EARTH SCIENCES ORG.ANIC REMAINS OF A FORMER WORLD. c o <%// / • /• -+. -*/ / ^.^fU'y tmcfc (/}///<>/// <>,• / / / tt CZ .1.1. ''.!,.• thf Act directs. H, Jamta Partinsm . Ho.n.r,, A-f rr,r.};'r ORGANIC REMAINS OF A FORMER WORLD. AN ANTEDILUVIAN WORLD ^ GENERALLY TERMED EXTRANEOUS FOSSILS. By JAMES PARKINSM. j i ' , ' ' i • • IN THREE VOLtTMES. STOVE LILY THE THIRD VOLUME; CONTA1SIKG THE FOSSIL STARFISH, ECHINI, SHELLS; INSECTS, AMPHIBIA, MAMMALIA, & . LONDON/ PRINTED BY WIHTTIXGHAM AND ROWLAND, Goswell Street; AND PUBLISHED BY SHERWOOD, NEELY, AND JONES, PATERNOSTER-ROW 5 7, WHITE, AND J. MURRAY, FLEET-STREET; W. PHILLIPS, GEORGE-YARD, LOMBARD-STREET; J. ASPERNT J, M. RICHARDSON, AND J. AND A. ARCH, CORNHILL ; BLACK AND PARRY, LEADENHALL-STREETJ . AND LACKINGTOX, ALLEN, AND CO. FINSUl'RY-SQUARE. 1811.. EARTH SCIENCES UBflARY C 0 N VOLUMJ.. LETTER I. O TAR- FISH... rarely mineralised. ..Fossil Species particularised Pate 1 LETTER II. Echinites... Arrangement of Leske adopted... The various Species of these Fes.'!!? t1f> •. ;'..?d... Anocysti, divided into Cidares and Clypei , g LETTER III. Catocysti, divided into Fibulae, Cassides, Scuta, and Placentae. ..Fibula, subdivided into Conuli a id Discoides... Cassis, subdivided intoGalese and Galeolae, included in Echinocorys... Scutum, Echinanthus.. . Placenta, Echinodiscus...Echinocyaraus \% LETTER IV. Pleurocysti, Echinarachnius.,.Cor Marinum, Spatangus, and its Species 28 LETTER V. •? Spines of Echini... Arrangement of Fossil Spines 37 LETTER VI. Fossil Shells.. .Arrangement of Lamarck adopted. ..Chiton... Patella.. .Fissurella...Emarginula,.t . Crepidula...Concholepas...Calyptraea...Conus...Cypraea...Ovula....TerebeIlum....Oliva.,.An- cilla...Voluta...Mitrft...Columbella...Marginella...Cancellaria...Nassa...Purpura.,.Buccinum ...Eburna...Terebra...Dolium...Harpa.. .Cassis. ..Strombus...Pterocera....Rostellaria....Murex .,.Fus«s,..Pyrula...Fasciolaria..,Pleurotoma , ,. .t,. ...... 47 CONTENTS; LETTER VII. PlL^f. Fossil Shells continued. — Cerithium...Trochus.«Solarium... Turbo. ..Monodonta... Delphi nula... Cyclostoma...Scalaria...Turritella...Pupa...Janthina...Bulla....Bulimus....Achatina....Phasia- nella...Lymnaea...Pyramidella...Melania.... Auricula... .Volvaria....Ampullaria....Planorbis... Helix. ..Helicina..,Nerita...Natica...Testacella...Stomatia...Carinaria....Haliotis....Sigaretus... Argonauta fi<> LETTER VIII. Nearly straight or irregularly twisted shells, with simple or divided' Cavities. ..Penicillus... Den- talium...Vermicularia.,.Serpula...Siliquaria 9L LETTER IX. Multilocular Shells. ..Nautilus. ..Fossil Species... Orthoceta 92 LETTER X. Hippurites... Dalmatian and Veronese Fossils of a similar Appearance... Belemnites, Opinions respecting... Species described UK LETTER XI. Ammonites.. .Baculite«...Hamites...Scaphites...Turrilites • 133 LETTER XII. Nummulites....Discorbis....Rotalites....Lenticulina....Lituola...,Spirolina...Miliola...Renulina... Gyrogonites « • M.,... 148 LETTER XIII. Biralves with equal Valves, and regularly formed... Pinna.. .Mytilus...Modiola...Anodonta... Unio...Nucula...Pectunculus...Arca...Cucullcea...Trigonia...Tridacna...Hippopus...Cardita... Isocardia...Cardium...Crassatella...Paphia...Lutraria...Mactra....Erycina....Petricola...Donax ....Trigonellites....Venus....Cytherea....Venericardia....Cyclas....Lucina....Tellina...Capsa... Solen..,Sanguinolaria...Glycemeris...Mya.»J>anopea. ..»..; , 155 LETTER XIV. Pholas...FistuIana... Teredo. ..Diceras...Acardo...Radiolites...Chama....Spondylus....Plicatula... Gryphaea.-.Ostrea , „ IQ7 LETTER XV. Vulsella.. .Malleus.. ,ATicula...Perna...Crenatula...Placuna...Harpax....Pecten... .Lima. ..Pedum .. .Pandora.. .Corbula.., Anemia. .. Crania. ..Terebratula...Calceola...HyaIaea....Orbicula... .Ian- gula...Balanus...Tubicinella...Coronula...Anatifa 218 LETTER XVI. Fossil Fish.,. of Vestena Nuova, Pappenheim, Mansfeld;, &c....of England t,,,,,, ,,,,,. CONTENTS. LETTER XVII. ttgi of Fishes.., Head, Eyes, Jaws, Teeth, Palates, Proboscides, Scalts, Bones, &c. ............ 253 LETTER XVI*. Entomolithi... Insects in Pappenheim Limestone. ..In Coal Slate. ..Crabs of Shepey, Verona, East Indies, and Maestricht...Oniscites...MonocuIites...Trilobites *25? LETTER XVIII. Amphibiolithi... Tortoise... Crocodile .........>..... 26S LETTER XIX. Fossil Crocodiles... Two Species found in France, differing- from any known Species.. .Fossil Spe- cies found also in England 270 LETTER XX. Large Fossil Animal of Maestricht... Ascertained to be neither Physeter, Fish, nor Crocodile.. , Opinions of Dr. Peter Camper, M.Faujas, M. Adrian Camper, &c.... Remains of the existing Monitors. ..English Specimens ........................... 286 LETTER XXI. Ornitholites , 302 LETTER XXIL Fossil Remains of Mammalia. ..Cetacea, Whales, &c.... Amphibia... Trichecus, Seals, &c...,Soli- pedes, the Horse ., 307 LETTER XXIII. Fossil Remains of Ruminantia... Fossil Elk of I re land... Stags, &c....Ox, Buffalo, Auroch, &c.... 319 LETTER XXIV. Fossil Bones of Ruminants, &c. in the Islands of Cherso and Osero... Island of Cerigo...AtNice and Antibes... At Cette...Near Concud, in Arragou...In the Rock of Gibraltar ...,.», 329 LETTER XXV. Fossil Remains of Elephants. ..Frequently found... Manifest the Existence of one or more Fossil Species 0... 33$ LETTER XXVI. Mastodon , 35* LETTER XXVII. Fossil Remains of the Rhinoceros.. .Fossil Animal different from the recent Species... Hippopo- , tarn us... Fossil Remains... Small Fossil Hippopotamus, an unknown Species. ..Fossil Animal* approaching to the Tapir .„..,....,..,......,..............,.„...,„„..,....„„.„.„.,.,>,„.„,,„.,„,. 367 CONTENTS. LETTER XXVIII. PMM Fossil Pachydermata of the Environs of Paris.. .Palaeotherium Magnum, Medium, Crassum, Minus.. .Anoplotherium Commune, Medium, Minus, Minimum. ..Undetermined Animal of Orleans « ............ 380 LETTER XXIX. Fossil Remains of Animals of the Order Bruta, of Linnaeus, Tardigradi, of Dumeril... Mega- therium.. .Megalonix .. 403 LETTER XXX. Caverns in Germany and Hungary, containing Fossil Bones, &c....GayIenreuth> &c..., Inquiry respecting the Animals to which they belonged. ..The Remains of two Species of Bears discovered .,,,. .»,.., • •• • • » 415 LETTER XXXI. Inquiry continued. ..Remains of carnivorous Animals found in the Caverns of Germany, &c..., Hyena.. .in Gaylenreuth, Caastadt, &c.... Spotted Panther.. .Animal resembling the Fox,., Zoriila, or Polecat of the Cape... Wolf, or Dog... Remains of carnivorous Animals found in the Plaster Quarries near Paris... Sarigue of America., .An Animal of the Genus Canis...One approaching to the Civet... Another, somewhat resembling the large Otter.. .Another, entirely unknown*. •.....,..,.„...... «... 4-27 LETTER XXXII. Fossils considered in Connection with the Strata in which they are contained... 44O TO THE THIRD VOLUME. AGREEABLE to the plan of this work, the important observations and discoveries of M. Lamarck and of M. Cuvier are introduced in the present volume ; but it may be necessary to notice the circumstances which have occasioned the account of their labours to be extended to so considerable a length. Excepting the Fossilia Hantoniensia of Solander and Brand er, no really systematic arrangement of fossil shells had appeared ; the classification of shells, therefore, by Lamarck, in which particular attention is paid to those in a fossil state, became highly estimable. . So clear and VOL. in. a X PREFACE. so comprehensive is the arrangement of this naturalist, that of the numerous fossil shells which were unclassed, there are hardly any which may not now be placed un- der an appropriate genus. This circumstance alone, it is presumed, will warrant the having introduced into this volume the generic characters of this system. Very few successful anatomical examinations of the fossil remains of amphibia, and of land animals, had been attempted before the justly celebrated Cuvier made them the subjects of his investigation ; but in consequence of the ardour with which he has availed himself of the extra- ordinary opportunities which he possessed, the history of these fossils must now be chiefly formed with the materials which he has furnished. The full range of the plaster quarries, so rich in fossil bones, and the unlimited power of examining the rich cabinets of fossils which have been dragged to the National Museum, from different parts of France and of the Continent; and, above all, the oppor- tunity of comparing these with the recent bones in the prodigious collections of skeletons, &c. in the Museum, have placed before him a rich harvest, which he has PREFACE. XI most carefully reaped. By his persevering assiduity he has accomplished the most important discoveries respect- ing several unknown animals which have existed in former ages of this planet. To have omitted an account of these discoveries would have been a departure from the intention of the work ; and to have extracted less than is here given, could not have been done without inj urious mutilation . From the frequency with which these invaluable labours are referred to, it would have been very difficult to have marked each reference ; it has, therefore, been thought preferable to give two lists of the references to the places where the several subjects are treated of in the original works of these authors. It is presumed, that the phenomena noticed in this work may lead to highly useful discoveries, and to the establishment of important truths. Already the mine- ralized remains of numerous unknown plants and animals have added facts, supplementary, as it were, but of a highly interesting nature, to the sciences of Botany and XH PREFACE. of Zoology. From the connected examination of fossils, and of the strata which contain them, much useful infor- mation may be expected to be obtained, respecting the situations in which various useful substances may be found. Thus, the traces of vegetables generally point out the vicinity of coal, whilst the remains of land ani- mals show that, in general, in the places in which they are found, coal can exist but at prodigious depths. It is therefore hoped that, in future, the circumstance of particular fossils being found in certain strata, may be more particularly attended to : and whilst noticing the localities of fossils, it is recommended to mark the stra- tum, as well as the name of the place in which they are found. The phenomena particularised in the latter part of this volume, yield some important knowledge respecting the structure of the planet which we inhabit, These facts would also supply, if it were needed, the strongest proof of the error of those who believe, that there has always been a succession something similar to what is continually observed ; and that the human species have had, and will PREFACE. Xlll have, a uniform and infinite existence. With almost equal force will these phenomena oppose that system also, which considers the form and structure of the sur- face of this planet, as resulting from a regularly recurring series of similar mutations. The loss of whole species or genera, and the late cre- ation of others, as is assumed in this work, are circum- stances which strongly militate against both these hypo- theses. It must, however, be acknowledged, that some accurate inquirers have doubted whether a single species has been thus lost. Bruguiere attempted to account for this apparent extinction of several species of shell-fish, by supposing that there are many genera, and even families, which live constantly in the lowest depths of the sea. These animals, which he termed Pelagian, being entirely out of the reach of man, can only, he sup- posed, become known to him by the mineralized remains of those shells, which have been left in parts over which former seas have flowed. Among these shells he places the Ammonite, the Belemnite, and the Orthoceratite ; but it is expected that it will be shown in the following PREFACE pages that all these shells possess a peculiar structure, which belongs to such an organization, as would have enabled those animals to raise themselves up to, and even to support themselves at, the surface of the water. Many have been led to doubt the total extinction of some species, and the late creation of others, as circum- stances which would be incompatible with the power and wisdom of the Almighty, who, they conceive, would have formed a creation so complete at first, as to have required no subsequent change. Without dwelling on the impropriety of such modes of reasoning, it must be observed, that the facts are indubitable, and afford a direct proof of the Creator of the universe continuing a superintending providence over the works of his hands. That the extinction of species maybe taking place even in our days, seems to be shown by the discovery of dead shells in the island of St. Helena, differing from any known species of recent or of fossil shells. The small remaining number of some species of animals, such as the Dodo and the sloths, seems also to give some support to this opinion. PREFACE. XV It is with much regret that the author finds himself under the necessity of requesting, that the excuse which has been already offered in the Preface to the preceding volume, may be accepted for the much too numerous Corrigenda which will be found in the present volume. ERRATA. Page 10, line 22, for as a, read as forming a. IV, 1. 26, /or ovi, raid ova. 16, 1. 1 1 , for echinites, read echinitee. 24, 1. 21, /or appear, read appears. 25, 1. 19, for Melita, read Mellita. 28, 1. 4, /or is the, read is formed of the. 65, I. 6 from the bottom, for Fig. 1, read Fig. 6. 70, last line, for The notch, read A notch. 71, first line, after one, read This notch appears, however, to be accidental. 80, 1. 2, for notch, read groove. 86, 1. 12, for acreting, read accreting. 89, 1. 3, dele Plate VII. Fig. "2. 98, 1. 4, dele and. 100, 1. 23, dele particular. 132, 1. 32, for is, read are. 136, 1. 2 from the bottom, for parieties, read parietes. 139, 1. 4 from the bottom, for enables, read enable. 141, 1. 3 and 4 from the bottom, dele and much flatter. 151, 1. 6, insert a comma after through. 175, 1. 9, insert a comma between the words clav el- lata and curvirostra. 181, 184, 191, 192, 200, 205, 216, 231, 232, 233, 241, . 7, after unknown, add in a fossil state. . 10, for gives, read give. . 12, dele and. >ottom, for France, read Paris. . 10, for S, read 4. 15, for XIV. read VII. 14, for 1 4, read 16. . 6, dele Fig. 9, a. . 1, for Fig. 10, read Fig. 10*. . 6, for this being, read which is. . 20, for XI. read XVI. . 5 from the bottom, for nor, read or. Page 242, 1. 5 from the bottom, for bodies are, read body is. 257, 1. 2, for XXIX. read XIX. 263, 1. 19, for formed, read found. 265, 1. 9, for have, read has. 270, 1. 5, for Stanffield, read Staunsfield. 1. 11, for Cuivier, read Cuvier. 278, 1. 22, for axis, read axis or dcntata. 279, 1. 19 and 20, for vertebrae, read vertebra. 284, 1. 26 and 30, for first, read second. 288, 1. 20, for their, read there. 290, last line, for jaws, read jaw. 291, 1. 24, for alveola;, read alveoli. 296, note, for juncture, read junctures. 303, 1. 13, for a part, read a small part only. 320, 1. 27, after seen, add that. . I. 28, for found, read discovered. 337, 1. 1, for and, read able. 338, 1. 5, for appear, read appears. 345, 1. 12, dele Plate XX. Fig. 8. 1. 23, for teeth, read tooth. 350, 1. 1, for have been, read be. 1. 9, for Fig. 9, read Fig. 1. 367, 1. 14, dels he. 368, 1. 26, for rhinocers, read rhinoceros. 372, I. 9, for Fig. 3, read Fig. 2. 374, 1. 15, for which, read who. 400, 1. 1, 6e/ore the, add with. 405, the second paragraph to conclude with the word seventeen. 1. 25, after nine, odd cervical. 406, I. 9, dele malar. 412, two lines from the bottom, for forms, read form. 453,1. 