no skull.

Distribution.—(a) General : The coasts of India as far
north as the Gulf of Cambay, on the western side, to the
Burmese coasts. Boulenger (Catalogue of Snakes, Brit.
Museum, Vol. III., p. 21) gives Ceylon as part of its habitat.
Haly, in discussing doubts which had arisen before his day,
as to whether this species occurred in Ceylon, says “ the
occurrence of G. bicolor ( = G. prevostiana, vide synonymy)
in Ceylon is set at rest by the capture of a specimen in the
Kelani river by Mr. H. F. Fernando, which he presented to
the Museum.” When I visited Colombo Museum I examined
a specimen (No. 99), which is probably the identical one
referred to. |

(b) Local : Seemingly a very rare snake in Ceylon. It is
also a very uncommon snake round the coasts of India, judging
from the dearth of specimens in Museums. There is one in
the British Museum from Bombay, and two from Burma.
Phipson mentions four obtained from the vicinity of Bombay,
and I have had one specimen from Cannanore, another from
Burma, and have examined another from Broach in the Gulf
of Cambay. I saw no specimen in the Indian Museum, and
it is perhaps singular that it has not been recorded from the
eastern coast of India,

39 6(6)20

266 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Sub-family 5 Dipsadomorphiine.

(Named from the type genus Dipsadomorphus.)

General Characters (from Indian ‘species)—Head small
to moderate, elongate or broad. Snout short, moderate, or
long, with or without canthus, with or without a pointed
rostral appendage. Eye moderate to large ; the pupil round,
horizontal, or vertical. Nostril lateral, small, or moderate.
Neck moderately or strongly constricted. Body short,
moderate, or elongate ; cylindrical or compressed. Belly
rounded or keeled. ‘Tail short, moderate, or long.

Habits.—Terrestrial or arboreal. Active.
Food.—Mammals, birds, reptiles, batrachians.
Breeding.—Oviparous or viviparous.

Poison.—Feebly poisonous, the bite producing at the
worst some trivial local effects and no constitutional symp-
toms.

Lepidosis.—Head covered with large shields, conforming to
the Colubrine type. Loreal: Usually present. Sublinguals :
Two pairs.

Costals: Longer than broad ; rectiform or some of the
lateral rows oblique ; with or without apical pits ; keeled or
smooth. Vetebrals enlarged or not. Ventrals : Rounded or
keeled. Anal: Entire or divided. Subcaudals : Divided.

Dentition.— Maaillary : Opisthoglyphous ; isodont or aniso-
dont ; syncranterian or diacranterian ; anododont, oinododont
or dinododont ; kumatodont or coryphcdont. Palatine :
Isodont or scaphiodont. Pterygoid : Isodont or scaphiodont.
Mandibular : Isodont or anisodont ; anododont, oinododont,
or dinododont ; scaphiodont.

Distribution.—Europe, Africa, America, Asia to the Philip-
pines.

Of the many genera five are represented within Indian
limits, and three in Ceylon.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 267

Genus DIPSADOMORPHUS.

(Greek “ dipsas a kind of snake, and “‘ morphe ”’ form,
2.¢., like another genus to which the name Dipsas
has been appiied.)

General Characters (for Indian species)—The members of
the genus have very distinctive characters, whereby they
are easily recognized. They vary in length from about 3 to
over 7 feet. Head subovate and markedly depressed ;
widest about midway between the eye and the neck. Muzzle
short, with obtuse canthus, and obtusely rounded anteriorly.
Hye large, with a vertical pupil. Nostril round, contained
equally in the anterior and posterior nasals, and occupying
about the median two-fourths of the depth of the suture
between them. Neck markedly constricted, and this, taken
with the shape of the head, leads many to suppose these snakes
are vipers. Body markedly compressed, attenuating towards
the neck and the vent. Belly rounded or obtusely angulate
laterally. Tail cylindrical, varying from about one-fourth |
to one-fifth the total length.

* Dipsas was applied to a snake whose indentity is now uncertain,
but the name has been retained, and is now applied to a genus of South
American snakes. The dipsas of the Ancients was reputed to be
venomous, and, according to some, one of the effects of its bite was an
insatiable thirst (Greek “‘ dipsa ’’ thirst), though Lucan makes it appear
that it was the creature itself that was afflicted with thirst. Thus, in
his Pharsalia, written in the first century A.D., he alludes to it on the
occasion when Cato was leading his army across the desert. The
passage has been thus translated :—

And now with fiercer heat the desert glows,

And midday gleanings aggravate their woes ;
When, lo! a spring amid the sandy plain

Shows its clear mouth to cheer the fainting train,
But round the guarded bank in thick array

Dire aspics roll’d their congregated way,

And thirsting in the midst the dipsas lay.

268 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Identification.—The compressed body, narrow neck, large
eye with vertical pupil, the enlarged vertebral row of
scales, and the entire anal shield (with rare exceptions,
none of which are Ceylonese) constitute a syndrome,
by which the representatives of the genus are easily
recognized.

Habits.—Arboreal. Nocturnal. Active. Fierce, when
provoked.

Food.—Small mammals, birds, lizards, batrachians.
Breeding.—Oviparous so far as is known.

Poison.—Feebly poisonous, producing at the worst some
trifling local effects.

Lepidosis (for Indian species).—Rostral: Touches six
shields. Internasals: A pair. Prefrontals: A pair. Fron-
tal: Touching six shields. Nasals: Divided. Loreal:
Present, shorter than the nasals. Preoculars : One to three.
Postoculars : Two. Temporals: Two or three; small,
scalelike. Supralabials: Eight to ten; three touching the
eye. Sublinguals : Two pairs ; subequal, or the posterior
rather shorter. Infralabials : The last about as broad
as the posterior sublinguals, but shorter than those
shields.

Costals : Longer than broad ; smooth or feebly keeled ; with
apical facets. Vertebrals: Enlarged, rectiform ; originating
on the nape by a confluence of three rows, terminating in
the supra-anal region. Last three rows rectiform, progres-
sively increasing in breadth. The rows between the third
and the vertebral oblique, and their breadth about half
their length. Ultimate row broadest. In 13 to 31 rows at
midbody. Ventrals: Rounded. Anal: Entire or divided.
Supracaudals : In even rows ; vertebrals not enlarged. Sub-
caudals : Divided.

Dentition —Mazillary : Opisthoglyphous, diacranterian.
Precranterian: Feebly kumatodont. Cranterian : Two or
three ; enlarged ; grooved on their anterior faces ; obliquely

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 269

set. Palatine: Anododont, strongly scaphiodont. Ptery-
goid: Anododont, scaphiodont. Mandibular: Anododont,
strongly scaphiodont.

Distribution Tropical Africa, South Asia, Papuasia,
Australia.

There are about twenty-eight species, of which seventeen
occur within Indian limits, and five of these in Ceylon.

DIPSADOMORPHUS TRIGONATUS (Schneider).

(Latin. Adjectival form of “‘ trigonum ”’ a triangle, from the
: somewhat triangular dorsal marks.)

The Gamma Snake or Common I ndian Catsnake.*

Synonymy.—Coluber trigonatus, C. sagittarius, C. caten-
ularis, Dipsas trigonata. ;

History.—First brought to scientific notice by Russell, who
figured it in 1796 in his first volume on Plate XV. Christened
by Schneider in 1802. :

General Characters.—A small snake growing to about 3 feet
in length. Head depressed; subcordate in shape, widest
midway between the eye and the neck. Snout shortish,
without canthus, obtusely rounded. Neck markedly con-
stricted. Nostril lateral, almost wholly contained in the
anterior nasal shield ; occupying the second- and third-fifths
of the suture from above downwards. Eye large, with
mustard-yellow iris and vertical pupil. Body slender,
elongate, and markedly compressed; attenuating towards
the neck and the vent. Belly rounded. Tail moderate in
length, being about one-seventh to less than one-sixth
‘the total length.

* The marks on the body are very like a Greek Y, especially those on
the right side. I call the species of this genus the catsnakes because
they are cat-like in the following traits: They are arboreal. in habit,
exhibit a fierce nature, are mainly nocturnal, and possess a large eye,
with a vertical pupil and mustard-coloured or greenish iris.

270 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Identification.—The scale rows 21 two heads-lengths
behind the head, 21 in midbody, and 15 two heads-lengths
before the vent will proclaim the species among Ceylon
snakes °

Colouration.—(a) Variety typicus—The ground colour is
usually of a light yellowish-brown, sandy, or fawn hue, which
may be uniform or more or less mottled with darker shades,
especially low in the flanks, or sparsely scattered with black
spots. Dorsally a series of dark, more or less distinct, y-shaped
marks occur on each side, which fade posteriorly, ending at
or before the vent. The shade between the arms of each “‘ y”’ is
lighter, often, indeed, whitish. Where the series of one side
exactly meets the fellows of the other on the spine, as fre-
quently happens in part, if not the whole length, of the body,
these marks resemble arrowheads. The belly is pearly-white
with small, circular, rufous, or brownish spots laterally. Blyth
says the very young are pale with but slight traces of the adult
marks, but I cannot say that my young specimens have been
in any way different from adults. I have noticed that the
skin between the scales is dun, and somewhat darker in the
gamma marks, and in sloughs these marks are obscurely
traceable. A specimen I got in Delhi was much the colour of
café-au-lait, and was copiously speckled with very fine
punctiform dark spots, the gamma marks being very obscure.
The head bears a pair of large lung-shaped brown patches,
often delineated with black, and a narrow dark streak passes
from behind the eye towards the gape.

(b) Variety melanocephalus (Annandale)—Darker than the
last, with a black head ; and recorded only from the borders
of Persia and Baluchistan.

Habits.—(a) Haunts: It is essentially arboreal in habit,
frequenting bushes, scrub, or trees, usually in close proximity
to the ground, though it will climb to considerable elevations
at times. I have frequently come across its sloughs low
down in lantana and similar tangled vegetation. It often
descends to the ground, and I have several times met
with it at night in the open, on the road, or a garden path.
At these times it was always on the move, but I have

SNAKES OF CEYLON. Dar hit

had several examples brought to me found coiled up on
the ground beneath a bush, during the day time, apparently
asleep.

In bushes it coils itself into a little heap, unlike the tree
snakes of other genera, which recline with the body extended
in graceful curves, distributing their weight on many points,
unless they are actually resting in their major or full length
along a suitable branch.

Nurse reports having frequently seen it in Guzerat, where
it appears to be very abundant, curled up on the top of cactus
hedges. It sometimes takes up its abode (perhaps for the
deposition of eggs) in a hole in a tree trunk, and in one instance
one had evidently recently tenanted a crypt in the crevices
of a wall, as its slough was seen partly issuing from a hole in
the face of the brickwork.

After the foregoing observations, it will appear remarkable
that such a creature can adapt itself completely to a desert
environment, but such is undoubtedly the case, for Blanford
records one from Gwadar in Baluchistan, which, he says, is
merely a fishing village on a barren spit of sand, between a
rocky promontory and the mainland, where there is not a
single tree and scarcely a bush to be found.

(6b) Disposition: This with others of its genus is one of the
most intrepid snakes [ know. Often with no further provoca-
tion than being suddenly disturbed or confronted, it will
assume an attitude of defiance, and, with little hesitation, will
boldly act on the offensive.

(c) Striking Posture: The attitude it adopts at these times
is very characteristic. The head and forebody are erected
well off the ground, and the latter thrown into loops, of which
two overlapping one another, are thrown to one side and one
on the other, the head being poised in the middle of the figure-
of-8 so formed. The rest of the body lies variably disposed
in sinuous extension. Prior to its stroke the erected part is
swayed slightly forwards and backwards, whilst the body is
inflated and deflated with agitation, and the tail briskly
vibrated with emotion. Poised thus, intently watching the

272 SNAKES OF CEYLON

object of its alarm for a favourable opportunity to deliver its
thrust, the little creature reminds one of the behaviour of a
wrestler seeking with the utmost vigilance to engage his
adversary advantageously. The stroke is delivered with
great malice, the jaws opening widely in the act of striking,
and the forward thrust is no sooner accomplished than the
creature retracts itself to reassume its former attitude, and
strikes again and again, in fact, will sometimes do so till its
energies are spent. During the thrust the loops are straight-
ened to their utmost, and a two-foot snake may dart at and
strike an object six inches or even more in front of it.

I have several times tried to get this and others of this
genus photographed in the peculiar attitude just referred to.
The last occasion was in Fyzabad, but in my attempts to get
the right pose, I was struck at again and again, until the
specimen lay over on its side completely exhausted, and I
picked it up with no more fight in it, and restored it to its box.
The next day it repeated the same performance with a similar
climax. Such determination and courage in so small a
creature are worthy of the greatest admiration.

Its attitude before striking is very similar to that
displayed by the pit vipers, T’rimeresurus gramineus and
T. anamallensis. :

(d) Nocturnal or Diurnal: It is nocturnal in habit, and
nearly all my specimens encountered on the move have been
killed at night.

- Food.—Like other ophidians the gamma snake takes almost
anything it can get, but it shows a strong partiality in its natural
haunts for lizards, especially those of the genus Calotes and
other agamoid forms. Gunther says it feeds on mice, but
I have known it do so on only one occasion. In captivity,
Mr. Millard tells me, it feeds freely on small birds, lizards,
and mammals, killing them by constriction in the same manner
as the python. It would appear to be capable of utilizing
its tail to some purpose in the same direction, for Russell
relates the following experience : ‘‘ In the month of December
a vigorous subject of this species was made to bite a chicken,
which he did very fiercely and repeatedly in different parts.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 273

The ehicken at first fluttered and screamed with pain, but
soon became quiet. In about half a minute, greatly to my
surprise, she let fall her head, and shut hereyesasif dead. The
position of the wing prevented the cause of this being at first
discovered. The snake imperceivedly had wreathed its tail
round the chicken’s neck, and the bird, had it not been
rescued, would inevitably have been strangled. Soon after
being disengaged, it recovered perfectly.” Mr. D’Abreu
says in captivity his specimens have taken lizards of
the families Agamide and Geckonide, but refused the
Scincide. He found a robin (Thamnobia cambayensis) in one
specimen.

Breeding.—(a) The Sexes: According to my records females
‘appear to be much more abundant than males. Females
appear to grow to a much larger size than males.

The anal glands yield a nasty-smelling secretion, like
eustard in colour and consistency.

(b) Method of Reproduction : Mr. D’Abreu had a female
at Nagpur that laid eggs in his vivarium.

T have had many egg-bound females with eggs in which, I
thought, I found traces of very young embryos. Mr. D’Abreu
confirms this by telling me his eggs contained minute embryos
7 mm. (about 2 of an inch) long.

(c) Season: I had one egg-bound female in Almora in May,
one in June, one in Fyzabad in July, two in Fyzabad and
one in Saugor, C. P. (India), in August. Mr. D’Abreu’s
specimen oviposited on September 2.

(d) Period of Gestation: Not known.
(e) Period of Incubation : Not known.

(f) The eggs : The eggs vary in number from three to eleven.
My largest eggs taken from the abdomen measured 30 mm.
(1s inch) in length, and 10 mm. (33 of an inch) in breadth.
Those laid in Nagpur measured 26 to 29 mm. (1 to 14 inch)
in length, and 12 to 13 mm. (4 an inch) in breadth. Ina
specimen, with a body 2 feet and 3 of an inch in length, the
eggsin a single string occupied 84 inches.

40 6(6)20

274 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Growth.—(a) Length of Hatchling : The smallest specimens
I have had measured 237 mm. (92 inches) and 260 mm. (10}
inches). Both appeared to be hatchlings. The former was
captured in Trichinopoly in March, and the latter in Banglore
in July. Blyth records the measurement.of the young as
about 230 mm. (9 inches), but as he refers to a species
attaining to a length of 6 feet, this statement does not inspire
confidence.

(b) Harly Infe: The rate of growth is difficult to follow
from my records. An unusual number of specimens range
round about 2 feet in length in the months of June, July, and
August, and would probably be two years old.

(c) Maturity: My smallest prospective dam measured
570 mm. (1 foot 104 inches) in length, and would appear to be”
about two years old.

(d) Maximum Length: I have already remarked that
females appear to grow much longer than males. My largest
male record is 655 mm. (2 feet 12 inch), but I have many
female records in the vicinity of 915 mm. (3 feet). My largest
female taped 940 mm. (3 feet 1 inch).

Lepidosis.—(a) T'ypical—Rostral : The rostro-nasal sutures
are about twice the rostro-internasals and rostro-labials.
Internasals : The suture between them is about two-thirds
that between the prefrontals ; two-thirds to three-fourths
the internaso-prefrontals. Prefrontals : The suture between
them is subequal to the przfronto-frontals ; touches the
internasal, postnasal, loreal, preocular, and supraocular.
Frontal : The fronto-supraocular sutures are rather longer than
the fronto-parietals. Swpraoculars : Length subequal to the
frontal, breadth about half the frontal along a line connecting
the centres of the eyes. Nasals: Divided. Loreal: About
half to three-fifths the length of the nasals. Preocular : Not
or barely reaching the top of the head. /Postoculars : Two.
Temporals : Two ; very irregular in size and number. Supra-
labials: Eight; 1st and 2nd touching the nasals; 3rd, 4th,
and 5th touching the eye; and the 6th and 7th the lower —
temporal. Sublinguals : Posterior subequal to or shorter
than the anterior ; quite separated by scales ; touching the

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 275

last three or four infralabials. JIJnfralabials : Seven ; the
last shorter than the posterior sublinguals, about as broad as
those shields, and touching three scales behind. (Fig. 54.)

Fie. 54.—Dipsadomorphus trigonatus.
(x 24.)

Costals : At midbody. Vertebrals, breadth of scales about
two-thirds their length, and about two-thirds as broad as the
ultimate row. Ultimate row, scales nearly as broad as long.
In 21 rows to behind midbody, where they reduce by three —

276 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

steps to 15 two heads-lengths before the vent. The rows
reduce from 21 to 19 by the absorption of the wppermost row
into the vertebral ; from 19 to 17 by the fusion of the third
and fourth rows from the ventrals ; from 17 to 15 the upper-
most row is again absorbed into the vertebral. Ventrals : In
males 206 to 221, in females 218 to 256. Anal: Entire.
Subcaudals : In males 79 to 96, in females 75 to 88; divided.
(Figs. 55 and 56.)

SSS
fe

Any
i
i
if;

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f

—"

cos

Cs
Ms
Hh
“i

Kun
Ly

7 2 . = °
Fic. 56.—Dipsadomorphus trigonatus to show scaling.

ie

Sey
Ms

(6) Anomalies—Supralabials : The second is rarely divided
into an upper and a lower part. Costals: Rarely 23 rows.
In one such specimen I noted that the fourth row from the
ventrals divided, and reunited several times in the forebody.
The steps of absorption may not occur in normal order.
Subcaudals: A few of those near the base of the. tail are
sometimes entire.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. TT

Dentition.— Maxillary : Preecranterian, 8 to 10 ; Cranterian,
2. Palatine: 5 or 6, as long as the maxillary. Pterygoid :
7 to 10. Mandibular: 14 to 16. (Fig. 57.)

es

Fie. 57.—Maxilla and mandible of Dipsadomorphus trigonatus.
(xX 2.)

Distribution.—(a) General : Peninsular India to the
_ Himalayas. On the north-west it extends beyond the borders
of Persia to Transcaspia, and on the north-east to Assam.
Ceylon.

(b) Local: It is a denizen of the plains, but ascends some
altitude into hilly regions. I obtained several specimens from
Almora in the Western Himalayas at about 5,000 feet
elevation.

It is a fairly common snake in India, and probably com-
moner than its captures denote, for it is usually encountered
on the ground, after leaving the protection of its arboreal
environment. If seen in a tree it would almost certainly
evade capture unless a gun were handy.

The fact that I found a specimen in a small collection made
by Mr. Ormiston at Kalupahana, Haldummulla (about 3,000
feet), is interesting, for neither Haly nor Willey included the
species in their lists, and Boulenger does not include Ceylon
within the range of its habitat. Wm. Ferguson, however,
wrote in 1877: “‘ of specimens sent to be named by Dr.
Gunther, he is returning one named Dipsas trigonata.”” Since
this date no mention of this species has been made, and,
presumably, no specimen has come to light, since Haly, Willey,
and Boulenger omit to mention it as a Ceylon snake, possibly
thinking that Gunther was mistaken in his identification, or
that the snake submitted to him had not really been obtained
in this Island.

278 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

DIPSADOMORPHUS CEYLONENSIS (Gunther).
(Latin, implying a denizen of Ceylon.)

Gunther's Catsnake.

4

Sinhalese : “ mapila”’ (Ferguson).

Synonymy.—Dvpsas ceylonensis, D. hexagonota.
History.—Described by Gunther in 1858.

General Characters.—A fair-sized species growing to 4 feet.
The head, neck, and body conform to the characters specified
under the genus. The tail is about one-fifth the total
length.

Identification.— The scales 19 two heads-lengths behind the
head, 19 in midbody, and 15 or 13 two heads-lengths before
the vent will indicate the genus among Ceylon snakes. From
barnesi it will be known by the single preocular and three
supralabials touching the eye, and from beddomez by the ventrals
not exceeding 243 and subcaudals 111.

Colouration.—Dorsally pale-brown, with a vertebral series
of large dark-brown spots continuing on to the tail, the
intervals involving about two vertebral scales. Usually a
short, narrow, oblique stripe is given off from each spot
laterally which passes backwards. ‘There is an elongate
nuchal streak, with a lateral streak beside it. ‘The head has
a pair of dark lung-shaped marks on the occiput, and a narrow,
dark, postocular stripe passes to the gape. The belly is pale
grayish or yellowish, with small specklings of brown and
larger brown, lateral spots.

Habits.—(a) Haunts: Arboreal vegetation of all kinds. It
frequently intrudes into man’s immediate vicinity, taking up
quarters in the garden, and is not infrequently met with on
the creepers around the house. It was frequently disturbed
in the Nilgiri Hills by estate coolies when plucking tea and
coffee.

SNAKES. OF CEYLON. 279

(b) Striking Posture: Similar to that evinced by its near
relative trigonatus.

‘(c) Nocturnal or Diurnal: Tt is nocturnal in habit.

Food.—I have many records of its diet. These go to show
that it favours a lacertine fare, frequently swallowing lizards
of the genus Calofes and similar genera. It also frequently
eats’ frogs, both arboreal and terrestrial. More rarely it
devours birds. Mr. Pearless told me that he found one in his
aviary once and killed it. It had eaten one of his canaries,
and he had previously lost six other birds, always canaries
or Java sparrows, which had disappeared mysteriously during
the night.

Breeding.—(a) The Sexes: The male appears to grow much
larger than the female, judging from my notes. My largest
female record was 863 mm. (2 feet 10 inches), whereas I have
had no less than nine males exceeding 1,015 mm. (3 feet
4 inches).

(b) Method of Reproduction: I have removed eggs from
the abdomen of such a size and character as to leave little
doubt that it is oviparous in habit.

(c) Season: Mr. Green sent me notes of an egg-bound
female from Ceylon killed in May. I had two specimens in a
similar state in the Nilgiris in August, and four in September.
Another specimen with eggs from the Anamallay Hills was
killed in September.

(d) Period of Gestation : Not known.

(ec) Period of Incubation : Not known.

_ (f) The Eggs: I have frequently extracted eggs that were
about 25 mm. (1 inch) long, my largest measuring 28 by 8 mm.
(14s by 3 of an inch). They are remarkably elongate,
white, soft shelled, and have the poles equally domed. In

my nine gravid females the numbers have ranged between
three and eight.

Growth.—(a) The Hatchling: My smallest specimen, which
appeared to be very recently hatched, measured 317 mm.
(124 inches). This was killed in August in the Nilgiri Hills.

@.

280 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

The only other specimen of that year’s brood, also killed in
August, was 432 mm. (154 inches).

This last must have hatched out three months or more
earlier. Four examples in the Colombo Museum vary from
287 to 326 mm. (114 to 122 inches).

(6) Harly Life: A long series collected in the Nilgiri Hills
enables me to recognize the broods of successive years,
and it is evident the young grow about ten or twelve
inches a year. The average lengths in the months of July,
August, and September being respectively 23, 34, and 44
inches.

(c) Maturity: My smallest prospective dam measured
730 mm. (2 feet 43 inches), a length indicating that she was
about eighteen months old.

(d) Maximum Length: My two largest specimens, both
males, measured 1,283 mm. (4 feet 24 inches). Abercromby
mentions one 1,296 mm. (4 feet 3 inches), and Boulenger’s
outside measurement is 1,320 mm. (4 feet 4 inches).

Lepidosis —(a) T'ypical—Rosiral : The rostro-nasal sutures
are about twice the rostro-labials, and more than twice the
rostro-internasals. Jnternasals : The suture between them is
rather shorter than that between the prefrontal pair, and
rather shorter than the internaso-prefrontals. Prefrontals :
The suture between them rather longer than the prefronto-
frontals ; touch the internasal, postnasal, loreal, preocular,
and supraocular. Frontal: The fronto-supraocular sutures
are rather longer than the fronto-parietals. Swpraoculars :
About as long as the frontal, and about half the breadth of
the frontal along a line connecting the centres of the eyes.
Nasals : Two. Loreal: Rather longer than deep, and about
three-fifths the length of the nasals. Preoculars: One,
reaching or nearly reaching the frontal. Postoculars : Two.
Temporals : Two; small, variable, about half the length of the
supraocular. Suwpralabials : Hight ; the lst and 2nd touching
the nasals ; 3rd, 4th, and 5th the eye ; and 6th and 7th the lower
temporal. Sublinguals : The posterior are about as long or
onger than the anterior, quite separated by small seales, and

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 281

touching the 5th, 6th, and 7th infralabials. Infralabials :
Seven; the 7th shorter than the posterior sublinguals, but
about the same breadth ; touching three scales behind.

Costals : Vertebrals, about as broad as long, and rather
broader than those of the ultimate row. Ultimate row with
scales rather longer than broad. In 19 rows to behind mid-
body, reducing to 15 or 13 two heads-lengths before the vent.
The reduction is due to an absorption of the third row from
the ventrals once, and the uppermost row into the vertebrals
at the other steps. Ventrals: 209 to 243 (Ceylon specimens
218 to 231). Anal: Entire. Subcaudals : 91 to 112 (Ceylon
specimens 91 to 112). Taken together, the ventrals and
subcaudals range from 311 to 342.

(b) Anomalies—Preoculars: Sometimes two. Supra-
labials : Sometimes nine, with the 4th, 5th, and 6th touching
the eye. Costals: The vertebrals occasionally disintegrate,
and the count in consequence at such places will become 21.
The scale rows should not, however, be regarded as 21 in these
cases, as there is no supernumerary row strictly speaking.
Subcaudals : Some of those at the base of the tail may be
entire.

Dentition.— From four skulls in my collection. Mazillary :
Precranterian, 14 to 15 in Ceylon specimens, 18 to 20 in
Nilgiri. Palatine: 7 to 8 in Ceylon specimens, 9 in the
Nilgiri. Pterygoid : 18 to 20 in Ceylon specimens, and 19 to
21 in Nilgiri. Mandibular: 21 to 24 in Ceylon specimens,
and 25 to 28 in Nilgiri.

Distribution.—(a) General: Hills in Southern India and
Ceylon.

(b) Local : In the Nilgiris it is a common snake that favours
an elevation between about 3,000 and 5,000 feet. In Ceylon
it is evidently a fairly common snake, which, Willey says in a
letter to me, extends about as far north as Sigiriya. I have
had specimens from Kandy, Peradeniya, and Moragalla.
Pearless records it from Badulla. One in the Colombo
Museum is from Nanu-oya, another from Horana. All the
specimens I saw in. the Colombo Museum (except barnesi and
forstent), eight in number, conformed to this type.

41 6(6)20

bo
00
bo

SNAKES OF CEYLON.

DIPSADOMORPHUS BEDDOMET Wall.*
(Named in honour of the late Colonel Beddome.)

Beddome’s Catsnake.

Synonymy.—Dzpsadomor phus ceylonensis.

History.—The snake figured by Seba in his Thesaurus in
1734, Plate XLIII., Fig. 4, appears to be this species. Described
by me in 1909.

General Characters.—Similar to those of D. ceylonensis.

Identification.—See footnote below.

Colouration.—Pale-brown or grayish dorsally, with obscure
dark-brown oblique streaks. There are no lung-shaped
marks on the occiput. The belly is grayish, sparsely speckled
with dark-brown, and with a few lateral spots of the same
colour.

Habits.—Appears to agree with those of ceylonensis.

Food.—I have made no observations on its diet. All my
specimens have been preserved in spirit.

* In 1909 I published a note in the Records of the Indian Museum
(pages 151, et seg.) upon certain “‘forms”’ of Dzpsadomorphus. I
expressed the view that ceylonensis (Gunther), as described in Boulen-
ger’s Catalogue (Vol. III., p. 66), includes four distinct “‘ forms,” and
gave in tabular form the shield characters for each, upon which reliance
is mainly placed in the separation of the species of this genus, viz., the
costal rows and the numbers of ventral and subcaudal shields. I
suggested that each deserved recognition as distinct “‘ species.” Dr.
Annandale in a later issue of the same Journal (Vol. ITI., p. 281) dis-
sented from my view. A further study of the question, and the acqui-
sition of a much longer series of specimens, confirms the views I then
voiced. Thus, ceylonensis, as conceived by me, is based on eighty
examples, characterized by the seales beingin19 rows anteriorly to
behind midbody, the ventrals 209 to 240 and the subcaudals 91 to 112.
The aggregate of the ventrals and subcaudals is 311 to 342. This is
the common “‘ form ”’ found in Ceylon.

I find, however, that another ‘“‘form’’ occurs in Celyon with the
same number of scale rows, but many more ventrals and subcaudals.
In other words, it has many more vertebre than typical ceylonensis,
and I regard it as a distinct ‘“‘ species,’ though others may accord to it
only the minor rank of subspecies or even “variety.”’ It is a less
common “ form,” and I have only seen twelve examples. The ventrals
vary from 248 to 266, and the subcaudals 111 t0 129. If taken together.
the aggregate for ventrals and subcaudals is 362 to 390. To this I
attach Beddome’s name.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 283

Breeding.— Nothing known.

Growth.—Grows to 1,065 mm. (34 feet).

Lepidosis.—Typical: Head shields as detailed under
ceylonensis.

Costals : Vertebrals about as broad as long, broader than
the scales in the ultimate row. Ultimate row with scales
rather longer than broad. In 19 rows to behind midbody,
reducing to 15 or 13 two heads-lengths before the vent. The
reduction of rows is due to the absorption of the uppermost
into the vertebrals twice, and the fusion of the third and
fourth rows from the ventrals once. Ventrals: 248 to 266.
Anal: Entire. Subcaudals: 111 to 129. The ventrals and
subcaudals taken together range from 362 to 390.

Dentition.—I have no skull.

Distribution.—(a) General: Hills in Southern India and
Ceylon.

(b) Local: It appears to be rather uncommon in Ceylon.
I have seen three specimens from Peradeniya, and I acquired
a fine specimen in Kandy. It was not represented in the
Colombo Museum when I examined the collection in 1920.

DIPSADOMORPHUS BARNESI (Gunther).

(Named in honour of Mr. Barnes.)

Barnes’s Catsnake.

Synonymy.—Nil.

History.— Described. by Gunther in 1869.

General Characters.—Very similar to those of ceylonensis.
The tail is about one-fourth the total length.

Identification—The costal rows 19 two heads-lengths
behind the head to well behind midbody, 15 two heads-lengths
before the vent, and the three preoculars will denote this
species among Ceylon snakes.

Colouration.—Pale neutral tint dorsally, with a vertebral
series of large pale spots, edged with purplish-brown. A
series of large purplish-brown irregular spots in the flanks, the
most anterior of which form oblique streaks. Head purplish-
brown powdered with grayish. A broad postocular dark

284 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

streak to the gape, edged paler above. Labials powdered,
except for their sutures, which are dark-brown. Belly dirty
white, powdered with dark specks.

Habits.—Nothing known.

Food.—Nothing known.

Breeding.—Nothing known.

Growth.—Boulenger says the type is 550 mm. (1 foot 92
inches). I have had a specimen 595 mm. in length (1 foot 114
inches). Abercromby in one place (Snakes of Ceylon, page 78)
Says it grows to 21 inches, and in another (page 47) says he
obtained a specimen 44 feet long. Since his description of the
snake seems to be a repetition of that given in Boulenger’s
Catalogue (Vol. III., pp. 73 and 74), the identification of his
large examples seems open to question.

Lepidosis —(a) T'ypical—Rostral : The rostro-nasal sutures
are twice the length of the rostro-labials, and more than twice
the length of the rostro-internasals. IJnternasals : The suture
between them three-fourths that between the prefrontal pair,
and about three-fourths the internaso-prefrontals. Prefron-
tals: The suture between them rather longer than the pre-
fronto-frontals ; touch the internasal, postnasal, loreal, two
preoculars, and supraocular. JS rontal: The fronto-supra-
ocular sutures little longer than the fronto-parietals. Swpra-
oculars : About as long as the frontal, and about two-thirds
the breadth of the frontal along a line connecting the centres
of the eyes. Nasals: Two. Loreal: Longer than high,
about three-fourths the length of the nasals. Preoculars :
Three, the upper hardly reaching the top of the head. Post-
oculars: Two. Temporals: Two; small, half the length of
the supraocular. Swpralabials: Hight; the 1st and 2nd
touching the nasals ; 4th and 5th the eye ; and 6th and 7th the
lower temporal. Sublinguals : The posterior rather shorter
than the anterior, quite separated by small scales ; touching
the 4th and 5th infralabials. Jnfralabials: Five ; the Sth
shorter than the posterior sublinguals, about as broad as those
shields, and touching two scales behind.

Costals : Vertebral row with scales about as broad as long,
and as broad as the ultimate row. Ultimate row with scales
about as long as broad. In 19 rows to behind midbody,

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 285

reducing to 15 two heads-lengths before the vent. The
reduction steps occur close together, and in one step the
uppermost row is absorbed into the vertebral, and in the other
the third and fourth rows from the ventrals coalesce. If a
third step occurs, it is the uppermost row again that is absorbed
into the vertebral. Ventrals: 214 to 220. Anal: Entire.
Subcaudals : 98 to 100.

(6) Anomalies—Supralabials: The third only just fails
to meet the eye in the three specimens I have examined, and
it seems likely, therefore, that some examples will occur with
three touching the eye, as one sees in most other species.

Dentition.—! have no skull.

Distribution.—(a) General: Peculiar to the hills of Ceylon.
The type was taken by Mr. Barnes on Gangaruwa estate.

(6) Local :—Evidently a rare snake. Only the type existed
in the British Museum when Boulenger’s Catalogue appeared.
I have examined this, and seen two other specimens which I
refer to this species.

DIPSADOMORPHUS FORSTENI (Dumeril and Bibron).

(Named in honour of Mr. Forsten.)

Forsten’s Catsnake.
Sinhalese : “‘ mapila” (Ferguson); “le polonga’’ (blood
snake) (Willey).

Synonymy.—T'riglyphodon forsten, T. tessellatum, Dipsas
forstent, D. tessellatus, D. cynodon.

History.—Described by Dumeril and Bibron in 1854.

Identification.—The scale rows 25 to 27 at midbody with
enlarged, vertebrals will denote this species.

General Characters.—A remarkably fine snake of handsome
proportions, growing to over 7 feet. Its characters conform
in every way to those mentioned under the genus.

286 SNAKES OF CEYLON,

Colouration.—Very variable, some specimens being notably
light with few markings, others dark with very fine specklings
and bold mottlings. Dorsally the ground colour is dirty-
whitish or buff, and this is finely powdered or marbled with
pale neutral tint or brownish. Usually there is a series of
more or less distinct large purplish-brown cross-bars, most
conspicuous anteriorly and extending from the nape well
down the tail. In some specimens a series of lateral vertical
marks alternate with the vertebral series, and there may be
another series of smaller alternating spots below this. All
such markings are most conspicuous and regular anteriorly,
and gradually dissolve posteriorly into an irregular coarse
mottling. Willey says in Ceylon there are two varieties “ the
typical variety, brown, with angular oblique black bars ; and
the red variety, uniformly rich reddish-chocolate above, with-
out black bars, paler roseate flush below.” The belly is dirty-
whitish or yellowish, more or less speckled or mottled with
dark tones, especially laterally. The head is powdered with
pale neutral tint or brownish. In my experience hardly two
specimens are alike. One large example in the Cl
Museum is a perfectly uniform light-brown.

Habits.—(a) Haunts: It is entirely arboreal in habit, and I
think more usually lives in large trees than in low bush.
Visiting the Maharajah of Balrampur some years ago, I found
some very fine specimens displayed by his professional snake
catchers, who assured me that they lived in pairs, and fre-
quented holes in the “mohwa” trees (Bassia latifolia), in
which they were quite common. I was told that it occasion-
ally comes into the bungalows there. The record specimen
was killed in the camp of Sir J. Campbell at Kaladungi, in the
Naini Tal District. It came down from a tree near his servants’
tent at night, and was killed, and another was killed in the
same spot on the following night. Mr. N. Warde wrote to
me from Manbhum, Lower Bengal, where he says they are
common, that “ it coils itself into a bundle at the end of a thin
branch, round leaves and small twigs, and waits for birds.”

(b) Disposition: It has been described to me as a fierce’
snake, especially by the snake catchers at Balrampur, and
what I saw for myself amply confirmed this.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 287

(c) Striking Posture: This is very typical of that displayed
by all the members of the genus with which Iam acquainted.
The forebody is raised off the ground, and retracted into
figure-of-8 loops, two superimposed and thrown to one side,
and one on the opposite side. The head is retained in the
middle line. While thus poised the snake inflates itself very
considerably. Suddenly a lunge forward straightens the loops,
the jaws are quickly opened, and as quickly close on the object
of its anger. The snake then re-adopts its attitude of menace.

(d) Nocturnal or Diurnal: It is nocturnal in habit, and on
this account appears to be a more uncommon snake than is
probably the case.

Food.—Mr. N. Warde tells me that it is a voracious poultry
eater, and also robs his pigeon houses, ascending by the one
smooth supporting post. One invaded one of his servants’
quarters at night, and caused a considerable stir among the
inmates. When the neighbourhood was thoroughly awakened,
and he advanced into the room, he found the snake in the act
of swallowing a white fowl, and it continued to swallow with
apparent unconcern, in spite of the assembled throng of
spectators. A specimen brought to me in Berhampore
(Orissa) had fed on a large bat. One in captivity in Bombay
ate freely the lizards Calotes versicolor offered to it, and spar-
rows, and on one occasion a mouse.

Breeding.—(a) The Sexes: No special observations have
been made on the sexes.

(b) Method of Reproduction: Said to be oviparous. Aber-
cromby says eggs have been deposited in his vivarium. The
Balrampur snakemen also assured me it lays eggs.

(c) Season: Abercromby records the laying of eggs in
August and September.

(d) Period of Gestation : Not known.

(e) Period of Incubation: Not known.

(f) The Eggs: The Balrampur snakemen told me it lays
from seven to nine eggs in the hot weather. Abercromby
gives us no details of the eggs deposited in captivity.

Growth.—(a) The Hatchling : Nothing known. The smallest
specimen I am aware of was 525 mm. (1 foot 8? inches) in
September, and killed in the Nilgiris.

288 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

(b) Maximum Length: Abercromby (Snakes of Ceylon) says
in one place it grows to 1,474 mm. (4 feet 10 inches) (page 79),
and in another 2,050 mm. (6 feet 8? inches) (page 47). Sir J.
Campbell sent me the skin of one specimen killed in his camp
to identify, and it measured 2,312 mm. (7 feet 7 inches).

Lepidosis.—(a) T'ypical—Rostral: The rostro-nasal and
rostro-labial sutures subequal, and about half the rostro-
internasals. IJnternasals : The suture between them half that
between the prefrontal pair, half or less than half the inter-
naso-prefrontals. Prefrontals: The suture between them
rather longer than the prefronto-frontals ; touching the
internasal, postnasal, loreal, przocular, and supraocular.
Frontal : The fronto-supraocular sutures rather longer than
the fronto-parietals. ‘Swpraoculars: As long as the frontal,
about half the breadth of the frontal along a line connecting the
centres of the eyes. Nasals: Divided. Loreal: Little longer
than deep, about three-fifths the length of the nasals. Pre-
ocular : Reaching the top of the head, but not touching the
frontal. Postoculars: Two. Temporals : Three ; small, half
the length of the supraoculars. Supralabials: Hight or nine ;
the Ist and 2nd touching the nasals ; 3rd, 4th, and 5th, or Ath,
5th, and 6th touching the eye ; and the 6th and 7th, or 7th and
8th touching the lowest temporal. Sublinguals: The pos-
terior subequal to the anterior, quite separated by small
scales ; touching the last three or four infralabials. Jnfra-
labials : Seven or eight, the last about as broad as the posterior
sublinguals, but much shorter than those shields, touching
two scales behind.

Costals : Vertebral gradually developed in the neck, and
not the confluence of three rows ; breadth about two-thirds
their length, about two-thirds the breadth of the ultimate row.
Ultimate row with scales rather longer than broad. In from
25 to 31 rows in midbody. Venérals: 254 to 270. Anal:
Entire. Subcaudals : 103 to 131.

(0) Anomalies—Internasals : Rarely three, in a transverse
series. Loreal: Rarely touches the internasal ; rarely dupli-
cated, one shield lying behind the other. Supralabials :
Sometimes ten. Jnfralabials : The first is rarely divided.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 289

Dentition.— From three skulls inmy collection. Mazillary :
Precranterian, 10 or 12. Cranterian, 3; all grooved on
their outer faces, and progressively decreasing in length.
Palatine: 6 or 7. Pterygod: 9 to 11. Mandibular : 17
to 19.

_Distribution.—(a) General: Hills of Peninsular India,
including the Himalayas. Plains of Lower Bengal. Plains
of Ceylon.

(6) Local: All my Indian specimens have been collected in
the hills, or the near vieinity of hills. In Southern India I
consider it an uncommon snake. Along the foot hills of the
Himalayas it is seemingly uncommon also. In Lower Bengal,
about Manbhum, Mr. Warde tells me it is common, and he
reckoned he had killed probably fifty in fifteen years. Strag-
_ glers are occasionally met with some distance from hills.

In Ceylon it appears rather uncommon. Haly records it
from Kalutara and Negombo, and I have had it from Henarat-
goda. Willey records it from Horana and Anuradhapura.
Mr. Drummond-Hay tells me it was common at Galatura
(below 500 feet) during floods, where he noticed it in low trees
at the edges of swollen rivers. He says Mr. Swayne killed
one in his cardamom house on Massena estate. He has not
Seen it up-country.

Genus DRYOPHIS.

(Greek “ drus ”’ tree, and “ ophis ”’ snake.)

General Characters (from Indian species).—The species
vary from about 2 to 6 feet in length. Head moderately
depressed, narrow. Snout long, with pronounced canthus,
rapidly narrowing to an acute extremity, with or without
a pointed epidermal appendage. Hye rather large; iris
powdered with gold; and pupil horizontal. Nostril small,
pierced in the back of a single shield. Neck very evident.
Body moderately or extremely slender, moderately or very

49, 6(6)20

2,90 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

elongate ; remarkably compressed in life, cylindrical after
death. Belly rounded. Tail cylindrical, moderately or
very elongate, being one-fourth to three-fifths the total length.

Habits.—Arboreal, diurnal, active.
Food.—Small mammals, birds, lizards, batrachians.
Breeding.—Viviparous as far as known.

Poison.—Slightly poisonous, sometimes producing trifling
local effects, but no constitutional symptoms.

Lepidosis.—Rostral : Touches six shields. Jnternasals: A
pair. Prefrontals: A pair. Frontal : Touches eight shields.
Nasals ; Entire. Loreals : None in some species, one to four
in others. Preoculars: One. Postoculars: One or two.
Temporals: One or two, small, scale-like. Swupralabials :
Seven to nine. Sublinguals : Two pairs ; the posterior sub-
equal to or longer than the anterior. Jnfralabials: Six,
the 5th and 6th subequal, 6th shorter than the posterior
sublinguals, but much broader than those shields ; extending
further back than the posterior sublinguals ; touching two
scales behind. .

Costals : Longer than broad, without apical pits, smooth,
except a few of the median rows over the anal region, which
have mammillated keels. Vertebral and ultimate rows
rectiform, the intervening rows oblique. Vertebrals enlarged,
originating gradually on the nape and ending over the vent.
Last two rows progressively increasing in breadth. In 15
rows at midbody. Venérals: Rounded. Anal: Divided.
Supracaudals : In even rows. Subcaudals : Divided.

Dentition.— Mazillary : Diacranterian, dinododont. Pre-
cranterian, oinododont, anisodont. Cranterian, two; twice
as long as the immediately preceding, and grooved on their
outer faces. Palatine: Anododont, isodont. Pterygoid:
Anododont, scaphiodont; posterior two-fifths edentulous.
Mandibular : Oinododont ; prenodal, coryphodont ; postnodal,
small, kumatodont.

Distribution.—South-eastern Asia.

There are eight species, two or which occur in Ceylon, viz.,
mycterizans and pulverulentus.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 291

DRYOPHIS MYCTERIZANS Linné.

(Greek ‘“‘ mucterizo ” I turn up the nose.)
The Common Whipsnake.

Sinhalese: “ehetulla” and “esgulla”’ (eye plucker)
(Green). Tamil: “kan-kuthi-pambu” (eye thrusting
snake), “pachay pambu ” (green snake), “ komberi mookan ”
(snouted branch climber).

Synonymy.—Coluber mycterizans, C. nasutus, Dryinus
mycterizans, D. nasutus, D. oxyrhynchus, D. russellianus, D.
fuscus, Passerita mycterizans, P. fusca, Dryophis pavoninus,
D. nasutus.

History.—It was christened by Linné as far back as 1754,
and figured by him. Russell remarked upon it in 1796,
and figured it twice in his first volume (Plates XII. and
XIIT.).

General Characters.—Grows to over 6 feet in length. Head
moderately depressed ; broadest just before the neck. Snout
elongate, narrowing rapidly to a terminal point, like the
‘ bows of an outrigger ; terminating in a projecting epidermal
appendage, with a prominent raised canthus. Loreal region
markedly concave. Eye rather large, iris powdered with
gold. It is set with a decided inclination forwards, which
permits a practically uninterrupted range of vision anteriorly.
The horizontal pupil allows light to impinge on the retina
from a point far behind the eye. I estimate the field of
vision as extending through an are of about 330°. Nostril
small, round, pierced in the back of the nasal. Neck very
evident. Body long and very slender, markedly compressed
in life, round after death; attenuating to the neck and
posteriorly. Belly rounded. Tail cylindrical, very long,
being sometimes in males more than one-third the total
length, and longer relatively than in any other Indian snake,

292 SNAKES OF CEYLON,

except the next species. ‘Tongue pale pinkish, with white tips.
Mouth pale pinkish inside.

Identification —The horizontal pupil will proclaim the
Specimen one of the species of Dryophis. The appendage
at the point of the snout is only seen in two of these, viz.,
mycterizans and pulverulentus. The former has always
lateral white stripes running along the belly, which are not
present in the latter.

Colouration.—Variety (a) typicus (Linné): The upper
parts of the head, body, and tail are bright verdant-green,
and the surface of the scales dull. The belly is of an equally
intense but lighter shade of green, and is adorned on each
side by a well-defined, narrow, white (sometimes bluish)
stripe situated on the ventral shields. In ordinary circum-
stances the dorsal green is uniform, but under excitement,
owing to the separation of the scales, a very beautiful che-
quered ornamentation of black and white is revealed in the
anterior two-thirds of the body, which gives a very striking
appearance to the snake. Viewed closely, the black and
white ornamentation consists of squares arranged in echelon,
those of one side meeting those of the other at an angle
directed forwards. These hues are seen to be almost entirely
confined to the skin, but they also narrowly tip the lower
edges of the scales. The chin and throat are white, with
light sky-blue and yellow mottlings. It is a remarkable fact
that there is no green pigment responsible for the brilliant
colouring of the snake. If the scales are viewed through
a lens, they are seen to be studded with minute specks of
bright yellow, and as the skin is of a bright blue colour the
yellow specks convert this into green. The yellow pigment
present is soluble in spirit, and imparts its colour to this
fluid. It is also soluble in hot water, for if the skins are boiled,
they lose their pigment and become blue, whilst the water
becomes tinged with yellow. In most specimens the throat
will show patches of sky-blue where not overlaid with this
yellow pigment. The blueness of the skin, when robbed of its
yellow, is due to a colour effect, and not to a blue pigment.
Light passing through the translucent epithelium is broken
up, the blue rays only being reflected, whilst the other

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 293

coloured rays are absorbed. The blueness of the sky, the sea,
and substances like sulphate of copper, &c., is similarly
produced.

Variety (b) fuscus (Dumeril and Bibron): In this
variety the green is replaced by a sombre garb of khaki or
olive-brown. ;

Variety (c) tephrogaster (Wall): Similar to typicus, but
with the belly between the two lateral stripes cinereous-gray.

Variety (d) rhodogaster (Wall): Similar to the last, only
with rose or pale buff between the ventral stripes.

Variety (e) rhodonotus (Wall): A specimen in Mr. Drum-
mond-Hay’s collection is a beautiful rose-pink dorsally with
pinkish-buff ventrally. This was taken at Galatura estate
(500 to 1,000 feet). Mr. Drummond-Hay assures me this
colour is not the result of the preservative in which it was
placed, and that it is almost the same colour as in life, but
perhaps not so bright.

Habits.—(a) Haunts: It is most frequently met with on
low bushes and scrub, but will ascend trees. I have known
it encountered by toddy collectors in high coconut palms
on more than one occasion. It usually reclines on the top-
most boughs of bushes, and in such a situation would gene-
rally pass for a green twig, and escape notice. Doubtless,
many a bird and lizard is seized before being aware of its
captor’s presence in such a situation. In the vivarium it
seems disinclined to move much, but all collect together, and
recline in a tangled mass with their forebodies usually free,
either motionless or gently swaying.

(b) Disposition : By some it is reputed to be a very gentle
snake (Boulenger, Flower, Malcolm-Smith, &c.), and Fer-
guson implies the same thing when he says that in Travancore
it is the only snake the ordinary native is not afraid to handle.
His next sentence, however, seems to contradict this when
he says: “ Boys often bring them in, having first taken the
precaution to tie up the head in a bundle of rags.” I have
had them frequently brought to me in the same manner, and
there is no doubt this is due to the vicious nature of the snake.
I have kept it in captivity in numbers, and when freshly
caught, I find it not only menaces, but repeatedly strikes

294 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

at anyone confronting it. I have many times seen jugglers
bitten by their captive specimens. Young are just as plucky
as old specimens, and will repeatedly dart at any face placed
near to the glass of the vivarium. The repetition of this
thrust in a short time damages the nasal appendage, and
makes it appear as if covered with many small scales,
hence Annandale’s pseudo-variety anomalus (vide footnote *).
Green says when pressed it will strike out blindly, often in
the direction of the face of its opponent. Millard writes to

e : “ It is when freshly caught very fierce and bites freely.”

Natives in India and Ceylon believe that it strikes at the
eyes of persons when confronted with them at close quarters,
hence the Tamil and Sinhalese names for it. In this con-
nection it is interesting to note that Finn, when holding two
specimens, was bitten by one that struck at his eye, making
two punctures on the upper, and one on the lower lid. Subse-
quently, on rubbing the lower lid, he removed a tooth from
the wound. Green, again, says of one that it repeatedly
struck at his face, though it would not take any notice of
his hand. It also struck repeatedly at the eye pieces of a
pair of binoculars.

(c) Streking Posture: When moderately alarmed it emits
the tongue from closed jaws, and vibrates the tips. Whilst
the tongue is thus retained, the snake rears its head and fore-
body, and dilates the forebody so as to bring conspicuously
into view the very striking black and white chequering of the
skin. If further excited it opens the jaws widely, and expands
the lower jaw laterally in a very remarkable manner, so that
the jaw, naturally shaped like the bows of a slender boat,
becomes shovel-shaped. The mandibles are separated by
strong muscular action to about twice their usual breadth,
and the edges of the lower lips are simultaneously turned
down. While menacing, the neck and forebody are much

* Anomalus (Annandale).—This is not a valid variety. It was
described by Annandale as peculiar in having the nasal appendage
broken up into small scales as one sees in the species Dryophis pulveru-
lentus. Subsequently, however, the condition was found to be due
to traumatism, the specimens in captivity acquiring the pecuay
by damaging their noses against the glass of the vivarium.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 295

compressed, and the throat is pouched. ‘The tongue is
meanwhile kept retracted and invisible, but the opening of
the windpipe alternately dilates and contracts. Seen under
these conditions, with the head retracted and the forebcdy
thrown into sigmoid curves, the snake presents a most
formidable aspect.

This and its near allies of this genus are the only snakes
I know that menace with open jaws. |

(2) Diurnal or Nocturnal: The common whipsnake is
completely diurnal, a habit it enjoys by virtue of its colour-
ation which harmonizes perfectly with its environment.

(e) Progression: When seriously disturbed it can move
at a wondertul turn of speed over the foliage. Its body is so
slender and so light that by distributing its trifling weight on
many points itis capable of gaining support from the minutest
twigs and twining stems. I have seen its pursuers running
along a hedge find some difficulty to keep up with it. On
the ground it moves much less speedily and makes off for
the nearest tree or bush.

(f) Hissing: I have never heard this snake hiss, and snake
charmers assure me that it does not do so.

(g) Sloughing: One caged in the Madras Museum cast its
skin about once a quarter, the exact dates given me being
May 28, August 9, and October 25, 1896. Green remarks of
one that he had in captivity that it moulted four or five times
during a confinement of about six months. Green’s young
born in the vivarium were observed to desquamate on the
eighth day after birth. Kinnear’s cast their skins on the
second day after birth. |

I have found and examined the sloughs, but have failed
to find any marks indicative of the black and white che-
quering of the skin previously remarked upon.

Food.—Its tastes are very varied. Mice, birds, and lizards
are all frequently devoured, and sometimes frogs and other
snakes are preyed upon.

One in captivity in the Madras Museum ate 44 mice and 6
green frogs in one year. Millard says in captivity it eats mice,
sparrows, geckoes, and the common lizard Calotes versicolor.

296 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Green says that young in his vivarium readily fed on lizards of
the families Geckonide, Agamide, and Scincide. He offered
them grasshoppers, but never observed one taken. I have
several records of birds being eaten, and there can be no doubt
the whipsnake must be a frequent source of alarm to parent
birds with a family to rear. I have only one record of a
frog being taken in a state of nature, viz., a Rana tugrina,
and it is perhaps singular that there is no record of arboreal
frogs being eaten. Primrose recorded one swallowing a
snake, viz., the buff-striped keelback (Amphiesma stolata),
and I have known the snake Rhinophis sanguineus taken once.
Mr. Kinlock has recorded one eating one of the Silyburide,
and the Rev. J. F. Caius says that in captivity it frequently |
eats snakes, and mentions Helicops. schistosus, Nerodia
piscator, A. platyceps, and Polyodontophis collaris, among
others. Green says: “ Its manner of capturing its prey is
invariable. When a lizard is introduced into the cage the snake
slowly frees the forepart of its body and coils itself in zig-zag
fashion. Then, suddenly darting forward, it seizes the victim
unerringly just behind the head, drags it from its support, and
keeps it dangling, without shifting its hold, but gradually
tightening its grip, until the lizard is suffocated. This process
takes perhaps 20 minutes in the case of a Calotes. The snake
never commences to swallow its prey until all signs of life
have ceased.”” J have known one take 36 minutes to seize
and swallow a frog. When first seized the frog by its exertions
turned the snake over and over, but, in spite of this rough
treatment, the snake maintained its grasp. The frog continued
to kick convulsively after the grasp had been transferred to
its head, and until it had been completely engulfed.
Father Bertram, 8.J., in a little pamphlet written for private
circulation, says: “It does not even always wait for its
prey to be paralyzed before eating it.” I find, as in the
instance narrated above, the victim is often by no means dead
when swallowed, but is always held tenaciously until its
struggles are of little avail. When the victim has passed
through the jaws, the snake rears the anterior half of the body,
and then practises a series of contortions, during which the
body is thrown into shallow !ateral undulations. The curves

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 297

of the undulations are rhythmically reversed with much
muscular effert, with the effect that the mass is speedily
passed on to the stomach.

Growth.—(a) Length at Birth: When born the young vary
from 260 to 390 mm. (11 to 15inches). One measured by Green
in Ceylon was 330 mm. (123 inches). One measured by
Kinnear in Bombay was 335 mm. (13 inches). Mr. Nair writes
to me of two broods born at Trivandrum, the young of which
varied from 280-5 to 330 mm. (11 to 122inches). A specimen
in Madras gave birth to three, one of which measured 342
mm. (134 inches). I have removed foetuses from the dead
mother that taped 335 mm. (13 inches) on two occasions,
and on another these varied from 320 to 370 mm. (12} to 141
inches). One in the Colombo Museum measures 311 mm.
(124 inches). Ferguson, however, reported young-born at
Trivandrum 440 mm. (17 inches) long.

(6) Karly Infe: From a long series collected in the Nilgiri
Hills it is evident that the young approximately double
their length in the first year of life, being then from 23 to 32
inches long. They continue to grow at the same rate during
the second year, at the end of which they measure from 39 to
47 inches.

(c) Maturity: My smallest mothers measured 463 and 47
inches respectively, and Blanford has recorded one 44 inches
long. These measurements show that maturity is reached
by the end of the second year of life.

(d) Maximum Length: It frequently grows to 1,525 mm.
(5 feet). I have had exceptional specimens 1,779 mm. (5 feet
10 inches) and 1,842 mm. (6 feet and 4 an inch). Kinnear
has recorded two gravid females measuring respectively 1,779
mm. (5 feet 10 inches) and 1,944 mm. (6 feet 44 inches).

Breeding.—(a) Sexes: Females attain to a greater length
than males. [I have eight records of females exceeding 1,525
mm. (5 feet), and two exceeding 1,830 mm. (6 feet). On the
other hand, I have only two records of males exceeding 50
inches, viz., 1,288 and 1,295 mm. (503 and 51 inches).

The tail in the male is relatively longer than in the
female.

Go. 0: 6(6)20

298 SNAKES OF CEYLON,

It is further remarkable that in nearly all females the scales
posteriorly reduce to 13 only, whereas in males the scales
reduce to 11. I find very few exceptions to this rule.

(b) Method of Reproduction: This whipsnake is known to be
viviparous in habit. It not infrequently happens that some of
the young are born in membranes, but they usually are born
free from the caul.

(c) Season: From available records the season for the
appearance of the young is from March to December. One
brood in Trivandrum was deposited on March 31. Green
had one brood in April, and another was deposited in the
same month at Trivandrum. Green had two broods in May.
A dead specimen I opened in Burma in May contained foetuses
335 mm. (13 inches) long. Evans killed one in Burma in
May containing young, evidently on the point of being born.
Kinnear reported two broods born in Bombay in August. I
had two prospective mothers in the Nilgiris in September
with young in a very advanced stage of development. Fergu-
son’s brood were deposited on September 27. I have several
other records of gravid females with eggs in an early stage
of development in July, August, and September. One in the
Madras Museum deposited three young on December 3, 1917.

Green observed two in his vivarium “in coitu ” in June.

I have had young specimens measuring 410 mm. (152
inches) and 480 mm. (184 inches) in the Nilgiris in August,
and one 440 mm. (17 inches) in Cannanore in November.

(d) Period of Gestation: This is not known. Ferguson’s
dam captured on June 30 produced her young on September
27 (89 days later), so that the period of gestation cannot be
less than three months. From analogy it will probably
be found to be five or six months.

(ce) The Brood: This varies from 3 to 22. I have twelve
records in which the young numbered from 3 to 7, one ot 10,
one of 12, one of 15, one of 18, and one of 22.

Poison.—Alcock and Rogers, experimenting on mice with
the saliva of the whipsnake, sum up their results in the
following remarks: ‘‘No one who has experimented with
minimal lethal doses of cobra venom can fail to be struck
with the close resemblance of the symptoms caused by it,

29

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 299

with those recorded in the experiments with the parotid
secretion of Dryophis, and its opisthoglyphous allies.”

In the human subject symptoms of poisoning are not usual,
however, a sampwallah in Bangalore, when attempting to
capture one, was. bitten on the left hand about noon one day.
I saw him at 4 P.m., and by that time the hand and forearm
were greatly swollen, and he said felt numb. He experienced
no constitutional symptoms, and the swelling completely
subsided in two days.

In confirmation of this observation I note that Mr. Drieberg
(Spol. Zeylanica, Vol. X., p. 177) says: ‘‘ Mr. John Still when
with me was bitten on the finger by an‘ eye snake ’ (S. gulla),
and was laid up with the wound for three days.”

Again, Abercromby (Snakes of Ceylon, p. 23) relates a
similar case where his servant suffered from local pain and
swelling for two days after being bitten by a large specimen.

Parasites.—(a) Hctozoa: I have never seen this species
infested with either ticks or mites.

(b) Entozoa: Dobell has found two protozoa in the intestine
_ of the whipsnake, viz., a Trichomonas and a T'richomastia.

(c) Hematozoa: Dobell found some Ceylon specimens
of this snake harboured a hzemogregarine in their blood.

Lepidosis.—(a) T'ypical—Rostral : The rostro-nasal sutures
are bowed and much longer than the rest. The epidermal
appendage has usually a gutter on the top and two
laterally. Internasals: The suture between them rather
shorter than that between the prefrontal pair, and subequal
to the internaso-prefrontals. Prefrontals: The suture
between them more than twice the prefronto-frontals ;
touching the internasal, 2nd and 3rd supralabials, procular,
and frontal. Frontal: The fronto-supraocular sutures are
five or more times the length of the fronto-parietals. Supra-
oculars : As long as the frontal, twice or more than twice as
broad as the frontal along a line connecting the centres of the
eyes. Parietals: About as long as the frontal. Nasal -
Entire. Loreal: Absent. Preocular: Makes a long suture
with the frontal. Postoculars: Two. Temporals: One,
small, scale-like, half the length of the supraocular. Supra-
labials : Hight ; the 1st touching the nasal ; Ist and 2nd the

300 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

internasals ; 2nd and 3rd the prefrontal ; 4th and 5th the eye ;
7th the temporal; the 4th divided into two or three parts.
Sublinguals : Posterior rather longer than the anterior,
touching the 4th and 5th infralabials. IJnfralabials : Five ;
the 4th and 5th large; 5th about as long as the posterior
sublinguals, and projecting behind them, about twice the
breadth of those shields, touching two scales behind. (Fig. 58.)

mS

Seis SS

Fic. 58.—Dryophis mycterizans.
(Life size. )

Costals : Vertebrals enlarged, the breadth of the scales
about three-fourths their length, and rather less than those
of the ultimate row. Breadth of the oblique scales rather less
than half their length. Ultimate row enlarged, the breadth

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 301

ofits scales rather less than their length. A few scales above
the anal region, with feeble beaded keels ; scales otherwise
smooth, and without apical pits or facets. In 15 rows to
behind midbody, reducing to 13 or 11 two heads-lengths
before the vent. In females they usually reduce to 13, and
in males to 11. The reduction is effected at each step by the
absorption of the fourth row from the ventrals. Ventrals : 168
to 206. Anal: Divided. Subcaudals : 127t0 174. (Fig. 59.)

Ver

min
}
tt |

ok
oy
be

Fic. 59.—Dryophis mycterizans showing costa!s.

(6) Anomalies—Loreals:: One or two minute scales some
times occupy the place of these shields. Ventrals : The last °
shield is rarely divided like the anal.

Dentition.— Maxillary : Prenodal, 6 or 7; the first four or
five coryphodont, the last two subequal and longer than the
preceding. Precranterian, 4 to 6; small,isodont. Cranterian,
2; long, subequal, obliquely set, and deeply grooved on their
outer faces. Palatine: 7 to 10. Pterygoid: 17 to 28.
Mandibular: Prenodal, 5 or 6; the first three or four
coryphodont, the Jast two long and subequal. Postnodal,
14 to 16; small. (Fig. 60.)

Fie. 60.—Jaws of Dryophis mycterizans.

Distribution.—(a) General : Ceylon, India, Assam, Burma,
and Siam.

302 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

As far as I am aware only variety typica has been recorded
from Ceylon. Variety tephrogaster is extremely rare in the
Indian Peninsular, but as I obtained a specimen in Trichi-
nopoly its occurrence in Ceylon is probable. Similarly, as I
have had variety fuscus from the Anamallay Hills in India, it is
to be expected in Ceylon.

(b) Local: It is quite a common snake in Ceylon, and a
denizen. of the low-country. In India I have acquired
specimens in the hills up to about 6,000 feet.

DRYOPHIS PULVERULENTUS Dumeril and Bibron.

(Latin “* pulverulentus ” dusty, owing to the very fine
speckling of the skin.)

The Brown Speckled Whipsnake.

Sinhalese : “‘ henakandaya ” (Willey).

Synonymy.—Dryinus pulverulentus, Passerita mycterizans,
P. fusca, P. purpurascens.

History.— Described first by Dumeril and Bibron in 1854.

General Characters.—Grows to about 53 feet. Head
moderately depressed, broadest from behind the eyes to the
neck. Snout long, narrowing to a point, and terminating in
a projecting epidermal appendage ; with a raised canthus.
Loreal region markedly concave. Eye rather large, the iris
powdered with gold. Nostril small, round, pierced in the
back of the nasal. Neck markedly constricted. Body long,
and very slender, markedly compressed in life, round after
death, attenuating to the neck, and posteriorly. Belly
rounded. ‘Tail cylindrical, longer than in any other Asiatic
snake, being more than one-third the total length.

Identification.—The lepidosis agrees very closely with that
of D. mycterizans. Most easily distinguished from this
species by the fact that the epidermal appendage is covered
with small scales. The colour is brown, beautifully powdered
with hues of a darker tone, and there is no lateral light line on
the ventrals. ",

Habits.—Very little known. As far as I know haunts
bushes and low scrub rather than trees. Abercromby says it
is nocturnal in habit, but I think this calls for confirmation.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 303

Food.—I found the tail of a skink, probably one of genus
Mabwia, in the stomach of one specimen.

Breeding.—I found five sacs in one example containing
embryos of such a size as to leave no doubt that it is viviparous.

Poison.—No information is to hand of any casualty.

Growth.—(a) The Young: I have seen a small example,
apparently recently born, that measured 660 mm. (14 inches).

(6) Maximum Length: The largest I have seen was 1,587
mm. (5 feet 24 inches), the tail 653 mm. (2 feet 12 inches).
Boulenger mentions one 1,730 mm. (5 feet 64 inches).

Lepidosis.—(a) T'ypical : This accords so closely with that
of D. mycterizans as not to call for a detailed description.
Ventrals : 180 to 212. Subcaudals : 146 to 207.

(6) Anomalies—Loreals: Rarely present. I have seen
one with a small anterior and a posterior one. Swpralabials :
Sometimes nine or ten, the 4th and 5th divided, and 4th, 5th,
and 6th touching the eye ; or 5th and 6th divided, and 5th, 6th,
and 7th touching the eye ; or 4th, 5th, and 6th divided, and
5th, 6th, and 7th touching the eye.

Dentition—From two skulls in my collection, one from
Ceylon and one from the Nilgiri Hills. Mazilla: Preenodal,
7; the first five coryphodont, the last two larger than the
preceding and subequal. Precranterian, 5 or 6; small,
isodont. Cranterian, 2; enlarged, subequal, obliquely-set,
grooved on their outer faces. Palatine: 9. Pterygoid : 19
to 22. Mandibular: Prenodal, 5 ; the first threecoryphodont,
the last two enlarged and subequal. Postnodal, 13 to 16;
isodont. |

Distribution.—(a) General : South India and Ceylon.

(b) Local: It has been recorded by Haly from Ratnapura
and Wadduwa. One in the Colombo Museum of the Swayne
collection is from Horana, and another is from Weuda, Kurune-
gala District. I have seen specimens from Galle, Veyangoda, .
Kandy, and Kalupahana, Haldummulla District (about
3,000 feet). Mr. Green obtained one at Peradeniya. Mr.
Drummond-Hay tells me he got three from Rasagalla
District and many at Punagalla, Yatiyantota District,
below about 1,000 feet, but not up-country. It appears to
be a low-country species ascending the hills to about 3,000 feet,

304 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Genus CHRYSOPELEA.

(Greek “ chrusos”’ gold, and “ peleios ’’ black.)

General Characters (for Indian species).—As detailed under
the species.

Identification—The keeled ventrals taken with the verte-
brals not being enlarged will declare the genus.

Habits.—Arboreal. Diurnal. Very active. Fierce when
provoked.

Food.—Mainly lacertine.

Breeding.—Little known. Probably oviparous.

Poison.—Feebly poisonous. No ill effects have ever been
reported as a result of its bite.

Lepidosis.—Aostral : ‘Touches six shields. Jnternasals : A
pair. Prefrontals: A pair. frontal : Touches eight shields
usually. Nasals: Divided. Loreal: One. Preoculars: One,
usually touching the frontal. Postoculars: Two. Temporals:
Two, rather small. Swpralabials : Nine orten. Sublinguals:
Two pairs, the posterior rather longer. Jnfralabials : Six.

Costals : Longer than broad, feebly keeled in some median
rows in the posterior part of the body, with paired apical pits.
Vertebrals : Not enlarged, rectiform ; breadth of scales about
three-fourths their length, and about three-fourths that ot the
ultimate row. Lateral rows subequal, feebly oblique. Ulti-
mate row enlarged, the breadth of its scales subequal to their
length. In 17 rows to behind midbody, reducing to 13 two
heads-lengths before the vent. Ventrals: Strongly keeled
laterally. Swpracaudals: In even rows. Anal: Divided.
Subcaudals : Divided ; strongly keeled laterally.

Dentition—Mazillary : Syncranterian, anododont, feebly
coryphodont ; teeth feebly grooved basally on their outer faces,
the last three or four deeply grooved from base to apex.
Palatine : Anododont, scaphiodont. Pterygoid : Anododont,
scaphiodont. Mandibular : Anododont, feebly kumatodont.

Distribution South-Eastern Asia.

There are three species, one of which occurs in Ceylon, viz.,
ornata,

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 305

CHRYSOPELEA ORNATA Shaw.

(Latin “ ornata ” adorned.)

The Gold and Black Tree Snake.

Sinhalese: “ pol-mal-karawala ” (Ferguson) ; “ mal-kara-
wala ”’ (Willey).

Synonymy.—Coluber ornatus, C. ibibiboca, Tyria ornata,
Dendrophis ornata, D. paradisii, Leptophis ornaius, Chryso-
pelea paradisi, C. rubescens.

History.—Seba in 1734 was the first to refer to the species,
which he figured in Plate XCIV., Fig. 7, of his first volume,
again in Plate VII., Fig. 1, Plate LVI., Fig. 1, and Plate LXI.,
Fig. 2, of his second volume. Russell mentioned and figured
it in his second volume, Plate II., in 1801.

General Characters (from Indian species).—--Grows to 44 feet.
Head pear-shaped, strongly depressed. Snout mederate in
length, hardly declivous, without canthus, broadly rounded
terminally. Eye large, withround pupil. Nostril moderately
large, placed in the upper two-thirds of the suture between
the nasals. Neck distinctly constricted. Body rather long,
somewhat compressed. Belly with sharp lateral keels. Tail
moderate, about one-fourth the total length.

Identification.—The most striking feature in the lepidosis is
the lateral, sharply keeled condition of the ventral shields.
This is only seen in the genera Dendrophis, Dendrelaphis, and
Chrsopelea. From the two other genera it is distinguished by
the vertebral row of scales not being enlarged.

The characters mentioned under the genus will distinguish
this from all other Ceylon snakes. Further, this is the only
Ceylon species with the costals in 17 rows, two heads-lengths
behind the head, 17 at midbody, and 13 two heads-lengths
before the vent. Another character peculiar to the species is
that the last ventral shield is always divided like the anal.

Colouration.—There are many colour varieties, but as far as
I am aware only two occur in Ceylon. 3

44 6(6)20

306 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Variety E.*: Greenish-yellow or pale-green above, each
scale edged, and mesially streaked with black. The black
heavier in parts so as to form more or less distinct cross-bars.
A series of large coral-red or orange spots along the spine,
separated by two cross-bars. Ventrally yellow, with a small
black spot laterally on each shield.

Variety F.* :—Pale olive above, with regular black cross-bars
tapering laterally ; some of the black scales with yellow shafts.
Whitish-olive beneath, with a lateral black spot on each ventral.
The head in both is barred with black and yellow.

Habits—(a) Haunts: Very opposite opinions prevail as to
its haunts. Cantor says it is seldom seen in trees, but more
frequently on the ground in the grass. . Stoliczka supports
this observation, and says though he caught several specimens
in the grass or between low bushes, he but once saw one
actually on a bush. Flower, on the other hand, says his
experiences are very different in this as in other matters from
those related by Cantor, and he agrees with Gunther’s sugges-
tion that the reason it is not more often seen in trees is because
it makes a too rapid retreat.

I am able to support both parties, for I have seen it high ~
in a tree on a naked limb, and on several occasions on bushes,
or on the trellis work about tennis courts and verandahs. I
never met it on the ground myself, but many of the specimens
brought me were reported on the ground. I have not the least
doubt that the species is essentially arboreal in habit, but this
does not prevent it making frequent excursions to the ground,
either in search of a fresh feeding area, or in the pursuit of the
incautious quarry, which its keen vision has detected from its
exalted station amid the branches overhead.

It is only natural that it should be more frequently
encountered on the ground, because the eyes of the pedestrian
are directed below the level of his head, even at his feet.
Men other than birds-nesters, fern and orchid hunters, and
such like do not gaze much aloft, and the snake reclining along

=

* Cf Boulenger. Catalogue Snakes British Museum, Vol. III., 1896,
page 196.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 307

a branch, or on the top of a trellis work even about one’s own
height, will frequently escape detection, though but a few feet
or even inches away. | |

The very fact that Cantor and Stoliczka, in unison with
other observers, mention that geckoes are the principal food,
seems to me to refute their suggestion that Chrysopelea is
terrestrial in habit, for geckoes are eminently arboreal. It is
to be noted also that all the food partaken of, other than
geckoes, is of a nature to be obtained usually by climbing.
Cantor’s inclusion of frogs in their dietary does not vitiate this
remark, for though he does not say so, the species taken may
have been arboreal forms.

Chrysopelea is not infrequently found about, and actually
inside, habitations. Flower mentions this, and Evans and I
-had similar experiences in Burma. I well remember in
Colombo, too, one that had taken up its quarters in an old
packing case, which was full of straw and other packing
material. A cooly was ordered to clear this out, and stepped
into the box to carry out his orders. His exit reminded one
of an incautious bather who has stepped into over-hot water.
The alacrity of movement so foreign to the cooly’s nature
was explained by the subsequent discovery of a snake of this
species. Dr. Malcolm-Smith says it is “very common in
Bangkok (Siam), and owing to its partiality for living in
houses, is the snake which is brought more into contact with
the residents of the town than any other kind.”

(6) Disposition: Very divergent views, again, have been
expressed on this point. Cantor remarks on the gentleness of
the species, whilst Flower, on the other hand, says : “ Chryso-
pelea ornata is the fiercest snake I have met. Under circum-
stances when most snakes, harmless and poisonous alike, would
try to glide away quietly, this one will turn to attack the
person who disturbs it, and will attempt to resist capture to
the uttermost, striking, and biting ferociously
Individuals I have at various times tried to keep in captivity
showed no signs of becoming tamer, and would always bite
my hand when [ put it in the vivarium, and being also an
annoyance to the other inmates of the cage, I have only kept
them for a few days at a time.”

308 SNAKES OF CEYLON

I must say I can abundantly confirm Flower’s experiences.
There is no doubt that this snake is decidedly plucky, and on
occasions fierce, but I would not suggest that all are equally
vicious. I think that snakes, like other creatures, exhibit
individual character.

I well remember my servant in Rangoon trying to effect the
capture of a large specimen in a hedge adjoining my compound.
I arrived on the scene when the excitement was at its height,
and discovered that all the menial establishment, amounting
to ten or more, had been pressed into service. The snake had
fought most courageously to elude capture, and struck at any-
one who ventured to attempt to graspit. My boy, confident
of master’s solatium in the form of a rupee, if the creature was
captured alive, had been struck at and bitten, and I hardly
knew which to admire most, the servant’s determination and
courage, or the snake’s vigourous endeavours to retain its
liberty.

Flower mentions one in a fit of rage biting itself with such
vigour that its teeth were fixed into the side of its body, and
I can remember recapturing one which had escaped from my
vivarium and had taken refuge between some boards in my
house. When extricated after some difficulty, and with the
employment of some force, it struck at and buried its teeth
in its own body.

The fact that this snake will not only engage, but some-
times overcome, so formidable an antagonist as the tuctoo
(Gecko verticillatus), is in itself sufficient proof of its courage.
This remarkable Burmese lizard grows to over a foot, and is
renowned for its truculence and the strength of its jaws.
Flower says that the tuctoo may give battle to the gold and
black tree snake for some hours before being finally swallowed.
Captain Lloyd, I.M.S., sent me the following account of an
encounter he witnessed between a Chrysopelea and a tuctoo
on Sandoway Island: “The snake was on the ground in
combat with a tuctoo, and faring badly as the gecko had it
fast held in its jaws some inches behind the head—the marks
of the jaws were plainly visible. Finding it difficult to catch
either whilst on board, I shook them off into the sea, but in

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 309

spite of this they renewed the combat in the water.” Dr.
Malcolm-Smith says he knows of several cases where this snake
engaged a tuctoo, and adds “it is not always that the snake
comes out of these combats unharmed, and considering the
tremendous bite which this lizard can give, it is not surprising.
In one encounter, at least that I know of, the gecko had got
a firm hold immediately behind the head of its opponent,
although the snake ultimately proved the victor, it was so
badly damaged as to be only just able to crawl away, leaving
its victim uneaten.”’

(ce) Nocturnal or Diurnal : It is completely diurnal in habit,
and may be met with sometimes on the hottest days,
apparently sunning itself, but more probably on the lookout
for food.

(d) Progression : The striking beauty of this snake, whether
seen reclining or moving in its native haunt, could hardly fail
to arouse the keenest admiration in the breast of the most
unappreciative and phlegmatic disposition.

I watched with admiration once the adroit and stealthy
manner in which one in captivity in the Colombo Museum
balanced itself and moved along my walking stick, though
this was more slender than the snake itself.

Dillwyn describes this snake clinging to the trunk of a tree,
head downwards, in a very extraordinary manner, and I have
seen it in almost exactly similar circumstances. My specimen
was stationary, clinging (one could not say reclining) head
downwards, about 30 feet from the ground, to a large bare
trunk, which rose almost perpendicularly. I marvelled at the
tenacity of its gripin such a situation. It had thrown its body
into a very wide § across the limb, and it strikes me now very
forcibly, after reading Flower’s and Shelford’s observations,
that it may have been “ gathering itself” for a leap. The
enraptured observer will be even more captivated with the
grace and agility attending its movements from branch to
branch, and the consummate ease with which it will scale a
perpendicular trunk. Its flash-like disappearance aloft with-
out apparent effort, must be witnessed to be fully appreciated.

310 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

I very much doubt whether any snake moving along the flat
displays greater speed than this species in its arboreal
environment.

But its marvellous attainments do not end here, for this
snake is endowed with the capability to spring, or “ fly ” as
some prefer to call this jactatory effort. Here, one is forcibly
reminded of the eulogistic terms in which the late Professor
Owen summed up the athletic performances of these limbless
creatures. :

He says: “ They can outclimb the monkey, outswim the
fish, outleap the jerboa, and suddenly loosing the coils of their
crouching spiral, they can spring into the air, and seize the
bird upon the wing.”

One has only to be acquainted with Chrysopelea to realize
that Owen’s words convey no fulsome flattery.

That it actually can spring is vouched for by more than one
reliable observer. Flower™* in 1899 reported having seen “a
small one, about 24 feet long, take a flying leap from an
upstairs window downward and outward on to a branch of a
tree, and then crawl away among the foliage. The distance
it had jumped was measured, and found to be nearly 8 feet.”

Curiously enough in the very month (May) and year (1899),
when this record ot Flower’s was published, Mahon Daly wrote
from Siam reporting his having witnessed a similar feat. His
letter appeared in Vol. XII., p. 589, of the Bombay Natural
History Journal, and though he could not identify the snake,
he said that he and his Kareen interpreter saw a snake,
“about 24 feet long sail from a very high tree on one side of
the road to a lower one the opposite side.”

In confirmation of these very extraordinary acrobatic feats,
which I have no doubt many might be inclined to disbelieve,
is the report made by Shelford of similar performances.t This
observer relates that three native witnesses in Sarawak made
a Similar statement on three different occasions independently
of one another, and at considerable intervals of time.

* Proc. Zool. Soe., Lond., 1899, p. 684.
+ Proc. Zool. Soc., Lond., 1906, p. 227.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 311

This was to the effect in each case that the snake had been
seen to “fly ’ from some height to the ground beneath. In
all cases the snake was reported to have kept its body rigid
during this feat, and to have met the ground at an oblique
angle. In one case the snake proved to be Chrysopelea ornata,
in the second instance a snake of the same genus, viz., C.
chrysochlora, and in the third Dendrophis pictus.

Shelford calls attention to the fact that all these snakes are
alike in the peculiar keeled condition of their belly shields.
and he made experiments to ascertain the truth of thesereports.
He says: “‘ A specimen of Chrysopelea ornata was taken to a
height of 15 to 20 feet, and allowed to fall several times ;
after one or two false starts the snake was felt to glide from
the experimenter’s hands, straightening itself out, and hollow-
ing in the ventral surface as it moved, and it fell not in a direct
line to the ground, but at an angle, the body being kept rigid
the whole time . . . . Ifthe snake was thrown up into
the air, it seemed unable to straighten itself out ; it had to be
launched, so to speak, from the hands in order to induce it to
assume the rigid position.”’

He implies, therefore, that these “‘flights ” are not accidental
falls, but deliberate voluntary efforts, and suggests that the
hollowing of the belly between the two ventral ridges may act
mechanically after the manner of a parachute, impeding the
action of gravity, and buoying up the creature so as to reduce
the momentum with which it would strike the ground. He
illustrates this point by comparing the fall of a piece of bamboo
bisected longitudinally, with the concave face downwards, and
that of a piece of bamboo in its cylindrical form. In the
former case the descent is retarded. I prefer the use of the
term “springing” to that of “flying” in describing these
feats. Its only rivals in acrobatic and scansorial achievements
are the tree snakes of the genera Dendrophis and Dryophis.

Food.—Chrysopelea, whilst showing a decided partiality
towards lizards of the family Geckonide, accepts with avidity
many other creatures that chance has to offer.

Members of the genus Hemidactylus are frequently found to
have furnished the meal, obviously from the relative abundance -

312 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

of the species in this genus, and the numerical strength in
individuals of many of the species which frequent trees. Many
other lizards, however, fall victims to its voracity. Cantor
mentions frogs as well, but I have never known one taken,
have known them refused in captivity, where lizards were
accepted, and Mr. Millard tells me also he found frogs were
not acceptable. Among other lizards Cantor found Ptychozoon
homalocephalum taken once; and Evans, one of the flying
lizards (Draco tenipterus). I have known Calotes versicolor
taken ; and Flower, the giant gecko or tuctoo of Burma (Gecko
verticillaius). HKvans and I reported one that had eaten a bat
(Taphozous longimanus), and Evans has since recorded two
instances where bats were devoured. Mr, Millard tells me that
in captivity it “feeds freely on bloodsuckers, sparrows, geckoes,
and mice, but never eats frogs.” He also says it kills by
crushing in its folds. |

It is interesting to note that Richards mentions one of his
boys having a pet Chrysopelea ornata, which he fed with milk
out of a saucer. He held the snake near the head, and put
the saucer to it, when it readily drank the milk, = in
comparatively large quantities.

Dr. Malcolm-Smith records it eating another snake (Dendro-
phis pictus) on one occasion.

Breeding.—(a) The Sexes: There is no special difference in
the lepidosis of the sexes. My notes throw no light on to the
growth of the sexes.

(b) Method of Reproduction : Not known.

(c) Season : Evans and I in Burma had egg-bound speci-
mens in May and June, and subsequently Evans had another
example in a similar state in June. A brood is recorded in
the same month at Rangoon by Evans.

(d) Period of Gestation: Not known.

(ec) The Brood: The tour breeding events known to me
show that the brood varies from 6 to 11.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. ala

Growth.—(a) The Young: A Ceylon specimen which
appeared to have been recently born or hatched measured
240 mm. (94 inches). Evans, however, speaks of a brood he
discovered at Rangoon, the young of which varied from 114
to 152 mm. (44 to 6 inches). He does not say whether he
extracted these from eggs or found them inside the mother.

(0) Early Infe: My records are too meagre to enable me
to follow the growth of succeeding broods.

(c) Maturity: My smallest gravid example was 1,093 mm.
(3 feet 7 inches).

(d) Maximum Length : Specimens over 4 feet are unusual.
The largest [ know of was acquired by Evans and me in
Burma, and taped 1,360 mm. (4 feet 53 inches). Malcoim-
Smith says it grows to 1,400 mm. (4 feet 7 inches).

Parasites.—Hemaiozoa: Miss Robertson has discovered
hemogregarine parasites inhabiting the erythrocytes of this
species, and similar to those found in the common ratsnake,
named by Laveran Hemogregarina zamenis.

Lepidosis.—(a) T'ypical—Rostral : The rostro-nasal sutures
longer than the rostro-internasals and about twice the rostro-
labials. Internasals : The suture between them two-thirds
to three-fourths that between the prefrontals, two-thirds to
three-fourths the internaso-prefrontals. Prefrontals : The
sutures between them subequal to or rather longer than the
prefronto-frontals ; touching the internasal, postnasal, loreal,
preocular, and sometimes supraocular. Frontal. The fronto-
supraocular sutures three times the length of the fronto-
parietals. Supraoculars: As long as the frontal, and about
the same breadth as the frontal along a line connecting the
centres of the eyes. Nasals: Divided. Loreal: Longer
than deep, about two-thirds the length of the nasals.
Przocular: Touching or almost touching the frontal.
Postoculars : Upper rather the larger. Temporals: The lower
little more than half the length of the supraocular.
Supralabials : Nine; the lst and 2nd touching the nasals ; the
4th, 5th, and 6th, or 5th and 6th only touching the eye; and
the 6th, 7th, and 8th, or 7th and 8th only touching the lower

45 6(6)20

314 . SNAKES OF CEYLON.

temporal. Sublinguals : Posterior longer than the anterior ;
touching the 5th and 6th infralabials. Infralabials : Six ;
the sixth much shorter than the posterior sublinguals,
about twice as broad as those shields, touching two scales
behind.

Costals : In 17 rows two heads-lengths behind the head, 17in
midbody, reducing to 13 two heads-lengths before the vent.
The reduction of rows from 17 to 15 is due to the absorption
of the fourth row from the ventrals, and from 15 to 13 to the
absorption of the sixth row. The steps of reduction occur
close together, and the absorption may be in reverse order.
Ventrals : 200 to 238 ; the last is invariably divided. Anal :
Divided. Subcaudals : 97 to 144. (Fig. 61.) |

SBE
Ca

Fia, 61.—Anal region of Chrysopelea ornata.

~ (b) Anomalies—Temporal : Rarely one only. Supralabials :
Sometimes ten. Ventrals: The penultimate is rarely divided
like the ultimate. Anal: Very rarely entire.

Dentition.—From four skulls in my collection. Maxillary :
20 to 22. Palatine: 9to1l. Pterygoid : 21 to 27, Mandi-
bular: 19 to 23.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 315

Distribution.—(a) General : Ceylon. Hills on the western
side of Peninsular India. The Eastern Himalayas, Eastern
Bengal, Assam, Burma, Indo-China to South China. Malay
Peninsula, and the Malay Archipelago from Sumatra to the
Philippines.

(6) Local: In Ceylon it frequents the low-country, but
cannot be called a common snake. Mr. Green in a letter tells
me it does not appear to ascend the hills above about 1,500
feet. Mr. Drummond-Hay tells me he killed one at
Weyvelwatta, one in the Kanthalai resthouse, two at
Punagalla (below 1,000 feet), and one near Balangoda, but
has seen no others.

Sub-family 6 Elachistodontinz.

(Greek “ elachistos ”’ small, ‘‘ odous ”’ tooth.)

There is only one representative ot a single genus, viz.,
Elachistodon westermanm, peculiar to Western Bengal.

Series C PROTEROGLYPHA.
Sub-family 7 Hydrophiine.

(Named from the type Genus Hydrophis.)

As a result of many years’ special study of the Hydrophiine,
I find I can only recognize as distinct with certainty those
species from the Indian seas from the Persian Gulf to Tenas-
serim that are enumerated and dealt with hereafter. Many
others have been described by various authors. Some of
these are known from a solitary specimen, and all rest upon
characters that are either known to be inconstant in most of
the seasnakes, or depart but slightly from normal specimens
of the species recognized herein by me.

316 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

My views have not been hastily arrived at, but are the
result of many years’ special study of marine forms. Among
various large collections, I have examined all the seasnakes
in the British Museum, not once, but many of them repeatedly,
and side by side with the allied forms from which they are
supposed to differ. In the Indian Museum too I have ex-
amined the specimens most critically half a dozen and more
times side by side.

My most recent work has been largely devoted to a study
of skulls and dentition, and I think the recognition of genera
and species should depend, if not entirely, almost entirely
upon these characters. I have drawn up a synopsis of these
characters which differentiate the genera and species I recog-
nize.

In my “Monograph of the Seasnakes,”’ published by the
Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1909, I pointed out that the
grounds upon which Mr. Boulenger based his genera Hy-
drophis and Distira were mistaken, and he has acknowledged
this in his most recent work on the Reptilia of the Malay
Peninsula, published in 1912, where all the species are now
placed in a single genus under the former title. Some other
- mistakes pointed out by me have been therein acknowledged
and rectified.

Nomenclature.—It is difficult to find appropriate English
names for the species. I have accordingly associated with
each the name of one of our best known herpetologists, as a
fitting memorial to his work.

General Characters (for Indian species).—With the ex-
ception of the members of the genus Platurus (which are of
fairly even calibre and cylindrical throughout), the bodies of
seasnakes are cylindrical, and more or less attenuated in
about the anterior two-fifths, compressed and heavy in about
the posterior three-fifths. In some species the head and
forebody are remarkably slender, even amounting to one-
quarter the depth at the greatest girth posteriorly. Another
peculiarity too (excepting again Platurus) is that the dorsal
length over the compressed part of the body is longer than
the ventral length, so that a seasnake is curved like a prawn.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. ey

One notices this in trying to measure a specimen. All goes
wel] till the thickened posterior part is reached, when one
has to constantly shift the tape to measure round the curve.
The curvature in some species is so pronounced that when
the dead snake is laid on its side the body almost completes
a circle! This curious conformation serves the purpose
of giving the snake prehensile powers, so that it can*wreath
the body securely round seaweed and other objects, and so
anchor itself. It seems to me probable also, that the body
is used to hold its victims until the poison injected has had
time to work, for the head is so small in some species that
it is difficult to imagine the jaws powerful enough in them-
selves to hold a struggling victim of anguine form. The tail
is highly compressed in all hydrophids, and forms a fin-like
appendage of great service in swimming. ‘The eye is small.
It is placed laterally, has a round pupil, and, except in the
case of Platurus, the iris is coloured dull greenish. The nostril
(except in Platurus, where it is lateral) is large, superior,
valvular, and situated in the postero-external quadrant of
a large nasal shield.

Identificaion.—The fin-like tail at once proclaims a sea-
snake, and distinguishes it from all terrestrial and fresh
water forms.

Colouration.—The colouration and the adornment is
remarkably similar in nearly all the forms. The dorsum is
usually a dirty olivaceous or dull bluish, these hues merging
to whitish or yellowish of various shades ventrally. The
young are usually very conspicuously banded with dark
bluish, greenish-black, or black. The bands are well defined,
but tend as age advances to lose definition. Further, it
frequently happens that the bands become effaced ventrally,
and so converted into dorsal bars. The head in the young
is either uniform black or black with a horse-shoe mark
on the crown. As age advances the black fades, the horse-
shoe is resolved into an indefinite mottling, and ultimately
the head becomes a pale olivaceous or pale dirty yellowish.
The fact that the colouration is so much alike in all the
hydrophids denotes some special purpose. It is probable

318 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

that it is protective, and that like the stripes of the tiger
and zebra the bands break up the contour of the snake in
its submarine haunts and assist in concealing it, so that it
is not observed by its prey until well within striking distance.

Habits.—(a) Haunts: All the species are marine. They
mostly frequent the close vicinity of the coasts, and fre-
quently find their way up tidal rivers for fifty or even a
hundred miles. They are often observed in and about the
rocks that fringe the shore. On the other hand, they are
frequently observed in the sea as many as a hundred or
more miles from any coast.

(0) Disposition: They exhibit an extraordinarily peaceful
nature, and it is most unusual for one to attempt to bite.
This is borne out by the fact that although the seas literally
swarm with them, bathers and fisher folk are practically
never bitten. There are scarcely any records of casualties
even among the fishermen, who haul them in by the dozen
every day in their nets. The snakes so caught are handled
fearlessly by those drawing in the nets, who throw them back
into the sea. Dr. Annandale remarks, on the authority of
fishermen, that when a casualty does occur, it is usually in
the surf. The snakes that come too close to the shore in
the monsoon are sometimes rolled over and over impotently
by successive waves, and as the result of the battering they
receive, they are apt to wreath themselves round any SUP
and plunge their teeth into it.

(c) Nocturnal or Diurnal : They appear to be completely
diurnal.

(d) Progression: They swim with grace and ease, and
can move expeditiously in the water when danger urges them
to do so. Sometimes they may be seen swimming with the
head and some inches of the forebody pushed up vertically,
as though to inspect their surroundings. When hustled they
frequently plunge deeply and disappear. On land the
compressed and heavy contormation of their bodies makes
progression almost impossible, and they lie over helplessly
on their sides. Species of the genus Platurus, however, are
not so handicapped, and can progress fairly well on land.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 319

(f) Hissing: Dr. Annandale says they do not hiss, but
utter a low gurgling note.

(g) Sloughing : Desquamation occurs at intervals as in
the case of land snakes, but the slough is cast in fragments.

Food.—As far as is known they are entirely piscivorous.
The fishes usually selected are those with slender elongate
bodies. Dr. Annandale mentions Silurids (Cat fishes), and
Gunther the Silurid fish, Apogon. I have extracted fish from
some, which Dr. Henderson identified as Murenids (eels).
An element of doubt lay between the species Ophichthys boro.
or O. orientalis. Many of these fish have very strong spines
as noted by Gunther, and Dr. Annandale says that the spines
are frequently discharged through the tissues. They penetrate
the walls of the stomachs, and work their way through the
tissues between the ribs, and are finally expelled, without
causing any serious mischief to the snake. This is a curious
adaptation, for the danger of such spines wounding the
intestine must be great.

Breeding.—(a) The Sexes: There is nothing very special
to remark. Both appear to grow to similar lengths. In the
female the body is deeper posteriorly, and especially so when
gravid. In the males a bilateral swelling along the base
of the tail corresponds to the clasper tubes. In some I have
found the male genitalia bifid, in others not. The genitalia,
as in land snakes, are extruded in intra-maternal life until
shortly before birth, but they are ensheathed some appre-
ciable time before birth. The tubercles and keels on the
costals and ventrals are usually more pronounced in males,
and grow stronger with advancing years.*

(b) Method of Reproduction: All those whose breeding
habits are known are viviparous.

(c) Season: The breeding season probably extends over
several months of the year, but available records are too
limited to elucidate this point.

* In many spirit specimens the character of the keels and tubercles
on the scales are difficult to discern, but I have satisfied myself that
these are distinct and constant in both sexes from the earliest age, even,
in fact, before birth, i

320 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

(d) Period of Gestation: This is not known, and the diffi-
culties in investigating the point are great, as seasnakes do
not thrive well for long in captivity, even in capacious tanks.

(e) The Brood: The various species seem to vary much
in their fecundity. Some give birth to one or two at a time,
and others up to as many as sixteen.

Growth.—(a) The Young: These vary in their measure-
ments with the species. In some the young are retained
until they attain to a length half that of the mother.

(6) Early Infe: From a small material at my disposal,
I am able to say that in some cases the young double their
length in the first year of life.

(c) Maturity : In some species I have observed maturity
is attained in a remarkably short time, even as little as a year ;
in other species it appears to be considerably longer, two or
three years. Without wishing to be at all emphatic it
appears from my notes that the species that are least prolific
show the most precocious attainment to sexual maturity.

(d) Maximum Length: The largest measurement I am
aware of is 2,745 mm. (9 feet). This was for a spiralis killed
by Mr. Stone at Penang.

Poison.— Beyond the fact that all are poisonous, and
apparently very fatal, little is known. I can only find one
record in which the snake causing a bite in the human subject
was killed, and identified. This is mentioned under Hydrus
platurus. The poison of two species only, viz., Hnhydrina
valakadyen and Enhydris curtus, has been worked with in the
laboratory, and in the case of the former the venom is shown
to be much more potent than cobra venom. Russell caused
a few other species to bite fowls, all of which succumbed in a
few minutes, so that the venom of all appears to be extremely
virulent. It is rather a reflection on Indian Zoologists, that
for a glimmering appreciation of the toxicity of some of the
venoms, one should have to hark back one hundred and
twenty years to Russell’s experiments for information !

Foes.—Gunther mentions among the chief foes the sea
eagles of the Genus Halietus and sharks. I have never
witnessed a seasnake borne off by any raptorial bird, but

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 321

there is little doubt that the sea eagles take considerable toll
of their ranks. It is more than likely too that the brahminy
Kite Halastur indus is among those that prey on them.
When hydrophids travel up tidal rivers, as they do in con-
siderable numbers, it is probable that many fall a prey to
other predatory birds and animals. A writer to “ The
Field *” from South Africa about October, 1919, mentioned
crocodiles as preying upon freshwater snakes within his
knowledge, and it is possible that seasnakes are victimized
by these creatures. I have never heard of any instance of
ophiophagy among seasnakes, but the fact that it is long and
slender fish that form their dietary makes it possible that
small seasnakes may be preyed upon by the larger members
of their fraternity.

Epiphytes and Epizoa : Hydrophids are infested by many
lowly-organized plants and animals that attach themselves
to their scales and hamper their movements. Sometimes
the growth of the former is such as to make the whole snake
quite shaggy in appearance. These are not parasitic, as
they do not. live on their host’s tissues or blood. Many,
indeed, are as frequently found attached to floating timber,
piers, cables, &c. For a list of these I am indebted to Dr.
Annandale, who has specially interested himself in this study.

(a) Hydroids on species of Hydrophis.
Bimeria fluminalis (Annandale).
Campanularia serrulata (Bale).

(6) Polyzoa on Enhydrina valakadyen.

Alcyonidium mytilt (Dalzell) on species of Enhydris.
Triticella pedicellata (Alder).
Membranipora hippopus (Levinson).

(c) Barnacles on Hydrus platurus.

Lepas ansertfera (Linné).

* Lepas tenuivalvata (Annandale).
Conchoderma virgatum var hunteri (Owen).
Dichelaspis warwicki (Gray).

* Has only been found attached to seasnakes.

46 | 6(6)20

322, SNAKES OF CEYLON.

* Platylepas sp. (%) (Darwin) on Enhydrina valakadyen.
* Platylepas ophilus (Lankester) on species of Hydrophis.
* Platylepas krugert (Pilsbury).

Dichelasphis grayi (Darwin).

*

Lepidosis.—As already remarked the shielding of the head
and scaling of the bodies of hydrophids are subject to a
variation which is far in excess of what one sees in the most
variable land snakes. Gunther in 1864 wrote that herpeto-
logists who preceded him, with the single exception of Gray,
had erred in supposing the numbers of species of seasnakes
to be far fewer than they in reality are. If that remark was
true fifty years ago, Gunther and succeeding herpetologists
have amply redeemed the aspersions cast upon their fore-
fathers by erring in a contrary direction. Many an indi-
vidual exhibiting a slight deviation from a previously well-
known species has been acclaimed as a new species, even by
our best herpetologists. When one sees the large range of
costal rows round the neck and body, of the ventrals between
the neck and vent, and of the great variation in the head
shielding of so distinctive a species as Enhydrina valakadyen,
one should be prepared to expect a similar degree of variation,
in some other species of hydrophids with less distinctive
characters.

Dentition.— Maxillary : Prenodal. ‘Two canaliculate fangs
are placed side by side anteriorly, each with a scar on its
anterior face. Postnodal. From 1 in Platurus to 17 in
Polyodontognathus cerulescens ; isodont, or feebly scaphiodont.
With shallow grooves on their antero-external faces. Palatine :
5 to 10; anododont, isodont. A short edentulous space
posteriorly in some. Pferygoid : 7 to 27 ; anododont, scaphio-
dont. The posterior half to third edentulous. Mandibular :
9 to 26; anododont, scaphiodont ; grooved on their antero-
external faces.

Distribution.—Indian and Pacific Oceans. Many appear
to have a very local distribution, others, notably Hydrus
platurus, a very extensive one.

* Have only been found attached to seasnakes.

47

| Sutured to frontal.

Nasals.

frontal.
Confluent
posteriorly.

| Sutured to pre-

Longer than
frontal

SNAKES OF CEYLON.

SYNOPSIS OF CRANIAL CHARACTERS OF THE SUB-

Preefron- Parie-
tals. | Frontal. | tal.
ae S es >
1 > is) =
Scale | ae WAS PSE! lames
‘a Sik & De =
Os a ° (VE) 2
& | 005 = a S
wm |.28 =) a
q |se S an] oc
Si|oy SS [Se] &
o Ss 3 Os [)
o S oO (<b)
= ca) as] &
Yes | No = No No
Yes | No = No No
Yes | No = No No
Yes |Yes = No No
No | No = Yes No
Yes |Yes = No {Slight
Yes |/Yes = No No
Yes | Yes = No No
? % ? ? ?
Yes |/Yes = No ?} No
Yes |Yes 3/4 No No
? 2 ? v4 2
? 2? 2 2 ?
Yes | Yes = No Yes
No |VYes > Yes Yes
Yes |Yes = | No No
No |Yes = Yes Yes
No |Yes }2/3to3/4|Yes | No
No |Yes 42/3 to 3/4| Yes No
No | No 3/4 |¥es Yes
No | No 4/3 |Yes No
No | No 4/3 |Yes No

xtreme lengt

superiorly com-
pared to its depth.

eH MAN WL
Oreo

2/3

A Pala
Manilla tani Den
3 S rf
25/25] 22
es\onleSs| a
Pales| Sael .. 3
Sa\og)e2o) 3s &
gsigm ces) ok 5
ga\gs|"3 | *
ikge atc
Yes ;\Yes} No 5 to6 | 8
Yes} No 5 to 6 7
Yes} No 4 to 6 U
Ves | No 7to 10 | 8toli
i\Yes | No 5 to 6 7to®
Yes} No 7 to 10 5
iYes | No 6 to 7 6to7
Yes} No 6 to 10 7 to ¢
? ? ? ?
Yes | Yes 9 to 11 8
\Yes{ No [13 to17| 7to€
2 ? 11 to 12 ?
lees ? 1 to 2 ?
Yes} No 7to9 | 8tol
Yes | Yes 4 to 5 U
i\Yes | No Ue 7to8
Yes | Yes 3 to 5 5 to ¢
(Yes | Yes Sto |) Sb tort
‘Yes | Yes 3to5 | 5 tot
No Yes} No 8to10| 6to’%
| No] Yes il 5
Yes 1 6

* These details are taken from the figure in Boulenger’s Catalog

SNAKES OF CYLON,

323

Preefron-' * Parie-| Quad- i Pala-
Nasals. tale | Frontal. | ate ous Maxilla. | 4.3 ae eaat
a = r= | Peet 5S Le) czlszl 2 | ;
Sig 3 len S 62 = [Esa )e8/ 253 Gr J 4 a
ie jes 2] 2lz. g |as| & ERS SalI elie) | El a = Genus. Species.
2 cesses] 2/2] 5 [83] & b.2|Ss)selacs| ss | & Ed 3s |
2 sslS5] Se] ale] = (Sel 2 fees leeleel ces Se = g g
De| Be] we 30 a = re See b) aau| Sa = 3
Bi S4/S8) 24 | 2/88] 8 25) 3 less |ssiss/S23) ae | a || & 2
gs 4 ois S |88| 8 Bee esl heres a
3 \2 5 a jas] 4 P2slesieal & | \ - zs
i aa —t
| \ il
| Z a = 2 |12 to 13 | Microcephalophis | gracilis
Mes |Ves'| No} Yes |Yes | No = |No} No} = jWesj¥es} No | 5to6 | 8 ve 11 to 13 Microceplialophis cantoris
Yes |Yes | No} Yes }Yes | No = No} No = jYes|Yes}| No | 5to6 7 10 15 Porrecticollis obscurus
Yes Yes|No}| Yes /Yes | No = No} No = }|Noj)Yes} No | 4to6 7 4118 to 24 |18 to 20 | Dolichodira diadema
Yes |Yes\| No} Yes |Yes |Yes = No} No = |No/j¥Yes] No | 7to10 | 8 to 1 8to10 13 to 15 | Aturia fasciata
Yes |Yes|No| = |No| No = |¥es}) No = {No | ves} No | 5to6 | 7to® |op to 21119 to 20 | Lioselasma mamillaris
Yes |Yes | No} Yes }Yes |Yes = No {Slight | 2/3 | No |Yes} No | 7 to 10 6} 12 to 14/13 to 16 do spiralis
Yes |Yes | No} Yes |Yes /Yes = No}| No | 4/5 [No |Yes] No | Gto7 | 8to7, 15 to 19 |16 to 17 do. cyanocincta
Yes [Yes | No| Yes }Yes /Yes = No} No 2/3 | No |Yes}| No | 6to10| 7 to¢ o) r) ale. bituberculata
Mee |ueni|(Noill weal\weaiven |p Se Inoal acct we tNolecaliste illotcan 3, [2i to 22|28 to 20 | Chitulia elon
= . 5 2 2 M
Yes |Yes | No| Yes }Yes |Yes 3/4 | No No 1/2 } No |Yes{ No }13to17) 7to€ 19 to 25/2 pores po oontornay Ly ee eeiia
R roils i if i 2 i i i B i p [11 tote i 2 14 Melanomystax nigrocinctus
Yes Yes No Yes Yes |Yes = No Yes 45 Yes Yes No roo 8 to1° TEA MOG ia) MS) Lens pexdont
Yes |Yes | No au No/Yes} > |Yes} Yes}! 1/2 |No|Yes} Yes | 4to5 7 | 17 {16 to 17 | Prescutata vober ne
equa, | 20* 18 to 19*) Astrotia stokesi
Yes {Yes | No ves }Yes |Yes = No No | 1/2?]No Yes} No ee 7to8 ay ‘ real
No| No |¥Yes| Yes}|No/Yes}] = Yes} Ves} 1/2 | NojVes] Yes | 3to5 | 5 to a 19 ue 12 Teas eabyating wausiadien
Yes }Yes | No} Yes | No /Yes }2/3t03/4|Yes | No 3/5 | No |Yes | Yes Bto4 | 5tol? | 17 |13to14 ara | hardwickei
Yes |Yes | No| Yes | No /Yes }2/3 to 3/4|/Yes No 3/5 | No |Yes} Yes 3 to 5 5 to ( 23 to 27 16 to 18 | Hydrus laturus
Yes |}Yes | No| Yes | No/| No 3/4 |Yes] Yes} 1/2 |No Yes} No | 8to10/ 6to* 16 to 17 12 Taticauda aticaudata
No|No} No} No |No| No 4/3 |Yes}| No | 2/3 |¥Yes| No] Yes 1 5 is 5 io Prati colubring
No|Noj| No} No | No} No 4/3 |Yes| No 2/3 Yes 'No] Yes Hl 6 : : z

* These details are taken from the figure in Boulenger’s Catalog

ue (Vol. IIT., page 286).

6(6)20

FAMILY HYDROPHIINZ.

323

21 to 22
19 to 25
?

a
1°.2)
ct
fo)

i)
to

23 to 27
16 to17
13

Mandibular.

12 to 13
11 to 13

15
18 to 20
3! to 15
19 to 20
13 to 16
16 2y 17

18 to 20
22 to 26

16 to 17
18 to 19*
16

12 to 16
13 to 14
16 to 18
12
9

Genus.

Microcephalophis
Microcephalophis
Porrecticollis
Dolichodira
Aturia
Lioselasma

do.

do.

do.
Chitulia

Polyodontognathus

Polypholophis
Melanomystax
Kerilia
Preescutata

Astrotia

Enhydrina

Lapemis
do.

Hydrus

Laticauda
do.

Species.

gracilis
cantoris
obscurus
diadema
fasciata
mamillaris
spiralis
cyanocincta
bituberculata
ornata
ceerulescens
neglectus
nigrocinctus
jerdoni
viperina

stokesi
valakadien
curtus
hardwickei
platurus
laticaudata
colubrina

ue (Vol. IIT., page 286).

6(6)20

ed
es

SNAKES OF CEYLON. By,

Genus MICROCEPHALOPHIS.

(Greek ‘“‘ micros ”’ small, ‘‘ cephale ” the head,
and “‘ ophis ” snake.)

General Charaeters.—Length small to moderate. Neck and
forebody very slender, the diameter anteriorly one-third to
one-fourth that of the extreme depth posteriorly. Com-
missure of the mouth shaped like an italic f.

Cranial Osteological Characters.—Nasals: Sutured to
frontal and prefrontal ; longer than the frontal. Prefrontals :
Meet the parietal, but not the postfrontals. Frontal: As
broad as long ; meeting postfrontals at the rim of the orbit.
Parietals : With no keel inferiorly. Quadrate : Vertical ; the
extreme length superiorly equal to its depth. This bone
reminds one of the iliac portion of the human os innominatum
(haunch bone), and is the same in all the five most slender-
necked species (gracilis, cantoris, obscurus, diadema, and
fasciata). Maxilla: Extends beyond the palatine anteriorly
and posteriorly.

Dentition.— Mazilla : Postnodal, 5 to 6; isodont. Pala-
tine: 7 to 8; anododont, isodont; no edentulous space
posteriorly. Pterygoid: 9 to 13; anododont, isodont ;
posterior half edentulous. Mandibular: 11 to 13; ano-
dodont, feebly scaphiodont.

There are only two species, viz., gracilis and cantoris,

MICROCEPHALOPHIS GRACILIS (Shaw).

(Latin “ gracilis ”’ graceful.)

John’s Seasnake.

¢

Tamil : “ milagu kadiyan ”’ * (pepper biter) (Henderson).
Synonymy.—AHydrus gracilis, Anguis mamillaris, Liopala

gracilis, Hydrophis quentherr.

* Dr. Henderson tells me this and other small-headed seasnakes
are so called in Madras, on account of the small head, which is fancifully
likened to a peppercorn (milagu).

SNAKES OF CEYLON,

EPIDO'S * ts or THE SuB-rAMmLY HyDROPHIINE.
Synopsis or Most Constant FEATURES IN THE Lepipos1s or Norman* Spc

. Ventrals.
= ie- gj Supra- 1s Infralal ats Cuneate Costals. |
5 | Pre- | Parie orals. ig Sublingual Dials. uneate.
Rostral.|asals, Nasals.| rrontals.| tals. memoore> es uabialss 1 Soe ee seals =
aa aE He : :
S| 3 | 3 ]8s5 le a3 Feo 3
a Sy |) S251 a ; 3 S | oe ie a me a Se Seal e 3
=.| 2) #228 |ael.1.| 41 8] 2 | 8 |esaeel a | sa ]ee| 2\ee| e822 | = 3 Sq Name of Species.
fom |. 8 ae) os ae] 2] 3 g ea bere 5 | ofel SES] Ss e2135)| 3 | go 34m = % 30
6 =2 | 33 =e ZR =| 3 61 2 lacsialal a 2S q| = bas 486 3 S
Be | @ lee ee | Bel Sa |e | 2 |e | Sleeeneeel Se ea allen) eae z
= | B32 On ae 2) a 3 a }as ||. a |ee EQ 2
Bel pee te = é 4 | & |3"ae inl eel
4 n te eo as eae M oF
——| } | ap oly a | 7-21|26-32|27-35| Juxt. Gentral 217-290) Divided - gracilis
‘ 3rd &| Yes | Yes] > 2 |None| — [17-21)26—-32)27-35) jially in
None| 2nd | 2nd Yes} One} One fist & : figure-of- mesially
Tae AS ee 8 tubercles coe
| | y eee ‘
4 ib 5 y 51 -25197-36136— ; ral 1377-474| Divided | M. cantoris
4 |None} 2nd ard Yes} One| One} ist, |8rd_ &| Yes | Yes 2 |None| — 21-25|27-36/36-46) Juxt. eae Gc mesially in
end, 2th 8 tubercles mid and
| & 3rd preeseaaaye seas
| | ah aac eae J 9slon— n_96 277-354\Nearly 2 - obscuru:
4 | None 2nd 2nd | Yes} One One au & ao &) Yes | Yes J=or> [2-4 One ora 19-23|25-32|26-33| Imb. RE OG Searenecs IS
| a keel
| i . S R Im subi B 0|Nearly 2/1} D. diademy
: and | e |Vari- &jard &| Yes | Yes} < |i34 | 0 d &{32-41/37-54)34-46| Subimb, | Short 4374-46
4 |None| 2nd | 2nd | Yes | One Nie ast poe S 3 4 ne Brae aaa median everywhere
| | z e | a = Sul Rue A. fascia
im F | - ators le 95-33137— =F ¥ R d {$76-513/Nearly 2/1 ‘asciata
‘ | None| 2nd | 2nd | Yes] One| One Ist & Bra &| Yes | Yes}=or>|/3-4 | One ae 25-33|37-57|/37-57 subimh PARR everywhere
| > 1 | tubercle leer
| 9 ol ves | |. los—99/21—40\34— < | d {316-367\Nearly 2/1} L. mamillari,
4 |None| 2nd | 2nd | Yes} Varijable debe Bree & Yes | Yes} < |) 3-4 | One ade 25-29/31-40)34—41) Juxt. eon Sverre! 5
| | 3 1 ; tubercle
| i o res | ¥ ! ¢}27-31/30-36|27—2 . Round {282-373|Nearly 2/1} L. spiralis
4 |\None| 2nd 2nd | Yes} One Wane a Baer &j Yes | Yes} < |'3-4 | One Brae 127-31|30-36)27-36| Imb. sound earns
| | le 2) | | | tubercle
| =e eaten ae f | ard, | Yes | Yi Za | 5 7-36/33-44/34—43| Imb., Short 296 -398|Nearly 2/1) L. cyanocincts
4 |None| 2nd | 2nd Yes | Varilable ate ath,’ 8 es es | 3-4 All | eat 7-36)33-44/34- Aaneii. lebidentate everywhere
| an Yes |Yes ?] oe sheet 278 |Nearly 2/1) L. bituberculat;
g 1 ov if & j3rd yes |Yes 2} = =, rE g AT — | Subimb. shor 2) 2 ats erculata
4 None} 2nd 2nd | Yes | One| One ar as ¢ 3-4. One erore 28 7 an ete bi dentate everywhere
| i kee! *
4 |None} 2nd | 2nd | Yes} Varijable sb & |ord, €] Yes | No | < 5-4 [None] — [38-41)38-45)88-42 Sabin. Round, p18-200}Nearly hy C. ornata
| 5 | | "| tubercle :
4 None} 2nd 2nd | No | Varijable | Ist & |3rd & Varijable < 3&4] One} 3rd &36-45/42-53/36-46) Subimb. Short 277-339|Nearly 2/1 P. cerulescens
| 2nd | 4th 4th or juxt. manaiipn levery where}
| ee)
4 None} 2nd 2nd | Yes} Varilable ihe poe Yes | Yes Se 3 One ard 48 | 54 | 45 Imb, Short Acme Neatly. 2b P. neglectus
an = oil 4th median ke: Pe ly
4 |None| 2nd | None Yes | Varilable } Ist & |3rd &| Yes | No | Sub-| 34 | One| 3rd &J27-32|36-43/36-42| Imb. Short 805-339|Nearly 2/1] M. nigrocinctus
2nd 4th, or equal ‘Ath median every where
| pore , kee]
4 |None| None | None | Yes}Confljuent | ist & \3rd &} Ves |Vari-| < | Only |None| — | 17 |19-21|19-21) Imb. Short [219-248|Nearly 2/1] K. jerdoni
| pace ka 2nd | 4th able | three median everywhere}
| Abia) | } id | keel
4 |None| 2nd | None | Yes} Varijable } 1st & 3rd a Ves | Ves}—or>|'S°F°" One| ara afo7-34/39-50|35-45| Juxt. | Short {235-276|3/1 anteri-| P. viperina
| | | 2nd 4th; 3ird, / 4th median orly, nearly!
Bil sor . keel 2/t ele:
5 where
| 4th & 5}th
# {None} 2nd: ) 2nd | Yes} Varijable | ist, | ath, JNone| — | Variable | All | After [s1-48/48-59|41-50| Imb. | Median 230-267] Not _ | A. stokesi
| ward pene | ist, Bn d, | | Pidentats enlarged
| 5 low, Tertle , mat or 35 ee i
4) | None}), tsb) )) Znal | Yes\}| Variable) jist) Vari jNone|— }/ — j's-4 |Nonel)—= {47-61\60-70|60-70| Imb. Short 230-361|Nearly 2/1) E. valakadien
ANCE} pape lon ‘ median levery where]
9 7 eal . 1 subimb, keels
4 | None} 2nd | 2nd | Yes} Variable | 1st & 8rd None} — | — | 3-4 | All| Attert29-s6|s0-45|30-42| Juxt. Round {151-219} Entire | L. curtus
ae j 2nd centric anteriorly,
j tubercle | alviced
ee i _ el pate oe? posteriorly aia
Be eee lea me Fecal Bun able | ste ardor None 3-4 | an | After|25-33|27-40/27-37| Juxt. | Round 130-214) Entire | L. hardwiokei
m 2nd centric anteriorly,
} tubercle Cie
4 No: N 4 Tarile , aris ae as, posteriorly
BESO | SARI ES | WEIRD | a Bie Naa ptor 3-4 |None| — |40-54/41-61/41-61| Juxt. | Central fes4-s39| Not | H. platurus
A Hunresohs enlarged
A | None | No Yi (6) i- ul OY. “ ubercles i
cain me | Yes} One |Vari-| ist, |ord &} Vos} Yes] # | 2 | an | after] 19 | 19 |17-19] tmb. .| Smooth [210-240] More | L. laticaudata
able gad &| 4th : 3rd than 3/1
ry
6 A | None | None Yes | One |Vari-} 1st, d & ¥ y + everywhere
pair able zn APS es | Yes fee | 3-4 | All | After|21-25/21-95/21-23| mb Smooth }195-240| More | L. colubrina
rr
——————

* A synopsis i oS. P iti
CAC OReATEENIE Rae MAE AAToeeaas oe abmormalltiaa are anuoh more frequent unilaterally, if the student finds he has been obviously misled, the opposite side of the
to study first the character of the costals (Column 20) and ascertain if smooth, centf im the synopsis, he must assumo that it is aberrant bilaterally. ‘The student is recommenced
these features are better seen dorsally, sometimes ventrally. rally uni- or bituberculate or keeled. ae features should be looked for at midbody. Sometimes —

326 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

History.—First depicted by Russell in Plate XIII. of his
second volume (1801). Christened by Shaw in 1802.

General Characters.—A small snake growing to about
3 feet. Head very small, elongate, not depressed. Snout
long, subconical, strongly declivous, obtusely rounded
terminally, slightly produced downwards. Eye small.
Nostril with no sutures radiating therefrom. Commissure
of mouth shaped like an italic f. Neck not apparent. Body
cylindrical, and slender in its anterior two-fifths, and about
one-third to less than one-fourth the extreme depth

posteriorly, compressed and heavy in the posterior three-
fifths.

Identification.— Easily recognized by the figure-of-8
tubercles on the scales, 17 to 21 scale rows two heads-

lengths behind the head, and ventrals numbering 217 to
290.

Colouration.—Dull olive-green dorsally, merging to pale-
yellow or whitish ventrally. Body with from 41 to 61 black
annuli, dilated vertebrally, and much confluent vertebrally
and ventrally, especially on the slender part of the forebody,
so that only oval whitish windows are left laterally. The
annuli are well defined, black, and complete, or but slightly
interrupted laterally in the young, but tend to lose definition
as they grow older, grow less black and completely disappear
ventrally in old adults, leaving dull, dark, greenish-black
dorsal bars. The head is quite black in the young, but fades
to a dull greenish-black with age.

Habits.—There is nothing special to remark.

Food.—I have always found murenids pieyed upon.
Specimens submitted for indentification to Dr. Henderson
were reported to be either Ophichthys boro (Ham. Buch.) or
O. orientalis (McClelland). I have seen as many as three
of these eels in one stomach, and one measured 8 inches
in length.

Breeding.—(a) The Seaes : The sexes are evenly balanced.
Out of 29 adults captured in 1917, 14 were males and 15

SNAKES OF CEYLON. O27

females, There is no sexual difference in the lengths of the
developing young, and both sexes attain to a similar Jength
in adult life. Males during advanced foetal life have the
genitalia extruded, and until they attain a length up to about
317 mm. (124 inches). Shortly before birth, however, the
genitalia become ensheathed. The claspers are not bifid,
except at the extreme tip. In adult life males have the
tubercles on the scales more pronounced than in females.
I can discover no other differences in lepidosis in the
SeXes. |

(b) Method of Reproduction : It is definitely known to be
Viviparous.

(c) Season : The young are. born in the months of July and
August, but it is probable that further observation will extend
the season already known. I had several females in a very
advanced stage of pregnancy late in June and early in July,
but although I obtained 29 adults in those months in 1917,
no snakeling of the year came to bag.

. (d) Period of Gestation : Not known.

(e) I'he Brood : This species is one of the least prolific of all
the snakes I know, and among seasnakes shares with Hnhydris
curtus this distinction. I have had eight gravid females, of
which one contained a single embryo, five two embryos, one
three, and one six. These were contained in the usual trans-
parent sacs seen in viviparous snakes. Some of the sacs
measured 100 mm. (4 inches) in length. The young are
folded two or three times.

Growth.—(a) The Young: At birth the young measure
from about 330 to 380 mm. (13 to 15 inches). I have seen
specimens after birth of the former dimensions, and I have
had unborn foetuses that were 375 mm. (133 inches). In one
case the united lengths of three foetuses considerably exceeded
the parent, the former aggregating 978 mm. (3 feet
21 inches), and the latter 933 mm, (3 feet and 2 of an
inch). :

328 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

(6) Karly Life : The young appear to double their length in
the first year of life, and are then about 635 to 760 mm. (25 to
30 inches) long.

(c) Maturity : I have had gravid females measuring 702,
705, 712, 730, and 737 mm. (274 to 29 inches). I think there
can be no doubt that these were only one year old. If, as
seems probable, the period of gestation is as protracted as in
land snakes, such as Vipera russelli, then this species mates,
and is sexually mature, when six months old.

(d) Maximum Length: My largest of well over sixty
specimens was 933 mm. (3 feet and # of an inch). Boulenger,
however, gives 1,020 mm. (3 feet 8 inches) as the outside
measurement.

Poison.—Nothing known. No casualties are on record, and
the venom has not been experimented with.

Lepidosis.—This is one of the few hydrophids that shows
wonderful constancy in the number and arrangement of its

head shields.

(a) T'yp~ical—Kostral : Height greater than breadth ; slightly
projecting downwards; visible portion above subequal to
or rather greater than the suture between the nasals. Nasals :
No sutures radiate from the nostrils. Prefrontals : Touch
the 2nd supralabials. Frontal : Entire ; longer than broad ;
small, about two-fifths its distance from the end of the snout,
and two-fifths the length of the parietals ; the fronto-parietal
sutures subequal to, or a little longer than, the fronto-supra-
oculars. Parietals: Entire; touching the postoculars. Pre-
oculars: One. Postoculars: One. Temporals: One large
anterior, as long as the supraocular; and one posterior as
large or larger. Supralabials : Six; all entire; the Ist and
2nd touching the nasals, 3rd and 4th the eye, 5th and 6th the
anterior temporal, and the 6th the posterior temporal. Sub-
linguals: Two pairs, the fellows of each in contact; the
posterior touching the 3rd and 4th infralabials. Infralabials :
Four ; the Ist longer than the suture between the anterior

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 329

sublinguals, 4th largest and in contact with two scales behind.
Cuneate: None. (Fig. 62.)

Iz
Cgc
R C
AGi ae
O
Fie. 62.—Microcephalophis gracilis.
(x 2.)
D. Costals.

Costals : Longer than broad, and imbricate on the slender
anterior part of the body; as broad as long, hexagonal and
juxtaposed on the compressed part of the body; with

330 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

figure-of-8 central tubercles ; in 17 to 21 (usually 19) rows two
heads-lengths behind the head ; 26 to 32 in midbody; and 27
to 35 two heads-lengths before the vent. The tubercles are
specially pronounced in old males. Ventrals : 217 to 290;
entire ; about twice the breadth of the last costals anteriorly ;
divided in the median line to form two apposed pentagons ;
each half about as broad as the last costals posteriorly ; each
divided half with twin spines directed backwards, and
specially prominent in old males. Anal: Variable.

(b) Anomalies—Prefrontals : Rarely fail to meet the 2nd
supralabial.

Dentition—From two skulls in my collection. Maailla :
Postnodal, 5 to 6. Palatine: 8. Pterygoid: 9 to 12.
Mandibular : 12 to 13.

Distribution.—(a) General : From the Persian Gulf to the
Malay Peninsula.

(b) Local: From available records it appears uncommon
in the Persian Gulf. On the Malabar Coast of India it is a
fairly common species, and on the Coromandel Coast one of the
commonest of hydrophids. In Madras I got 29 specimens in
1917 out of a total of 192. I found four in the Colombo.
Museum when I examined their collection. It is rare on the
Burmese Coast and further East. Evans and I failed to
secure a specimen from Burma, and the Indian Museum
contains but one from the Mergui Archipelago. Annandale
and Robinson obtained one off Patani in the Malay Peninsula,
which was erroneously reported a wrayi by Boulenger (Fasc.
Malay, 1903, p. 167). I pointed out the mistake in my
Monograph (Mem. Asiat. Soc., Bengal, 1909, p. 213), which

was acknowledged by Boulenger later (Faun. Malay Peninsula,
1912, p. 192). -

MICROCEPHALOPHIS CANTORIS Gunther.

(Named after Dr. Cantor.)
Cantor’s Seasnake.
Synonymy.—Liopala fasciata, Hydrophis fasciata, H. gra-
cilis, Distira gillespie.
History.—The type was captured by Dr. Cantor off
Penang in 1847, and confused by him with gracilis (Shaw).

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 331

Dr. Gunther first recognized it as a distinct species in 1864,
and christened it.

General Characters.—A fine snake of large proportions
erowing to 6 feet. Head small, narrow, not depressed.
Snout long, strongly declivous, bent down anteriorly, sub-
conical. Eye very small. Commissure of the mouth shaped
like an italic f. Neck not constricted. Body very thin and
cylindrical for about two-fifths of its length anteriorly,
becoming heavy and much compressed posteriorly ; and three
times the anterior depth, or even four times in heavily gravid
females. .

Identification. Easily distinguished by the figure-of-8
tubercles on the scales, 21 to 25 costal rows two heads-lengths
behind the head, and ventrals ranging from 377 to 474. A
very distinctive feature, only seen in one other seasnake, viz.,
stokesi, is that the prefrontal touches the 3rd supralabial.

Colouration.—Seaweed-green dorsally, merging to yellow
ventrally. Encircled by 49 to 61 black rings on the body
that dilate vertebrally. The anterior rings are extensively
confluent, both vertebrally and ventrally, leaving oval yellow
spots laterally. The posterior rings are usually incomplete
ventrally. In the young the rings are well defined, but as age
advances the definition becomes increasingly less. The head
is uniformly black in the young, but fades to a dull dirty
greenish with age.

Habits.—A large male brought to me was extremely active
and muscular. It lay on its side, but in spite of vigorous
action could not progress at all on land.

Food.—Nothing is known of any special fish selected.

Breeding.—(a) The Sexes : Nearly all my specimens have
been males, and much the largest examples I have seen were
males. In dissecting out the claspers of a large male, I noticed
that the clasper tube is not bifid. As some of the seasnakes
‘I have examined have exhibited bifid claspers, this is an
observation of special interest. The tubercles are specially
prominent in large males.

48 6(6)20

332 SNAKES OF CEYLON,

(b) Method of Reproduction: Definitely known to be
viviparous.

(c) Season.—The one gravid female known to me was killed
by Mr. Kemp on September 9, 1919.

(4) Period of Gestation: Not known.

(e) The Brood: Mr. Kemp’s gravid female preserved in the
Indian Museum contained six ova containing embryos in a
very early stage of development. These measured about
50 mm. (2 inches) in length.

Growth.—(a) The Young: The length of the young at
birth is not known.

(b) Maturity: The gravid female sent to me for identifi-
cation by Dr. Annandale measured 1,155 mm. (3 feet 94 inches).

(c) Maximum Length : The largest males I have measured
were 1,410 and 1,322 mm. (4 feet 74 inches and 4 feet 4inches).
The largest female known to me was 1,155 mm. (3 feet 94
inches). A very large example in the Indian Museum, sex
not noted, measures 1,855 mm. (6 feet | inch).

Poison.—Nothing known. It has not been experimented
with in the laboratory.

Lepidosis.—Unlike so many of the seasnakes the lepidosis
of the head preserves a wonderful constancy.

(a) Typical—Rostral: Deeper than broad; produced
slightly downwards ; the visible portion above nearly or quite
as long as the suture between the nasals. Nasals : Sutures
from the nostril passing backwards to the prefrontals and
outwards to the 2nd supralabial. Prefrontals : Touch the
3rd. supralabial. Frontal: Entire; about two-thirds its
distance to the end of the snout, and two-thirds the parietals.
Parietals: Entire; touching the postoculars. Preocular:
One. Postocular: One. Temporals: A large anterior,
followed by an equally large or even larger shield posteriorly.
Supralabials : Six ; all entire ; the Ist, 2nd, and 3rd touching
the nasals ; 3rd and 4th the eye; 5th and 6th the anterior
temporal, and the 6th the posterior temporal. Sublinguals :
Two well-developed pairs ; the fellows of both in contact with
one another. Jnfralabials: Four; the 4th touching two

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 333

scales behind ; the suture between the first as long as or longer
than that between the anterior sublinguals. Cuneate: None.
(Fig. 63.)

1D
5 D

°
o

8°} 0

Fig. 63.—Microcephalophis cantoris.
(Life size.)

D. Ventrals,

334° SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Costals : Longer than broad anteriorly, as broad as long
posteriorly ; imbricate on the attenuated forebody ; juxta-
posed and hexagonal on the compressed posterior part ;
with small, figure-of-8 tubercles centrally, one behind the
other. In 23 to 25 (rarely 21) rows two heads-lengths behind
the head; 27 to 36 in midbody: and 36 to 46 rows two
heads-lengths before the vent. Ventrals : 377 to 474 ; entire,
and about twice the breadth of the last row anteriorly :
divided in the middle line in midbody and posteriorly to form
two apposed pentagons ; each half being about as broad as the
last costal row; with twin tubercles on each divided half.

(6) Anomalies—Nasals : Sometimes there are no sutures
from the nostril. Prefrontals : Rarely touch the 2nd as well
as the 3rd supralabials. Postoculars: Rarely two. Supra-
labials: Rarely the Ist and 2nd only touch the nasals.
Sublinguals : The posterior pair rarely separated by one
scale,

Dentition—From three skulls in my collection. Mazillary :
Postnodal, 5° to 6. Palatine: 7. Pierygond: 7 to Vs:
Mandibular : 11 to 13.

Distribution.—(a) General: From the Sind Coast to Chitta-
gong. Malay Peninsula (Boulenger).

(b) Local : An uncommon snake. The type of Boulenger’s
gillespie was killed at Karachi. There are three examples in
the Bombay Natural History Society’s collection from Karwar.
Kemp’s specimen in the Indian Museum is from Marmagoa
Bay. I obtained one specimen at Cannanore. There is no
specimen in the Trivandrum Museum. It is not represented
in the Colombo Museum, nor can I findany record from
Ceylon. I procured three out of a total of 192 seasnakes from
Madras in 1917, and had two others sent to me from the same
locality by Dr. Henderson. There are twelve specimens in the
Indian Museum and one in the British Museum from the
Coast of Orissa and the Sunderbunds. I have had one from
Chittagong. I can find no record from the Burmese Coast.
A specimen of Cantor’s in the British Museum is labelled
“< Penang. ~

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 335

Genus PORRECTICOLLIS Gen. nov.

(Latin “ porrectus ” stretched, “ collis ’’ neck.)

General Characters.—Length moderate. One of the five
very slender-necked species; the diameter anteriorly one-
third to one-fifth that of the extreme depth posteriorly.

Cranial Osteological Characters.—Nasals : Sutured to pre-
frontals and frontal ; longer than frontal. Prefrontals : Meet-
ing parietal, but not postfrontals. Frontal : As broad as long ;
not meeting postirontal at rim of orbit. Parietal: Not keeled
inferiorly. Quadrate: Vertical; extreme length superiorly
equal to its own depth. Mawzilla: Not extending beyond
palatine anteriorly, but extending beyond palatine posteriorly.

Dentition.—From one sku!l in my collection. Maaillary :
Postnodal, 4 to 6; scaphiodont. Palatine: 7; anododont,
isodont ; no edentulous space posteriorly. Pterygoid : 10;
anododont, scaphiodont ; posterior half edentulous. Mandt-
bular : 15 ; anododont, scaphiodont.

There is one species, viz., obscurus.

PORRECTICOLLIS OBSCURUS (Daudin).
(Latin “ obscurus ”’ dark.)
Russell’s Seasnake.

Tamil: “ shootur sun,” “‘ kala shootur sun ”’ (Russell).

Synonymy.—Hydrophis obscurus, H. chloris, H. coronatus,
Hi. latifasciatus, Pelamis obscurus, P. chloris, Distira obscura.

General Characters.—A snake of fair proportions, growing to
4 feetin length. Head small, elongate, not depressed. Snout
long, moderately declivous, subconical, turned down slightly
terminally. Eye small. Commissure of mouth turned up
behind. Neck not contracted. Body cylindrical and slender
in the anterior two-fifths, the depth about one-third to one-
fifth the depth at greatest girth ; much compressed and heavy
in the posterior three-fifths.

Identification.—The costals 19 to 23 two heads-lengths
behind the head, taken with the imbricate scales in from 25 to
32 rows at the greatest girth and ventrals numbering 277 to
304, will suffice to distinguish it from other hydrophids.

Colouration.— The young are very handsome, being bright
yellow, banded with from 34 to 60 broad black bands. These

336 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

bands are well defined, expand vertebrally, and are extensively
confluent vertebrally and ventrally on the slender part of the
body, leaving oval yellow lateral patches. As age advances
the yellow fades to dull-grayish or bluish, and the black to
dull-greenish, the bands become less and less defined, disappear
first ventrally leaving dorsal bars, and finally may disappear
completely. ‘The head in the young is black, with a complete
or a disconnected horseshoe mark, the convexity of which lies
across the prefrontais. As age advances this becomes more
and more obscure, and the black resolves into a dull-bluish or
olivaceous hue.

Habits.—Dr. Annandale, who is intimately acquainted with
it, remarks that it is mainly, but not exclusively, an inhabitant
of brackish water. I have had it from Watiya, Burma, 40
miles up river. It frequents both open water and the shallow
weedy edges of the Chilka Lake. Dr. Annandale frequently
observed it with its head and forebody thrust vertically out
of the water.

Food.—Dr. Annandale says among other fish it will swallow
Triacanthus brevirosiris, a species that bears a pair of long
and stout spines on the belly, whichit can thrust out and
maintain so rigidly that they cannot be bent back without
being broken. It sometimes happens that when this fish has
been swallowed, the spines become locked in the stomach, and
pierce that organ or the intestine, and work their way out
through the tissues and skin, without imperilling the life of
the snake !

Breeding.—(a) The Sexes: Both sexes grow to a similar
length. The male in its adult state is a rougher snake from
the development of its keels.

(6) Method of Reproduction - It is definitely known to be
viviparous.

(c) Season : Not known.

(d) Period of Gestation : Not known.

(c) The Brood: From five to ten young are produced at a
time. . The type contained nine young, and I have examined
three other gravid females, one with five sacs, one with six,
and a third with ten young.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 337

Growth.—(a) The Young: One of the embryos extracted
from the type specimen was 332 mm. (144 inches) long. How
much more these were destined to grow before birth it is
impossible to say, but it seems probable that they had acquired
their full prenatal development, as the young of cantoris, a
much larger snake, are only 330 to 373 mm. (13 to 14? inches)
long at birth. . |

(b) Early Infe: Ihave not been able to follow the growth.

(c) Maturity: My smallest gravid female was 750 mm.
(2 feet 54 inches).

(d) Maximum Length: The type is the largest of about
twenty specimens examined by me, and measures 1,029 mm.
(3 feet 11 inches). Dr. Annandale has reported one 1,220 mm.
(4 feet) in length.

Poison.—Nothing known. No casualties have been reported,
and the venom has not been experimented with.

Epizoa and Epiphyta.—Dr. Annandale remarks that he has
found no hydroids nor barnacles attached to this species.

Lepidosis.—The head shielding is wonderfully constant in
its arrangement.

(a) Typical—Rostral : Broader than deep ; slightly project-
ing downwards ; the visible portion above half to three-fifths
the suture between the nasal shields. Nasals : Usually with
one suture passing to the 2nd supralabial. Prefrontals :
Touching the 2nd supralabials. Frontal : Entire ; longer than
broad ; the fronto-parietal sutures longer than the fronto-
supraoculars. Parietals: Entire; touching the postoculars.
Preoculars: One. Postoculars: One. Temporals: A large
anterior which is as long as or longer than the supraocular,
followed by as large or a larger posterior. Swpralabials : Six
or seven ; the anterior five large, 6th and 7th small, the 6th
usually confluent with the anterior temporal, which thus
descends to the margin of the lip ; Ist and 2nd touching the
nasals ; 3rd and 4th the eye ; 5th and 6th theanterior temporal ;
and the 6th usually the posterior temporal. Sublinguals :
Two pairs, the fellows of eachin contact. Infralabials : Four ;
the Ist as long as or longer than the anterior sublinguals, 3rd
and 4th touching the posterior sublinguals ; 4th largest and

338 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

touching three or four scales behind. Cumneate: One, small
between the 3rd and 4th infralabials.

Fie, 64.—Porrecticollis obseurus. _
Cxea
D. Costals.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 339

Costals : Longer than broad on the constricted anterior part
of the body, about as broad as long on the compressed part ;
imbricate everywhere ; with short bidentate keels about the
median two-fourths of each scale, the anterior tooth much
longer than the posterior, which is minute. 19 to 23 rows two
heads-lengths behind the head; 25 to 32 in midbody; and
from 26 to 33 two heads-lengths before the vent. Ventrals :
277 to 354 ; entire throughout, and nearly twice as broad as
_the last costals.

(b) Anomalies—Przocular : Very rarely absent. Supra-
labials : The 6th sometimes separated from the posterior
temporal by one scale. Sublinguals: The fellows of the
posterior pair are rarely separated by one scale.

Dentition.— Detailed under the genus.

Distribution.—(a) General: From Karwar’ on_ the
Coromandel Coast of India to Mergui on the Tenasserim Coast.

(b) Local : Of twenty specimens examined by me only two
are from the Coromandel Coast, both from Karwar. I failed
to get it at Cannanore, and it is not represented in the
Trivandrum Museum. I saw no example in the Colombo
Museum, and there is no record of one from Ceylon. Most of
the specimens are from the Chilka Lake, where it is a fairly
common snake. Dr. Annandale tells me that it appears to be
the only hydrophid inhabiting that water. The type (and
also the type of Daudin’s chloris) is from the Sunderbunds,
and I have seen several other specimens from the same locality
and the Hoogly river. I have had one from Chittagong, three
trom the Burmese Coast, and have seen two others from Mergui.
The type of Gunther’s latifasciatus is also from Mergui.

Genus DOLICHODIRA Gen. nov.
(Greek “ dolichos ”’ long, “ dira ” neck.)

General Characters.— Length moderate. One of the five very
slender-necked species, the diameter of the body anteriorly
one-third to one-fourth the extreme depth posteriorly.

Cranial Osteological Characters—Nasals : Sutured to frontal
and prefrontals, longer than frontal. Prefrontals : Meeting
parietal and postfrontals. Frontal : As broad as long ; not
meeting postfrontal at rim of orbit. Parietal: Not keeled

49 6(6)2Q

340 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

inferiorly. Quadrate: Vertical; extreme length superiorly
equal to its depth. Mazilla : Not extending beyond palatine
anteriorly, but extending beyond palatine posteriorly.

Dentition.— From three skulls in my collection. Maxillary:
Postnodal, 7 (? 6) to 10; feebly scaphiodont. Palatine: 8 to
10; anododont, isodont; no edentulous space posteriorly.
Pterygoid : 18 to 24 ; anododont, seaphiodont ; posterior half
edentulous. Mandibular: 18 to 20; anododont, feebly
scaphiodont.

There is only one species, viz., diadema.

DOLICHODIRA DIADEMA (Gunther).

(Latin “ diadema ” a head dress, refers to the yellow
horseshoe mark on the crown.)
Gunther's Seasnake.

Synonymy.—H ydrophis stricticollis, H. obscurus, H. torquatus,
H. nigrocinctus, Distira lapemidoides, D. torquatus.

History.— Described and christened by Gunther in 1864 from
three specimens in the British Museum.

General Characters.—A snake of fair proportions, growing to
34 feet. Head small, elongate, not depressed. Snout long,
bluntly conical, projecting slightly downwards. Eye small.
Commissure of mouth shaped like an italic f. Neck not
apparent. Body cylindrical and very slender in about the
anterior two-fifths ; compressed and heavy in the posterior
three-fifths.

Identification.—The scale rows 30 to 41 two heads-lengths
behind the head, ventrals 374 to 460, taken with the juxta-
posed character of the scales on the compressed posterior part
of the body, will indicate the species.

Colouration.—Olivaceous dorsally, merging to yellowish
ventrally. Forty to» sixty-five well-defined black rings
encircle the body. These are about as broad as the intervals
at midcosta and expand somewhat vertebrally, but remain
discrete ventrally. They are sometimes interrupted in the
posterior part of the body, and tend to lose definition as age
advances. The head is black, with a more or less distinct
yellow horseshoe mark above, especially conspicuous in the

young.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. . 341]

Habits.—It is not unusual for it to come up tidal rivers
forty or fifty miles from the sea.

Food.—No special observations have been made concerning
its diet.

Breeding.—(a) Method of Reproduction: There is no
authentic information on this point.

(b) Season: My one gravid female had no date of capture
recorded.

(c) The Brood: A specimen from Burma contained nine
eges measuring 38 by 19 mm. (14 by ? of an inch). An egg
opened by me contained no trace of an embryo, but was
probably infertile.

Growth.—(a) The Young: The length of the young when
embarking on independent life is not known, but the type of
stricticollis (Gunther) in the British Museum is only 343 mm.
(1 foot 14 inch), and appears to be but recently born.

(6) Maturity: The gravid female above referred to was
1,055 mm. (3 feet 54 inches).

(c) Maximum Length : 1,055 mm. (3 feet 54 inches) is the
largest measurement I know of.