4 from bottom,/or cub frochal, read entrochal. ORGANIC REMAINS LETTER I. STAR-FISH RARELY MINERALISED FOSSIL SPECIES PARTI- CULARISED. As we proceed upwards on the scale of creation, the star-fish, or sea-star, Stella marina, Linckii, et Asteria, Linnai*, is the next animal which demands our attention, as a subject of the mineral kingdom. The fossil remains of these animals are by no means so frequent as are those of many others ; a circumstance which is perhaps not to be satis- factorily accounted for. The numerous species of these animals which do now exist, and the comparatively few which are found in a mine- * The name, Stella marina, employed by Linck, on the authority of Pliny, is adopted, in these pages, in preference to Asteria, which Linnaeus has used, after Hippocrates and Aristotle. The only reason for this adoption is, that the confusion will thereby be pre- vented, which would necessarily arise from the employment, in this place, of the word astei'ia, which oryctologists, and indeed natural historians, have generally applied to the vertebrae of the pentacrinites, as may be seen in the preceding volume. VOL. III. B ralised state, lead to the supposition, that the paucity of fossil star-fish depends, either on some circumstance in the original composition of the animal, which renders it little fit to undergo the petrifying change ; or on some circumstance, in its mineral state, which prevents its preserva- tion in its matrix, or its safe extrication from it. All these circumstances have, perhaps, some share in occasioning the scarcity of these fossils : it appears, however, to be chiefly attributable to the original conforma- tion of the covering of the animal, which is the only part which can be preserved to us by mineralization. The coriaceous, and even pulpy consistence, of the coverings of these animals, in a living state, plainly evinces, that the mucilaginous or membranous matter, bears a very large proportion to the carbonate of lime, .whicfc -enters into the composition of these bodies. On the cessation 'of fife, * therefore, a speedy decomposition of this animal mat- " ' -' ter "mil- ensue v -aa'A. -fF'om a deficiency of earthy matter to support its form, the whole substance must, in general, be resolved into a shape- less mass. The crustaceous covering of one of these animals, of a smallish size, was found to be pierced with fifteen hundred and twenty apertures, through which passed, or to which were attached, as many horny tubes; serving, according to M. Reaumur*, either as feet, or as organs through which the water received by the stomach of the animal was ejected. The anatomy of this animal, however, has not, at least to my know- ledge, been pursued so far, as to determine the real use of these tubes, which seem rather to be analagous with the absorbent tubes of the echinus. For our present purpose, it is only necessary to remark, that the membranous matter connecting these tubes with the external crust, or lining the apertures through which these tubes pass, must consider- ably add to the quantity of animal membrane, on the predominance of which its perishable nature so much depends. * Obscwatio de Stellis marinis, Sect. VIIL From the nature and proportion, therefore, of the constituent parts of the coriaceous crust of the animal, and its speedy resolution, by which it is prevented from passing through the several changes necessary to its mineralization, we may suppose, that the rareness of its being found in a petrified state chiefly proceeds. The remains of several species of these animals have, however, been preserved, and chiefly in chalk and in lime-stone; and almost all of them approximate so nearly to known recent animals, as to allow of the considering them as of similar species with those which have been described by Linck and other naturalists. The recent animals to which the fossil species appear to be referable, are: — 1. Pentagonaster semilunatus ; Linck. de Stellis marinis, Tab. xxin. No. 37 ; xxiv. No. 39 and 45. This fossil has been figured by Schultz, Betrachtung der versteinerten, Tab. n. Fig. 6, from Pirna. A chalk fossil, from the Kentish chalk-pits, in which a considerable part of this lunated star is preserved, is represented Plate I. Fig. 1. M. Walch, in Knorr's work, Recueil des Monumens des Catastrophes, Kc. gives the figure of an impression on a flint, from New Strelitz, of a stellite of this species. 2. Pentagonaster regularis ; Linck. Tab. xm. No. 22. A fossil asterite of this species, with which I was favoured by H. H. Goodall, Esq. of the East-India House, is figured Plate I. Fig. 3. This is also from the Kentish chalk-pits. 3. Pentaceros reticulatus, Linck. Tab. xxin. xxiv. No. 36, is found fos- sil, in fragments, at Chassai sur Saone, according to Davila. 4. Pentaceros lentiginosus, sen, Stella reticulata lentiginosa; Linck. Tab. XLI. and XLII. I lately obtained a stellite of this species, or very nearly approaching to it, from one of the Essex chalk-pits. The specimen, though large and handsome, and possessing the general form of this animal, would not have given the idea of this particular species, per- haps, if the two rows of mamillae, or rather bones, had not still existed 4 in one part of the lunated or falcated margin. Fragments of this species are sometimes found in the Isle of Sheppey. 5. Astropecten echinatus minor ; Linck. Tab. viu. No. 12. Some frag- ments of a stellite, of which this stella is supposed to be the analogue, is depicted in Knorr's work, Supp. PI. vn. b. 3. I obtained, at the sale of some of the Marquis of Donegal's fossils, a most uncommonly perfect specimen resembling this species. It is imbedded on a lime-stone, of a yellow colour, and has only lost a part of one of its rays. I have not been able to learn where this fossil was found. Portions, and even complete specimens of stellites, apparently of this species, are found among the pyrites of the Isle of Sheppey. A specimen, which now lies before me, has one of its rays perfect ; and has sufficient left, of the others, almost to determine that it is of this species. 6. Stella coriacea acutangula; Linck. .Tab. ix. x. Fig. 19. The com- mon yellow star-fish of Lhwydd. A petrifaction of this species was found at Malesme, in France ; and is figured and described by M. Guet- tard, Mem. de I'Acad. An. 1763. 7. Stella lumbricalis lacertosa, corpore spharico ; Linck Tab. 2. No. 4. A fos- sil, containing a considerable portion of a stellite, resembling this species, is figured by Bourguet, Traitc des Petrifactions, Plate LIX. No. 438. A very beautiful specimen, imbedded in chalk, apparently of this species, was sold at the sale of the Leverian Museum. To this species the small stellites seem to approximate, which are found in the fissile stones of Solenhofen and Pappenheim, and which bear so near a resemblance to spiders. One of these is depicted, Plate I. Fig. 15. 8. Stella lumbricalis, corpore penfagono, lateribus lunatis ; Linck. Tab. xxn. No. 35. Three specimens of a micaceous sand-stone, from Cobourg, with several stellites, which appear to be ot this species, are figured by Knorr, Rccueil des Monumens, S(c. Tab. L. 1. 23. Another specimen is also described by M. Davila, Catal. Tome m. p. 191. 9. Stella lumbricalis, corpore spharico tuberculoso, radiis conice productis.. Under this denomination M. Walch comprehends small detached stelliform fos- sils, about the size of a lentil, which are found in St. Peter's mountain, near Maestricht. Recueil des Monum. Tom n. p. 262. The body of this animal appears to have been of a spherical form, and large in pro- portion to the length of its rays, which are conical, and vary in their number, from four or five to six or nine. The body, as well as the rays, are beset with tubercles. 10. Stella crinita, decacnemos rosacea, Linck. Tab. xxxvu. No. 66, is figured as a fossil by Baier, Oryct. Norie. Tab. vm. No. 5 ; and by Knorr, Recueil des Monumens, Plate vn. Fig. 6. 11. Stella decacnemos, barbata, Linck. Tab. xxxvu. No. 64, appears also to be figured as a fossil by Baier, Monim. Rer. Petr. Tab. viz. No. 2, 4, and 5; and in Oryctogr. Noric. Tab. vm. Fig. 4. 12. Stella crinita polycacnemos , the Caput Medusa of Linck; Linck. Tab. xxi. et xxu. Gesner, De Petrificatis, p. 31, mentions a fossil, which he supposes to be a fragment of this species; and of which, it appears, that fragments only have been found. 13. Astrophyton, of Linck; or Caput Medusa of Rumphius; Cabinet des Raretes & Amboiney Tab. xvi. Gesner,, De Petrificatis, p. 31, speaks of fossil fragments of this animal having also been repeatedly found. This he repeats, on the authority of Lhwydd, who names a fossil (No. 1132) of this kind, Astropodium Ramosum; and on that of the intelligent Rosinus, who also iigures (Prodromus, 5fc. Tab. x. Fig. n. No. \.) what he sup- poses to be a fossil of this kind. Gesner, however, did not advert to the circumstance of both Lhwydd and Rosinus having written before the period at which the pentacrinites were discovered. An inspection of the figures given by Lhwydd and by Rosinus will directly show, that the fossils which they have figured are undoubtedly parts of penr tacrinites. Mr. Knorr, Sup. Tab. vi. 8 — 17, figures various small fossil bodies, which he learned came from some part of Italy, and which he considers as belonging to the Stella fissa kof Linck ; but acknowledges that, even 6 with the microscope, he was unable to discover the fissure, which, in the recent stella, is always observahle. He thinks, therefore, that these bodies must either belong to a species of stelloe entirely unknown to us, or must be merely the casts of minute stellae. Plate I. Fig. 16, is a sketch of a fossil stella figured by Baier, Moni- ment. Rer. Petrif. Tab. vir. Fig. 6, which he considers as referable to small coriaceous pentapetalous sea-stars. I am happy in being able to communicate the observations of the late Mr. Strange, on a minute species of stellae found at Verona, being in possession not only of an engraving of two species of this fossil which was executed for that gentleman by Antonius Gregori, and which are here copied, Plate I. Fig. 17 and 18, but of the manuscript account of the fossils drawn up by Mr. Strange himself. Plate I. Fig. 18. " Stella marina fossil is minima, pentagona, stella pentaradiata in superficie posita, more echinanthi, et echino-spatagi, centro stellae perfecte rotundato ; radiis ferme ovalibus : superficie cor- poris sublaevlgata ; colorem priebens, qui ex albo in flavescentem leviter vergit. Substantia gaudet calcarea. Invenitur frequens ad Castrum Divi Faelicis intra urbem Veronae : naturalem autem invenimus in littore Nea- politano ad Cumas Baiarum." Plate I. Fig. 17. " Stella marina fossil is, minima, pentagona, stella pentaradiata in superficie posita, centro stellse perfecte rotundo ; radiis autem ovato-acuminatis ; superficie corporis laevigata, colorem exhibens alboflavum. Eadem substantia gaudet calcarea, et in eodem loco inve- nitur cum altera specie supra descripta." " Species hasce Stellas marinae fossilis pentagonae saepius vidi Romae, Flo- rentise, Bononiae, Veronae, Augustae Taurinorum, et alioquin in quam plurimis Italorum musaeis : nihilominus a nemine, quod sciam, hucus- que descriptae sunt. Inveniuntur tantummodo ad Castrum Divi Faelicis, intra urbem Veronae, ut supradixi, in caeteris Italiae provinciisconchy- liferis nondum vidi." It is with much pleasure I am also able to place before you another species of these minute stellitee. The specimen from which the copies, Plate I. Fig. 19 and 20, were made, having been originally in Mr. Strange's museum, was most probably obtained, with the former, from Verona. Plate I. Fig. 20, exhibits the interior part of the fossil. The radii are connected at their sides by a substance, which, in the recent animal, was doubtlessly membranaceous. The mouth is surrounded by five sub- cordiform substances, disposed between the central terminations of the radii. Plate I. Fig. 19, represents the superior surface, which appears to have been smooth. The radii, however, are here unexpectedly sul- cated ; a circumstance which, however, may have proceeded from the contraction of the membrane over them, in its dried state. In its general appearance, this stellite resembles the Stella cartilaginea of Aldrovandus; or Stella membranacea, as Linck would rather call it. But its great degree of comparative thickness, and a curiously-figured process on its sides, mark an essential difference between the two, besides that of their size. You have perceived, by the preceding account, that the fossil remains of these animals are rare. But you will also discover, that as far as my reading and observations extend, that the difference between the fossil remains and the recent animals does not appear to be so great as was observable, whilst examining the fossil animal remains noticed in the former volume. 8 LETTER II. JECHINITES ARRANGEMENT OF LESKE ADOPTED THE VARIOUS SPECIES OF THESE FOSSILS DESCRIBED ANOCYSTI, DIVIDED INTO CIDARES AND CLYPEI. 1 HE next subjects of our inquiry are the fossil substances termed Echinites, the mineralised remains of the echinus; an animal of a roundish form, covered with a bony crust, approaching nearer to the coverings of the crustaceous than to those of the testaceous animals, and furnished with moveable spines ; the mouth being placed beneath. The characters of many of these bodies are so remote from each other, as to seem to point out the propriety of considering the whole as forming a distinct order of vermes, thus marked out as different genera, possessing other characters, which would well serve for the distinction of species. Many have endeavoured to bring the incongruous assemblage in the Linnsean genus, echinus, into a more lucid and instructive arrangement. To this work the labours of Muller, Phelsum, Bruguiere, and La- marck, have much contributed : but to no one is more merit due, 'in this respect, than to the industrious Leske, the ingenious commentator on Klein's useful work. It is intended, in the following pages, chiefly to be aided by the arrangement of Leske, who has also availed himself of the labours of Phelsum and of Muller. Agreeable to this arrangement, the first class of these bodies which we shall examine is that of the ANOCYSTI, the vent of which is in the 9 vertex. These are considered as included in two divisions ; Cidaris (the turban), and Clipeus (the buckler). The first natural family in which these bodies may be placed, appears to be that of Cidaris. The characters are : hemispherical, globular, or suboval; with porous ambulacra, diverging equally, on all sides, from the vent to the mouth ; vent vertical, mouth beneath and central. These, from their rounded forms and their different protuberances, are supposed to resemble turbans, beset with their several ornaments. From other characters, derived from their spines, they have obtained the name of sea-urchins, sea-hedgehogs, sea-thistles, &c. and, those in a petrified state, have obtained various names, agreeable to the par- ticular notions which have been entertained respecting their origin. Thus, they obtained the name of ombria, from the Greek word o^fyog, signifying the heavy rain, in which they were supposed to fall ; brontia, from fyovTy, the thunder, by which they were supposed to be thrown to the earth ; ceraunii lapides, from xegawog, the lightning, by which they were supposed to be generated and formed in the air ; chelonites, from their resemblance, in their sutures, to the shells of the tortoise ; and ova anguina, from their having been even considered by some as the eggs of serpents. Of the fossils belonging to this family, the first species is Cidaris esculenta\ which is hemispherical, with small, nearly equal sized tu- bercles, between the ambulacra. This species appears to have been rarely found fossil; it having been described, in this state, only by Aldrovandus, Mm. Metal, p. 456 ; and by the editors of the description of the museum of Moscardo, Mus. Moscardi, Lib. n. p. 177; and of Calceolarius, Mus. Calceolarii, p. 412. A near approach to this echinus is, I think, to be seen in the beautiful fossil from France, Plate I. Fig. 2, from the late Mr. Forster's collection. C. saxatilis chiefly differs from the preceding, in its ambulacra being narrower, and in its being smaller, and of a more depressed form. It is supposed, by Leske, to have been frequently found fossil ; he believing it to be figured as a fossil by Plot, VOL. III. C 10 Nat. History of Oxfordshire, PI. v. Fig. 5; and copied by Lister, de lapid. turbin, Fig. 23. To this species he also refers the echinites figured by Bourguet, Traite des Petrificatiom, Fig. 336, as well as some of the echi- nites figured by Abilgaard and one or two others. C. hemispherica, which is however very properly suspected by Leske to be only a variety of Echinus esculentus, is, as was observed of that species, not a frequent fossil : it is, I believe, depicted as such by Walch only, Monum. des Cat. PL E. II. Fig. 1 ; and copied by Leske, Tab. XL. Fig. 7. C. angulosa appears also to be depicted by Walch only, Monum. des Cat. PL E. II. Fig. 5. The specimen is of the small variety. Leske describes and figures a small echinite, a variety of this species, echinites excavatus, from Verona. Another fossil from that place, which I possess, seems to be another variety of C. miliaris saxatalis, apparently echinus gratilla, Linn. Its characters are, ten ambulacra, with three rows of double pores, and five broad and five narrow areae. The above are considered by Klein as comprised under the genus miliaris, from their tubercles being of the size of millet-seeds. Those which we have next to examine, he considers as a genus, which he names variolata, from the size of the tubercles, and have been supposed to resemble the Turkish turban. Cidaris diadema, of this genus, does not appear to have been known to exist in a fossil state. The echinite, Plate I. Fig. 4, from Wiltshire, approaches, however, very nearly to this species. It has ten areae : in the five larger are two rows of tubercles; those just above the margin being large, and those above and below these gradually diminishing. These tubercles are all pierced in their apex, and have the margin of their base crenulated, as in those of the next genus, and surrounded by a granulated surface. The smaller areas project beyond the larger, and are formed of two rows of miliary tubercles. The ten ambulacra are porous, each being formed by two 'rows of pores disposed in pairs. The very uncommonly perfect specimen, from Stunsfield, Oxford- shire, Plate I. Fig. 8, in which a considerable number of spines are still 11 adherent to the shell, appears to be of the same species with the last fossil. As far as the characters can be traced, on the inside of the shell, it appears, that to this species the specimen, Plate I. Fig. 5, is referable. This extraordinary specimen, in which so rnany spines are seen im- bedded in the flint, was considered as one of the most splendid fossils in the Leverian Museum. Cidaris subangularis, ofLeske, Kleinii, Tab. in. C. D. does not appear to be known as a fossil. Cidaris fenestrata, of Leske, Kleinii, Tab. iv. A. B. he thinks, is the analogue of the echinite figured by Scilla, Tab. xi. • No. 1, Fig. 2; and by Walch, PI. E. i. a. 1. The Echinus of Klein, T. iv. c. D. is considered by Leske as referable to E. lucunter, of Lin- naeus. He names it, therefore, C. lucunter; and observes, that it is rarely seen petrified: he however believes the fossil echinus, figured by Morton, Nat. Hist, of Northumberland, P. x. F. 2, to be of this species. Echinites ovarius, Langii, is a small fossil, in which the characters of the species 'are discoverable. It is figured by Plot, Hist, of Oxfordshire, Plate v. Fig. 6, and copied by Lister, de Lap. turbin. Fig. 24. Lhwydd has also given a figure of this fossil, Lithophylacii Ichnogmph. Tab. ix. Fig. 940. Small specimens, of an elliptical form, are found in the Wiltshire chalk-pits, which appear to possess the characters of C.fenestrata, of Leske and • of Klein, and which are figured by the latter, Tab. iv. A. B. But the echinus, of which three specimens are represented by Klein, Tab. v. a, b, c, named C rupestris by Leske, has perhaps an equal claim to be the analogue of this Wiltshire echinite, the difference not being ascer- tainable; but the agreement is by no means sufficient to warrant their being assumed as of the same species. C. calamaris araneiformis, stellata, radiata, violacea, do not appear to have been remarked in a mineralised state. C. circinnatus is only known 12 as a fossil, and is figured by Rumphius, Amb. PL LIX. Fig. c. and by Breynius, p. 55, who names it Echinometra Circinnata. The chalk specimen, Plate I. Fig. 10, from Kent, does not sufficiently agree with any species with which 1 am acquainted, to allow of its being supposed to be exactly analagous. It may, however, be considered as belonging to this genus (variolata.) The third genus of Cidaris is C. mammillata. The first species of this genus is distinguished by Leske by the name of the genus, and figured by Klein, Tab. vi. A. B. c. D. The shell of this species is elliptical and depressed. The areae are, five large, and as many small, beset with papilla?, not perforated, and of a size proportioned to the areae: the ambulacra are singly porous. This species is not very common in a fossil state. The fossil referred to by Leske, in Bourguet, Fig. 337, is cer- tainly of this species ; but that of Lister cannot be spoken of so deci- dedly. The next species, C. papillata, Lesk. and E. cidaris, Lin. the moorish turban (cidaris mauri), is round in its circumference, and rather de- pressed. It has five areae, on which are alternately disposed two rows of mammilla?, each of these being surmounted by a perforated papilla, crenulated at its base, and surrounded by a distinct groove : the rest of the area being filled by minute puncta and granular projections. Each papillary tubercle of this echinus has its own plate. Between each pair of ambulacra, which are biporous and undulating, is a narrow granu- lated band : these are considered by Leske as the less area?. Petrified specimens of this species have been frequently figured and described. These are, the ovi anguini of Pliny, and the brontix. of Agri- cola. They are also figured by Plot, Hist, of Oxfordshire, Tab. v. Fig. 3, 4; and copied by Lister, lap. turb. Fig. 22 and 25. Lhwydd, Tab. 12, Fig. 910, has depicted a fragment; and Morton, two complete speci- mens, Hist, of Noi'thumberland, T. 10, /. 