Poison.—Nothing known. No experiments have been
carried out, and no casualties are on record

Lepidosis.—(a) T'ypical—Rostral : Broader than deep ; the
portion visible above half to two-thirds the suture between
the nasals. Nasals: A single suture usually proceeds from
the nostril to the 2nd supralabial. Prefrontals : Touch the
2nd supralabials. Frontal : Entire ; longer than broad ; the
fronto-parietal sutures rather longer than the fronto-supra-
oculars. Supraoculars : Length two-thirds to three-fourths
the frontal; breadth two-thirds to three-fourths the frontal.
Parietals : Entire; touching the postoculars. Preoculars :
One. Posioculars: One. Temporals: One, well-developed
anterior, with sometimes a well-developed posterior. Supra-
labials : Seven or eight; the first four or five usually large,
the rest small; 1st and 2nd touching the nasals, 3rd and 4th
the eye. Sublinguals : Two pairs ; the fellows of the posterior
in contact or separated by one scale. IJnfralabials : Four ;
the suture between the first shorter than that between the

342 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

anterior sublinguals ; fourth laigest and in contact with three
or four scales behind. Cuneate: One between the 3rd and
4th infralabials.

> Hit om
Fre, 65.--Dolichodira diadema.

(x 2.)
D. Costals.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 343

Costals ; Longer than broad, and imbricate in the slender
anterior part of the body ; as broad as long, subimbricate or
juxtaposed in the posterior compressed part. A short keel
occupies about the median third of the scales. In 32 to 41
rows two heads-lengths behind the head ; 37 to 54 in midbody ;
and 34 to 46 two heads-lengths before the vent. Ventrals :
374 10 460 (305 1o 438, Boulenger) ; entire throughout ; nearly
twice the breadth of the last costals.

(b) Anomalies—Prefrontals: Do not touch the 2nd supra
labial on one side in one specimen. Postoculars: None on
one side in one specimen ; two and three on one side in two
others. Temporals : The anterior is broken up into two o1
three parts on one side in three examples. Supralabials : The
3rd, 4th, and 5th touch the eye on one side in four examples.
Cuneate : Rarely two after the 3rd, or more rarely still after
the 2nd infralabials.

- Dentition.—Detailed under the genus.

Distribution.—(a) General: Coasts from the Sunder-
bunds to Burma (Siam and Borneo, Boulenger).

(b) Local : I have examined seventeen examples apart from
those in the British Museum. There are no records from the
Coromandel Coast south of the Sunderbunds The British
Museum has a specimen from Sandheads, Hugli river, and
there are two others from the Hugli river in the Indian Museum.
I have had three from Chittagong and eight from the coasts
of Burma. Two in the British Museum are from the Pegu
Coast, and two others from the Bassein river. Gunther’s type
of stricticollis is labelled Bay of Bengal. One in the British
Museum is from the Siamese Coast and one from Borneo.

HYDROPHIS TORQUATUS Gunther.

This species, which is apparently very closely allied to dia-
dema, is based on five specimens in the British Museum.
Boulenger gives the habitat as ““ Bay of Bengal and Straits of
Malacea.”’ I have not included them in this work, as Gunther
says that four of these were collected by Cantor off the coast

344. SNAKES OF CEYLON.

of Penang. Further, | have never examined any snake from
the Indian Coasts that fits the description given by Boulenger
(Fauna Malay Penin, 1912, p. 190).

Genus ATURIA.

(Der. not known to me.)

General Characters.— Length rather small. One of the five
very slender-necked species. The diameter of the neck about
one-third to one-fourth that of the extreme depth posteriorly.

Cranial Osteological Characters.—Nasals : Sutured to pre-
frontals and frontal; as long as the frontal. Prefrontals :
Not meeting parietal or postfrontals. Frontal: As broad as
long ; meeting postfrontals at rim of orbit. Parietal : With
no keel inferiorly. Quadrate : Vertical; extreme length
superiorly, equal to its depth. Maazilla: Not extending
beyond palatine anteriorly, but extending beyond palatine
posteriorly. |

Dentition.— From two skulls in my collection. Mawzillary :
Postnodal, 5 to 6; isodont. Palatine: 7 to 8; anododont,
isodont ; no edentulous space posteriorly. Pterygoid : 8 to
10 ; anododont, isodont ; posterior half edentulous. Mandi
bular : 13 to 15; anododont, feebly scaphiodont.

There is only one species, viz., fasciata.

ATURIA FASCIATA (Schneider).

(Latin “fasciatus ’’ banded.)

Schneider's Seasnake.

Tamil: “ mijlagu kadyen” (pepper biter) (Henderson).*
Synonymy.—Hydrus fasciatus, Pelamis fasciatus, Hydrophis
gracilis, H. obscura, H. lindsaya, H. atriceps, H. melanocinctus,
H. cantoris, H. leptodira, H. brookvi, Aturia lindsayi, Disteira
fasciata, B. rhombifer.

* One of the snakes, I am told by Dr. Henderson, that the fishermen
about Madras attach this name to, the head being fancifully likened
to a peppercorn.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 345
History.— Described and christened by Schneider in 1799.

General Charaeters.—A rather small species, growing to 3
feet or slightly over. Head very small, elongate, not depressed.
Snout long, strongly declivous, subconical terminally. Eye
small. Commissure of mouth turned up posteriorly. Neck
not constricted. Body cylindrical and slender in about its
anterior two-fifths ; compressed and rather heavy in the
posterior three-fifths.

Identification—Known by the following features: The
round eccentric tubercle on the scales, scale rows 25 to 33
two heads-lengths behind the head, and 376 to 513
ventrals.

Colouration.—In this it resembles gracilis very closely.
Young specimens are olivaceous-green dorsally, this hue
merging to pale-gray or whitish ventrally. The body is
surrounded with from 48 to 71 well-defined black bands, which
are expanded vertebrally. In the slender forebody the bands
are extensively confluent vertebrally and ventrally, leaving
oval lateral islets of pale gray. As age advances the
definition of these bands reduces more and more and the
bands disappear ventrally, leaving in time only a series of
dorsal black rhombs. The head is entirely black in the
young, but in time, like the body bands, its intensity fades
considerably.

Habits.—There is nothing distinctive to remark upon.

Food.—No special observations have been made on the fish
furnishing its diet.

Breeding.—(a) The Sexes : Males have the tubercles on the
keels more pronounced than the females.

(b) Method of Reproduction : It is known to be viviparous.

(c) Season: A gravid female preserved in the Bombay
Natural History Society’s collection has no date of capture
recorded, nor is there a date available for Gunther’s type of
brookit. Two were procured for me at Madras, one between

346 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

June 20 and 30, the other on July 3, 1917. In both specimens
parturition appeared to be imminent.

(d) The Brood : Both my specimens just referred to con-
tained four sacs, the longest of which measured 70 mm. (22
inches). I have seen a third specimen which held two
sacs.

Growth.—(a) The Young: The eight unborn embryos
extracted from my two gravid females varied in length from
342 to 378 mm. (134 to 14% inches).

(d) Maturity: My gravid females measured respectively
915 and 953 mm. (3 feet and 3 feet 14 inches). A gravid
Madras specimen preserved in Bombay is 788 mm. (2 feet 7
inches).

(c) Maximum Length: Boulenger gives the longest
measurement in the British Museum as 1,000 mm. (3 feet 34
inches). Murray gives the length of a Karachi specimen
(H. lindsayt) as 1,042 mm. (3 feet 5 inches).

Poison.—No casualties referable to this snake have been
reported, and no experiments have been made with the venom.

Lepidosis.—(a) T'ypical—Rostral : Rather broader than
high ; not projected below the level of the lip ; visible portion
seen above half to three-fifths the suture between the nasals.
Nasals : If a suture proceeds from the nostril, it passes to the
2nd supralabial. Prefrontals : Touch the 2nd supralabial.
Frontal: Entire; longer than broad; the fronto-supra-
ocular sutures subequal to or rather longer than the fronto-
supraoculars. Parietals: Entire; touching the postocular.
Preocular : One. Postocular: One. Temporals: One large
anterior shield, succeeded by a large posterior, which is as
large or even larger. Supralabials : Six or seven, not subject
to division; the first five large; lst and 2nd touching the
nasals; 3rd and 4th the eye; 5th and 6th, or 5th, 6th, and 7th
the anterior temporal ; last not touching the posterior temporal.
Sublinguals : Two pairs, the fellows of each in contact with
one another. Jnfralabials : Four; the suture between the
Ist as Jong as or longer than that between the anterior
sublinguals ; 38rd or 4th touching the posterior sublinguals ; 4th

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 347

largest, touching 3 or 4 scales behind. Cuneate: One
between the 3rd and 4th infralabials. (Fig. 66.)

AS ps

O78.
O Cus Cos
Ey

D. ~ Costals.
50 6(6)20

348 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Costals : Longer than broad and imbricate on the slender
part of the body; about as long as broad, subimbricate or
juxtaposed on the compressed part; with a small, round,
slightly eccentric tubercle. In 25 to 33 rows two heads-lengths
behind the head ; 37 to 57 in midbody ; and 37 to 57 two heads-
lengths before the vent. Ventrals : 376 to 513.* Entire
everywhers, nearly twice the breadth of the last row. Anal :
Variable.

(b) Anomalies—Prefrontals : Rarely quite separated by
the anterior angle of the frontal as in the type of brookii ;
rarely fail to touch the 2nd supralabial, the preeocular meeting
the nasal. Postoculars: Rarely two. Temporals: The
anterior is rarely confluent with the subjacent supralabial
and so reaches the margin of the lip. The posterior rarely
touches the last supralabial ; very rarely divided, but I have
never seen this on both sides in one specimen. Sublinguals :
The fellows of the posterior pair rarely separated by one scale.
Cuneate - Sometimes two after the 2nd or 3rd infralabial.

Dentition.—Detailed under the genus.

Distribution.—(a) General: From the Malabar Coast of
India to New Guinea and China.

(6) Local : It is apparently extremely rare on the Malabar
side of India, for I can find only two records, viz., the specimen
so labelled in the British Museum and one mentioned by
Murray (lindsayr) from Karachi. There is no specimen in the
Bombay Natural History Society’s collection from that coast.
I have failed to get a specimen and there is no example in the
Trivandrum Museum. Thereisno record from Ceylon, and the
one specimen so labelled in the Colombo Museum and mentioned
by Haly proved to be a cyanocinctus. It is a fairly common
snake at Madras and all the way up the coast to the Sunder-
bunds. JI have seen one from Akyab, but none from the
Burmese Coast. The only records further East are the two
types of Gunther’s atriceps obtained through Jamrach, said to
be from Siam; Cantor’s one specimen labelled ‘‘ Penang” ;
the type of Boulenger’s rhombifer from Perak; the type of

* Not 531, as erroneously printed in my Monograph (p. 206).

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 349

Gunther’s brookw from Borneo; Bleeker’s two specimens
labelled ‘‘Malay Archipelago,’ with no exact locality specified ;
and the type of Gray’s lindsay: from China. Its favoured
haunt is, therefore, between Madras and Calcutta. I have
examined over forty specimens.

Genus LIOSELASMA.

(Greek “leios ” smooth, “ selas ”’ bright.)

General Characters.—Length moderate to long. Body
moderately attenuated anteriorly, the diameter about two-
fifths to one-third the extreme depth posteriorly.

Cranial Osteological Characters.—Nasals : Sutured to pre-
frontals and frontal; longer than frontal. Prefrontals :
Meeting parietal and pcstfrontals. Frontal: As broad as
long; not meeting postfrontal at rim of orbit. Parietal :
Not or but feebly keeled inferiorly. Quadrate : Oblique
from above backwards; extreme length superiorly three-
fourths to four-fifths its depth. Maailla: Not extending
beyond palatine anteriorly; extending beyond palatine
posteriorly.

Dentition—From three species. Maxillary: Postnodal,
6 to 10; isodont. Palatine: 5 to 9; anododont, isodont ; no
edentulous space posteriorly. Pterygoid : 12 to 21; anodo-
dont, isodont, or feebly scaphiodont ; posterior two-fifths
edentulous. Mandibular: 13 to 20; anododont, feebly
scaphiodont.

There are four species, viz., spiralis, cyanocincta, bituber-
culata, and mamillaris.

LiosELASMA MAMILLARIS (Daudin).

p)

(Latin “mamilla”’ a breast. The small central tubercle on
each scale reminds one of the nipple on a breast.)
The Broad Banded Seasnake.

Telugu: ““tatta pam” (Russell), should be “‘ thatta pam ”’
(flat snake).
Synonymy.—Anguis mamillaris, Hydrophis fasciata.

350 SNAKES OF CEYLON

History.—Daudin’s name given in 1802 refers to Plate
XLIV. of Russell’s first volume.*

General Characters.—A rather small snake, growing to about
24 feet. Head small, elongate, not depressed. Snout
moderate in length, slightly projecting, declivous, obtusely
rounded terminally. Eye rather small. Commissure of
mouth slightly turned up behind. Neck not contracted.
Body slender and cylindrical in its anterior two-fifths ;
compressed and rather heavy in the posterior three-fifths ;
the greatest depth being three or four times that of the
slender anterior part.

Identification.—The following syndrome will establish its
identity: Scales with around eccentric tubercle, costal rows two
heads-lengths behind the head 25 to 29, and from 316 to 367
ventrals. The breadth of the black bands, which are broader
than the inter-spaces at midcosta, will afford a useful clue to
its identity, as no other Indian seasnake has bands so broad.

Colouration.—The body is yellowish or grayish, encircled
by from 40 to 56 (58 Russell) broad black bands. These bands
are broader than the intervals at midcosta, expand but are not
confluent vertebrally, and are extensively confluent ventrally.
In some old specimens the bands become obliterated ventrally,
and converted into bars, which are well defined and retain
their definition in adult life. The head is entirely black, or
may exhibit some obscure yellow postocular mottling. The
tail is black, with from one to six or more light rings inter-
rupted ventrally.

* The identity of the snake therein represented is, in my opinion,
a matter of conjecture. The data in the description are insufficient to
establish its identity, and would equally fit fasciatus or gracilis. The
figure too might represent either of these two species. Possibly the
breadth of the bands led both Gunther and Boulenger to identify the
snake with the species now known under the name of mamillaris. It
is unfortunate that the subject from which the plate was drawn has
been lost sight of. In the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons,
where Russell’s collection was originally deposited, I found a specimen
of mamillaris (No. 521 C.) without history, but it is evidently not the
subject of the plate referred to, as it has 47 bands on the hody and the
tail is wholly black. Russell’s description says the snake had 58 light
hands, and the plate shows light bands in the whole length of the tail.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. ook

Habits.—There is nothing known that calls for special
remark,

Food.—No special observations have been made on its diet.

Breeding.— (a) Season : This is not known, the one gravid
female known to me having no record of its date of capture.
(6) Method of Reproduction : Definitely known to be vivi-
parous.
_(c) Period of Gestation : Not known.

(d) The Brood : The single gravid female on record contained
three embryos and one unfertilized egg. The birth of the
young appeared imminent, as none had the genitalia pro-
truding (unless all were females). They measured from 305
to 307 mm. (12 to 124 inches).

Growth.—(a) The Young: The exact length of the young
at birth is not known.

(6) Maturity: The gravid specimen above alluded to was
832 mm. (2 feet 8? inches) in length.

(c) Maximum Length: 832 mm. (2 feet 8% inches) is the
longest measurement I know.

Poison.—Nothing known.

Lepidosis.— Except for the posterior labials and temporals,
the lepidosis of the head is remarkably constant.

(a) Typical—Rostral: The portion visible above is from half
to three-fifths the suture between the nasals. Nasals : Sutures
usually radiate from the nostril to the prefrontal and the 2nd
supralabial. Prefrontals: Touch the 2nd_ supralabial.
Frontal: Longer than broad; the fronto-parietal sutures
rather longer than the fronto-supraoculars. Parietals :
Entire ; touching the upper postoculars. Prezocular : One.
Postoculars: Two. Temporals: Small and very variable, not
deserving recognition as such. Sometimes one well-developed
anterior, more often two or three, small scales. Supralabials :
Seven ; the first four entire, the posterior subject to division ;
1st and 2nd touching the nasals; 3rd and 4th the eye. Sub-
linguals : Two pairs ; the fellows of each in contact with one
another. Infralabials : Four; the suture between the Ist
shorter than that between the anterior sublinguals; 4th

352 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

largest, and touching three or four scales behind. Cuneate :
One between the 3rd and 4th infralabials. (Fig. 67.)

Fic. 67.—Lioselasma mamillaris.
(ex 2h)
D. Costals.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. SR

Costals : Longer than broad and imbricate on the slender
anterior part of the body ; as broad as long, hexagonal and
juxtaposed on the compressed posterior part; with a slightly
eccentric tubercle on each scale. In 25 to 29 rows two heads-
lengths behind the head; 31 to 40 in midbody; and 34 to 41
two heads-lengths before the vent. Ventrals: 316 to 367
(287 Boulenger) ; nearly twice the breadth of the last costal
rows in the whole body length. Anal: Variable.

(b) Anomalies—Cuneate: Sometimes two after the 3rd
infralabial ; absent on one side in one example.

Dentition.— Maxillary : Postnodal, 7 to 10.* Palatine: 5.
Pterygoid : 20 to 21. Mandibular : 19 to 20.

Distribution.—(a) General: Coasts of Peninsular India.

(b) Local: The subject of Russell’s Plate XLIV., the
identity of which I hold as dubious, was killed at Vizagapatam.
The point, however, is not an important one, as the British
Museum possesses another specimen from Vizagapatam pre-
sented by Colonel Beddome. Every other specimen known
to me was killed in the immediate vicinity of Bombay, It is
apparently a rare snake. I have only seen eight examples,
including those in the British Museum. ‘The specimen in
the Indian Museum, referred to by me in my Monograph
(No. 13,392), from the Bay of Bengal, on a more critical exami-
nation, I now consider an unusual cyanocincta.

LIOSELASMA SPIRALIS (Shaw).t

(Greek “ speira ” a wreath or coil.)

The Narrow Banded Seasnake.

Tamil: “ kadel nagam” (seasnake) about Madras, and
“ kadel pambu ” (seasnake) on the Malabar Coast.

* I have counted these in several specimens.

+ My conception of the species as herein presented is based on a
study of well over sixty specimens from Indian Coasts (v.e., Persian
Gulf to Tenasserim), I have not incorporated any of the many species
of other authors from further East, the validity of which I gave
reasons in my Monograph (Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,
1909) Sor doubting.

354 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Synonymy.—Hydrus spiralis, Enhydris spiralis, Hydrophis
nigrocinctus, H. robusta, H. rappiu, H. temporalis, H. bishopi,
H, sublevis, H. alcocki, H. cyanocincta, Chitulia fasciata,
Distira robusta, D. brugmansi.

History.—The type which is in the British Museum is a
young specimen, one of Russell’s collection, labelled “ Indian
Ocean.” It was probably obtained on the Coromandel Coast,
like all Russell’s other specimens. It was christened by
Shaw in 1802.

General Characters.—The largest of the seasnakes, growing
exceptionally to 8 and 9 feet. Head moderately large and
broad, little, if at all, depressed. Snout rather long, declivous,
broadly rounded and hardly projecting terminally. Hye
small. Nostril moderate in size. Commissure of mouth
much turned up posteriorly. Neck not or hardly apparent.
Body unusually elongate, cylindrical, and moderately robust
in about the anterior two-fifths ; moderately compressed
and robust in the posterior three-fifths.

Identification.—The costals imbricate everywhere, and with
a round central tubercle, in 25 to 31 rows two heads-lengths
behind the head, and 29 to 36 at the greatest girth will dis-
tinguish this from other seasnakes. I find a reliable method
is to count the scale rows two heads-lengths behind the head
and two heads-lengths before the vent. The posterior count
only exceeds the anterior by from two to six. The narrow
bands will attract attention, and suggest the identity of the
species.

Colouration.—The head in the young is black, with a more
or less distinct yellow horseshoe mark on the crown. The
black fades as age advances, and the head may ultimately
become a light olivaceous, with obscure yellow mottlings,
or may be suffused with pink. The body is olivaceous
dorsally, merging to yellow ventrally, and is adorned with
from 34 to 70 black bands or bars. These bands are very
variable. In most examples they are half or less than half
the intervals at midcosta, In some they are of even

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 355.

breadth, in some dilated vertebrally, in others they taper
ventrally. Some of the posterior are sometimes interrupted
costally. In some the black is preserved for a variable
extent dorsally, and becomes almost obsolescent ventrally.
In some the bands are discrete vertebrally and ventrally,
and in others they become more or less confluent
vertebrally, and more or less connected by a broad stripe
ventrally. The various colour varieties may be grouped as
follows :—

A.—Bands complete throughout.

(1) brugmansi (Boie); vel. bishopi (Murray). With
bands narrower than the interspaces and uncon-
nected vertebrally. No vertebral nor ventral
spots in the intervals. Very analogous to variety
B of cyanocincta. One of the commonest
varieties.

(2) spiralis (Shaw). Differing from the last only in
exhibiting one or more single vertebral spots
in the interspaces. There are usually only a few
such spots anteriorly and posteriorly, but rarely
there is a complete series. A fairly common
variety.

(3) Similar to the last, with, in addition, black spots
in some of the interspaces ventrally. It is a fairly
common variety. I have seen three specimens in
the Colombo Museum. In No. 113 both the verte-
bral and ventral spots form a complete series. Two
out of the three specimens in the Madras Museum
were of this variety, but neither the vertebral nor
ventral series were complete.

(4) With bands nearly as broad or broader than
the light interspaces, more or less connected,
especially anteriorly, by a ventral stripe. Very
analogous to variety A (1) of cyanocincta, Rather
uncommon,

51 6(6)Z0

356 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

B.—An intermediate form between A and C, has complete
bands anteriorly and dorsal bars posteriorly. It
may be compared to variety A (3) of cyanocincta.
It is a rare form, a good example of which is in the
British Museum, presented by Dr. Henderson from
Madras.

C.—With dorsal bars throughout and no intermediate
vertebral spots. It may be compared to variety D
of cyanocincta. It is a rare form, of which I have
seen examples from Karachi and Bombay. With
this I would place the temporalis of Blanford.

Habits.—It is a strong and active swimmer, and from its
size might prove to be a very disagreeable foe to encounter in
the water. Evans and I had one from Moungmya about
fifty miles up the river.

Food.—It feeds on fish that have an elongate eel-like con-
formation. Those I have found in the stomach appeared to
be the same as those submitted by me to Dr. J. R. Henderson
extracted from the stomachs of gracilis. ‘These were pro-
nounced murenids of the genus Ophichthys, either boro or
orsentalis (McClelland).

Breeding.—(a) The Sexes: Males appear to be more
numerous than females. In the two broods mentioned below,
where the young could be sexed, there were fifteen males to
six females. I have examined the foetuses of three broods
critically and find there is no disparity in the length of the
sexes before birth. In the females the costals are consistently
slightly more numerous than in the males, and the ventrals
are usually more numerous than in males. The median
tubercles on the scales are rather more pronounced in males
even before birth.

The genitalia of the males are subcylindrical organs, slightly
increasing in girth distally. They are studded with minute,
closely-set villous processes in the foetus all directed towards

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 357

the base of the organ. A median raphe passes up the back,
and bifurcates just at the tip, each limb surrounding a small
blunt little lobule, somewhat triangular in form.

(6) Method of Reproduction : It is viviparous in habit.

(c) Season: A gravid female obtained by me in Colombo
on January 24, 1920, contained embryos varying from 342 to
367 mm. (134 to 144 inches). The male genitalia were still
exserted. These would probably have been born in February,
Dr. Henderson acquired a gravid female in Madras on June 1,
1910. The embryos varied from 267 to 292 mm. (104 to 114
inches), and it is quite likely these would not have been born
till August. Another gravid female killed in Madras on
June 10, 1911, held embryos varying from 393 to 410 mm.
(154 to 164 inches). The male genitalia were not exserted.
These would have been born very shortly, probably in
June.

(2d) The Brood : A Madras specimen contained five embryos
that could not be sexed. My Colombo specimen held seven
foetuses, two females and five males. Dr. Henderson’s dam
contained fourteen young, ten of which were males and four
females.

Growth.—(a) The Young: There are no records of exact
measurements at birth, but the fact that I found unborn
young with no genitalia visible that measured 393 to 410 mm.
(154 to 164 inches) makes it probable that the young are about
405 mm. (16 inches) long when born. Four specimens in the
British Museum presented by Sir J. McGrigor are probably
foetuses. They measure from 380 to 403 mm. (15 to 16
inches). It seems unlikely that all these should have been
captured after birth, and there is no history to throw any
light on the subject. They are labelled from the “ Indian
Ocean.”

(6) Harly Infe: Iam unable from my records to follow the
growth.

358 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

(c) Maturity: The three dams known to me measured
1,550, 1,727, and 2,516 mm., respectively (5 feet 1 inch, 5 feet
8 inches, and 8 feet 3 inches).

(d) Maximum Length: Most adults range between 1,370
and 1,675 mm. (44 to 54 feet). Two specimens of robusta in
the British Museum are reported by Gunther to be 1,830 mm.
(6 feet) long. Specimens over 1,830 mm. (6 feet) are unusual.
The measurements of Dr. Henderson’s giant specimen are
exceeded by a specimen which, with an element of doubt,
I refer to this species, killed by Mr. Stone, the first Officer on
the P. & O. “‘ Arcadia,” off Penang (Bombay Nat. Hist.
Journal, Vol. X XII., p. 403). This measured in life 2,745 mm.
(9 feet). The dried skin submitted to me for examination
measured 2,675 mm. (8 feet 9 inches). Such a specimen may
well have been the foundation of the story of “ the seasnake.”’

Poison.—Nothing is known of the toxicity of this venom.
No human casualties have been reported, and the poison has
not been investigated in the laboratory.

Lepidosis.—(a) T'ypical—Rosiral : Broader than deep ; the
portion visible above half to two-thirds the suture between
the nasals. Nasals: A suture usually from the nostril to
the 2nd supralabial. Prezfrontals: Touch the 2nd supra-
labials. Frontal: Entire; longer than broad; the fronto-
parietal sutures subequal to or rather longer than the fronto-
supraoculars. Supraoculars: Length two-thirds to three-
fourths the frontal; breadth two-thirds to three-fourths the
frontal. Parietals: Entire. Preoculars: One. Postoculars :
One. Zemporals: One anterior, usually confluent with the
subjacent supralabial and so reaching the border of the lip ;
frequently succeeded by one of nearly equal size. Supra-
labials : Seven to eight ; the anterior four, five, or six, entire ;
the rest small. The lst and 2nd touch the nasals ; 3rd and
4th the eye. Sublinguals: Two well-developed pairs, the
fellows of each in contact. Jnfralabials : Four ; the suture
between the first shorter than that between the anterior
sublinguals ; 4th largest and in contact with three or four

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 359

scales behind. Cuneate: One between the third and fourth
infralabials. (Fig. 68.)

A
if oe
pS
DL
Je
mi PS C
Nye

o : D
Ege
Fic. 68 —Lioselasma spiralis. (Life size.)

D. Costals.

Costals : Longer than broad and imbricate in the anterior
eylindrical part of the body ; about as broad as long and
imbricate or subimbricate on the compressed posterior part.

360 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

With a round central tubercle, which is visible in both sexes
before birth, if viewed under a lens. In from 27 to 31 rows
two heads-lengths behind the head (25 in my type of alcockz) ;
30 to 36 in midbody ; 27 to 36 two heads-lengths before the
vent. (Posteriorly they are two or three more or less than
in midbody, and two to six more than anteriorly.) Ventrals :
282 to 373 (282 in my type of alcockz), entire throughout ;
nearly twice the breadth of the last costal rows.

(6) Anomalies—Prefrontals : Sometimes fail to meet the
2nd supralabial. Postoculars : Sometimes two. Temporals :
The anterior is sometimes broken up into'two. The posterior
is more frequently not well developed, but replaced by small
scales. Supralabials: Rarely six; sometimes the fifth, as
well as the third and fourth, touches the eye. Sometimes
the sixth labial is distinct from the anterior temporal. Sub-
linguals : The posterior pair sometimes separated by a single
scale. Cuneate : Sometimes two after the third infralabial.

Costals : Rarely juxtaposed posteriorly.

Dentition.— From four skulls in my collection. Mazillary :
Postnodal,* 6 to 7; scaphiodont; grooved on their antero-
external faces. Palatine: 6 to 7 ; anododont, isodont ; no
edentulous space posteriorly. Pterygoid : 12 to 14; anododont,
feebly scaphiodont ; posterior two-fifths edentulous. Mandi-
bular: 13 to 16; anododont, scaphiodont; very feebly
grooved on their antero-external faces.

Distribution.—(a) General: Persian Gulf to Tenasserim
(Malay Archipelago, Boulenger). .

(6) Local: It is fairly abundant in the Persian Gulf and
along the coast to Karachi. It is apparently uncommon on
the Malabar Coast, the only records I can find being one in
the British Museum presented by Beddome, and one in the
Bombay collection from Bombay. I have seen at least eight
specimens from Ceylon. On the Coromandel Coast it is
common. I obtained nine examples out of 192 seasnakes
from Madras in 1917, and there are many in the Indian
Museum from this coast up to Puri. It is seemingly rather
uncommon on the Burmese Coast. Evans and I got two-
from Pegu and Moungmya, and there is one in the Indian

* I have examined these in well over a dozen examples.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 361

Museum from Mergui. There is one in the British Museum
from Penang collected by Cantor.

LIOSELASMA CYANOCINCTA (Daudin).
(Greek “‘ kuanos” dark blue, and Latin “cinctus” a girdle.)
The Chittul.

(?) Bengals : “ chittul ”’ (Russell).

Synonymy.—Hydrophis tuberculata, H. dayanus, H. sub-
annulata, H. aspera, H. crassicollis, H. trachyceps, H. phipsoni,
H. westermanni, H. doliata, H. frontalis, H. sublevs, H.
taprobanica, Hydrus, straitus, H. cyanocinctus, Enhydris
striatus, H. cyanocinctus, Leioselasma striata, D. tuberculata,
D. lapemidoides, D. mamillaris, Chitulia fasciata.

History.—Figured by Russell in Plate IX. of his second
volume (1801), and a specimen in the British Museum col-
lected by him is, I believe, the type. Christened by Daudin
in 1803.

General Characters.—A fine species attaiming to 6 or 7
feet. Head moderately broad, slightly depressed. Snout
rather long, slightly projecting, broadly rounded terminally.
Eye small. Commissure of mouth turned up behind. Neck
not or hardly apparent. Body cylindrical and of moderate
girth in the anterior two-fifths ; robust and compressed in
the posterior three-fifths ; the extreme depth being three times
or less than three times the depth of the anterior part of the
body.

Identification.—Attention must be directed to many
features. ‘The costals are in 27 to 36 rows two heads-lengths
behind the head ; 38 to 49 at the greatest girth, with bidentate
keels. The ventrals 296 to 398. Most specimens will be
known by the 3rd, 4th, and 5th supralabials touching the
eye; but this character is not constant. Again, there is
usually a complete series of cuneate scales behind the 2nd
infralabiall.

Colouration.—In young the head is black, with a more or-
less distinct yellow horseshoe mark on the crown ; but with -
advancing age the black fades, and ultimately the head
becomes pale olivaceous. The body is olivaceous dorsally,

362 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

merging to yellow ventrally, and is variously adorned with
from 41 to 70 black bands or bars, which expand vertebrally
The various colour varieties may be grouped as follows :—

A.-— With well-defined black bands more or less connected
ventrally. Analogous to variety A (4) of spiralis.

(1) All the bands complete. A common form ranging
from the Persian Gulf to Tenasserim.

(2) Some of the posterior bands interrupted costally
or subcostally. Not uncommon from the Persian
Gulf to Tenasserim.

(3) Some of the posterior bands deficient ventrally
and converted into bars. Analogous to variety
B of spiralis.

B.—With well-defined black bands not united ventrally.
Analogous to variety brugmans: of spiralis. A com
mon form from the Persian Gulf to Tenasserim.

C.—With obscure bands or bars. Usually seen in old adults.
A common form from the Persian Gulf to Tenasserim.

D.—With well-defined dorsal bars throughout. Comparable
to variety C of spiralis. Common from the Persian
Gulf to Tenasserim.

E.—phipsont (Murray). With a continuous black dorsal
band. Comparable to varieties 7nornata of ornata and
jayakari of viperina. Known from a single specimen
from Bombay, viz., the type in the British Museum.

Habits.—An illustration of its prehensile powers came to my
notice in 1916, when a lascar on the Hospital ship ‘‘ Madras ”
was heaving the lead at the head of the Persian Gulf. The
lascar was much dismayed on landing the lead on deck to
find a chittul had wreathed itself found it. The specimen
was killed and given to me. |

Food.—The diet has not been specially investigated.

Breeding.—(a) The Sexes: There is nothing special to
remark upon. They seem to be evenly balanced and to
acquire similar lengths. In the male the keels are rougher
and more deeply dentated. ‘The male clasper is beset with
recurved. processes and is bifid only at the extreme tip.

(6) Method of Reproduction ; It is known to be viviparous,

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 363

(c) Season : No dates are available for the Indian gravid
specimens I have examined.

(d) The Brood : The three prospective mothers investigated
by me contained three, eight, and nine embryos, respectively.
Another specimen recorded by Fayrer contained sixteen young.

Growth.—(a) The Young: I have extracted unborn em-
bryos varying from 356 to 381 mm. (14 to 15 inches in length)
from one mother which appeared to be on the eve of birth.

(6) Harly Infe: I have omitted in my notes to record
lengths, and the large material that has passed through my
hands yields no recorded notes that will allow me to make
any inductions.

(c) Maturity: The smallest Indian pregnant specimen I
have investigated was 889 mm. (2 feet 11 inches).

(d) Maximum Length: Average adults range between
about 1,220 and 1,525 mm. (4 and 5 feet). The largest
example in the British Museum is 1,474 mm. (4 feet 10 inches).
I have seen one in the Colombo Museum, 1,790 mm. (5 feet
104 inches). Murray says it grows to 2,135 mm. (7 feet).

Poison.— Russell caused his specimen, which was 1,525 mm.
(5 feet) long, to bite a fowl, with the result that death ensued
in eight minutes. No casualties are on record, and the
poison has not been submitted to laboratory tests.

Lepidosis.—(a) T'ypical—Rostral : Broader than high ; the
portion visible above half to two-thirds the suture between
the nasals. Nasals : A suture usually passes from the nostril
to the 2nd supralabial. Prefrontals : Touch the 2nd supra-
labials. Frontal: Entire; longer than broad; the fronto-
parietal sutures longer than the fronto-supraoculars. Supra-
oculars: Length two-thirds to three-fourths the frontal ;
breadth two-thirds to three-fourths the frontal. Parietals :
Entire ; touching the upper postoculars. Prezoculars: One.
Postoculars: Two. Temporals: Two small scales super-
imposed anteriorly. Swpralabials: Seven or eight; very
variable ; the first four or five usually large, the rest small,
all from the third backwards are very prone to division ; Ist
and 2nd touching the nasals; 3rd, 4th, and 5th the eye. Sub-
linguals : Two pairs ; the fellows of both in contact with one
another. Jnfralabials: Five; 3rd and 4th subequal and

52 6(6)20

364 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

largest; the suture between the Ist shorter than that between
the anterior sublinguals ; the 5th touching three or four scales
behind. Cuneate: A complete series behind the second
infralabial. (Fig. 69.)

Kia. 69.—Lioselasma cyanocincta.
(Life size.)

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 365

Costals : Longer than broad and imbricate on the anterior
part of the body ; about as broad as long, imbricate, subim-
bricate, or juxtaposed on the posterior compressed part ; with
short, unequally bi- or tri-dentate keels occupying about the
median third of each scale ; the posterior tooth smaller than
the anterior. In 27 to 36 rows two heads-lengths behind the
head ; 33 to 44 in midbody ; and 34 to 43 two heads-lengths
before the vent. Ventrals: 296 to 398 (281 to 385, Boulenger) ;
entire throughout ; nearly twice as broad as the last costals.

(b) Anomahes—Nasals : Rarely sutures from the nostril
detach a fragment which forms a pseudo-loreal. Prefrontals :
Rarely these fail to meet the 2nd supralabials. I have no
record of this deviation bilaterally. Preoculars: A divided
third supralabial creates a pseudo lower preocular occasion-
ally. Postoculars: Rarely one; a divided 4th or 5th supra-
labial creates a pseudo third postocular. T'emporals : Some-
times there is a large anterior shield ; a divided 6th supra-
_ labial may create a pseudo third anterior temporal. Swpra-
labials : Subject to much variation. Sometimes only the
3rd and 4th touch the eye, or the 3rd and 5th, the 4th being
represented by a cuneate shield. A confluence of parts of the
ord, 4th, and 5th again leads to many anomalies. Sublinguals :
Sometimes the fellows of the posterior pair are completely
separated by a scale. Cumneate: Rarely the series begins
after the 3rd infralabial, and more rarely only one shield
occurs between the 3rd and 4th infralabials.

Costals : The keels are sometimes in places tridentate.

Dentition.—From three skulls in my collection from
Baluchistan and Madras. Mawzillary: Postnodal, 6 to 10.*
Palatine: 7to9. Pterygoid: 15%019. Mandibular: 16 to 17.

Distribution.—(a) General: From the Persian Gulf to
China, Japan, and Papuasia.

(6) Local: It is probably the commonest seasnake from
the Persian Gulf to Baluchistan. It is one of the commonest
hydrophids on both the Malabar and Coromandel Coasts of

*“ I have examined these in over twenty specimens.

366 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

India. I saw four good examples in the Colombo Museum,
of Ceylon origin. Itis apparently a rare snake on the Burmese
Coast. Evans and I failed to get a specimen, and there was
no example in the Indian Museum from this locality when
I examined the collection in 1914. There appears to be no
record from the Andamans. One specimen in the British
Museum is from Mergui.

I have dealt herein with the species as I know it trom
Indian Coasts exclusively ; purposely avoiding all reference
to several species that have been described by various authors
from waters east of Tenasserim, which I showed in my Mono-
graph were not, in my opinion, entitled to rank as species
distinct from cyanocincta.

LIOSELASMA LAPEMIDOIDES (Gray).

This species recognized as such by Boulenger, I cannot
dissociate from cyanocincta (Daudin). The only important
difference I can discover in Boulenger’s descriptions of the
two is that the scales in cyanocincta are imbricate posteriorly,
whilst those in lapemidoides are juxtaposed. In at least one
other hydrophid, viz., fasciata (Schneider), Boulenger him-
self recognizes that the scales posteriorly are imbricate, sub-
imbricate, or juxtaposed. I have examined all the specimens
labelled cyanocincta and lapemidoides in the British Museum
side by side, and cannot separate them. I have entered in
my notebook, against Lort Phillips’s specimen in the British
Museum labelled cyanocincta, the remark ‘“ scales almost
juxtaposed.”’ I append, however, Boulenger’s own des-
cription of lapemidoides.

“ Head rather small; body elongate, slender anteriorly,
diameter of the neck two-fifths to one-third the greatest depth.
Rostral slightly broader than deep ; nasals shorter than the
frontal, more than twice as long as the suture between the
preefrontals ; frontal much longer than broad, as long as or
a little shorter than its distance from the end of the snout,
shorter than the parietals ; one pree- and two or three post-
oculars ; eight upper labials, second largest, third and fourth

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 367

entering the eye; two or three superimposed anterior tem-
porals ; two pairs of subequal chin shields in contact, or
posterior separated by one scale. 30 to 33* scales round the
neck, 43 to 47} round the body; scales rhomboidal and subim-
bricate on the neck, hexagonal and juxtaposed on the body ; of
young smooth, of adult female with a feeble tubercle or keel, of
adult male with a strong spinose tubercle. Ventrals distinct
throughout, 300 to 387. Young yellowish or grayish olive
above, white beneath, with complete black rings which are
broadest on the back ; head black, with an angular yellow
(vermilion) band above the apex on the snout; tail black,
with light vertical bands at the base. In the adult the bands
become more obsolete and are not continued across the body,
and the head is uniform olive brown.

** Total length 940 mm., tail 90.
“Coasts of Baluchistan, India, and Ceylon.”

Four of these specimens are from Ceylon, one from Madras,
one from Orissa, and one from Gwadar, Baluchistan.

LIOSELASMA BITUBERCULATA (Peters).

(Latin “ bis ” twice, and “‘ tuberculatus ”’ with a boss,
referring to the tubercles on the scales.)

Peters’ Seasnake.

Known from a single specimen described by Peters in 1872,
which is deposited in the Berlin Museum. It appears to be
very closely allied to cyanocincta (Daudin).

General Characters.—A snake of fair proportions growing to
over 3 feet. Head and general habit seemingly very like
cyanocincta.

Identification.— Will be recognized by the following features :
The bidentate keels on the scales, the costal rows two heads-
lengths behind the head 28, and in midbody 47.

_ * TI count these in the same specimens two heads-lengths behind the
head 31 to 37. ;
+ I count them 40 to 49.

368 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Growth.—The !ength is reported to be 1,000 mm. (3 feet
34 inches).

Lepidosis.—ostral : The portion visible above two-thirds
the suture between the nasals. Nasals; A single suture from
the nostril to the 2nd supralabials. Prefrontals : Touching the
2nd supralabials. Frontal: Entire ; longer than broad ; the
fronto-parietal sutures rather longer than the fronto-supra-
oculars. Supraoculars: Length four-fifths the frontal ;
breadth two-thirds the frontal. Parietals : Entire ; touching
the upper postoculars. Preocular: One. Postoculars : Two.
Temporals : One large anterior, succeeded by a subequal
posterior. Supralabials : Seven ; the first five large ; 1st and
2nd touching the nasals ; 3rd and 4th the eye. Sublinguals :
Two well-developed pairs, the posterior separated by one scale.
Infralabials : Four ; the suture between the first as long as
that between the anterior sublinguals; 4th largest, and
touching three or four scales behind. Cuneate : One between
the 3rd and 4th infralabials.

Costals : Longer than broad and imbricate anteriorly ;
subimbricate or juxtaposed posteriorly ; with short, median,
bidentate keels. In 28 rows two heads-lengths behind the
head, and 47 in midbody (I was informed by Herr Tornier,
the Superintendent of the Zoological Museum, Berlin, in 1907).
Ventrals : 278; nearly twice the breadth of the last costal rows.

Distribution.—Colombo, Ceylon.

Genus CHITULIA.

(Latinized form of the vernacular name ‘‘ chittul.’’)

General Characters.—Length moderate. Habit robust.
Body moderately attenuated anteriorly, the diameter being
about half to three-fifths that of the extreme depth posteriorly.

Cranial Osteological Characters.—Nasals : Sutured to pre-
frontals and frontal; longer than frontal. Prefrontals :
Meeting parietals and postfrontals. Frontal: As broad as
long ; not (?) meeting postfrontal at rim of orbit. Parietal :
Not keeled inferiorly. Quadrate : Oblique from above back-
wards ; extreme length superiorly four-fifths its depth.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 369

Manilla : Not extending beyond palatine anteriorly ; extend-
ing beyond palatine posteriorly.

Dentition.—From one skull in my collection. Mazillary :
Postnodal, 9 to 11;* feebly scaphiodont. Palatine : 8;
anododont, isodont; no edentulous space _ posteriorly.
Pierygoid : 21 to 22 ; anododont, feebly scaphiodont ; posterior
third edentulous. Mandibular: 18 to 20; anododont,
scaphiodont.

There is one species, viz., ornata.

CHITULIA ORNATA (Gray).

(Latin “ ornata ”’ adorned.)

Gray's Seasnake.

Synonymy.—Aturia ornata, Chitulia inornata, Hydrophis
ocellata, H. striatus, H. schlegeh, H. levis, H. ellioti, Thalas-
sophis schlegelii, Distira ornata, D. andamanica.

History.—First described and christened by Gray in 1842,
from a young specimen which is the type, and preserved in
the British Museum.

General Characters.—A species of respectable proportions
and robust habit growing to about 4 feet. Head moderately
elongate, slightly depressed. Snout moderately long,
declivous, obtusely rounded terminally. Eye moderate.
Commissure of mouth turned up posteriorly. Neck slightly
if at all apparent. Body anteriorly cylindrical and robust ;
posteriorly compressed and rather heavy ; the extreme depth
being twice or less than twice the depth anteriorly.

Identification.—The following syndrome will determine its
identity : Scale rows 33 to 41 two heads-lengths behind the
head, 38 to 46 at the extreme girth ; ventrals 218 to 290 ;
the eccentric tubercle; and the absence of any cuneate
shield.

oe ~ — ——+—-——— = - = ~— —

* [ have examined these in many specimens,

370 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Colouration.—The head is dark olivaceous, uniform or with
some obscure yellowish mottling. The body, which is dorsally
dark olivaceous, merging to whitish ventrally, is adorned
with from 41 to 45 black bars or bands, the arrangement of
which is variable. The various colour varieties may be
grouped as follows :—

A.-—With complete bands which taper ventrally, and may
be incomplete ventrally in the posterior part of the
body. It is comparable to varieties A of viperina,
spiralis, and cyanocincta. Apparently rare. I na
seen a specimen from Karwar.

B.—typica (Gray). With dorsal bars, which are diseee
and broader than the intervals. Analogous to varieties
C of viperina and spiralis, and D of cyanocincta.
The usual Indian form. Three of the four specimens
in the Colombo Museum are of this variety.

C.—Like the last, only the bars are modified into rhombs,
the angles of which are confluent or nearly so vertebrally.
Uncommon.

D.—Like typica, but with lateral bars or large spots alter-
nating with the dorsal bars. Not very uncommon. A
specimen in the British Museum from Madras was
presented by Jerdon. J examined a Ceylon example in
the Colombo Museum, and there is a good specimen in
the Indian Museum from the Burmese coast, presented
by Captain Lloyd.

EK.—inornata (Gray). With a continuous, broad, black,
dorsal stripe as though the bars of typica were
completely confluent. This stripe is sharply-defined
above midcosta. It is exactly analogous to varieties
jayakart of wiperina, and phipson of cyanocincta.
Uncommon. Gray’s type is from the Indian Ocean,
and another in the British Museum presented by Kempe
is labelled “ India.”

Habits.—There is nothing special to remark.

Food.—No observations have been made on the species of
tish forming its special diet.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 371

Breeding.—(a) The Sexes ; I have observed no peculiarities
distinctive of either sex.

(b) Method of Reproduction : Presumably viviparous like
other hydrophids, but there is no definite evidence to support
this view. 3

(c) Season: A juvenile specimen captured in Madras on
June 29 appeared to be very recently born.
(d) Period of Gestation : Not known.

Growth.—(a) The Young: No gravid female has been
recorded. The smallest specimen I know of, which appeared
to be very recently born, was 375 mm. (1 foot 22 inches) in
length.

(b) Maximum Length : The largest specimen I know is that
recorded by Gunther for H. elliott, viz., 1,245 mm. (4 feet
1 inch).

Poison.—Nothing known. No casualties have been recorded,
and the poison has not been submitted to laboratory tests.

Lepidosis.—The shielding of the head is subject to unusual
variation, and the ranges of the costals and ventrals are
considerable.

(a) T'ypical—Rostral : Rather broader than deep; the
portion visible above from half to three-fifths the length of
the suture between the nasals. Nasals : A suture from the
nostril passes to the 2nd supralabial. Prefrontals : Touch
the 2nd supralabials. Frontal: Entire ; rather longer than
broad ; the fronto-parietal sutures rather longer than the
fronto-supraoculars. Supraoculars : Length three-fourths to
four-fifths the frontal; breadth two-thirds to three-quarters
the frontal. Parietals: Entire ; touching the upper post-
oculars. Preoculars: One. Postoculars: Two. Temporals :
Very variable ; usually not differentiated, but replaced by two
or three superimposed scales anteriorly. Supralabials : Seven
or eight ; the first thiee are usually entire, but any or all of
the rest may be divided ; the Ist and 2nd touch the nasals,
and the 3rd and 4th the eye. Sublinguals: Two well-
developed pairs; the posterior fellows separated, or the
posterior pair not differentiated. Infralabials : Four or five ;
the suture between the first shorter than that between the

53 6(6)20

373 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

anterior sublinguals ; fourth or fifth largest and in contact
with three or four scales behind. Cuneate: None. (Fig. 70.)

Fria. 70.—Chitulia ornata.

(x 139
D. Costals.

SNAKES OF CEYLON, 373

Costals : Longer than broad and feebly imbricate anteriorly,
about as broad as long, hexagonal, feebly imbricate or juxta-
posed on the compressed posterior part ; with a small, round,
slightly eccentric tubercle placed post-centrally. In 33 to 41
rows two heads-lengths behind the head ; 38 to 45in midhbody ;
and 33 to 42 two heads-lengths before the vent. Venirals :
218 to 290 ; entire, or a few divided posteriorly ; nearly twice
the breadth of the last costal rows. Anal: Variable.

(0) Anomalies.—Nasals : The suture from the nostril rarely
passes to the Ist supralabial. Prefrontals: It is not very
unusual for these not to meet the 2nd supralabial on one side,
but this deviation is decidedly rare bilaterally. A detached
fragment rarely forms a pseudo-loreal. Postoculars : The
upper part of the 5th or 6th supralabials may be considered
a third postocular by some authors. Swupralabials : The 3rd,
4th, and 5th rarely touch the eye. Cuneate : One is rarely
interpolated between the 3rd and 4th infralabials.

Dentition.— Deiailed under the genus.

Distribution.—(a) General : Coasts from the Persian Gulf
to the Malay Peninsula. (New Guinea and Australia,
Boulenger).

(6) Local: Throughout the range given by me above it is
an uncommon species.

There is one from Muscat in the British Museum, and I
have seen another from the Persian Gulf caught at Jask. It
is not mentioned by Murray from the Sind Coast. A specimen
in the Bombay Natural History Society’s collection is from
Karwar. Ferguson mentions two in the Trivandrum Museum
from Travancore, and presented another to the British Museum
from that coast. Another from the Travancore Coast is
preserved in the Indian Museum, Calcutta. Ifound four good
specimens in the Colombo Museum from the Ceylon coasts.
T acquired one from Madras out of 192 seasnakes in 1917, and
the British Museum has one from the same locality. Further
north it does not appear to have been captured. TI failed to
get one from the Burmese Coasts, but there is one in the
Indian Museum from Sandaway. The type of Annandale’s

374 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

andamanica was from the Andamans. It has been recorded
from Siam, and the Skeat Expedition obtained specimens from
the Patani Coast of the Malay Peninsula.*

Genus POLYODONTOGNATHUS Gen. nov.

(Greek “‘ poly ” many, “‘ odous ” tooth, “ gnathos ”’ jaw.)

General Characters.-—Length small. Body moderately
attenuated anteriorly, the diameter about half to one-third
the extreme depth posteriorly.

* A very closely allied form, described by Peters under the name
godeffroyi is known from seas to the east of Malaya, 7.e., the Chinese
sea, the neighbourhood of the Philippines, and the Loo Choo Islands.
Both Boulenger and Stejneger recognized the form as a specific entity.
I, on the other hand, cannot dissociate this form from Gray’s ornata.
So far as this work is concerned the point is of no material importance,
for my conception of ornata as herein presented is confined entirely to
sixteen specimens from seas between the Persian Gulf and Siam, which
I recognize as ornata. I have eliminated three specimens recognized
as ornata by Boulenger, viz., the type from the Indian Ocean, and
the type and another of inornata (Gray), also labelled ‘“* Indian Ocean.”
as they may not have been collected from Indian Coasts.

As a matter of interest, however, 1 contrast some points of major
importance affecting the Indian series of sixteen ornata with sixteen
others from Eastern seas that have claim to be considered godeffroyi.
Two of these in the British Museum are labelled godeffroyi by Boulenger,
four others are referred to by Stejneger as godeffroyi (Herp. Japan,
1907, p. 434) from the Loo Choos, and nine others examined by me
in Mr. Owston’s Loo Choo Islands collections and referred by me to
ornaia, as well as one in the Royal College of Surgeons’ Museum
(No. 517) from Manilla.

Indian ornata. | Loo Choo and Philippine
: godeffroy?.
(1) Costal rows two heads-lengths | (1) Costal rows neck : 30 to 36.
behind head : 33 to 41.
(2) Costals midbody : 38 to 46. (2) Costals body : 33 to 43.
(3) Ventrals : 218 to 290. (3) Ventrals : 227 to 271.
(4) Dorsal bars : 35 to 41. | (4) Dorsal bars : 30 to 49.

The lepidosis of the head is admitted by both contending parties to
be subject to variation. I cannot find any characters, with even fair
constancy, that will permit of a distinction between the Indian ornaia
and the Far Eastern godeffroyi. The differences (?) in the lepidosis
of the body ef the two forms as shown above is very unconvincing. I
think that in both areas of distribution the accumulation of a larger
material will steadily reduce the slight differences now apparent,

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 375

Cranial Osteological Characters.—Nasals : Sutured to pre-
frontals and frontal; longer than frontal. Prefronials :
Meeting parietal and postfrontals. Frontal: Breadth three-
fourths the length ; not meeting postfrontal at rim of orbit.
Parietal: Not keeled inferiorly. Quadrate: Oblique from
above backwards ; extreme length superiorly half its depth.
Maxilla : Not extending beyond palatine anteriorly ; extend-
ing beyond palatine posteriorly.

Dentition.— From three skullsin my collection. Mazillary :
Postnodal, 13 to 17;* isodont. Palatine: 7 to 8; anodo-
dont, isodont ; no edentulous space posteriorly. Pterygoid :
19 to 25; anododont, feebly scaphiodont ; posterior half
edentulous. Mandibular : 22 to 26; anododont, isodont.

There is one species, viz., cvrulescens.

POLYODONTOGNATHUS C4RULESCENS (Shaw).
(Latin “‘cxrulesco ” I become blue, implying bluish.)

Merrem’s Seasnake.

Marathi : “ minerrh ”’ and “‘ mathera ”’ of Bombay fishermen.
Synonymy.-—Hydrus cerulescens, Enhydris cerulescens,
Distira cerulescens, Hydrophis obscurus, H. cyanocincta.

History.—The type which is in the British Museum was
obtained by Dr. Patrick Russell. It received its official
baptism in 1802 at the hands of Shaw.

General Charaeters.—-It is a small species growing to about
24 feetin length. Head small, rather elongate, not depressed.
Snout of moderate length, hardly projecting, declivous,
obtusely rounded terminally. Eye small. Commissure of
mouth slightly turned up posteriorly. Neck not constricted.
Body slender and cylindrical in its anterior two-fifths ;
stoutish and compressed in the posterior three-fifths ; the
extreme depth being two or three times that of the slender
anterior part. Thescales are very rough, especially in old males.

* T have examined these in over twenty specimens.

376 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Identification.— Attention must be directed to many points.
The scales have a median short keel in their median third, are
in 36 to 45 rows two heads-lengths behind the head, 42 to 53
in the greatest girth ; and the ventrals number 277 to 339. In
a normal specimen the fact that the parietal shield does not
touch the postocular affords an easy method of recognition,
as no other seasnake presents the same peculiarity.

Colouration.—The body is bluish or grayish blue dorsally,
merging to yellowish ventrally, and is surrounded with from
35 to 58 deep bluish-black bands. These are as broad as or
rather’ broader than the interspaces at midcosta, and are
complete in the young, but as age advances they lose definition
and become obscure. In many old specimens they are obli-
terated ventrally, and converted into bars, these being dilated
and more or less confluent vertebrally. The head is black,
and the young have a yellowish horseshoe shaped mark, which
becomes obscured with age.

I have seen an adult specimen that was uniform blackish
blue, which must be considered a melanotic example.

Habits.—-There is nothing known that deserves special
mention.

Food.—No observations have been made regarding its
gastronomic tastes.

Breeding.—-(a) The Sexes : There appears to be no disparity
in the measurements of the sexes. I have critically examined
the ranges of costals and ventrals in the sexes of a large
series, and can discover nothing peculiar in either sex. Males
are extremely rough from the prominence of their keels.
The claspers are not bifid. The secretion of the anal glands
is pure white.

(6) Method of Reproduction : It is viviparous in habit.

(c) Season: I have examined three prospective mothers, all
in early stages of pregnancy, killed in the months of May and
June. The most advanced brood measured only 105 to 120 mm.
(44 to 4? inches) on June 17, and they would probably not have
been born till many weeks later. One killed on June 2 had
three very small eggs and a retained sac, containing a withered
foetus about 100 mm. (4 inches) long, the product of the
previous year’s mating.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 377

(d) Period of Gestation : Not known.

(ec) The Brood: The five breeding events that have been
investigated by me show that the brood numbers from two to
six. In one the sex could be established, and included three
males and two females.

Growth.—(a) The Young: I have seen no unborn young
sufficiently near their nativity to conjecture their length at
birth. Ihave one record of a juvenile male specimen, killed in
Bombay on June 4, 1917, that measured 457 mm. (18 inches).

(6) Maturity : My smallest pregnant specimen. was exactly
610 mm. (2 feet) in length.

(c) Maximum Length: The longest specimen I have ex-
amined was a female and measured 737 mm. (2 feet 5 inches).

Poison.—Nothing known. No casualties are on record, and
the poison has not been investigated in the laboratory.

Lepidosis.—The lepidosis of the head is fairly constant,
except for the posterior supralabials and the temporal region.
The shields in adults are covered with minute asperities that
make them very rough. The ranges of body scales are
considerable.

(a) Typical—Rostral: Broader than deep; the visible
portion about one-half the length of the suture between the’
nasals. Nasals: Sutures trom the nostril, when present,
pass backwards to the prefrontals, and outwards to the
2nd supralabial. Prefrontals: Touch the 2nd supralabial.
Frontal: Entire; longer than broad; the fronto-parietal
sutures longer than the fronto-supraoculars. Swpraoculars :
Length about three-fourths to three-fifths the frontal, breadth
about three-fourths the frontal. Parietals: Entire; not
touching the upper postoculars. Preoculars: One. Post-
oculars: One. Temporals: Small and most irregular, not
deserving the name. Usually three or four superimposed
scales anteriorly. Supralabials : Seven or eight ; the anterior
four or five entire, rest small and subject to division. The Ist
and 2nd touch the nasals, 3rd and 4th the eye. Sublinguals :
Variable ; sometimes two well-developed pairs, often no well-
developed pair ; the posterior, when present, usually separated
by small scales. Jnfralabials : Four ; the suture between the
first shorter than that between the anterior sublinguals when

378 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

these are developed ; 4th largest and touching three or four
scales behind. COwuneate: One between the 3rd and 4th
infralabials. (Fig. 71.)

Fic. 71.—Polyodontognathus czrulescens.
(xX: 2.)
D. Costals.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 379

Costals : Longer than broad and imbricate or subimbricate on
the slender anterior part of the body ; about ornearly as broad
as long, and subimbricate or juxtaposed on the compressed
posterior part, with a short pronounced keel that occupies
about the median third of each scale. In 36 to 45 rows two
heads-lengths behind the head ; 42 to 53in midbody ; and 36 to
46 two heads-lengths before the vent. Ventrals: 277 to 339 ;
entire throughout, and about or nearly twice the breadth of the
last costal row. For a seasnake the range of ventrals is
notably smal!. Anal: Variable.

(6) Anomalies—Frontal: Rarely divided longitudinally.
Parietals : Rarely more or less disintegrate ; rarely touch the
upper postoculars. Postoculars: Rarely two. Temporals :
Sometimes a fairly well-developed anterior shield. Supra-
labials: Rarely six. I have seen the Ist divided in one
example; and the 3rd, 4th, and 5th touching the eye on one side
in one specimen. Cuwneate : Sometimes two or more after the
3rd infralabial.

Dentition.—Detailed under the genus.

Distribution.—-(a) General : Coasts between Bombay and
Penang.

(6) Local : It is an extremely common snake in the locality
of Bombay, and it is curious to note that north and south it is
extremely rare. Murray does not mention it from the Sind
Coast, and there was no specimen in the Quetta Museum when
the collection was submitted to me for identification. I failed
to get it in Cannanore, there is no specimen in the Trivandrum
Museum, and I can find no records from the Malabar Coast,
other than the neighbourhood of Bombay. Itis not represent-
ed in the Colombo Museum. Out of 192 seasnakes collected
for me in Madras in 1917 no single specimen was included,
and I have only seen one from that locality. The type was
from Vizagapatam. Further north, especially in the vicinity
of the Sunderbunds, itis again quite a common snake. Evans
and I failed to obtain a specimen from the coast of Burma,
and I can find no record from this coast. Further south
about Mergui it is a fairly common snake, as there are many
specimens so labelled in the Indian Museum. In the neigh-
bourhood of the Malay Peninsula, where it appears to reach the

54 6(6)20

380 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

limit of its distribution, Cantor obtained a specimen from
Penang; Annandale and. Robinson several from Patani; and
Wray two from Perak.

T have examined well over sixty specimens.

Genus POLYPHOLOPHIS Gen. nov.
(Greek “‘ polus ” many, “ pholis ”’ scale, “ ophis ” snake.)

General Characters.—No adult known. Body moderately
attenuated anteriorly, diameter about half that of the extreme
depth posteriorly.

Cranial Osteological Characters——Not known.

Dentition —Vazillary : Postnodal, 11 to 12; the counts
on both sides somewhat dubious. Palatine and Pterygoid :
Not known. Mandibular : 20.

There is one species, viz., neglectus, which deserves inclusion
in a separate genus on the very numerous costal rows and
ventrals. |

POLYPHOLOPHIS NEGLECTUS (Wall).

(Latin, meaning neglected.)
Wall’s Seasnake.

Synonymy.—Hydrophis obscurus.

History—Known from a single, apparently juvenile,
specimen in the Indian Museum (No. 8,598), referred by
Sclater to obscurus (Daudin), which is so different from any
other seasnake known to me that I described it as a new
species in 1906. |

General Characters.—In general appearance very like
fasciata (Schneider), but probably most closely related to
cerulescens (Shaw). Head small, not depressed. Snout
moderately long, declivous, slightly projecting, moderately
rounded terminally. Eye small. Commissure of mouth
turned up behind. Neck not apparent. Body slender and
cylindrical in the anterior two-fifths ; compressed and robust
in the posterior three-fifths ; the extreme depth about twice
that of the slender anterior part.

Identification——The costals in 48 rows two heads-lengths
behind the head; 56 in the thickest part; and yam ex-
ceeding 420 will suffice to identify it.

gr

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 381

Colouration.—Head and neck quite black. Body surrounded
by 59 well-defined blackish annuli, about as broad as the in-
tervals at midcosta, and confluent ventrallyin the anterior part.

Habits, Food, Breeding.—Nothing known.

- Growth.—I have no record of the measurement, but speaking
from memory, it is less than 610 mm. (2 feet) in length.

Poison.—Nothing known.

Lepidosis.—Rostral: The portion visible above about half
the length of the suture between the nasals. Nasals: A
suture passes from the nostril to the 2nd supralabial. Pre-
frontals: Touching the 2nd supralabial. Frontal: Entire ;
longer than broad ; the fronto-parietal sutures subequal to
the fronto-supraoculars. Supraoculars : Length about three-
fourths the frontal ; breadth about three-fourths the frontal.
Parieals: Entire; touching the postoculars. Preoculars :
One. Postoculars: One. Temporals: One large anterior
on the left side, two on the right. Swupralabials : Seven,
first five entire ; lst and 2nd touching the nasals, 3rd and 4th
the eye. Sublinguals : Two pairs, the fellows of each in
contact. Infralabials: Four; the suture between the first
equal to that between the anterior sublinguals; fourth
largest and in contact with three scales behind. Cuneate :
One between the 3rd and 4th infralabials.

Costals : Longer than broad and imbricate on the anterior
part of the body; about as broad as long and imbricate
on the compressed part, with a short keel occupying about the
median three-fifths of each scale. In 48 rows two heads-
lengths behind the head ; 54 in midbody (56 at the thickest
girth); and 45 two heads-lengths before the vent. Ventrals :
About 440 to 450 (damaged) ; entire throughout, and nearly
twice the breadth of the last costals.

Dentition.—Detailed under the genus.

Distribution.—The type is from Rangoon.

Genus MELANOMYSTAX Gen. nov.
(Greek “ melas ”’ black, “ mustax’’ moustache.)
General Characters.—Length moderate. Habit robust.
Body moderately attenuated anteriorly, where its calibre is
rather more than a third the extreme depth posteriorly.

382 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

- Cranial Osteological Characters——Unkrnown. I have no
skull.

Dentition.— Maaillary : Postnodal, 1 to 2.* Palatine and
Pterygod : Not known. Mandibular: 14.

There is one species, viz., negrocinctus, which deserves to
rank in a genus apart from other hydrophids on the very few
postnodal maxillary teeth.

MELANOMYSTAX NIGROCINCTUS (Daudin).

(Latin “‘ niger ” black, “ cinctus ” girdle.)
Daudin’s Seasnake.

Bengali : “* kerril patte ” (Russell).

Synonymy.—Enhydris mgrocinctus, Distira lapemidoides,
D. cyanocinctus, D. hendersom, Hydrus mgrocinctus.

History._-Described first by Russell in 1801, a fair coloured
representation being shown in Plate VI. of his second volume.
Christened by Daudin in 1803. Russell’s type is preserved
in the British Museum.

General Characters——A snake of fair proportions growing
to 34 feet. Head moderate, rather broad; moderately
depressed. Snout of moderate length, declivous, hardly
projecting, rather broadly rounded terminally. Hye small.
Commissure of mouth turned up behind. Neck not apparent.
Body cylindrical and of fair girth anteriorly ; much com-
pressed and heavy posteriorly, the extreme depth being about
three or rather less than three times that in the anterior part.

Identification.—It is one of the few seasnakes in which the
preefrontal does not touch the 2nd supralabial. This taken
with 27 to 32 scale rows two heads-lengths behind the head,
36 to 43 imbricate in midbody, and from 311 to 339 ventrals
will establish the identity. A distinctive feature in colour-
ation is the curved black moustache.

Colouration.—Olivaceous green dorsally, merging to a clear
yellow, often very bright, ventrally. The body is surrounded
with from 42 to 62 well-defined black or deep greenish black

* I have examined these in three specimens,

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 383

bands, which are usually narrower than the intervals at
midcosta. These bands expand vertebrally, but are not
connected ventrally even anteriorly. The head is yellow
with an arched black moustache. There is also a black mark.
often bifid on the nape and occiput, extending forwards to the
prefrontals, which tends to break up into an indefinite
mottling in old subjects. There is also a short, vertical,
lateral, black neck stripe.

Habits, Food, and Breeding.—Have not bean remarked
upon.

Growth.—_Maxzimum Length: Evans and I got specimens
measuring 997 and 1,055 mm. (3 feet 3} inches and 3 feet 54
inches, respectively). Russell’s type was 1,017 mm. (3 feet
4. inches).

Poison.—Russell caused a fowl to be bitten by his specimen,
the bird succumbing seven minutes later. No casualties
have been reported and no experimental work done with the
poison.
~ Lepidosis.—The head shields are subject to an even greater
variation than is usual in hydrophids, most of them being
prone to division.

(a) Typical—Rostral: Broader than deep; the portion
visible above half to three-fifths the suture between the
nasals, Nasals: Two sutures usually radiate from the
nostril, one to the prefrontals, the other to the 2nd supra-
labials. Prefrontals: Do not touch the 2nd supralabials.
Frontal ; Entire, longer than broad; the fronto-parietal
sutures longest. Supraoculars : Length half to two-thirds
the frontal ; breadth half to two-thirds the frontal. Parietals :
Entire ; touching the upper postoculars. Preoculars : One.
Postoculars : One or two. Temporals : Undifferentiated and
replaced by small scales, two usually being superimposed
anteriorly. Supralabials : Seven to nine; all from the first
backwards are prone to division, forming pseudo-loreals and
pseudo lower pre- and postoculars ; Ist and 2nd touching the
nasals ; 3rd and 4th, or 3rd, 4th,and 5ththeeye. Sublinguals :
Two well-developed pairs, the posterior usually completely
separated. Infralabials : Four ; the suture between the first
subequal to that between the anterior sublinguals; 4th

384 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

largest and in contact with three or four scales behind.
Cuneate : One between the 3rd and 4thinfralabials. (Fig. 72.)

Fie. 72.—Melanomystax nigrocinctus,
(x! 135
D. Costals.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 285

Costals : Longer than broad and imbricate on the cylindrical
anterior part of the body; as broad or broader than long
and imbricate on the posterior compressed part, with a short
keel occupying about the median three-fifths of each scale.
In 27 to 32 rows two heads-lengths behind the head ; 36 to 43
in midbody ; and 36 to 42 two heads-lengths before the vent.
Ventrals : 305 to 339; entire throughout, and nearly twice
the breadth of the last costal rows.

(b) Anomalies—Nasals : Sometimes divided into three parts
by three triradiate sutures from the nostril. Prefrontals :
I have seen them touching the 2nd supralabial on one side
in two specimens. Sublinguals : The fellows of the posterior
pair sometimes in contact. Cuneate : Sometimes two after the
3rd infralabials.

Dentition.—Detailed under the genus.

Distribution.—(a) General: From the Sunderbunds to the
Burmese Coast (Straits of Malacca, Boulenger).

(6) Local: Apparently a rare snake. Russell’s type was
from the Sunderbunds. Evans and I obtained two in Burma,
one at Watiya 40 miles from the sea, and the other from
Mayaungmya 50 miles from the sea. Boulenger’s type of
henderson is from Rangoon. Three specimens in the Indian
Museum No. 8,235, identified by Sclater as H. dayanus, and
Nos. 8,239 and 8,240 have no recorded habitat.

I have examined nine specimens.

Genus KERILIA.

(Latinized version of the vernacular name “ Keril,”
Kerilia imbricata. )

General Characters.—Length moderate. Habit robust.
Diameter of body anteriorly about half that of the extreme
posterior depth.

Cranial Osteological Characters.—Nasals : Sutured to pre-
frontals and frontal, longer than the frontal. Prefrontals :
Meeting parietal and postfrontals. Frontals: As broad as
long, not meeting postfrontal at rim of orbit. Parietal :
Keeled inferiorly. Quadraie : Oblique from above backwards,
extreme length superiorly four-fifths its depth. Mazilla:
Kxtends beyond the palatine anteriorly and posteriorly.

386 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Dentition.— From three skulls in my collection. Maaillary :
Postnodal, 7 to 9;* feebly scaphidont. Palatine: 8 to 10;
anododont, isodont; no edentulous space posteriorly.
Pierygoid : 12 to 16 ; anododont, feebly scaphiodont ; posterior
two-fifths. edentulous. Mandibular: 17 to 19; anododont,
scaphiodont.

There is one species, viz., jerdoni.

KERILIA JERDONI (Gray).

(Named in honour of the late Dr. T. C. Jerdon, the distin-
guished Ornithologist and Naturalist of the Madras
Medical Service.)

Jerdon’s Seasnake.

(?) Lamal: “ shiddil *”? (Russell).

Synonymy.—Aydrus nigrocinctus, H. cantori, Distira jerdom.

History.—I discovered what I take to be the type in the
Royal College of Surgeons’ Museum (No. 528). It was one of
Russell’s collection, and a comparison with Plate XII. of
Russell’s Volume II. left no doubt in my mind that it was
the subject of the plate. On the other hand, Boulenger
claims as the type a specimen in the British Museum from
Madras collected by Dr. Jerdon. Cantor’s name given in
1847 is invalid as he confused two species. In consequence,
Gray stands as its official godfather, and his name given in
1849 is retained to denote the species.

General Characters——A snake of moderate size and stout
habit, growing to about 3 feet in length. Head moderately
elongate, moderately depressed, and considerably broader
behind than before the eyes. Snout of moderate length,
narrowing terminally, much bowed in profile, and slightly
projected downwards. Eye rather large for a hydrophid.
Commissure of mouth slightly turned up behind. Neck
hardly evident. Body robust everywhere, cylindrical
anteriorly, compressed in midbody and posteriorly ; the
extreme depth hardly or not twice the depth anteriorly.

Identification.— One of the easiest of the seasnakes to iden-
tity. The costals anteriorly numbering 17, posteriorly 19 to
21, with a rostral, touching only four shields will suffice to

* I have examined these teeth in many other specimens,

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 387

identify it. The last supralabial is quite characteristic,
being very large and touching the parietals behind the post-
ocular. The third infralabial is also quite distinctive, being
the largest of the series and touching two scales only behind.
The costals are also distinctive, being broader than long
everywhere.

Colouration.—Olivaceous dorsally, merging to yellowish
ventrally. The young are surrounded by from 31 to 41 black
bands, with usually intermediate dorsal black spots or bars.
As the snake ages the bands tend to fade, and eventually
may be entirely obliterated ventrally leaving dorsal bars.