3, 5. Representations also, of this species, are seen in most of the works of the foreign oryctologists. In the figures given by Drs. Plot, and Lister, considerable difference is.. 13 observable. The form of the one is rather orbicular and depressed, and of the other somewhat conoidal : in the one are no papillae, whilst in the other they are well preserved. Leske, who has remarked the difference very correctly, explains it, in part, by considering the latter as a silicious cast : a circumstance which fully accounts for the absence of the papillae; but the difference of their form remains unaccounted for. An exami- nation, however, of the fossils figured Plate I. Fig. 9 and 11, will, I think, show that this difference is only to be explained, by supposing the two fossils to be of two distinct species, or at least varieties. In the echinite from Oxfordshire, of a globose form, Plate I. Fig. 9, the narrow strip of area, edged by the ambulacra, is formed by four rows of small and equal sized granular tubercles ; whilst in the other, Plate I. Fig. 11, from Kent, these areolae are wider; and, except towards their superior and inferior extremities, are composed of six rows of granular tubercles, which are large in the external rows, and dimi- nish as they approach the centre. Its papillae, though perforated in the apex, are not crenulated at the base. The much greater space of granulcited area between the papillae, and the conoidal form of the shell, also help to constitute a difference so great, as to lead to the opinion, that it should be considered as a distinct species. If this should be admitted, the species might be distinguished as cidaris papillata conoidea. The echinite from Wiltshire, Plate I. Fig. 6, beautiful from its origi- nal formation, and estimable as a fossil, from its state of preservation being such, that even somewhat of the original colour of the shell is still to be perceived, partakes so much of the characters of C. mammillata and papillata, as to render it difficult to determine with which it should be arranged. Like the former, its less areae equal half the width of the larger, both being ornamented with papillae of a proportionate size; but, like the latter, its papillae are perforated in the apex, and crenulated at the base; and this is the case even with those papillae which are disposed' on the Less areae. The pores of the ambulacra, as in the former, dirni- 14 •nish in number as they ascend; and, as in the latter, are closely bordered by granular tubercles. It should perhaps be considered as a variation of C. papillata. Of Cidarites coronalis it is impossible to speak with decision, the spe- cimens have been so rare and the descriptions so meagre. C. corollaris, Plate I. Fig. 7, specimens of which have been so generally spoken of among the early oryctologists, as ombria and ceraunia, is evidently, as is very justly remarked by Leske, merely a silicious nucleus. These nuclei vary in the figures and markings : they are all, however, rather orbi- cular ; but some are much more depressed than others. But their dif- ferences are not such as can at all oppose the opinion, that they are casts of different species of C. miliaris or variolata. The large protuberance in the middle of each side, is evidently formed by the excess of silicious matter, beyond that which was necessary to fill the shell. With equal accuracy does Leske suggest, that the assumed genus of Klein, of C. asterizans, does not merit the being considered as even a distinct species: and 1 am happy in being able, I conceive, to point out the genus, at least, to which this fossil may be referred; which seems to be that of C. variolata. In the remarkably perfect specimen of a variation of C. papillata, Plate I. Fig. 6, a view is obtained of the verrucous appendage, which, in perfect specimens, is frequently found surrounding the superior open- ing of the anocysti : of the use of which appendage, notwithstanding the conjectures of Klein, it must be admitted that nothing is known. A reference to this peculiar organization, it is hoped, will assist in explain- ing the riddle which Walch and Leske, with M. Genzmer, have found so puzzling. In Knorr's splendid work, Supp. x. a. Fig. 3, 4, is repre- sented a fossil with its cast, which M. Walch considers, with M. Genz- mer, as an echinus totally different from any with which we are acquainted. There are in this fossil no tubercles, ambulacra, nor sutures, as in other echini; but its surface is nearly covered with a kind of tre- lisse work, formed by lines passing in almost every direction, so as to 15 form figures bearing somewhat of a stellated appearance. A slight sketch, showing the form of the surface of this fossil, as given by Walch, is shown Plate I. Fig. 14. Plate I. Fig. 12, is an echinite found in the green silicious sand, so frequent in several parts of Wiltshire. The figure here given is mag- nified to about twice the size of the fossil. Round the superior opening of this echinite may be seen a remarkable extension of the appendage above mentioned; formed chiefly in roundish plates, connected toge- ther by numerous short filaments, and reaching over nearly a third part of the surface. In another specimen, these plates are hexagonal, and exactly fitted to each other. Plate I. Fig. 13, is another echinite from the same part, which is particularly interesting, from its appearing to be highly illustrative of the fossils above mentioned. The anal append- age is here seen, with a trelissed surface, almost exactly similar to that of M. Walch's fossil, and extending so low down, as to cover nearly one half of the echinite. If, indeed, this surface had extended over the whole echinite, it would have very closely resembled M. Walch's fossil, and have yielded us no further information: but sufficient of the inferior part of the surface of the echinite is left uncovered, to allow us to discover, that it has all the characters of a beautiful variation of the C. diadema. Still, however, we are without any positive information as to the nature and office of this part, which is so singularly organised. It is on future specimens, and on further observations on the living animal, , that we must depend for information on this subject. Whether this is a , permanent appendage or not; whether it belongs to particular species only ; or whether it is a part essential to the animal of each species, . serving to model the increasing shell, or to perform some other im,- portant service ; are questions which must be answered by some future investigator. The genus C. assulata* of Klein, is undoubtedly unfounded^ since the distinction, which is derived from a distinct view of the assuiae, or plates, , 16 composing the shell, and of the sutures by which these are connected, depending merely on the thickness with which the tubercula are dis- posed, and on the bowldered state of the shell, cannot be regarded as even a specific distinction. Of the several species placed by Klein under this assumed genus, none have been noticed as fossils, except C. Sardiaca, Klein, Tab. ix. A. B. by Scilla, Tab. xvi. Fig. 1, and Tab. xxvi. Fig. B. ; C. Botryoides, Klein. Tab. xi. H. by Aldrovandus, Mus. Metal, p. 457 ; and C. Toreumatica, Klein. Tab. x. D. E. by Leske, Tab. XLIV. Fig. 2. I cannot introduce the necessary notice of the Echinites favagmeus in any better place, I presume, than this. The echinites thus named bear on their surfaces hexagonal cavities, which give to the fossil somewhat of the appearance of a honeycomb. These fossils have been noticed by Encelius, Wormius, Olearius, Oliger, Jacoba3us, and others; but with- out any rational conjecture having been offered as -to their nature and origin, until the attention of M. Walch was attracted by a very beau- tiful specimen, and his ingenuity was exercised in its examination, Mo- numens des Catastrophes, Tome II. Sect. 1, p. 155. This fossil he describes as a crystallized cast of an echinite, composed of hexagonal cells, resem- bling those formed by the bee. These cells, he observes, agree exactly in their margins with the shape of the plates of the echinus, with which they also agree in their general form ; and hence he infers, that the su- tures, by which the plates were connected, had influenced the formation of these hexagonal cells. In answer to the inquiry, in what mode is this influence exerted, M. Walch remarks, that the cavity of the shell being filled by any crys- tallizing fluid, the first formation of crystals would be, that which would fill up the small spaces existing at the articulation of the plates ; and thus would be formed the bases, or margins, of these hexagonal co- nical cells. These being formed, he thinks, on the principle that homogeneous particles are most likely to unite, that the successive ap- proximation of crystallizing particles will take place on these hexagonal 17 crystallized margins, rather than on the intervening spaces of the shell itself; and that, by the gradual approximation of the lines of crystals they formed, have resulted the conical cavities described. A specimen which I possess, being the internal part of an echinite from the Kentish chalk-pits, will serve very much to illustrate and con- firm the observations of M. Walch. The crystallizations of calcareous spar are here seen formed on the internal surface of the plates, the basis of the crystals being the margins of the plates. In the silicious nucleus of M. VValch, the crystals had formed an hexagonal cavity ; but, in this calcareous mass, the crystals are solid : a difference which might pro- ceed from the silicious crystals, in the former case, having been formed on the calcareous crystals, which, being afterwards removed, would necessarily leave the inferior part of the silicious crystals' hollow. Small specimens of cidares, in a pyritous state, are sometimes found, with other fossils, in the Isle of Portland. Very minute shells of this kind are also found in the Devonshire whetstone, in the state of cal- cedony : they are also found in a silicious state in the green sand of Wiltshire. The echini of the second section, or division, of anocycysti, are distin- guished as Clypei, from their similitude in form to the round bucklers of the foot-soldiers of the ancients. The first species of these is, Clypeus sinuatus, Lesk. the Echinus sinuatus, Linn. Plate II. Fig. I. The upper surface is convex, and divided into ten areae by ten striated ambulacra. One of the areae is also divided by a groove, hollowed out from the cen- tre of the shell to the margin. The ambulacra, at parting frotn the centre of the shell, expand, but contract at the margin, and thus con- tinue to where they meet in the centre of the lower part of the shell, which is rather excavated and grooved where the ambulacra pass. The whole of the surface c-f the shell is thickly beset with granular tuber- cula, the largest of which are surrounded by small circular risings. This species is figured by Plott, Tab. u. 9, 10, and is found chiefly at Tang- ley, Fulbrook, and Burford, in Oxfordshire : they are also found in VOL. III. D 18 Gloucestershire. Plott's engraving is copied by Lister ; and Lhwydd, n. 971, as well as Morton, p. 233, both describe this fossil. It is of this fossil that Dr. Plott informs us, Hist, of Oxfordshire, p. 91, that the centre of these rays being never placed on the top of the stone, but always inclining to one side, as that at the bottom does to the other, the axis lying obliquely to the horizon of the stone, gave occasion to a learned society of virtuosi, that during the late usurpation lived obscurely at Tangley, by consent, to term it the polar stone ; since, by clap- ping two of them together, they made up a globe, with meridians descending to the horizon, and the pole elevated, very nearly corre- sponding to the real elevation of the pole of the place where the stones are found. The Cl. hemisphtfricus, Lesk. Tab. XLIII. Fig. i. taken from Lang. p. 119, does not appear to belong to this section; even Cl. quinquela- biatus, Lesk. Tab. XLI, Fig. 3, taken from Walch, PI. E. in. Fig. 4, is in such a state as will hardly allow of determining its real species. CL Conoideus, Lesk. Tab. XLIII. Fig. 3, appears to be a rare petrifaction, and but little known. It seems, however, to agree in every respect with Echinus magnus, Aldrov. Mus. Met. p. 456. 19 LETTER III. CATOCYSTI, DIVIDED INTO FIBULAE, CASSIDES, SCUTA, AND PLA- CENTk FIBULA, SUBDIVIDED INTO CONULI AND DISCOIDES CASSIS, SUBDIVIDED INTO GALEJE AND GALEOL^, INCLUDED IN ECHINOCORYS SCUTUM, ECHINANTHUS PLACENTA, ECHI- NODISCUS ECHINOCYAMUS-. W E now arrive at the second grand division, or family, of Echini, CATOCYSTI, the opening for the vent of which is in some part of the base of the shell. The first section under which these are arranged by Klein is that of Fibula, a name which is generally adopted ; although the echini it includes bear no resemblance to fibulae, but rather to clothes'-buttons, to which the word is now made to apply. These echini are divided into two genera. The first, conulus, contains those which rise from a circular base into a cone, with an acute or obtuse ver- tex, from which five pair of punctated or crenulated lines, or ambulacra, pass, dividing the shell into five large and five small areae, that in which the anus is placed being Tather the largest." By some oryctologists these have been termed Bufonita and Scolopendrita, and by others, Pilei ; and by the English Capstones. The species which constitute this genus are only known as fossils, and are so variously distinguished by the modification of their forms, and by other little circumstances, as to render their varieties too numerous to admit of being specified. Conulus albogalerus, Lesk. E. albogalews, Linn, deriving its name from the white conical caps of the priests of Jove, is the first species of this 20 genus. This species is in the shape of a pointed five-sided cone, in the vertex of which are five small foramina, from which proceed five small arese, hordered on each side by bi porous ambulacra ; the remaining space being filled by five larger areae. The mouth is small, somewhat retracted; and the anus sometimes inclining to oval. This species is figured and described by most oryctologists, in consequence of the fre- quency with which it is found. But it exists nowhere, perhaps, in greater number, than in. England ; particularly, according to Dr. Plott, in the southern counties, where the black flint most abounds. Plate II. Fig. 10, is a fossil of this species, from the Kentish chaik-pits ; and Fig. 11 is a representation of its under part. Leske refers the Echiniten pileatum, ore pentagono of Melle, Tab. i. Fig. 2, to this genus, considering it as its second species, which he distinguishes as Echinites depressus. The Globulus of Klein, Tab. xiu. Fig. c — k, and Tab. xiv. Fig. a — k, is denominated Echinites vulgaris by Leske, and considered as the third species. These fossils are in general not more than half the size of Conulus albogalerus ; and, like it, are divided into five large and five small arese, by ten ambulacra. In general, these fossils are merely casts, and do not retain sufficient distinctive characters to allow of their subdivision, even into varieties. These fossils, like the former, are described by almost every oryctologist, and are very fre- quently found in the gravel of different parts of England : they are the chelonites of Mercatus, and the brontitt