Habits.—-There is nothing special to remark upon.

Food.—No special observations have been made on diet.

Breeding.— (a) The Sexes : I have not been able to discover
any differences in lepidosis in the sexes, and there is no
disparity in their length. The male claspers are not bifid.

(b) Method of Reproduction: It is viviparous like other
hydrophids.

(c) Season: My one gravid female, which was in an ad-
vanced state of pregnancy, was killed at Madras on June 25.
I had four young from Siam killed in January that ranged
between 387 and 460 mm. (154 and 184 inches).

(d) Period of Gestation : Not known.

(e) The Brood: The gravid female alluded to already
contained three large sacs 70 mm. (2? inches) long, with one
female and two male embryos. The female foetus was 292
mm, (114 inches), and the male were 280 and 298 mm. (11
and 1]2inches). Both the latter had their genitalia exserted.

Growth.—(a) The Young: No precise measurements for
the young at birth are available, but they are probably just
over 305 mm. (12 inches). My smallest postnatal length is
387 mm. (154 inches).

(b) Maturity : My prospective mother was 838 mm. (2 feet
9 inches).

(c) Maximum Length: My largest example was 915 mm.
(3 feet).

Poison.—-Nothing known. It has not been worked with
in the laboratory, and there are no recorded casualties from
its bite.

55 6(6)20

388 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Lepidosis.—The head shields preserve great constancy, and
the variation in the scale rows and ventrals is notably small
for a seasnake.

Fia@. 73.—Kerilia jerdoni,
(Life size.)

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 389

(a) T'ypical—Rosiral: About as broad as deep: the
portion visible above three-quarters to equal to the suture
between the nasals. Nasals: Usuaily no sutures proceed
from the nostrils. Prefrontals: Do not touch any supra-
labial. Frontal: Entire ; much longer than broad ; the fronto-
parietal sutures subequal to or rather longer than the fronto-
supraoculars. Supraoculars: Length about two-thirds to
three-quarters the frontal; breadth about two-thirds the
frontal. Parietals: Entire; touching the postoculars. Pre-
oculars: One. Postoculars: One. Temporals: Anterior
confluent with the sixth supralabial; a well-developed
posterior shield also lies along the parietals. Supralahials :
Six ; all entire and well developed ; the lst and 2nd touching
the nasals ; 3rd and 4th the eye ; 6th confluent with the anterior
temporal and the largest of the series. Sublinguals: One
or two small pairs, the anterior the larger. Infralabials :
Three ; the suture between the first subequal to or smaller
than that between the anterior sublinguals ; third touching
two scales behind. Cuneate : None.

Costals: Broader than long and imbricate everywhere,
with a short keel, sometimes bidentate, occupying about the
median two-fourths of each scale. In 17 rows two heads-
lengths behind the head ; 19 to 21 at midbody ; and 19 to 21
two heads-lengths before the vent. Ventrals: 219 to 248;
entire everywhere, less than twice the breadth of the last
row, with a complete very obtuse median keel, and short
subterminal lateral keels. (See fig. 73, D.)

(6) Anomalies—Prefronitals : Rarely meet the 2nd supra-
labial. I have seen a confluence with the preeocular bilater-
allyinoneexample. Posioculars: Rarely two. Sublinguals :
Rarely, even the anterior are too poorly developed to deserve
the name. Jnfralabials : Rarely four.

Costals : Rarely in 16 or 18 rows two heads-lengths behind
the head.

Dentition : Detailed under the genus.

Distribution.—(a) General: Coasts of India from Travancore
to the Malay Peninsula.

390 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

(b) Local : There are two specimens in the Bombay Natural
History Society’s collection, but evidence that these are from
the Malabar Coast is lacking. ferguson mentions a specimen
from Trivandrum. There were two specimens in the Colombo
Museum of local origin. It is a rather uncommon snake in
the vicinity of Madras. What I take to be Russell’s type is
from Tranquebar. It is uncommon on the Coromandel Coast
as far North as Puri. I failed to get one from Burma, and
can find no records from this coast. Several specimens in
the Indian Museum are from the region of Mergui. Cantor,
the Skeat Expedition, and Annandale and Robinson obtained
it from the coasts around the Malayan Peninsula, and Dr.
Malcolm-Smith sent me four juvenile specimens from the
coasts of Siam.

T have examined about thirty specimens.

Genus PRAISCUTATA.

(Latin “ pre ”’ in front, ‘‘scuta ”’ a shield, refers to the
unusually well-developed anterior ventrals.)

General Characters.—Length moderate. Habit robust.
Body anteriorly moderately attenuated, the diameter being
about half that of the extreme depth posteriorly.

_ Cranial Osteological Characters.—Nasals : Sutured to pre-
frontals and frontal, as long as the frontal. Prefrontals :
Not meeting parietal, meeting postfrontals. Frontal :
Broader than long, meeting postfrontal at rim ot orbit.
Parietal : Keeled inferiorly. Quadrate : Oblique from above
backwards, extreme length superiorly halfits depth. Mazilla-
not extending beyond palatine anteriorly, extending beyond
palatine posteriorly.

Dentition——From one skull in my collection. Maxillary :
Postnodal, 4 to 5;* feebly scaphiodont. Palatine: 7;
anododont, isodont ; curving outwards anteriorly ; with a

* T have examined these in many specimens.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 391

short edentulous space posteriorly. Pterygoid : 17; anodo-
dont, feebly scaphiodont; posterior two-fifths edentulous.
Mandibular : 16 to 17; anododont, scaphiodont..

There is one species, viz., viperina.

PRA&HSCUTATA VIPERINA (Schmidt).

(Latin, meaning “ like a viper.”’)
Schmidt's Seasnake.

Synonymy.—Thalassophis viperina, Distira viperina, D.
lapemidoides, D. prescutata, Hydrophis obscurus, H. doliata
H, jayakari, H. plumbea, H. mgra.

History.—Described and christened by Schmidt in 1852.
The type specimen is in the Hamburg Museum.

General Characters——A snake of fair proportions and
robust habit, growing to about 3 feet. Head moderate,
rather broad, depressed. Snout moderate in length, gently
declivous, very broadly rounded. Eye small. Commissure
of mouth turned up posteriorly. Neck fairly apparent.
Body cylindrical and of moderate calibre in the anterior
two-fifths, where its depth is about half to three-fifths the
extreme depth posteriorly ; much compressed and fairly
robust in the posterior three-fifths.

Identification—A very easy species to recognize, owing to
the unusually broad anterior ventrals, which are about four
times the breadth of the last costals. The frontal shield is
also very distinctive, being as broad or nearly as broad as long.
It is also one of the few hydrophids in which the prefrontal
shields do not touch the 2nd supralabials.

Colouration.-—Grayish or olivaceous gray dorsally, merging
to pale-yellow or whitish ventrally. The body is adorned

392 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

with from 26 to 38 black bands or bars, often of a rhombic
shape and with a tendency to confluence vertebrally. The
adornment is very variable, and the colour varieties may be
grouped as follows :—

A.—With complete bands, often confluent vertebrally, but
discrete ventrally. Analogous to variety A of ornata,
and spiralis and B of cyanocincta. A rare form.
Jerdon’s specimen in the British Museum from Madras
and one otf Sir Joseph Fayrer’s specimens (No. 8,277)
in the Indian Museum from Puri furnish good
examples.

B.—Intermediate between A and C. With dorsal bars
anteriorly, and complete bands posteriorly. A young
specimen in the Indian Museum from Puri, presented
by Sir Joseph Fayrer, is the only example I
know.

C.—typica (Schmidt). With dorsal bars throughout ; dis-
crete or more or less confluent vertebrally. The
usual Indian form, which is very comparable to form
typica of ornata, variety C of spiralis, and D of
cyanocincda.

D.—Like the last, only the bars replaced by rhombs, the
angles of which often meet vertebrally. A common
variety, of which I have seen examples from Karachi,
the Malabar Coast, and Ceylon.

K.—jayakart (Boulenger). With a continuous broad
black stripe dorsally, as though the bars of variety C
were completely confluent. This band is sharply
defined costally. Completely analogous with variety
E of ornata. Not very uncommon. I have seen
examples from Muscat, Bombay, Puri, and the Orissa
Coast.

F.—nigra (Anderson). This is completely black, and is
to be regarded as a melanotic subject. It was captured
at Puri and is in the Indian Museum.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 393

Habits.—Nothing special has been observed. As regards
progression I think it is not so helpless on dry land as most
of the seasnakes.

Food.—No special notice has been taken of its diet.

Breeding.—No breeding events have been chronicled, and
I have never seen a gravid specimen.

Growth.—(a) Early Life : Asmall specimen in the Colombo
Museum is 432 mm. (17 inches), and was killed at Mount
Lavinia on August 24, 1919.

(6b) Maximum Length : Boulenger gives 920 mm. (3 feet and
+ of an inch) for a specimen in the British Museum.

Poison.—Nothing known. This has not been experimented
with, and there are no casualties on record.

Lepidosis.—(a) T'ypical—Rostral: As broad as or broader
than deep ; the portion visible above half to two-thirds the
length of the suture between the nasals. Nasals : Two
sutures usually radiate from the nostril, one to the pre-
frontals, and one to the 2nd supralabials. Prefrontals :
Touching no supralabials. Frontal: Entire; as broad as
or almost as broad as long; the fronto-parietal sutures nearly
twice the fronto-supraoculars. Supraoculars : Length about
three-fourths the frontal, breadth half or less than half the
frontal. Parietals : Entire ; touching the upper postocular.
Preoculars: One. Postoculars: Two. Temporals: Very
irregular and usually not differentiated. Two or three
superimposed scales anteriorly. Swupralabials: Seven to
nine, very variable; the third and succeeding shields very
prone to confluence or division; Ist and 2nd touching the
nasals; 3rd and 4th, 3rd, 4th, and 5th, or 4th and 5th touching
the eye. Sublinguals : Two fairly well-developed pairs, the
fellows of each in contact. Infralabials : Four ; the suture
between the first equal to or longer than that between the
anterior sublinguals; 4th largest and in contact with

394 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

three or four scales behind. Cuwneate: One between the
3rd and 4th infralabials. (Fig, 74.)

Fie, 74.—Prescutata viperina.
(Life size.)
D. Costals.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 395

Costals : Longer than broad and imbricate in the cylin-
drical part of the body ; about as broad as long, hexagonal,
and juxtaposed in the compressed posterior part, with a
short keel occupying about the median two-fourths of each
scale. In 27 to 34 rows two heads-lengths behind the head ;
39 to 50 in midbody ; and 35 to 45 two heads-lengths before
the vent. Ventrals: 235 to 276; entire and imbricate
throughout ; about four times as broad as the last costals for
a short length anteriorly, nearly twice as broad as the last
costal rows elsewhere...

(b) Anomalies—Prefrontals : IT have seen this in contact
with the 2nd supralabial on one side in two specimens. Pre-
oculars : When the third supralabial is divided a spurious
lower przocular is established. Postoculars: The divided
fifth labial.sometimes creates a spurious lower shield. Sub-
linguals : The fellows of the posterior pair are frequently

quite separated. Cuneate: Sometimes two after the 3rd
supralabial,

Dentition.— Detailed under the genus.

Distribution.—(a) General: From the Persian Gulf to
South China ; Malayan Archipelago as far East as Java,

Boulenger does not include it in his snakes of the Malay
Peninsula.

(b) Local: I have examined about thirty specimens. It
is rare in the Persian Gulf. There is one specimen in the
British Museum from Muscat, and one in the Indian Museum
from the same port. There is one in the Bombay Natural
History Society’s collection from Karachi, and another from
Karwar, and the British Museum collection has one from
Malabar. It is not represented in the Trivandrum Museum.
There was no specimen in the Colombo Museum when I
examined the collection, and there is no record from Ceylon.
It is rare on the southern Coromandel Coast. Dr. Henderson
sent me two from Madras, and a third from the same locality
is in the British Museum. Further North, however, it is not
an uncommon species. There are no less than twelve speci-
mens in the Indian Museum from Puri, and one in the Bombay

56 6(6)20

396 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

collection from the Orissa Coast. One in the Indian Museum
from Rangoon appears to be the only record from that coast.
This is No. 8,269 of Sclater’s list identified by him as H.
dayanus. Another in the same institution is from Mergui.
The type is reported from Java. There is one in the British
Museum from Hong Kong, and I saw two specimens in the
Hong Kong Museum labelled ‘‘Swatow.”’ Herz, too, obtained
one irom Hainan.

Genus ASTROTIA.

(Der. unknown to me.)

General Characters.—-Length considerable. Neck robust.
Body massive.

Cranial Osteological Characters.*—Nasals: Sutured to pre-
frontals and frontal, longer than frontal. Prefrontals :
Meeting parietal and postfrontals. Frontal: Broader than
long, meeting postfrontal at rim of orbit. Parietal : Not
keeled inferiorly. Quadrate : Oblique from above backwards,
extreme length superiorly about half its depth. Mazilla:
Not extending beyond palatine anteriorly, extending beyond
palatine posteriorly. | 3

Dentition.*—Mawillary: Postnodal, 7; feebly scaphi-
odont. Palatine: 7 to 8; anododont, isodont (?); no edentu-
lous space posteriorly. Pterygoid : 20 ; anododont, isodont (?) ;
posterior half edentulous. Mandibular : 18 to 19 ; anododont,
scaphiodont.

There is one species only, viz., stokesv.

ASTROTIA STOKESI (Gray).

Named in honour of Captain Stokes.
Stokes’s Seasnake.

Synonymy.—Hydrus major, H. stokest, Hydrophis annulatus,
Af. guttata, Astrotia schizopholis, Distira stokes.

* Thave no skull. and these details are taken from Boulenger’s figures
(Catalogue, Vol, IIL, p. 286).

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 397

History.—First definitely given specific rank by Gray in
1846, though known since 1802 to the same author who con-
fused it with H. major.

General Charaeters——A very massive snake growing to 5
feet in length. Head large, markedly depressed. Snout
rather long, much bowed in profile, broadly rounded terminally,
not projecting. Hye moderate. Nostril with usually a suture
passing back to the prefrontal, and another to the 2nd supra-
labial. Commissure of mouth little turned up posteriorly.
Neck not or hardly evident. Body stout, and cylindrical
anteriorly, and about three-fifths the extreme depth ; massive
and compressed posteriorly.

Identification.—The only seasnake in which the 4th, 5th,
and 6th supralabials touch the eye, except Hydrus platurus.
The only seasnake, except cantoris, in which the Ist, 2nd, and
ard supralabials touch the nasals. The absence of any enlarged
ventrals and the absence of any sublinguals are also very
notable features in its identification.

Colouration.— Yellowish, with trom 24 to 34 black bands or
bars, with usually linear vertebral black bars in the intervals.
Often there are a dorsal and a ventral series of bars in the
middle and posterior parts of the body, which tend to alternate
costally. The ventral bars may be broken up into several
series of spots of variable size (H. guitata, Murray).

Habits.—There is nothing special known.

Food.—No special observations have been made as to the
nature of its diet.

Breeding.—(a) Method of Reproduction : Definitely known
to be viviparous.
(b) Season: The only recorded breeding event concerns a

specimen in an advanced stage of pregnancy reported by
Boulenger, which was captured in the month of August.

(c) Pertod of Gestation : Not known.

(d) The Brood : Boulenger’s specimen was found to contain
twelve young and two sterile eggs. The young varied in
length from 305 to 407 mm. (12 to 16 inches).

398 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Growth.—-(a) The Young: The exact measurements at
birth are not known.

(6) Maturity : The gravid female referred to above measured
1,474 mm. (4 feet 10 inches).

(c) Maximum Length : A specimen mentioned by Gunther
is 1,550 mm. (5 teet 1 inch), and I examined a specimen in the
Colombo Museum of almost exactly the same proportions.
The extreme girth of Gunther’s specimen was reported as
254 mm. (10 inches). The girth of a Colombo specimen was
228-mm. (9 inches). D’Albertis in his book “ New Guinea ”
(1880, Vol. I., p. 179) mentions one killed off the coast of New
Guinea that measured 1,830 mm. (6 feet).

Poison.—Nothing known. No casualties have been

reported, and no experimental laboratory work accom-
plished.

Epiphytes.—The specimen alluded to by Boulenger was
covered with a dense growth of alge. Two or three species

of Ulve and two or three species of Enteromorphe were
identified.

Lepidosis.—(a) T'ypical—Rostral : About as deep as broad ;
the portion visible above about half to two-thirds the suture
between the nasals. Nasals: Sutures from the nostrils, if
present, proceed to the prefrontals posteriorly and the 2nd
supralabial. Prefrontals: ,Touch the 2nd _ supralabials.
Frontal: Entire; longer than broad; the fronto-parietal
sutures equal to or rather longer than the fronto-supra-
oculars. Parietals : Entire ; touching the upper postoculars.
Preoculars: One. Postoculars: Two. Temporals: Not
developed, replaced by small scales. Swpralabials : Hight to
eleven, subject to much variation; the 3rd and succeeding
shields frequently divided into an upper and lower part,
forming the suboculars, third postoculars, and lower temporals
of some authors. The Ist, 2nd, and 3rd touch the nasals; 4th,
5th, and 6th the eye. Sublinguals: Absent. Infralabials :
Very variable and subject to division ; the Ist, 2nd, or 3rd

SNAKES OF CEYLON. — 399

may be entire. Cuneate: A complete row succeeds the Ist,
’ 2nd, or 3rd infralabials. (Fig. 75.)

Fig. 75.—Astrotia stokesi.
(Life size.)

Costals : Longer than broad and strongly imbricate every-
where, with irregularly dentate posterior borders, especially
in the lowest rows; with short keels, sometimes bidentate in
the median four-sixths of each scale. In 41 to 48 rows two
heads-lengths behind the head ; 48 to 59 in midbody ; and
41 to 50 two heads-lengths before the vent. Venétrals :
Absent except for a short length anteriorly, replaced after-
wards by 230 to 267 paired strongly imbricate scales, with
irregularly dentate posterior borders. Anal: Variable.

400 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

(6) Anomalies—Prefronials : Sometimes touch the 3rd as
well as the 2nd supralabials, rarely completely separated
from any supralabials. Swpraoculars: Rarely partly divided
transversely.

Dentition.—Detailed under the genus.

Distribution.—(a) General : From the Mekran Coast to the
Chinese sea and North Australia.

(6) Local : Itis apparently a rare snake everywhere. There
is one specimen in the British Museum from Mekran (the type
of H. guttata, Murray), and Boulenger records another from
Karachi Harbour. There is one in the Trivandrum Museum
recorded by Ferguson. ‘These appear to be the only examples
known from the Malabar Coast of India. It is not represented
in the Bombay Natural History Society’s collection, and I
have failed to procure any specimen from this coast. I found
two examples in the Colombo Museum of local origin. There
is no record from the Coromandel Coast of India, and it 1s not
represented in the Indian Museum, Calcutta. ‘There are two
specimens in the British Museum from Singapore. Gunther
throws doubts on its occurrence in the Chinese sea, and I saw
no example in any of the Chinese Museums. Practically all
the other known specimens are from the Austraiian Coasts.
I have only seen about ten specimens.

Genus ENHYDRINA.

(Greek “en ”’ in, “ hudor ”’ water.)

General Characters.—Length up to 4 feet. Habit robust.
Body moderately attenuated anteriorly, its diameter about
half to two-thirds the extreme depth posteriorly.

Cranial Osteological Characters.—Nasals : Not sutured to
prefrontals or frontal ; confluent posteriorly (a feature unique ~
among hydrophids) ; longer than frontal. Prefrontals : Not
meeting parietal, meeting postfrontals. Frontal: As broad
as long, meeting postfrontal at rim of orbit. Pamretal:
Strongly keeled inferiorly. Quadrate : Oblique from above
backwards, extreme length superiorly halt its depth.
Mazxilla : Extends beyond palatine anteriorly, not extending
beyond palatine posteriorly.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 401

Dentition.— From two skulls in my collection. Mazillary :
Postnodal, 3 to 5; isodont.* Palatine: 5 to 6; anododont,
isodont ; a short edentulous space posteriorly that would
accommodate one tooth. Pterygoid: 15 to 16; anododont,
feebly scaphiodont ; one-third edentulous posteriorly. Mandi-
bular : 16; anododont, scaphiodont.

There is one species, viz., valakadyen.

ENHYDRINA VALAKADYEN (Boie).*

(Borrowed from the vernacular name “ valakadyen,”’
which Russell stated was used by native
fishermen on the Coromandel Coast.)

The Jew’s-nosed or Boie’s Seasnake.

Tamil: “ valakadyen.”’ (Russell) (“ valla ” strong, ‘“‘kadyen”
biter). Bengali: “ Hoogly pattee’’ (Russell) about the
Sunderbunds.

Synonymy.—Hydrus valakadyen, H. schistosus, Disteira
russelit, Polyodontes annulatus, Hydrophis schistosa, H. benga
lensis, H. fasciatus, H. subfasciata, Enhydrina bengalensis, E
schistosa, Pelamis schistosus.

History.—Figured by Russell in 1801 on Plates X. and XI
of his second volume. Christened by Daudin in 1803 as
schistosa (vide footnote). What I take to be the type I
discovered in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons,
London (No. 523). It appears to me the specimen from
Tranquebar figured by Russell on Plate XI. of his second
volume, and was one of the collection presented by the East
India Company to the above institution, most of which has
since been transferred to the British Museum.

General Characters.—A snake of fair proportions growing
to 43 feet. Head large, moderately long, little depressed, skin

* I do not concur with Boulenger in thinking Plate X. of Russell’s
second volume a distinct species from Plate XI, I agree with those
herpetologists, and they are many, who think that the figure on Plate
X, represents the same species as Plate XI. If this opinion is correct;
this snake should be known by the name schistosa given it by Daudin
in 1803, while Boie’s name valakadyen dating from 1827 should be
suppressed, I prefer, however, to retain the title with which all have
been familiar for so many years,

402 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

swollen and loose. Snout rather short, much bowed in profile,
obtusely rounded terminally, projecting below the level of the
lip. A pronounced furrow in the chin. Commissure of mouth
turned up posteriorly. Eye moderate, with dull greenish iris.
Neck stout, not or hardly apparent. Body elongate, robust ;
forebody subcylindrical and two-thirds to half the depth at
the ereatest girth (one-third in heavily gravid females) ; much
compressed posteriorly, very heavy in gravid females.

Identification—The downward projection of the rostral
shield to well below the level of the lip, and the pronounced
furrow in the chin are both features peculiar to this seasnake.
The outer suture from the nostril, with few exceptions, passes
to the first supralabials, a peculiarity only seen in one other
seasnake, viz., Hnhydris hardwicket.

Colouration.—-Very variable. The young are bluish or
bluish gray, with many well-defined black annuli, often
dilated vertebrally. As age advances these bands become
more and more obscured, first disappearing ventrally to
become dorsal bars, and these in old specimens may disappear
altogether. In old adults the dorsum is frequently a uniform
bluish or bluish gray, merging at midcosta to yellow or
yellowish. Both dorsal and ventral hues again are subject to
much modification, according to whether the specimen has
recently desquamated or is about todo so. In the latter case,
the yellow on the belly becomes often tinged with brown.

Habits.—This is far the commonest seasnake around our
shores and extraordinarily plentiful. On the Malabar Coast
the fishermen brought them to me in bucketfuls until deterred
from doing so. I have certainly had over fifty brought to me
in one morning taken from their nets. On the Coromandel
Coast at Madras and at Gopalpore I have seen the nets brought
in with a dozen or more of these snakes among the haul.
At Cannanore the men in the 75th Carnatic Intantry, fishing
in the sea with lines, more often, it seemed to me, hooked
this seasnake than a fish !

It frequently comes up tidal rivers, and several were
captured for me at Watiya in Burma at a distance of 40 miles
from the sea. It has been taken in Tolly’s Nullah, Calcutta,
80 miles from the sea.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 403

In Cannanore I kept several of these snakes in a dry masonry
trough among my flower pots, where they lived many days
without any water. Here they crawled about in a clumsy
awkward fashion, but progression was far less hampered than
is the case in the very thin-necked seasnakes. All these
specimens were conspicuously gentle creatures, that I failed
to provoke to bite an offending object. This placid disposition
is well exemplified by the fact that the sepoys and others,
who habitually bathed at Cannanore, were never bitten,
plentiful as I have shown that the species is there.

Food.—They live entirely on fishes.

Breeding.—(a) The Sexes: Females appear to be more
numerous than males from the few notes at my disposal. In
Cannanore, of 13 specimens sexed, 8 were females. Again,
of 19 foetuses obtained in the same station, 12 proved to be
females. The tubercles on the scales are rather more
pronounced in males than in females. Hach male clasper is
bifid with its extremities beset with villose papilla. A raphé
passes from the cloaca up the inner face, and then to the back
of the “ stalk,’’ where it divides to pass up each limb.

(6) Method of Reproduction: Definitely known to be
viviparous.

(c) Season: The young are born during the months of
February (? January), March, April,and May. I hada female
containing eggs with no trace of embryo in November, and
many others in various stages of pregnancy in December,
January, and February. One of these captured on January
29 contained foetuses 263 to 279 mm. (102 to 11 inches) long,
whose birth, tudging from these measurements, must have
becnimminent. Again, I have had young as small as 317 mm.
(124 inches) in the latter half of June, which were probably
born in May.

(d) Period of Gestation : Not co

(e) The Brood: I have had many gravid females through
my hands, and I find the brood numbers from four to nine.
During the later stages of development the sacs are membra-
nous and transparent, and the foetuses lying in a bath of
pellucid oily fluid, are clearly visible within. Some of these

57 6(6)20

404 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

sacs are 64 mm. (22 inches) in length, and the dam with a
brood of nine is necessarily very considerably distended.

Growth.— (a) Intraoval Infe: The genitals in males are
extruded in the later stages of development, but some time
shortly before birth they are retracted within their sheaths,
and are no longer visible when born. The heart in unborn
young was found to beat about 26 times per minute.

(6) The Young: The young at birth measure about 254 to
279 mm. (10 to 11 inches). Gunther mentions a young
Specimen that measured 266 mm. (104 inches), and I have
extracted embryos that measured 279 mm. (11 inches).

(c) Early Infe: The young double their length in the first
year of life, and are then about 508 to 610 mm. (20 to 24
inches) long. At the end of the second year of life they appear
(from very meagre figures) to be about 762 mm. (30 inches).
Further observations are necessary to clear up this point.

(d) Maturity : My smallest mother measured 965 mm. (3
feet 2 inches) in January, a length which indicates that she
was not more than three years old.

(ec) Maximum Length : Average adults range from 915 to 1,220
mm. (3 and 4 feet). Ihave had larger examples, viz., a female
1,310 mm. (4 feet 34 inches), and a male 1.398 mm. (4 feet 7
inches).

Poison.—(a) Physical Characters : Fraser and Elliot report
that in its dried state it consists of “thin scales of a very pale
yellow colour.”’

(b) Yield: Dr. Pinto, who collected the venom used by
Fraser and Elliot for their experiments, obtained -28 grammes
of an impure dried poison from 60 dry glands, or an average
of -0045 per gland, or :009 grammes of poison per snake.

(c) Amount injected during a Bite : Rogers estimated that the
average amount injected at one bite represented -01 grammes
of dried residue. It is difficult.to reconcile this estimate with
Dr. Pinto’s average yield. Fraser and Elliot’s estimate is
much lower, but could not be exactly stated owing to an
accident.

(d) Toxicity : Russell caused one to bite a fowl, and the bird
succumbed in five minutes! Rogers, experimenting on pigeons,
found that Enhydrina venom was ten times more potent than

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 405

cobra venom. It does not follow, however, that the same
relationship would hold good in the human subject. Lamb,
indeed, speaking of cobra poison shows that the minimal
lethal dose for rats is one-fourth that for pigeons per kilogram
weight.

(ec) Lethal dose for Man: It is impossible even to guess at
the lethal dose for man, as the figures above quoted do not
support one another.

(f) Toxns—
(1) Neurotoxins operating on nerve cells :

(a) A depressor paralysing the respiratory centre
(Rogers, Fraser, and Elliot).

(6) A depressor paralysing centres in the bulb (inferred
from the remarks of Rogers, Fraser, and Elliot).

(c) A depressor paralysing nerve endings, the phrenics
especially (Fraser and Elliot).

(2) A direct stimulant to cardiac muscle (or nerve
endings). Very feeble (Fraser and Elliot).
(3) Toxins affecting the constitution of the blood.
(a) Hemolysin. Very feeble (Fraser and Elliot).

(9) Analysis of toxic action—

(1) (a) The “neurotoxin” paralysing the respiratory
centre is the chief agent in producing death. It is
powerfully assisted by (1) (c).

(6) This neurotoxin evokes symptoms of paralysis of
the lips, tongue, throat, and voice.
(c) This assists (1) (a) in arresting breathing.

(2) This is so feeble in action as to be altogether a
negligible factor in the toxemia.
(3) (a) This affects the blood so little that haemorrhages
are not likely to be seen.

(h) Symptoms of Toxeemia : These have only been studied on
lower animals in the laboratory. Rogers says there is no
difference between the toxic manifestations of this species and
the cobra.

406 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Fraser and Elliot, however, have pointed out that there is
much greater respiratory embarrassment with HEnhydrina
venom than cobra venom, and this is accounted for by the
fact that in Enhydrina poisoning, the heart and blood vessels
are practically unaffected by any direct action of the venom,
whereas in cobra toxemia both are markedly affected. Again,
the paralysis of the end plates of the phrenic nerves is more
pronounced than in cobra poisoning.

In the human subject then one would expect a clinical
picture such as I have portrayed under the cobra. Over and
above this, one would expect a greater degree of respiratory
embarrassment. Hzemorrhages are not so likely to occur, and
the local effects, according to Lamb, are slight. Death, as in
other Colubrine toxemie, is due to a paralysis of the
respiratory centre.

(j) Illustrative Case: It is very remarkable that in spite of
the abundance of this snake, literature does not furnish a single
casualty in the human subject.

(k) Treatment: Fraser and Elliot have shown that
Calmette’s antivenene has a very feeble action in neutralizing
the effects of the poison, so that this agent or the Kasauli
preparation may be tried. Otherwise treatment should be
symptomatic, and on the lines laid down for cobra poisoning.

Epizoa and Epiphyta ; ‘The following have been communi-
cated to me by Dr. Annandale :—

(a) Polyzoa: Alcyomdium mytili (Dalzell).

(6) Barnacles : Platylepas ophiophilus (Lankester).

This latter has only been found on seasnakes.

Lepidosis —(a) Typical—Rostral: Rather deeper than
broad, projecting below the level of the lip. Nasals : The
outer suture passes to the Ist supralabial. Prefronials :
Touch the 2nd supralabial. frontal: Entire; longer than
broad ; the fronto-parietal sutures subequal to or longer than
the fronto-supraoculars. Parietals: Entire. Preocular:
One. Postoculars: One or two. TYemporals: Variable ;
usually one large anterior nearly descending to the labial
margin. Swpralabials : Seven or eight ; the first four usually
entire, the rest subject to much variation. Sublinguals :
Usually absent ; two small pairs, both widely separated by

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 407

small scales, are regarded by some as such. Infralabials ;
Five ; the 5th touching three or four scales behind. Cuneate -
None. (Fig. 76.)

Fie, 76.—Enhydrina valakadyen.
(Life size.)
D. Costals.

408 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

In old males the head shields are studded with small
granular tubercles.

Costals : Nearly as broad as long, imbricate or subimbricate
everywhere ; with a median short keel, frequently twice or
thrice denticulated, in the median third or three-fifths of each
scale. In 47 to 61 rows two heads-lengths behind the head,
50 to 70 at midbody, and 50 to 70 two heads-lengths before
the vent. Old males are very rough from the well-developed
keels and their denticulations, especiajly ventrally, and in
this respect resemble the males of some other seasnakes, like
cyanocincta, obscurus, and cerulescens. Ventrals : 230 to
361; little broader than the last costal row, often divided,
laterally keeled as in the last costal rows.

(6) Anomalies—Nasals : Rarely there are no sutures from
the nostril ; rarely the outer suture passes to the 2nd supra-
labial. Prefrontals: Rarely fail to touch the 2nd supra-
labials. Z'emporals : Subject to much variation, division, or
confluence with the subjacent supralabials. Supralabials :
The 2nd rarely divided to form a pseudo-loreal; the 3rd
rarely divided to form a pseudo-preocular.

Dentition.—-Detailed under the genus.

Distribution.—-(a) General : From the Persian Gulf to New
Guinea. :

(6) Local : It is extremely abundant on both coasts of the
Indian Peninsula. In Cannanore I probably procured ten
specimens for every other seasnake. In Madras a collection of
192 seasnakes produced 60 Hnhydrinas. It appears to be
uncommon as far South as Ceylon, for Haly in 1891 reported
no specimens were in the Colombo Museum, and I only saw
one there when I examined the collection. I never saw one
captured by the fishermen in Colombo when their huge nets
were broughtin. ‘There is at least one in the British Museum
labelled ‘‘ West Ceylon.”’ I can find no record from the Anda-
man Islands, though Ifound it extremely common on the coasts

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 409

of Burma. It is very common in the Mergui Archipelago,
and Cantor reported it incredibly numerous off the coast of
the Malay Peninsula. I can find but few records from the
Malayan Archipelago, and Stejneger doubts if it occurs on
the Japanese Coasts, or further North than perhaps Formosa.
' It was not represented in any of the Chinese Museums (Hong
Kong, Shanghai, and Siccawee) when I visited these insti-
tutions in 1901 and 1902, nor in either of the two large
collections of seasnakes from Japan and the Loo Choo Islands
submitted to me by Mr. Owston.

Genus LAPEMIS.*

General Character.—Length rather short. Habit robust. .
Body moderately attenuated anteriorly, its diameter
about half to two-thirds the extreme depth poste-
riorly.

Cranial Osteological Characters.—WNasals : Sutured to pre-
frontals and frontal ; longer than frontal. Prefrontals : Meet
the parietal; not meeting postfrontals. Frontal: Breadth
two-thirds to three-fourths the length ; meeting postfrontal at
rim of orbit. Parietal: No keel inferiorly. Quadrate :
Oblique from above backwards, extreme length superiorly
three-fifths its depth. Mazxilla: Not extending beyond
palatine anteriorly, extending beyond palatine poste-
riorly.

Dentition.—From two species in my collection. Mawzillary :
Postnodal, 3 to 5; isodont. Palatine: 5 to 6; anododont,
isodont ; with a short edentulous space posteriorly that would
accommodate one tooth. Pterygoid: 17 to 22; anododont,
isodont ; posterior third to fourth edentulous. Mandibular :
12 to 16 ; anododont, scaphiodont.

There are two species, viz., curtus and hardwickez.

* Stejneger (Herp., Japan, 1907, p. 435) points out that the generic
name should be Gray’s Lapemis.

410 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

LAPEMIS CURTUS (Shaw).

(Latin “ curtus ”’ short.)

Shaw’s Seasnake.
Tamil: “ potai pambu ” (female snake) in Madras.

Synonymy.—Hydrus curtus, Lapemis curtus, Hydrophis
propinquus, H. curta.

History.— Described by Shaw in 1802 from a young specimen
labelled ‘‘ India.’’ The type is in the British Museum,

General Characters,—It is a small stout snake growing to
about 24 feet. Head massive, with strong jaws, moderately
depressed. Snout moderate in length, broadly rounded ter-
minally, declivous. Eye of moderate size, with dull greenish
iris. Neck hardly evident. Body short, stout, cylindrical
anteriorly ; strongly compressed posteriorly ; the depth
anteriorly two-thirds to less than half the greatest depth
posteriorly. |

Identification.—The only Indian hydrophid with disintegrate
parietal shields. The ventrals are hardly enlarged, except
anteriorly, and number 130 to 219.

Colouration.—The dorsum is olivaceous green, merging
about midcosta to pale-yellow. The back is beset with a
series of dark, greenish-brown, or greenish-black, rather ill-
defined, cross-bars, about 45 to 55 in number, and rather
broader than the interspaces. The first of these passes across
the back of the head. Inthe young these bars extend further
ventrally, and often form complete bands.

Habits.—It frequents our Indian Coasts in large numbers.
In rough weather, in common with other seasnakes, it appears
to keep well out to sea, judging from the dearth of numbers
brought in from the fishing nets at this time. I have known
a specimen taken on land close to a backwater one and a half
miles from the sea.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 41]

I have lately seen many specimens in the Madras aquarium.
It moves expeditiously by lateral undulations, and is
extremely graceful in its movements, looking at first sight
much more like an elongate fish than a snake. Occasionally
a minute pearl-like bubble is seen at each nostril, which in
course of time is freed and floats up to the surface. Visits
to the surface for a fresh intake of air are few and far between.

Food.— Remains of fish in the stomachs of many show that it
depends upon this form of diet in common with other hydro-
phids. I have not been able to procure any fish in a suitable
state to make identification probable.

Breeding.--(a) The Sexes : Out of 49 specimens collected in
June and July, 1917, which I sexed, 21 were males and 28
females. The tubercles on the scales in females are feeble,
but in males are stronger, and on the lowest costal rows in old

adults actually spinose. The male claspers are not bifid.

(b) Method of Reproduction : It is definitely known to be
Viviparous.

(c) Season : The young are born between May and August.
I had twelve gravid females from Madras between June 20
and July 12, 1917, the foetuses ranging between 215 and 355
mm. (84 and 14 inches). Nine other specimens already born
ranged between 350 and 445 mm. (132 and 174 inches). From
this it is probable that the 445 mm. specimen had been born
in May or even earlier, and that the 350 mm. specimens would
not have been born till August or possibly later.

(d) Period of Gestation : Not known.

(e) The Brood: This species shares with Microcephalophis
gracilis the distinction of being the least prolific of all the
seasnakes known to me. Of twelve gravid females that have
passed through my hands, four contained a single foetus, and
seven only two young. Onespecimen contained four embryos.
Some of the sacs containing the young measured as much as
108 mm. (44 inches) in length.

Growth.—(a) The Hatchling : I have found unborn embryos
measuring as much as 355 mm. (14 inches), and I have had

58 6(6)20

412 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

specimens which after birth measured 330 mm. (13 inches).
The young then vary from 330 to 355 mm. (13 to 14 inches).
The embryo is retained until it has reached a very remarkable
degree of development, many extracted by me being fully half
and sometimes more than half the length of the mother.

(b) Early Life: The young appear to grow about 6 to 8
inches in the first year of life, as proved by seven of my
specimens in June and July measuring 483 to 553 mm. (19 to
213 inches) long. If this rate of growth is maintained they
would be about 686 to 762 mm. (27 to 30 inches) at the end
of the second year of life.

(c) Maturity : Most of my gravid females measured from
686 to 825 mm. (27 to 324 inches). From this it will be seen
that many are mothers by the time they reach two years of
age. Thus, compared with the majority ot land snakes, Shaw’s
seasnake shows a marked precocity in attaining to sexual
maturity.

(2) Maximum Lengih : My largest specimens measured 846
mm. (2 feet 94 inches). One was a male, the other a female.

Poison.—(a) Physical Characters : Fraser and Elliot report
the dried product as consisting of thin scales of a very pale
yellow colour.

(b) Yield : Dr. Pinto found the average yield from eight
fresh specimens represented °00284 grammes of dried
residue.*

(c) Towicity : The virulence of the poison, as ascertained by
experiments on rats, was about one-seventh that of Lnhydrina
venom. Fraser and Elliot, however, do not lay great stress
on the respective values of the two venoms experimented with,
as they have found considerable variations in the toxicity 42
different samples of cobra venom collected under exactly
similar conditions.

(d) Lethal Dose for Man : This can only be roughly guessed
at, for it does not follow that because the lethal doses ot two
poisons are known for the rat, that for man they would bear

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 413

the same relationship. Again, Fraser and Elliot, as just
mentioned, do not attach too much importance to the results
they obtained froma single sample of cwrtus poison. Thelethal
dose of this venom per kilogram weight for rats being :0006
grammes and that for the cobra being :0005, shows that to
the rat the former is slightly less virulent. If man is as
susceptible as the rat the lethal dose of the poison would be
about :00175 grammes. As the glands of an average adult
specimen only yield about °00284 grammes of venom they
contain less than two lethal doses. :

(2) Yoxins : Apparently exactly similar to those of Hnhy-
drina valakadyen (q.v.)

(f) Symptoms : Fraser and Elhot, from experiments on the
lower animals, conclude that the symptoms are almost exactly
the same as in cobra poisoning. The one marked difference
noted by them was that respiratory embarrassment is much
more severe than in cobra poisoning, and this is due to a much
greater degree of paralysis of the ends of the phrenic nerves
than is the case in cobra poisoning, over and above the para-
lysis of the respiratory centre. The vaso-motor centre and
the vagi are not affected, unlike cobra poisoning.

(g) Illustrative Case: None is available, there being no
record in past literature of a casualty attributable to curtus.

(h) Treatment : This should be as recommended for cobra
poisoning. Fraser and Elliot have demonstrated that
Calmette’s antivenene affords a feeble measure of protection
against the venom of Shaw’s seasnake.

Lepidosis—(a) Typical—Rostral: Broader than deep.
Nasals : A suture from the nostril passes to the second supra-
labial. Prefrontals : Touch the second supralabial. Frontal :
Kntire ; the fronto-parietal sutures longest. Supraoculars :
Length half to three-fourths the frontal, breadth two-thirds
to three-fourths the frontal. Parietals : Disintegrate, usually
divided into three subequal parts. Preocular: One. Post-
oculars: One. Temporals: Small, variable. Supratabials :
Seven or eight ; first 3, 4, or 5 entire, the rest subject to
division and much variation, and forming the so-called lower

414 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

postoculars and temporals of many authors. The Ist and
2nd touch the nasals; and the 3rd and 4th the eye. Sub-
linguals: Absent. Ifany scales are sufficiently well developed
to merit the name ot anterior sublinguals, they are completely
separated by small scales. Jnfralabials: Four; the 4th
largest and in contact with three or four scales behind.
Cuneate : A complete row after the 2nd infralabial. (Fig. 77.)

Fic. 77,—Lapemis curtus,
(Life size.)

SNAKES OF CEYLON. A415

Costals : As broad or broader than long; square, oblong,
or hexagonal ; juxtaposed everywhere, with a central tubercle
Last three or four rows enlarged, with the tubercles in old males
developed into prominent spines. Two heads-lengths behind
the head 29 to 36; at midbody 30 to 45; two heads-lengths
before the vent 30 to 42. Venitrals: 151 to 219; entire, and
slightly broader than the last costals anteriorly ; divided
posteriorly for a variable length, each half with a central
tubercle, or in old males spines. Anal: Divided into four
or six.

(6) Anomalies—Rostral : Sometimes partly divided in the
median line above. Nasals : The suture from the nostril very
rarely passes to the lst supralabial. Prefrontals : Very rarely
fail to meet the 2nd supralabial ; very rarely touch the 3rd
as well as the 2nd. Frontal: Rarely partly disintegrate
posteriorly. Parietals: Very rarely not broken up; some-
times broken up into more than three parts. Postoculars :
Rarely two. Supralabials: The 3rd sometimes divided,
forming the so-called loreal of some authors. The 3rd as well
as: the Ist and 2nd very rarely touch the nasals. Sometimes
the 3rd, 4th, and 5th, or the 4th only, touch the eye. Jn/fra-
labials : Rarely the cuneate scales fail to meet, and so allow
the 3rd, or 3rd and 4th, to partly reach the border of the lip.

Dentition.—From three skulls in my collection. Mazillary:
Postnodal, 3 or 4. Palatine: 5 to 6. Ptlerygoid: 18 to 22.
Mandibular: 12 to 16.

Distribution.—(a) General: From the Persian Gulf to the
Malay Archipelago.

(6) Local : I have found it very common on the Malabar
Coast (Cannanore) and Coromandel Coast (Madras). One
collection of 192 hydrophids from Madras furnished 84
examples of Shaw’s seasnake. There were three specimens
in the Colombo Museum when I examined the collection, and
others from the Ceylon coast are preserved in the British
Museum. It appears to be rare on the Burmese side of the
Bay of Bengal, for out of many seasnakes collected for me
I have had no specimen. The Indian Museum had one

416 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

specimen (No. 11,531) from Mergui. It appears to be rare
also in the Malayan region, as Flower does not mention it.
It was not represented in the large collection made by
Annandale and Robinson from the Malay Peninsula, but
Boulenger says the Skeat Expedition obtained it from Singa-
pore. The Indian Museum has a specimen (No. 14,547) from
Borneo.

LAPEMIS HARDWICKEI (Gray).

(Named in honour of General Thomas Hardwicke.)

Hardwicke’s Seasnake.

Synonymy.—Lapemis hardwickei, L. loreatus, Hydrophis
pelamidoides, H. hardwickei, H. loreata, H. fayrervana, H.
abbreviatus, H. brevis.

History.—First described by Gray in 1834 from a specimen
Gunther believed to be captured at Penang, and now in the
British Museum. Boulenger, however, gives the locality as
“ India.”

General Characters.—A moderate-sized stout species, which
erows to about 3 feet. Head large, broad, moderately
depressed. Snout rather long, declivous, obtuse terminally.
Kye moderate. Neck not or hardly evident. Body short,
stout, compressed from shortly behind the neck. Anteriorly
the depth is about two-thirds the greatest depth.

Identification.—The juxtaposed character of the costals
everywhere, the enlargement of the last three or four rows,
taken with the few ventrals (130 to 214) and entire parietals
will establish the species. ‘The suture from the nostril almost
always passes to the Ist supralabial, a feature only to be seen —
in Enhydrina valakadyen, and rare aberrant examples of
L. curtus and Chitulia ornata among Indian hydrophids.

Colouration.—Dorsally pale dirty greenish, ventrally pale
yellow ; with about 27 to 43 bars across the dorsum of the

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 417

body. These are deep seaweed-green or blackish-green,
broader than the intervals, and narrow subcostally. They are
well defined in young examples, and usually grow more and
more ill-defined with age. In some examples the bars are
replaced by bands that completely encircle the body (variety
annulata of Fischer). Both bars and bands may be confluent
on the spine, and the anterior bands are often confluent
ventrally. The head is dark seaweed-green or blackish, more
or less mottled with yellow, the latter hue tending to form
a horseshoe-shaped mark, which becomes more and more
obsolescent as age advances. ‘The tail is barred like the body,
and black at the tip.

Habits.—_No special remarks have been recorded that I can
find.

Food.—I can find no allusion to any special fish eaten.
Breeding.—No events have been published.

Growth. Maximum Length : Gunther gives the length of
one as 915 mm. (3 feet).

Poison.—There is no record of a casualty from this snake,
and the poison has not been experimented with in the
laboratory.

Lepidosis._—_(a) T'ypical—Rostral : About as deep as broad.
Nasals : Two sutures usually pass from the nostrils, one back-
wards to the prefrontals, and the. other outwards to the Ist
supralabial. Prefronials: Touch the 2nd_ supralabial.
Frontal: Entire, the fronto-parietal sutures longest.
Parietals : Entire, touching the postoculars. Preoculars :
One. Postoculars: One, two, or three. Temyporals : Not
differentiated ; replaced by scales which are extremely variable
in number and disposition. Swpralabials: Seven or eight ;
the Ist and 2nd touching the nasals, and the 3rd and 4th
the eye. The anterior 3, 4, or 5 entire, the rest subject to
division and great inconstancy. Sublinguals : Absent or so
small as not to deserve the name. If recognizable as such,
the anterior are completely separated by small scales. Infra
labials : Four or five; the 4th largest and touching three or

418 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

four scales posteriorly. Cuneate: A complete row from
behind the 2nd infralabial, (Fig. 78.)

Fic. 78.—Lapemis hardwickei.
(Life size.)
D. Costals.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 419

Cosials :; As broad as or broader than long, last three or
four rows enlarged ; square, obiong, or hexagonal ; juxtaposed
everywhere, with a central tubercle, which may be obscure
in the anterior part of the body in females, strong in males,
and those in the lowest three rows spinose in old males. In
25 to 33 rows two heads-lengths behind the head ; 27 to 40
in midbody ; and 27 to 37 two heads-lengths before the vent.
Ventrals : 130 to 214 ; not enlarged, except to a variable extent
anteriorly ; otherwise, smaller than the last costals. Anal :
divided into four or six parts.

(b) Anomalies—Rostral : Sometimes with a partial suture
in the median line above. Nasals : Sometimes divided by
more than two sutures radiating from the nostril. One such
integral part forms a pseudo-loreal on one side in the type
specimen, and similar specimens led Gray to separate them
under the name loreata. The outer suture rarely runs to the
2nd supralabial. Prefrontals: Rarely touch the 3rd as well
as the 2nd supralabial. Rarely touch no supralabial.
Frontal: Rarely more or less disintegrate posteriorly.
Parietals : Sometimes very irregularly disintegrate. Supra-
labials : The 2nd, 3rd, 4th, or 5th sometimes divided into an
upper and lower part: 3rd and 5th, or 4th or 5th, only
touching the eye, owing to a confluence of the normal shields.
Cuneate : Sometimes not a complete series, the 5th infralabial
reaching the labial border.

Dentition—From one skull in my collection. Mazillary :
Postnodal, 3 to 5. Palatine: 5 to 6. Pterygoid: 17.
Mandibular : 13 to 14.

Distribution—(a) General: Bay of Bengal through the
Malayan region to New Guinea and Philippines.

(6) Local : Apparently very rare on the western side of the
Bay of Bengal. The only record I can find is Fayrer’s
specimen from Puri, Orissa, in the Indian Museum (No. 8,270),
which Anderson made the type of fayreriana. I have failed
to procure a single specimen on our Indian (including Burmese)
Coasts out of the many hundreds of hydrophids that have
passed through my hands. It is evidently common in the
Mergui Archipelago, for I have examined no less than eleven
examples from that locality preserved in the Indian Museum.

59 6(6)20

420 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

It appears to be fairly abundant in the Malay Archipelago.
It is common further east around the Philippines, and I had
no less than seven specimens in a small collection from that
locality. It does not seem to have been recorded from the
Chinese Coast, and I think when Flower includes the Chinese
sea within its limits he means the southern part of that sea.
Stejneger says that its claim to be considered a Japanese snake
is dubious. It was not represented in the two large collections
of seasnakes made by Owston around Japan and the Loo Choo
Islands, which formed the subject of my papers published in the
proceedings of the Zoological Society of Londonin 1903 and 1905.

There is no record from Ceylon, and it is only included in
this list by me because it has been found in the Bay of Bengal.

Genus HYDRUS.

; (Greek * hudros ”’ water-snake. )

General Characters.—Length rather small, about 2 feet.
Habit robust. Slightly attenuated anteriorly, its diameter
about two-thirds the extreme depth posteriorly.

Cranial Osteological Charaeters.—Nasals : Sutured to pre-
frontals and frontal; longer than frontal. Prefrontals :
Not meeting parietal, meeting postfrontals. rontals :
Breadth three-fourths its length, meeting postfrontals at
rim of orbit. Parietal: Strongly keeledinferiorly. Quadrate :
Oblique from above backwards ; extreme length superiorly
half its depth. Mazilla: Not extending beyond palatine
anteriorly ; extending beyond palatine posteriorly.

Dentition.—From three skulls in my collection. Mazillary :
Postnodal, 8 to 10; isodont. Palatine: 6 to 7 ; anododont,
scaphiodont ; no edentulous space posteriorly. Pterygoid :
23 to 27 ; anododont, isodont ; posterior quarter edentulous,
Mandibular : 16 to 18 ; anododont, scaphiodont.

There is one species, viz., platurus.

HYDRUS PLATURUS (Linné).
(Greek “ platus ” flat, and “ oura ”’ tail.)
Linne’s Seasnake.
Synonymy.—Anguwis platura, Hydrus bicolor, Pelamis
schneideri, P. ornata, P. platurus, P. bicolor, Hydrophis
platura, H. velamis, H. bicolor. .

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 421

History.—First described by Linné in 1766. The type
was preserved in Stockholm.

General Characters—Rather a small snake, growing to
little over 2 feet in length, and rather eel-like in confor-
mation. Head large, elongate, much depressed. Snout very
long, broadly rounded terminally, slightly declivous. Hye
moderate. Neck fairly evident. Body compressed, of
nearly uniform calibre throughout, with a sharp ridge along
the back, deepest near midbody, attenuating to the neck and
posteriorly. Belly forming an obtuse keel.

Identification.—The costals broader than long, and in 40
to 54 rows two heads-lengths behind the head, will distinguish
this from other seasnakes. The figure-of-8- tubercles are
only seen in two other hydrophids, viz., Microcephalophts
gracilis and cantoris. Its colouration too is very distinctive,
and if once seen the snake cannot be mistaken for any other |
Species of seasnake.

Colouration.—There are several colour varieties, which may
be grouped as follows :—

Variety (A) (= the bicolor of Schneider and variety E of
-Boulenger’s Catalogue, Vol. III., p. 268) : Head chocolate
or black above, yellow beneath. Body with a broad stripe
dorsally of the same colour as the head. The lower edge of
the stripe is straight, or festooned posteriorly, and sharply
demarcated from the pale yellow of the sides and belly. A
paler intermediate lateral stripe may separate the dorsal
and ventral hues. Tail with black dorsal bars and lateral
spots.

This is by far the commonest variety on our coasts. Some
specimens have a series of black costal spots in the yellow, or
these may be confluent and form a more or less irregularly
outlined stripe. (Variety C of Boulenger’s Catalogue.) Such
Specimens are not infrequent.

I have seen specimens in the Indian Museum from Ceylon
and Puri. Six out of thirteen examples in the Colombo
Museum are of this variety. One has a paler yellow inter-
mediate stripe, and one a pale narrow vertebral stripe. <A
specimen in the Bombay Natural History Society’s collection
from Madras and another in the Indian Museum from the

422 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Nicobars have the posterior part of the dorsal stripe festooned
instead of straight, and thus constitute a form transitional
between varieties A and B.

Variety (B) (=the ornatus of Gray, the maculatus of Jan,
and varieties A and B of Boulenger’s Catalogue): In this
the dorsal stripe is broken up into cross-bars in the whole body
length or for a variable extent posteriorly, and a series of
costal spots alternates with the bars. It is a rare form
known from Borneo, but dubiously from our coasts.

Variety (C) subobscurus (Wall) (variety D of Boulenger’s
Catalogue): Like variety A, but the yellow is replaced by
a khaki hue. In some the hues are separated by a yellow
line. I saw three such with a yellow line from Ceylon in the
Colombo Museum, and there is one from Bombay in the
British Museum. One without the yellow line in the Indian
Museum is from Travancore, and two in the Colombo Museum
are from Ceylon. Three of the five in the Colombo Museum
have the dorsal stripe festooned posteriorly. |

Variety (D) (=variety G of Boulenger’s Catalogue) : The
name pallidus would suit this form. It differs only from
variety A, in that the sides and belly are whitish or grayish,
and the dorsal stripe and caudal marks are much paler than
normal, indeed, these may be almost obsolescent. Such a
specimen from Travancore is in the British Museum. ‘Two
specimens I saw in the Colombo Museum, probably from
Ceylon, another in the Indian Museum from the Persian Gulf,
and a thirdin the Bombay Natural History Society’s collection
irom Bombay, all of which I took at first to be very faded .
specimens, belong to this variety. The last is so pale and
the vertebral stripe so extremely indistinct that I regarded it
dubiously as an albino. Father Dreckman in 1913 wrote to
me of a somewhat similar specimen he had recently acquired
near Bandora on the Bombay Coast. This was a light gray
colour, with a somewhat darker vertebral stripe. The tail
had the usual characteristic black marks.

Habits.—Nothing special known.

Food.—I am not aware of any fish preyed upon having
been identified.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 423

Breeding.—(a) The Sexes : The tubercles on the scales are
more pronounced in males, but even in the foetus these are
distinguishable in the female.

(6) Method of Reproduction : It is viviparous.

(c) Season : A specimen in the Colombo Museum in a very
late stage of pregnancy was killed at Mount Lavinia on March
9, 1919. A young example 237 mm. (94 inches) was killed
on May 11, 1915.

(d) Period of Gestation : Not known.

(e) The Brood: The gravid female mentioned contained
two sacs 62 mm. (24 inches) long containing foetuses measur-
ing 244 and 254 mm. (92 and 103 inches). No male
genitalia were to be seen, so that unless both were females,
the feetuses were almost at full term. It is interesting to
note of this family that the dam conforms to variety sub-
obscurus, and has no yellow lateral stripe. One foetus is also
of variety subobscurus, but differs from the mother in having
a yellow lateral stripe, and the margin of the dorsal stripe
festooned posteriorly . The other foetus is. of variety bicolor.
and the dorsal stripe is not festooned posteriorly.

Growth.—(a) The Young: The measurements of the young

at birth have not been taken, but may be inferred from the
measurements of the foetuses given above and the fact that
three young specimens in the Colombo Museum measure 237,
256, and 262 mm. (93, 104, and 103 inches) respectively.
- (b) Maturity—The prospective dam measured 635 mm.
(2 feet 1 inch). .
(ce) Maximum Lengih—My largest record is 722 mm.

(2 feet 44 inches).

Poison.—In ‘‘ Land and Water’ (November 15, 1879) is
an account of one that climbed up the anchor chain of a man-
of-war in the Ganges. An unfortunate midshipman who
tried to capture it was bitten and died shortly afterwards.

Epizoa.—Dr. Willey (‘‘ Spolia Zeylanica,’’ 1906, p. 207,
and 1910, p. 180) has remarked upon two barnacles that
attach themselves to this snake. These are Conchoderma
virgatum, variety hunteri (Owen), and Lepas anserifera
(Linné) Dr. Annandale has informed me of others, viz..

424 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

* Lepas tenuivalvata (Annandale), Dichelaspis warwicki (Gray),
and a species of *Platylepas, the specific identity of which
has not yet been determined. (Fig. 79.)

Fie. 79.—Common barnacle.

(Lepas anserifera.)
Car = carina or keel.
clr = cirri.
ped = pedicle or stalk.
sec =scutum,
ter = tergum.

Lepidosis.—(a) Typical—Rostral: Broader than high.
Nasals ; Usually no suture from the nostrils to the labials.
Prefronials : Touch the 2nd supralabial. Frontal: Longer
than broad, shorter than the parietals ; the fronto-parietal
sutures are subequal to or rather longer than the fronto-
supraoculars. Supraoculars : About three-fourths the length
of the frontal, and about three-fourths the breadth of that shield
along a line connecting the centres of the eyes. Preocular :
One. Postoculars. Two orthree. Temporals : Not difieren-
tiated, replaced by small scales. Swpralabials: Seven to
eleven ; the 2nd largest ; the first three usually entire, but all
the rest are subject to division, and hardly two specimens are
quite alike ; the Ist and 2nd touch the nasals ; and the 4th

* Only found as yet attached to seasnakes and not any inanimate
objects.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 425

and Sth, or 4th, 5th, and 6th, touch the eye. Sublinguals : Ii
discernible as such, small and separated by many scales.
Infralabials ; Five, all touching the labial margin. Cwuneate :
None. (Fig. 80.)

Fic. 80.—Hydrus platurus,
(Life size.)
D. Costals.

426 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Cosials : Broader than long, hexagonal, and juxtaposed
everywhere. Each scale has figure-of-8 tubercles centrally
on the ventral aspect; a single central tubercle at about
midcosta, but dorsally these may be absent. They are most
pronounced in males, and obsolescent in females and young.
Two heads-lengths behind the head they number 40 to 54,
41 to 61 at midbody, and 41 to 61 two heads-lengths before
the vent. Therows are more numerous in females. Ventrals :
284 to 339; not well developed, being little, if at all, larger
than the adjacent costals ; bituberculate laterally. Anal :
Divided into four parts.

(b) Anomalies—Nasals : When an outer suture is present
it passes from the nostril to the 2nd supralabial. Prefrontals :
Sometimes do not meet the 2nd supralabial, owing to the
contact of the nasal with the preocular. Supralabials :
Except the first two or three all are subject to division, forming
the so-called loreals, lower preeoculars, and suboculars of some
authors. Sublinguals: One or two pairs of slightly enlarged
scales, both always widely separated may be taken as such
in Many specimens.

Dentition.— Detailed under the genus.

Distribution.—(a) General: Persian Gulf to Tenasserim
and the Andamans. Beyond Indian limits it has a very
wide range, extending to Japan, Australia, New Zealand,
South Africa, and the western coast of North America.

(b) Local: It is moderately abundant around the Indian
Coasts. Ferguson, speaking of Ceylon, remarks that it is
common about Colombo and the pearl fisheries. Varieties
A, D, and E have been met with around the Ceylon Coasts.

Genus LATICAUDA.*

(Latin “latus ” flat, “cauda”’ tail.)

General Characters——Head relatively broad. Nostrils
lateral, pierced in an elongate entire nasal shield. Length
moderate. Habit robust. Body of even calibre and cylin-
drical throughout. Tail highly compressed.

* As pointed out by Stejneger (Herp., Japan, 1907, p. 402) Laurenti’s
Laticauda, dating from 1768, has a prior claim to Latreille’s Platurus,
which dates from 1802.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 427

Cranial Osteological Characters.—Nusals : Not sutured to
prefrontals or frontal; longer than frontal. Prefrontals :
Not meeting parietal or postfrontals. Frontal: Broader
than long, meeting postfrontals at rim of orbit. Parietal :
Not keeled inferiorly. Quwadrate : Oblique from above back-
wards; extreme length superiorly two-thirds its depth.
Maxilla: Extends beyond the palatine anteriorly ; not
extending beyond palatine posteriorly.

Dentition.—From skulls of three species in my collection.
Maxillary: Postnodal, 1. Palatine: 5 to 6; anodonont,
isodont ; with a short space posteriorly that would accom-
modate one tooth. Pterygoid: 13 to 17; anododont,
scaphiodont ; posterior two-fifths edentulous. Mandibular ;
9 to 12 ; anododont, scaphiodont.

There are two species within Indian limits, viz., laticaudata
and colubrina, and one further east, viz., schistorhyncha,
Boulenger’s muelleri I cannot separate from the first named.

_ LATICAUDA LATICAUDATA (Linné).

(Latin “latus ” flat, “‘ cauda ”’ tail.)

Innne’s Sea Kratt.
Synonymy.—Coluber laticaudatus, C. platycaudatus, Lati-

cauda scutata, Platurus fasciatus, P. laurenti, P. laticaudatus,
P. fischerr, P. affinis.

History.—First introduced to science by Linné in 1758.
The type is in the Stockholm Museum.

General Characters.—A moderately-sized snake, growing to
about 3 feet. The facies reminds one forcibly of the land
kraits of the genus Bungarus.

Identification.—Among Indian hydrophids it is easily recog-
nized by the broad ventrals and lateral nostrils.

Colouration.—The body and tail are broadly banded with
blackish-brown and bluish-gray. The former bands are the
broader, involve about four scale rows dorsally, and number
about 33 to 47 on the body and 5 on the tail. The lighter
bands are yellowish ventrally. The head has a blackish-

60 6(6)20

428 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

brown band produced forwards to the anterior edge of the
frontal, and a patch on the upper lip of the same colour.
Klsewhere it is yellow.

Habits.—-Haunts : Essentially marine, but has been found
on land in the vicinity of the sea. Its cylindrical body enables
it to progress on land with comparative ease, whereas other
seasnakes, owing to their highly compressed bodies, can only
flounder about without making progress.

Food.—lI know of no special observations having been made
in this direction.

Breeding.—I found, when examining the specimen in the
Indian Museum (No. 8,289), that it contained seven eggs, but
[ omitted to note whether these contained embryos or not.
Unfortunately, there is no record of the date of this specimen’s
capture.

Growth.— Maximum Length: The largest specimen I have
examined was 1,093 mm. (3 feet 7 inches), and was taken y
Mr. Owston off the Loo Choo Islands.

Poison,—-Nothing known.

Lepidosis.—(a) ZT ypical—Rostral: Height greater than
breadth, touching six shields ; the rostro-labial sutures twice
or more than twice the rest. /nternasals: A pair ; the suture
between them rather longer than that between the prefrontal
fellows, about two-thirds the internaso-prefrontals. Pre-
fronials : A pair ; the suture between them half or little more
than half the prefronto-frontals ; touching the internasal,
nasal, preocular, and supraocular. Frontal: Longer than
broad, touching six shields; all the sutures subequal, or the
ironto-parietals rather the longest. Swpraoculars : Length
about three-fifths that of the itrontal, breadth about three-
fifths that of the frontal along a line connecting the centres
of the eyes. Parietals: Touching the upper postoculars.
Nasal : More than half the distance between the eye and the
end of the snout. Preocular: One. Postoculars : Two.
Temporals : One anterior and two posterior ; anterior about
as long as the supraocular. Supralabials : Seven ; the Ist,
2nd, and 3rd touching the nasal ; the 3rd and 4th the eye ; and

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 429

5th and 6th the anterior temporal. Sublinguals : Two well-
developed pairs, the posterior in contact and touching the
4th and 5th infralabials. Jnfralabials: Five; the 4th and
5th subequal and separated from the labial margin by a
series of cuneate scales. (Fig. 81.)

Fig. 81. —Laticauda laticaudata.
(xX 13.)
D. Costals. —

430 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Costals ; Rectiform, broader than long, rounded apically,
imbricate and smooth everywhere. Vertebral row not
enlarged, except where the costals are 17. In 19 rows two
heads-lengths behind the head ; 19 in midbody ; 19 or 17 two
heads-lengths before the vent. Ventrals : 210 to 246. Very
broad, fully three times that of the ultimate row of costals ;
with a more or less distinct lateral obtuse keel om the basal
half of each shield ; sometimes with an obtuse median keel in
the posterior part of the body. The last frequently divided.

Anal: As broad as the ventrals ; divided. Subcaudals ; 25
to 47.

(6) Anomalies—Supralabials : Rarely eight ; sometimes the
drd fails to touch the nasals ; rarely the 4th touches the eye.
Infralabials : The 3rd sometimes is cut off from the margin
of the lip by cuneate scales.

Dentition.—From one skull in my collection. Mazillary:
Postnodal teeth, 1. Palatine: 5. Maxillary: 16 to 17.:
Mandibular : 12.

Distribution..--(a) General: Bay of Bengal from Calcutta
through the Malayan region, China, Loo Choo Archi-
pelago, Philippines to New Guinea the South Pacific Islands
(Fiji, Friendly, and Society), and Australia (Tasmania). ;

(b) Local: It has never been recorded from Ceylon, but
I have already given my reason for including it in the Ceylon
list.

On the Indian shores it is evidently extremely rare. The
only records are one killed in Tolly’s Nullah, Calcutta, and one
collected by General Hardwicke. The former was preserved
in the Indian Museum, Calcutta (No. 8,289), and was the
subject figured by Fayrer (Thanatophidia, Plate XIX.). The.
latter, with no precise information as to habitat, is in the
British Museum.

Of the many hundreds of Indian seasnakes that have passed
through my hands no single specimen proved to be this species.
It seems probable that it is only an accidental visitor to the

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 431

Indian Coasts, driven thence, perhaps, by storm or strong
currents. It is apparently a rare visitor also to seas much
further East, since Flower, in his Reptiles of the Malay Penin-
sula and Siam, mentions but one record, viz., from Chantaboon,
Siam. It is not included in the collection made by Annandale
and Robinson from the Malay Peninsula (Boulenger, Fasc.
Malayensis, October, 1903), and in Boulenger’s Fauna of the
Malay Peninsula (Rept. and Batrach., 1912, p. 196) the author
does not include it in the list.

Its usual habitat is evidently the Loo Choo Archipelago,
Formosa, and the Philippines, and in these waters it is fairly
abundant.

LATICAUDA COLUBRINA (Schneider).
(Latin, implying “ like a coluber.”’)

Schneider’s Sea Krait.

Synoymy.—Coluber laticaudatus, Hydrus colubrinus, Lato-
cauda scutata, Plaiurus scutaius, P. fasciatus, P. laticaudatus.

History.—First referred to by Linné in 1766, who confused
it with the last species laticaudata. Schneider in 1799
realized the difference between the two species, and his name
for it is retained.

General Characters.—A snake of fair proportions reaching
4 teet in length. Commissure of mouth not turned up behind.

Identification._-The rostral touching six shields, and the
scales in from 21 to 25 rows two heads-lengths behind the
head, and 21 to 25 rows in midbody and posteriorly will
declare the species. It is also the only Indian hydrophid
with the frontal touching seven shields.

Colouration.—Dull bluish-gray, with from 25 to 50 very
deep brown annuli round the body, and 4 to 5 round the tail.
The bands are about as broad or broader than the interspaces,
well defined and discrete vertebrally and ventrally. As age

432 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

advances their definition becomes obscured, especially ven-
trally, where they may be suppressed, leaving dorsal bars.
Head deep brown above, and yellow on the tip of the snout
and lips.

Habits.—It is reported to leave the water sometimes and
crawl about on the rocks, and the cylindrical bodily confor-
mation explains its capability of doing so. Captain Lloyd,
who captured specimens at Sandaway Island on the Burmese
Coast, tound them in pairs in January among the submerged
rocks well out to sea. It is reputed to be a gentle snake
disinclined to bite.

Food.—A fish extracted by me from one was pronounced
by Mr. Boulenger a young glyphiodon.

Breeding.— Nothing known.

Growth.—(a) Maximum Length : The longest measurement
given by Boulenger is 1,270 mm. (4 feet 2 inches). Gunther
Says the longest of fifty specimens examined by him is 1,525
mm. (5 feet).

Poison.—Nothing known. No casualties are reported, and
the poison has not been put to experimental tests.

Lepidosis.—(a) Typical—Rostral: Deeper than broad,
touching six shields ; the rostro-labial sutures longest. nier-
nasals: A pair. Prefrontals : Three in one transverse series,
not touching any supralabial. Frontal: Entire ; longer than
broad, touching seven shields; the fronto-parietal sutures
appreciably the longest. Swpraoculars : Length half to three-
fourths the frontal, breadth half to three-fourths the frontal.
Parietals : Entire ; subequal to the length of the frontal,
touching the upper postoculars. Nasals: Entire. Pre-
oculars: One. Postoculars: Two. Temporals: One, fairly
well-developed anterior shield. Supralabials : Seven ; all well
developed ; 1st, 2nd, and 3rd touching the nasals ; 3rd and 4th
the eye. Sublinguals : Two fairly well-developed pairs, the
fellows of which are in contact. Jnfralabials : Four ; 4th
largest and in contact with three or four scales posteriorly ;
the suture between the first much shorter than that between

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 433

the anterior sublinguals, 4th only touching the posterior
sublinguals. Cuneate: A complete row after the 2nd in-
fralabial.,

Int Prt Pr® Pa
\ /
N 7 “Cx a

Fic. 82.—Laticauda colubrina.
(Life size.)

Costals : As broad as long, imbricate, and smooth every-
where ; in from 21 to 25 rows two heads-lengths behind the
head ; 21 to 25 at midbody ; 21 to 23 two heads-lengths before
the vent. Ventrals: 195 to 240; three or more times the
breadth of the last costals ; last divided. Anal: Divided into
two parts. Subcaudals : 30 to 45 ; divided.

434 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

(b) Anomalies—Prefronials: The median one is rarely
absent. Temporals : The anterior is sometimes divided into
two superimposed parts. Supralabials: Rarely six.

Dentition.—From one skull in my collection. Mazillary :
Postnodal,* 1. Palatine: 6. Pterygoid: 13. Mandibular: 9.

Distribution.—(a) Generaa!: Bay of Bengal to Chinese sea,
Loo Choo Islands. Western South Pacific Ocean.

(b) Local: Its favoured haunt is the Western South Pacific
Ocean, where it is not an uncommon snake. Around the Loo
Choo Islands it is a fairly common species. I have examined
many of Mr. Owston’s collecting from this region. I saw
one in the Hong Kong Museum labelled “ Penang,” and thereis
one in the British Museum from the same place. The eastern
side of the Bay of Bengal appears to be the extreme western
limit of its distribution. There are two in the Indian Museum
from the Nicobars, two from Sandaway Islands, and one from
Ramri Island on the Burmese Coast.

Sub-family 8 Elapine.

(Named after the type genus Hlaps.)