and ombria of many authors. Plate II. Fig. 3, is a fossil of this species from Sussex. Two other spe- cies of this genus are mentioned by authors, varying in the number of their ambulacra : these are, however, of very rare occurrence. One of these species has only four fascia or areolae, and is named Echinites qua- terfasdatus. This is figured by Leske, Tab. xi/vn. Fig. 3, 4, 5. It is also figured by Walch and Gehler. The other species, Echinites sexies- fasciatus, has six bands. This species has been figured by Klein, Act Ge- dan. ii. Tab. v. Fig. 14 and 15, as well as by the authors just mentioned. The second genus of this section is Discoides, the only species of 21 which is subuculus, and is only known as a fossil. The surface of this is divided in the same way as the former species. The periphery is cir- cular. The vertex is much more depressed, and the base rather more concave. One of this species is represented Plate II. Fig. 7. Another genus is here introduced by Phelsum, and named by him Echinoneus. It agrees, in every respect, with E. Discoides of Linnaeus, except in its periphery, which is rather ovate, and not angular. It has the same number of areas and ambulacra; the latter being biporous, and having the pores more distant from each other than in the preceding genus. The second section of the class of CATOCYSTI is Cassis (helmet-stone.) These echinites are distinguished by an oval base, from which the shell rises in a vaulted helmet-like form. One extremity of the oval, that in which the vent is placed, is commonly more produced and acute than the other. Klein divided these echinites according to their size, into two genera, galea and galeolte ; but Leske, considering the difference of size as not sufficient to affect the genus, has very properly included them both under the genus echinocorys. As the echini of this extensive genus are only found fossil, the changes which they have sustained' from various kinds of injuries, prevent, in many instances, their species being exactly determined. The first species, .Ecliinocorys 'scutatus, Tab. xv. A. B. Kldnii, is in general as high as it is long. It has, like most others, five large and five small arese, separated by biporous ambulacra. Minute tubercula and granulse exist on some parts of the surface, and particularly on the base and near to the mouth. The base, the circumference of which is nearly elliptical, is almost flat : the edge, however, is slightly rounded ; and, in its middle, a prominent slip extends from the mouth to the anus, near to which, on each side, two bands of minute granulae are disposed. The mouth is reniform, placed crossways, at the broadest extremity. The anus is of a roundish oval figure, and is near to the narrow extre- mity. The spine, which gives name to the species, runs down from the vertex and along the narrower end, and becomes attached to the higher edge of the anus. Plate II. Fig. 4, is a species from the Kentish chalk-pits. E. ovatus, Lesk. Galea wagrica, vert ice ?mda, Klein, differs from the former species in being more depressed in its circumference, being of a rounder oval ; and in being without the -crest- like ridge which runs along the back of the other species. Another species, Echinocorytes quaterradia- tus, has been formed from an echinite figured and described by Melle, Tab. i.' Fig. 7 : but I suspect the absence of the fifth ray has pro- ceeded from the omission of the engraver, since, in the remarks on this fossil which are made by Melle, at some length, this remarkable cha- racter is not noticed. Among the smaller echinocorytes, most of which are mere nuclei, certain particulars are observable, which, though hardly sufficient to distinguish them as varieties, still deserve notice. A variety is marked by Leske, Tab. xvi. c. D. Klein, Galeolapapillosa; in which, as he observes, the papillae evidently result from the silicious matter which filled the foramina of the shell still continuing, whilst the shell which surrounded them is re- moved. Another, Tab. xvn. a. b. Klein, is named G. undosa, from the waving lines on its surface, formed by the silicious matter having insi- nuated itself between the edges of the plates forming the shell. Part of a remarkable cast of a galeated echinite is shown Plate II. Fig. 9, said to be from France. Although this fossil is hollow, and retains such strong markings of the shell, it can still be only considered as a cast. Its substance appears to be pyrites of iron, which has suf- fered some decomposition, and has been since frosted over with minute quartz crystals. Its matrix appears to have been chalk, some of this substance being yet adherent to it on several parts. Its formation appears to have taken place, by the shell becoming imperfectly invested, both on the in and the outer side, with the pyrites, which then obtained a par- 23 tial covering of drusy quartz ; the acid resulting from the decomposition of the pyrites subsequently removing the shell, the impressions, which are plainly discernible, showing the forms of the plates of the shell, and the sutures by which they were joined. That the quartzy incrustation took place previous to the removal of the shell, is shown by the spaces which the shell has left being entirely free from crystals. The third section of the class of CATOCYSTI is named Scutum by Klein, and Echinanthus by Leske and Phelsum. The shells comprised under this section are of an irregular figure, resembling an oblong or angular buckler. On the base, which is concave, five grooves pass from the margin, and terminate at the mouth in the centre. The upper part is ornamented with five rays, which have been supposed by some to resemble a pentaphylous flower, and by others a five-rayed star. The mouth, which is pentagonal, is furnished with five teeth of an alated form and a plumose appearance, and is placed in the centre of the base, the anus being at the margin. The whole of the surface is beset with minute circular depressions, with central tubercles. One genus, Echinanthus, Lesk. comprises all the shells of this section. The first species, Scutum humile, Klein. Tab. xvu. a. -xvin. b. Echinan- thus humilis, Lesk. is rather of an oval form, and is divided into ten area* by five biporous, pentaphyloideal ambulacra, the five smaller areae being comprised in the pentaphyloid surface formed by the ambulacra, and having grooves pass across them, and connecting the immediately opposite pores. Specimens of this species, in a mineralized state, are represented by Aldrovandus, Met. MILS. p. 499, /. I : Scilla, Tab. x. f. 2, 3; Tab. xi. No. 2 : Walch, T. E. V. f. 1, 2. This species is chiefly found in a petrified state in Malta and in Occitania . Dr. Shaw figures a fossil of this species found in the desert Marah, Voyage to Barbary, Sfc. Fig. 40, /;. 128, app. As this fossil may thus be seen figured, in its complete state, in the works of these authors ; and as its cast is a more uncommon fossil, and 24 will also serve to convey a satisfactory idea of the general form of this species, a small specimen of a perfect cast is represented Plate II. Fig. 8, from Malta. Scutum altum, vcl Echinanthus altus, has only yet been met with in a petri- fied state. It differs from the former species in heing higher, and having wider ambulacra. Figures of it have been given by Scilla, t. ix. /. 1,2; Bonan. Nat. Hist. t. xxxvi. /. 1 ; by Mercatus, Met. Mm. p. 233 ; and by Leske, Tab. LIU. 4. A specimen of this fossil, which I possess, may, I think, be considered as a variety from those which have been figured by the above authors. Although equally high, its sides rise not so sud- denly, but more obliquely, to the vertex ; forming, therefore, a more acute angle with the base. I obtained, at the sale of the Leverian Mu- seum, a complete specimen, being the nucleus of the echinite of the above authors : it serves to give a correct notion of the structure, as well as of the form of this echinite. PI. IV. Fig. 7. Scutum ovatum, vel Echinanthus ova/us. The fossils comprised under this species of Leske, differ so considerably in form from the preceding, as seems fully to authorize their separation into two genera. The difference which is discoverable between different specimens of the oval scuta appear, also, to be such, as would fully warrant the separating of them, with Klein, into species, instead of into varieties, as has been done by Leske. Fossils of this form are figured by Aldrovandus, Mus. Met. p. 498, /. 1, 2; Mercatus, Mus. Metal, p. 232; Rumphius, D* Amboiiische Rar. R. LIX. /. D. ; and others. The one which is here represented, from Verona, Plate II. Fig. 5, is interesting on account of the distortion of its figure, and particularly of one of its rays. Leske regards as a doubtful species, Echinanthites orbicular is, since the specimen from which he forms his species, and which is taken from one of Knorr's plates, Monumens des Catastrophes, T. u. Tab. E. in. Fig. 3, is too imperfect to give a correct knowledge of its characters. The fossil, Plate II. Fig. 2, is, I believe, of this species, and has hardly 25 suffered the least injury. It formed a part of Mr. Forster's collection; and is, I conjecture, from Oxfordshire. It needs no other notice of its form, than that it is nearly circular, deviating only in having that part of the shell, which is the region of the anus, a little more produced. It not having been thought necessary to figure the inferior surface, it is proper to observe, that it is slightly concave, the mouth being pentagonal, and the vent oval and transverse, and situated near the margin ; but more on the under side, than it appears in the figure. The echini of the fourth section, CATOCYSTI, are named Placenta, by Klein, the shells being flat, like a cake, and variously formed. They are all ornamented with a pentaphylloidal flower. The mouth is in the mid- dle of the base, and the anus near to the margin, or to the third region of the axis. This section is divided by Klein into thfee genera, mellita, laganum, and rotula, which are comprised by Leske in the genus Echi- nodiscus, so named by Breynius. The characters of this genus are, a depressed, discoidal figure, nearly flat on both sides; ambulacra imi- tating the forms of petals ; a smooth central mouth with teeth ; the top perforated with four large pores. The Melita, honey-cake of Klein, forms the first family of this genus. The species differ in the number of foramina, the situation and the form of the periphery. Echinodiscus bisperforatus, E. quinquiesperforatus, E. sexiesperforatus, E. emarginatus, E. auritus, E. inauritus, E. quaterperforatus, do not appear to have been hitherto known in a petrified state. The fossil which is represented Plate II. Fig. 6, is the only fossil which I have seen of this family, and is undoubtedly one of the first species, Echinodiscus bisperfo- ratus, as will appear, on a comparison with Klein's figure of the recent shell, Tab. xxi. A. B. and with Leske's description of that part, which is here in best preservation. " Ambulacra petalorum ovatorum figuram sistunt, atque singula ex serie simplici punctorum interiore, et striarum obliquarum, testam penetrantium, non tamen puncta interiora prorsus attingentiam, componuntur : in apice ambulacrorum puncta non con- VOL. III. E 26 junguntur, sed spatium intermedium relinquunt. Additamenta ad Klei- nii dispositionem Echinodermatum." P. 196. This fossil, which was in the collection of Lord Bute, is, I suspect, from Verona. The second family of this section is the Lagana of Klein. The species Echinodiscus Laganum, or pancake of Leske, includes, on ac- count of their similarity, the first and third species of Klein, and are exemplified in Klein's Plate xxn. a. b. c. The specimen which is here figured, Plate III. Fig. 10, may be considered perhaps as only a variety of this species. The shell is white, and of a form between the oval and pentagonal. The mouth is central, and an obtuse pentagon ; the anus is small and round, and nearly midway between the mouth and the margin. Five slightly hollowed lines, proceeding from the mouth, di- vide the under part of the shell into five nearly equal areas, by coin- ciding with the centre of the terminations of the ambulacra. These are ten, biporous and undulating; and form, on the upper surface, five pentaphyloidal figures, expanding at their extremities. This species is not noticed by Linnaeus. Echinodiscus subrotundus, Tab. XLVII. Fig. 7, Lesk.; Scilla, Tab. vm. Fig. 1 — 3. Leske, who had never seen this fossil, has copied his figure from that of Andrsea, in Lift. Helvet. Tab. v. Fig. g. But the figures of Scilla and of Andraea do not, as Leske supposes, agree. In that of Andrea the edge is acute, and somewhat undulating ; whereas, in that of Scilla, the margin is obtuse, and nearly circular. The fossil figured Plate III. Fig. 2, from Italy, agrees with the former, in its edge being undulating. This fossil is very nearly circular. Its upper surface is convex. The base is flat, with five narrow and slightly excavated grooves, extending in right lines, and at nearly equal distances, to the margin. The mouth is rather injured, so that its shape cannot be determined. The anus is small and round, and is placed at about a fifth of the diameter* from the margin, in an area which is rather smaller than the others. The ambu- lacra /appear to have borne the figures of oval petals; and are* each, 27 composed of a line formed of single pores, surrounded by three, four, five, or even six lines, of minuter pores, obliquely disposed in very small grooves. What figure resulted from their approximation in the centre cannot be determined, as the shell is in that part broken. On examining the surface of this fossil with a lens, it was found still to retain, in several parts, the small flat imbricating spines. These are represented in the sketch on the right side of the fossil. Echinodiscus reticulatus is not known fossil. E. Orbicularis, Tab. XLV. Fig. 6, 7 ; Lang. Tab. xxxv. Fig. ulthn. ; is a depressed orbicular echi- nite, about an inch in diameter, with acute oval ambulacra, and ten porous rays in the base ; the mouth round and the anus small, and mid- way between the centre and the margin. E. Rosaceus, Tab. XL. 4, Lesk. et Tab. E, in. 8, Knorr. differs from the former, in being much smaller, and in its ambulacra forming a floweret, with very short petals, round the vertex. Echinodiscus decies digitatus, — octodigitatus et dentatus, do not ap- pear to be known as fossils. Under the class Catocystus a new genus has been formed, by Phel- sum, and named Echinocyamus. The generic characters are, ten stel- lated ambulacra, passing from the top in straight biporous rows'; the mouth and anus adjoining in the middle part of the base. The shells of this genus are not known in a petrified state. LETTER IV. PLEUROCYSTI, ECHINAR ACHNIUS COR MARINUM, SPATANGUS, AND ITS SPECIES. 1 HE third grand class of Echini is the Pleitrocysti, in which the vent of the animal is on some part of the side, or on the upper surface. The only genus of the first section, and which also contains but one species, is Arachnoides, Klein. Echinarachnius, Lesk. so named from its yielding, by its markings, the appearance of a spider's web. It is not known fossil. Of the second section, Cor marinum, or sea-heart, characterized by the bilabiated mouth being in the third region of the axis of the base, , and the anus in the side of the truncated extremity, the first genus is spatangm. In this genus, or, as he terms it, family, Leske, with Muller, includes spatangus, spatagoides, brissus, and brissoides, not considering the absence of the groove to be a generic distinction, and finding that the animals agree in their general construction, as well as in their having a bilabiated mouth, and being without teeth. The first family is formed of cor dated spatangi, with a sulcated vertex. The first species is, Spatangus, cor anguinum, Tab. xxiu. c. D. et Tab. xxm. C. Klein, cor anguinum Anglicum. Plate III. Fig. 11, is a variety of this species. The characters of this shell are, its being cordated, and more or less oblong ; the base, in some, flat, and in others rather convex ; being beset, in this part, with miliary, and, in the superior, with fewer and smaller granulae. The back is convex, and divided into five areae, by as many grooved 29 ambulacra, formed by four rows of pores, connected by transverse lines, each two rows, uniting at the end of thegrooves. Two of the ambu- lacra, the shortest, are directed obliquely towards the narrow truncated extremity ; two others, longer, pass obliquely towards the broader end ; and the fifth passes straight to the mouth, forming the dorsal groove. Along the middle of the opposite part, a keeled edge passes directly to the anus. The vertex is perforated by four large pores. The mouth is reniform ; the upper lip triangular, and extended over the lower. The anus is round, and placed in the upper margin of the acute extremity. From the anus, a slight depression passes to the lower margin ; at each of the angles of which is a protuberance, surrounded by a broad smooth surface. Specimens of this species are found in many parts of Europe, but particularly in Germany and in England. They are the most frequent fossils in the chalk-pits of Kent and Essex, and are frequently found filled with flint. These are the Echinites cordati vulgares of Lhwydd, Lithoph. Fig. 964—967. Two more varieties are noticed by Leske : the one, sulcis crispis, does not, in the figures referred to, appear to possess this particular charac- ter; and the other, norvagicum, Tab. xxm. E. F. Klein, varies from the preceding, in being a little more oblong in its form. Spatangus lacunosus, Tab. xxui. A. B. Tab. xxiv. a. b. and Tab. xxvu. A. Klein. This fossil, which has indubitable claims as a distinct species, is of an oval form; its upper surface gibbous, and its under rather con- vex. At the vertex are two, or, according to Muller, four