General Charaecters.—Head moderate to broad, snout short
or moderate, with a slight indication of a canthus. Eye
moderate in size, with a round or vertical pupil. Nostril
small or moderate and lateral. Neck more or less evident.
Body moderate or long ; depressed, cylindrical, or compressed ;
slender or robust. Belly rounded. Tail short to moderate,
cylindrical.

Identification.—No external characters can be relied upon
to indicate the sub-family, which is recognized by the protero-
glyphous maxillary dentition coupled with the cylindrical tail.

Habits.—Terrestrial. Viviparous or oviparous.

Food.—Mammals, birds, reptiles, and batrachians.

Poison.—All are poisonous. Many of the species rank
among the most poisonous of snakes, and frequently deliver
a death sentence with their bite.

Lepidosis.—The head is covered with large shields of the
Colubrine type. ‘The loreal is absent,

* T have examined these in several specimens.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 435

Costals: Longer than broad, imbricate; rectiform or
lateral rows. somewhat oblique ; smooth or keeled. Vertebrals
enlarged in some, not in others. In from 13 to 25 rows.
Ventrals: Rounded. Three or more times the breadth of
the last costal row. Anal: Entire or divided. Subcaudals :
Entire or divided.

Dentition (Indian species).—Mazillary : Proteroglyphous.
Prenodal, two large canaliculate fangs. Postnodal, none
in Doliophis and some Callophis. When present, number
1 to 4, grooved on their outer faces; isodont. Palatine :
6 to 14; isodont, or feebly scaphiodont. Pterygoid: 2 to 22
(Edentulous in Doliophis) ; scaphiodont. Mandibular: 8 to
21; scaphiodont.

Distribution.—Africa, South Asia, North, Central, and
South America, Australia.

Twenty-eight genera are comprised in the sub-family, of
which five come within Indian limits. Of these, three are
represented in Ceylon, viz., Nava, Bungarus, and Callophis.

Genus BUNGARUS.

(Latinized version of the Telugu word “ bungarum,” gold.
This name is applied by the Telugus to the banded
krait fasciatus, which has canary bands.)

The members of this genus are many of them largish snakes
exceeding 3 and even 6 feet in length. They are terrestrial,
and certainly more nocturnal than diurnal in habit. They
live almost entirely on other snakes.

General Characters.—The species attain to moderate or
considerable proportions, varying from about 2 to 6 feet.
Head subovate, moderately depressed, broadest midway
between the eyes and the neck. Snout short, slightly decli-
vous, without canthus, and broadly rounded terminally.
Kye rather small, pupil round. Iris quite black in life, so that
the shape of the pupil cannot be seen. Nostril rather large,
round, occupying the full depth of the sutures between the
nasals. Neck very little evident. Body rather long ; cylind-
rical, or compressed ; with shining scales; of even calibre

61 6(6)20

436 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

throughout. Belly rounded. Tail short or moderate,
varying from one-eleventh to one-sixth of the total length.
Acutely pointed or ending in a blunt extremity.

Identification—The enlarged vertebrals taken with the
entire subcaudals makes the genus an easy one to recognize.

Habits.—Terrestrial. Nocturnal. . Rather sluggish. In-
offensive by nature.

Food.—Almost entirely serpentine.
Breeding.—Oviparous as far as is known.

Poison.—Very virulent. The bite of those that are known
is usually fatal to man, excepting fasciatus, which rarely, if
ever, occasions death.

Lepidosis.—Rostral : Touches six shields. Jnternasals: A
pair. Prefrontals: A pair. Frontal : Touches six shields.
Nasals: Divided. Loreal: Absent. Preocular: One. Post-
oculars: Two. Temporal: One. Swupralabials: Seven. Sub-
linguals: Two pairs, the posterior shorter than the
anterior. Infralabials : Four.

Costals : Vertebrals enlarged, gradually developing on the
nape. Lateral rows longer than broad, the breadth of the
upper about three-fourths their length and about two-thirds
that of the ultimate row ; rectiform, smooth, without apical
pits. Last three rows progressively enlarging. Ultimate
row broadest, the breadth of its scales subequal to their length.
In 13 to 19 rows at midbody. Ventrals: Rounded. Anal :
Entire. Supracaudals.: In odd rows, the vertebrals enlarged.
Subcaudals : Entire (except towards the tip in bungaroides).

Dentition.— Mawiliary : Postnodal, 1 to 4; isodont. Pala-
tine : Anododont, isodont. Pterygoid : Anododont, isodont.
Mandibular : Anododont, kumatodont. The teeth in the
maxilla and mandible have shallow grooves on their outer
faces, those in the palatine and pterygoid have similar grooves
on their inner faces.

Distribution.—South-eastern Asia.

Eleven species have been described, two of which occur in
Ceylon, viz., ceruleus and ceylonicus.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 437

BUNGARUS CH:RULEUS™ (Schneider).

(Latin “‘ceruleus ” dark blue. The snake has a bluish
sheen in certain lights.)

The Common Kraut.

Tamil: * yennai viriyan ”’ (oily snake), in allusion to its
shining scales. “‘ Yennai panayan”’ (oily snake), “ yettadi
viriyan ’ (8-foot snake). This implies that it is so poisonous
that its victim will not move 8 feet from the time he is bitten.

Synonymy.—Pseudoboa cerulea, P. krat, Boa lineata,
Aspidoclomon semifasciatum, Bungarus candidus, B. semi-
fasciatus, B. arcuatus, B. lineatus.

History.—First depicted by Seba in 1735 (Thesaurus IL.,
Plate LVI., Figs. 1,3, and 4). Russell figured it in 1796 in
his first volume, Plate |. Schneider christened it in 1801.

General Characters——As detailed under the genus. A
very handsome snake with glossy scales, growing to about
44 feet. Body cylindrical. Tail about one-eighth to one-
ninth the total length, attenuating to a point.

Identification—The enlarged hexagonal vertebrals and
entire subcaudals will proclaim it a Bungarus. From cey-
lonicus it will be distinguished by the fewer ventrals, the
2nd supralabial being as long as the Ist and 3rd, and by its
twin white linear arches over the back. Cercaspis carinatus,
Lycodon striatus, and one variety of L. aulicus, especially the
first two, bear a close superficial resemblance to this species,
but the scales and shields are very different.

Colouration.—Dorsally the snake is a shining lustrous black,
with paired linear white arches across the back. The
arches are more distinct posteriorly, and tend to become
confluent vertebrally, and finally to disappear, especially

* Boulenger refers to this as B. candidus, and considers our Indian
form ceruleus as a variety. Similarly, Blyth’s multicinctus and Wall
and Evans’ magnimaculatus are regarded as varieties, These four
forms have a very distinctive colouration, and each its own restricted
range of distribution, and I think may very likely regain their lost
recognition as distinct species. Until I am satisfied of their specific
unity I prefer to regard them as distinct species. To those who support
Boulenger‘s opinion this form should be designated Bungarus candidus,
variety c@ruleus,

438 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

with age, anteriorly. The belly is pearly-white. The head
is black above, merging to white on the upper lips. The
young have the white arches particularly well defined and
conspicuous, even anteriorly. They also have a partial or
complete white collar, the back part of the head white, and
two white vertical streaks in front of and behind the eye.
Occasionally in adults the black has a mercurial lustre or
the colour of a dark dun horse.

Habits.—(a) Haunts: Fayrer says: “It is found in the
fields, grassy plains, rice khets, low scrubby jungle, and among
debris of wood and buildings. It sometimes insinuates itself
into houses, in the verandah, bathrooms, on the ledges of
doors or jhilmils, into book cases, cupboards, &c.”’ Millard
writes to me: “‘ It is very fond of living in the roofs of bun-
galows.”

Theobald, speaking of kraits as a group, says: “ They
delight in water and its vicinity,” an observation which
receives support among others from Father Castets, S.J.,
who writes to me that in Trichinopoly “small specimens have
been brought to me in bundles of twenty or more caught, as
they said, in water.” I have had several specimens brought
to me that were captured in water. These were, I think,
always captured in the hot weather, which seems to show that
they grow very thirsty, and for this reason they frequently
get into places from which they cannot extricate themselves,
such as wells and the little pukka tanks connected with the
irrigation arrangements so commonly seen in Indian gardens.

They appear to me to be commonest in the precincts of
man, and to actually domicile themselves in human habita-
tions for choice. Thus, the krait may usually be reckoned ©
as one of the commonest snakes to be found about canton-
ments and even in the bazaars, and its numerical strength is
probably little dreamt of by Indian residents. In Fyzabad,
for instance, I obtained 47 specimens in June, July, and
August, 1906, all caught or killed in cantonments. Judging
from the weekly bags brought in by a snake-catcher at
Delhi, it was probably as common in that station. A very
large number of my specimens were encountered inside
bungalows, outhouses, bazaars, and about jails. As a rule,

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 439

they have been found on the ground, or floors, far less com-
monly in roofs, or situations necessitating clambering efforts
It appears to be decidedly nocturnal in habit, most of my
specimens having been killed at night. Mr. Millard men-
tions in a letter to me that in captivity it likes to get away
from the light, and Colonel Dawson informs me that “in
captivity they never move, as a rule, during the day time,
but become very active about dusk.”’

(b) Disposition : The krait is one of the most inoffensive
snakes I know. I have had numerous living examples
brought to me, and have kept several in captivity, so that my
opportunities for studying its nature have been abundant.
Time after time I have recorded the singular timidity of
this snake in my notebooks, often under the greatest provo-
cation, and only once have I seen one bite at anything of
anger. ‘This specimen had been impaled through and through
by a trident, and could only move a few inches of its body
behind the head. It must have been enduring the most
fearful torture, but even in this predicament, though alert
and lively, moving its head and quivering its tongue, it
refused to bite things thrust at or held up to it. In trying
to remove it from the rusty prongs that pierced its body,
it endured the suffering for some time, but finally buried its
teeth into a mass of fat that had escaped from its wounds,
When freed it did not repeat the act, or betray any further
vice. I noticed that two specimens I had caged together
used periodically to grasp one another’s bodies in their jaws,
one shifting its grasp down the length of the other, as though
seeking a favourable spot to commence devouring its
mate.

Many specimens I played with or teased simply hid the
head beneath coils and refused to move. Some I noticed
flattened the hinder part of the body and inflated and deflated
themselves anteriorly like many other snakes under excite-
ment, and it is remarkable how expansive the lung must be,
for in one specimen, in which marked inflation was noticeable
from the 3rd to the 18th twin white arches, it was found upon
subsequent dissection that the lung only reached as far back
as the 7th twin arches. It very frequently emits the tongue

440 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

in a leisurely fashion when provoked. Its placid disposition
banishes all fear, and tempts one to disregard any precautions
in handling it, at least, this is my experience.

I noticed, especially in Delhi, years ago that Kallan, the
most intrepid snake-catcher I have ever seen, who collected
scores of poisonous snakes every week, treated the krait with
supreme indifference, though he exercised the greatest caution
in dealing with Echides.

Fayrer’ says: ‘In my experience I have always the
greatest difficulty to get the cobra, krait, and daboia to bite
voluntarily.” Nicholson calls it a “‘ very inoffensive ” snake.
Gleadow says: “I have always found it quiet, and not
pugnacious.” Mr. Millard tells me that it is “very shy.”
Colonel Dawson says: “It is a very shy snake, and rarely
bites, except in self-defence or when hurt.” This is fully
exemplified by the behaviour of one snake which caused a
fatality. This krait was unearthed while a man was digging.
He picked it up, and tied a piece of cloth round its head,
which the snake got rid of several times on the road from his
house to Trivandrum Gardens. Arrived at the Gardens the
snake again freed its head, and it was whilst trying to bind
it on again that a bite was inflicted, which ended fatally.
Dr. J. R. Henderson writes to me: “I have frequently kept
this species living, but could make little of it, except that it
appeared sluggish and not easily irritated.”

The behaviour of a specimen placed by Russell with a cobra
bears out the above opinions. Hesays: “‘The next subject
opposed to the cobra, was a Gedi Paragoodoo ” (common
krait) “‘ which, in all its movements, was much tamer than
either of the former two ”’ (7.e., Zamenis fasciolatus and Vipera
russelli), ‘“and seemed solely intent on escaping out of the
room or retreating into a dark corner. When pushed roughly
on the cobra, and consequently struck by him, he made no
resistance nor snapped in return; he did not even offer to
retreat, but laid himself close to the cobra, whose body he
often touched in his convolutions, without any apparent
offence being taken.’ Colonel Dawson tells me that at
Trivandrum when given a pot of sand or earth he has seen
them trying to bury themselves.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 44]

(c) Nocturnal or Diurnal: It is decidedly nocturnal in
habit. Nearly all the casualties recorded have occurred at
night. Nearly all my specimens have been killed at night.

(d) Sloughing: The krait casts its skin probably every
month. One in captivity in the Madras Museum, captured
on November 7, 1896, sloughed on December 7, 1896, January
13 and February 27, 1897.

Food.—This species, like others of this genus, is in the main
ophiophagous in habit, but in a state of nature, as well as in
captivity, will partake of most other things offered. I have
on many occasions found snakes eaten, once Bungarus walli,
and once Lycodon aulicus, and on other occasions T'yphlops
braminus. In every case where young examples had fed
Typhlops had been taken. Mr. Millard tells me that ‘“ those
kept in the Society’s Rooms refused all food but snakes.”
Dr. J. R. Henderson tells me, “I have frequently given a
captured specimen a living snake to eat, and in most cases
the latter was inside the krait by next morning. On one
occasion one disposed of a Dryophis longer than itself.”
Father Dreckmann writes to me, “ their food, as far as I can
judge, consists exclusively of other snakes. I have never
found anything else in their stomachs, and a very fine specimen
disgorged three other snakes in different stages of digestion
during the first night of its captivity.” There are many
other records where other snakes have been devoured. On
the other hand, I have twice known frogs eaten, and Fayrer
records a similar experience. In the Administration Report
of the Madras Museum, 1896 to 1897, one specimen is reported
to have eaten 2 frogs, and another 18 frogs during incarcer-
ation. I have twice found toads (Bufo andersoni) in the
stomach, and once a monitor lizard (Varanus flavescens).
Small mammals, too, are occasionally devoured. I once
found a muskrat (Crocidura ceruleus) in gastro, and Assistant
Surgeon Robertson told me he found five young muskrats
taken on one occasion. I have twice seen a brood of young
mice which had been swallowed, and in Bannerman’s escaped
specimen from the Parel Laboratory, when ultimately
recovered, the meal consisted of six newly born rats. Lieut.-
Colonel Liston, I.M.S., tells me that at Parel they have found

442, SNAKES OF CEYLON,

that both kraits and Russell’s vipers readily eat the young
foetuses from rats in an advanced state of pregnancy.

Thirst.—This krait is a thirsty reptile. Impelled by thirst
it is frequently djscovered in wells or catch pits containing
water in the garden, especially during the Indian hot weather.

Breeding.—(a) The Sexes: Males appear to be more nume-
rous than females. Out of 67 sexed specimens in my note-
books I find 40 were males. Males also appear to attain a
greater length, for I have had four exceeding 4 feet, whereas
my largest females have been 1,067 mm. (3 feet 6 inches),
1,080 mm. (3 feet 64 inches), and 1,112 mm. (3 feet 7? inches).
The tail is rather longer in the male than in the female.

(b) Anal Glands: The anal or scent glands secrete a
blackish material of the consistency of a soft ointment. This
has a peculiar, rather disagreeable but not very penetrating,
odour. The glands in both sexes are active at all seasons,
and at all ages from the time of hatching, so that I am inclined
to question the popular belief fostered by Darwin* among
others that they are concerned with the sexual functions.

(c) Method of Reproduction : It is definitely known to be
oviparous in habit.

(d) Season: The mating season is probably in the months
of February and March ; but more observations on this point
are badly needed.

(e) Period of Gestation : Not known.

(f) Period of Incubation: Not known. The female, after
discharging her eggs, remains coiled up with them, at any
rate, until they are well advanced towards incubation. In
a case reported by Bannerman, the eggs which were found
with the mother contained embryos “about 6 inches long.”
In another instance eggs unearthed with the mother in Bannu
and sent to me were found to contain young embryos.

(g) The Eggs : . have had two different clutches sent to me
for examination. ‘The eggs in one clutch were described as
being “‘ like pigeon’s eggsand plump.” J found they measured
35 by 19 mm. (13 by ? of aninch). They were white, elongate,
the poles equally rounded, and the shell soft, yielding, and
leathery, much like white kid.

* Descent of man, p. 539.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 443

The number of eggs deposited varies from 6 to 10. They
are placed beneath the earth. One clutch was unearthed in
May, and two others in June, whilst removing an old stop
_ butt on arange. They hatch out in May, June, and July.

Growth.—(a) Length of Young: When emerging from the
ege the hatchling measures from 266 to 298 mm. (104 to 11
inches).

(6) Karly Life: The young double their length in the first
year of life, and have trebled it by the end of the second year,
being then about 315 mm. (3 feet) in length. In the third
year they grow about 6 to 9 inches.

(c) Maturity : A gravid specimen, 890 mm. (2 feet 11 inches)
long, indicates that the species is sexually mature at the end
of the second year of life.

(d) Maximum Length : Specimens over 1,220 mm. (4 feet)
long are unusual. My largest specimen taped 1,340 mm.
(4 feet 42 inches). Ihave examined a skin that was 1,385 mm.
(4 feet 64 inches), and as skins usually shrink a good deal it
is possible the snake was 3 or 4 inches longer than this in
life. Of 48 specimens used for experimental work in the
laboratory, by Acton and Knowles, no less than 13 were
1,220 mm. (4 feet) or over. The largest measured 1,397 mm.
(4 feet 7 inches).

Poison.—(a) The Glands : These are relatively smaller than
in the cobra and situated behind the eye. A swelling in the.
temporal region indicates their position. They are somewhat
retort-shaped, smooth, and when cut into reveal a cancellous
structure resembling a sponge.

(6) The Yield: With some doubt Rogers estimated that
an average adult could yield three lethal doses (for man ?) at
a single bite. Acton and Knowles, assuming a degree of
susceptibility in man commensurate with that in monkeys—
a very fair assumption—conclude that an average-sized krait
could inject about 5°4 mgms. of dried poison, or five times the
lethal dose for an average man.

It is extremely remarkable how very variable the yield of
poison may be in individuals. Acton and Knowles found

62 6(6)20

444 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

the yield from one specimen measuring 4 feet 5 inches was
only 0°2 mgms. of dried poison. Another specimen only
2 feet 8 inches long yielded 4°0 mgms., and a third specimen
3 feet 6 inches long yielded 51°4 mgms.! It will be seen
from this that paradoxical as it may appear, a large krait
does not necessarily inject a larger dose than a small one.

(c) Physical Properties : When freshly secreted the poison
is a clear amber coloured fluid, resembling olive oil.

(d) Toxcity : Lamb, by experiments on rabbits, estimated
the virulence of the poison at four to five times that of cobra
venom. Rogers, operating on pigeons, estimated it at twice
that of cobra venom. Acton and Knowles, by experiment
on monkeys, estimate that it is sixteen times more potent
than cobra venom !

(e) Lethal Dose for Man: Acton and Knowles, assuming
that man is as susceptible as monkeys, fix the approximate
lethal dose for man at 1 mgm. of dried poison.

(f) Toxins—

(1) Toxins operating on nerve cells :

(a) A depressor that paralyses the respiratory centre
(Lamb, Rogers).

(6) A depressor that paralyses centres in the bulb.
(Inferred from Lamb and Rogers and by clinical
manifestations.)

(c) A depressor paralysing the ends of the phrenic
nerves (Rogers).

(2) Toxins affecting the constitution of the blood :
(a) “ Hemolysin”’ destructive to erythrocytes (Rogers).
(3) Toxins destructive to other cells :

(a) “ Hemorrhagin ” destructive to the intima of arte-
rioles. (Inferred from post mortem chaiges, Elliot.)

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 445

(g) Analysis of the toxic Action—

(1) (2) The “ neurotoxin’ paralysing the respiratory
centre is the predominent agent in causing death.
Rogers shows that paralysis of this centre is
complete before that of the phrenics is complete.

(b) The effects of the toxin operating on the centres
in the bulb evokes a typical bulbar paralysis,
affecting lips, tongue, throat, and voice.

(c) Contributes, but is a minor factor in the production
of asphyxia.

(2) “‘ Hemolysin,” by destroying the red blood cells,
contributes to the asphyxia produced by (1) (a)
and (1) (c).

(3) ““Hemorrhagin,’ by damaging the intima, allows
leakage of the vessel contents and favours
hemorrhages.

(h) Symptoms: The action of the venom, as tested by
experiment by both Lamb and Rogers, is found to be almost
identical with cobra poison. The respiratory centre and the
ends of the phrenic nerves are paralysed, and death super-
venes. from asphyxia. On the blood it has no action in
reducing coagulability, but the red blood cells are destroyed as
in other Colubrine poisonings. The local effects are some-
times marked ; on the other hand, these have been so trivial
in some reported cases that none could be discovered. Pain,
at first absent, has sometimes later become a prominent
symptom.

From the above one would expect to find the subject of
krait poisoning suffering in almost the same manner as in
cobra poisoning. One peculiarity, however, is very frequently
reported, 7.e., violent abdominal pain.

The fact that Elliot found submucous hemorrhagic spots
in the stomach and intestines of all the monkeys he post
mortemed, who died from experiment with this venom, taken
in conjunction with the abdominal pain so frequently noted

446 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

in the human subject strongly suggests internal hemorrhage.
As shown when dealing with SHchis toxemia, internal
hemorrhages are by no means uncommon, and it may be
that “ hemorrhagin ”’ causes internal bleeding in this toxemia
in the human subject. In some cases indeed definite
hemorrhages have been reported, though the toxemia
appeared slight.

Acton and Knowles noticed in the subjects of their experi-
ments that the degree of paresis in this form of toxemia is
more pronounced than in cobra poisoning, also that there was
less tendency to convulsions towards the climax. Further,
while in the cobra bitten subject, death or complete recovery
occurs within 24 hours, the fatal issue in krait poisoning was
in some cases much more protracted, in one case occurring
after four days.

(2) Illustrative Case :* The details set forth here are
the result of an interview I had with the deceased’s
friend, Mr. Chambers, who was with Mr. Fox when he
was bitten, and subsequently the entire day until 7 P.M.,
when his condition was so serious that he was admitted
to hospital. On February 26, 1914, Mr. Fox, a young
middle-aged European in robust health, was bitten by a
krait (B. ceruleus)t on the left wrist at about 10 A.M.
in the Zoological Gardens, Calcutta. The snake was a half-
grown one measuring 2 feet 3 inches, and the wounds inflicted
consisted of 5 punctures. Mr. Fox was experimenting with
a View to demonstrating the efficacy of a secret remedy in
which he had every faith as an antidote for snake poisoning.

Symptoms : Instantaneous pain was complained of in the
punctures, evidently of an unusual type, his own expression
being that it was “ fiery,’ and the wounds bled. Within one
and a half minutes he had himself incised four of the five
punctures with a lancet (which, I am informed, was quite clean
and sterile, having been boiled and not used for any purpose
subsequently). After incision the antidote, which was a
fluid, was instilled into each wound. The fifth puncture was

* Published by me in the ‘‘ Indian Medical Gazette ” for July, 1914.
+ The identification is unassailable.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 44.7

overlooRed. Within 5 minutes all local symptoms had
disappeared, the “ fiery’ pain relieved, and bleeding had
stopped.

Mr. Fox was not in the least degree alarmed, having implicit
faith in his remedy.

Nothing further was noticed till about 2 P.m., when he
complained of pain in the pit of the stomach, which he took
to be stomach-ache and associated with his lunch. It was
sufficiently disagreeable to cause him to take a “‘ tot ” of neat
brandy, after which he had eructations, but this pain persisted
until his admission to hospital. At 2.30 he said to his
friend ‘“‘ I’ve got some slight symptoms” and when asked
what these were he said he had “‘ pins and needles ”’ in his
legs. He and his friend were walking about, and his friend
began to notice that Mr. Fox tripped slightly, over little
irregularities in the ground, as though intoxicated. This
uncertainty of gait increased, and he next complained of
nausea, which culminated in actual vomiting at 3.30 P.M.
About 4 p.m. he complained that his vision was affected (but
there was no sign of ptosis then noticed), and his gait was
pronouncedly “‘ drunken ”’ in type.

About 5 p.m. drooping of the eyelids was distinctly evident.
He next complained of “sore throat,’’ and his speech was
obviously affected. At 5.30 he sat down voluntarily, and it
was noticed that his head drooped forwards. He complained
that breathing was becoming difficult, and his eyes were now
nearly closed.

His friend was now thoroughly alarmed in spite of Mr. Fox's
sanguine composure, and took him to hospital where he
arrived at about 7 p.m. When seen by Captain Green-
Armytage, I.M.S., and Assistant Surgeon Warner, it was
noticed that the patient was conscious, though apathetic and
dull. He sat on the couch in a bowed posture, his head
dropped forwards, and his arms limp and extended, his
wrists and ankles dropped. He was unable to stand. His
lower lip was dropped, and his speech thick and blurred.
His face in the waning evening light appeared of a slate-gray
pallor. He expressed a wish to be left alone, and complained
of constriction and a feeling of swelling in the throat. He

448 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

had no anesthesia, though numbness was a subjective
symptom. His pulse was slow, full, and bounding, and his
breathing similar to that of a diabetic coma patient. At a
later stage he was unable to speak, his paralyses generally had
increased, and he died at 8 P.M., ten hours after being bitten.

Treatment: He was ordered 7 grain of strychnine
hypodermically, and brandy internally.

Remarks : The case was a very typical one of Colubrine
poisoning, and presented nothing but what was confirmatory
of previously reported cases. Abdominal pain appears to be a
characteristic feature of poisoning from the ceruleus venom,
which is not specially evident, if evident at all in other
Colubrine toxemiz. The only other cases of fatal krait bite
known to me (two) died in twelve and five and a half hours
respectively.

(7) Treatment : Antivenene is of no use against this poison
and it would be waste of time administering it. The only
thing one can do is to treat symptoms in the hope that the
dose injected has been something sublethal. Above all look
for syncope, and treat this vigorously. Many cases of snake-
bite die from syncope that ought to be saved. Syncope is
not a symptom of the toxemia, but a complication due to
fright.

Probably the best procedure is to inject Bayliss’ fluid
‘intravenously until the pulse is restored. This is composed
of—

Parts.

Gum arabic i me 7°0
Sodium chloride. . ai 0:9
Water sb re 92-1
— 100°0

This must, of course, be sterilized. If this is not ready to
hand one Ampoule of Parke, Davis & Co’s Pituitary (1 m.)
should be injected hypodermically. Adrenalin is another

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 4.49

valuable agent. Hither 5 to 30 m. of a | in 1,000 solution
(Parke, Davis) may be placed beneath the tongue, or 10 m. to
a pint of water may be used intravenously, if swallowing is
not possible. As hemorrhages are to be expected, they
should be anticipated, and both pituitary and adrenalin, as
advocated above, will be found as important for this as for
syncope. Another useful agent to employ is chloride of
‘ealcium, One grain to 20 minims of water should be injected
deeply into the gluteal muscles ; and repeated, if necessary,
up to 3 grains.

The non-professional attendant can do much in such cases.
He can subdue, if not actually relieve, pain by hot fomentations.,
He can apply friction with powdered ginger or mustard to
various parts of the body in turn, whilst the rest of the body
is covered up with blankets, and can pursue this course until
eight or a dozen hot water bottles can be filled, when they
should be wrapped in flannel garments or blankets, and
applied all round the patient. He can give hot stimulating
drinks, such as coffee, bovril, &c., if the patient can swallow.
These should be given in small quantities (half a small coffee
cuptul or so) every ten minutes. Alcohol should not be given.
He can further seek to gain the patient’s confidence, allay his
fears, and reassure him as to his fate.

Lepidosis.—(a) Typical—Rostral : The rostro-nasal sutures
are Jonger than the rostro-internasals, and more than twice
the rostro-labials. IJnternasals: The suture between them
half to three-fifths that between the prefrontal pair, about
two-thirds the internaso-prefrontals. Prefrontals: The
suture between them longer than the prefronto-frontals ;
touching the internasal, postnasal, preocular, and supra-
ocular. Frontal: The fronto-supraocular sutures shorter than
the fronto-parietals. Nasals: Equally deep. Preocular :
Hardly reaching the top of the head. Postoculars: The
lower rather the larger. Temporal: About as long as the
supraocular. Swpralabials : Seven ; the lst and 2nd touching
the nasals, 8rd and 4th the eye, and 5th and 6th the temporal ;
first three subequal in length. Swblinguals : The posterior
subequal to the anterior, touching the 4th infralabial. Infra-
labials: Four; the 4th nearly as long as tlfe posterior

450 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

sublinguals, but much broader than those shields ; touching
two scales behind.

Sub An Ven
Fic. 83.—Anal region of Bungarus ceruleus.

Costals: Vertebrals, rather broader than long, rather
broader than the ultimate row. Lateral scales, breadth
about three-fourths their length. Ultimate row, scales
about as broad as long. In 15 rows in the whole body length.
Ventrals : 195 to 225. Anal: Entire. Swhcaudals: 37 to 56.

(b) Anomalies—Postoculars: Rarely one. Supralahials ;
The second is rarely divided into an upper and a lower part.
Infralabials : The 3rd as well as the 4th sometimes touch
the posterior sublinguals. Vertebrals: Rarely some are
divided, and the scale rows would count 17. This does not
mean that there is a supernumerary row, and these parts of
the vertebral should not, therefore, be counted as such.
Rarely, however, a supernumerary row is seen above the third
row from the ventrals for a variable distance along the
anterior part of the body, and the scale rows are genuinely 17
in consequence. (Fig. 84.)

eh
“ar

Fie, 84.—T wo views of maxilla of Bungarus ceruleus.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 45]

Dentition.— Maxillary : Postnodal, 4.. Palatine: 10 to 11.
Pierygoid: 11. Mandibular: 15.

Distribution.—(a) General : Peninsular India and Ceylon.

(6) Local: In India it extends from Cape Comorin to
the Himalayas, and is to be reckoned a common snake
everywhere. In the north-west it reaches Sind, and in the
north-east occurs up to about the longitude of Calcutta. It
is a snake of the plains, but I have had it up to 5,000 feet at
Almora in the Himalayas.

In Ceylon it is apparently a very rare snake. Haly refers
to three specimens, one of which was from Jaffna. I have seen
a specimen in the Colombo Museum labelled ‘‘ Polgahawela,”’
and I found a specimen among a small collection made by
Mr. Carlos Beven, which he assured me was killed at Veyan-
goda. Mr. Drummond-Hay has never obtained a specimen,

BUNGARUS CEYLONICUS (Gunther).

(Latin, implying pertaining to Ceylon.)
The Ceylon Kratt.

Sinhalese: ‘‘ Karawala’’ (Ferguson), ‘‘ dunu-karawala”’
and “‘ tel-karawala ”’ (Willey).

Synonymy.—Bungarus fasciatus.

History.—First depicted in 1734 by Seba in his Thesaurus
(Plate XLITI., Fig. 5). It escaped further notice until
Giinther referred to it in 1858.

General Characters.—This is the smallest of the eleven
known kraits, attaining to about 3 feet in length. Head
moderately depressed, short. Snout short, slightly declivous,
without canthus, broadly rounded terminally. Eye small,
like a black bead in life, the pupil indistinguishable. Nostvril
rather large, occupying the full depth of the suture between
the nasal shields. Neck hardly constricted. Body cylindrical,
moderately elongate and stout, of even calibre throughout,
with lustrous scales. Belly rounded. Tail short, about one-
tenth the total length, attenuating to a point.

Identification.—The ventrals are more numerous than in
ceruleus, and the 2nd supralabial is shorter than the 3rd.

63 6(6)20

4.52 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

The colour, too, is very different. These points will
differentiate it from such snakes as Cercaspis carinatus,
Lycodon striatus, and L. aulicus to which it bears a superficial
resemblance, the two former especially.

Colouration.—Shining black dorsally, with from 15 to 2]
pure white bands round the body, and from 3 to 5 round the
tail. These bars involve about two scales in the length of the
snake vertebrally, and expand in the flanks, so that about four
ventral shields are involved at midbody. They are broadest
anteriorly and the first band may involve eight ventrals.
The belly in adults is alternately black and white, the black
intervals being broader than the white. In young specimens
the belly is uniform white, and the posterior half of the head
is white, with some sparse mottling, but this band entirely
disappears with age.

Habits.—(a) Haunts : Haly says that it has an unpleasant
habit of hiding itself amongst boxes in storerooms, stables,
and in such like places. If its tastes are similar to those of
its closest allies, one would expect it to take up quarters where
other snakes are likely to be abundant, such as old masonry
structures of every kind. Mr. Drummond-Hay dug one out
of an ant-hill.

(b) Disposition: Mr. Green told me that a friend of his
produced a box which contained a living snake of this species,
which he had picked up, handled, and then placed in the kox
without being bitten. This singularly gentle spirit is quite in
accord with what is known of the common Indian krait B.
ceruleus. |

(c) Diurnal or Nocturnal : There appear to be no observa-
tions made on this point, but the few casualties reported
occurred at night,

Food.—I have removed snakes from the stomachs of two.
One of these was a perfect Rhinophis drummondhayi, and the
second a partially digested snake, the caudal extremity
perfect, which also appeared to be a Rhinophis of the-same
species. The former was 256 mm. (101 inches) long, lying
fully extended within the krait, which measured 495 mm.
(1 foot 7% inches) long. The stomach of a third contained

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 453

masses of hair. The diet is seemingly the same as that of the
Indian Krait, 7.e., usually snakes, but occasionally small
mammals.

Breeding.—(a) The Sexes: JI know of no _ superficial
differences between the sexes. Of 15 sexed during my visit
to Ceylon, 9 were males and 6 females.

(b) Method of Reproduction: Mr. Green’s observations
prove that it is oviparous.

(c) Season; The eggs referred to by Mr. Green were
discovered in the month of January. Some had hatched out,
and others were on the point of hatching. Some again were
not nearly so advanced, leading one to suppose that two
distinct broods were harboured in the same retreat.

(d) Period of Gestation: Not known.

_(e) Period of Incubation: Not known. The parent or
parents of the above were discovered with the eggs in a
hollow in the earth, beneath a wood pile. They were un-
fortunately not sexed nor measured.

(f) Number in Clutch: The number of eggs in the clutch
referred to above was not ascertained. The discoverer,
however, in his narration of the facts to Mr. Green, said
‘* there were lots of eggs and little snakes.”’

-(g) The Egg: Mr. Green’s observations were as follows :
“The eggs have a soft leathery shell, and are lightly agglu-
tinated together. They are cylindrical, with rounded ends,
varying in length from 29 to 35 mm. with a breadth of 17
mm. (14 to 12 inch by 2 of an inch).

Growth.—(a) The Hatchling: The young measured by
Mr. Green taped from 230 to 260 mm. (97; to 10} inches).
I investigated the egg-tooth of these specimens, and found a
structure, somewhat resembling an inverted duck’s head,
fixed into the premaxilla. The edge of the “‘ beak” was
horizontal in direction, and projected slightly beyond the
snout. With this little structure the hatchling frees itself
from its egg investment by a series of cuts. There is nothing
determinate in the direction of these cuts, but they intersect
one another at various angles, until a potential window has

454. SNAKES OF CEYLON.

been carved out, which yields on pressure from the baby
snake’s snout. The foetal tooth, as it is called, drops out in
those snakes where I have had an opportunity of examining it
within a few hours of the attainment of liberty.

(6) Harly Infe: So few dates have accompanied the
specimens I have seen that the rate of growth cannot be
guessed at.

(c) Maturity: The age at which this snake is sexually
mature is not known. .

(d) Maximum Length: Boulenger gives this as 1,000 mm.
(3 feet 32 inches), the tail 90 mm. (3} inches). The largest I
have seen was 890 mm. (2 feet 1] inches).

Poison.—(a) Toxicity: Very little precise knowledge is
available. It has not been experimented with in the
laboratory. Fatalities have been reported as a sequel to its
bite, but this in itself does not prove that its bite is fatal.
Deaths occur from the bites of harmless snakes. A good
illustration of this is furnished under the remarks on Oligodon
arnensis. It is much to be regretted that no well-reported
case of a bite and its results is available from medical records.
The few casualties reported have not been seen by medical men,
and the accounts, therefore, lack that discrimination which
only the medical profession can supply.

All one can say is that from analogy a fatal issue is likely to
result from its bite, and it should be treated in life with the
greatest care.

(b) Symptoms: These would be in all probability as
detailed under B. ceruleus. }

(c) Illustrative Cases: Dr. Willey records the case of a
Malay woman in Colombo who was bitten during the night by
this snake. It was killed and identified at the Colombo
Museum. No symptoms were recorded. The woman was
treated by a vedarala, but succumbed within twelve hours.
Mr. Green has placed another case on record. <A cooly was
bitten in the foot at Gampola one night at 4 4.m. He killed
the snake which was identified by Mr. Green. At 5.30 a.m.
he felt sleepy and unwell, and would not attend muster.
Drowsiness increased till 10 Am. He was walked about until
his legs refused to move. He was able to swallow very little

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 455

of the whisky that was offered him, and vomited after each
dose. He became very cold, and finally died at 4 P.m., twelve
hours after the accident.

Tt certainly seems highly probable from this account that
the man was suffering from snake poisoning. The loss of
power in his legs and his difficulty in swallowing accord well
with the state of paralyses seen in other forms of Colubrine
ophitoxemie. Even if one admits that poisoning was
manifest, it is impossible to know whether the death should be
attributed to the action of the poison alone. The coldness
referred to suggests a syncope, but as syncope is not a mani-
festation of Colubrine poisoning, one may be justified, perhaps,
in ascribing it to fright, and cannot exclude this from the cause
of death. There is no mention of respiratory embarrassment,
the typical sequence, and actual cause of death in Colubrine
ophitoxemie.

(d) Treatment: Antivenene would be of no avail in the
treatment of this toxemia. However serious the case one
should hope that the dose injected has been something
sublethal and treat symptoms. Above all things do not let
the patient die of syncope. Syncope is to be expected in every
case of snake poisoning, look for it, and treat it vigorously,
bearing in mind that it is not due to the poison itself.

The treatment should be as outlined for B. ceruleus.

Lepidosis.—(a) T'ypical—Rostral : The rostro-nasal sutures
longer than the rostro-internasals, twice the rostro-labials.
Internasals : The suture between them half that between the
prefrontals, two-thirds the internaso-prefrontals. Pre-
frontals : The suture between them longer than the prefronto-
frontals ; touching the internasal, postnasal, preocular, and
supraocular. Frontal: The fronto-supraoculars about three-
fourths the fronto-parietals. Supraoculars : Length about
four-fifths the frontal, breadth about half the frontal along a
line connecting the centres of the eyes. Nasals: Both
equally deep. Przocular: Barely reaching the top of the
head. Postoculars: Lower rather larger. Temporal: As
long as the supraocular. Swpralabials: Seven ; the Ist and
2nd touching the nasals, 2nd shorter than the Ist or 3rd; the
3rd and 4th touching the eye; and the 5th and 6th touching

456 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

the temporal. Sublinguals : The posterior subequal to the
anterior ; touching the 4th infralabial. Infralabials : Four ;
the 4th broader than the posterior sublinguals, and about as
long as those shields; touching two scales behind. (Fig. 85.)

Fic. 85.—Bungarus ceylonicus.
(X 3.)

Costals : Vertebrals broader than long, broader than the last
row. Ultimate row. Scales as broad as long. In 15 rows in
the whole body length. Ventrals : 219 to 236 (¢ 219 to 229,
2 230 to 236). Anal: Entire. Subcaudals: 32 to 40 (g 35 to

40, 2 34 to 37).

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 457

(b) Anomalies—Postocular: Rarely one. Supralabials :
The 2nd and 3rd very rarely confluent. Infralabials : The
3rd as well as the 4th sometimes touching the posterior
sublinguals.

Dentition.—From four skulls in my collection. Mazillary :
Postnodal, 3. Palatine: 11 to 12. Pterygoid: 8 to 10.
Mandibular : 15 t0 17. (Fig 86.)

a=

ES

U

cos

Ver

“

Fic. 86.—Scales of B. ceylonicus seen from above.
Oe, 2)

Distribution.—(a) General : Peculiar to Ceylon.

(6) Local : It occurs in the low-country, but appears to be
a rare snake there. Willey says it occurs chiefly up-country,
and mentions Peradeniya, Dimbula, and Balangoda. Some
of my specimens came from Peradeniya, KaJupahani, Haldum-
mulle district (3,000 feet), and Kandy, but the locality of
most was not specified. Mr. Drummond-Hay informs me
that he found it common at Lennock, Balangoda district
(3,000 to 4,200 feet), and also at Punagalla, Yatiyantota
district, below 3,000 feet.

Genus NAIA.

(A latinized form of Naja, which is probably corrupted
from the vernacular “ nag.’’)

Genera! Characters (from Indian species).—The species
vary from about 6 to 15 feet in length. Head markedly
depressed, swollen behind the eye over the poison glands.
Snout short, slightly declivous, with obtuse canthus, narrowing
terminally. Eye moderate in size, lateral, with round pupil.
Nostril rather large, lateral, occupying the whole depth of the
suture between the nasals. Neck fairly evident. Body

458 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

rather short, stout, rather depressed ; with a shallow furrow
along the spine ; dilatable anteriorly into the so-called hood,
attenuating posteriorly. Belly rounded. Tail moderate in
length, being about one-fourth to one-ninth the total length.

Identification.—-The following syndrome will, I think, dis-
tinguish the genus among Asiatic snakes. Vertebrals recti-
form, not enlarged ; the breadth of its scales about half their
length. Last two or three rows rectiform ; the intermediate
rows oblique. Last row enlarged, and its scales as broad as
long. Allthe rows smooth.

Habits.—-Terrestrial. Diurnal. Active. Fierce when pro-
voked.

Food.—-Mammals, birds, reptiles, and batrachians.

Breeding.—Oviparous.

Poison.—Very virulent. Usually fatal to man.

Lepidosis.—Rostral : Touches six shields. Jnternasals : A
pair. Prefrontals: A pair. Frontal: Touches six shields.
Nasals ; Divided. Loreal: Absent. Preocular: One ; barely ~
reaching the top of the head. /Postoculars: Three. Tem*po-
rals: Two. Supralabials: Seven; the third touching the
postnasaland the eye. Sublinguals : Two pairs. Infralabials :
Five. Cuneate: Present or absent.

Costals : Longer than broad ; smooth ; without apical pits
or facets. Vertebrals and last three rows rectiform, the
intermediate rows oblique. Vertebrals not enlarged. Last
three rows increasing in breadth. Ultimate row broadest.
In from 15 to 25 rows in midbody. Ventrals : Rounded.
Anal: Entire. Supracaudals: In even rows. Subcaudals :
Divided.

Dentition.— Mazillary : Postnodal, 1 to 3; isodont. Pala-
tine : Anododont, scaphiodont. Pterygoid : Anododont, isédont,
or feebly scaphiodont; posterior two-thirds edentulous.
Mandibular : Anododont, kumatodont. The maxillary and
mandibular have shallow grooves on the outer faces, and the
palatine and pterygoid on their inner faces. |

Distribution._--Africa and South Asia. There are ten
species, seven of whieh are African, and three Asian. One is
peculiar to the Philippines, and two inhabit India. Only one
occurs in Ceylon, viz., tripudians. |

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 459

NAIA TRIPUDIANS (Merrem).

(Latin, “‘ tripudio ’”’ I dance on the toe.)
The Cobra.

Tamil: “ Nalla pambu ” (good snake) and “ naga pambu.”’
Sinhalese : “ naya’’ (Ferguson).

Synonymy.— Coluber naia, C. cecus, C. rufus, C. peruvii, C.
brasiliz, Naja lutescens, N. fasciata, N. brasiliensis, N. siamen-
sis, N. maculata, N. nonnaja, N. kaouthia, N. larvata, N. atra,
N. oxiana, Vipera naja, Elaps fuscus.

History.— Depicted by Seba in 1734 (I., Plate XLIV.), and
again in 1735 (If., Plates LXX XIX. and XCVII.), then by
Linné in 1754 and 1767. Later in 1768 Laurenti referred to it.
Russell figured it twice in his first volume (Plates V. and VI.)
in 1796, and again in his second volume (Plates I. and
XXXVI.) in 1801.

General Characters——Grows to about 6 or 7 feet. Head
strongly depressed, broad behind the eyes, swollen over the
poison glands. Snout short, slightly declivous, with obtuse
canthus, rounded terminally. Eye moderate, with iris more
or less speckled with gold. Nostril rather large, open. Neck
fairly evident. The forebody remarkably dilatable to form
the hood. Body depressed, with shallow groove down the
spine, attenuating somewhat to the vent. Belly rounded.
Tail cylindrical, accounting for about one-fifth to one-ninth
the total length.

Identification.— The contact of the preocular shield with the
internasal in front and the eye behind is one infallible method
of recognizing it, Another is the presence of the little cuneate
scale wedged between the 4th and 5th infralabials. This is,
however, rarely absent. A third way is to count the costal
rows. If 27, 25, or 23 two heads-lengths behind the head,
25 or 23 at midbody, 17 or 15 two heads-lengths before the
vent, and the loreal is absent, there can be no doubt as to its
identity.

If a typical hood mark is present, either ot the monocellate
or binocellate type, the diagnosis is also easy, but in many

64 6(6)20

460 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

specimens there is no hood mark at all, and in death rigor
mortis stiffens the joints so that the hood is not easily demons-
trable. It is for this reason that attention to shield characters
is recommended. If the hood is seen dilated in life, there
should not be any doubt about the snake, but it must be
remembered that other snakes flatten the neck though to a
more limited degree. The cobra has been confused by Euro-
peans and natives with Zamenis fasciolatus, a snake that
occurs in Ceylon.

Colouration.—As far as I am aware, variety typica is the
only form found in Ceylon. This is a uniform pale or dark
brown dorsally, or is dappled or variegated with wheat colour,
and brown ordun. ‘The variegations in many specimens tend
to form indistinct cross-bars. There is a well-defined spectacle-
mark on the hood and a black spot on a white ground on each
side below the hood. The spectacle is a white mark on the
hood which may be very perfect, and encloses a black spot
or sometimes two on each side. It is frequently more or less
disintegrate, and occasionally completely absent. Mr, Green
has written to me of such a specimen. The central area of
the hood in some examples is reddish, and in others smoky
brown. ‘The belly is more or less mottled with buft and
various shades of dun or brown, and beneath the hood there e
are very generally two, sometimes more, dark bands of brown
or blackish. The throat and chin are frequently yellowish.
The head is olive-brown, with the sutures blackish, and there
is in many specimens a blackish ring round the eye, and a
fine subocular streak of the same colour. Mr. Green tells me
he has never seen a blackish specimen in Ceylon, but Aber-
cromby mentions such. .

Habits.—(a) Haunts: The cobra may be found almost
anywhere. J have encountered it in heavy jungle, and in
open country far removed from forest growth. The ryot
disturbs it in his crops, the mali in cantonment gardens, and
“ the sportsman when shooting. It is a common snake in
almost every populated area, and I have had it sent to me
frequently from within cantonment limits, from the regimental
and other bazaars, from Artillery and other lines. the suburbs,
and actually in the gardens of our largest towns, from inside

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 461

jails, the godowns of the Supply and Transport Corps, and
the Telegraph Departments, from warehouses, and various
mills, and such like situations. No amount of bustle or
disturbance seems to deter it from taking up its abode in man’s
immediate vicinity. It was sent in to me several times in
Rangoon from timber yards, where hundreds of men were
working daily, elephants pounding up and down moving
timber, engines vibrating and throbbing, and circular saws
screeching through boles of teak. Even in such scenes of
turmoil it will establish itself beneath a stack of wood, or
convenient drain, and escape dislodgment for long periods.

Old masonry invariably harbours cobras among other
snakes. In Delhi the old walls of the Fort were always a
safe draw for the snakeman, whom I saw every week bring
in his bag—some half dozen or more—to be robbed of their
poison, which was being collected for the Government of
India. Similarly, old cemeteries and ruined habitations,
mosques, &c., furnish ideal quarters for this snake. Another
favourite haunt is the loose brickwork of old wells. The
basements of many houses in cantonments and bazaars can
boast a cobra tenant, and it is not surprising therefore that
this snake is so frequently encountered inside bathrooms,
and dwelling rooms, besides stables and servant’s habitations.
Further afield an ant’s nest is often a specially favoured
resort, or it may be any hole in the ground, or at the basement
of a tree among its roots. It is frequently found near water,
and often actually in that element, in which it swims with
facility and strength.

A few cases of cobras climbing trees are reported, the object
usually being the plunder of some birds’ nest.

It has been occasionally reported in the sea, perhaps carried
thence by rivers in flood time, but sometimes, no river being
in the vicinity, it must have taken to the sea of its own free
will. In one instance, a 4-footer is said to have managed to
board a man-of-war, viz., the ‘‘ Wellington,” lving off the coast
of Ceylon at Aripo. Another account of the incident, however,
says that the sailors saw the snake in the sea swimming
vigorously towards the ship, and assailed it so successfully
with billets of wood and other missiles that it returned to land.

4.62 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Bassett Smith mentions one 14 inches long trying to board
the flagship at Trincomalee when lying out about half a mile
from land.

(b) Disposition: The cobra is usually not an aggressive
snake. When flushed in its native haunts, it nearly always
tries to escape, and usually succeeds in doing so, but is often
shot before it gets to a place of safety. I have encountered
many, and find that at close quarters, if suddenly disturbed,
or it may be if stepped upon, it quickly erects itself, hisses
loudly, sways backwards and forwards, and awaits an oppor-
tunity to strike. If one keeps still, the menace is quickly over,
and the snake drops its head, and slinks off. An incautious
movement, however, causes it to turn, erect itself once more,
and challenge the intruder again. Many good observers have
remarked on its timid nature. Mr. Phipson even went so far
as to describe it as an exceedingly timid snake. Elliot says :
‘ Of one thing I feel certain, the cobra is a timid snake, that
it is not at all inclined to bite, and unless assailed, and so
infuriated, will not bite, even if trodden on by accident so long
as the snake is not hurt.” He cites two cases known to him
where a cobra was actually stepped on, but in neither case
did it inflict a bite. Wall (A. J.) remarks that a full-grown
cobra can be handled with perfect safety, and Flower mentions
one that was picked up in his garden by a servant, and brought
to him alive not having attempted to bite him.

In Chitral one day an adult passed right through my pony’s
legs, whilst I was walking along the road with another mounted
officer. Thesnake did not even erect itself though in danger of
being trodden upon, but glided through the pony’s feet, and
then, when three or four yards distant, turned, half erected
itself for a second, and then glided off down a bank. I could
quote many more incidents and opinions illustrating the
unaggressive temper of this snake, but, on the other hand,
I have certainly witnessed many incidents of a completely
contrary character. The cobra is sometimes very fierce, and
when disturbed. may be a very dangerous snake to encounter.
Whatever spirit and aggressiveness may be natural to it in
the early days of captivity, I think all will agree that it is
very easily tamed. This is evident to anyone who has

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 463

seen jugglers and professional snakemen with their captive
specimens. If a specimen has been on show for long, it will
often require a good slap on its back to provoke it to erect
itself and hiss. The cobra that will do so without such
treatment, one may depend upon it has been but recently
deprived of its liberty.

Young cobras are much more dangerous than adults, as a
tule. They seem more on the alert, more easily excited, and
strike repeatedly and with much malice. Wall (A. J.) speaks
in similar terms when he says : ““ When the young cobra is
hatched, it is very small, very irritable,and exceedingly
dangerous. A full-grown cobra can be handled with perfect
safety, but a young one, ten or eleven inches long, is so active,
and its body is so small, that it can be scarcely touched with
impunity.” It is certainly significant that one never sees a
young cobra in the hands of jugglers.

(c) Striking Posture : The most notable habit in the cobra
is the very remarkable pose it adopts when alarmed, and which
has gained for it world-wide renown. Not only does it erect
the forebody to a remarkable degree, but it flattens its neck
in a very remarkable and characteristic way to form the so-
ealled “ hood.”’ The height to which a cobra can erect itself
is usually very much over-estimated by the casual observer.
I have taken careful measurements on several occasions,
marking off the height on a stick, when the snake’s attention
was engaged by a juggler. The measurement of the whole
snake in life is not easy, and the lengths given must not be
taken as very exact. I found the degree of erection commen-
surate with the degree of excitement or provocation. One
snake measuring 5 feet 24 inches poised vertically to a height
of 13 inches, another 5 feet 4 inches long sat up 154 inches, a
third 6 feet and 4 an inch raised itself 14 inches, and a fourth
5 feet Linch, only 7}inches. On August 20, 1904, in Bangalore
I found a 5-footer just sat up 15 inches, but on the next day
in the presence of a mongoose that was causing him much
agitation the same snake erected itself 21 inches. Another
cobra 14 inches less in length raised itself just 21 inches under
similar provocation. It may be taken then that the maximum
limit of erection is about one-third the length of the snake.

464 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

The so-called “hood ’”’ is formed by the action of muscles
operating upon the ribs in the region behind the neck. I have
examined a skeleton in the Museum of the Royal College of
Surgeons, London, which is well set up in the erect position,
and with the ribs fixed as they would be in the expanded hood
in life. The atlas (1st vertebra), axis (2nd vertebra), and the
3rd vertebra have no ribs, but the 3rd has an elongate rib-
- like transverse process. The succeeding 27 vertebre have
ribs attached to them that are involved in the production of
the hood. These ribs are much less bowed than those in the
rest of the body, and enjoy a range of movement greatly in
excess of the other corporeal ribs. The 9th is the longest on
the left side, and measures 41 mm., and the 10th measuring
42 mm. is the longest on the right side. The preceding and
succeeding ribs progressively diminish, so that an oval outline
is given to the hood. The ribs are set obliquely, forming an
angle of 40° to 45° with the long axis of the spine. In the
prone state they are directed backwards, outwards, and
downwards, and give a contour to the body almost like that -
in other parts. In the erect pose the corresponding direction
of the ribs would be downwards, outwards, and forwards, but
any forward tendency is entirely obliterated by the action of
a set of dorsal muscles that not only draw the ribs back till
they are completely transverse, but also fully straightens
them. During full expansion, judging from a freshly dissected
hood, I think the ribs are also slightly elevated, and the angle
made with the spine thereby rather increased. As the over-
lying skin is but loosely attached, it does not in any way
hamper the movements of the ribs within, which by their
_ backward extension and elevation enormously stretch it in a
lateral direction, at the expense of the ventro-vertebral
diameter. The oval shape of the hood and the flattening
produced has been well compared to a shallow spoon or
skimmer. The hood originates high up in the nape, and the
head bent strongly at the atlas joint is carried at right angles
to it when spread.. The arching of the forebody, and general
pose and movement of the cobra; when erect, remind one very
forcibly of the carriage of a swan’s neck. The dorsal skin
is very much stretched when the hood is expanded, so that

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 465

the scale rows are widely separated, and as the hood marks
are almost entirely confined to the skin, they become very
conspicuous, The curious poise adopted can be sustained for
a considerable time, certainly many minutes if sufficient
stimulus is offered and continued. Whilst poised with
expanded hood the snake sways restlessly forwards and
backwards, and can be made to bend backwards to an extra-
ordinary degree before losing its equilibrium, It hisses in a
fierce explosive manner whilst erect, and I have carefully
observed caged specimens at this time. I noticed that
hissing occurs both during inspiration and expiration. The
inspiratory is the shorter act, and its note higher pitched than
the expiratory. It is quavering in quality, reminding one of a
knife on a grindstone. The expiratory effort is the longer,
louder, and lower-pitched, and intermittently explosive in
character. The tongue is emitted during both inspiration and
expiration. The throat is very distinctly pouched during
both acts, but is far more marked during expiration. The
inflation extends as far forwards as the chin shields. Whilst
erect the snake inflates its body independently of its hood
action, and the inflation affects nearly the whole body length,
declining posteriorly till finally lost a few inches before the
vent in an adult.

The cobra’s effective striking range is a very limited one.
I believe the erection of its forebody and the expansion of its
hood are invariable preliminaries, and the height to which
it can erect itself forms the radius of its stroke. This radius
when the snake is erect is very deceptive, appearing much
greater than it proves to be when measured along the ground
on the completion of its stroke. Jugglers from long practice
estimate this range wonderfully, and contrive to evade their
captive’s menace, with remarkable precision, withdrawing
their hands, often only a few inches, from the spot where the
stroke is delivered.

The bite is often a mere snap of the jaws, and the bitten part
immediately released, but sometimes the snake will fasten
itself tenaciously, necessitating a forcible opening of the jaws
to effect release. Mr. Donaghy told me of an incident wit-
nessed by him where a young sampwalla was bitten, and the

466 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

snake hung on to him so that it had to be removed by forcibly
prizing open the jaws. Sometimes after a bite a drop or
more of venom may be seen on the skin of the bitten subject
which may be wiped off without gaining access to the punc-
tures inflicted. More rarely poison is shaken off in the form
of a spray or jet by the forcible thrust forward of the snake,
which may fail to reach the object of its attack.

I have on more than one occasion witnessed this with
jugglers who unconcernedly wiped away the poison emitted.
In the Bombay Natural History Journal* Mr. Goring Jones
reported a cobra at Mandalay striking at Lieut. Gibson who
was bending down near the snake. He was not actually
struck, but had poison ejected into his eye, much ‘swelling
and pain following. A hospital assistant of mine, whilst
trying to dislodge a cobra that had taken refuge in the wall of
his garden, had a jet of poison ejected into his face. Mr.
Kinnear tells me that in our Society’s rooms it is a matter of
common observation that cobras “spit” at spectators and
leave a spray on the glass. One may presume that some
such incident caused Boie to christen one variety of our Indian
cobra sputatrix (spitter). The habit is well known among
certain African cobras, notably N. flava, N. migricollis, and
perhaps N. melanoleuca.t I believe the yenom ejected is
shaken off the fangs, and carried forward by the vehemence
of the thrust. In some instances, however, where a shower
of spray is reported it is more probably caused by the explosive
expiratory blasts from the glottis, which occur while the
snake is hissing, and to which I refer again later.

(d) Nocturnal or Diurnal : This species is diurnal in habit.
I have several times witnessed one in hilly country, where I
could look down upon it, without being observed, and noticed
the stealthy way it probed into every recess or clump of
vegetation that might conceal a quarry consistent with its
gastronomic tastes. I have several times met one when
birds’ nesting, shooting, or out after butterflies. Many of
these were obviously not roused from a siesta, but were

a !

* Vol. XSITE, 9.3.16.
+ The spitting snake of South Africais usually admitted to be Sepedon
hemachates, the ‘* ringhals’’ of the Dutch,

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 467

roaming about, 1 suppose, in search of food or drink. In
populated areas it is perhaps more frequently encountered at
night. Mr. Hampton tells me his captive specimens did not
usually show themselves until midday, or the early afternoon,
and remained out till about 10 p.m.

(e) Progression: It moves with wonderful alacrity when
it has once decided to quit some possible danger confronting
it. Young specimens especially move most expeditiously,
and are wonderfully adroit in avoiding capture or
despatch.

(f) Hearing: One of the most interesting matters in con-
nection with the cobra affects that ever fruitful subject of
discussion ‘‘ charming.” Itis clear that many very competent
authorities disbelieve in the practice. Mr. Phipson says:
‘It is the constant movement of the musical instrument in
front of the snake that keeps it erect and not the noise pro-
duced,” and this is precisely what many other good observers
state. I certainly take this view myself, and came to this
conclusion very earlyin my Indian career. One thing puzzled
me at first and aroused my suspicion, viz., why is it that in all |
the stories one reads of “charming,” it is invariably the
cobra that withdraws from its snug retreat, whilst other
snakes apparently are not susceptible to the captivating (7)
sounds of the juggler’s pipe? I know of no anatomical
difference in the auditory apparatus of cobras from other
snakes. I experimented frequently in Delhi in my verandah
with cobras. I cut narrow strips of sticking plaster, suffi-
ciently broad to cover the eyes completely. These strips had
a double purpose. Not only did they blindfold the subjects
of experiment, but being carried right round the head they
locked the snake’s jaws, and so prevented any chance of my
being bitten. This done the snake was released, and in a
very short time it relaxed its hood, and assumed a completely
recumbent attitude. The verandah in which the first of these
experiments was carried out was a crazy wooden structure,
and if one moved a chair, or even if a servant walked along
the room inside, the snake immediately erected itself as if
conscious of danger. On the cement verandah downstairs,
it was also noticed that the snakes immediately got up when

65 | 6(6)20

468 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

any one walked along in the near neighbourhood. I had a
kerosine oil tin at hand, and when the snakes were recumbent
I beat this with a stick close to their heads without their
taking any notice whatever. Similarly, I blew a bugle close
beside them, but they were not charmed! The greatest care
is necessary in conducting such experiments to eliminate all
other possible means of rousing the snake. For instance, if
a rusty tin is beaten over the snake, particles will fall on it
and rouse it to attention. Similarly, if the blast of air emitted
from the bugle, impinges ever so little on the snake, it is
roused to action and erects itself.

Many people suppose that a snake is deaf, but this is not
the case. Snakes hear well, though they have no external
ears. Many people are not aware that there are two ways in
which the essential auditory apparatus may be stimulated
and sounds heard. If one strikes a tuning fork, and places
the stem on any part of the skull, or even the spine to its
lowest part, the vibrations can be heard distinctly. If the
head is in contact with a table, and the tuning fork struck, the
sound is audible when the stem is placed on the table at some
distance though inaudible when not touching the table. This
is due to the conduction of vibrations through solids, and
such vibrations are better heard and for a longer time, than
thoseconducted by waves of air, which strike upon a membrane
(the drum), situated at varying depths (according to the
particular animal) in a canal in the skull (the external auditory
meatus). The drum-set vibrating acts through a chain of
tiny bones in the middle ear, so as to affect fluid contained in
semi-circular canals in the internal ear, the fluid in its turn
communicating the vibrations to highly specialized sense
organs at the termination of the filaments of the auditory
nerves. These nerves carry the impulses received to the
brain centres, where they are interpreted as sounds. This
latter method of conduction, viz., by means of the air, is the
predominating one in mammals, birds, and many reptiles,
but is entirely wanting in all snakes, there being no external
orifice, and no drum to receive impressions. Conduction by
solids is, however, good in snakes, perhaps for all we know
more highly sensitive than in man.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 469

Now, it is obvious that if snakes have no ear openings and
no drums they cannot hear sounds conducted by air, such as
those emitted by musical and other instruments. This
accounts for the cobras taking no notice of the noises I made
at close quarters, though they were keenly alive to sounds
such as footsteps communicated through the ground. If one
is to believe the wonderful stories, told in good faith I have
no doubt, about “ charming,” one must explain it by assuming
that snake charmers are possessed of some occult force not
apparent to the spectators, for it cannot be explained through
the agency of sound conducted by air. As a matter of fact,
a snake charmer in Bangalore, with whom I had become very
familiar, admitted.to me that snakemen knew that snakes
were deaf, and that the whole of their “ charming ” was a
hoax. It is most certainly the incessant movements of the
man’s arms while piping, or the restless movements of his
knees while squatting, that affords the necessary stimulus, and
keeps the cobra excited and erect.

It is very curious how all absorbing movement is to the
cobra. Mr. Phipson says: ‘‘ You have only to attract its
attention with one hand, while you seize it in the middle of
the body with the other and the snake is yours. It strikes in
every direction, especially at any moving object, but it never
seems to occur to it to turn, and bite the hand that is holding
it as almost all other snakes would do at once.”’ I fully agree
with all Mr. Phipson says on this subject, and consider this
strange trait argues a very great lack of intelligence.

(9) Hissing : This has been already remarked upon under
“ striking posture.”

(h) Sloughing : Fayrer mentions a cobra that cast its skin
on October 17, and again on November 10 and December 7.
Another in his possession desquamated on October 15 and
on November 6. In Trivandrum* a captive cobra shed its
skin on November 10, 1902, and on February 19, April 8, and
July 28, in 1903. Ihave been told by snakemen that ecdysis
occurs about once a month, and Vincent Richards gives about .
the same period between successive moults from his observa-
tions. It will be seen from the above that there is no regularity

* The Field, April 16, 1904,

A470 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

in this function, which may occur at intervals ranging between
three weeks and three months. [am informed by snakemen
that specimens in captivity sicken during this period, and
that they are afraid to give them food or drink as it upsets
them. They certainly appear very dull, and non-captive
specimens are most likely to meet with their death, if they
venture out of their holes at this time, the disc before the eye
becoming so opaque that the creature is virtually blind for
some time.

Food.—The cobra feeds principally on rats, frogs, toads,
and less frequently on birds, and it seems to show no special
preference for any of these creatures. Its choice in batrachians
is largely determined by their size, the most bulky individuals
being apparantly those most sought after. Thus, among frogs
it is the bullfrog, Rana tigrina, which is most usually victi-
mized, and among toads Bufo melanostictus and B. andersom
are specially attractive. Rats and mice are very frequently
taken, and I think there can be no doubt the numbers of these
vermin are materially checked by this snake. I was astonished
in Bangalore some years back to see with what avidity the
captive cobra, belonging to a juggler, accepted dead mice
which he withdrew from his pocket. The man offered them
as one would a morsel to a dog, and one of his cobras nosed
its snout into his hand, and took three mice, swallowing them
one after another in a couple of minutes or so. Other crea-
tures are taken as circumstances dictate. The Rev. C. Leigh,
S.J., writing from Trichonopoly of his captive specimens, told
me that after eating two small frogs, and then three middle-
sized ones, one cobra finally disposed of two squirrels (/unam-
bulus palmarum)! Sometimes birds are attacked and killed,
especially poultry. In Fyzabad one got under a hencoop one
night in a native hut, and killed the hen and six chicks. The
snake met its death the next night, swallowing a frog baited on
a hook. On another occasion one got into a quailery in
Fyzabad and accounted for thirteen birds in the night. One
only of these had been swallowed, and it seems to me likely
that some or all the rest may have died from fright. In
Almora an officer friend of mine, whilst quail shooting flushed
a cobra which he shot in attempting to escape down a hole.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. A471

The snake was cut in half by the shot and a freshly swallowed
quail fell out of the stomach. Ferguson* mentions one that
was brought in to him at Trivandrum enormously distended.
It measured 4 feet and contained a monitor lizard (Varanus
bengalensis) 2 feet long. Phipson mentions lizards being
taken by the young in our Society’s rooms. Occasionally
the cobra exhibits ophiophagous tastes. Mr. Millard tells me
that one in our Society’s rooms ate another with which it was
caged, both snakes having seized the same frog, and com-
menced eating from opposite ends. On another occasion one
was observed to eat a wolf-snake (Lycodon aulicus), Mr. Frere
recently sent me a young example measuring 144 inches, that
was eating a Lycodon aulicus measuring 134 inches. I saw
one once, in a well in Trichinopoly, in the act of devouring
a cat snake (Dipsadomorphus trigonatus). Colonel G. H.
Evans found one in Burma eating a young snake of the
genus Simotes. Mr. Kinlock wrote to me of one he encountered
at Kil Kotagiri. It measured 5 feet 7 inches, and was
engulfing a dhaman (Zaocys mucosus) 6 feet long. Flower
again mentions one in Siam swallowing a snake (Macro-
pisthodon rhodomelas). Here I may mention that the cobra
itself sometimes falls a victim to its larger and more confirmed
ophiophagous relative, the King cobra (Nava bungarus).

Some interesting accounts have appeared of cobras eating
the eggs of poultry. Mr. C. P. George recovered the egg of a
guinea fowl from a cobra’s interior, which he set and, in due
course, hatched out! Miss Hopley in her book on snakes
(p. 60) records an exactly parallel incident. In this case,
however, the egg wasahen’s. It was marked after extraction,
and placed under a guinea fowl, and successfully incubated.
Mr. Brook Fox records a cobra that had got into a guinea
fowl’s nest, and had eaten six of the fifteen eggs. It was
photographed in this state. The eggs were subsequently
removed and set, and three eventually hatched out. After the
publishing of these events Colonel Bannerman experimented
on cobras in the Parel Laboratory to ascertain how long it
took for the egg shell to dissolve under the influence of the

PM EVOlE I De. (Oe

472 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

gastric juices, and he found that it required about 48 hours.
Inspection of the subsequent excrements showed in one case
that a few pieces of egg shell were discharged sixteen days
after the experiment.

In captivity many specimens feed eagerly, and thrive well.
Mr. Phipson wrote that those in the Society’s rooms “ fed
freely on rats, birds, and toads.” Similarly, Ferguson said
those at Trivandrum took large frogs “ with avidity.”” The
Rev. C. Leigh wrote to me that one of his captive specimens
ate “rats with relish,” and two others “took frogs with
avidity.” On the other hand, Dr. Nicholson speaking of
cobras in captivity says: ‘“‘ I have never seen a cobra feed,
and I think that unless fed by force he will starve himself to
death.”’ This statement coming from such an authority is
remarkable, but it would appear from the methods of some
professional snakemen that they, too, find some of their
specimens difficult to tempt with food, for many carry with
them a small natural funnel, which appears to be part of the
shaft ot the tibia of a goat, which they insert into some cobras’
throats, and into which they break a fowl’s egg or pour milk.

Thirst : Like other snakes it suffers from thirst, specially
in the hot weather, and I daresay that many of its intrusions
into bathrooms and its lodgment in catch-pits and wells may
be accounted for in this manner. I saw one in the possession
of a snakeman in Cannanore that dipped its head into a tin
of water presented to it and drank greedily ; each gulp being
plainly visible in the throat.

Breeding.—-(a) The Sexes: The cobra seems to show a
decided tendency to a sociallife. Many writers have remarked
upon its habit of living in couples, and this is specially true
during the breeding season. It appears, however, to seek
society apart from sexual impulses, for on one occasion in
Rangoon two were brought to me found coiled together
beneath a stack of wood, and both proved to be females. On
another occasion, also in Rangoon, a Burman dug out a hole
where he had seen a snake make good its escape. The result
was the discovery of three cobras. Two ot these were males,
and one a female which showed ovarian follicles, obviously
fertilized and enlarged. ‘This leads one to ask the question

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 473

does the cobra on occasion practise polyandry ? Mr. Fitz-
gerald once told me that he saw three large snakes go into a
holein his compound within a few minutes. He had possessed
himself of his gun, as speedily as possible, and shot the third
snake before it had quite disappeared, and this proved to be
a cobra. He assumed the others to have been of the same
species, but, unfortunately, did not verify his suspicions.

I can discover no difference in the lepidosis of the sexes,
nor in the relative lengths of the tails. There is no constant
difference either in the ranges of ventrals and subcaudals.
The male clasper is narrow and long and surmounted with
very small claw-like tentacles. It is not bifid. Females
appear to be more numerous than males in Bangalore, as Dr.
Nicholson found 410 of the former, against 308 of the latter,
in 718 cobras sexed by him. In Cannanore, however, I got
eight males to a single female. In Chitral out of 18 sexed,
11 were females and 7 males. In Fyzabad I collected
18 males to 15 females.

(b) The Act of Mating : Colonel Dawson had captive cobras
in Trivandrum which were observed “in copula ” in January.
Mr. H. Hampton wrote to me of a pair he had in captivity in
Burma that were observed in the act of mating at the end of
March. Mr. Foulkes told me of a pair he found coupled in
June at Rajamundry. |

The act of mating has been witnessed by Colonel Dawson
and Mr. H. Hampton, to whom I am indebted for the following
details: In Trivandrum the pair remained coupled from
11 a.m. until 4.20 p.m. on January 17. In Mr. Hampton’s
vivarium coitus lasted intermittently for three days. He
observed that the pair nodded their heads continually, and
their bodies quivered. They did not take the slightest notice
of anybody in front of their cage. They did not expand their
hoods, neither did they wrap themselves around one another.
Kach turned the vent upwards and sideways to effect engage-
ment.

(c) Method of Reproduction: Eggs are produced by the
cobra.

(d) Season: Flower in Siam had a gravid female with eggs
fit for discharge, judging from their measurements; in the

474 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

month of January. Nicholson had several gravid females
with eggs about an inch long in February at Bangalore, and
I had one in a similar condition at Cannanore in the same
month. Mr. E. E. Green also had a gravid female in Ceylon
in February. Evansand I obtained gravid females in Rangoon
in July and August, one specimen in July showing but little
enlargement of the ovarian follicles.