puncta. From the vertex immediately proceed four deeply sulcated obtuse am- bulacra, with angular margins: within the grooves are four rows of pores, connected by transverse lines. The two posterior ambulacra, directed towards the narrower part of the shell, are shortest, being sometimes merely two deepish fossulse : between the two anterior am- bulacra is disposed another deep groove, which is also beset with striae 30 and puncta. On each side of the shell, are several gradually rising pro- minences ; from which pass, in different directions, several intercurrent lines, on which minute granular tubercles are very thinly disposed ; whilst the general surface is covered with tubercles of rather a larger size. The mouth is small, and nearly round, according to Leske : its situation is, however, not pointed out, nor am I able to point out its situation in either of the three specimens which I possess. The anus is round, and placed in the upper margin of the narrower, and apparently truncated termination of the shell. From some peculiarity of structure of this shell, the specimens are almost always distorted. Such is the case with all the specimens which I have seen, and with most of the representations of them. The recent shell is figured with its spines, in the sixth volume of Encyclopedic Fran- fois, PL LIX. Fig. 4. The fossil is mentioned and figured by many authors, but none of the figures appear to exceed those of Scilla. The specimen figured in the present work, Plate III. Fig. 12, is from Malta. Spatangus pusillus, Tab. xxiv. c. d. e. Klein, et Tab. xxxvin. Fig. 5, chiefly distinguished by a deep dorsal groove, has not, I conjecture, been yet discovered fossil. Spatangus radiatus. This species is only found in a fossil state. The shell is of an ovate circumference, and of a vaulted galeated form. The vertex is pierced with four foramina, 'where four transversely striated and biporous ambulacra arise. Two of these pass nearly half way down the shell, obliquely directed on each side of the posterior part : a dorsal lacuna also, in which are two double rows of pores, ori- ginates from the vertex, and, passing down the anterior part of the shell, is extended to the mouth. The shell is formed chiefly of penta- gonal assulae. The mouth, which is situated in an oblong pit, in the broader and anterior part of the base, is reniform, and beset with pores and tubercula, disposed in somewhat of a stellular form. The anus, which is nearly round, is placed in a pit at the posterior part, close 31 above the margin. The shell is remarkably firm and thick ; and its colour, as well as that of the calcareous matter with which it is filled, is a light yellow. It is figured by Walch, Tab. E. iv. No. 1 and 2 ; by Klein, Tab. xxv. ; and by Faujas St. Fond, Histoire Naturelle de la Mon- tagne de St. Pierre, PI. xxix. , A faithful representation of this fossil is given Plate III, Fig. 4 and 5. This fossil has been sometimes termed Spatangns Mosa, from the circum- stance of the Meuse laving the hills at the foot of St. Peter's mountain, where it is found. Spatangus purpurais, Tab. XLIII. 3, 4, 5, Tab. XLV. 5, Lesk. The recent shell, as figured by Leske, Tab. XLIII. 3, 4, 5, Tab. XLV. 5, but particularly in the latter plate, which represents the back of the shell, appears to agree exactly with the fossil which I have represented Plate III. Fig. 9, which I purchased from Mr. Forster's collection, and which I believe to be a Maltese fossil. This fossil is of a subangular cordated ovate shape. Four large pores, 4 near to each other, form, as it were, the centre in the vertex, which is rather flat ; and at which four ambulacra, and a deep and wide dorsal groove, concentre. Each of the four ambulacra is of a lanceolate petalloidal figure, formed by two bending bands of a double row of oblong pores, each pair of which is connected by an oblique furrow. The small spaces, or areae, contained within the ambulacra, appear to have been beset with very minute pores and tubercula ; and a serrated line, passing through their centre, connects two rows of* hexagonal assulge. The remaining part of the superior surface is divided into five large areae. In the anterior part is the dorsal groove, wide, rounded, and deep, passing from the base to the vertex, forming a semicircular notch in the margin, and narrowing as it rises. On each side of the dorsal groove is a raised triangular flat surface, bordered by two tuberous ridges, which, rising from the vertex, proceed downwards ; the tubera €nlarging, to the margin, and slight transverse risings connecting the opposite tubercles. Similar raised surfaces descend through each of the 32 other areae ; and similar transverse risings are observable over the whole upper surface. The flat raised surface, on the posterior part, is raised much above the rest. On this surface, ten sets of tubercles, lessening as they approach the margin of the area, are obliquely disposed, in two rows. On the two lateral raised surfaces, a like number of sets of tubercles are disposed, so as nearly to form angles along the central line. The rest of the surface appears to have been beset with numerous small tubercles ; the larger of which, being connected at rather acute angles, with the tubercles of the raised surfaces, form undulating lines, giving, in many places, the figure of the letter W. From the ridges above mentioned proceed the angles observable in the circumference of the fossil ; and from the transverse risings, the surface of the shell is formed, as it were, into numerous facets. This description of the recent echi- nus will be found to apply very nearly to the fossil here represented : the difference being only that which proceeds from the injurious changes which the fossil has sustained. The inferior surface of the fossil is nearly destroyed ; but from Leske's account, we learn, that it very nearly resembles that of Spat, pusillus, and Spat, striato-radiaius. The mouth is oval and transvere ; the upper lip not covering, nor much projecting over, the under lip. In the superior margin of the narrow end is the transverse oval anus; and, in the infe- rior margin, is a renifbrm area. Similar specimens are, I believe, rare. It has, however, been figured by Aldrovandus, Mus. Met. p. 475; Scilla, Tab. xi. Fig. 1; and by Allion, the editor of the French edition of Klein, and of the French Encyclopedia. Spatangus depresms, Tab. LI. Fig. 1, 2, Lesk. Under this species are included those echinites which are of a flattened upper surface, of a subrotund and cordated figure, proceeding from a dorsal groove, and having five pair of ambulacral bi porous rows : one pair, in some varie- ties, passing along the dorsal groove. The mouth is transversely placed in the centre of the base, and the anus in the middle part of the nar- rower and higher extremity. This species is only known as a fossil ; in which state the granular surface is generally removed. Spatangites subglobosus, Tab. LIV. Fig. 2, 3. This shell is cordated, and on each side, convex and subglobose; with ten striated and bipo- rous ambulacra. Leske adds to these the following characters : — Four pores, in the angles of a trapezium on the vertex ; also, in the apex, where the two pores unite, a little pit is impressed. The two neighbouring ambulacra form triangles, the bases of which are in the periphery, and their apices in the vertex. Two rows of pores in the dorsal lacuna reach to the mouth ; and, from the vertex to the anus, a prominent ridge proceeds. Each area is divided by a serrated longi- tudinal suture, and is divided into assulae by transverse lines, slightly arched : the assulae of the larger areae are heptagonal, and those of the less arese are alternately heptagonal and pentagonal. The circumference of the middle of the base is granulated ; but the superior surface is gene- rally so worn, as to show only the traces of the granulae : two fas- ciae, free from granulae, extend from the angles of the mouth towards the anus. The mouth, which is subreniforrn, is near to the grooved margin, and is surrounded by tubercles, disposed in a stellular form. The anus is near to the superior margin of the narrower and undivided extremity. */ This description is given more fully, since the figures given by Leske do not accord with that of Lister, to which he refers. The figure given by Walch, Tab. E. iv. Fig. 3, 4, agrees exactly with that of Leske. Spatangites ananchytis, Tab. LIU. Fig. 1, 2, Lesk. differs from the pre- ceding, chiefly in its upper part being more conical, its base more flat, and its periphery more oblong. The figure given by Leske, is, from a silicious nucleus ; and the only specimen of this fossil, which I possess, is a spathose nucleus. Ananchytis, sen Synochitis, of Mercatus, p. 316, and App. 89, ap- pears to approach much nearer to the form of Spatangites globosus, than to that of this fossil. ' VOL. III. ' F 34 Spatangites bicordatus, Tab. XLVII. .F^. 6, Lesk. In this fossil, which is but rarely met with, there exist, connected by a linear carinated ridge, two vertices, in which the ambulacra terminate. Both ends, thus becoming sulcated, the echinite is said to be bicordated. Spatangites carinatus, Tab. LI. Fig. 2, 3, Led-. This Spatangite, like the former, has a linear carinated ridge, connecting two vertices ; but, unlike the former, the narrow anal termination is not sulcated. It is also figured by Baier, Oryct. Noric. Tab. in. /. 43. The third family of this genus is considered by Leske as composed of those echini which form the genus Brissus*, of Klein : the chief cha- racters of which are : the back not grooved but striated ; four deep cre- nated and perforated sulci, as ambulacra ; the base tumid ; the anus and mouth patulous, and the latter bilabiated. None of the varieties of Spa- tangus brissus, into which, according to Leske, they all resolve, appear to be known in a mineralized state. The genus brissoides, of Klein, is adopted by Leske as the fourth family of Spatangi. The shells of this family, like the brissi, are ovate, and the back striated, but not lacunated ; the rays are flat. Spatangus brissoides, Tab. xxvn. B. Klein, is ovate, oblong, subcord- ated; with four petaloidal, lanceolated ambulacra, with two rows of pores, connected by transverse striae ; large tubercles existing between the ambulacra ; the rest of the surface being covered by granulated risings. The mouth subrotund and renifbrm, surrounded by pores disposed in the form of a pentagonal star ; the middle of the base raised and tuber- culated. Spatangus ovatus, Tab. XLIX. Fig. 12, 13, Lesk. differs from the for- mer, chiefly in being more convex ; but this species does not appear to be known fossil. Spatangites ovalis, Tab. XLI. Fig. 5, Lesk. copied from Walch, Tab. * Brissus. This word, fyiccras, is applied by Aristotle, and after him by Athenaeus, to certain genera of echini. The name Brittus is also elsewhere applied to them. Afyvros is the designation, then, of a genus of echini, corrupted from ufyuroi, i. e. non commcsu apti. E. in. Fig. (), is particularly interesting, in consequence of two of the ambulacra, proceeding from two points, at nearly half an inch distance from each other. The bands formed by three pair arise at the vertex of the shell, the middle one passing straight, and the lateral ones obliquely, to the region of the mouth ; whilst the two posterior pair proceed from a point of the shell just above the anus, and pass round the margin on each side of the anus. The specimen, figured Plate III. Fig. 3, dif- fers from that of Leske and Walch in being larger, and not having its parts so distinctly visible, as to be able to determine the form of the assulae ; which, in the otherwise very correct description of this fossil by M. d'Anhpne, are said to be quadrilateral, whilst in the figure they are depicted pentagonal. Three species appear to exist in a fossil state, in which the ambulacra do not arise from the same point in the vertex of the shell. The specimen figured Plate III. Fig. 8, is evidently of the family bris- soides, and might be named Spatangites brissoides Avails. The form is oval; the base concave, and rounded at its margin: in the centre, where the mouth, which is oval, is placed, the ten biporous ambulacra terminate separately : the back is convex ; near the centre of which are four foramina, and the superior lanceolated terminations of each pair of ambulacra : the anus, large and pyriform, is placed on the back, just above the margi n . The following species deserve, perhaps, as is ^observed by Leske, to be considered as forming a distinct genus, which might be placed be- tween echinanthus and spatangus. Echinitcs pyriformis, Tab. LI. Fig, 5, 6, and Tab. XLIV. Fig. 7, Lesk. The shell is ovate, gibbous, and rather acute at one end ; the base flat. On the back originate five porous, sub-petalous, ambulacral bands, which reach to the periphery : a carinated line ^divides the back of the shell, as it were, in two parts. In the middle of the base is the round^sub- pentagonal mouth, furnished with five prominent lips. Between each of the two prominent lips a double series of pores unite, forming a five- 36 rayed star round the mouth. The anus is round, and placed in the upper part of the acute extremity of the shell. One of these fossils, from St. Peter's mountain, is delineated Plate III. Fig. 6. Echinites lapis caneri. Tab. XLIX. Fig. 10, 11, Lesk. This name was given by Leske, from a supposed resemblance to the stones commonly called crabs'- eyes. The shell is obtusely oval ; in the vertex, which is excentrical, are four pores; and there meet five biporous, ovato-lan- ceolated, petalloidal ambulacra, divided at their points. The base is slightly excavated ; the month is in the centre, but nearer to the nar- row end ; the anus is oval, and raised on the broader end, in the upper part of a rounded groove. Plate III. Fig. 7, represents a specimen, which, I have reason to believe, is from Switzerland. Echinites patellaris, Tab. LIII. Fig. 5, 6, 7, Leske. This species, which is smaller than the preceding, is described as differing from all others, except as to the mouth and anus, which agree in their situation with those of the two last species. The difference appears chiefly to consist in the shell being considerably depressed, and the ambulacra being dis- posed in the form of a star. The shell is ovate in its periphery, the back is slightly convex, and the base gently hollowed. I do not know if the curious echinite, Plate iv. Fig. 10, from Verona, has been yet described. It is very flat, of a rude sub-cordate form, and possesses a finely-granulated surface, which seems to be so formed by the points to which the minute spines have adhered. I must however acknowledge that 1 have only been able to discover one aperture in this fossil, which is in its margin. 37 LETTER V. SPINES OF ECHINI ARRANGEMENT OF FOSSIL SPINES. IT so rarely happens, except in some particular situations, and under some uncommon circumstances, that the spines of the echinus continue long adherent, even to their recent shell, that it is not at all surprising, that instances of their being connected in fossil specimens are exceedingly rare. Soon after the death of the animal, unless it happens to have been placed under such circumstances as prevent the decomposition and resolution of those membraneous and muscular parts on which the con- nection depends, the spines become disengaged, and fall off from the shell. This circumstance, being considered, with that of the numerous chances of injury, after the death of the animal, and previous to the period of its becoming a subject of the mineral kingdom, it indeed ap- pears wonderful that any fossil specimens should exist, where the shell and the spines continue united. From the opportunities of seeing the shell and spines in connection, in a mineralized state, being so exceedingly infrequent, proceeds, in a great measure, the difficulty of succeeding in the attempt to ascertain the particular species to which the various fossil spines belong. To the labours of Klein, Phelsum, and Leske, I must be chiefly indebted for such information as I may be able to convey to you on this sub- ject. I shall however endeavour, as I proceed, to confirm their observa- tions, or correct their opinions, by occasional references to such speci- mens, in my own possession, as seem to determine the relationship between the particular species of spines and of echinal shells. The ACICUL^E capitata, in their respective varieties of forms and colours, are found chiefly belonging to the echini of the genus miUaris and variolata. Instances of their preservation, in a petrified state, have not been fre- quently mentioned. Two unconnected specimens are figured by Volk- mann, Siles. Subt. Tab. xxx. Fig. 17, 18 ; and it is this species of which Gesner speaks, de Petrificat. p. 36 d. as aculei, s. radioli leves, exquisite cuspidati. Two specimens are also figured by Miiller, Delic. Natur. Tab. p. i. Fig. 1, 5. But no instances are given, in any author, of their preservation in a fossil state, in connection with their shell. In the spe- cimen in chalk, Plate I. Fig. 10, one of these spines, ofasubulated form and striated surface, is seen in that situation, which gives full reason to suppose its relationship to the shell which it accompanies. The flint speci- men, Plate III. Fig. 1, is interesting, from its showing that E. saxatilis is provided with spines of a similar shape : in one part the spines are seen, with their articulating terminations, lying close to the points to which they belonged ; and in another, one of the spines is seen in the substance of the flint, still attached to the shell. In the remarkably fine specimen from Stunsfield, in Oxfordshire, Tab. I. Fig. 8, some little variation is observable with respect to the spines. Like the former, they are striated, subulated, and rather bent ; but they gradually, though very slightly, swell a little about their middle, and thence become somewhat fusiform. In the flint fossil, Plate I. Fig. 5, which was considered as one of the most valuable in the Leverian Museum, spines of this class are still seen adherent to the echinital crust, and imbedded and passing into the solid flint. These are subulated like the preceding, but are more straight. The echinite of this specimen appears to be of the variolated kind. In the interesting specimen of Cidaris papillata, from Calne, Plate IV. 39 Fig. 20, spines of the same class are fixed. But these appear to have been longer, and more of a cylindrical form than those above described. [n a fossil from Hertfordshire, in which an echinite, probably of the variolated kind, is involved in a mass of pyritous clay, innumerable subu- lated and capitated aciculae are seen piercing through and laying in the surface of the mass. The capillary aciculre are so small as to give but little chance of detect- ing them, mineralized, in an attached state ; and I know but of one instance in which they have been found petrified arid adherent. This has lately occurred in a mass of silicious cordated echinites from Devonshire, im- bedded in a matrix of chert. In this specimen, the capillary acicular spines are accumulated on the echinites, in prodigious numbers. The spines comprised in the class of SUDES are very numerous; but, for the reasons already related, the spines of this class, in the state of petrifac- tion, are very rarely found in attachment with their shell. The first genus of this class, Sudes villarum, Stakes, is divided into three species : 1. lavis; 2. nodosa ; 3. granulate and striata ; 4. torosa, Kc. Of the first of these species, I have not, to my recollection, seen a specimen ; the glass making some configurations appear on the surface of all which I have examined of this genus : nor have I seen any of the second spe- cies, simply knobbed, the lens generally showing striae also. Of the third species, granulated, there exist many varieties; among which, indeed, are several, apparently deserving of being considered as distinct species. Plate IV. Fig. 3, represents a cylindrical species, with denticulated rings, which is adherent to its shell, by which we discover that it belongs to one of the Cidarcs papillata. This spine is capitated ; and, if it were not in a slight degree tumid at its commencement, might be considered as completely cylindrical. It is surrounded by eight rows of denticulated granulae, the surface between which is minutely striated. In one specimen which I possess, these spines, very little superior, as to thickness, to those which are here represented, are full five inches and a half in length. 40 Of one variety of the torose, or knobbed sudes, a fragment is repre- sented Plate IV. Fig. 5 ; — and now take a view of Vol. I. Plate VL Fig. 29, where you will have one instance of the strange, and even absurd errors, to which we are liable in these pursuits. A specimen, not indeed so well defined, is there given as part of the branch of a tree. To mistake the spine of an echinus for the branch of a tree, you may say, is pretty well; but this is trifling— I will now confess to you, that in the same plate, we both narrowly escaped the misfortune of having part of the tusk of an elephant introduced as part of the stem of a tree. I mention these circumstances, to impress on your mind the great chance of error in these pursuits, from the obscurity of specimens and the simi- larity of appearances, in even most different bodies. But to return :— The fossil just mentioned, Plate IV. Fig. 5, is a very curious variety of this species, torosa, from Giengen, in Swabia, being the compressed ser- rated spine which is mentioned and figured by Andrea and Leske. At its inferior termination, part of its articulating head is yet to be seen. Thence it assumes a compressed triquetral form, beset both on its edges and faces with denticulated noduli. This is the Bacolo di santa Paulo of Scilla, Tab. xxiv. Fig. 2. Representations of fragments of knobbed spines are given in most writers on this subject. No fossil specimen of the genus Sudes fortalitiorum, pallisadoes, has, I believe, been yet known : I shall, therefore, be under the necessity of offering my observations on such fossils more at large, than the space, to which I find myself limited, has allowed rne to treat of the former species. The genus Sudes fortalitiorum, pallisadoes, is divided by Klein into two species, the plain and the variegated with bands. For an instance of the former, he refers us to Rumphius, Tab. xiu. D. D. D. ; and, of the latter, he gives figures of twenty-two varieties, de Aculeis echinorum, Tab. xxxiv. Of the spines of this genus, he observes, the substance of which they are formed is very different from that of which the spines of all the other genera are composed. Whilst all those belonging to the 41 class Acicula, and to the genus Sudes villarwn, are formed of a substance which has a spathose appearance, those belonging to the Sudes for talitio- rum, or palisadoes, are composed of a porous substance, in consequence of which they do not sink in water as those of every other genus do. Among the numerous riddles which the admirers of fossils have to solve, there has been hardly any one more involved in puzzle than the original nature of the belemnite. A considerable progress had, how- ever, been made in removing the mystery, when fresh difficulties started, in consequence of the peculiar appearances discovered in some fossils, which were sent to Klein by his friend Fischer, from Studtgard. These bodies, although of a dark colour and striated from the centre to the circumference, and generally considered to be belemnites, were, in the opinion of Klein, the spines of echini. Descriptiones TubuL Mann. p. viii. To this opinion he was led by their figure, their seeming spathose substance, and by their striae concentering in a line passing longitudinally through the centre of the body, in which no trace of a canal was observable. Led by the examination of these bodies, which bore a resemblance so strong both to belemnites and to the spines of echini, he formed these, as it will appear, just conclusions : — That all fossils, resembling belemnites in their substance and figure, are not to be referred to belemnites ; that all belemnites cannot be considered as spines of echini ; and that the sub- stances naturally constituting the belemnite and the aculeated, if not all the spines of the echinus, were such, as to be capable of under- going the same kind of change. The fossil figured by Lhwydd, Li- thoph. No. 1702, Tab. xxi. as Belemnites minor cinereus ari pistillum refe- rens; the shelled belemnite of Grew, Rarities of Gresham College, PI. 20; Belemnites sulcatus niger major, of Langius, Hist. Lap. Helv. Tab. xxxvu. Fig. 3 ; Utrinque perquam acuminatus of Baier, Oryct. None. Tab. i. Fig. 7 ; and others similar, he conceives, should be considered as spines of echini, and similar to those which he received from Studtgard : but those fossils which possess the conical cavity, the canalicula, and the VOL. Ill, O 42 alveola, he thinks, must still remain among the belemnites, Descript. Tub. Marin. p. 9, &c. How far he was led in his suspicions, respecting these bodies, may be inferred from the following remarks : — " Neque diffitebimur, probabi- lem esse conjecturam illorum haud levibus suffultam ratiociniis, qui belemnitas prussicas omnes, proprie lyncuriorum nomine insignitos, pro radiis animalium marinorum hactenus incognitorum reputant: quae animalia, si non ad classem echinorum pertinerent, proxime tamen ad echinos accederent; nee dessent rationes, quae difficultates a cavitati- bus conicis, rimis alveolisque petitas sufficienter removerent ; et quseso, quid turn amplius obstaret, quin omnes Belemnita, Radii, vel Echinorum vel similium animalium marinorum forent ! In praesenti propositi nostri non est, aliorum causam agere : nobis incumbit ut claviculis, quas laeves nuncupamus, patrocinemur, ita ut vix sufficiens ratio dissentientium appareat, ob quam illae a radiorum echinitorum familia removeantur, et Belemnitarum classe inscribantur." De AcuL Echin. p. 54. He then proceeds to show, that among the dactyliform bodies, assumed to be belemnites, there are some, one of the extremities of which would apply exactly on the papillary protuberance of an echinus; and quotes the authority of Rumphius for the fact of the pallisadoe-like spines, scattered on the sea-shore, passing into a spathose substance. It is with much pleasure that I find myself able, not only to confirm the observations made by Klein, but to point out the probable cir- cumstance on which the perplexing ambiguity with respect to these bodies has depended. It appears, that the original matter of the pali- sadoe-like echinal spine, and that of the belemnite, are both of such a nature, that on impregnation with a fluid holding carbonate of lime, in solution, they become a spathose substance, similar in colour and in form of crystallization : — a fact which, I trust, will be found to assist very much in making out the original nature of that curious sub- stance, the belemnite. 43 The echinital spines which are found in chalk, are known by the chalk-diggers by the names of files, and chalk bottles : by the former, are meant the striated and prolonged cucurmerine clavicula; and by the latter, those which are of an olive form. The belemnites have also, from early times, been distinguished by them as pencils. About two years since, among the chalk fossils which I had obtained from Kent, were several pencils ; and among them one, which, when cleared of the chalk, and carefully examined with a lens, I could plainly per- ceive was not only not a belemnite, but a complete palisadoe-spine, possessing a perfect circular articulating cavity, and a grained surface, somewhat resembling the manufactured surface of seal-skin. Like most of the recent spines of this genus, it is of a triquetral form, at the end which is attached to the shell : but, unlike all those figured by Klein, it not only soon becomes larger and rounded, but terminates in a rounded cone. Its colour, at its articulating end, is of a very light fawn colour, which shades off to nearly white, at about one third of the length of the spine, the remaining part being again of a fawn colour, but much darker than that in the other part of the spine. As a collector, I highly estimated a fossil, which I had not hitherto known to exist, and consequently treasured it with some care. But comparison with some specimens of the Folkstone belemnites, which possess somewhat of a similar form with that of this fossil, and at the same time the transparency of the Prussian fossils, which, although generally regarded as belemnites, had been suspected by Klein to be echinital spines, induced me to suspect a similarity of substance in both fossils. To determine this, I broke the fossil spine in two, and was astonished to find its substance exactly agreeing with that which is con- stantly found in belemnites : — a dark brown spar, with striae radiating from the centre, and intersected by concentric circles. Having thus got rid of this erroneously assumed mark of distinc- tion, the brown radiating spar, and ascertained that a body, indis- putably an echinital spine, had, by its mineralization, been rendered 44 similar in its substance to belemnites; and having thereby established the position of Klein, that every body possessing a similar structure with the belemnite is not therefore to be considered as one of those fossils, we are absolutely left without any distinctive character, by which, in many instances, these fossils can be separated. It is true, that we sometimes have, on the one hand, as in the specimen just spoken of, not only the articulating termination, but so much of the colpur and surface preserved, as determines its echinital origin ; and, on the other hand, we have the concamerated shell, or the alveola, which contained it, evincing the fossil to be a belemnite. But much more frequently we meet with fossils, in which, from having been broken, rubbed down, or otherwise injured, these parts are entirely removed, and their figure so altered, that it is no longer possible to determine in which class of fossils they are to be placed. The discovery of this speci- men induced me to examine, with more care, those fossils in my possession, which had been hitherto regarded as belemnites; and I was much pleased at soon perceiving that many, which I should before, with- out hesitation, have termed belemnites, were in all probability spines of echini. In three specimens, this origin was indubitable. Plate IV. Fig. 4, shows a hard and heavy spathose specimen ; which although, from its form, I had often suspected to be a fossil sudes, 1 never could before assert it, in contradiction to the opposite opinion of many very excellent fossilists. Its triquetral form, extending through three fourths of its length, and insensibly gliding into the rounded conical termina- tion, with something more than a fancied resemblance in colour, deter- mined it, in my opinion, to have been originally an echinital spine, although the further proof of its articulating termination is, by accident, destroyed. Plate IV. Fig. 19, represents a small specimen, in chalk, which appears to be a fossil spine of the same species with the preceding, but more rounded and fusiform : a small annular mark, at one end, shows, indisputably, its point of articulation. The spine, . Plate IV. Fig. 14, hitherto supposed to be a belemnite, ii 45 of a species, not, I believe, described. The inferior extremity, though somewhat crushed, still yields marks of. its having there had its articula- ting surface. It is rendered very different from any belemnite or echinital spine which I have ever seen, from its surface being pierced with nume- rous small, but distinct, and somewhat regularly disposed foramina. Of the class Spatkula, in which are comprised small flattish spines, dispersed, in some species of echini, among the larger and more cha- racteristic spines, I do not know of .the existence of any fossil species ; neither do I find any information respecting any fossils of the fourth class, Radiolus coronatus, figured by Klein, Tab. xxxu. K. ; and by Scheuchzer, Physic. Sacr. Tab. LVI. The figure, indeed, of this spine, gives rather the idea of its being a spine of the genus Sudes fortalitio- rum, which has suffered injury, and has been repaired by the powers of the animal. The very curious spine, Plate IV. Fig. 12, from the neighbourhood of Verona, is referable, I conceive, to this class, or to Sudes villarum serrate compress^. I am entirely ignorant of the echinus to which it belongs. The class CLAVICULA contains many spines, which are exceedingly interesting in their forms. The first species, termed Glandaria, from the supposed resemblance of these bodies to acorns, are divided into those which are smooth and those which are granularly striated. Two of the latter, of different sizes, are represented Plate IV. Fig. 9 and 11. No echini, recent or fossil, have been found to which these large glan- diform bodies are known to belong. Plate IV. Fig. 1, 18, and 21, may be regarded as those varieties of this species, which formerly were considered, from their figure, as petrified olives, or Lapides Judaici. Their recent analogue is still un- known ; nor was it, until of late years, that it was known to what genus of fossil echini these bodies belonged. This circumstance was first ascertained and made known in the highly interesting travels of M. De Luc, who discovered one of these clavated spines attached to a portion of the shell. Tom. iv. p. 4(57, Tab. xii. 46 The echinite found by M. de Luc was calcareous, but filled with and imbedded in flint. Another specimen, very nearly similar to the foregoing, is figured and described by Andrea, Lit. Helvet. p. 267. This specimen was found in the mountain named Randerberg, . in Swit- zerland. A specimen of this kind, in flint, from Kent, is represented Plate IV. Fig. 21, with one of the spines lying close to the papilla on which it had been fixed. In this specimen may be seen the characters of the echinus. This, it is evident, is a species of Cidaris papillata ; but differing from any which has been described, in having the articulations of the assulse much more concealed by the granular surface, which is extended from papilla to papilla. In another specimen, Plate IV. Fig. 1, in chalk, four of the spines are still adherent; and in another, in which several spines and two of the larger arese are imbedded in chalk, the particular character of this shell is also plainly manifested. In another flint specimen from Pangbourn, in Berkshire, the spine is somewhat dif- ferent, the longitudinal grooves being deeper, and the denticulse more distinct. The origin, therefore, of the Lapides Judaici, or petrified olives, as these stones were formerly considered, is therefore now determined ; and the species of echinite also, to which they belong, is completely ascertained. I am indebted to that accurate observer of nature, Mr. Sowerby, for a very ingenious suggestion, as to the cause of a peculiar variety of figure which sometimes occurs in these spines. They are sometimes seen more than usually tumid and irregularty rugose : this he imputes, and I am assured of his being right, to the spine having suffered from disease. The second species, Cucumerina, is divisible into several varieties, in which, although the cucumber form is preserved, very considerable differences are observable. In some, the surface is neither striated nor granulated ; but irregularly and slightly nodular. But the surface in general possessed by these bodies, is formed by small granular or denti- culated projections, disposed in regular rows. Plate IV. Fig. 2, 6, 8, 15, 16, and 17. Plate IV. Fig. 15, is one of the cucumerine species of the largest size; and