The usual months for the deposition of eggs are April and
May. Four cobras laid eggs in the Parel Laboratory in April,
and eightin May. Nicholson says that about Bangalore they
are laid in May and early June. Mr. Phipson remarked that
eggs are laid in the rains. Two eggs sent to me from our
Society’s collection were deposited in June. Wall (A. J.)
mentions eggs laid in July, and Hampton’s eggs were laid in
the middle of August at Mogok, Burma.

(e) Period of Gestation : 'The period of gestation is accurately
known in Colonel Dawson’s case. Sixty-two days after
coitus, 7.e., on March 20, eight eggs were deposited, the first
at 8 A.M., Six more almost immediately, and then after the
lapse of half an hour the last. In Mr. Hampton’s case the
mating was observed towards the end of March, and eggs
were not deposited until the middle of August, nearly five
months.

(f) Period of Incubation: Fayrer says, on the evidence of
his snakemen, that the cobra incubates her eggs, and that
they frequently dug out mother and brood. This is in accord-
ance with the habits of other snakes, and receives direct
confirmation from Colonel Dawson, who told me that at first
his dam coiled herself among her eggs. ‘The period of incu-
bation has been ascertained at Parel. Eggs laid on May 12
hatched out on July 20, 7.e., in sixty-nine days. The period
that elapses then between coition and the advent of the young
is rather over four months.

(g) The Eggs : From over a dozen records, I find that the
usual number of eggs laid is 12 to 22. I find one record of 8,
and the only record of over 22 is Mr. Hampton’s. In this case
45 eggs were deposited, 36 seemingly good, and 9 apparently
infertile.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 475

The eggs are elongate white ovals, with soft shells and
similar poles. The two sent me from the Bombay Natural
History Society measure 49 x 28 mm. (a shade under 2 inches
in length). The almost mature eggs extracted from the
maternal abdomen by Flower measured 53 x 34mm. Eggs
sent me from Parel vary much and are much smaller, and it
occurs to me they may have been infertile. Two of these
measured 41 x 20 mm. (12 x ?# of an inch), one 38 x 19 mm.
(14 x 2 of an inch), one 32 x 20 mm. (14 x 2? of an inch),
and a fifth 29 x 15 mm. (14 x 2of an inch).

Growth.—(a) The Hatchling : Phipson reported young meas-
uring 190 mm. (74 inches) long when emerging from the eggs,
and Colonel Glen Liston had young only 178 mm. (7 inches)
long at Parel when hatching. All other testimony at my
command agrees in assigning to the hatchling a length of 250
to 280 mm. (10 to ll inches). Assistant Surgeon Robertson
told me the young he saw just hatched measured 280 mm.
(11 inches). I measured one of those that hatched at Parel,
which was bottled at once, and found it was 266 mm. (104
inches) long. Nicholson remarks that at birth they are less
than 305 mm. (1 foot). Now, Colonel Bannerman extracted
an embryo from an egg forty-three days after deposition, and
found it taped 178 mm. (7inches). Another that was removed
from an egg by me measured 228 mm. (9 inches), but it is not
specified at what lapse of time after deposition. It would
appear from these records that the artificial conditions in the
vivarium are not conducive to the development of normal
proportions.

IT have had young cobras brought to me measuring 266 mm.
(104 inches) in June at Cannanore, and 282, 317, and 325 mm.
(114, 124, and 122 inches) at Fyzabad in July. Nicholson
remarked that out of 1,000 cobras brought to him in May to
August, 1873, 230 were young of the season, measuring from
305 to 405 mm. (12 to 16 inches), and of 1,220 in the year,
50 were from eggs deposited.

It seems to be a common belief that young cobras newly
hatched are not poisonous. This is certainly a mistake, as

66 6(6)20

476 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Mr. Phipson reported that the young cobras that hatched out
some years ago in our Society’s rooms killed a small Malay
python (Python reticulatus), which was placed in their cage, a
few days after they were born. They attacked it at once,
biting it viciously across the back.

(6) Early Life: Phipson, referring to the hatchlings that were
187 mm. (74 inches) when they emerged from the egg, says
they grew an inch and a half in about two months, but, as
these specimens appeared to have died of inanition having
refused all food, one may be certain this underestimates the
normal growth. Similarly, I have had specimens submitted
to me from Parel which did not develop as cobras usually do
in a state of nature. Four of these born on July 18, 1910,
were consigned to spirit on November 2. I measured these,
and found them 290, 305, 305, and 320 mm. (11,4, 12, 12,
and 122inches). A fifth specimen born on July 20, 1910, died
on December 7, and I find it is 12? inches long.

(c) Maturity : I have had no information of the length of
gravid females.

(d) Maximum Length: The cobra, when adult, measures
usually 1,370 to 1,675 mm. (from 44 to 54 feet), Larger speci-
mens are rare, and 6-footers extremely rare. Dr. Nicholson,
who for some time distributed the rewards for poisonous
snakes on behalf of the Mysore Government, says that out of
1,200 specimens that passed through his hands at Bangalore,
only tour exceeded 1,675 mm. (5 feet 6 inches), and the largest
of these measured 1,728 mm.(5 feet 8inches). Ihave probably
examined 500 cobras from various parts of Asia, between
Baluchistan and Chitral to South China. I have only once
seen a 6-footer, and this was sent to me by Mr. P. W. Mackin-
non, and was killed in Dehra Dun. It taped 1,930 mm. (6 feet
4inches). Mr. H. Hampton, writing to me from Mogok, Ruby
Mines, Burma, told me he had obtained a specimen of precisely
similar length, which he had sent to the British Museum. He
further stated that Mr. Boulenger, in acknowledging the
specimen ,told him it was the largest received in that Institution,
where there are upwards of seventy examples. Mr. Millard
has told me of two specimens he has seen, one 1,830 mm,

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 477

(6 feet) from Khandalla, and another 1,970 mm. (6 feet 54
inches), locality not specified. Mr. C. Bateman wrote to me
in 1909 that he had killed one of the monocellate variety in
the Jalpaiguri District that measured 1,970 mm. (6 feet 54
inches) unstretched. Writing to Mr. Millardin 1906, Mr. S. M.
Pearless said that the four largest examples he had killed at
Badulla, Ceylon, measured respectively 1,805, 1,842, 1,980, and
2,095 mm. (5 feet 11 inches, 6 feet 4 inch, 6 feet 6 inches, and
6 feet 103 inches), and he believed specimens running to 2,135
mm. (7 feet) were on record. The Pioneer of February 12,
1908, contained an account of a large cobra, quoted from the
Times of Ceylon. It appears that on January 31, 1908, Mr.
Webster, whilst motoring Sir Thomas Lipton in Colombo, saw
a crowd of natives collected on the road. These proved to be
watching a hole in which a snake was partly visible. Mr.
Webster, by means of a noose of rope, managed to extract the
snake and kill it, and it was found to be a cobra of unusual
length, which, when taped, measured 2,135 mm. (7 feet).
The account further stated that a local taxidermist set up the
specimen. On writing to Sir Thomas Lipton, he repeated
this story to me and gave me permission to see the specimen
in his residence at Ossidge. It is set up in the erect posture
with open mouth, showing the fangs, I measured it and
found it taped 2,020 mm. (6 feet 74 inches). The Bombay
Natural History Society has recently acquired a specimen
from Shamshirnagar 2,008 mm. (6 feet 7 inches) unskinned.
Lyddeker* says one has been recorded 2,210 mm. (7 feet 3
inches) in length, but gives no details of the locality where it
was found nor the authority who measured it.

Foes.—In the Bombay Natural History Journalt I
published a list of the enemies of snakes in their natural
haunts, any of which I take it may include the cobra in their
dietary. Among mammals, the mongoose has been conceded
a special place as a destroyer of cobras. Personally, I always
had the greatest difficulty to get my captive mongooses, and

* Royal Nat. Hist., Reptilia and Fishes, p. 223.
f Vol, XVI., p. 375.

478 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

I have had three or four, to face my captive cobras, much less
attackthem. Mr. Stevensin Assam told me he once witnessed
an encounter between a mongoose and a cobra. The snake
managed to evade the carnivore in the tall grass, and was
killed by Mr. Stevens. An interesting incident was reported
to me by Mr. Reid, showing that some animals have an instinc-
tive dread ot the cobra, or, perhaps, snakes in general. A herd
of buffaloes that were standing, feeding out of a row of
‘“nands,” suddenly became very excited and broke loose,
stamping and snorting, and to all appearances were terrified.
On investigation ,a cobra was found close by, which was killed,
one old cow when she saw it rushed upon its body and
trampled it. This, by the way, is the method by which deer
and pigs are reported to attack and destroy snakes. Gunther
says the jungle fowl kills cobras, and this seems probable, as
domestic fowls are known to kill and eat them ; an event of
this kind happened before the eyes of the late Mr. P. W.
MacKinnon in Mussoorie, his fowl killing and then swallowing
the snake with no ill-effects. Both Evans and Craddock
have reported instances of the cobra being victimized by the
king cobra:.(NV. bungarus). Mr. Gleadow once wrote to me
that he saw a large monitor lizard (Varanus, spec.) running
off with a live snake, 3 or 4 feet long, in his jaws, which, when
released, was shot and proved to be a cobra.

Freaks.—In the Indian Museum there is a double-headed
cobra, an example of that rare condition, anterior dichotomy.

Poison .—(a) TheGland : This organ, whichis really a salivary
gland, and the analogue of the parotid gland in mammals,
including man, consists of a body and a neck. The body is
much the shape and size of an almond kernel, and consists of
(1) a thick fibrous capsule or jacket, (2) the glandular or
poison secreting substance proper, and (3) a duct running
centrally in the long axis of the gland. The capsule gives off
numerous fibrous septa, which pass into the glandular sub-
stance and divide it into numerous chambers or pockets
(the poison lakes of Bobeau). Each pocket is lined with
poison secreting cells, and carries in its walls blood
vessels, which convey the blood which the poison cells depend

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 479

upon for their activity. After a period of activity, the
pockets, which converge forwards and inwards towards the
axis of the gland, become distended with poison, and this is
poured into the central duct. At the posterior pole the gland
ends in a downward projecting lobe. The fibrous capsule
dips into the gland, just in front of this lobe, to form a furrow
for the attachment of an important muscle, the masseter.
This muscle originates from the postfrontal bone and the
ridges on the parietal, and is somewhat fan-shaped. Its
fibres converge, and pass first backwards over the superior
and internal surfaces of the gland, then downwards behind
its posterior pole, and finally forwards to be attached to the
furrow, or dimple in front of the lobe. The muscle, in fact,
embraces a large part of the gland surface, and in contraction
squeezes it much in the same way as the hand operates on a
bicycle horn, the result being that poison is driven forwards |
into the duct to pour finally into the mouth. The neck of
the gland consists of a sheath which is the direct continuation
of the capsule surrounding the body, but is much thinner.
Centrally is the poison duct, and intermediate between the
sheath and the duct a series of mucous glands. These are
placed at right angles to the axis of the duct, and discharge
their mucous into that channel, where it mingles with the
poison proper. In section the gland appears to the naked
eye much like a sponge.

(6) Physical Characters : Cobra venom,when freshly secreted,
is a clear, amber-coloured, very viscid fluid, with a specific
gravity of 1,050. It resembles olive oil in appearance and
consistency, and soon solidifies into an amorphous brittle
mass, fissuring in all directions, and losing from 60 to 75 per
cent. of its weight in the process of drying.

Lieut.-Colonel Glen Liston has very kindly weighed me a
drop of fresh cobra venom in the balance at Parel Laboratory,
and find it weighs approximately 35 mgms. Allowing a loss
of 68 per cent. in drying, the residue of one drop would weigh
11 mgms. It is somewhat remarkable that a drop of olive
oil, to which I have compared cobra venom in appearance and
consistency, only weighs 6 mgms. in the same balance at Parel.

480 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

When dry the poison retains its transparency and resembles
gum oramber. In the dry state it keeps well and preserves
its virulent character, according to Vincent Richards, for at
least fifteen years. The same authority shows that, though
there has been some difference of opinion among authorities,
poison is acid when fresh, and this in spite of the fact that the
normal reaction of the cobra’s mouth is alkaline. Lamb has
confirmed these observations. After the lapse of some hours
the venom becomes neutral. Dr. Nicholson says it is slightly
bitter to the taste, and causes a feeling of frothy soapiness in
the mouth, at the same time stimulating the flow of saliva.
The same authority remarks that the dried particles have a
pungent action upon the nostrils. Lamb describes the taste
as very bitter and astringent.

(c) Yield : This, of course, varies with the size of the cobra,
but even in specimens of similar length other factors affect
the yield. Lamb says: “It is an observation of common
occurrence in this laboratory (Parel) that a cobra newly
eaught will yield from 20 to 30 large drops of poison, while
after he has been a captive for some time, this quantity will
have diminished to from 6 to 10 drops and in time to nil.”
Dr. Nicholson observed that the yield was more abundant
in wet weather. Under the influence of anger, poison is
secreted unduly copiously. Doubtless, age, health, and
individual vitality also influence the quantity secreted.

The venom in its fluid state is found to vary a good deal
in concentration, a cobra’s yield is therefore calculated by the
amount of solid residue left after drying. Cunningham’s
average for nine cobras was 254 mgms. Lamb’s for fourteen
cobras 231, and Roger’s for two cobras 249 mgms. Lamb
found that by provoking cobras, so as to make them bite
viciously, the yield collected in glasses was considerably
augmented, as compared with that collected by simple pres-
sure over the glands, and amounted to an average of 373
mgms. for three cobras. Cunningham obtained from one
cobra the enormous quantity of 725 mgms. The amount
of solid, it will be seen, ranges between 200 and 726 mgms. in
healthy adult cobras. Acton and Knowles have shown that

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 481

the yield is very variable, and for fifty cobras,varying in length
from 2 feet 10 inches to 5 feet 10 inches, ranged between 30-2
and 881°4 mgms. of desiccated poison. Further, that one
snake, 4 feet 4 inches in length, furnished only 30°2 mgms.,
whilst a young one only 2 feet 10 inches in length furnished
31 mgms. Again, one cobra 4 feet 10 inches in length yielded
143 :4 mgms., whilst another of exactly similar proportions
yielded 706:6 mgms. The average yield for these fifty cobras
was 317 mgms.

(d) Amount injected at one Bite: Acton and Knowles
estimate that the average discharge of venom at a bite is
about 211 mgms. The variability of the amount injected
is exemplified by many experiments on rats. Thus, no
less than six rats bitten by cobras, varying in length from
2 feet 10 inches to 4 feet 8 inches, did not die as a
result.

(e) Toxicity : Lamb has shown that even the dried product
varies in its degree of toxicity, as he found the minimal
lethal dose for rats was ‘07 mgms. with one sample, and -:04
with another. Again, in Acton and Knowles’ experiments,
they injected 2 mgms. of poison into fifty rats. As a result
all succumbed, but where one died in 53 minutes, another
did not die for 20 hours !

(f) Rapidity of Absorption: Blake found that a poison
injected into the jugular vein reached the pulmonary circula-
tion of a dog in from 4 to 6 seconds, and the cardiac circulation
in 7 seconds. A poison injected into the same vein was
distributed throughout the circulation in 9 seconds. It is
this extreme rapidity of transmission in the blood stream
that accounts for the fatal issue in experiments where a
poisoned member is amputated or wound excised almost
immediately after being bitten. Russell caused a cobra,
after biting a dog twice, to inflict a wound in the leg of a
pigeon, and amputated the member one minute later, but
the bird died in two hours. On dissecting up the limb the
extravasation, peculiar to the local action of snake poison,
was observed half an inch above the punctures, and almost
reached the point of amputation.

482 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Fayrer* (Expt. 3 of Series 16) caused a cobra to bite a dog
in a fold of skin in the groin. The wound was entirely excised
“at once,’ but death took place in 6 minutes! In another
experiment (No. 13 of Series 15), the same authority repeated
the same performance, the part being “immediately ” excised
(within 2 seconds). The animal died 2 hours and 35 minutes
later. It appears probable that the initial absorption
of the poison is far more speedy in the first few seconds
(or minutes) than subsequently (?). Acton and Knowles
have repeated these experiments, and find that if amputation
is not accomplished within ten minutes of a lethal
injection, the amount already absorbed will cause a fatal
issue.

(g) Lethal Dose for Man: It is a well-established fact that
cobra venom may be swallowed in large quantities without
producing any baneful results. Elliot gave a dog 10 drops—
a dose sufficient to kill 10 dogs, if injected into the tissues—
without producing any ill-effect. On another occasion he
gave 20 drops to a goat with the same result. Fraser, by
graduated doses internally, succeeded in giving a cat 1,000
times the lethal dose by injection beneath the skin. Calmette
repeated the experiment, giving 1,000 times the lethal sub-
cutaneous dose to a cat internally, without producing symptoms
of poisoning. It is the access of the venom into the blood
stream that constitutes its extreme danger to all animals.
The lethal dose of the poison so introduced has been accurately
ascertained for many animals by experiment, but in man
must remain to some extent conjectural. Various estimates
have been made, based on experiments on the lower animalss.
Fraser’s estimate is 31 mgms., whilst Calmette made it about
10mgms. Lamb, however, finding that 25 mgms. is approxi-
mately the minimal lethal dose per kilogram weight in monkeys
and postulating an equal degree of susceptibility in man,
concludes that the dose for a man weighing 10 stone would be
about 15 to 17:5 mgms. (or -0015 to :0017 grammes). If we

* Thanatophidia of India (1874).

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 483

take Lamb’s estimate of the lethal dose for man, which is
probably nearest the mark, and strike an average for the 25
cobras experimented with by Cunningham, Lamb, and
Rogers, the average yield of which amounts to 240 mgms,
we may state that an average cobra contains poison enough
in its glands to kill fifteen men. An exceptional cobra may
even contain sufficient poison to kill forty-five men! Acton
and Knowles, by well-reasoned induction and a highly ingenious
system of experiment, arrive at the same conclusion as Lamb,
and place the lethal dose at 15 mgms. (or -0015 grammes)
of dried poison.

(h) Uncertainty of Effects: When one considers all these
facts, viz., the extremely small quantity that constitutes a
lethal dose in man, the number ot lethal doses of venom
available in a normal cobra, and the rapidity of absorption
into the blood, it is extremely remarkable that any bitten
subject can escape receiving his death warrant however
trivial the injuries sustained. In spite of this, it is a well-
established fact that a certain number of bitten subjects
in which poison too has been indubitably injected do
recover, and without treatment. Of course, it is obvious
in these cases that the dose absorbed was a _ sublethal
one.

It seems to me very remarkable how variable are the results
of a cobra bite as testified by experiment in the lower animals.
Elliot* reports, on the authority of Surgeon-Major Browning,
I.M.S., that on one occasion “a healthy cobra bit a dog in two
places with no results ; another bite from the same cobra on
the same animal resulted in death.” Fayrer} records a
parallel case. “A mongoose and a full-sized cobra were put
into a large wire cage at 1 p.m. The snake struck at the
mongoose, and they grappled with each other frequently, and
apparently the mongoose must have been bitten, as the snake
held on to it about the neck and head. The next day at noon

* Trans, Brit. Med., Assoc. 8, Ind, Br., 1895, p. 7.
t+ Thanatophidia, p. 69,
67 6(6)20

484 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

both were well.” There had been two cobras with this
mongoose during the night “both equally fierce, striking
each other and the mongoose, but the latter was not poisoned.
He was scratched by the cobra rather severely on the head.
But on being bitten in the thigh by the same cobra, when both
were taken out of the cage, “‘ the mongoose succumbed to the
poison very rapidly.” Again, Dr. Davy reports a case where
“a cobra, 5 feet long, bit a hen, fixing its fangs in the skin
covering the lower point of the left pectoral muscle, and
keeping its hold about two or three seconds.”’ The hen died
after eight hours. Compare with this Fayrer’s fowl that was
bitten “‘ by a large cobra in the thigh fell into convulsions
immediately and died in 50 seconds.’’ The literature on the
cobra is full of similar conflicting results following its bite ;
it is obvious that if such occur in lower animals during
experiment, they will occur also in the human subjects
bitten by accident. Speaking of this uncertainty, Fayrer
says “snakes frequently strike, and even wound without
poisoning.”

There is abundant evidence to show that snakes like the
cobra, which are known to be capable of delivering a mortal
wound, frequently fail to do so, though they may inject poison
in considerable quantity. Vincent Richard says : ‘‘a man or
an animal may be very seriously poisoned by a rattlesnake,
or indeed by any snake, and yet recover under subjection to
various or even no treatment.’ Weir Mitchell cites an
experiment with a dog, which he says “‘ has especial value as
showing how exceedingly grave may be the signs of poisoning,
and yet how rapid and complete may be the rally and
escape. At one stage the dog was lying on the floor, scarcely
breathing, and nearly pulseless.”’ . I could multiply instances
“ad libitum.” So far as the human subject is concerned there
are many cases of cobra bite recorded where no ill-effects
were produced, or symptoms of varying severity not ending
in death, though no treatment was attempted. Dr. Davy,
after remarking that the effects of cobra bite “‘ vary a good
deal according to circumstances not easy to calculate,” says :
‘TI have seen several men who have recovered from the bite

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 485

of the hooded snake, and I have heard of two or three only to
whom it has proved fatal.”” Russell mentions a cooly woman
whom he saw 10 hours after being bitten by a cobra. Payra-
lysis had advanced so far as to seriously affect her throat, and
he had difficulty in getting her to swallow a Tanjore pill. She
recovered completely. He mentions another case of a drunken
- Irishman, who declared he was proof against any snake owing
to his nationality, and put a cobra into his shirt before an
assembled throng. The snake bit him severely in the breast,
he suffered not only great pain locally, but serious constitu-
tional effects, nevertheless he recovered. Dr. Nicholson
records a case where two snakemen, under the influence of
drink, got bitten by one of their cobras. As some time had
elapsed when he saw them, he coloured some water pink with
his dentifrice, which he gave them to allay their fears. Both
recovered, though one had a swollen hand next day as a result
of the accident. Calmette records another very interesting
case Where a man was profoundly under the influence of cobra
poisoning following a bite, but who persistently refused
antivenene which was to hand, took his chance, and recovered
completely. .

These cases are most instructive, and serve to point two
lessons. One is that however serious the symptoms arising
from a cobra bite, there is always hope. The other lesson is
that nobody is qualified to assume that any given treatment,
adopted in a certain case, has been responsible for its favour-
able issue. There can be no doubt that the failure to realize
this latter truth has been responsible for the host of reputed
antidotes, which have been vaunted from time to time since
the days of Celsus, all of which have proved futile when
subjected to scientific experiment. It is difficult to say what
percentage of cases of cobra bite would not prove mortal.
Dr. Davy, speaking of Ceylon cobras, says that recovery
follows the bite as often as death. In the article on Snake
Poisons in Allbutt’s system of medicine, Lamb and Martin
say : “ the mortality in persons bitten by the larger snakes of
India and South America would not, from the scanty records
available, appear to be more than 30 per cent.”

486 SNAKES OF CEYLON.
(7) Toxins : Chemical formula C,, Ho Ose (Faust) :-—

(1) Toxins operating on nerve cells—
(a) A depressor that paralyses the respiratory centre
(Brunton and Fayrer).
(6b) A depressor to the vasomotor centre (Lamb).
(c) A ‘depressor that paralyses centres in the bulb
(A. J. Wall).

(d) A depressor that paralyses the ends of nerves
including the phrenic nerves (Brunton and
Fayrer).

(e). A destructive agent to cells generally in the spine
and cord (Lamb and Hunter).

(2) A direct stimulant to cardiac muscle (Brunton and
Fayrer, through Elliot)—

(a) Action on muscle or nerve endings.

(6) Vago-inhibitory apparatus.

(c) Vaso constriction of arterioles.

(3) A vaso constrictor (Brunton and Fayrer).

(4) Toxins affecting the constitution of the blood—

(a) An antifibrin ferment that reduces clotting of blood
(Brunton and Fayrer).

b)

(b) ‘“‘ Hemolysin’’ destructive to red blood cells
(Hilson, Ragotzi).

(c) “‘ Leucolysin’’ destructive to white blood cells
(Flexner and Noguchi).

(d) An antibactericidal principle that destroys the
normal activity that blood exhibits towards the
invasion of germs into the body (Flexner and
Noguchi).

(5) Toxins destructive to other cell elements—

(a) ‘‘ Hemorrhagin’”’ destructive to the lining mem-

brane of arterioles (Flexner).

(b) Agents destructive to cells at the seat of injury.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 487

(k) Analysis of the Action of the Toxins—

(1) (a) The “neurotoxin ’’ paralysing the respiratory
centre is the predominant agent in causing death.
It is assisted by (1) (d), and slightly by (4) (6).

(6) The effects of the “toxin ”’ that depresses the vaso-
motor centre are neutralized by the combined
antagonistic action of (2)and (3). Theresultis that
after breathing has ceased, artificiel respiration is
capable of prolonging life for many hours.

(c) This “toxin,” operating on several centres in the
bulb, evokes symptoms exactly similar to those
seen in bulbar palsy, where lips, tongue, throat, and
voice are paralysed.

(1) Assists (1) (a) in the production of asphyxia.

(ce) The toxin ‘“‘amyotrophin”’ destroys nerve cells
generally, but its action is not seen in the human
being, death being brought about by the more
speedy action of (1) (a). When (1) (a) is insufficient
to cause death, the dose of “‘ amyotrophin ”’ is too
small to produce death, or even to seriously affect
the bitten subject.

(2) The cardiotonic element, by reinforcing the heart
muscle, helps to preserve the blood pressure, and
helps to counteract the effect of (1) (0)

(3) The vaso-constrictor, by reducing the calibre of the
blood vessels, raises blood pressure, and acts indirectly
in reinforcing the heart. With (2) it completely
counteracts the effect of (1) (0).

(4) (a) The effect of the antifibrin ferment is seen in the
reduction of clotting power in the. blood, and this
in conjunction with (5) (a) accounts for the hemor-
rhages that may occur. :

(6) ““Hemolysin,”’ by destroying red blood cells, contri-
butes to the asphyxia produced by (1) (a) aided
by (1) (4).

488 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

(c) ‘“‘ Leucolysin’’ by destroying white blood cells,
reduces the normal power of the system to resist
microbic invasion of all sorts.

(d) This aids the action of (4) (c), if indeed it is a
Separate entity.

(5) (a) ‘‘ Hemorrhagin,’ by damaging the lining
membrane of the arterioles, allows leakage of the
vessel contents. It in conjunction with (4) (a)
favours the occurrence of hemorrhages.

(6) The local destruction of cells accounts for sloughing
of the wounds, and leaves an ulcer when the dead
tissues have separated.

(1) Symptoms in Man—Local: The first, and perhaps
invariable symptom, is pain, which is of a stinging or burning
character out of all’ proportion to the mechanical injuries
sustained. It comes on immediately and persists, perhaps
lasting for hours. If pain is experienced only to the degree
excited by ordinary pricks or scratches and is but transient,
there is a justifiable presumption that poison has not been
introduced. Coincident with the pain, and almost as speedy
in its appearance, is swelling, which gradually increases until
perhaps the whole limb is puffy. The third sign that venom
has gained access to the wounds is the oozing of a blood-stained
serum. If, on the other hand, the punctures are sealed with
clot, as in ordinary wounds shortly after injury, there is every
probability, if not actual certainty, that poison has failed to
find entry into the tissues. The fourth cardinal sign is one
which cannot be detected until the tissues in the site of the
wound have been cut into, though it may be inferred if rapidly
ensuing swelling has occurred, accompanied with the other
signs the tissues assume a very characteristic appearance ;
the parts become purplish centrally, the colour fading to
scarlet and then pinkish, and a thin serum exudes. In one
case, Wall (A. J.) found this purplish effusion, which is
characteristic of the action of snake venom, within 30 seconds
of the injection of the poison. When present, it is absolute

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 489

proof of the absorption of venom; if absent, it is probably
equally good proof of the failure of the poison to have reached
the tissues.

How intensely irritant the venom is locally is apparent from
the rapidity of the symptoms noted above, added to which is
the fact that in many cases, where the bitten subject recovers,
the tissues involved actually mortify, and are thrown off as a
slough. Occasionally, one sees natives with withered limbs
stated to be due to the effects of a snake bite.

General: The constitutional effects are a gradual but
rapidly advancing paralysis, due to the action of the poison
on the brain and cord. Sooner or later the bitten subject
complains of weakness in the legs, and is prompted to recline
rather than walk or sit. This weakness creeps up the trunk,
and affects the muscles of the neck, so that the head droops ;
the muscles of the tongue, lips, and throat, so that speech
becomes difficult, the lower lip falls away from the teeth, and
allows the saliva to dribble, and swallowing becomes difficult or
impossible. The eyelids too droop, giving a sleepy expression
to the face. While these paralyses are waxing, the respiratory
function becomes affected, breathing difficult, then laborious.
and finally death from respiratory failure ends the scene.
Among other toxic symptoms may be mentioned nausea or
actual vomiting, and, not infrequently, hemorrhages from
various orifices, as a result of the action of the poison on the
blood, altering its composition, reducing its coagulability, and
dissolving the red blood cells.

An easy aid to remember the essential action of the poison
is supplied in the word “ COBRA,’’ CO stands for COrd and
BRA for BRAin, implying that it is the central nervous system
that is in the main affected. Again “C OBR” stand for
Coagulation Of Blood Reduced, and the final A gives the mode
of death, viz., by Asphyxia.

(m) Illustrative Case: Cases of cobra toxemia are very
seldom well reported, even by the medical profession, a great
deal being often left to the imagination. I will give one
example that was excellently recorded by Dr. Hilson as

49() SNAKES OF CEYLON.

follows : “ Ona night in June, at about half-past 12 o’clock,
Dabu, a Hindu punkah cooly, was bitten on the shoulder by
a cobra, whilst sleeping. On inspecting the wound, there
were found over the prominence of the right deltoid muscle,
and about three-quarters of an inch apart, two large drops
of a clear serous-like fluid tinged with blood, which had
apparently oozed from two small punctures, so minute that
they could not be perceived by the naked eye. A burning
pain was complained of in the neighbourhood of the bite,
which rapidly increased in intensity, and extended so as to
affect a circular portion of the integument of the size of an
ordinary saucer ; and judging from the description given of
it, it was very similar in character to that produced by the
sting of a scorpion.

* At 12.45 a.m., or about a quarter of an hour after being
bitten, he complained of a pain in his shoulder shooting
toward his throat and chest, and said he was beginning to feel
intoxicated ; but there was nothing in his appearance at this
time to indicate that he was in any way under the influence of
the poison. On the contrary, he was quite calm and collected,
and answered all questions indifferently, at the same time
that he was fully alive to the danger of his condition. The
pupils were not dilated, and they contracted when exposed to
the light of a candle ; his pulse was normal and there was no
embarrassment of the respiration. About five minutes after,
he began to lose control over the muscles of his legs, and
staggered when left unsupported. At about 1 o’clock, the
paralysis of the legs having increased, the lower jaw began to
fall, and frothy and viscid saliva to ooze from the mouth. He
also spoke indistinctly like a man under the influence of
liquor. At 1.10 a.m. he began to moan, and shake his head
frequently from side to side. The pulse was now somewhat
accelerated, but was beating regularly. The respirations were
also increased in frequency. He was unable to answer
questions, but appeared to be quite conscious. His arm
did not seem to be paralysed. He continued to moan and
shake his head from side to side, as if trying to get rid of
yiscid mucus in his throat, The respirations were laboured,

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 49]

but not stertorous. The breathing gradually became slower,
and finally ceased at 1.44 a.m., while the heart continued to
beat for one minute longer.”

(n) Interval before Death.—The interval that elapses between
a, cobra hite and the death thereby occasioned varies consider-
ably. The shortest interval that I have any record of is half
an hour. Fayrer reports one case that died in this short
interval, the bitten subject being an adult man. The Pioneer
of April 27, 1908, reported a European lady, Mrs. Cockely,
succumbing to the bite of a cobra in half an hour. The
wound was inflicted on the top of her toe, and the snake was
killed there and then by her husband. More often the interval °
that elapses amounts to hours, from about two to six hours
being perhaps usual. A woman, mentioned by Fayrer, died
after eight hours, and other cases have been reported exceeding
twenty-four hours.

(0) Treatment recommended—Antivenene: This serum is
the only known remedy for snake bite. The Kasauli product
is curative for this toxeemia and that of Russell’s viper. For
a successful issue, it is necessary (1) to inject the serum as soon
as possible, (2) to inject it intravenously, and (3) to inject
40 cc., and then be guided by results. If the symptoms are
not observed to wane within half an hour, the dose should be
repeated, or if the case is desperate, a second injection given
without waiting so long.

The antivenene now issued is reckoned to retain its virtue
for two years at least, after which it should be rejected. If
the serum is old, a larger dose than 40 cc. should be injected.
Injections into the tissues are far less speedy in their action,
and a double dose would probably be necessary.

_ Although cobra venom does not directly depress the heart,
other influences are very likely to affect that organ in cases of
cobra poisoning. Pain, fright, and cold are all powerful
depressants to cardiac activity, and may seriously endanger
life. Itis most essential, therefore, in treating cobra poisoning
to look for any tendency to faintness, and treat this vigorously,
as recommended under Bungarus ceruleus (page 448). Anti-
venene of unquestionable activity, administered intravenously

68 ? 6(6)20

492 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

in adequate doses, cannot be expected to save a patient who
is suffering from cardiac weakness due to non-toxic causes.
A feeble or rapid pulse, with cold body surface, specially
noticeable in the extremities, and a subnormal temperature
are, though silent, vociferous appeals from an inarticulate
subject for vigorous stimulation of the heart.

Parasites.—(a) Hctozoa: A very common parasite to infest
the cobra is the tick Aponomma lxve variety paradoxum,
which attaches itself between the scales. The adult is about
the diameter of a lentil, flat, and of a dark plumbeous colour.
I have also seen minute scarlet mites, apparently the same as
those found on Oligodon sublineatus, which Professor Nuttall
identified as larval forms, probably of a Gekobia.

(6) Entozoa: Both nematode and cestode worms inhabit
the stomach and intestine, the identity of which I have not
been able to determine.

(c) Hematozoa: Laveran mentions having found hemo-
gregarines, viz., Hemogregarina najez, in the red blood cells.

Lepidosis.—(a) T'ypical—Rostral : The rostro-nasal sutures
are about half the rostro-internasals, and subequal to the
rostro-labials. Jnternasals: The suture between them is
about half to three-fifths that between the prefrontals, and
half or less than half the internaso-prefrontals. Prefrontals :
The suture between them longer than the przfronto-frontals ;
touching the internasal, preocular, and _ supraocular.
Frontal : The fronto-supraocular sutures are about twice the
fronto-parietals. Swpraoculars: Longer than the frontal,
about three-fourths the breadth of the frontal along a line
connecting the centres of the eyes. Nasals: Subequal in
depth. Preocular. Longer than deep; hardly reaching the
top of the head; touching the internasal. Postoculars :
Three ; subequal. Temporals : Lower as long as the supra-
ocular. MSupralabials: Seven; the Ist, 2nd, and 3rd
touching the nasals ; 3rd and 4th the eye; and the 5th and
6th the temporals. Sublinguals : The posterior subequal to
the anterior ; completely separated by a single scale nearly as
large ; touching the 4th and 5th infralabials. Jnfralabials :
Five ; the 4th and 5th subequal, 5th nearly as long as the

SNAKES OF CEYLON, : 493

posterior sublinguals, and about twice as broad as those
shields, touching two scales behind. Cuneate: A small scale
wedged in between the 4th and 5th infralabials. (Fig. 87.)

Fie. 87.—Naia tripudians.
(Life size.)

Costals: Vertebrals and last three rows rectiform; the
intermediate rows oblique. Vertebrals, breadth half or

494. SNAKES OF CEYLON.

less than half their length, about half the breadth of the
ultimate row. Oblique lateral rows, breadth less than half
their length. Ultimate row, breadth nearly equalling their
length. In 21 to 25 rows two heads-lengths behind the head ;
19 to 25 rows at midbody (23 to 25 in Ceylon specimens) ; and
15 to 13 two heads-lengths before the vent. The reduction at
all the steps is due to the absorption of the 4th, 5th, or 6th
row from the ventrals. Ventrals : 163 to 213 (170 to 200 in
Ceylon specimens). Anal: Entire. Subcaudals: 52 to 75
(52 to 65 for Ceylon specimens). (ig. 88.)

i

Z\

coe cos
CES)
Yo ak se en elaine
i ee

Ven

Fic. 88.—Naia tripudians.

(6) Anomalies—Postoculars: Rarely two. Swupralabial :
The third is rarely divided into an upper and a lower part.
Cuneate : Rarely absent.

Dentition.— Mazilla : Prenodal: in Chambe1’s Encyclo-
pedia the article on the cobra says that its fangs are not
canaliculate, but grooved, Mr. Boulenger too,in his Catalogue,
refers to the fangs as being grooved, and they are shown with
a deficiency in the anterior wall in the figures in Fayrer’s and
other works. This is most certainly not correct. The fact
that there is an indistinct line on the anterior face ot the fang

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 495

does not affect the question of its being canaliculate. The
line referred to is a seam which marks the spot where the
circumflexed walls of the canal meet and blend. There is a
considerable opening at the base of this seam and a much
smaller one near its point, where the poison finds exit. It is
not generally known that it was this beautifully specialized
instrument in the jaws of a poisonous snake that led a medical
man to design the surgical instrument, used so freely in these
days, in the form of the hypodermic needle.

The cobra’s fang is relatively small compared with viperine
fangs, and is a much more solid and stronger weapon. The
length of my largest cobra fang is 7 mm., and was takea trom
a large adult. The length ot the fangs in a 15-inch Hchis
in my collection is 5 mm., and those in a 3 feet 4 inch viper
(Trimeresurus anamallensis) are 13 mm. My largest
hamadryad (N. bungarus), measuring 11 feet 5 inches, had
fangs 10 mm. in length.

There are usually two fully-operative fangs fixed in each
maxilla, but these are shed singly at intervals, and from
Fayrer’s experiments eighteen days was the shortest period
that elapsed between drawing them and the fixation of a
new one. (Fig. 89.)

Fie. 89.—Maxilla of Naia tripudians.
Compare with Fig. 92.

Postnodal: A solitary tooth. Palatine: 6to 8. Pterygoid:
11 to 15. Mandibular: 13 to 15.

Distribution,--(a) General: It is represented by one or
other of its many varieties in Ceylon and the Andamans ;
throughout Peninsuiar India to the Himalayas. In the

496 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

north-west it extends through Baluchistan to Transcaspia ;
and in the north-east to Bengal and Assam. Further east it
extends through Burma and Indo-China to Southern China
and the Chusan islands and Formosa. The Malay Peninsula,
and Malay Archipelago from Sumatra to the Philippines.

(0) Local : It is a snake of the plains, but may be met with
in hills even up to an altitude of 6,000 feet.

It is a common snake everywhere.

Genus CALLOPHIS.

(Greek “ kallos ” beautiful, “‘ ophis ” snake, in allusion to
their beautiful colouration.)

General Charaeters—All the species are small, only growing
to 21 feet or less. Head moderately depressed, moderately
or very short. Snout moderately or very short, gently
declivous, without canthus, and broadly rounded terminally.
Kye small, with round pupil. Nostril moderately large,
almost wholly contained in the anterior nasal ; occupying
about the upper two-thirds of the suture. Neck not or but
little apparent. Body moderately or very elongate, stout or
slender, cylindrical, of even calibre throughout. Belly
rounded. Tail short or very short, measuring from one-
twelfth to one-sixteenth the total length.

Identification.—The costals in 13 rows in the whole body
length taken with the 3rd supralabial touching the postnasal
and the eye will indicate the genus.

Habits.—Terrestrial. Diurnal. Very gentle by nature.
Sluggish.

Food.—Subsist mainly on other snakes.
Poison.—Nothing known of the effect on man.

Lepidosis.— Rostral : Touches six shields. Jnternasals: A
pair. Prefrontals: A pair. Frontal: Touches six shields.
Nasals : Divided. Loreal: Absent. Preocular: Absent or

SNAKES OF CBYLON. 497

present. Postoculars: One or two. Temporal: One, large.
Supralabials: Six or seven. Sublinguals: Two subequal
pairs. Infralabials : Four.

Costals : Longer than broad, rectiform, smooth, without
apical pits or facets. Vertebrals not enlarged. Last two
rows increasing in breadth. Last row broadest. Ventrals :
Rounded. Anal: Divided. Supracaudals: In even rows,
Subcaudals : Divided.

Dentition.— Maxillary : Postnodal, 1 to 3 ; isodont (absent
in macclelland:). Palatine: Anododont, feebly kumatodont.
Pterygoid: Anododont, scaphiodont. Mandibular: Ano
donont, scaphiodont.

Distribution —South-Eastern Asia.

Five species have been described, of which one occurs in
Ceylon, viz., trimaculatus.

CALLOPHIS TRIMACULATUS (Daudin).

(Greek “‘ treis ’’ three, and “‘ maculatus ”’ spotted.)

The Slender Coral Snake.

Synonymy.—Coluber melanurus, Vipera trimaculata, Elaps
trimaculatus, H. melanurus.

History.—First referred to by Russell in 1796, who also
gave a very fair figure in his first volume (Plate VIII.).
Christened by Daudin in 1803.

‘General Characters.—A small snake, scarcely exceeding
1 foot in length. Head moderately depressed, moderately
long. Snout moderately long, slightly declivous, without
canthus, broadly rounded terminally. Eye rather small.
Nostril moderately large; in the upper two-thirds of the
suture between the nasals. Neck barely evident. Body very
elongate, slender, of even calibre throughout. Belly rounded.
Tail very short, being about one-sixteenth the total length.

498 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Identification.—Costals in 13 rows in the whole body length,
six supralabials, the first three touching the nasals, constitute
a syndrome peculiar to this species.

Colouration.—Dorsally the colour is a uniform light
chestnut as applied to a horse. Haly says golden gray.
Kach scale has a brown or blackish spot. The head and nape
are black, and there are two well-defined whitish spots behind
the parietal shields. The tail has a black band at the base,
and another subterminally. These with the black head
account for Daudin’s name érimaculatus. The ventrum in
Haly’s specimen is described as rich mauve below the head,
graduating to pale yellow, then orange, and finally crimson
before the vent. Willey’s specimen agrees, except that it
lacks the mauve zone anteriorly. Beneath the tail the sub-
caudals are pearly gray (Haly), pale bluish (Willey), between
the two black bands. These beautiful colours fade almost at
once in spirit.

The snake bears a strong superficial resemblance to Oligodon
sublineatus. Willey suggests that the two occipital spots
may come into the category of “ false eyes,” and, as sueh,
may terrify its enemies and aid in its protection.

Habits.—Very little is known. Haly remarks that the
specimen he captured “‘ was making for the water with its
tail curved over in such a way as to carry the crimson and
black anal spot uppermost.” I have received confirmation
of this curious action from Mr. C. E. C. Fischer, I.F.S. He
encountered a specimen at Walayar, on the boundary between
the Malabar and Coimbatore Districts of South India, and in
forwarding me the snake, he wrote “‘ when disturbed it curled
its tail upwards so as to expose the coral red anal shield and
a few of the posterior ventral scales. The effect was very
striking, and I presume was a demonstration meant to terrify
orwarnme.’ Asimilar action was noted by Flower of another
snake, viz., Cylindrophis rufus, a species not nearly related
to the slender coral snake, but with a similar adornment of
crimson beneath the tail. He remarked of this species “ when
touched or worried it will not attempt to strike or bite, but
keeps its head flat on the ground, usually hidden under the

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 499

folds of its body ; its taz/, however, it raises off the ground and
holds aloft curved over backwards in the most extraordinary
manner, so that any casual observer would imagine the tail
was the head, and think the snake to be threatening to
strike.”’

D’ Abreu says it appears to be a very timid snake. A captive
specimen could not be induced to bite anything. When
seized with the forceps it lashed out violently and finally
wriggled itself into a knotty bunch. One in captivity always
concealed itself in the loose earth in its cage.

Mr. Drummond-Hay tells me the specimen he encountered
did not try to escape, but appeared most sluggish. Not
knowing what it was, its manner so disarmed suspicion that
he picked it up, and carried it about two miles in his hand.
during this time it was quite quiet, and made no attempt to
bite him.

Food.—Nothing known. As most of its near allies subsist
on other snakes, this species is likely to exhibit similar tastes.

Growth.—My largest specimen was 395 mm. (154 inches).

Poison.—Nothing is known as to its effects on any mammals,
and the snake is too scarce for the poison to have been
investigated as yet in the laboratory.

Lepidosis.—(a) T'ypical—Rostral : The rostro-nasal sutures
longer than the rostro-internasals, more than twice the rostro-
labials. Internasals : The suture between them about three-
fifths that between the prefrontals, and half or less than half
the internaso-preefrontals. Prefrontals : The suture between
them longer than the prefronto-frontals ; touching the
internasal, postnasal, preocular, and supraocular. Frontal -
The fronto-supraocular sutures rather shorter than the frontal!
parietals. Swpraoculars: About two-thirds the length of
the frontal, and about two-thirds the breadth of the frontal
along a line connecting the centres of the eyes. Nasals :
Subequal in depth, or the anterior rather deeper. Preocular :
Barely reaching the top of the head. Postoculars : Two ;
subequal. J'emporal: As long as or rather longer than the
supraocular. Swpralabials: Six; the 1st, 2nd, and 38rd
touching the nasals ; 3rd and 4th the eye ; and the 5th and 6th
the temporal; 6th longest. Sublinguals ; The posterior as

69 6(6)20

500 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

long as the anterior, touching the 4th infralabial. Infra-
labial: Four; 4th largest, about as long as the posterior-
sublinguals, but twice as broad as those shields, and touching
two scales behind. (Fig. 90.)

Fic. 90.—Callophis trimaculatus.
(exes)

Costals : Vertebrals, breadth of scales about three-fourths
their length, and about three-fourths those of the ultimate
row. Last two rows gradually increasing in breadth.
Ultimate row broadest, its scales about as broad as long. In
13 rows in the whole body length. Ventrals : 228 to 274
rounded. Anal: Divided. Subcaudals : 24 to 36.

Dentition—From one skull in my collection. Mazuillary :
Postnodal, 2 or 3. Palatine: 6 to 7. Pterygoid: 4 (?) to 6.
Mandibular : 8 to 9. ‘

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 50L

Distribution.—(a) General: Peninsular India, as far north
as Bengal (Nerva, Russell), and Ceylon.

(6) Local: Jerdon says “‘common in Burma.” It is
certainly not common in that Province, nor do I believe that
it occurs there at all. Its allies, maculiceps and macclelland:,
are found there. In Ceylon Haly recorded one from Tissa-
maharama (north-east of Hambantota) and another from
Trincomalee. Willey found his specimen near Trincomalee,
and I received one specimen from Mr. Green from Matale.
Abercromby records two from Matale. One in the Colombo
Museum is from Balangoda (Mr. Drummond-Hay’s specimen).
It is'a decidedly rare snake in India, and seemingly so in
Ceylon.

It is an inhabitant of the plains, but ascends into hills. It
has been recorded by Beddome from the Anamallays, and I
have had a specimen from Mahableshwar (4,500 feet).

Family AMBLYCEPHALIDZ.

Represented in South America and South-East Asia, but
not in Ceylon.

Family VIPERIDA,

(Named from the type genus Vipera.)

General Characters —Head moderate to large, and in some
bears a scale-covered, horn-like, epithelial appendage on the
eyebrow. Snout very short to moderate ; with or without a
canthus ; some with a boss or a scale-clad, horn-like, epi-
thelial appendage anteriorly. Some have a large opening
between the eye and the nostril, viz., the loreal pit. Eye
moderate, with vertical pupil. Nostril lateral; small,
moderate, or large. Neck moderately or very markedly
constricted. Body moderately robust to massive, cylin-
drical, attenuating more or less from the middle in both
directions. Belly rounded or keeled laterally. Tail short.

Habits.—Terrestrial, arboreal, or aquatic. Sluggish. Fierce
when roused.

Food.—Mammals, birds, reptiles, batrachians, fish,
centipedes.

502 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Breeding.—All whose habits are known are viviparous,
except Causus rhombeatus, Trimeresurus mutus, T'. monticola,
and Ancistrodon rhodostoma.

Poison.—All are poisonous. Many are fatal to man, but
many others rarely, if ever, cause a fatal toxemia.

Lepidosis.—The head in some is covered with large shields
more or less after the Colubrine type. In others there are
only small scales.

Costals : Longer than broad ; all rectiform, or some oblique ;
smooth or keeled; with or without apical facets. Vertebrals
not enlarged or feebly enlarged. Ventrals: Bread, three
times the breadth of the last costal row ; rounded or laterally
keeled. Anal: Entire. Subcaudals: Entire or divided.

Dentition (for Indian species)—Mazilla: With a pair of
canaliculate fangs, and no other teeth. Palatine: Number 1
to 6; with or without edentulous spaces anteriorly and
posteriorly (completely edentulous in Trimeresurus jerdont).
Pterygoid: Number 5 to 19; scaphiodont. Mandibular :
Number 10 to 19; scaphiodont.

Distribution.—Europe, Asia, Africa, and America.

There are thirteen genera arranged in two sub fannie!
Five are represented in Indian limits, and of these four occur
in Ceylon.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF VIPERIDA..

(For Ceylon Species.)

(A) Costals in 17 rows at midbody. A
loreal pit. (See Figs. 96 and 97) .. Ancistrodon.

(a) Slight boss on top of snout .. A. millardi.
(6) A horn-like erect appendage on
snout A. hypnale.
(B) Costals in 19 rows ae midbody. A
loreal pit. (See Fig. 98) .. Trimeresurus tri-
gonocephalus.

(C) Costals in 29 to 31 rows at midbody.
No loreal pit. (See Figs. 91
and 93.)
(a) Subcaudals divided .. Vipera russell.
(b) Subcaudals entire ‘ .. Kechis carinatus.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. ? 503

Sub-family 1 Viperinee.
(Named from the type Genus Vipera.)

Identification.—Without an opening (loreal pit) between the
eye and nostril.

Distribution.—Europe, Asia, Africa.

Arranged in nine genera, of which three are represented in
Indian limits, and two in Ceylon.

Genus VIPERA.

4

(Latin, said to be from “ vivus”’ alive, and “ pario”’ I bring
forth. The common European viper (V. berus)
was known from remote times to produce
its young viviparously.)

General Characters (for Indian Species).—The species vary
in length from 13 to 54 feet. Head flat, and subtriangular in
shape. Snout rather short, with a more or less distinct
canthus, obtusely rounded in front. In some it is sur-
mounted by a horn-like, scale-covered, appendage. Eye
moderate or small ; iris more or less adorned with gold speck-
ling; pupil vertical. Nostril moderate to large; open ;
lateral. Neck much constricted. Body robust, or even
corpulent, attenuating towards the neck anteriorly and
towards the vent. Belly rounded. Tail short, accounting
for about one-seventh to one-fourteenth the total length.

Identification—The top of the head covered throughout
with small scales, no loreal pit, and divided subcaudals will
suffice to identify the genus among Ceylon snakes.

Habits.—Sluggish in disposition, but fierce when roused,
nocturnal, and some fatal to man.

Food.—Feeds mainly on small mammals, but also eats birds,
lizards, and batrachians.

Breeding.—Viviparous.

Poison.—Poisonous ; some fatal to man.

Lepidosis.—Rostral: Well developed; in some species
touching the nasals, in others not. Swupraoculars: Large ;
undivided or broken up. Nasals: Entire ; variable in shape.

504. SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Supralabials : Six to thirteen; the anterior one or two
touching the nasals, none touching the eye, being separated
from it by from one to three rows of scales. Sublinguals :
One pair ; in contact with three or four infralabials. Infra-
labials : Three or four.

Costals : Longer than broad, rectiform; keeled ; with or
without apical pits. Vertebrals not enlarged. Ultimate rew
enlarged, its scales twice or more than iwice the breadth of
the vertebrals. In 19 to 33 rows in midbody, often two less
two heads-lengths behind the head, and from four to eight
less two heads-lengths before the vent. Supracaudals : In
even rows. Venitrals: 120to 180; rounded. Anal: Entire.
Subcaudals : 20 to 65; divided.

Dentition (in Asiatic species)—Mawzillary: Two canali-
culate fangs placed side by side. Palatine: Anododont,
isodont; with an edentulous space anteriorly, or posteriorly,
or both. Pterygoid: Anododont, isodont; posterior half
edentulous. Mandibular : Anododont, scaphiodont.

Distribution.—There are ten species inhabiting Europe,
Asia, North and Tropical Africa. Only one of these occurs
in Ceylon, viz., V. russelli.

VIPERA RUSSELLI (Shaw).
(Named in honour of Patrick Russell.*)

Russell’s Viper or the Dabora.

C6

Sinhalese: “tic polonga’’ (spotted snake). Tamil
“ kanardi viriyan’’ (spectacle snake).

Synonymy.—Coluber russellii, C. trinoculus, C. triserratus,
Vipera elegans, Daboia elegans, D. russellii, D. pulchella,
Echidna elegans, E. russellit.

* This title commemorates the name and fame of Dr. Patrick
Russell, a distinguished savant, and the pioneer of all snake research
work in India, both in its zoological and toxicological aspects. He was
born in Edinburgh in 1726, and came out to Indiain 1781. Four years
later the Honourable the East India Company appointed him their
naturalist. He is responsible for a monumental work on the Indian
snakes, with excellent coloured plates, in two volumes, published in
1796 and 1801. ‘The association of his name with this common snake,
renowned as much for the beauty of its colour and ornamentation, as
for the deadly character of its bite, is a fitting tribute to his classical
work.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 505

History.—--First introduced to scientific notice by Russell
who figured it in his first volume in 1796 (Plate VII.) and
also in his second volume in 1801] (Plate XXXII.). It
received its official baptism from Shaw in 1803.

General Characters.—Head flat, heavy, and triangular.
The snout rather short, not declivous, with pronounced
canthus, and broadly rounded anteriorly. Eye rather large,
with an iris heavily speckled with gold, and a vertical pupil.
Nostril relatively larger than in any other Indian snake, open.
Neck very much constricted. Body massive, relatively
stouter than in any other Indian snake, excepting the python ;
cylindrica], attenuating to the neck and posteriorly to the
vent. Belly rounded. Tail short, and about one-seventh the
total length.

Identification.—The following syndrome will fix its identity
among Ceylon snakes: (1) 27 to 33 costal rows at midbody,
(2) no large shields on the head, and (3) divided subcaudals.
For want of attention to lepidosis several other snakes have
been frequently mistaken for ii, notably the large-spotted
viper (Trimeresurus monticola), the common Himalayan viper
(Ancistrodon himalayanus), the Royal snake (Zamenis
diadema), the Argus cat snake (Dipsadomorphus multi-
maculatus), Russell’s earth snake (Hryx conicus), and even
the python (Python molurus).

Colouration.—The ground colour is brown of varying shades,
most specimens being a sandy hue. The markings vary much
in detail and intensity as well asin hue. Sometimes they are
so obscure as to attract little attention, and this is especially
so just before desquamation. The sloughing precess over,
however, the same snake may reveal a definition of adornment
and. brilliancy of colour, which may renovate it as completely
as a mess uniform transforms an officer when exchanged for his
khaki. The head has a more or less distinct dark patch on
each side behind, a dark streak sometimes picked out with
white, pink, or buff, behind the eye, and a dark stripe from
the eye to the lip. A conspicuous light line, sometimes white,
buff, or pink, runs from above the gape, through the temporal
region to the supercilium on to the ridge just referred to on

506 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

the snout. These lines converge, and usually meet on the
snout to form a V. The lips are white, whitish, or pink,
variegated with spots, specks, or streaks.

The dorsal adornment consists of a triple series of about 23
to 30 large ovate spots, forming a vertebral and two costal
necklaces or chains. It is not infrequent to see some of these
spots more or less confluent, in fact, it is rarely one sees a
perfect rosary. The costal spots are frequently interrupted
at their lower margins, and sometimes taper, reminding one of
a baloon. Ihave seen a specimen from Kotagiri (5,700 feet) in
the Nilgiris in which the three series of spets are completely
confluent into bands. The sinuous outlines of these bands
indicate the number of spets, which, however, are broadly
blended, in the entire length of the snake. It is the only one
I have seen so marked. Each spot may be of uniform colour
throughout, but more often exhibits a light central zone,
similar to the ground colour, which merges into a deep Lincoln-
green, purple, or black, around which again may be seen a
narrow zone of buff or pure white, the latter especially en-
hancing the beauty of the specimen. Mr. Millard tells me
that about Bombay adult specimens do not have this white
definition to the spots, and he is inclined to regard it as a
distinct variety. I have satisfied myself that specimens are
to be met with in most parts, including Bombay, with and
without this white adornment. Tc begin with, I found in
some hatchlings of the same brood, born in the Bombay
Natural History Society’s Museum, and preserved in spirit,
some individuals with and some without the white deline-
ament. In a mother from Saugor, the spots had no light
margins, though the single embryo had spots picked out with
pale buff.

The belly is white, whitish, or yellowish, with darkish
semilunes distributed sparsely and disposed at the margins of
the ventrals, especially in the anterior part of the body. |

Habits.—(a) Haunts: It may be met with almost anywhere,
except, I believe, in dense jungle, but it prefers cpen country
into which the sun can penetrate and shed its agreeable
warmth. Here it lies quietly amongst the vegetation, in
lazy apathy, apparently oblivious of its surroundings, but

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 507

never, however, relaxing a vigil which has for its reward the
capture of the incautious animal that strays within reach. In
the evening it bestirs itself and roams abroad while darkness
prevails.

Fayrer remarks on the authority of his snakeman- that it
will take to water, and Haly mentions one swimming in the
middle of a backwater. These are exceptional instances.
Tennent says that it will climb trees, and I can confirm this
-as a rareevent. Its ungainly proportions, however, do not
favour scansorial achievements. It is no uncommon event to
find it in close proximity to and even in habitations, and its
partiality to a murine diet sufficiently explains such intrusions.
IT remember one captured in Rangoon beneath the steps of the
Cantonment Magistrate’s Court during the day where crowds
of natives had assembled. Bassett-Smith mentions it as
frequently coming into the precincts and into the Naval
Hospital at Trincomalee, and Tennent says the Judge’s house
at this same station became so infested with this species that
the family had to quit.

(b) Disposition: No observer can speak with greater
authority than Fayrer, and he says of the Daboia: “In
confinement it is sluggish, and does not readily strike, unless
roused and irritated, when it bites with great force and
determination. When disturbed it hisses fiercely, and when
it strikes does so with much vigour.” This is entirely my own
experience. It isacreature slow to wrath, contenting itself,
under moderate provocation, with a loud sustained and
warning hiss, reminding one of a leaking football bladder.

A good example of its disinclination to bite is related by
Blanford : a friend of his once carrying one home, under the
belief that it was a python, until undeceived by its biting and
killing one of his dogs. Jt made no attempt to bite or injure
him, though apparently he did not take any precautions in his
manner of handling it. Again, Fayrer says he always during
his experiments had the greatest difficulty to get this snake
to bite voluntarily. I can fully confirm this, frequently
rats put into its cage remain there alive and unmolested for
days. In making these remarks, however, I think one must
expect many exceptions to this attitude of indifference.

70 6(6)20

508 SNAKES OF CEYLON,

Young specimens especially seem more on the alert, more easily
alarmed, and are correspondingly more easily provoked to
bite than many adults.

The bite is sometimes inflicted by a snap, the creature
relaxing its hold at once. On the other hand, it is not unusual
for Russell’s viper to bite, and maintain a tenacious grasp for
many seconds. In the case of a gunner who succumbed to the
bite of this snake at Thayetmyo (Burma) in 1862, Nicholson
mentions that it was with difficulty shaken off. Elliot
mentions a dog bitten by one, dragging the snake many yards
before disengaging it, and one might quote many more
similar experiences.

(c) Striking Posture: It will not strike till considerably
irritated, when it hurls itself at the offending object with
determined malice. I have known one spring with such a
powerful muscular effort, that I believe it actually left the
ground in its endeavour to strike me.

(d) Nocturnal or Diurnal: It is decidedly nocturnal in
habit. In the daytime, when encountered, it is generally found
lying coiled in grass, but at night it is frequently met on the
move crossing roads, and its intrusion into dwellings usually
occurs under cover of darkness.

(e) Progression : Its movements are slow, and consistent
with its corpulent habit. When disturbed, it prefers usually
to maintain its ground, and frequently will contest the right
of way with heaving sides and angry hiss. When it does retire,
it does so in a leisurely manner befitting its dignity and figure.
I have never seen one move faster than a crawl.

(f) Hissing : The hiss once heard is not easily forgotten ;
no other snake emits such a volume of sound, to the production
of which two factors contribute. firstly, the size of the lung
which is developed to a degree commensurate with the
remarkable body girth ; and, secondly, the large size of the
nostril, for it is through this aperture that the sound is
produced. In Bangalore I experimented with a large adult
belonging to a snake catcher. Among his stock-in-trade he
carried the familiar gourd pipe used by this fraternity. This
was sealed up in places with cobbler’s wax which I removed,
rendered pliable by heat, and packed into the daboia’s nostrils.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 509

This done the snake was unhanded and irritated. It was
then noticed that the lung expanded with difficulty, and very
imperfectly, and hissing was no longer feasible.

(g) Sloughing: One caged in the Madras Museum des-
quamated on June 16, July 31, October 6, and December 27.
Mr. D’ Abreu tells me that one confined in the Nagpur Museum
for 167 days only cast its skin once. Another in the same
institution captured on September 7 exfoliated on September
10, on March 20, and June 28 of the following year. For
some days before the period of ecdysis the snake is purblind,
and, as a result, many specimens are killed or captured while
so handicapped.

Food.—All my observations go to show that small mammals,
and especially rats, constitute the main diet of the daboia,
but it is not so bigoted in gastronomic matters as to be dis-
dainful of other fare. Mr. E. E. Green found one that had
eaten a green lizard (Calotes ophiomachus) as wellasarat. In
captivity, Mr.Spence tells me, the specimens caged in Bombay
feed better than any other species. One in the Madras
Museum ate 5 squirrels and 27 rats in 1896. Another young
specimen ate 5 squirrels, 2 rats, 67 mice, and 4 frogs during its
captivity the same year. Mr. D’Abreu tells me a caged
specimen at Nagpur ate rats, squirrels, mice, shrews, kittens,
small birds, such as sparrows, owlets, and swifts, and also
sometimes bloodsucker lizards (i.e. Calotes) and frogs.
Some specimens do not feed well in captivity. Dr. Davy
had one in captivity for 146 days that refused all food, and
Fayrer had one that neither ate nor drank for a whole year,
but still retained its vigour and poisonous activities. I know
of no snake-eating tendencies in adults, but cannibalism seems
a common offence among the young. Major Dawson writes
to me that on one occasion when young daboias were born in
the gardens at Trevandrum, “the young commenced to
devour each other,’’ and on another occasion in the same place
“one of the young swallowed one of its fellows, and in about
a quarter of an hour disgorged it,” and both, at the time of
writing, were alive and well. Father Dreckmann, too, told
me of a similar experience among a brood in captivity ; he
says “ when | inspected the young family one morning, I found

510 SNAKES OF CEYLON,

one of its members dead, and another one missing, and on
examining the dead one I found the missing one inside him.”’

Breeding.—(a) The Sexes : Females in India appear to be
more numerous than males. Thus, out of 71 young born at
Parel, the aggregate of two broods which were submitted to
me, I found 25 were males and 46 females. In a Ceylon
brood of 26, 12 were males, 13 females, and 1 damaged
unsexable. From the same three broods it would appear that
males are a trifle longer at birth than females. The bodies in
the sexes are relatively of equal length, but the tails in males
are relatively longer. The male claspers are bifid. The main
stem is short, and the limbs are beset with large subcylindrical
cartilaginous white processes distally ; the proximal part of
the limbs and the stem being studded with minute recurved
hooks. In the invaginated state the clasper tube is seen to
bifurcate, and the two limbs to rejoin later. It is this peculiar
condition which causes the extruded organ to be bifid. The
secretion from the anal glands is custard-like, with an orange
tinge. |

(b) Method of Reproduction: It is viviparous in habit.
Often unfertilized eggs are discharged at the same time as the
young. At first the fertilized eggs are enveloped with the
same soft white coriaceous investment that one sees in
oviparous snakes. This envelope in course of time metamor-
phoses, until, in the latter stages of pregnancy, it is converted
into a delicate transparent membrane. Usually this mem-
brane is ruptured within the mother, and the young escape
alive, but it is not at all unusual for some of the sacs to be
discharged as such, and the young are born in a caul, within
which they frequently perish unless speedily liberated. This
metamorphosis of the investment does not occur in unfertilized
eggs, and this has given rise to reports that this viper is both
Oviparous and viviparous. The sacs containing the young
in one instance measured 43 by 20 mm. (13 by ? of an inch).
I found one sac 53 mm. (25, inches) in length. .

(c) Season: The sexes seek one another’s company for
matrimonial intercourse during the months of December to
May. A male killed at the end of December at Cannanore
was reported to have been “in copula ”” when encountered.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 511

The female escaped. I have collected over thirty records
from various sources, including my own notes, and find that
females in various stages of pregnancy have been killed in
every month of the year. Mr. Green killed a female in Ceylon
in December containing small eggs. Mosse had a similar
specimen in March at Guzerat. I had a similar specimen at
Trichinopoly in April, and another in May. One killed in
Ceylon on July 28, 1915, held 30 eggs rotund in form, and
about 12 by 12 mm. (4 by 4 an inch). Young in various
stages of growth have been seen right up to November.

The young are born from May on to November, much the
most usual months being June and July. I have had many
specimens less than 305 mm. (1 foot) long brought to me
between May and September at various times.

(d) Period of Gestation : This is definitely known to exceed
six months. Bannerman reported that a female acquired on
December 6, 1905, gave birth to her young on June 21, 1906,
at Parel (over 197 days). Narayan Rao recorded the birth
at Bangalore on June 8, 1917, of a brood. The dam in this
case was acquired in the first week of December.

Growth.—(a) The Young: When born the young measure
from 200 to 280 mm. (7% to 11 inches). I believe the low
measurements, sometimes recorded, are the result of the
artificial conditions of life in the vivarium, and that in speci-
mens living under natural conditions the progeny reaches a
length of 250 to 280 mm. (10 to 11 inches) before birth. The
two specimens submitted to me from Narayan Rao’s brood,
where the dam had been over six months a captive, measured
200 and 212 mm. (7% and 82 inches).

Members of the same brood vary a little in length. The 71
young born of two broods at Parel, and carefully examined
by me, the males measured 230 to 260 mm. (9 to 104 inches),
and the females 215 to 255 mm. (84 to 10 inches).

When born the young show much more activity than adults.
They strike out boldly at any offending object, and I have
witnessed one attack and bite a mouse, which succumbed in a
few seconds, showing that the poison is active from the time
of birth. Similarly, Dr. Shortt saw a young daboia only
215 mm. (84 inches) long kill a young partridge weighing 94

52 SNAKES OF CEYLON:

tolas in ten seconds. They frequently attack and swallow
one another. They do not thrive for long in captivity, but
very speedily die as a rule. ;

This is one of the most prolific of the Indian snakes, only
being equalled or surpassed in fecundity by the python
(Python molurus) and the chequered keelback (Nerodia
prscator). It frequently produces from thirty to forty young
in one brood, and as many as sixty-two and sixty-three have
been recorded. I once found only a single foetus, and I have
several records from one to less than twenty.

(6) Early Infe: The growth is difficult to ascertain with
certainty, as the season for the production of the young is so
protracted. They probably double their length in the first
year of life, and treble it by the end of the second year.

(c) Maturity : The smallest gravid female in my notebooks
was 1,015 mm. (3 feet 4 inches) long, and I think would be
about 3 years old.

(d) Maximum Length : Specimens over 1,220 mm. (4 feet)
are not uncommon, but over 1,525 mm. (5 feet) are rare. I
measured a stuffed specimen once 1,600 mm. (5 feet 3 inches).
Fenton has recorded one 1,640 mm. (5 feet 43 inches), and
Brook-Fox two which taped 1,675 mm. (5 feet 6 inches).

Poison.—(a) The Fangs: These attain their maximum
development in this the largest of the Indian vipers. I have
one 16 mm. (over half an inch) measured with compasses
from base to point, and the curve would probably account for
another mm. This was from an average adult. There are
two fixed side by side. In a depression at the back, as many
as 5 or 6 reserve fangs may be seen lying loosely in the mucous
membrane, progressively diminishing in size from within
outwards. When one of the fangs is shed, the reserve fang,
best developed and lying nearest to it, becomes cemented in
a few days into the jaw.

The fang is tubular, being formed by the folding over of two
lateral expansions of the tooth, which blend on its anterior
face, in the major part of its length. A groove which is teebly
discernible, but always present, marks the line of junction of
these two expansions. At its base the expansions fail to meet,

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 513

and the imperfect blending is marked by an aperture. The
canal terminates near the point of the tooth in a minute
opening. :

The fangs in vipers are very mobile, or to speak more
correctly, the maxille are, for the fangs are fitted into these
bones. Russell’s viper, like. other vipers, when it yawns,
frequently rocks its maxille forwards and backwards.

(b) The Glands : These sacs, compared with the cobra’s, are
small and present a corrugated appearance unlike the smooth
retort-shaped glands of the cobra. Wall (A. J.) mentions a
supplementary gland in this viper, globular in form, which
completely surrounds, and empties itself into the ducts
draining the major sac.

(c) Physical Characters : Lamb tells us that this venom is
clear, with a small quantity of undissolved material in sus-
pension. Its reaction is acid. The taste resembles gum
acacia. In drying it cracks into longitudinal fissures, yielding
needle-shaped fragments. The dried product retains its
toxic properties indefinitely, and is readily soluble in water.

(d) Yield: Acton and Knowles obtained 145 mgms. of the
dried product from an adult 1,015 mm. (3 feet 4 inches) long.
Elliot expressed eleven drops from the two glands of an adult.

(e) Amount injected at one Bite : This has been estimated by
Acton and Knowles as about 72 mgms. of the dessicated
poison, which is considerably in excess of the lethal dose for
man.

(f) Toxicity : When swallowed daboia venom has no more
deleterious effect on the system than cobra poison, but, of
course, one must postulate a healthy and unbroken surface in
the mouth and further passages. Elliot gave 11 drops to a
goat, and a larger quantity to a dog, without noticing any ill-
effects. Absorbed into the blood stream, Acton and Knowles
find it is less than one-third as toxic as cobra venom to
monkeys.

(g) Lethal dose for Man: Acton and Knowles, postulating
a susceptibility in man equal to that of monkeys upon which
they experimented, estimate the fatal dose for a man at 42
mgms., or about four-sevenths the approximate dose delivered
at one bite.

514 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

(h) Uncertainty of Effects: As in the case of other poi-
sonous snakes, it does not, in the least, follow that a serious
bite will cause death if left untreated. There is abundant
evidence to show that a percentage of cases, hard to determine,
do not die even though the local injuries are such as to warrant
the gravest apprehension. No more instructive record on
this score is to be found in snake literature than that quoted
by Elliot. He says: ‘‘ I myself saw a large powerful daboia
(3 feet 8inches long) strike fairly at a dog, hold it, shake it, and
only let go when the dog had fled yelping several yards,
dragging the snake along the ground. The part bitten was
soft and fleshy, the bite was apparently a fair one, the glands
of the snake, when dissected, though emptier than usual, both

proved to contain poison. From one gland alone I obtained
more poison than another daboia emitted through a leaf in a
vigorous bite. Add to all this that there was a well-marked
subcutaneous extravasation round the bite, and the case
seems perfect . . . . though it became rather ill, did
not die. Hight days later the same animal was fairly
struck by a vicious daboia (3 feet 4 inches long), the bite being _
almost instantaneous in its shortness, and this time the
victim died in less than three hours.” ,

Haly mentions a bite from this snake, from which the man
suffered no ill-effects.