at Plate IV. Fig. 2, is one of the larger areae of one of the mam- millated echinites, with a narrower spine of this species attached to it. These bodies, whose origin was so long a subject of such vague con- jecture, that by some they were supposed to be wrhite pepper in a state of petrifaction, may also now be considered as belonging to this genus of echinites. The cylindrical and longitudinal sulcated body, Plate IV. Fig. 13, is sometimes found among the fossils of Shepey Island. Its figure is undoubtedly ambiguous, it having some appearance of a small branch of a tree; I, however, entertain very little doubt of its being part of an echinital spine. The small bones and teeth of the echini are sometimes found among the fossil remains of these animals. This has been doubted by some ; but I have no hesitation in saying, that I have some of these fossils from Switzerland. LETTER VI. FOSSIL SHELLS ARRANGEMENT OF LAMARCK ADOPTED CHI- TON PATELLA. ...FISSU RE LLA EMARGINULA CREPIDULA CONCHOLEPAS CALYPTRJEA CONUS CYPRJEA OVULA TEREBELLUM OLIVA ANCILLA VOLUTA MITRA......CO- LUMBELLA MARGINELLA CANCELLARIA NASSA. PUR- PUR A... .BUCC I NUM ....EBURNA TEREBRA DOLIUM HARPA CASSIS STROMBUS PTEROCERA ROSTELLARIA.....MU REX FUSUS PYRULA FASCIOLARIA PLEUROTOMA. IN OTWITHSTANDING the great degree of judgment displayed by the illustrious Linnaeus, in his systematic arrangement of shells, it does not appear to be proper to adopt his divisions in the present work. It must, I believe, be admitted, that many of his genera are too comprehensive ; 48 added to which, since the forming of his classification, several shells have been discovered, possessing characters which will not allow them to be placed under any of his genera. The latter circumstance has indeed taken place to such an extent with respect to fossil shells, as to have rendered the formation of a new classification absolutely necessary. This task the celebrated Lamarck has accomplished, with such inge- nuity and care, as to give him a strong claim on the gratitude of every lover of science : and, as was exceedingly desirable, he has, by his clas- sification, secured the admission of all those shells which are found in a mineralized state*. The genius and accompanying zeal, possessed by this philosopher, has led him fully to avail himself of every opportunity of extending his obser- vations; and, happity for science, these opportunities have been afforded him in a most singular degree. His situation, as professor of zoology, and particularly in the departments of insects, shells, madrepores, &c. with the superintendance of, and unrestrained access to, the Museum of Natural History, must have furnished him with unparalleled opportu- nities of information. The fossil riches of the country too, surrounding Paris, particularly as to shells, exceed those, perhaps, of any other tract of a similar size. At Courtagnon, near Rheims, an enormous bank of fossil shells is open, in different parts ; among which are very few that were known, or that had been described, until they had been subjected to the examination of Lamarck. At Grignon, about seven leagues from Paris, fossil shells are so exceedingly abundant, that M. Defrance, by his indefatigable industry, has collected at least five hundred distinct species, more than three fourths of which have never been before described. These fossil shells, discovered by M. Defrance, are most correctly copied, under the directions of the professors of natural history, and the drawings are carefully preserved in the Museum, for the purpose of ready exa- mination. * This part of Lamarck's labours commences in Les Annales du Museum tfllistoire Naturdlt) Tomei. p. 308, and is continued through the succeeding volumes. It is true that this bank of shells appears to be exactly correspondent with that which exists in Hampshire, the fossils of which have been so well illustrated by the labours of Brander and Solander. But, whilst the Hampshire fossils are generally broken, from the very soft and fragile state to which they are reduced by the mud in which they are involved, the fossil shells of France are found in the highest state of preservation : and hence numerous species, which can in this island be hardly ever obtained, are there found in a perfect state. How assiduously and suc- cessfully M. Lamarck has employed these several advantages, will be manifested by the arrangement he has formed, and the important obser- vations which he has made. Of the testaceous molluscae he considers the cephalous, from being the most perfect, as being proper to form the first order. With the exception of the chiton, all the other cephalous conchyliferus molluscae, he observes, are simply univalves, whilst the acephalous are inclosed in two or more valves. Genus I. Chiton. An oblong-elliptical, convex, multivalved shell ; with transverse valves, partly lying over each other, in a row, on the back of the animal. The only notice which I find taken of the fossil remains of this ani- mal is by Lamarck, who states, that the separated valves only are found at Grignon. From this separation of the valves he finds it difficult to determine to what species these fossil remains belong, but conjectures that it is to C. octovalvis. I am happy in possessing a very perfect spe- cimen of the fossil testaceous covering of this animal from Grignon, and in its confirming the opinion of M. Lamarck, as to the number of its valves, which are eight. This fossil is in so high a degree of perfection, as to have made me at one time suspect its being only decomposed by exposure to the air ; but, an examination with a lens, showed not only the adherent matrix, but two species of extremely minute fossil serpulae fixed on its convex surface. VOL. III. H , 50 This fossil is represented Plate V. Fig. 5, and by its side are sketches of the minute adherent serpulae. Lamarck, adopting certain constant characters, which seem to war- rant the separation, has divided the shells forming the Linnaean genus Patella, into the five next following genera. II. Patella. A shield-formed or subconical, and not spiral univalve, without perforation or marginal fissure. It appears that nine species have been found, in a fossil state, in the neighbourhood of Paris : P. dongata, P. dulcis, P. scutatella, P. dilatata, P. Cornucopia, P. spirirostris, P. retortella, P. Pennata, and P. squamte- formis. The patellite, Plate V. Fig. 21, for which I am indebted to the kind- ness of John Hawker, Esq. of Dudbridge, in Gloucestershire, is from the stone quarries near Minchinhampton. It is nearly circular, rising obliquely into a depressed distorted cone, and is marked with longitudinal radiating undulated rugae, intersected by transverse lines of growth. It is now completely spathose. Its matrix is a light calcareous stone, formed chiefly of Oolithi, mixed with numerous minute shells. In the immense shelly cliffs of Harwich and of the neighbouring coast, I have found an acuminated, slightly striated patellite, in every respect resembling P. ungarica, Linn. The longest diameter of a beautiful and perfect specimen of this fossil, is full two inches and a half. In the same cliff 1 find a patellite, which appears to correspond very closely with P. lavis fusca, List, and another which approximates to P. spirirostris, Lam. P. cornucopia, Lam. is a beautiful species. Among the specimens which I possess is one which, although it has the general character of this species, is much narrower than those depicted by Lamarck ; but I am not competent to determine whether it should be considered as a distinct species, or only as a variety. Among the specimens I have from Grignon is P. dilatata. Lam. and ol another, resembling it in form, but very distinctly marked with longi- tudinal and transverse rugae, much like the Gloucestershire limpet. I observe the same characters in another fossil patella from the valley of Ronca, in the Veronese. This genus presents the best place in which I can notice the remark- able limpet-like shell described by Da Costa, who never saw but four that were entire, or nearly so. He places it among the patellae; and says : " These limpets are very large ; and, like the Concholepas, resem- ble a single shell of a bivalve. They seem to be of two kinds, and are more irregular than that shell ; and, instead of being sulcated length- wise, are circularly wrought, or in a transverse manner, with very high irregular ridges, not thickly, but rather thinly, set. The shells are very thick : one sort is high or copped, the other is broad or flattish." Ele- ments of Conchology, p. 142. The specimens which I possess of this fos- sil are not sufficiently illustrative of its form. I have however given a figure of one of them, which was found at Pangbourn, in Berkshire, Plate V. Fig. 3. III. Fissurdla. A buckler formed univalve, without spire : the ver- tex perforated, with an ovate or oblong opening. The species which I have obtained from the Essex cliffs nearly resem- ble the F. labiafa, Lam. IV. Emarginula. An obliquely conical univalve, the vertex inclined, and the posterior margin slit or notched. I have repeatedly found a species of this genus in, the Essex cliff, which, in its elegantly reticulated or cancellated surface, its reclined vertex, and its size, agrees with P. fissura, as figured by Pennant, PL xc. Fig. 152 ; and by Lister, Tab. DXLIII. Fig. 28, who describes it as Patella exigua, alba, cancellata, fissura notabili in margine. Three species are described by Lamarck : E. costata, E. Clypeata, and E. radiola. V. Crepidula. An oval or oblong vaulted univalve, with its apex in- clined to one end, and its cavity partially divided by a horizontal plate. 52 VI. Concholepas. An oval vaulted univalve, the apex inclined to the left side, with two teeth and a sinus at the base of the right edge. No shell of either of these genera appears to have been found fossil. VII. Calyptrea. A conoidal univalve, with the apex erect, entire, and rather pointed, the cavity furnished with a spirally convoluted lip or diaphragm. It is to this genus, as Calyptr&a trochiformu, that Lamarck refers the fossil which Solander, in consequence of its possessing a kind of spire, has considered as a trochus, denominating it Trochus aptrtus; and in another state, tuberculated and more depressed, Trochus opercularis. Fossil. Hautoniens. Tab. ix. Fig. 1,2, 3. These are found in the Hamp- shire cliffs, with the other fossils, figured in the work of Brander, just referred to. They are also found, in a very fragile state, between Woolwich and Blackheath, in the parish of Plumstead, in Kent. La- marck also describes another shell, found with the former at Grignon, which he considers as a distinct species, C. crepieularis, from its not being completely orbicular, and from its having its spire bent downwards, as in the crepidute. Another species of this genus, Plate V. Fig. 10, found in the Essex cliffs, appears exactly to agree, in its form, with Patella sinensis, Lin. as figured by Lister, Tab. LXLVI. Fig. 39. It forms a depressed cone, with a circular base and mammillary apex, and should perhaps be distin- guished as Calyptr&a sinensis. Some specimens of this shell, which I have obtained from the neighbourhood of Harwich, have their upper part completely invested with a mineralized spongy, or alcyonic mass. VIII. Conus. A turbinated, convoluted, inversely conical univalve : the aperture long, narrow, toothless, and not contracted at the base. Of the genus Conus, Lamarck describes four species, as found at Cour- tagnon and Grignon : — C. Antediluvianus, C. deperditus, C. turritus, and C. Strombo'ides. C. deperditus, distinguished by its channelled spire, I have also ob- 53 tained from the Veronese territory. From this place I also obtained the fossil shell, Plate V. Fig. 1, which very nearly accords with C. Strom- boides, Lam. being subfusiform and transversely striated, with a nodular spire : the nodules, however, appearing to be more projecting, and turns of the spire more acute, than in the shell described by La- marck. IX. Cypr&a. An ovate convex univalve, with the margins involuted; spire small, and nearly covered over ; the opening long, narrow, and toothed on both sides. When we consider that the markings of the recent shell of the genus Cypraa frequently determine the species, and that these markings are lost in the mineralization of the shell ; and when it is also considered, that even the forms of the shells are considerably different, at different periods of their growth, we must see how difficult it will often be to determine whether any specific analogy exist, or not, between the recent and the fossil shell. Lamarck describes three fossil species : C. pediculus, C. inflata, and C. Sulcosa, as being found at Grignon. I have found several of this genus in the Essex cliff, which I am dis- posed to refer to C. pediculus. The striae must, however, be acknow- ledged to be finer and closer than in the recent shell. They are per- haps nearer allied to C. Costata, Linn. The sulcated specimen, Plate V. Fig. 24, from Verona, appears to merit, from its size, the being considered as a species distinct from any at present known. Other species, with a smooth surface, are also obtained from the Veronese territory. X. Ovula. A tumid univalve, more or less elongated in a point, at the ends; the edges involuted, and the opening longitudinal, and without teeth on the left side. Bruguiere separated from the genus Bulla, of Linnaeus, the Bulla ovum, volva, &c. those shells which, having their edges rolled inwards, 54 being elongated at their extremities, and not being dentated on their left side, seemed to constitute a distinct genus : these he has, therefore, collected under this genus, of which I do not know that any have been found fossil. XL Terebdlum. A convoluted univalve, with an acute apex. The opening longitudinal, narrow upwards, notched at the base, and tooth- legs. The columella truncated. Bulla terebellum of Linnaeus is also separated from the genus Bulla by Lamarck, who observes that it approaches nearer to Strombus than to Bulla ; it differing from the latter in the notch at the base of its opening, and by the columella being, as it were, truncated at its lower part, as in Strombi. A fossil shell of this genus is figured by Brander, Fossil hauton. Tab. i. Fig. 29, a. and Tab. vi. /. 75, as one of the Hampshire fossils, and named by Solander, Bulla sopita et volutata. It is a thin subcylindrical shell, with no spire. A shell of the same species, named by Lamarck Terebellum convolutum, is found in considerable number at Grignon ; and, notwithstanding their very fragile nature, many are found in a per- fect state, proving that they must have lived in the region in which they are found. The recent analogue of this shell is not known. Another species, T. fusiforme, is also found in the environs of Paris. XII. Oliva. A subcylindrical univalve, notched at its base. The turns of the spire separated by a channel. The columella striated obliquely. The genus Valuta, of Linnaeus, comprehends many shells, the cha- racters of which certainly require their separation into other genera. This has been accomplished by Lamarck with much care. Oliva is a genus which he found necessary thus to form, Linnueus having consi- dered all the olives as only varieties of one species of volute, which he named Voluta oliva. Lamarck describes three species of this genus found in the neighbour- 55 hood of Paris : O. canaUfera, O mitreola, and O. Laumontiana. Shells of •this genus, but not in a state to allow of their species being determined, are also found in the Vincentine territory. XIII. Ancilla, An oblong subcv'indrical univalve, with a short spire, not channeled : the aperture efiused, and its base slightly notched. A thick oblique fold at the base of the columella. The separation of these shells from those of the genus Olivet, appears to be hardly necessary ; the only material difference being, that those which he places under the latter genus have not the turns of the spire separated by a channel, as is the case with those which are allotted to the former genus. Four species of these shells are found at Grignon. and Courtagnon : A. buccinoides, A. subulata, A. olivula, and A. ca- nalifera. The characteristic of the genus Voluta, of Linnaeus, the folded colu- mella, is doubtlessly much too general, and belongs to many shells which require to be arranged under separate genera. Bruguiere, in the first place, separated those shells which were not notched at their base : since which, Lamarck has taken from this Linnaean genus such shells as appeared to him to be capable of forming the new genera, mitra, colombella, marginalia, cancellaria, and turbinclla. XIV. Voluta. An ovate subventricose univalve; the apex papillary, and base emarginated. The columella plicated : the inferior plicae being largest or longest. In this genus are comprised, Voluta Cithara, Lam. Encyc. T. 384, Fig. \.