(«) Toxins :—
(1) Toxins operating on nerve cells—
(a) A depressor paralysing the vasomotor centre
(Rogers).
(b) A depressor to nerve cells generally.
(2) Agents affecting the constitution of the blood—

(a) A fibrin ferment clotting the blood (Lamb).

(b) An antifibrin ferment reducing the clotting power
of blood (Cunningham, Lamb).

(c) ‘“Heemolysin” destructive to red blood cells
(Cunningham, Lamb).

(d) “* Leucolysin ’”’ destructive to white blood cells
(Cunningham).

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 515

(3) “ Hemorrhagin” destructive to the lining membrane
of blood vessels (Cunningham).

(4) A depressor to cardiac muscle (Lamb).
(5) A vaso-constrictor (Rogers).

(6) “ Cytolysins ’’ destcuctive to (a) liver, kidney, and
testis cells (Flexner and Noguchi), and (6) to tissue
cells at the site of the wounds.

(j) Analysis of toxic action—

(1) (2) The depression of the vasomotor centre is seen
in the reduction of blood pressure, and cardiac
weakness culminating in early death.

(6) The depression to nerve cells generally explains the
great depression of spirits and reduced vitality
in daboia poisoning. It is not sufficient to
produce paralysis. 3

- (2) (a) In large doses blood clots firmly within the vessels,
and convulsions, ending in death, occur almost
immediately. The daboia cannot inject sufficient
venom into the human subject to bring about this
effect, which is only seen in relatively smallanimals
injected with very large doses.

(b) In moderate doses a contrary effect is produced in
the blood, and this, in conjunction with (3),
accounts for the hemorrhages which so frequently
occur.

(c) ‘‘Hemolysin ” is potent in this venom and still
further lowers the general vitality induced by (1) (0).
It also has some effect in embarassing the res-
piration.

(d) Reduces the normal resistance to microbic invasion.

(3) “Hemorrhagin,” by damaging the lining membrane
of the arterioles, favours leakage of the vessel
contents. In conjunction with (2) (6) hemorrhages
are frequently the result.

71 6(6)20

516 : SNAKES OF CEYLON.

(4) In conjunction with 1 (a) this causes heart failure.

(5) A vaso-constrictor has been demonstrated by Rogers.
By reducing the calibre of the blaod vessels, blood
pressure would be raised and the heart reinforced.
Any tendency towards such action appears to be
nullified by a more potent element operating on
the vasomotor centre, viz., 1 (a).

(6) Causes sloughing locally with the formation of an
ulcer.

The venom is three to five times less potent than cobra
venom according to Lamb.

Its action upon the blood is as follows: A toxic body
(hemolysin) destroys the red blood cells, whose function it is
to carry oxygen to the various tissues. As a result all vital
processes are lowered. Another toxic principle (antifibrin
ferment) very profoundly alters the consistency of the blood.
and reduces its clotting powers. The action of this latter
principle is exactly that of citric, phosphoric, oxalic, and other
acids, and is, probably like them, due to a precipitation of the
calcium salts in the blood. This in itself does not account
for the transudation that occurs ; but the fact that the lining
membrane of the walls of the blood vessels themselves are
damaged by another toxic element (hemorrhagin) renders
them more permeable. The effect of these two toxins is
seen in the great tendency to hemorrhages which are
characteristic of the Viperine class of poisons. These
hemorrhages may be visible or invisible, and the whole case
may imitate scurvy or purpura, diseases mainly characterized
by similar blood changes. It frequently happens that the
fang punctures continue to bleed or discharge bloody serum,
or having stopped, bleeding recommences some hours or even
days later. There may be bloody discharges from any
mucous orifice. Invisible hemorrhages* in the abdomen
may cause pain, tenderness, and vomiting, recalling to the

* These are specially well exemplified in the cases of Echis poisoning
referred to later.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. . 517

physician’s mind the identical state of affairs one sees in
Henoch’s purpura. Similarly, there may be extravasations
into joints, or other serous cavities, which may become
painful and swollen, reminding one of another clinical con-
dition, viz., arthritic purpura. Hemorrhages are apt to
oceur under the skin, producing port wine discolourations in
the form of spots or patches of various sizes, or they may
occur in muscles and other tissues, giving rise to painful and
tender swellings.

Death due to cardiac failure, induced by toxins (1) (a) and
(4), or later on to exhaustion, may occur in from | to 14 days,
or even longer.

(k) Symptoms: Daboia poisoning may be taken as the
type of Viperine toxemie.

Experimentally in animals three forms of toxemize are
observed.

It was observed by A. J. Wall, Fayrer, and others experi-
menting on animals that when the dose of poison was large,
rapid and violent convulsions were induced, resulting in death
from asphyxia in a few seconds or minutes. Lamb was the
first to correctly interpret these phenomena. He found that
daboia venom contains a ferment that coagulates blood.
This ferment is only operative in highly concentrated doses of
poison. It causes clotting of blood inside the blood vessels,
and to this is attributable the convulsive seizure and death
from asphyxia. He further showed that the dose necessary
is so large that it is very unlikely that this mode of death
would ever be seen in the human subject.

The other two forms of toxemiz, one acute the other sub-
acute or chronic, are to be met with in the human subject.
In the acute form there is general depression, in which the
vital functions connected with both the heart and respiration —
are profoundly affected. The pulse becomes rapid and weak,
and breathing rapid and irregular. General weakness of the
muscular system is seen, and the mental activities may be
reduced to the degree of unconsciousness. Nausea and
vomiting are frequent, and the pupils become dilated and
insensitive to light. The surface temperature is reduced, and

518 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

the skin is cold and often bedewed with sweat. There are no
paralyses such as we see in Colubrine toxemiz. Concurrently
with these effects on the nervous system, others depending on
the altered state of the blood are most likely to be exhibited,
as bleedings from various mucous orifices, or beneath the skin,
or invisible hemorrhages into serous cavities. The watery
state of the blood may occasion cedema in dependent parts,
or in organs, especially the lungs. Death from cardiae or
respiratory failure may terminate this toxemia, or these
symptoms may decline, and the patient appear as if about to
recover. A repetition of the above may occur, or recovery
may pass on to the third form of toxemia.

The sub-acute or chronic poisoning appears to be connected
with the local state of the wounds, which, from the intensely
virulent nature of the poison, are very apt to be seen in a
sloughing condition, favouring the development of septic
germs. In the course of a few days, added to the general
depression, emaciation sets in and anzemia, which will depend
in degree largely upon the extent of the hemorrhages. ‘The
enfeebled state of the system can oppose little resistance to the
effects of invasion of any germs into the local wounds, and
various forms of blood-poisoning, including tetanus, may
result. Diarrhoea may occur, albumen appears in the urine,
and the patient ultimately dies of exhaustion from hzmor-
rhages, or from blood-poisoning, the effects of invading
germs that have gained entry into the local wounds. This
state of affairs, however, need not necessarily prove fatal.

Local Signs of Daboia Povsoning.*

The local effects in daboia poisoning are usually very severe.
Extravasations of blood are likely to occur in the neighbour>
hood of the punctures, the various tissue cells are destroyed
by the virulence of the poison, and a slough forms, which when
separated leaves a deep ragged ulcer.

* The signs are seen in most cases of Viperine poisoning, and to a
less degree in Colubrine poisonings of every kind.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 519

(1) Pain: Where venom has been injected pain is an
almost certain symptom. It is burning or stinging in
character, often extremely acute, and it comes on immediately.
It is possible that the stings of certain other creatures, such as
scorpions, spiders, hornets, &c., might be as severe, and as
rapidly produced ; but if pain is experienced only to the
degree normally met with in ordinary wounds from mechanical
agency, it is highly probable that poison has not been in-
troduced. The pain due to the poison may be masked by
that produced by surgical interference, that evoked by local
remedies of a caustic nature, such as acids and permanganate
of potash, and also that occasioned by ligatures which is
usually very distressing.

(2) Swelling: Snake venom is an extremely powerful
local irritant, and as such causes swelling in the injured part
almost at once, similar to that seen after the bite of a mos-
quito. Swelling to an equal degree, and as rapidly manifested,
might result from insect or scorpion stings. If, however, no
trace of swelling accompanies the wound, there is good reason
to consider that no poison has gained entry, and the longer
the interval since the bite the greater the justification for
assuming a non-venomized wound.

(3) Bleeding: One of the chief effects of snake venom,
whether Colubrine or Viperine in quality, is its power of
reducing the coagulability of the blood, and this fact affords
very valuable information as to whether or not venom has
been introduced into a wound, since when it has gained entry
a constant oozing of thin bloody serum results, which often
continues for many hours. In a case recorded by Lamb and
Hanna this continued for 24 hours. Iflacerations or punctures
are seen sealed up with blood within a few minutes of the
casualty, as in the case of ordinary wounds, there is very
strong justification for believing that no poison has been
injected. |

(4) Tisswe Changes : Should the presence of any of the
above local conditions call for local operative measures, the

520 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

condition of the tissues as revealed by incision, will furnish
confirmatory testimony of the entrance of snake poison, which,
in the opinion of my namesake, A. J. Wall, is absolutely
characteristic. He says the areolar tissue becomes purple in
colour and infiltrated with coagulated purple blood-like fluid.
This fades gradually to a pinkish colour, and this again to
normal conditions as the site of the poisoned wounds are
receded from. These changes are extremely rapidly produced,
having been seen by this authority within 30 seconds of the
entrance of the poison.

To the surgeon this sign is invaluable. Its presence pro-
claims the envenomed nature of the wound, and dictates a
course of action completely different from that necessary in
its absence.

(5) Discolouration : A greenish or bluish tinge is fre-
quently observed in the skin in the immediate neighbourhood
of the punctures within a few minutes of the bite when venom
has been introduced. Sometimes, indeed, the skin is purplish
from severe subcutaneous bleeding. |

(6) Sloughing : The tissue cells in the vicinity of the
wounds frequently die as a result of the powerful action of the
poison. The result is the formation of a slough varying in
extent to the dose of the poison injected. This dead matter
under normal constitutional conditions offers an ideal pabulum
for putrefactive germs to flourish. But in snake poisoning,
among other things, it has been shown by Ewing, that the -
natural germicidal properties of blood are rendered inert, so
that with the entry of germs there is a grave danger of another
form of blood poisoning to be set up, and death may be the
result of an intoxication from such germs. When the slough
separates, a deep ulcer is left which takes some time to heal.

(7) Lllustrative Case :* A case of daboia poisoning, oe W.R.
ee M.R.C.S. a ), L.R.C.P. (Lond.).

at

meee’ ————

x — a Oe eee nee a

* Appeared in the «‘ Indian Medical Gazette” for September, 1919,
p. 337. ;

SNAKES OF CEYLON, 521

Casualty Return.

- Station .. .. Insein, Lower Burma
Sex a .. Male, Burman
_ Age ‘- z ise 230
Date and hour of bite .. May 29, 1919, about 7 P.M.
Hour of admission .. About 9 P.M.
Part bitten .. Outer side of dorsum of left great
. toe at the base
Species of snake .. Russell’s Viper, 36 inches without
; head
Result .. .. Cure

Symptoms, Local.

(a) Pain .. Intense and immediate

(6) Swelling .. Immediate

(c) Sanious oozing .. Only after incision

(d) Appearance of cut

tissue .. QXidema and local discolouration

over an area, the size of a 2-anna
bit

(e) Characters due to me-

chanical causes .. One puncture only

Symptoms, General.

(a) Consciousness .. Stated to have been temporarily
unconscious after reaching his
house

(6) Respiration .. Shallow and somewhat hurried

(c) Syncope, Pallor .. Pallor marked, pulse 120, skin

moist, cold, and clammy, vomit-
ing set in before admission|and
continued (see notes)

(d) Paralysis mee Nal

(e) Hemorrhage .. Vomiting of blood, subcutaneous
‘hemorrhage

(f) Other symptoms .. (See notes)

(g) Treatment .. Antivenene (see notes).

Clinical Notes.

May 29, 1919.—The patient was an intelligent English-
speaking Burman Christian, living about three miles from
the hospital. He states that he was bitten about six furlongs
from his house. His companion cut off the snake’s head, and

5292, SNAKES OF CEYLON.

the body was brought tome. The Russell’s viper is well known
locally, and both men knew quite well what it was. The
victim himself tied a ligature of cord round his leg, below the
knee, and walked to his house. He was then brought to
hospital, in a bullock-cart, by an old missionary lady of 80,
who sat up with him all night,and mounted guard subsequently
to ensure rejection of the innumerable offers of remedies and
charms brought by his visitors. It was, therefore, at least two
hours after the bite that I saw him. —

He was in very great pain, and the leg was much swollen
up to the level of the cord. There was a small (2-anna bit
size) area of discolouration around the puncture, but apart
from a congested appearence, probably due to the ligature,
no discolouration of the leg. He was sweating, but his skin and.
extremities were cold ; respiration shallow, 26-30 ; pulse 120,
feeble. It was noticeable that in spite of the general condition
and feeble pulse the superficial veins of the limbs were full.
Pupils normal, and no sign of any paralysis.

I immediately injected 20 cc. Kasauli antivenene intra-
venously and 20 cc, subcutaneously under the skin of the
abdomen. I then made a crucial incision over the puncture
and applied permanganate crystals. I did not consider this
procedure likely to be of benefit, and it certainly increased
the pain, but it was obviously expected of me. The incisions
were superficial and the tissues, except for the dark area
mentioned, appeared to be merely cedematous. One ce.
pituitrin was also given. Vomiting occurred twice shortly
after admission, the vomit consisting of blood and mucus
only, about 4-6 oz. of blood on each occasion. It had also
occurred several times before admission. The ligature below
the knee was then removed and a tourniquet applied above
the knee, a brief interval being allowed without appreciable
effect. Half an hour later, although the pain was just as
severe, the general condition was improved and the pulse
considerably stronger. At 10 P.M. the condition was distinctly
good, and no further vomiting had occurred. The tourniquet
was now relaxed, and relaxation having no effect it was
removed altogether. At 11 p.m. although no new symptoms

SNAKES OF CEYLON, 523

had appeared, I considered his condition distinctly worse than
it had been an hour previously, and I therefore injected
subcutaneously the remaining 20 cc. antivenene. Within
half an hour his condition had again improved very consider-
ably, and about midnight I left feeling satisfied that there
was no immediate danger. Adrenalin was held in reserve for
any further hemorrhagic symptoms, and calcium lactate, 30
grains, given by mouth and continued, t.d.s., to a total of 180
grains.

May 30, 1919.—Morning, 14 hours after bite : Temperature
99°4°, pulse 120, general condition good, but pain still severe
and patient had had no sleep. Local condition considerable
oozing irom incisions, soaking through a thick dressing.
Foot somewhat discoloured, swelling extends above the knee,
and. is obviously increasing.

Evening, 24 hours after bite: Temperature 99°6°, pulse
120, general condition good, still in great pain and restless,
but no sign of onset of delirium or convulsions. Paraldehyde,
one drachm, given.

May, 31, 1919.—Morning, 36 hours after bite: General
condition good and pain diminished, had a fair night. The
leg and thigh are now enormous, and patches of subcutaneous
hemorrhage are seen, especially where ligature and tourniquet
were applied. On the tense swollen leg the patches of
discolouration resemble post mortem staining.

The patient’s condition subsequently gave rise to no anxiety,
but the cedema extended over the lower part of the back and
abdomen and discolouration appeared on the hip and gluteal
regions.

He was discharged on the 13th day, his leg being still much
swollen.

One other point of interest was noted by Mr. P. A. K. Chari,
S.A.8. On the second day the patient begged for and was
granted a cigarette, one inhalation from which was immedi-
ately followed by definite faintness. The patient, however,
was not convinced as to the cause, and later in the day repeated
the experiment, under close observation and with the same

result.
a 6(6)20

524 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Comments.

The antivenene was supplied to me twelve months before
use, with a note to the effect that it was then one year old,
but had been keptin cold storage. Personally, Iam convinced
that the antivenene saved the patient’s life. It may, ot course,
be argued that he did not receive a lethal dose, and perhaps
the fact that only a single puncture was found tavours this
view. On the other hand, it cannot be denied that a Russell’s
viper of over 36 inches can, and usually does, inject a fatal
dose. Moreover, the improvement which followed the
injection of antivenene on each occasion was very marked and
cannot be attributed to any other cause.

Comments by Author.

The report on this case is exceptionally valuable as the
snake that inflicted the injury was killed and brought in. It
was identified as a Russell’s viper by my old friend Colonel
G. H. Evans, so there can be no doubt on this score.

The fact that so severe a degree of syncope was observed
within two hours of the bite, coupled with the recurrent hzema-
temeses which occurred even earlier, proves that a considerable
dose of venom must have been discharged into the tissues.

I believe it is very unusual for hemorrhages to appear so
rapidly. I know of no case that proves the value of antivenene
more conclusively.

It is dubious if calcium had any action in this case, or if
the cessation of hemorrhages was entirely due to the anti-
venene. It seems to me unlikely, however, that antivenene
can restore to the blood its lost clotting power or repair damage
to the intima. This is a matter that could be demonstrated
in the laboratory. It is an important point to clear up in the
treatment of these cases. It is conceivable that leakage from
vessels might continue after antivenene has neutralized the
venom in circulation, and a case might still be lost unless
agents like calcium and adrenalin are made use of (F'.W.).

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 525

(m) Interval before Death: This, of course, depends upon
the dose injected. There are records of death following the
bite in from 15 minutes to 14 days or more. Mr. Vernede
told me of a cooly woman who was bitten by a large Russell’s
viper, judged to be 5 teet long, on his estate in the Nilgiris in
1917. In ten minutes from the casualty she was brought in
a comatose state for treatment, and within fifteen minutes
of the accident was dead. It is difficult to say positively if
this was to be attributed to the toxemia, or to fright acting
upon the heart. However, Acton and Knowles* say, though
exceedingly rare in the human subject, cases of pulmonary
embolism do occur, and it is possible this fatality may have
been due to this cause. Usually death from the acute form
of poisoning, due to syncope or exhaustion from hemorrhages
occurs in from a few hours to a few days. The chronic form,
leading to septicemia, may cause death as late as two or
three weeks after the casualty. |

(n) Treatment recommended: The one certain remedy is
antivenene, and 40 cc. of this serum should be run into the
veins as early as possible, and repeated if the symptoms do
not abate within half an hour, or in extreme cases even less
than that time.

As syncope due to emotional causes is to be expected in all
cases of ophitoxemia, this should be treated on the lines
suggested under the treatment of cobra poisoning. It is to be
noted that antivenene may successfully neutralize the poison
in circulation and the case still be lost, if syncope due to
emotional causes as well as to the toxemia is not vigorously
treated. Bayliss’ fluid is specially to be advocated intra-
venously until normal blood pressure is re-established. It
consists of gum arabic 7 parts, sodium chloride :9 parts, and
water 92°10 parts, and it must, of course, be sterilized. Again
it is to be noted that hemorrhages must be controlled, and
suitable remedies employed with this object. Antivenene may
successfully achieve its purpose, and a case still be lost from
hemorrhages.

* Ind. Journal of Medical Research, 1914, Vol. 2, No. 1, p. 99.

526: - SNAKES OF CEYLON.

The drug recommended is chloride of calcium (Ca Cl1,)*
which should be employed as follows. One grain of
Ca Cl, to twenty minims of water should be injected
deep into the gluteal muscles, and acts likea charm in various
hemorrhages. Caution.—The same injection hypodermically
causes local gangrene and also considerable pain. This
injection might be repeated once, but the fact that an
injection of ten grains of the salt set up a terrible femoral
thrombosis in one case, shows that the drug intramuscularly
must be given with caution.

Other remedies to which an appeal may be made are
adrenalin and pituitary extract, both drugs specially
suitable as they reinforce the heart, as well as control
hemorrhage.

The triple alliance then of antivenene, Bayliss’ fluid, and
Ca Cl, are the measures upon which the greatest reliance
should be placed.

Parasites.—(a) Hntozoa: Von Linstow has identified a
nematode or round worm (Kalcephalus willeyt) from the
stomach, and cesophagus of Russell’s viper. I have frequently
found small nematodes about half an inch long attached to the
gastric mucous membrane which may prove to be the same
parasite.

Lepidosis.—T'ypical—Rostral: As broad as high; in
contact with six shields; the rostro-nasal sutures longest.
Supraoculars: Large; undivided. Nasals: Large; entire
and peculiar in shape. A vertical pillar-shaped portion forms
the anterior boundary of the nostril. This bifurcates above to
receive the anterior extremity of a crescentic supranasal
Shield. The nostril lies between two fissures, one above and
the other below, both of which nearly extend to the margin of
the shield. Swupralabials: Ten to twelve; 4th largest ; the
lst touching the nasal, none touching the eye, being separated
by two or three rows of subocular scales. Sublinguals : One

* Vide **The Indian Medical Gazette ’’ for June, 1919.

527

SNAKES

OF CEYLON.

Infralabials :

or five infralabials.
Five ; the last largest and in contact with two scales behind.

pair; touching four

(Fig. 91.)

ee
cK?
)
ee
Dox
Ss.
5
Sy
eS
SS

ae
52
Da
Oe
= :
535
eS
a

ef
fee:
WS
ee
oS
eur
os
SS

ee
SP

Fic. 91.—Vipera russelli.

(Life size.)

Longer than broad, rectiform, strongly keeled with

paired apical facets.

Costals :
are oblique.

The keels in the last row, where present,

Vertebrals not enlarged ; the breadth of the

scales less than half their length, and less than half the breadth

528 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

of the ultimate row. Ultimate row enlarged ; the breadth of
its scales greater than their length. In 25 to 27 (rarely 29)
rows two heads-lengths behind the head, 27 to 31 (rarely 33)
at midbody, and 23 to 21 two heads-lengths before the vent.
Supracaudals : In even rows, all keeled to tail tip. Ventrals :
153 to 176; rounded. Anal: Entire. Subcaudals: 41 to 64:
divided.

Dentition—Mawillary: Two large, canaliculate fangs
placed side by side. Palatine : 3; isodont, and placed in the
middle of the bone with a considerable edentulous space
anteriorly and posteriorly. Péterygoid: 9 or 10; isodont, or
slightly scaphiodont ; more than half the posterior. part
edentulous. Mandibular: 12 or 13; strongly scaphiodont.
(Fig. 92.)

Fie. 92.—Maxilla of Vipera russelli. Typical viperine maxilla.
Compare with colubrine maxilla of cobra Fig. 89.

Distribution.—(a) General: Peninsular India to the
Himalayas.* In the north-west it extends to Sind, and in
the north-east to at least as far east as the Jalpaiguri
District. Southern Burma, Siam, Ceylon, the Andamans, and
Nicobars (?), Sumatra.

* In my book, ‘‘ The Poisonous Terrestrial Snakes of our British
Indian Dominions,’ I included the Eastern Himalayas within the
habitat of Russell’s viper on the authority of Mr. Millar of Darjeeling,
who was a reliable observer. Fortunately, I have kept his letter, and
referring again to the list he gave me, I find that he included Russell’s
viper on the authority of a friend from Kurseong. I have now no
hesitation in removing the Eastern Himalayas from its range of dis-
tribution, and feel sure that the friend mistook a large-spotted viper
rahont aah 3 monticola) for Russell’s viper as so many others have

one.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 529

(b) Local : It is a denizen of the plains, but flourishes at a
considerable altitude. Dr. Henderson told me that he had
met with it in the Palni hills up to 7,000 feet, and in the
Nilgiris up to 6,000 feet. I found it quite common in the
Western Himalayas (Almora) at 5,000 feet and over, and
Stoliczka reported it in Kashmir up to 6,000 feet. I have had
specimens from Hakgalla 5,700 feet.

In parts of India it is extremely common, and in other parts
decidedly the reverse. In parts of the Punjab it is specially
abundant, and Fayrer mentions that about Umritsar as many
as 471 specimens were brought in one day in 1866. It is very
common on the west coast of India and the hills in that
region. Mr. Millard tells me it is plentiful about Bombay.
I found it common at Cannanore, in the Nilgiri hills, and on
the Mysore plateau (Circa 3,000 feet). Ferguson reported it
common about Travancore State. It is common all over
Southern India, and extends in the north as far as Lower
Bengal. It is abundant in Burma, and in some parts, viz.,
Mahlaing, Magwe, and Mayo-thit, it is so plentiful that the
natives working in crops wear woven grass shoes as a
protection against it. Halyand Ferguson report it abundant
in Ceylon, and Tennant and Basset-Smith mention that it is
particularly so about Trincomalee. On the other hand, it is
extremely rare if it occurs at all about Delhi, and from there
allalong the Ganges valley toabout Behar. J! can find no record
of it in this area, and in a collection of 704 snakes obtained
by me at Fyzabad, United Provinces, not a single specimen
was included. In Northern Bengal it is very rare, and it
does not appear to extend to Eastern Bengal, nor does it
occur in Assam.

Genus ECHIS.

(Greek “ echis ” viper.)

General Characters.—Small snakes barely reaching 24 feet
m length. Head subovate or pear-shaped ; snout very short,
without canthus, obtusely rounded terminally. Eye large,
with vertical pupil. Nostril lateral, and placed rather high.
Commissure of the mouth depressed opposite the position of
the fangs. Neck small. Body stcut, cylindrical, attenuating

530 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

to the neck and posteriorly ; very rough from the keeled scales.
Belly rounded. ‘T'ail short, about one-ninth to one-eleventh
the total length. ea

Identification.—The penultimate costal row is peculiar to the
genus, in that each scale touches three above, owing to the
obliquity of the superjacent rows. The head above is covered
throughout with smal! scales. The subcaudals are entire.

Habits.—-Desert snakes, extremely active and vicious;
diurnal.

Food.—Small mammals, lizards, frogs, scolopendrz, and
scorpions.

Breeding.—Viviparous.

Poison.-—Very poisonous and frequently fatal to man.

Lepidosis.—-Kostral : Breadth twice the height ; touching
six or more scales ; the rostro-labial sutures longest, twice to
thrice the rest. Jnternasals : Two, divergent ; in contact with
the rostral or not. Swupraoculars: Many, small. Nasals :
Entire or divided; touching or not touching the rostral.
Suboculars : Two to five rows of scales between the eye and
the supralabials. Supralabials : Ten to fitteen. Sublinguals :
One pair.

Costals: At midbody. Median rows rectiform, keeled,
the breadth of the scales about two-thirds their length, and
half or less than half the ultimate row ; four to seven lateral
rows oblique, with serrated keels. Penultimate row rectiform,
keeled, its scales as broad as long. Ultimate row rectiform,
keeled for a variable extent posteriorly ; its scales as broad or
broader than long ; in 25 to 37 rows. Swupracaudals : In odd
rows ; keeled to the tip of the tail. Ventrals : 132 to 205;
rounded. Anal: Entire. Subcaudais : 21 to 52 ; entire.

Dentition.— Mazillary : Two canaliculate fangs placed side
by side. Palatine: A short edentulous space anteriorly and
posteriorly, teeth few, isodont. Pterygoid : Isodont, except
the last two or three which are reduced. Mandibular :
Markedly scaphiodont.

Distribution.—North Africa. South Asia as far east as
about the 85 meridian.

Only two species are known, one of which occurs in Ceylon,
V1z., carinatus,

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 531

EcuHIS CARINATUS (Schneider).

(Latin “ carinatus ”’ keeled, in allusion to its scales.)
The Saw-Scaled Viper.

99

Tamil; “surattai pambu ” (coiled snake), “ pul surattai ”’
(grass coiled snake).

Synonymy.— Pseudoboa carinata, Boa horatta, Scytale bizo-
natus, S. pyramidum, Vipera carinata, V. echis, Echis ziczac,
E. arencola, E. frenata, LE. swperciliosa, Toxicoa arenicola.

History.— Russell was the first to refer to the species in 1796

(Vol. I.), and he figured it very nicely on Plate II. of that work.
Schneider christened it in 1801.
_ General Characters——Head subovate. Snout very short,
without canthus, rounded anteriorly. Hye large, the iris
golden yellow, and the pupil vertical. Nostril small, placed
rather high, lying between the nasals. The commissure of the
mouth is viperine; the upper lip presenting a downward
rounded contour, corresponding to the position occupied by
the fang when the mouth is shut. Neck markedly constricted.
Body cylindrical, short, and stout, attenuating towards the
neck, and also posteriorly towards the vent. It is very rough,
especially so in the flanks from the keeled and serrate condition
of its scales, dorsally lustreless, in striking contrast to the
highly polished ventral aspect. Belly rounded. ‘Tail short,
about one-tenth to one-eleventh the total length.

Identification —The following characters will distinguish it
from other Ceylon snakes. The head is covered on the top
with small scales throughout, and the subcaudal shields are
entire. The serrated keels on the flanks are seen in no other
snake, so that it is very easily recognized.

Colouration.—As in nearly all the vipers the colouration and
markings are very variable. Mr. Boulenger* speaking of
another viper (Vipera ursinit) says “I must observe that
vipers generally vary so much, both individually and according
to localities, that little reliance is to be placed for specific
distinction on that character.” This remark certainly applies
to the saw-scaled viper.

* Proc, Zool, Soc,, Lond,, 1893, p. 598
pana 6(6)20

532 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Usually the ground colour in the echis is a light shade of
brown, buff, or tawny, and the markings are darker brown or
even blackish. In sandy places, where I have usually met with
it, it harmonizes wonderfully with itssurroundings. Sir A. H.
McMahon writes to me: “The Echis adapts itself to the
colouring of the locality. I have found them of all shades of
colour, from the lightest fawn in sand to almost black in dark
rocky country.”’ ‘The body dorsally is more or less mottled
or blotched with darker shades, sometimes with a decided
regularity of pattern, more frequently, I think, irregularly
distributed with no special arrangement. These marks may
be so obscure as to be hardly noticeable in light specimens,
or so heavily abundant that they form the predominating
colour, when the specimen is deep umber or blackish. A light
undulatory line in the flanks is nearly always more or less
evident. The head often bears a light patch on the middle
of the crown, which is frequently shaped like a dagger, a broad
arrow, or the imprint of a bird’s foot, and there is often a more
or less conspicuous streak behind the eye. The belly is light,
often whitish, and is more or less profusely specked, mottled,
or spotted with darker, and often rufous, bistre, or ruddy
tints. Ihave sometimes seen a pinkish band down the middle
of the belly.

Habits.—(a) Haunts: It is essentially a desert snake, but
occurs plentifully in semi-desert tracts where the soil, though
sandy and poor, supports some sparse vegetation, so long as
open patches intervene. In Delhi it appeared to be most
plentiful on the ridge, where the broken and rocky nature
of the ground afforded special facilities for concealment or
retirement in the face of danger ; but there are many waste
sandy tracts where rocks do not occur where it thrives in
great numbers. Blanford obtained 2 or 3 specimens in thin
jungle about Ellore, and expressed surprise at finding a desert
form like the echis in wooded country. It is not found in
dense jungle, for the reason, I suppose, that its colouration
in such an environment would no longer be protective, added
to which it does not appear to need shade, enjoying as it does
the fiercest rays of the tropical sun, and at the hottest seasons
of the year. It may be seen lying in the sand exposed to

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 533

the full force of the sun, or may retire beneath stones, or into
clefts and crannies of rock, so baked with the sun’s rays that
the hand cannot bear contact with them. Yet even under
such conditions it seems to rely solely on the juices of the
animals it eats for the moisture necessary to assuage its thirst.
It sometimes takes refuge in holes in the ground, as I have
good reason to know when digging along the burrows leading
to the nests of the green bee-eater (Merops viridis). The
sudden and unexpected introduction to this, or any other
snake in such circumstances, detracts much from the pleasure
of birds’ nesting in this country.

I have occasionally known it come into the house. The
late Mr. L. C. H. Young reported one which he found moving
round his dinner table, and in Trichinopoly I once found one
which had climbed on to the top of my verandah chick. I
have one or two other records of the echis climbing.

(6) Disposition: This is the most vicious snake I know.
Not only isit extremely apt to bite on the smallest provocation,
but strikes out without hesitation and with great malice.
These disagreeable traits in its character, and the extreme
velocity with which it delivers its stroke, combine to make it
a most dangerous reptile to meet unawares, or to have any
dealings with when fully on the “‘ qui-vive,” either in effecting
capture or whilst in captivity. The lightning-like rapidity
with which it strikes, delivers its bite, and regains its former
attitude, must be witnessed to be fully appreciated. The
manner in which it exactly resumes the position it occupied
before striking, which is characteristic, has left me sometimes
wondering whether a stroke had been delivered at all, or my
senses had deceived me.
(c) Striking Posture: This is very characteristic, and
excellently described by Fayrer who says: “The echis is very
fierce and aggressive—it is always on the defensive, ready to
attack ; it throws itself into a double coil, the folds of which
are in perpetual motion, and as they rub against each other
they make a loud rustling sound very like hissing
It is very active, and can dart a considerable distance—a foot
or more—to strike its prey : it is by far the most active and
aggressive poisonous snake I have seen.” Again he says

534 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

(p. 1387): ‘I may remind the reader that the Hchis carinata
is a very active and fierce little viper, very aggressive,
minaceous, and irascible . . . . in striking the head
was always erect, and the whole aspect and attitude was that
of intense malice and mischief.”

Mr. Millard alludes to the peculiar movement adopted by
this viper in causing the friction of its scales, thus: “it has
a curious habit of revolving in almost the figure 8 with its head
always in the centre.” Fayrer’s* plate shows the attitude
referred to by Mr. Millard very well.

The hissing noise and its production are among the most
interesting features connected with this snake. From four to
seven of the costal series above the penultimate row are
peculiarly oblique. In these rows, and these only, the keels
are serrated, and when the sides of the body rub against one
another, the teeth on the opposing faces scrape together,
producing a noise so like hissing, that the onlooker ignorant
of the method in which the sound is really produced, may
well be deceived. The volume of sound is doubtless very
greatly intensified by the habit this snake possesses in
common with many others of inflating itself under excitement.
The result is the production of a column of imprisoned air
within, which in this case acts as a resonant chamber. In
Delhi I frequently saw a heap of these creatures alive in a
ghurrah, brought to Major Dennys when he was collecting
poison for the Indian Government some years ago. When the
lid was lifted, several of these creatures, would excite them-
selves, and begin rubbing their flanks, with the result that the
sound produced reverberating within the pot, sounded not at
all unlike that of a boiling kettle, the effect being distinctly
uncanny as no issue of steam accompanied it, and the chatty
was cold.

(d) Nocturnal or Diurnal: It appears to be completely
diurnal. I have very frequently seen it moving in the day-
time, or reclining in lazy apathy with its head and part of its
body issuing from some hole or similar retreat. It is always
seemingly on the alert. I have at times too found it abroad
under cover of darkness.

* Thanatophidia of India, Plate XII,

SNAKES OF CEYLON. ' 535

(e) Progression: Many observers have remarked upon its
activity. Mr. Millard wrote to me as follows: “‘ It moves
very rapidly, when it wishes to escape, by almost throwing
itself from its tail.” I have not seen the echis manifest such
activity, but believe that many snakes can do so when making
their utmost endeavours to escape. I have certainly seen
Russell's viper do so. J can find no better way of describing
the muscular effort than asa jump. Asa rule, I have found
the echis maintain its ground, and when closely approached
start rubbing its flanks together with great assiduity.

(f) Hissing: Fayrer remarks that he thinks echis does not
hiss. Whether it does so or not, no ordinary hissing, except
perhaps that of Russell’s viper, would be audible during the
production of the loud false-hissing sound made by the friction
of its serrate keels.

(g) Hibernation: Inthe Punjab the echis retires in the winter
months, but some emerge even then from their quarters to
bask in the heat of the sun.

(h) Sloughing: Fayrer noted on October 15 of some speci-
mens he had in captivity “it is a remarkable thing that none
of these echis have shed their epidermis since they came here
three months ago.”’

Food.—Mr. Millard tells me those in captivity at Bombay
fed freely on mice, centipedes, and scorpions, but he has also
known them eat frogs, and on one occasion a locust, One
swallowed another of the same species, which it subsequently
disgorged. Two in the Madras Museum ate the frogs offered
to them. Gunther says he never found anything but centi-
pedes (Scolopendre) in the stomachs he opened. Major O. A.
Smith says those he had ate skinks with avidity. I have also
known one in its natural haunts eat a gecko.

Foes.—Though such a truculent little reptile, it is sometimes
overpowered by creatures one would expect it to vanquish, or
at least to hold its own with. Mr. Boulenger says, on the
authority of Mr. Mountford, that the Sind krait (Bungarus
sindanus) is reported to frequently eat the echis. Jerdon
records a sand snake (Psammophis condanarus) having eaten
one, and Elliot reports a case where the common house rat
killed three echides without suffering in any way. He

536 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

says: ‘“‘ The snakes each time struck at the rat savagely and
repeatedly, but no trace of blood could be seen on the animal.”
These creatures were all in captivity at Guindy near Madras.
Major O. A. Smith told me of one that was strangled by John’s
earth snake (Hryx johnt).

Breeding.—(a) The Sexes : My notes throw no light on any
disparity in the sexes, nor have I observed any difference in
the length or lepidosis of the sexes.

(b) Method of Reproduction : The echis is viviparous in habit.
Major O. A. Smith witnessed the birth of three young on August
6, 1907, in Multan. The mother had been three weeks in
captivity. The first snakeling was born in membranes at
10.40 a.m., and took “a long time ” to burst them and force
its way out. The second born in membranes at 11.12 a.m.
took four minutes getting free. The third, also born in
membranes, was discharged at 11.25 a.m., began struggling at
11.50 a.m., and was free at 11.53 a.m. It was observed that
in trying to free themselves they exerted pressure with their
snouts againstthe membrane. After their birth “‘a lot of jelly-
like substance, whitish in colour, was passed out,”’ which, I
think, may have been a non-fertile egg. During birth it was
noticed that a globular bag containing orange-coloured fluid first
gained exit, increasing in size, and expanding the cloaca till
the rest of the bag containing the coiled embryo escaped.
The young were “‘ proximately 112 mm. (44 inches) long.”

(c) Season: Mating evidently takes place during the winter
months when the echis is hibernating.

I had a gravid female with young ready to be born, length
140 mm. (54 inches), from Lahore in June.

Candy says that at Ratnagiri he ascertained after careful
inquiry that the young are born in April, May, and June.
Colonel Bannerman told me of two broods produced at Parel
in June, and one inJuly. One in Regent’s park, Miss Hopley
tells us, produced young in July. A captive specimen in my
vivarium at Trichinopoly gave birth to her brood in August.
Sir A. H. McMahon told me he came across a lot of young
echides in August at Quetta, and had heard of others found
inthesame month. Major Smith’s brood were born in August

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 537

at Multan. A brood of 15 was deposited in the Madras
Museum on June 18, 1918, and another of 5 on November 10,
1917.

(d) Period of Gestation: This is not known, but a note in
the Bombay Natural History Journal (Vol. XX., page 230)
by Colonel Bannerman implies that it is over six months.
Infertile eggs were laid on July 8, and the last of six echides
in this case was acquired on February 10. The writer does not
say, however, that none of these were males, and there is
therefore considerable doubt in my mind as to the intended
significance of his remark.

Growth.—(a) The Young: From three to fifteen are
producedin one brood. The young vary from 115 to 152mm.
(41 to 6inches) in length when born. One of a brood deposited
in the Madras Museum measured 137 mm. (54 inches). Those
born in my vivarium lay in a confused heap apart from the
mother, who took no notice of them.

(6) Harly Iife: I have not been able to follow the broods
of successive years.

(c) Maturity: The Lahore gravid female sent to me was
only 355 mm. (1 foot 2 inches) long, so if the echis grows at
the same rate as most snakes, and doubles its length in the
first year of life, this specimen was not much more than a year
old.

(d) Maximum Length : Most specimens are less than 457
mm. (1 foot 6 inches) in length, and they rarely attain to
610 mm. (2 feet). The largest I know of are one reported by
Mr. Colon from Jodhpore, which measured 760 mm. (2 feet
6 inches), and one by Lieut.-Colonel Major, which taped 788
mm. (2 feet 7 inches).

Poison.—(a) The Fangs: These are canaliculate, and
usually there are two operative fangs in each maxilla. They
are remarkably long for the size of the snake. Those in a
skull in my collection, prepared from a specimen 380 mm.
(1 foot 3 inches) in length, measure 5 mm, (-3, of an inch).

b) The Glands: These are roughly almond-shaped and
placed behind the eye. The surface is corrugated, unlike the
cobra’s glands, which are smooth.

5388 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

(c) Physical Characters: Stevenson says when dried the
venom assumes the character of amber-coloured scales.

(ad) Yield: As the poison in its liquid form varies much in
its degree of concentration, it is always measured by the
weight of the desiccated residue. This is found to vary
considerably, the amount depending on the vigour of the
snake. A freshly caught specimen yields much more than
one long in the vivarium. Acton and Knowles found the
average yield for 57 snakes, varying in length from 9 to 182
inches, was 18-8 mgms. The maximum yield was 72°2 mgms.
from a specimen 184 inches long.

Stevenson expressed 3 or 4 drops from the glands of one
snake in vigorous health.

(ec) Amount injected at one Bite: Acton and Knowles
estimate that about 12°3 mgms. are injected at one bite, or
more than twice the lethal dose for an adult.

(f) Toxicity : Compared with cobra poison echis venom is
nearly five times as toxic according to Acton and Knowles.
It is sixteen times more potent than the venom of Russell’s
Viper.

(g) Rapidity of Absorption: Acton and Knowles’s experi-
ments show that the absorption is so rapid that if a lethal
dose has been discharged into the wounds, sufficient will have
entered the blood stream in twenty minutes to cause death.
This means that local remedies, and even amputation
performed later than twenty minutes, will not avert death if
a lethal dose has entered the systemic circulation.

(h) Lethal dose for Man: Acton and Knowles estimate that
the lethal dose in the human adult is about 5 mgms. This is
based on the assumption that man is as susceptible as the
monkeys upon which they experimented.

(«) Uncertainty of the Effects : The yield varies considerably
even in adult echides, and this probably accounts for the fact
that a great many bitten subjects escape death. One specimen,
362 mm. (15d inches) long, yielded 1:4 mgms., and another of
the same length 26°8 mgms. One 470 mm. (183 inches) long
yielded 40°6 mgms., whilst another of the same length
furnished 72°5 (Acton and Knowles). In 36 experiments
conducted by Acton and Knowles, where rats were bitten by

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 539

_ echides, one died in | hour and 42 minutes, thirty-one died
- between 2 and 121 hours, two in 44 hours, and two survived.
Dr. Imlach, speaking of Shikarpur, where echides are very
abundant, estimated that about 20 per cent. of the snake-bitten
cases died. Later, Vidal, speaking of Ratnagiri, where the saw-
scaled viper is incredibly numerous, estimated that about 20
per cent. of echis casualties proved fatal. Acton and Knowles
think that about 40 per cent. of bitten subjects recover without
treatment.

(j) Toxins—
(1) Toxins operating on nerve cells :

(a) A depressor acting on and paralysing the vasomotor
centre (?) (Fraser and Gunn (?) ).

(6) A depressor to nerve cells generally (Lamb and
Martin), but insufficient to cause paralysis other
than that of the vasomotor centre.

(2) Agents affecting the constitution of the blood :

(a) An anti-clotting ferment (Fraser and Gunn).

2

(b) “‘ Hemolysin,” destructive to red blood cells
(Fraser and Gunn).

(3) ““ Hemorrhagin”’ damaging the lining membrane of
blood, vessels, is probably present.

(4) A depressor to cardiac muscle (Fraser and Gunn).

(k) Analysis of the Action of the Toxins—

(1) (a) A depressor to the vasomotor centre is probably
present to explain the reduced blood pressure and
cardiac weakness noted by Fraser and Gunn. The
same- phenomena are seen in daboia poisoning,
which, Rogers demonstrated, were due to a paralysis
of the vasomotor centre, early death from heart
failure ensuing.

(6) This toxic element accounts for the great depression
of vitality seen in echis poisoning. It is insufficient
to cause paralysis.

74 6(6)20

540 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

(2) (a) The anti-clotting ferment accounts for the
defective clotting capabilities produced in blood,
and in conjunction with (3) for the hemorrhages,
which are so frequently seen.

?

(b) “ Hemolysin” in this venom is relatively potent,
and hence destruction of red blood cells is
a prominent feature. This produces some respi-
ratory embarrassment and contributes to the
depression of vitality produced by (1) (0).

bd

(3) “ Hemorrhagin ” is relatively more potent in this
than in any other of our Indian snake venoms. In
conjunction with (2) (a) it causes profuse bleedings.

(1) Symptoms of Echis Toxemia: The poison of the saw-
scaled viper has no direct effect upon the central nervous
system, except upon the vasomotor centre (as shown by
Rogers), consequently paralyses are conspicuously absent, and
the chief constitutional symptoms observed are indicative of
cardiac weakness. In addition, the constitution of the blood
is profoundly altered, and the blood vessels have their lining
membrane damaged, with the result that hemorrhages almost
always occur. The local symptoms resemble those of Russell’s
viper (q.v., page 518).

In echis toxemia the heart labours under great difficulties.
Like colubrine venoms this powerfully depresses the vaso-
motor centre in the brain, producing a fall in blood pressure,
and a weakening of the heart’s pulsations. Fraser and Gunn
have also demonstrated a direct weakening effect that this
venom exerts on the cardiac muscle itself. By a destruction
of the red blood cells an impoverished quality of the blood
is supplied to the heart’s muscle, which suffers again on this
account. Further, the activity of the heart is lowered
proportionately to the degree to which hemorrhages occur.
Over and above all these influences are the emotional ones,
due to anxiety, fright, and pain. It is not surprising, there-
fore, that death is due to heart failure. Any attendant
tendency to asphyxia that may present itself is brought

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 541

about indirectly by the cardiac weakness supplying insufficient
blood to the respiratory centre, and not by any direct influence
of the poison on the respiratory centre in the brain, or on the
terminations of the phrenic nerves.

(m) Illustrative Case: Bite from Hchis, 12 inches long.
Death in 27 hours. Autopsy. Reported by Captain C. H.
Reinhold, [.M.S. (Indian Medical Gazette, November, 1910).

At Hangu, on July 13, at 7 a.m., dhooly bearer R., age about
40, while removing a dhooly from a tent, was bitten by a snake
on. the outer side of the forearm, 3 inches above the wrist.

He at once went to the hospital assistant, and told him what
had happened. The hospital assistant, with commendable
promptitude, applied a ligature immediately above the site
of the tooth mark, from which oozed two minute drops of
blood, he then incised across the tooth marks, and removed
semi-circular flaps of skin to the size of an 8-anna piece,
induced free bleeding, and rubbed in crystals of permanganate
of potash.

By this time the snake had been killed by some sepoys, and
the hospital assistant went to see it; recognizing it as a
poisonous one, he applied a further ligature round the fleshy
part of the forearm of the man.

Since the hospital at Hangu is only a camp one, the patient
was removed in a cart to the civil dispensary, and here, at
9 A.M., rubber ligatures, above and below the elbow, were
substituted tor the cloth bandages, and potassium perman-
ganate re-applied.

No antivenene being available, it was not used.

The wound in the arm continued to ooze all day, but the
patient complained of severe pain in the arm, which was
attributed to the ligature, however, he managed to get some
sleep.

At 5 p.m., there was considerable swelling of the arm, and
severe pain complained of : as the general condition of the
man remained satisfactory, it was decided to remove the
ligatures.

542 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

At 7 p.M., the patient passed a diarrbceic motion in bed,
but got up later to pass water and clean himself. There was
no blood in the motion or urine, and active bleeding had
ceased from the wound in the arm, the dressing being merely
stained.

At 10 p.m., the patient complained ot pain in the abdomen,
and was given aromatic spirits of ammonia and cinnamon
water.

At midnight, the pain in the abdomen was worse ; patient
described it as a burning sensation. There was no vomiting.

At 2 a.m., the patient passed a diarrhceic motion (no blood),
going out, with assistance, to the latrine 20 yards away for
the purpose. Patient had no sleep during the night, and was
restless, complaining continually of the abdominal pain.

July 14, 7 a.m., the wound was dressed, there was no fresh
bleeding, the patient was quite conscious, though the pulse was
imperceptible at the wrist. It was not noticed that he was
blanched or cold. He complained of thirst and drank sherbet.

There was no sign of any paralysis.

About an hour before death he became very restless and
ceased to recognize his surroundings. |

He died at 10 a.m., 27 hours after the accident. I saw the
case first an hour aiter death ; rigor mortis had not yet set in.
There was some swelling of the left arm, and blisters above
and below the elbow where the rubber ligatures had been
applied.

A post mortem examination was made at 6 P.m., 8 hours
after death.

Rigor mortis was well established.

The wound in the arm was circular and about the size of an
8-anna piece, it had penetrated well into the connective
tissue, but was not deeper. There was no sanious discharge
from the wound, though the blood stains on the dressing were
watery.

Lungs: Emphysematous and anemic, old pleuritic adhe-
sions on the left side.

Heart: Left ventricle strongly contracted and empty, right
ventricle engorged with blood. The blood was quite fluid and
notably light coloured ; there was no trace of clotting.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 543

Abdomen: No peritonitis or petechial hemorrhages ; the
coils of intestine were distended with gas, and the omentum
was anemic. The bladder was strongly contracted, and the
urine not blood stained.

Liver: Normal, anemic.
Kidneys: Normal, anzemic—the capsule stripped easily.
Spleen : Normal, small.

An enormous retro-peritoneal hemorrhage distended the
left side of the abdominal cavity, extending from the
diaphragm to the brim of the pelvis, but not crossing the
middle line. The blood forming the hemorrhage was dark,
and had formed a curiously tough stringy clot, which was not
easily broken up. It was impossible to discover what vessel
was the source of bleeding ; the arterial system generally was
not atheromatous, and the vessels of the kidney did not show
any gross degenerative changes. I satisfied myself that the
hemorrhage had no connection with the spleen or kidney
(inquiries as to whether he had fallen or sustained any injury
subsequent to the snake-bite produced no evidence of trauma).

I examined the snake which bit this man, and identified it
as an Hchis carinata, 12 inches long ; this has subsequently
been kindly confirmed for me by the nine Natural History
Society.

(n) Interval before Death: The interval betore death
necessarily depends upon the dose. Where a death is due to
syncope arising from the depression of the heart, or a sudden
profuse hemorrhage, this may occur in 24 hours or even less.
Where the case lingers on, and death is due to exhaustion from
recurrent hemorrhages, the fatal hour may be postponed for a
week or even two.

(0) Treatment : No antivenene is available for this form of
ophitoxemia. It has been prepared on a small scale, and its
efficacy proved by Stevenson. In the absence of an antidote,
treatment must be symptomatic. Recourse must be had to
Bayliss’ fluid intravenously, Ca Cl, intramuscularly, and the
other measures advised to combat syncope and hemorrhage
as advocated under the treatment of Russell’s viper.

04.4. SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Lepidosis.—(a) T'’ypical—Rostral : Touches six shields ; the
rostro-labial sutures subequal to the rostro-nasals, and about
twice the rostro-internasals. Jnternasals: Two, small ;
divergent posteriorly. Swpraoculars: Replaced by small
scales. Nasals: Entire or divided into two by a suture
running back from the nostril; in contact with the rostral
and the Ist labial. Suboculars : Two rows of scales intervene
between the eye and the supralabials. Swpralabials : Ten to
twelve; the 4th largest; none touching the eye. Infra-
labials : Four ; the last touching three or four scales behind.
Sublinguals : One pair, touching four infralabials. (Fig. 93.)

Hie. 93.—LEchis carinatus.

(X 3)

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 545

Costals: At midbody. The median rows rectiform, with
tylotose keels ; breadth of scales about two-thirds their length,
half those of the ultimate row, (Fig. 94.) Four to seven rows

a

Fie. 94.—Scales of Echis carinata. Notice the oblique rows

and their serrate keels.

above the penultimate oblique, with serrate keels, breadth about
half theirlength. Penultimate row rectiform, keeled, in contact
with three scales above ; scales as broad as long. Ultimate
row enlarged, rectiform, keeled to a variable extent posteriorly,
breadth of scales half or less than half their length. In 25 to
2/7 rows in midbody. Two heads-lengths behind the head
the rows are 23 to 31, two heads-lengths before the vent, 27

to 21. Supracaudals: In odd rows; keeled to tip of tail.
Ventrals : 132t+0 195 ;rounded. Anal: Entire. Subcaudals :
21 to 48; entire. (Fig. 95.)

Fie. 95.—T'o show serrate keel of scale of

Eehis carinata.

546 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

(b) Anomalies—Supralabials : Sometimes the third is the
largest of the series. Infralabsals : Sometimes only three.

Dentition.—F rom three skullsin my collection. Mazillary :
Two canaliculate fangs placed side by side. Palatine: 1 or
2; a short edentulous space, that would take one tooth,
anteriorly and posteriorly. Pterygoid: 17 to 21; posterior
two-fifths edentulous. Mandibular : 15 to 19.

Distribution.—(a) General: North Africa as far South
as Somaliland on the eastern side. South Asia from
Mesopotamia in the west, Peninsular India, except the Ganges
valley and a small tract of country on the Malabar Coast, west
of the hills and south of about the 15° parallel. Northern
Ceylon.

(b) Local: It is a denizen of the plains, but ascends to a
considerable elevation in the hills. It is common on the
Mysore plateau at 3,000 feet. On the North-west Frontier
it occurs up to about 6,000 feet. In Ceylon it occurs only
in the northern part. Ferguson records it from Mullaittivu,
with the remark that about a dozen specimens were procured
- for him there.

It is acommon snake in the plains of India, and especially
common in certain tracts. Vidal says that at Ratnagiri
Government rewards were paid on 225,721 echides on an
average during six years. When the reward was raised
tentatively from six pies to two annas per head 115,921 were
paid for in eight days !

Sub-family 2 CROTALINE.

(Named from the type Genus Crotalus.)

Identification.— Loreal pit present.

Distribution.— Asia, North and Central America.

Arranged in four genera, of which twe are represented in
Indian limits, and both in Ceylon.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 547

Genus ANCISTRODON.

(Greek ‘‘ agkistron ’’ a hook, and “‘ odous ”’ tooth.)

General Characters.—The species are small, varying from
about 18 inches to 3 feet in their adult state. The head is
flat, subtriangular in shape, and broadest about midway
between the eye and the neck. The snout is moderate in
length, attenuated towards the tip, has a pronounced canthus,
and may or may not have an eminence or scaled appendage
on the anterior part above. A loreal pit is present between
the eye and the nostril. The eye is moderate, being about
half the length of the snout ; the iris speckled with ruddy
gold, and the pupil vertical. The nostril! is pierced near the
middle of the nasal shield. The neck is much constricted.
The body is moderate in length, cylindrical, and robust. The
belly is rounded. The tail is short, being about one-sixth to
one-eighth the total length.

Identifieation——The combination of loreal pit and enlarged
shields on the head will establish the identity of the genus
in Ceylon.

Habits.—Terrestria), partially, if not wholly, nocturnal ;
sluggish ; viviparous, except A. rhodostoma; poisonous, but
rarely fatal to man.

Food.—Manimals, lizards, batrachians, reptilian eggs, and
sometimes scolopendre.

Lepidosis.— Rostral.: Touches six to nine shields ; the rostro-
nasal sutures twice the rostro-labial. Internasals: Two
more or less in contact. Prefrontals: Two, sometimes
touching the internasals in front and the frontal behind, some-
times not. Frontal: Touches six to eight shields; the
fronto-supraocular sutures greater than the fronto-partietals.
Supraoculars : As long or longer than the frontal, as broad or

75 6(6)20

548 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

broader than the frontal along a line connecting the centres
of the eyes. Parietals: As long or longer than the frontal.
Nasal: Entire. Supraloreal: Present. Loreal: One or more
forming the floor of the loreal pit. Preoculars : Three, the
median and lower divergent to border the loreal pit. Post-
oculars : One or two. Suboculars : One or two. Temporals :
A large lower anterior, in contact with one or more other
subequal shields behind it, bordering the supralabials.
Supralabials : Usually seven, the Ist only touches the
nasal, one or more frequently, none touch the eye, 4th and
5th usually touching the anterior temporal. Sublinguals :
One pair, touching two or three infralabials. Infralabials :
Three or four, the last touching three or four scales
behind.

Costals : Longer than broad, rectiform, with broadly rounded
apices, keels feeble or strong in most of the median rows ;
apical pits present, obscure, in pairs. Vertebrals not or
slightly enlarged, the breadth of the scales subequal to their
length, subequal to those of the ultimate row. Ultimate row
enlarged, the breadth of its scales subequal to their length.
In 17 to 27 rows. The number usually remains the same
until shortly before the vent, where it reduces by two.
Supracaudals : In even rows. Ventrals : Rounded ; less
than 175. Anal: Entire. Subcaudals : Divided ; less
than, 65.

Dentition (Indian Species).—The maxilla carries two canali-
culate fangs placed side by side. The palatine is short, and
the posterior third edentulous, teeth isodont; 3 or 4in number.
The pterygoid is edentulous in about its posterior half ; teeth
scaphiodont;8 to 18. The mandibular teeth are scaphiodont,
and number 11 to 19.

Distribution.—At least eleven species are known which
inhabit Southern Asia from the borders of the Caspian sea to
China and Japan; the Malayan Archipelago as far East as
Batavia ; North and Central America. Three species occur
within Indian limits, and two of these occur in Ceylon, viz.,
A, hypnale and A. millardi.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 549

ANCISTRODON HYPNALE* (Merrem).

(Greek “ hupnaleos ”’ the soporific effects of poison.)
Merrem’s Hump-nosed Viper.

Sinhalese : “‘ kunakatua,’’ and “ polong-telissa ’’ (Ferguson).
(Not “carawala,” as stated by Dr. Davy in his History of
Ceylon.)

Syhonymy.—Coluber nepa, Cophias hypnale, Trigonocephalus
hypnale, T. halys, T. zara, Trimesurus ceylonensis, Hypnale
nepa, H. affinis, Ancistrodon millardi.

History.—First depicted by Seba in 1734 in his Thesaurus
(Plate XXXIIJ., Fig. 5) under the name “ hotambeeia.”’
Laurenti’s description of Coluber nepais too scanty to identity
the snake alluded to with any certainty.

General Characters.—A small snake, only growmg to about
18 inches.. The head is flat, and broadest about midway
between the eye and the neck. The snout is moderate in
length, gradually decreasing in breadth, with angular canthus,
and a pronounced hummock of variable length on the nose.
There is a loreal pit on the side of the face. The eye is
moderate, with a vertical pupil, and an iris speckled with
ruddy gold. The nostril is small, and pierces about the middle
of the nasal shield. The neck is very evident. The body is
short and thick, and cylindricalinform. The belly is rounded.
The tail is short, being about one-eighth or one-ninth the total
length.

Identification.—The scale rows 17 in midbody, together with
the loreal pit, will serve to distinguish this and the next
species from all other species in Ceylon. From millardi it is
to be known by the ventrals being 136 to 157, the supra-
oculars being broader than the frontal and as Jong as the
parietals,

Colouration.—Very variable. The ground colour is grayish
or dirty white, and is heavily powdered and mottled with
brownish or purplish-brown of varying degrees of intensity.

* In previous papers I have wrongly referred to this as millardi,
and vice verséd. I assumed that the species so common at Hakgalla
was the hypnale of Merrem, but I find now that I have seen Merrem’s
description, that I was mistaken.

550 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

There is always a series of large, ovate, lateral, purplish-brown
spots, which may alternate with those of the other side or
correspond to them. In the latter side there may be some
confluence of the spots. The head is powdered like the back.
A dark postocular stripe runs to the gape, and has a light stripe
above it. The upper lip is deep purplish-brown. The under
parts are grayish, heavily peppered and spotted with purplish-
brown of varying degrees of intensity. The tip of the tail is
uniform ruddy or yellowish colour. Some specimens are very
light in colour, others very dark.

Habits.—(a) Haunts: Appears to favour a heavy jungle
environment, where its colouration would prove decidedly
protective. Mr. Green tells me that it not infrequently climbs
into the coffee shrubs, and that planters in some parts eal] it
the “coffee polonga.”

(6) Disposition: Mr. Green tells me that those he had in
captivity were very sluggish. In its natural haunts it is
quickly roused to anger, and strikes without hesitation, so
that casualties are not uncommon. Dr. Davy describes it as
active and fierce.

(c) Striking Posture : When confronted it lies prone in a
convoluted mass, with the head raised and retracted, flattens
itself to the ground, and often vibrates its tail. Dr. Davy
says when provoked it hisses, and darts its head forward with
great rapidity at the irritating object, and wounds almost to
a certainty.

(d) Nocturnal or Diurnal: It is frequently encountered in
the day, but whether on the move or not [am not able to say.
Possibly the gloom of heavy jungle furnishes a light congenial
to it by daylight.

(e) Progression: Abercromby says that when disturbed it
proceeds by a series of short jumps.

Food.—I found a mouse had been eaten on one occasion,
and masses of hair, presumably the remains of mice, were
found in the cloace of two others. I found lizards had been
ingested on two occasions, and a frog once.

Breeding.—(a) The Sexes: The sexes grow to a similar
length. The tail is rather longer relatively in the male, and
the terminal scute is longer in the male, and slightly turned up.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 551

(b) Method of Reproduction: It is viviparous.

(c) Season: My breeding events throw no light on this
question. :

(d) Period of Gestation: Not known.

Growth.—(a) The Young: The length of the young when
born is not accurately known. Gunther extracted embryos
from a gravid female that measured 127 mm. (5 inches) in
length, and remarked that they were perfectly developed.
The brood varies from four to ten. J have had many gravid
‘specimens.

(6) Early Infe: I am unable to follow the growth of my
Specimens as no dates of capture were given. My smallest
specimen was 158 mm, (61 inches) long.

(c) Maturity: My smallest gravid females were both 285
mm. (114 inehes) long.

(d) Maximum Length: Tt does not often attain to 380 mm.
(15 inches) in length. The largest known to me is that
recorded by Gunther, viz., 483 mm. (19 inches).

Poison.—The venom is probably never fatal to man, in
spite of what Tennent says to the contrary. It is more than
likely cases may end fatally, however, from emotional causes,
as in the case of harmless snakes, where the bitten subjects
die of fright. Mr. Green has told me that every year Ceylon
statistics show one or more deaths from the harmless little
lizard, Mabuia carinata, and this is in consonance with what
one knows in India.

I have several records of casualties in the human subject
from this little viper, and in all the local signs were but
moderate, and probably as much to be attributed to the
treatment, as to the poison.

Dr. Davy experimented on the lower animals with the
following results :—

(1) A pup two months old was bitten. In less than two
minutes there was local swelling and oozing of blood from the
wounds. Theswelling increased, and the pup grew very sick.
Forty-eight hours later symptoms had abated, but the wound
sloughed badly.

(2) Another pup was bitten the same day by the same snake.
There was immediate swelling, and ichorous discharge from

552 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

the wounds. It grew very sick, and developed bloody stools.
Three days later the pup was well, but the wound sloughed.

(3) The next day the same snake bit a fowl above the left
eye. The bird died four days later.

(4) The next day the same snake bit a half-grown fowl in
thecomb. The bird was sick twelve hours later, but recovered.

(5) A month later it bit a half-grown fowl in the eye. The
bird sickened, but had recovered in twenty-four hours.

(6) A fortnight later it bit a bull-frog in the head, and the
frog succumbed in five hours.

These experiments serve to show that the poison is not very
virulent, but evidently an intense localirritant. Inthe human
subject most of the casualties were treated by ligature and
permanganate of potash-or carbolic acid. The drugs would
mask any pain caused by the poison, and the ligature would
produce a swelling over and above that attributable to the
poison, so that there is nothing definite to learn from these
casualties. No constitutional effects were observed in any
of these cases. .

Lepidosis.—(a) Typical : The rostro-nasal sutures are greater
than the rostro-labial. The hump on the nose varies much
in length, and is covered by from 4 to 12 small scales. Inter-
nasals ; A pair, not or barely in contact ; completely separated
from the preefrontals by a transverse series of scales. Pre-
frontals : A pair, completely separated from the frontal by a
transverse series of small scales. Frontal: Touches eight
shields ; the fronto-supraocular sutures are longer than the
fronto-parietals. Swpraoculars : Length subequal to the fron-
tal ; as Jong as the parietals ; breadth greater than the frontal
along a line connecting the centres of the eyes. Parietals :
As long as the frontal. Nasal: Entire. The floor of the
loreal pit is either formed by the upper part of the 2nd supra-
labial, or by a scale or scales independent of the 2nd supra-
labials. Preoculars : Three ; the median and lowest divergent
to border the loreal pit. Postoculars : Two ; the lower larger.
Temporals : Three or more; the lowest large. Suboculars : One
or two. Supralabials: Seven; the lst only touching the
nasal, none touching the eye, and the 4th and 5th the lowest

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 353

temporal. Jnfralabials : Three, all or only first two touching
the sublinguals.

Fie. 96.—Ancistrodon hypnale.
(xX 2.)

Costals : Rectiform, about as broad as long, with rounded
apices ; obtusely keeled. Vertebrals slightly enlarged, the
breadth of the scales equal to their length, and equal to those
of the ultimate row. Ultimate row slightly enlarged, the
breadth of the scales about equal to their Jength. In 17 rows
two heads-lengths behind the head, 17 in midbody, and 17 or
15 two heads-lengths before the vent. The row absorbed is the

554 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

fourth above the ventrals. Swpracaudals: In even rows.
Ventrals : Rounded ; 136 to 153 in males, 139 to 157 in females.
Anal: Entire. Subcaudals : Divided ; 36 to 47 in males, 30
to 43 in females. If the ventrals and subcaudals are taken
together the range is 175 to 198.

(6) Anomalies: The supralabials are rarely eight or nine.
Some of the subcaudals are sometimes entire.

Dentition.—From seven skulls in my collection, five of which
are from Ceylon. Mazillary: A pair of canaliculate fangs.
Palatine: 4. Péerygoid: 13 to 19. Mandibular: 16 to19 (221).

Distribution.—(a) General: Hills of Western Peninsular
India, hills and low-country in Ceylon.

(b) Local: It is dubious whether the snake referred to by
Haly, as common in the hills and low-country, is this species or
millardi. The same remark applies to Willey who reported
it common at Dumbara and Nanu-oya, Pearless at Badulla, .
and Abercromby around Anuradhapura. I have examined
48 specimens. Specified localities are Galle, Kandy, Veyan-
goda, Mullaittivu, Madulkele, and Uva Patnas. In India I
have had specimens from the Western Ghats, Karwar, Ana-
malais, Nilgiri, Wynad, and Cochin hills.

ANCISTRODON MILLARDI (Wall).

(Named in honour of Mr. W. 8. Millard, Hon. Secretary

of the Bombay Natural History Society.)
Millard’s Hump-nosed Viper.

Synonymy.—A ncistrodon hypnale* (part).

History.—Described by me in 1908 in the Bombay Natural
History Journal (Vol. XXVIII., p. 792).

General Characters.—Much like hypnale in most particulars.
It is a small snake, growing to about 18 inches. Head flat and
broadest about midway between the eye and the neck. Snout
moderate in length and attenuating to the tip. An angular
canthus is present, a more or less pronounced elevation on
the top of the nose, and a loreal pit in the side of the face
before the eye. Eye moderate, with vertical pupil, and an
iris speckled with ruddy gold. Nostril small, and round,

* Until I described it specimens had been identified as hypnatle.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 555

‘ piercing the nasal shield near its centre. Neck markedly
constricted. Body. short, thick, and cylindrical in form.
Belly rounded. Tail short, accounting for about one-eighth —
to one-ninth the total length.

Identification.—The scale rows 17 in midbody, together with
the loreal pit, will distinguish this from all other Ceylon snakes,
except hypnale. From hypnale it is distinguished by the
ventrals numbering 116 to 138 and subcaudals 27 to 39.

Colouration.—Dorsally the ground colour is a light brown
or chestnut (as applied to a horse), variously powdered and
mottled with darker tones. The most usual and conspicuous
feature is the series of large oval spots down each side of the
body. These reach the spine above, and may be confluent
with those of the opposite side. Below, they nearly reach the
ventrals. In some the lower halves of these are obsolescent,
and the spots converted into semilunes. There is a series of
large spots low down in the flanks. The bellyis dirty white or
erayish, heavily powdered with red and chocolate dots inter-
mixed. The head is very strikingly ornamented. The chin
and. lower lip are blackish or chocolate, and the latter has a
pair of pure white spots posteriorly. The same hue is con-
tinued on to the upper lip. Before the eye this terminates
abruptly half way up the lore. Behind the eye the sharply
defined limit of black is bordered bya thin line of white.
Above this there is a pinkish suffusion, merging into the grayish
hue that covers the whole of the crown. Specimens vary
very much, some being very light in colour, with subdued
powderings and mottlings, others dark with bold powderings
and mottlings.

Habits.—(a) Haunts: All my specimens were in or near
dense jungle.

(6) Disposition : None have reached me alive.

(c). Nocturnal or Diurnal : No comments were made by those
who sent me specimens.

Food.—It subsists mainly on the little skink Lygosoma
taprobanense. Many of these are evidently seized “a pos-
teriori ’ and cast their tails, as the stomachs of many specimens
contained nothing more. I have also found the tail of an
agamoid lizard, apparently a Calotes in the stomach. On two

76 6(6)20

556 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

occasions I found small frogs had been ingested, and twice a
snake of the species Aspidura trachyprocta. It also frequently
feeds on soft-shelled eggs, which appeared to me lacertine, but
which may have been ophidian. In some instances the
contents of these eggs had been completely absorbed, without
any Visible breach of continuity in the shell, which was empty,
collapsed, and longitudinally compressed. The shell resists
the action of the digestive juices, and is discharged in this state.

Breeding.—(a) The Sexes: Of 26 specimens collected for me
at Hakgalla, 10 were males and 13 females. The adult males
were easily picked out from the females, by their tails being bent
round ventrally like a shepherd’s crook. The male claspers,
as in other vipers, are bifid on each side, and surmounted
by a formidable array of falciform cartilaginous processes.

(6) Method of Reproduction: It is viviparous in habit.

(c) Season: The only available date is that of eggs in an early
stage of development in a female killed on May 16.at Hakegalla.

(d) Period of Gestation: Not known.

Growth.—(a) The Young: Exact length not known. My
smallest specimen, 158 mm. (64 inches) in length, was killed
in July. ;

(b) Maturity: Not known. My smallest gravid example
was 240 mm. (94 inches) long.

(c) Maximum Length : My longest specimen was a male 387
mm. (15d inches). My longest female was 38] mm. (15 inches).

Poison.—Nothing known.

Lepidosis.—(a) T'ypical—Rostral : The rostro-nasal sutures.
are fully twice the rostro-labial. A more or less pronounced
hump on the snout is covered with 8 te 12 scales. IJnternasals :
A pair, separated from one another, but touching the prefron-
tals behind. Prefrontals: A pair, in contact with one another ;
separated from the supraoculars by a row of small scales.
Frontal : Separated from the prefrontal by three scales (which
appear to be disintegrated parts of this shield) ; the fronto-
supraocular sutures longer than the fronto-parietals. Supra-
oculars : Longer than the frontal ; as broad as the frontal along
a line connecting the centres of the eyes ; three-fourths to four-
fifths the length of the parietals. Nasal: Entire. Supraloreal :
One ; as largeastheinternasal. Loreal: One or more, lining the

SNAKES OF CEYLON. DOT
floor of the loreal pit. Preoculars : Three ; the median and
lower divergent to enclose the loreal pit. Suboculars: One.
Postoculars : One or two. Temporals: Two ; the lower large.
Supralabials : Seven ; the lst only touching the nasal, 2nd
rarely forming the floor of the loreal pit, none touching the
eye, the 4th and 5th touching the lowertemporal. Infralabials :
Three ; al] touching the sublinguals. Swblinguals : One pair.

Fie. 97.—Ancistrodon millardi.

(x 2.) 3
a —— 6(6)20

558 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Costals : Rectiform, feebly keeled, with rounded apices.
Vertebrals slightly enlarged ; as broad as long, as broad as
ultimate row. Ultimate row about as broad as long. In 17
rows two heads-lengths behind the head, 17 in midbody, 17
or 15 two heads-lengths before the vent. The reduction of
rows is effected by the absorption of the fourth row above the
ventrals. Supracaudals: In even rows. Ventrals ; In males
116 to 133; in females 121 to 138. Anal: Entire. Sub-
caudals : In males 29 to 39; in females 27 to 34. If the
ventrals and subcaudals are taken together the range is 148
to 172.

(b) Anomalies—Sometimes only two infralabials touch the
sublinguals. I have seen the parietals partially disintegrated ,

Dentition.—I have no skull.*
Distribution.—(a) General : Ceylon.

(b) Local : Very common about Hakgalla. Of 47 examined,
specified localities are Kandy, Ambewela, and Madulkele, and
one labelled “ Colombo” in the Government Museum. This
last is the only example I have seen from the low-country. -

I have seen no specimen from India.

Genus TRIMERESURUS.

(‘‘ Trimeres ”’ threefold, and “ oura” tail. The name was
suggested by a specimen in which some of the median
subcaudal shields were entire, those at the
base and apex being divided.)

General Characters.—The species vary from 1 to 8 feet in
length. Head flat and broad, pear-shaped or subtriangular.
Snout moderate or short, with pronounced canthus, not
declivous, obtusely rounded anteriorly. There is a conspic-
uous opening—the loreal pit—between the eye and the
nostril, leading to a shallow scale-lined chamber, the function
of which is not known. Eye moderate to large, placed
laterally, the iris usually heavily speckled with gold, pupil

* Since writing this I have acquired a skull from a specimen given

to me by Dr. Pearson. The Mazilla carries 2 canaliculate fangs.
Palatine teeth number 4. Pterygoid 14. Mandibular 17.

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 559

vertical. Nostril small, round, and pierced about the middle
of the nasal shield. Neck very much constricted. Body
moderately elongate, cylindrical or compressed, robust,
attenuating considerably to the neck and more gradually
towards the vent. Belly rounded. Tail prehensile in the
arboreal species, short, or moderate ; varying from one-fifth
to one-eleventh the total length.

Identification.—Known by the loreal pit and the whole
crown of the head being covered with small scales. (Except
macrolepis, which has large shields on the crown.)

Habits.—Terrestrial, arboreal. Usually sluggish, but fierce
when roused.

Food.—Chiefly thammals, but also birds, lizards, and
batrachians.

Breeding.—Viviparous, except the famous American bush-
master (7. mutus) and the Himalayan (7’. monticola).

Poison.—Poisonous, but mostly not fatal to man.

Lepidosis.— Rostral : Usually in contact with more than six
shields. Internasals: Usually present; when present, in
contact or separated. Supraoculars : Usually well developed
and entire, sometimes divided. Nasal : Entire or subdivided ;
sometimes confluent with Ist supralabial ; in contact with the
2nd supralabial, or separated by small intercalary scales.
Prxoculars: Three; the median and inferior divergent to
border the loreal pit. Postoculars : One or two. Suboculars :
One, two, or many. Swupralabials : Seven to fourteen ; upper-
part of the 2nd usually forming the floor of the loreal pit ;
none touching the eye. Sublinguals: One pair ; in contact
with three or four infralabials.

Costals : Longer than broad ; rectiform ; smooth or keeled ;
in 13 to 27 rows. The vertebrals not enlarged. Ultimate
row, With one exception (viz., macrolepis), enlarged. Ventrals ;
Rounded. Anal: Entire. Subcaudals: Divided.

Dentition.— Mazillary: A pair of large canaliculate fangs
placed side by side. Palatine: Edentulous in jerdoni, and the
posterior third or half edentulous in most of the other Asiatic
species ; teeth large, isodont, and number from 2 to 6.

560 SNAKES OF CEYRBON.

Pterygoid : edentulous for about half its length posteriorly ;
teeth scaphiodont, and number 5 to 20. Mandibular:
teeth scaphiodont, and number 10 to 16.

Distribution. South-east Asia, Central and South America.
Of the forty species described, eleven are included in the
Indian fauna, and one of these occurs in Ceylon, viz., ér-
gonocephalus.

TRIMERESURUS TRIGONOCEPHALUS (Daudin).

(Greek “ trigonon ” a triangle, and “ cephale ” the head.)
The Ceylon Pit-viper.

Sinhalese: “pala polonga’”’ (Ferguson). Tamil: “pachi
virian ’’ (green viper), and ‘‘kopi virian”’ (coffee viper)
(Abercromby).

Synonymy.—Coluber capite-triangulatus, Vipera trigono-
cephala, Cophas trigonocephalus, C. ngromarginatus, Trigono-
cephalus ngromarginatus, Megera trigonocephala, M. olivacea.
Bothrops ngromarginatus, Trimeresurus trigonocephalus.

History.—First referred to by Lacépede in 1789, who also
figured it. It received its specific title from Daudin in 1803.

General Characters.—Head flattened, broad, and roughly
pear-shaped ; broadest about midway between the eye and the
neck. Snout short, with pronounced canthus, not declivous,
broadly rounded terminally. Eye moderate in size, with
golden iris, and vertical pupil. Neck very much constricted.
Body moderately elongate, cylindrical, and robust. Belly
rounded. Tail prehensile and rather short, being about
one-sixth the total length.

Identification.—It is the only Ceylon snake with a loreal pit,
and the whole crown covered with small scales. If the head
is broken it will be known by its scale rows counting 19 two
heads-lengths behind the head, 19 at midbody, and 15 two
heads-lengths before the vent, and the vertebrals not being
enlarged.

Colouration.—Dorsally it is green of various shades, variously
mottled, and variegated with black. The markings in many
specimens are disposed so as to form more or less distinct cross-
bars. In others a series of round twin-spots pass down each

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 561

side of the spine, specially conspicuous in the young. Some
are very heavily variegated, others very lightly, and others
again are a uniform green. The top of the head is marked
like the back. There is a conspicuous dark stripe from the
eye to the gape. The end of the tail is blackish. The belly
is greenish, the edges of each ventral lighter green or yellowish.
Beneath the tail blackish mottlings intensify towards its tip.

Habits.—(a) Haunts : It is completely arboreal, and harmo-
nizes so well with its foliaceous environment that it usually
escapes detection until it moves. It is not intrequently met
with in the coffee and tea bushes by estate coolies.

(6) Disposition: Appears to be phlegmatic, and not easily
roused to anger.

(c) Striking Posture: It usually lies prone along a branch,
with its tail and part of the hind body wreathed round its
support. The head and forebody are raised and retracted,
and then straightened to their full limits as the snake darts
at its object. The tail is specially adapted for maintaining
a grip, so that the snake does not fall, however vehement its
thrust. A very considerable part of the body is freed when
striking. The stroke is not very rapid, and could, I think be
avoided if one was aware that it was impending. After the
stroke, the body is again retracted in sinuous curves, often in
- a very leisurely fashion.

(d Nocturnal or Diurnal: Abercromby says it is nocturnal in
habit, but it appears to be sufficiently alert by day, to await
and profit by the advent of any unsuspicious quarry that comes
within striking distance.

(e) Hissing: When roused and before striking it hisses
audibly.

(f), Sloughing : Mr. Green tells me that a slough cast in his ©
vivarium bore clear indications of the black variegation with
which it was adorned.

Food.—Mr. Green found his caged specimens accepted
lizards of the Genus Calotes and the Family Geckonide. I
have found hair in the stomach and cloaca, and Gunther says
he has removed tree-frogs and mice from the stomach,

562 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Breeding.—(a) The Sexes: In a brood of 26 foetuses there
is a slight disparity in length in the sexes in favour of the male.
The average of 15 males being 166 mm. (6% inches), while that
of 11 females is 162 mm. (64 inches). Males in the same
brood are more numerous. The claspers in the male are bifid
organs, as in all the other vipers I know. ;

(6) Method of Reproduction: It is viviparous. In the
Colombo Museum there are two unborn broods which I have
critically examined.

(c) Season : This evidently covers a long period of the year.
Both broods just referred to were in about the same stage of
development, the foetuses in each exceeding 150 mm. (6 inches)
in length. One dam was killed at Neboda on January 12,
1911, and the other at Matale on July 1, 1904.

(d) Period of Gestation : Not known.

(e) The Brood : In one brood there are five foetuses (2 males,
2 females, and one so damaged that the sex is not apparent).
In the other there are twenty-six foetuses (15 males and 11
females).

Growth.—(a) The Young: The newly-born snakeling will
probably prove to be about 175 to 190 mm. (7 to 8 inches)
long. Unborn fcetuses with the male genitalia still extruded,
but evidently close to the day of their birth, measured from
156 to 175 mm. (64 to 7 inches).

(0) Maturity : The measurements of the two prospective
dams alluded to are unfortunately not on record.

(c) Maximum Length : Mr. Green recorded one 1,015 mm.
(3 feet 4 inches) in length. Abercromby reports one the skin
of which measured 1,320 mm. (4 feet 4 inches).

Poison.—Mr. Drummond-Hay wrote to me that a Burgher
conductor on his estate was bitten in the hand by a well-
grown specimen. The hand swelled up at once, but by evening
the swelling was already subsiding, and the following day had
nearly disappeared. Mr. Pearless wrote to me that a villager
at Badulla was bitten by a green-tic through the finger, and
was treated by a native doctor with poor results, as he was
getting worse. Three days later, when Mr. Pearless saw him,

SNAKES OF CEYLON. 563

he was still in great pain, and the swelling extended to the
shoulder. He rubbed in vinegar, and the man was able to
walk two hours later, and recovered. It is evident from this
last case that the local effects are sometimes severe. Mr. Green
says there are no recorded cases of death or of serious illness
from this viper. More reports of casualties would be most
acceptable, especially if any constitutional effects are ever
noticed.

Lepidosis.—(a) T'ypical—Rostral : Touches six shields ; the
rostro-nasal sutures subequal to the rostro-internasals, and
twice the rostro-labials. nternasals : A pair ;in contact with
one another. Swpraoculars: Large; divided into two sub-
equal parts. Nasals: Entire or semi-divided ; not confluent
with the first supralabial. Preoculars : Three; the median
and lowest divergent to enclose the loreal pit. Postoculars :
Two or three. Suboculars : One ; in contact with the 3rd
supralabial and the lowest preeocular. Swpralabials: Nine
or ten ; the Ist and 2nd touching the nasal ; the 2nd forming
the floor of the loreal pit ; none touching the eye. Jnfra-
labials: Three or four. Sublinguals: One pair. (Fig. 98.)

Fia. 98.—Trimeresurus trigonocephalus.

564 SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Costals : Longer than broad ; rectiform ; obtusely keeled
in some of the median rows posteriorly. Vertebral row not
enlarged, the breadth of its scales about two-thirds their length,
and about three-fourths the breadth of the ultimate row.
Last four rows rather broader than those above. Ultimate
row broadest; the breadth of its scales subequal to their
length. The rows are 19 or 17 to behind midbody, and then
reduce to 15. The reduction is effected by the absorption of
the 4th or 5th row above the ventrals. Swpracaudals : In
even rows. Ventrals: 145 to 170. Anal: Entire. Sub-
caudals : 53 to 67.

(6) Anomalies : The internasals are sometimes in contact
with the 3rd supralabial.

Dentition.—From one skull in my collection. Mawillary :
Two large canaliculate fangs. Palatine: 5; edentulous in
its posterior half. Pterygoid: 11 to 12; edentulous in its
posterior half. Mandibular : 13 (? 12).

Distribution.—(a) General : Peculiar to Ceylon.

(6) Local: It is an up-country snake, and fairly common.
Haly, however, says it occurs down to sea level. Mr.
Drummond-Hay tells me it favours an elevation above 3,000
feet. Has been recorded from Matale, Punduloya, and
Neboda. I have received specimens, or been given records,
from Peradeniya, Kandy, Ratnapura, Balangoda, Yatiyantota,
Moragalla, and Badulla.

SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Note.—Figures in italics indicate the page on which the description

of the species is given.
which the illustration is given.

LATIN

Figures in heavy type indicate the page on

INDEX.

Ablabes, 250
ee calamaria, 76, 250, 251,
5

A. frenatus, 250

A. major, 250

A. rappi, 250

Acrochordiine, 78

Acrochordus, 78

Agamidz, 225, 273, 296

Aglypha, 75, 78

alcocki (Hydrophis), 360

Aleyonidium mytili, 321, 407

Amblycephalide, 3, 501

Amphiesma, 90, 102, 126

A. ceylonensis, 77, 103, 104

A. platiceps, 296

A. stolata, 105, 118, 128, 124,
130, 137, 296

anamallensis (Trimeresurus), 272,
495

Anamalochirus, 16

andamanica (Distira), 373

andersoni (Helicops schistosus,
var.), 136

anomalus (Dryophis mycterizans,
var.), 294

Ancistrodon, 502, 547

A. himalayanus, 505

A. hypnale, 212, 502, 548, 549,
553, 555

A. millardi, 502, 548, 554, 557

A. rhodostoma, 502, 547

Apogon, 319

Aponomma gervaisi, 69, 186

A. leve, 200

A. leve, var. paradoxum, 186,
492

arenicola
var.), 10

armillatus (Python), 70

arnensis (Oligodon), 77, 231, 237,
238, 454

Ascaris attenuata, 69

A. rubicunda, 69

asperrima (Nerodia piscator, var. ),
92

(Typhlops braminus,

asperrimus (Tropidonotus), 91

78

Aspidura, 203

A. brachyorrhos, 77, 204, 206

A. copei, 77, 143, 207

A. drummondhayi, 76, 213

A. guentheri, 77, 208

A. trachyprocta, 76, 209

Astrotia, 396

A. stokesi, 323, 324, 396, 399

Aturia, 344

A. fasciata, 323, 324, 344, 347

aulicus (Lycodon), 77, 147, 148,
150, 155, 156, 160, 161, 162,
437, 441, 452, 471

barnesi (Dipsadomorphus), 177,
278, 281, 283

Bassia latifolia, 286

beddomei (Amphiesma), 102

beddomei (Dipsadomorphus), 77,
278, 282

berus (Vipera), 503

bicolor (Gerardia), 265

bicolor (Hydrus platurus, var.),

423

bifrenalis (Dendrophis), 76, 215,
217

Bimeria fluminalis, 321

binotatus (Simotes), 241

bishopi (Hydrophis), 355

bituberculata (Lioselasma), 323,
324, 367

blythi (Rbinophis), 23, 40, 42,143

Boa, 45

Boa constrictor, 45

Boide, 3, 45

Boine, 46, 73

Bothridium pythonis, 69

brachyorrhes (Aspidura), 77, 204

braminus (Typhlops), 6, 7, 9, 441

brooki (Hydrophis), 345, 349

brugmaansi (Lioselasma_ spiralis,
var.). 35d, 362

buccata (Homalopsis), 17

Bufo andersoni, 111, 179, 441,
470

B. melanostictus, 94, 111, 112,
130, 179, 470

6(6)20

566

Bungarus, 154, 427, 435

B. ceruleus, xiii, 11, 76, 147, 184.
437, 450, 455, 491

B. ceylonicus, 43, 76, 162, 451,

456, 457

. candidus, 437

B. candidus, var. ceruleus, 437

B. fasciatus, 112

B. sindanus, 535

B. walli, 441

bungarus (Naia),
478, 495

es)

59, 184, 471,

cerulescens (Polydontognathus),
322, 323, 324, 375, 380, 408
ceruleus (Bungarus), xiii, 11, 76,
147, 184, 436, 437, 455, 491
calamaria (Ablabes), 76, 250, 251
C. sagittaria, 84
Callophis, 435, 496
C. trimaculatus, 76, 143, 248, 497,
500
Calotes, 130, 296, 509, 561
C. ophiomachus, 509
C. versicolor, 177, 179, 223, 225,
287, 295
Campanularia serrulata, 321
candidus (Bungarus), 437
Canis aureus, 58
cantoris (Microcephalophis), 323,
324, 325, 330, 337, 397, 421
carinatus (Cercaspis), 77, 162, 437,
452
carinatus (Kchis), xiii, 502, 531,
535, 543
caudolineolatus (Dendrophis), 76,
218
Causus rhombeatus, 502
Cerberus, 255, 257, 259
C. rhyncops, 77, 256, 257, 261
Cercaspis, 162
C. carinatus, 77, 162, 164, 437,
452
Cervus axis, 57
C. muntjac, 57
C. porcinus, 57
C. unicolor, 57
ceylonicus (Bungaraus), 43, 76,
162, 436, 437, 451, 456, 457
ceylonicus (Oligodon subgriseus,
vat.), 240
ceylonensis (Amphiesma), 77, 102,
103, 104
ceylonicus (Dipsadomorphus), 77,
1: 278,282; 288
ceylonicus (Haplocercus), 77, 142
Chersydrus, 3, 74, 75, 78
©. granulatus, 77, 79

SNAKES OF CHYLON.

| Chitulia, 368
C. ornata, 323, 324, 369, 372, 416

_ chloris (Hydrophis), 339

chrysarga (Amphiesma), 102, 103

chrysochlora (Chrysopelea), 311 ~

Chrysopelea, 234, 304, 305, 307,
308, 310, 311

C. chrysochlora, 311

C. ornata, 76, 179, 199, 224, 225,
305, 307, 311, 312, 314

Coluber, 74, 81, 195

C. helena, 77, 197, 202

C. nepa, 549

Colubride, 3, 74, 76, 84

colubrina (Laticauda), 323, 324,
431) ‘

Colubrine, 81

Conchoderma virgatum,
hunteri, 321, 423.

| collaris (Polyodontophis), 296

condanarus (Psammophis), 535

conicus (Eryx), 505

constrictor (Boa), 45

copei (Aspidura). 77, 148, 204,
207

Crocidura ceruleus, 441

Crotaline, 546

curtus (Lapemis), 320, 323, 324,
327, 410, 416

cyanocineta (Lioselasma), 323,
324, 348, 353, 355, 356, 361,
366, 367, 370, 392, 408

Cylindrophis, 16

C. rufus, 16, 498

Var,

dayanus (Hydrophis), 385

Danilewskya stolati, 123

Dendrelaphis, 214, 220, 223, 305

D. tristis, 76, 221, 225, 227, 228

Dendrophis, 274, 220, 223, 224,
234, 305, 311

D. bifrenalis, 76, 215, 217

D. caudolineolatus, 76, 218

D. effrenis, 76, 219

D. pictus, 199, 221, 224, 225, 311,
312

diadema (Dolichodira),
325, 340, 343

diadema (Zamenis),

diardi (Typhlops), 6

Dichelaspis grayi, 322

D. warwicki, 321, 424

Dipsadomorphine, 266

Dipsadomorphus, 266, 267, 282

D. beddomei, 77, 282

D, barnesi, 77, 283

D. ceylonensis, 77, 278, 282

D. forsteni, 77, 285

323, 324,
505

SNAKES OF CEYLON.

D. multimaculatus, 505

D. trigonatus, xiii, 77, 269, 275,
276, 277, 471

Dipsas trigonata, 277

Distira, 316

Dolichodira, 339

D. diadema, 323, 324, 340

Draco tenipterus, 312

drummondhayi (Aspidura),
204, 213

drummondhayi (Rhinophis), xii,
23, 43, 452

Dryocalamus, 165

D.nympha, 76, 166, 168

D. gracilis 76, 169

Dryophis, 289, 299, 311, 441

D. mycterizans, 76, 112, 223, 225,
291, 300, 301, 302, 303

D. pulverulentus, 76, 302

dubium (Xenedon) 241

76,

Kchides, 440

Kchis, 46, 93, 495, 529

E. carinatus, xii, 502, 531, 535,
543, 545, 546

effrenis (Dendrophis),
229

Elachistodontine, 315

Hlapine, 434

Elaps, 434

ellioti (Hydrophis) 371

Enhydrina 400, 406

76, 219,

BE, valakadyen, 320, 322, 323, 324,

401, 407, 416
Enhydris, 321
enhydris (Hypsirhina), 263
Eryx conicus, 505
E. johni, 536
Eugenia jambolana, 59

fasciata (Aturia), 323, 324, 325,
344, 350, 366, 380

fasciatus (Bungarus), 112

fasciatus (Oligodon subgriseus,
var.), 239, 241

fasciolatus (Zamenis),
440, 460

fayreriana (Hydrophis), 419

Felix pardus, 57

flava (Naia), 466

flavipunctata (Nerodia piscator,
var.), 92

forsteni (Dipsadomorphus),
281, 285

frenatus (Ablabes), 250

Funambulus palmarum, 175

fuscus (Dryophis mycterizans, |
var.), 293

Clg PAT,

77,

567

308, 312,
296, 311,

Gecko verticillatus,

Geckonide, 225, 273,
561

Gekobia, 159, 248, 492

Gennzeus lineatus, 58

Gerardia, 295, 257, 262

| G. bicolor, 265

G. prevostiana, 77, 136, 262, 264,
265

Glauconiide, 2, 15

ecdeffroyi (Chitulia), 374

gracilis (Dryocalamus), 76, 166

gracilis (Microcephalophis), 323,
324,- 325, 330, 345, 350, 353,
356, 411, 421

| gramineus (Trimeresurus), 272

grandis (Uropeltis), 23, 24, 25,
26, 33

eranulatus (Chersydrus), 77, 79

guentheri (Aspidura), 77, 204, 208

| guttata (Hydrophis), 397, 400

hemachates (Sepedon), 466

Hemogregarina mirabilis, 99

H. naje, 492

H. pococki, 70°

H. zamenis, 187, 313

Halizetus, 320

Haliastur indus, 321

Haplocercus, 142

H. ceylonensis, 77, 143, 145

hardwickei (Lapemis), 323,
402, 416

helena (Coluber), 77, 197

Helicops, 102, 134

H. schistosus, 77,
296

Hemibungarus, 179

Hemidactylus, 156, 311

H. coctzi, 156

H. frenatus, 156

H. gleadovi, 179

hendersoni (Distira), 385

Heterakis anomala, 99

himalayana (Amphiesma),
126

himalayanus (Ancistrodon), 505

Homalopsine, 92, 94, 136, 254

Homalopsis buccator, 17

Hydrophiine, 3, 94, 315, 323,
324

135, 144, 263,

102,

| Hydrophis, 315, 316, 321, 322

|

H. ellioti, 371

H. guttata, 397, 400
H. lindsayi, 346, 348
H., torquatus, 343

| Hydrus, 420

H. major, 397

568

H. platurus, 320, 321, 322, 323,
324, 397, 420, 425

hypnale (Ancistrodon), 212, 502,
548, 549, 553, 554, 555

Hypsirhina enhydris, 263

H. plumbea, 263

hypsirhinoides (Tyleria), 152

Hystrix leucura, 58

Ichthyophis glutinosa, 6

Ichthyosaurus, 63

Tlysia, 15, 16

Tlysiide, 3, 15

imbricata (Kerilia), 385

inornata (Chitulia ornata, var.),
362, 370, 374

Ixalus, 130

jayakari (Prescutata
var.), 362, 370, 392

jerdoni (Kerilia), 323, 324, 386

johni (Eryx), 536

juglandifer (Oligodon albocinctus,
var.), 241

viperina,

Kalicephalus willeyi, 11, 99, 121,
201, 526

Kerilia, 385

K. imbricata, 385

K. jerdeni, 323, 324, 386, 388

lapemidoides (Lioselasma), 366

Lapemis, 409

L. curtus, 323, 324, 327, 410, 414,
416

L. hardwickei,

Laticauda, 426

L. ecolubrina, 323, 324, 437, 433

L. laticaudata, 323, 324, 427,
429

latifasciatus (Hydrophis), 339

Lepas anserifera, 321, 423

L. tenuivalvata, 321, 424

Lepus nigricollis, 58 _

leucomelas (Typhlops), 6, 7, 13

lindsayi (Hydrophis), 346, 349

Lioselasma, 349

L. bitubereulata, 323, 324, 367

L. eyanocincta, 323, 324, 361, 364,
366, 370, 392, 408

Lioselasma lapemidoides, 366

L. mamillaris, 323, 324, 349,

«852

L. spiralis, 323, 324, 353, 359

loreatus (Lapemis), 419

Lycodon, 146, 154, 162, 165

L. aulicus, 77, 751, 155, 156, 160,
161, 162, 437, 441, 452, 471

323, 324, 416, 418

SNAKES OF CEYLON.

L. striatus, 77, 147, 162, 437, 452
Lygosoma cyanellum, 156
Lygosomata, 6

Mabuia carinata, 148, 156, 167

M. dissimilis, 156, 179

macclellandi (Callophis), 501

maculatus (Cylindrophis), 17, 18

maculatus (Hydrus platurus,

ar.), 422

maculiceps (Callophis), 501

Macropophis, 90

Macropistodon, 102, 126

M. plumbicolor, 77, 126, 128, 132,
134, 139

M. rhodomelas, 147

magnimaculatus (Bungarus), 437

major (Ablabes), 250

major (Hydrus), 397

mamillaris (Lioselasma), 323, 324,
350

melanocephalus (Dipsadomorphus
trigonatus, var.), 2

melanogaster (Silybura), 23

melanoleuca (Naia), 466

Melanomystax, 38]

M. nigrocinctus, 323, 324, 382, 384

Melia azadirachta, 224

Membranipora hippopus, 321

Merops viridis, 533

Microhyla ornata, 111

Microcephalophis, 325

M. cantoris, 323, 324, 330, 421

M. gracilis, 323, 324, 325, 411, 421

Microtrombidia holosericeus, 131

Microtrombidium, 86

millardi (Ancistredon), 502, 548,
549, 554, 557

mirus (Typhleps), 6, 7

modestus (Nerodia), 91

molurus (Python), 47, 48, 50, 59,
60, 69, 505

monticola (Amphiesma), 102

monticola (Trimeresurus), 502,
505, 528, 559

muecosus (Zaocys), 67, 76, 172,
186, 189, 190, 471

multicinctus (Bungarus), 437

multimaculatus (Dipsadomor-
phus), 505

mutus (Trimeresurus), 502, 559

mycterizans (Dryophis,) 76, 112,
223, 225, 290, 291, 292, 300, 301

Naia, 435, 457

N. bungarus, 59, 184, 471, 478,
495 °

N. flava, 466

SNAKES OF CEYLON.

N. melanoleuca, 466

N. nigricollis, 466

N. tripudians, 77, 458, 159, 493.
494, 495

natrix (Tropidonotus), 113

neglectus (Polypholophis),
324, 380

nepa (Coluber), 549

Nerodia, 90

N. piscator, 77, 91, 98, 100, 101,
103, 130, 296

nigra (Prescutata viperina, var.),
392

nigricollis (Naia), 466

nigrocincta (Amphiesma), 102

nigrocinctus (Melanomystax), 323,
324, 382

nympha (Dryocalamus), 76, 166,
169

323,

obseurus (Porrecticollis), 323, 324.
- 325, 335, 408

Oligodon, 229, 231, 232

QO: arnensis,. 77, 231; 237, 238,
454.

O. splendidus, 241

O. subgriseus, 76, 231, 239, 244

O. sublineatus, 76, 85, 200, 248,
492, 498

O. teniolatus, 239

O. templetoni, 76, 245

QO. venustus, 241

oligozonatus (Lycodon aulicus,
var.), 151, 152

Ophichthys boro., 319, 326, 356

O. orientalis, 319, 326, 356

Opisthoglypha, 75, 254

ornata (Chitulia), 323, 324, 392,
416

ornata (Chrysopelea), 76, 179, 199,
224, 225, 305, 307, 311, 312

Oxyglossus levis, 111

oxyrhynchus (Rhinophis), 23, 32

pallidus (Hydrus platurus), var.,
422

pallidus (Zaocys mucosus), var.,
1

phillipinus (Typhlops), 36

phipsoni (Lioselasma cyanocincta),
var., 362, 370

pictus (Dendrophis), 199, 221, 224,
225, 311, 312

piseator (Nerodia), 17, 77, 90, 91,
93, 94, 98, 100, 101, 103, 112,
115, 116. 130, 296

planiceps (Rhinophis), 23, 36, 38,
40, 43

|
{

| P. subpunctatus, 7
* Polypholophis, 380

| Rachiodontine,

569

Platurus, 316, 317, 318, 322, 426
platurus (Hydrus), 320, 321, 322,
323, 324, 397, 420

| platyceps (Amphiesma), 102, 296
| Platylepas sp., 322, 424

P. krugeri, 322

P. ophiophilus, 322, 406

Plesiosaurus, 63

plumbea (Hypsirhina), 263

Plumbago capensis, 106

plumbicolor (Macropisthodon), 77,
126, 127, 128, 132, 139

Polyodontognathus, 375 —

P. ecxerulescens, 322, 323, 324, 375,
378

Polyodontophis, 82, 83

P. collaris, 296

7, 84, 86, 88

P. neglectus, 323, 324, 380

Porocephalus armillatus, 70

P. crotali, 98, 120

P. moniliformis, 69

P. pattoni, 187

Porrecticollis, 335

P. obseurus, 323, 335, 338, 408

porrectus (Rhinophis), xii, 23, 31,
35

Prescutata viperina, 323, 324, 391,
394

prevostiana (Gerardia), 77,
262

Proteroglypha, 75, 315

136,

| Psammophis condanarus, 179, 535

Pseudoxenodon, 102

Pterocercus, 99, 121

Ptychozoon homalocephalum, 312

pulverulentus (Dryophis), 76, 290,
292, 294

punctatus (Rhinophis), 23, 33, 34,
35

| punctulatus (Nerodia), 90, 91
| Pythonine, 46

Python, 46
P. molurus, 48, 59, 71, 72, 505
P. reticulatus, 68, 476

quinecunciata (Nerodia piscator,
var.), 92

254

Rana breviceps, 111

R. cyanophlyctis, 111

R. limnocharis, 94
R. tigrina, 111, 179, 184, 296, 470 :
rappl (Ablabes), 250

regius (Python), 47, 70

reticulatus (Python), 68, 69, 476

570 SNAKES

Rhacophorus leucomystax, 111

Rhinophis, 23, 31, 452

R. blythii, 23, 40, 42, 143

Re ond aay; xiii, 23, 31, 43,

. oxyrhynchus, 23, 32

. planiceps, 23, 36

- porrectus, xiii, 23, 31, 35

. punctatus. 23, 33, 34, 35

. trevelyanus, 23, 38

. Sanguineus, 296

rhodogaster (Dryophis mycteri-
zans, var.), 293

rhodomelas (Macropisthodon), 471

rhodonotus (Dryophis mycteri-
zans, var.), 293

ee eae (Ancistrodon), 502,

47

rhombeatus (Causus), 502

rhynchops (Cerberus), 77, 256, 257

rufus (Cylindrophis), 16, 17, 498

russelli (Vipera), 328, 440, 502, 504,
527, 528

popes es >is)

sagittarius (Polyodontophis), 87

sanguineus (Rhinophis), 296

sebze (Python), 69, 70

Sepedon hzemachates, 466

schistosa (Hydrophis), 401

schistosus (Helicops), 77, 135, 139,
141, 263, 296

Scincidee, 225, 273, 296

Scolopendra, 535

Silybura, 27, 28

S. melanogaster, 23

Silyburide, 296

Simotes, 471

S. venustus, 241

sindanus (Bungarus), 535

Solenophorus megacephalus, 69

spilonotus (Oligodon subgriseus),
var. 227

spiralis (Lioselasma), 320, 323, 324,
353, 370, 392

spiralis (Lioselasma spiralis, var.),
355, 362

Spirochzta tropidonoti, 122

splendidus (Oligodon), 241

stokesi (Astrotia), 323, 324, 331,
396

stolata (Amphiesma), 102, 105,
11], 112, 113, 114, 117, 118, 121,
123, 124, 125, 126, 130, 137, 296

striaticollis (Hydrophis), 341, 343

striatus (Lycodon), 77, 147, 437,
452

subgriseus (Oligodon),
239, 244

76) 23k;

ee

OF CEYLON.

sublineatus (Oligodon), 76, 200,
231, 246, 248, 492, 498
subminiata (Amphiesma), 102, 126

subpunctatus (Polyodontophis),
77, 84, 86, 88,
subobscurus (Hydrus platurus,

var.), 422, 423

teeniolatus (Oligodon), 239

Taphozous longimanus, 312

templetoni (Oligodon), 76, 231,
245, 246

| temporalis (Hydrophis), 356
| tephrogaster (Dryophis mycteri-

zans, var.), 293, 302

Termes redemanni, 248

tessellatus (Nerodia), 90, 91

Thamnobia cambayensis, 273

T. fulicata, 225

torquatus (Hydrophis), 343

tigrina (Amphiesma), 102

trachyprocta (Aspidura), 76, 204,
209, 213

Tragulus, 57 ;

trevelyanus (Rhinophis), 23, 38,
40, 43

Triacanthus brevirostris, 336

Trichomastix, 299

Trichomonas, 299

trigonatus (Dipsadomorphus),
xili, 77, 269, 279, 471

trigonata (Dipsas), 277

trigonocephalus (Trimeresurus),
502, 560, 563

trimaculatus (Callophis), 76, 143,
248, 497

Trimeresurus, 558

T. anamallensis, 272, 495

T. gramineus, 272

T. monticola, 502, 505, 528, 559

T. mutus, 502, 559

T. trigonocephalus, 502, 560, 563

Trionyx, 179

tripudians (Naia), 77, 458, 459,
493, 494, 495

tristis (Dendrelaphis),
225, 226, 227, 228, 229

Triticella pedicellata, 321

Tropidonotus, $9, 90, 102, 223

T. asperrimus, 91

T. natrix, 113

T. piscator, 17

Trypanosoma brucei, 122

T. evansi, 122

T. tropidonoti, 122

Typhlops, 4, 5, 6, 7, 225

T. braminus, 9, 12, 13, 441

T. leucomelas, 13, 14

76, 221,

SNAKES OF CEYLON.

T. philippinus, 36

Typhlopide, 2, 3, 4

typica (Chitulia ornata, var.), 370

typica (Helicops schistosus, var.),
136

typica (Lycodon aulicus, var.), 151

typica (Prescutata viperina, var.),
391, 392

typicus (Dipsadomorphus trigona-
tus, var.), 270.

typicus - (Dryophis mycterizans,
var.), 292, 302

typicus (Oligodon subgriseus,
var.), 239

typicus (Typhlops braminus,
var.), 9

tytleri (Tropidonotus), 91

unicolor (Lycodon), 152
unicolor (Xenopeltis), 112
Uropeltide, 3, 23

Uropeltis, 23

U. grandis, 23, 24, 25, 26, 33
_ ursinil (Vipera), 531

valakadyen (Enhydrina),
322, 323, 324, 401, 416
Varanus, 478 —

320,

571

V. bengalensis, 58, 471

V. flavescens, 441

venningi (Nerodia), 90, 91

venustus (Simoteg), 241

venustus (Oligodon), 241

Vipera, 501, 503

VY. berus, 503

V. russelli, 328, 440, 502, 504, 527,
528

V. ursinii, 531

Viperidze, 3, 501

viperina (Prescutata),
370, 391

Viperine, 503

323, 324,

walli (Bungarus), 441

Xenochrophis, 102
Xenopeltis unicolor, 112
Xenopeltidz, 3, 74, 84
xenura (Nerodia), 90, 91

Zamenis, 172, 190

Z. diadema, 505

Z. fasciolatus, 77, 191,194, 440, 460

Zaocys, 171, 172, 190

Z. mucosus, 67, 76, 172, 186, 189
471

GENERAL INDEX.

aN

Abercromby, xii, 19, 67, 102, 104,
130, 134, 139, 140, 165, 184,
200, 221, 226, 227, 280, 284, 287,
288, 299, 302, 460, 501, 550,
554, 560, 562

Acton, 443, 444, 446, 480, 481,

- 482, 483, 525, 538, 539

Adrenalin, 448, 523, 526

Afghanistan, 190

Africa, 5, 6,13, 46,47, 82, 89, 91,
135, 191, 435, 456, 502, 530,
546

Ahara kukka, 105

Ajmere, 240

Akyab, 348

Alcock, 298

Alder, 321

Almora, 125, 175,179, 182, 198,

232, 233, 235, 240, 254, 451, 529.

Alu polonga, 151

Ambewela, 558

America, 5, 6, 16, 46, 82, 84, 89,
9) 135, 191, 197, 435, 5025548,
560

Anaconda, 45

Anamallay hills,
279, 302, 501

Anasigalla, 157

Andaman Islands, 13, $1, 96, 101,
125, 151, 162, 256, 262,-366,
373, 408, 426, 495, 528

Anderson, 392, 419:

Aanandale, 10, 11,270, 282, 294,
318, 319, 321.330, 337, S86s3a7,
373, 380, 390, 406, 416, 423,

431

Antivenene, 454, 491,

525, 543

P25 oh IOP

522, 523,

572 SNAKES O

Anuradhapura,
554

Apollo, 46

Arabian sea, Xl

Argus, catsnake, 505

Aripo, 461

Arni, 231, 232

Arrakan, 170

Ashambu hills, 68

Asia, 5, 11, 46, 47, 82, 84, 89, 125,
135, 147, 166, 172, 191, 197, 230,
251, 255, 435, 436, 456, 502, 530.
546, 548, 560

Aspidura, the common, 209

Assam, 9, 11, 57, 58, 59, 62, 68,
dd, 93, 101, 1025112, 126; 162,
181, 202, 229, 315, 478, 496

Ass viper, 48

Australia, 5, 6, 47,82,89, 91, 256,
269, 373, 426, 435

Avissawella, 208

B.

Badulla, 26, 125, 134, 281, 477.
554, 562, 564

Baksa Dooars, 68, 254

Balangoda, xvi, 38, 39, 43, 105,
134, 142, 146, 162, 165, 208, 209,
214, 218, 219, 247,315, 457, 501,
564

Balatota, 38

Bale, 321

Balrampur, 52, 286

Balrampur Maharaja, 286

Baluchistan, 73, 245, 270, 365,
367, 476, 496

Banded krait, 112, 435

Banded snake, 151, 197

Bandicoot, 59

Bandora, 422

Bangalore, 114, 119, 130, 137, 138,
139, 140, 142, 176, 181, 182,
199, 224, 254, 274, 299, 469, 470,
473, 474, 476, 508, 511

Bangkok, 307

Bannermaa, Col., 441, 442, 471.
475, 511, 536, 537

Bannu, 232, 233, 442

Barking deer, 57

Barnes’s catsnake, 283

Bassein river, 343

Bassett-Smith, 462, 507, 529

Bat, 312

Batavia, 548

Bateman, Mr. C., 477

134, 169, ce

F CEYLON.

Bayliss’ fluid, 448, 525, 543

Beadon, Mr. C., 181, 225

Beddome, Col., 15, 29, 171, 282,

| 353, 360, 501 |

Beddome’s catsnake, 282

| Begbie, Major, 57, 68

| Behar, 232, 233, 529

Bengal, 245, 286, 289, 315, 415, 419,
420, 430, 434, 529

Bengal, Bay of, xii, 343, 353, 415,
419, 420, 430, 434, 496, 501

Berhampore (Orissa), 116, 148, 169
287

Berhampur, 137, 234

Bertram, Father, 8.J., 296

Bevan, Mr. Carlos, 207, 451

Bhim Tal, 102

Bibron, xvii, 68, 84, 231, 239, 241,
248, 285, 293, 302

Billet, 123

Blake, 481

Blanford, 95, 97, 170, 177, 192,
240, 258, 271, 297, 356, 507,
532

Bleeker, 349

Blind snake, 7, 9, 13, 225

Bloodsucker lizard, 223, 225

Blyth, 40, 91, 274, 437

Blyth’s rhinophis, 40

Boa, 45

Bobeau, Dr. G., poison lakes of 478

Boie, 152, 204, 355, 401, 466

Boie’s aspidura, 204

Bombay, 58, 78, 79, 80, 81, 107,
110, 153, 175, 176, 182, 199, 240,
241, 242, 265, 287, 297, 298, 346,
3538, 356, 360, 362, 377, 379, 392,
395, 422, 506, 529

Borella cemetery, 225

Borneo, 283, 285, 343, 349, 416,
422

Boulenger, xi, 13, 38, 85, 87, 90,
91,92, 102, 103, 126, 172, 190,
197, 213, 215, 221, 227, 23t5 Zan.
239, 240, 241, 248, 265, 277, 280,
282, 284, 285, 293, 303, 306, 316,
323, 328, 330, 334, 343, 344, 346,
348, 356, 360, 366, 373, 374, 385,
386, 392, 393, 395, 397, 400, 401,
416, 431, 432, 437, 454, 476, 494,
531,535

Boulenger’s dendrophis, 215

Brahmaputra, 54

Brahminy-kite, 321

Brahminy-lizard, 156

Bridal snake, 166, 169

Broach, 129, 130

SNAKES

Broad banded seasnake, 349

Bronze back, 215, 218, 219, 221

Browning, Surgeon-Major, 483

Brugman’s seasnake, 353 |

Brunton, 486

Buckland, 53, 63

Buff-striped keelback, 105, 137

Bungarum, 435

Burma, 16, 17, 18, 58, 59, 73, 74,
81, 101, 102, 111, 114, 116, 117,
126, 157, 162, 182, 184, 190, 258,
260, 262, 265, 298, 307,308, 312,
313, 315, 330, 334, 336, 341, 343,
348, 360, 366, 370, 373, 379, 385,
390, 398, 402, 408, 471, 472, 473,
474, 476, 501, 508, 528, 529

C.

Caius, Rev. J. F., 296
Caleutta, 10, 66, 67, 87, 142, 192,
349, 400, 402, 430, 451
Calmette, 406, 413, 482, 485
Cambay, gulf of, 265
Campbell, Sir J., 286, 287
Canara, 241
Candy, Mr., 536
Cannanore, 94, 96, 97,110,112, 113,
114, 115, 119, 125, 153, 157, 174,
179, 181, 182, 240, 243, 263, 265,
298, 334, 339, 379, 403, 408, 415,
472, 473, 474, 475, 510, 529
Cantor, 80, 84, 128, 137,176, 195,
258, 306, 307, 312, 330, 334, 339,
343, 348, 361, 380, 390, 409
Cantor’ Ss seasnalke, 330
Cape Comerin, 451
Carawala, 549
Castellani, 99
Castets, Rev. 8.J., 438
Cat fishes, 319
Catsnake, 471
Cato, 267
- Celebes, 18, 102
Celsus, 485
Centipedes, 9, 55, 535
Ceylon keelback, 103
Ceylon krait, 151, 451
Ceylon pit viper, 560
Ceylon wolfsnake, 162
Chambers, Mr., 446
Channer, Col., 57
Chantaboon, 431
Chari, Mr. P. A. K., 523
Cheetah, 57
Chequered keelback, 91
Chersydrus, 79
Chevrotain, 57

tf,

OF CHYLON.

573

Chicken, 58, 59

Chilaw, 36

Chilka lake, 169, 336, 339

China, 73,102, 125, 190,. 315,
349, 395, 430, 548

Chin hills, 126

Chitral, 182, 462, 473, 476

Chittagong, 334, 339, 343

Chitiul, 361, 368

Chusan Islands, 496

Cobra, 176, 185, 193, 440, 446, 459,
525

Cochin hills, 554

Cocos Islands, 13

Coffee viper, 560

Coiled snake, 531

Colombo, viii, 64, 67, 89, 182, 183,
203, 207, 220, 223, 225, 245, 262, ©
307, 357, 368, 398, 454, 477

Colubrine snake, 173, 445

Comoro Islands, 13, 84

Cooch Behar, Maharaja of, 68, 69

Cookson, Col. Fife, 51

Coorg, 129

Cope, Mr. E., 207, 209

Copeland, 62

Cope’s aspidura, 207

Coral snake, the slender, 497

Cordante, 45

Coromandel, 142, 330, 343, 360,
365, 390, 395, 400, 402, 415

Craddock, Mr., 478

Crocodiles, 321

Crow, 59

Cuddapah, 170, 171

Cumming, Mr., 73

Cunningham, 480, 4838,

| Cuvier, 36

348,

514, 515

D.

Daboia, 440, 504

D’Abreu, 66, 94, 96, 97, 130, 131,
173, 193, 200, 273, 499, 509

| D’Albertis, 398

| Daly, Mahon, 310

| Dalzell, 321

| Darjeeling, 125, 528
Darwin, Charles, 179, 322, 442

‘Daudin, 9,135,166, 197, 221, 335,
| 349, 350, 361, 366, 382, 401, 497,

498, 560

| Daudin’s coluber, 197
| Daudin’s seasnake, 382

| Davy, Dr., 484, 485, 509, 549, 550,
i odl
| Dawson, Col.,

| 54, 56, 154, 439, 473,
| 474, 509

6(6)20

574.

Deccan, 242

Deer, 57, 62, 63

Deer, barking, 57

Deer, hog, 57

Deer, sambur, 57

Deer, spotted, 59

Dehra Dun, 240, 476

Delhi, 240, 270, 438, 440, 461, 467,
529, 532, 534

Delmege, Mr., 68

Dennys, Major, 534

Deolali, 240

Depatnaya, 9,18

Dhaman, 67, 172, 471

Dhikala, 240

Dias, Sir Harry, viii

Dibrugarh, 54, 58, 96,

oe AGH LT 7a OF ae Osa o./

Dillwin, 309

Dimbula, 457

Diyabariya, 257

Diyapolanga, 91

Diyatalawa, 213

Dobell, 99, 122, 299

Dog, 59

Dog-faced water snake, 257

‘ Donaghey, 59

Donaghy, 465

Dreckman, Father, 52, 95,
182, 183, 422, 441, 509

Drieberg, 299

Drummond-Hay, H. M., xiii, 6,
29, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 89, 93,
105, 134, 142, 143, 146, 150, 152,
162, 163, 165, 169, 171, 195, 207,
208, 209, 210, 212, 213, 214, 218,
219, 229, 245, 247, 249, 289, 293,
303, 315. 451, 452, 499, 501, 562,
564

Drummond-Hay’s aspidura, 213,
238

Drummond-Hay’s rhinophis, 43,

+

112,

175,

Ducks, 58

Dumbara, 554

Dumeril, xvii, 66, 68, 84,231, 239,
241, 248, 285, 293, 302

Dumeril’s oligodon, 248

Dunukarawala, 451

Dwane, 108

HK.

Rar snake, 9
Earth snake, 9, 18, 26, 29, 32, 33,
35, 36, 38, 40, 43

114, |

SNAKES OF CEYLON.

| Earthworms, 22, 27,30, 37, 38, 40,

44, 59, 143, 204, 205, 210

| Edoux, 262

| Hels, 15, 17, 319
| Egypt, lower, 230
| Ehetulla, 225, 291

Elliot, 68, 171, 404, 405, 406, 412
413,444, 445, 462, 482, 483, 486,
508, 513, 514, 535

Ellore, 240, 532

Elmes, ioe 57, 58, 68

England, 113.

Escherich, Dr., 248

fisgulla, 291

Evans, Col. G. H.; 58, 110/201;
112, 114, 182, 298, 307, 31 2pone.
330, 356, 366, 379, 383, 437, 471,
474,478, 524

Ewing, 520

F.

| False Islands, 170

Fayrer, 363, 392, 419, 430, 438, 440,
441, 469, 474, 482, 483, 484, 486,
491, 494, 495, 507, 517, 529, 533,
534, 535

Ferguson, xi, xili, 33, 48, 58,
60, 63, 68, 70, 104, 105, 107,
134, 137, 169, 179, 204, 208, 209,
223; (225, 229, 249. 257, Paes
277, 278, 293, 297, 298, 305, 373,
390, 400, 451,459, 471, 472, 529,
546, 560

Fernando, H. F.,

Fiji Islands, 430

Finn, 294

Fischer, Mr. C. E. C., 498

Fitzgerald, 473

Flat snake, 349

Fletcher, 128, 130

Flexner, 486, 515

Flower, 16, 179, 258, 293, 306,
307, 308, 309, 310, 312, 420,
430, 462, 471, 473, 498

Formosa, 101, 125, 190, 409, 431,
496

Forsten, 285

Forsten’s catsnake, 285

Foulkes, Mr., 473

Fox, Mr. Brook, 446, 447, 471

Fraser, 404, 405, 406, 412, 413,
482, 539, 540

Frere, Major, 181, 471

Friendly Islands, 430

Frogs, 58, 94, 107, 108, 111, 112,
130, 156, 179, 184, .225, 226,
441, 530, 550

265

SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Fyzabad, 50, 96, 110, 111, 112,
Dig. ld) old, L195 820,125,
136, 138, 139, 148, 157, 175,
iia, Jsl, 182, 192, 193. 239.
234, 235, 272, 273, 438, 470,
473, 475, 529

G.

Galle, viii, 15, 218, 303, 554

Galatura estate, xiv, 89, 165, 289

Gamma snake, 269

Gamma, tree snake, xiii

Gampola, 454

Gangaruwa, 285

Ganges, 423, 529

Ganges basin, 142

Garandiya, 172

Garhwal district, 240

Gecko, 153, 158, 179, 225, 307

Gedi Paragoodoo, 440

George, Capt., 68

George, Mr. C. P., 471

Gerard, 262

Gerard’s water snake, 136

Gervais, 262

Gibson, Lt., 466

Girard’s seakrait, 427

Gleadon, 154, 242, 440, 478

Gmelin, 221

Goa Ghats, 240

Goat, 60, 63

Gombert, Rev. E. M., 125

Gonda, 254

Gopalpore, 402

Grass-coiled snake, 531

Grass snake, 113

Grasshopper, 225

Gray, 29, 130, 321, 322, 349,
369, 370, 374, 386, 396,
416, 419

Gray’s seasnake, 369

Gray’s Silybura, 29

Green-Armytage, Capt., 447

Green cobra, 129 .

Green, Mr. E. E., xii, xiv, 101,
ie, HOS, 107, 112, 125, 143,
147, 148, 149, 150, 154, 156,
179, 199, 207, 221, 223, 224,
225, 226, 246, 248, 279, 294,
295, 296, 297, 298, 303, 315,
452, 453, 460, 474, 501, 509,
el oa0; 551, 5615>a62,- 563

Green keelback, 128

Green. viper, 560

Gregarines, 187

Grinlinton, Sir J, J., ix

Guindy, 536

80

366,
397,

575

Gunn, 539, 540

Gunther, xi, 38, 66, 69, 80, 92,
103, 136, 138, 143, 154, 169,
76,5 £80; 207,, 221,- 232.5936:
239, 241, 242, 245, 251, 252,
209s 2ihae) 21, 2S ISO ea.
S06.) a18>. 320; \322) 330,950 ie
339, 340, 343, 345, 348, 349,
350, 358, 371, 398, 400, 404,
416, 417, 451, 478, 535, 551,
561

Gunther’s aspidura, 208

Gunther’s calamaria, 25]

Gunther’s catsnake, 278

Gunther’s dendrophis, 218

Gunther’s seasnake, 340

Gurkha, 233

Guzerat, 184, 271, 511

Gwadar, 271, 367

Gwalior, 195

ich

Habb river, 73

Hemogregarine, 123

Hagenbeck, John, 69, 220

Hainan, 125, 396

Haka, 126

Hakgala, 114, 125, 213, 529, 549,
558

Haldanda, 215, 218, 221

Haldummulla, 44, 277, 303, 457

Haly, vi, 9, 19, 89, 104, 105, 134,
142, 156, 165, 169, 171, 195, 203,
207, 219, 229, 249, 258, 262, 265,
277, 289, 303, 348, 408, 498, 507,
514, 529, 554, 564

Hamadryad, 59, 184, 495

Hambantota, 501

Hampton, Mr. H., 176, 178, 179.
467, 473, 476

Hanna, 579

Hardwicke, 416, 430

Hardwicke’s seasnake, 416

Hare, 58, 59

Harry, Mr. A. M., 57, 68

Hatton, 41, 43

Havelock, Sir Arthur, vii, viii

Haycock mountain, 15

Henakandaya, 302

Henderson, Dr. J. R., 9, 54, 67,
80, 105, 167, 225, 319, 325,
326, 334, 344, 356, 357, 358,
395, 440, 441, 529

Henaratgoda, 289

Herbert, Mr. V. A., 65

Herb snake, 128

Herz, 396

Hewissa, 247

6(6)20

576

Hill snake, 48

Hilson, Dr., 486, 489

Himalayas, 54, 73, 102, 125, 150,
162, 182, 189, 195, 202, 229,
232, 238, 251, 277, 289, 315,
451, 495, 528, 529

Hirst, Prof., 131

Hong Kong, 60, 125, 396, 409

Hoogly pattee, 401

Hoogly river, 339, 343

Hopewell, xiv, 43, 146, 162, 165,
208, 209, 214, 247, 250

Hopley, Miss, 177, 471, 536

Horana, 281, 289, 303

Horton Plains, 207

Hunter, 486

Hyderabad, 240

Ik

Illagolla, 219

Tlysia, 15

Imlach, Dr., 539

Indian catsnake, 269

Indian python, 48

Indo-China, 16, 17, 18, 73, 74, 81,
101, 102, 162, 190, 315

Ingleby, Mr., 137, 138, 223, 225

J.

Jackal, 58

Jafina, 165, 169, 195, 451

Jalpaiguri district, 125, 477, 528

Jamrach, 348

Jan, 7

Jan’s Ceylon typhlops, 7

Japan, 251, 409, 420, 426, 548

Jask, 373

Java, 74,101, 127, 190, 395, 396

Jerboa, 59

Jerdon, 68, 84, 239, 240, 241, 370,
386, 392, 501, 535

Jerdon’s polyodont, 84

Jerdon’s seasnake, 386

Jhelum, 184

Jodhpore, 537

John, Rev., 185

John’s earth snake, 536

John’s seasnake, 325

Jones, Mr. Goring, 466

Joseph, Gerard A., xiv

K.

Kadel nagam, 353
Kadel pambu, 353
Kaladungi, 286

SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Kala Shootur Sun, 335

Kallan, 440

Kaloodai viriyan, 48

Kalupahana, 277, 303

Kalupahana estate, 44, 457

Kalutara, 89, 289

Kanardi viriyan, 504

Kandy, vii, ix, 26, 125, 142, 205,
207, 213, 281, 283, 303, 5094,
558, 564

Kankuthi pambu, 197, 291

Kanthalai, 315

| Karachi, 334, 346, 348, 356, 360.

392, 395, 400 5

Karawala, 451

Kareen, 310

Karwar, 240, 334, 339, 370, 373,
395, 554

Kasauli, 406

Kashmir, 529

Kattu pambu, 197

Kattu viriyan, 151

| Keelback, 17

Keelback, buff-striped, 105

Keelback, Ceylon, 103

Keelback, green, 128

Keelback, olivaceous, 135

Kelaart, xi, 26, 33, 38, 40

Kelaart’s Uropeltis, 26

Kelani river, 265

Kelani Valley, 1x

Kelsall, 178

Kemp, Mr., 332, 334, 370

Kennedy, 50

Kerril patte, 382

Kestrel, 59

Khandalla, 95, 240, 470

Khandesh, 240

Khasi Hills, 112, 126

Kil Kotagiri, 226, 229, 471

King cobra, 471

Kinlock, 296, 471

Kinnear, Mr., 63, 295, 297, 298,
466

Kite, brahminy, 321

Knowles, 443, 444, 446, 480,
481, 482, 483, 513, 525, 538,
539

Komberi mukan, 221, 291

Konkani, 193

Kopi viriyan, 560 -

Kotagiri, 506

Krait, xiii, 11, 48, 112, 179, 184,

437
Krait, Indian, 452, 453
Kuhl, 162
Kukri snake, 231, 239, 245, 248
Kunakatuwa, 549 ‘

SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Kurram Garti, 233
Kurunegala, 303
Kynsey, Dr., vii

L.

Lacepede, 560

Lal Bagh, 137

Lamb, 405, 406, 444, 480, 481,
483, 485, 486, 513, 514, 515,
517, 519, 539

Lamprey, 326

Lancaster, 322

Laurenti, 459, 549

Laveran, 187, 313

Legislative Council, vii

Leigh, Rev. C., 470, 472

Lennock estate (Uva), 44, 105,
213, 457

Le polonga, 285

Leopard, 57

Levinson, 321

Leymeditia, 204

Light, Col,. 131, 198

Lightfoot, 179 .

Linné, 1, 18, 45, 48, 151, 172, 291,
321, 421, 427, 431, 459

Linné’s Cylindrophis, 18

Linnés seasnake, 420

Lipton, Sir Thomas, 477

Liston, Lt.-Col. Glen, 441, 475,
479

Lizard, 166, 177, 179, 225, 226,
235, 241, 242, 530, 550

Lizard, brahminy, 156

Lizard, monitor, 58

Lloyd, 308, 432

Loo Choo Islands, 374, 409, 420,
428, 430, 431, 434

Lorenz, viii

Lucas, 267

Lyddeker, 178

M.

Mackinnon, Mr. P. W., 476, 478

Madagascar, 13, 84

Madras, 55, 59, 96, 114, 181, 240,
259, 297, 325, 330, 334, 344, 345,
346, 348, 349, 356, 357, 360, 365,
367, 370, 371, 373, 379, 386, 387,
390, 392, 395, 408, 411, 415, 421,
536

Madulkele, 554, 558

Madura, 226

Magrath, Lt.-Col., 233

Magwe, 529

Mahableshwar, 254, 501

577

Mahlaing, 529

Major, Lt.-Col., 537

Malabar, 81, 330, 348, 353, 360,
365, 379, 390, 392, 395, 400, 402,
415, 498, 546

Malacca, Straits of, 343, 385

Malai pambu, 48

Malay python, 476

Malay region, 15, 16, 17, 18, 74, 79,
81, 10], 102, 127, 162, 190, 230,
256, 262, 293, 307, 309, 312, 313,
315, 316, 330, 334, 344, 349, 360,
373, 374, 379, 389, 390, 395, 409,
415, 416, 420, 430, 496

Malecolm-Smith, 15, 17, 293, 307,
309, 312, 313, 390

Maldive Islands, 162

Mal karawala, 305

Manallay pambu, 9

Manbhum, 286, 289

Mandalay, 466

Manilla, 374

Manipur, 11

Mapila, 278, 285

Marmogoa Bay, 227, 334

Martin, 485, 539

Massena estate, 289

Matale, 165, 501, 562, 564

Matara, 26

Mathera, 375

Matheran, 241, 242

Matura, 26

Mauritius, 13

Mayaungmya, 385

Mayo-thit, 529

McClelland, 356

McDougall, 184

McGrigor, Sir J., 357

McLeod, 63

McMahon, Sir A. H., 532, 536

Mekran, 261, 400

Mergui, 330, 339, 361, 366, 379,
390, 396, 408, 416, 419

Merrem, 549

Merrem’s hump-nosed viper, 549

Merrem’s seasnake, 375

Mesopotamia, 546

Meyrick, Prof. Ed., xiv

Mice, 153, 154, 441, 534, 550

Milagu kadiyan, 325, 344

Miller, Mr., 528

Millard, Mr. W. S., 56, 58, 107, 108,
110, 112, 153, 154, 159, 175, 176,
179, 184, 193, 199, 272, 294, 295,
312, 313, 438, 439, 441, 471, 476,
477, 506, 529, 534, 535, 554 ~

Millard’s hump-nosed viper, 554

Milton, 46

578

Minerrh, 375

Mitchell, Dr. Chalmers, 53, 60, 61

Mitchell, Mr. J. H., 59

Mitchell, Weir, 484

Mites, 122, 131, 159, 248

Mogok, 474, 476

Mongoose, 176, 184.

Monitor lizard, 53

Sa org Miss, 129, 130, 131,

9

Moragalla, 134, 281, 564

Mosse, 511

Moulmein, 259

Moungmya, 356, 360

Mountford, Mr., 535

Mount Lavinia, 393, 423

Mudu karawala, 197

Mullaittivu, 33, 546, 554

Muller, 33, 35

Muller’s rhinophis, 33

Multan, 536, 537

Murray, 112, 346, 348, 355, 363,
373, 379, 400

Muscat, 373, 392

Muskrat, 441

Mussoorie, 68, 478

Myitkyina, 184

Mysore, 54, 529, 546

N.

Naga pambu, 459

Nagpur, 67, 94, 96, 130, 193, 200,
273

Nair, 297

Naini Tal, 286

Nalla pambu, 459

Nallamallay Hills, 181

Nanu-oya, 281, 554

Narayan Rao, 511

Naya, 459

Neboda, 89, 562, 564

Negombo, 289

Neligatta, 69

Nelliamputty Hills, 243

Nematode worms, 11, 201

Nepal, 232

Nerva, 501

Nuwara Eliya, 212, 213

New Galway, xiv, 213

New Guinea, 78, 79, 81, 348, 373,
398, 408, 419, 430

New Zealand, 426

Nicholson, Dr., 107, 114, 176, 181,
182, 263, 440, 472, 473, 474, 475,
476, 480, 485, 508

Nicobars, 125, 162, 249, 256, 262,
422, 434, 528

SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Nilghai fawn, 59

Nikkattan pambu, 105

Nikkattan kutty, 105

Nilgiri Hills, 96, 102, 130, 131, 182,
197, 200, 226, 229, 238, 242, 245,
251, 254, 278, 279, 281, 287, 297,
298, 303, 506, 525, 529, 554

Noguchi, 486, 515

Nuttall, Prof., 159, 186, 200, 248

O.

Oakes, Mr., 52

Oily snake, 437

Oligodon, the common, 231

Oligodon, Dumeril’s, 248

Oligodon, Templeton’s, 245

Oligodon, variegated, 239

Olivaceous keelback, 135,

Orissa, 169, 171, 232, 334, 367, 392,
396, 419

Ormiston, 44, 277

Owen, xvii, 310, 321

Owston, 374, 409, 420, 428, 434

P;

Pacha naga, 128

Pachay pambu, 291

Pachi viriyan, 560

Paddy tax, viii

Pala polonga, 128, 560

Palliekellie, 134

Palnai hills, 125, 150, 529 -

Papuasia, 47, 255, 269, 365

Paralai, 125

Parel, 442, 471, 474, 475, 510,511,
536

Parke Davis & Co., Pituitary, 448

Parnassus, Mount of, 46

Pasyala, 65.

Patani, 330, 374, 380

Patna, 193

Patton, 187

Peacock, 58

Pearless, Mr. S. M., xii, 125, 134,
184, 279, 281, 477, 554, 562

Pearson, Dr. Joseph, xiv, 558

Pegu, 343, 360

Pelew Island, 262

Penang, 320, 330, 344, 348, 358,
361, 379, 380, 416, 434

Pepper biter, 325, 344

Peradeniya, 9, 34, 105, 150, 207,
226, 229, 247, 28h, 283,303,
457, 564 :

SNAKES OF

Perak, 348, 380

Percival, Capt., 68

Periya pambu, 48

Persia, 150

Persian Gulf, xii, 315, 330, 344,
353, 360, 362, 373, 395, 408, 415,
422, 426

Peters, 36, 367, 374

Peters’s rhinophis, 36

Peters’s seasnake, 367

Pheasant, 58

Philibhit, 254

Philippines, 36, 81, 125, 162, 230,
256, 262, 266, 315, 374,419, 420,
430, 431, 458, 496

Phillips, Lort, 366

Phipson, 54, 55, 56, 59, 62, 265,
462, 467, 469, 471, 474, 476

Pied typhlops, 13

Pigeon, 58, 59

Pilsbury, 322

Pimbera, 48

Pinto, 404, 412

Pituitary extract, 526

Pliny, 45

Polmal karawala, 305

Pollock, 67

Polong-telissa, 549

Poona, 96, 242

Pooran, 9

Porcupine, 58

Potai pumbu, 410

Prater, Mr., 80

Pratt, 184

Prevost, 262

Pridham, 224

Primrose, 112, 296

Pritchard, Lt., 184

Pul surattai, 531

Pulney Hills, 245

Punagalla, xiv, 105, 142, 218, 303,
315, 457

Pundaluoya, 43, 146, 564

Punjab, 73, 150, 162, 232, 529,
535

Puri, 360, 390, 392, 395, 419,
421

Purneah, 245

Puttalam, 36, 89

Python, 45, 97, 505

Python, Malay, 476

Q.

Quail, 59
Queensland, 255
Quetta, 536
Quilon, 58

| Rat,

| Robertson,

CEYLON. 579

Rabbit, 59, 60

Ragotzi, 486

Rajputana, 190

Raj Shahi, 58, 68

Rakwana district, 38

Ramboda, 146, 213

Ramri Islands, 434

Rangoon, 94, 95, 96, 97, 108, 110,
114,116, 119, 126, 157,174, 176,
180, 181, 182, 258, 259, 263, 308,
312, 313, 381, 386, 396, 461, 472,
507

Rasagalla, 303

Rasp-skinned water snake, 79

595) .60; .177,. 178, 4196,
535

Rat, water, 58

Ratnagiri district, 38, 40, 536,
539

Ratnapura, xiv, 89, 165, 247, 250,
303, 564

Ratsnake, the common, 172, 191,
313

Ray, John, 48, 68

Reed snake, 251

Reid, Mr., 233, 478

Reinhold, Capt. C. H., 541

Richards, Vincent, 312, 469, 480,
484

Assistant Surgeon,
179, 313, 441, 475

Robertsoa, Miss, 187

Robinson, 48, 330, 380, 390, 416,

431
Robinson, Sir Hercules, vii

| Rogers, 298, 404, 405, 443, 444,

445, 483, 514, 515, 516, 539,
540

Round worm, 69, 121, 526

Royal snake, 505

| Russell, 166, 172, 185, 191, 197,

198; 221, 231, 232, 234, 239,
240, 257, 269, 272, 291, 363, 375,
382, 383, 385, 404

Russell, Dr. Patrick, 9, 48, 92, 135,
147, 151, 305, 320,. 326, 335,
349, 350, 353, 354, 361, 386,
390, 401, 437, 440, 459, 481,
485, 497, 501, 504, 505, 531

Russell’s earth snake, 505

Russell’s seasnake, 535

Russell’s typhlops, 9

Russell’s viper, 67, 97, 442, 491,
504, 535, 540, 544 :

580

8.

_Sabaragamuwa, Province of, 38

Sambon, 70

Sambur, 57

Sandoway Islands, 308, 373, 432,
434

Sandheads, 343

Sand snake, 535

Sarawak, 310

Saray pambu, 172

Satara, 241

Saugor, 273, 506 -

Saw-scaled viper, 531

Saw-tailed viper, xiii

Schlegel, 92

Schmidt, 391

Schneider, 32, 79, 91, 92, 257,.269,
344, 345, 366, 431, 437, 531

Schneider’s rhinophis, 32

Schneider’s sea krait, 431

Schneider’s seasnake, 344

Sclater, 170, 380, 385, 396

Scolopendra, 530

Scorpions, 530, 535

Sealy, Major, 60

Seba, 48, 84, 231, 282, 305, 437,
451, 459, 549

Seba’s Dendrelaphis, 221

Seba’s Thesaurus, 221, 231

Senegambia, 191

Serpent eagles, 99, 184

Sevt pambu, 9

Shamshirnagar, 477

Shanghai, 409

Shark, 320

Sharp, Mr. D. §S. P., 450

Shaw, 147, 191, 231, 305, 325, 326,
330, 353, 355, 375, 380, all, 412
413, 504, 505

Shaw’s seasnake, 410

Shaw’s wolfsnake, 147

Shaw’s Zamenis, 191

Shelford, 309, 310, 311

Shell snake, 151

Shembaganur, 125, 240

Shiddil, 386

Shikarpur, 539

Shillong, 96, 97, 112, 114, 118, 126

Shipley, Prof., 69, 99

Shootur sun, 335

Shortt, Dr., 511

Shungu viriyan, 151

Siam, 310, 343, 348, 374,.387, 390,
431, 471, 473, 528

Siccawee, 409

Sigiriya, 281

Sinclair, Mr., 156

SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Sind, 73, 101, 112,125, 1503150:
202, 261,°334, 373, 3719) etae
528

Sind krait, 535

Singapore, 400, 416

Skeat, 374, 390, 416

Skink, 85, 153, 167, 535

Smith, Major O. A., 535, 536

Smooth snake, 151

Society Islands, 430

Somaliland, 546

South Africa, 426

Spectacle snake, 504

Spence, Mr., 509

Spotted deer, 59

Spotted snake, 5(4

Squirrel, 59

Stag, 62, 63

Staunton, Mr., 58

Stejneger, 374, 409, 420, 426

Stephens, Prof., 187

Stevens, Mr., 478

Stevenson, Capt.,
538

Still, John, 299

Stockholm, 421, 427

Stoliczka, 192, 193, 260, 306, 307,
529

Stokes, 396

Stokes’s seasnake, 396

Stone, Mr., 320, 358

Sumatra, 15, 315, 496, 528

Sumner, Capt., 233

Sunderbunds, 334, 339, 343, 348,
379, 385, 401

Suratté pambu, 531

Swatow, 396

Swayne, 289, 303

TUS etl

ik

Tanni pambu, 91

‘Lape worm, 69, 99, 121

Tasmania, 430

Taylor, W. R., 520

Tel karawala, 151, 451

Templeton’s oligodon, 245

Templeton, Dr. R., 245

Tennant, 57, 68, 139, 140, 507,
529

Tenasserim, xii, 262, 315, 353,
360, 362, 366, 426

Terai, 65

Thatta pam, 349 ‘

Theobald, 114, 152, 438

iiamatens Mr., 96

SNAKES OF CEYLON.

Thwaites, Mr., 58

Tic polonga, 504

Ticks, 122, 186, 200

Tiger, 57

Tissamaharama, 501

Toad, 58, 94, 107, 11], 112, 130,
179, 226

Tollys Nullah, 402, 430

Tonkin, 123

Topsell, 45

Tornier, 368

Tortoise, 179

Tranquebar, 390, 401

Transcaspia, 150, 190, 277, 496

Travancore, 52, 54, 55, 59, 60,
OOS 216. 218,293, 373, 389,
422, 529

Tree snake,
305

Trevelyan, 38

Trevelyan’s rhinophis, 38

Trichinopoly, 222, 240, 274, 3(2,
438, 470, 471, 511, 533, 536

Trincomalee, 33, 169, 245, 462,
501, 507, 529

Trinket snake, 197

Trivandrum, 52, 56,137, 218, 297,
298, 390, 440, 469, 471, 472,
473

Tuctoo, 308, 309, 312

Tuticorin, 240

Two-headed snake, 9, 18

gold and_ black,

U.

Udugama, 105, 219, 247

Umritsar, 529

Utha surita, 147

Uva patnas, 26, 44, 105, 134, 213,
554

V.

Valakadyen, 401

Vala panayan, 151

Variegated oligodon, 239

Vernede, Mr., 525

Veyangoda, 207, 303, 451, 554

Vidal, 539

Viper, European, 503

Viper, Himalayan, 505

Viper, large spotted, 505

Virgil, 49

Vizagapatam, 195, 198, 240, 353,
379

58]

Vizianagram, 240
Von Linstow, Prof., 57, 69, 99,
121, 201, 526

W.

Wadduwa, 303

Walayar, 498

Walker, Assistant Surgeon, 447

Wallaby, 59

Wall, A. J., 462, 463, 474, 486,
488, 513, 517, 520

iW allColetO7, 152.2215 240) 24m

282, 293, 437
Wall, George, v, xi
Wall’s seasnake, 380
Waltair, 171
Wana cogli, 110
Wana kukroo, 110
Wana pambu, 110
Warde, N., 286, 287, 289
Warwick estate, xiv, 213
Water snake, 91

‘Wattya, 336, 385, 402

Webster, Mr., 477
Werner, Dr., 219
Werner’s dendrophis, 219

-Western Ghats, 554

Western reed snake, 251

Weuda, 303

Weyvelwatte, 315

Whipsnake, common, 291

Whipsnake, brown speckled, 302

Whitworth, Sir Joseph, vii

Willey, Dr., vii, 35, 36, 89, 99,121,
125, 126, W629 169) 172, 197, 215s
277, 281, 285, 286, 289, 302, 305,
423, 451, 454, 457, 498, 501, 554

Willey’s rhinophis, 35

Wolfsnake, 153, 471

Wolfsnake, Ceylon, 162

Wolfsnake, common, 151

Wray, 380

Wynaad, 254, 554

Ne

Yatiyantota, xiv, 38, 40, 105, 142,
218, 250, 303, 457, 564

Yennat panayan, 437

Y. viriyan, 437

Yettadi viriyan, 437

Young, Mr. L. C. H., 533

Yule, 48

Yunnan, 136, 142

CEYLON :
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COLOMBO,

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