\-Citharadits, Chemn. Vol. xi. p. 297, Tab. 212, Fig. 2098, 2099 This shell is remarkable for the beautiful polish which; it retains. V. Spinosa, Lam. ; S trombus Spinosus, Linn. ; S. luctator, Brand, Foss. Fig. 65, List, Tab. 1033. This shell is singularly beautiful, retaining not only its perfect form and its polish, but its orange-coloured trans- verse stripes, V. Mwcialis, Lam. is Sir. luctator, Brand. Fig. 65. In V. muricina and V. Costaria, of Lamarck, is instanced the ambiguity so frequently observable in fossil shells : the general form of murex in the 56 former, and of fusus in the latter of these shells, are discoverable, but blended with the generic characters of Valuta. V. bicorona, Lam. is Strombus ambiguus, of Brarider; and V. crenulata, Lam. is Brander's Murex suspensus. Lamarck describes seven more species, which are found in the vicinity of Paris : V. lyra, V. harpula, V. labrella, V. bulimia, V. depressa, V. variculosa, and V. mitreola. The most rare shell of this genus, found in this island, is, I believe, the fossil volute of Harwich, Plate V. Fig. 13, which I have chosen as a specimen of this genus. No corresponding recent shell appears to be figured. Langius gives the figure of a cast, Hist. Lapid. Fig. p. 1 12, Tab. xxxin. Fig. 3, which certainly bears a very close resemblance to this fossil. A very faithful representation of a very imperfect specimen of this shell is given in the Appendix to Dale's History of Harwich, PL x. Fig. 14, p. 289, excepting that the plicse are too large. The ovate fusiform figure of this shell gives it an appearance some- what resembling some recent shells, but by no means sufficient to warrant the supposition of an identity of species. A shell apparently of this species, invested with pyrites, has been found in Mr. Trimmer's grounds, at Brentford. A very fine fossil shell, bearing much of the form of this volute, is found in some parts of Yorkshire, I believe in the neighbourhood of Whitby. This shell is so perfect, and its colours are so well preserved, that a specimen of it, having fallen some years since into the hands of Mr. George Humphries, he was deceived into the opinion of its being a dead shell ; and being satisfied that it was of a species which was en- tirely unknown, he cleaned it and polished it as a recent shell : and was not undeceived, until at a subsequent period he saw another specimen, by which he was enabled to ascertain its being really a fossil. XV. Mitra. A subfusiform univalve, with a pointed apex, a notched base, and no canal : the columella plicated ; the inferior plicae being the smallest. The lower plicae being smaller than the others, and the apex pointed, 57 distinguish these shells from the volutes. Lamarck describes thirteen fossil mitres as having been found in the neighbourhood of Paris : M. cre- bricosta, M. monodonta, M. marginata, M. plicatella, M. labratula, M. mixta, M. cmcellma, M. terebellum, M. fusellina, M. graniformis, M. mutica, M. el'ongata, and M. Cithardla. XVI. Columbella. An oval univalve, with a short spire; the base of the opening more or less notched, and without canal. A swelling on the inner part of the right side. Folds, or teeth, on the columella. This genus is exemplified in Voluta mercatoria, Lin. List. Condi, t. 824, /. 23. No shells of this genus have been found fossil by La- marck, nor am I aware of any having been found in this island. XVII. Margindla. An ovate-oblong, smooth, univalve, with a short spire. The lip thickly marginated on the outside. The base of the opening but slightly notched ; the columella plicated. Lamarck particularizes three fossil species : M. eburnea, M. dent if era, M. ovulata. Plate V. Fig. 14, represents M. eburnea, from Grignon. I am not aware of any of this genus having been found fossil in England. XVIII. Cancdlaria. An ovate or subturrated univalve, with the lip sulcated internally. The base of the opening slightly channeled ; and, in some, almost entire. Sharp, but compressed plicae, on the columella. The compressed, but sharp plica?, on the columella, distinguish these shells from those of Nassa and Purpura ; whilst the corrugated lip detaches them from the mitra, marginella, &c. Plate V. Fig. 8, represents a very interesting shell of this genus, from Courtagnoh. An ovate shell, with a long spire; with thick angulated ribs, muricated about their centre, and divided by fine transverse striae ; the columella with three plicae; the opening nearly entire, being con- tracted rather than notched at its base. The observations made by Lamarck on another species of this genus, C. volutdla, a turreted varicose shell, having numerous longitudinal ribs, with nearly obsolete transverse striae, and a short, scarcely notched, tail, in a great measure apply to the shell here figured. This shell, he says, VOL. III. • I is so singular, that 1 hesitated in determining its genus. It has the pro- minences of a murex, the folds of a volute, and the general appearance, with the notch, of a huccinum ; and yet, its other characters and agree- ments, determine its place to be among the cancellariae. He describes two species of this genus as fossils : C. costidata and C. volutdla. XIX. Nassa. An oval univalve, the opening terminating inferiorly witli an oblique notch, a little channelled ; the base of the columella hiding the notch, in part, and appearing to be obliquely truncated. It does not appear that any fossil shells of this genus are known. XX. Purpura. An ovate univalve, its surface being rather rough with spines or tubercles ; the aperture notched, and slightly channeled in the lower part; the columella naked, flat, depressed, and terminating in a point at the base. Purpura lapillus, Buccinum lapillus of Linnaeus, is the only species found fossil by Lamarck. XXI. Buccinum.. An ovate elongated univalve ; opening oblong, notched in the lower part, and with no canal ; columella convex, full and naked. Bruguiere reduced the Linnsean genus Buccinuin, by taking from it the genera terebra and cassis. Lamarck has carried this reduction still further, by forming, with some of the shells, the genera tonna, harpa, nassa, &c. Those shells only are now disposed by Lamarck, under the genus Buccinum, as possess the above characters. Buccinum Stromboides, Lam. from Grignon, is distinguishable by its full slightly ribbed lip, which forms somewhat of a stromboidal sinus at its attachment to the spire. This shell in general possesses a considerable polish : and, as in this specimen, Plate V. Fig. 20, it frequently shows some of its original colour. It appears that six species have been found in the environs of Paris : B. stromboides, B. striatulum, B. terebrale, B. de- cussatum, B. bistriatum, and B. clavatulatum. B. bistriatum, and B. decussatum, of Lamarck, are, I suspect, both found in the Essex cliff. XXII. Eburnct. An oval or elongated univalve, the right edge very 59 entire ; the opening oblong, and notched at the bottom ; the columella umbilicated, and slightly grooved at its base. Buccinum glabratum, Linn. Lister, Tab. 974, Fig. 9, is given as the type of this genus by Lamarck, who mentions this genus only in his Systeme dcs Animaux sans vertebres, not noticing it at all among the fossils of the environs of Paris. A shell, however, exists among the Essex fossils, which, except in having the columella hardly umbilicated, seems very nearly to approximate to this genus, and to the particular shell B. glabratum, which is given as its type. This shell, which I will venture to call E. glabrata, is figured Plate'V, Fig. 25. XXIII. Terebra. A turreted and subulated univalve : the opening short, and notched in the lower part. The basis of the columella twisted. Two species of this genus are found in the environs of Paris : T. pli- catula and T. scalarina. T. plicatula is represented Plate V. Fig. 7. XXIV. Dolium. A subglobular ventrose univalve, ribbed circularly across; the right lip dentated or crenulated through its whole length. The opening oblong, ample, and notched at the bottom. No shell of this genus appears to have been found fossil. XXV. Harpa. An ovate, ventricose univalve, with longitudinal compressed ribs, terminating superiorly in an angle or a point; the opening notched in the lower point, and with no canal; the colu- mella smooth, with an acute base. This genus comprises those shells which had been referred by Lin- naeus to the genus Buccinum, and entirely to the species Biiccinum harpa. These shells, like most of those which have been already mentioned, are sea shells, and are inhabitants of the warmer climates. The only shell which I have' of this genus, is one which, although it possesses suf- ficient characters to mark its genus, is too much injured and involved in pyrites, to allow its species to be determined. Its parallel compressed, and obliquely inclined ribs, with the pointed angle at their summit, and the smooth columella, completely, however, determine its genus. This 60 shell was found in a stratum of dark pyritous clay, at Brentford, on the premises of Messrs. Trimmers. Lamarck describes but one fossil species, H. mutica, as found near Paris. XXVI. Cassis. A gibbose ventricose univalve ; the aperture longi- tudinal and subdentated, and terminating in a short reflected canal. The columella plicated in its lower part; and the left lip flattened, and forming a ridge on the body of the shell. Cassis cari?iata, Lam. ; Buccinum nodosum, Soland. and Brander ; is a beautiful fossil species of this genus. A very beautiful fossil shell is found in a hill in Arragon, at above a hundred feet in height. The nodulous rugae, on the left side, at the lower flattened part of the columella, the dentated right lip, the re- verted sinus, and the globose cassideai form, determine its genus ; whilst its transverse rounded ribs, and nodular risings on the upper part of the body of the shell, mark its species as different from any recent shell with which I have been able to compare it. It is about two inches and a half in length. The hills of Tuscany also yield some fine specimens of this genus. One of these, about half the size of the preceding fossil, possesses most of its characters ; but its spire projects more, and is formed of six turns ; and the mouth contracts, in its upper part, into a sinus, between the body of the shell and the right lip. The surface of this shell is smooth. A second of these Tuscan cassidites is still longer in its spire, which is formed of seven turns> and is characterized by regular transverse circu- lar markings. In a third, the surface is marked by lines similarly dis- posed, but alternately larger and smaller ; and the teeth of the right lip are very prominent and distinct. ,. The general characters of these shelfs very much accord with Buc. recurvirostrum, Linn, as figured by Lister, PL 1016, No. 75. These shells were found by Mr. Strange in the sandy hills of Tus- cany; and were introduced, with some other curious fossils, in two 61 plates, engraved for him by Antonio Gregorio, from drawings of Giu- seppe Menaboni. In the description of these plates he designates these shells as Bucdno-cassides. In one of the plates, and under the same designation, is the uncom- mon shell represented Plate V. Fig. 17 and 19. This also was found in the Tuscan hills ; and, according to Knorr, it has also been found in Piedmont. The last turn of this shell is extremely large, when com- pared with the other four' turns. The spire projects but very little. The body of the shell is smooth, slight traces of transverse striae only being observable. The right lip is of considerable thickness, and den- tated on its inner surface. The left lip is extended along the body of the shell, up to the termination of the right lip. The aperture in the middle part is oval, but terminates upwards, in a considerable groove, which runs between the right lip and the body of the shell ; and down- wards, in a short reflected canal. A thick projecting fold runs up from nearly the middle of the lip, and is inserted into the middle of the next spiral turn. Three species have been found in the environs of Paris : C, harpa- formis, C. cancellata, and C. carinata. The fossil shell, I believe from France, Plate V. Fig. 23, is perhaps one of the most singular with respect to its mixture of characters. Viewed at its back, it has the general appearance of a shell of the genus Harpa; but in its front, its summit, its long slightly dentated aperture, plaited columella, and widely extended left lip, show its most proper place to be under the genus Cassis, notwithstanding that the inferior ter- mination of the aperture, is that of a buccinum, instead of the short reflected canal of cassis ; and that it has the flat broad columella of Buc- cinum patulum, Linn, or Pur pur a patula, Lam. This shell agrees, in some of its anomalies, with the description of. Valuta depressa, Lam. ; but it seems to differ from that shell, which, how- ever, I have not seen. XXVII. Strombus: A slightly ventricose univalve, terminating at its 62 base in a short notched or truncated canal. The lip enlarges with age, appearing like a plain, entire, and single lobated wing, with & groove in its lower part. This last circumstance appears to be particularly cha- racteristic of this genus. Lamarck describes but one shell of this genus as found in the neigh- bourhood of Paris. This is Strombus canalis, resembling, in many re- spects, the rostdlaria fisturella of the next genus, but differing from it in having a groove on its right edge. Fossil shells of this genus are very rare. Some of extraordinary pre- servation have, however, been found in the mountains of Arragon. In the Veronese, also, are found small alated strombi, in very excellent preservation, although very much changed in colour, apparently from ferruginous impregnation. XXVIII. Pterocera. A ventricose shell, terminated inferiorly, by an elongated canal ; the right edge dilating with age into a digitated wing, and having a sinus towards its base. Strombus lambis, Linn, is the type of this genus, none of the species of which are known to me to exist in a fossil state. XXIX. Rostellaria. A slightly turreted or fusiform univalve, termi- nating at its base in a lengthened canal, similar to a sharp beak. The lip whole or dentated, and dilated with age ; with a groove contiguous to the canal. This genus is distinguished by the sinus of the inferior part of the right edge being contiguous with the canal in the beak of the shell, which does not take place in the Pterocera and Sirombi. The most remarkable fossil shell of this genus is, Rostellaria macroptera, Lam. ; Styombus ampins, Brander. Brand Foss. p. 34, PL 6, Fig. 76 -, found in Hampshire, and at Courtagnon, St. Germain en Laye, &c. in France. This large and handsome fossil, so finely displayed in Bran- der's work, is remarkable for the size of its right lip, which is formed into a wide, round, and rather thin wing, extending from the canal at the base, over the body of the shell and a great part of the spire. AH 63 the superior part of this wing forms, at its union with the spire, a lon- gitudinal channel-like fissure. o • A fragment of a fossil shell which I possess, which from its surface appears to be from France, resembles the spire, with part of the fissure, of Rostellaria subulata, Lam.; S 'trombus fusus, Linn. The rriost common fossil shell of this genus is, Rostellaria fissurclla, Lam. ; Strombus fissurella, Linn. It is very abundant at Grignon. The wing is but small ; it however is continued in a channeled ridge, over nearly the whole length of the spire. Under this genus may be placed Strombus pes pclicani, Linn. Of these I possess some from Mr. Strange's collection, apparently French fossiis, in a very good state of preservation, and which do not appear to differ materially from the recent shells. In the Essex cliff, 1 once met with a shell of this family, but which differs from the preceding in having only one spur-like process passing out of the alated side. My worthy friend Mr. Francis Crow, of Faver- sham, has, since that, presented me with a similar, but more perfect shell, in a silicious state, which he found near that town. This shell has been also found in the Devonshire whetstone-pits, in the same silicious state ; and it is remarkable that, both in Devonshire and at Faversham, these shells are accompanied by a bivalve, Cucullaa decussata, a shell which, I believe, has not yet been found in any other part of this island ; but which is found in both these places, in the same silicious state. A representation of the Devonshire silicious rostellarite, imbedded in its matrix, is given Plate V. Fig. 1 1 . Among the very interesting fossils of the whetstone-pits is the minute shell, now entirely flint, represented Plate V. Fig. 2. This shell not only differs from the R. pes pelicani, in its having only one spur-like pro- cess; but seems to differ from the preceding species, both in the length of its spire and of its spur. The number of turns in its spire shows that it is not a young shell of the preceding species, but that it is rather a perfect shell of, a distinct species. 64 Lamarck describes only three species of this genus as found fossil in the neighbourhood of Paris : R. macroptera, R. columbaria, R.fissurella. XXX. Murex. An ovate or oblong univalve, with a channeled base and varicosely tumid ; rough, spinous, or fringed longitudinal and pro- jecting sutures. By confining the murices to the shells thus characterized, shells are excluded, with which Bruguiere and Lamarck have formed the genera cerithium, fusus, pyrula, pleurotoma, and fasciolaria. In the murices, the canal, neither suddenly truncated nor abruptly turned back, the colu- mella with no fold, and the left lip of the opening always more or less apparent, always determine the genus. Murex tripterus, ofBrander, Born, and Lamarck, is found frequently fossil in Hampshire, and at Grignon, in France; Brander, Foss. PL in. Fig. 79 and 80. Lamarck informs us, that its recent analogue exists in the sea, in the neighbourhood of Batavia. M. Contabulatus, Lam. is doubtless a variety of the preceding species. M. tricarinatus, Lam. M. asper, Brand. Fossil hant. Fig. 77, 78, is very remarkable for the spinous projections proceeding from its frondose ridges. The shell, Plate V. Fig. 16, is rather a rare shell in the Essex cliff. It is fusiform. The turns of its spire, which are generally six, are thinly set with not very prominent rugae, which, with faint transverse striae, are also observable on the body of the shell ; the opening is smooth on each side, and the canal is rather patent. The rugae, continued to the body of the shell, induce me to term this shell Murex rugosus. A fossil murex is much more frequently found in this cliff, which seems to agree exactly with M. comeus, Linn, as figured by Lister, Anim. Angl. t. 3, /. 4, who says it is found, but rarely, 'on the Scarbo- rough coast. The shell represented Plate V. Fig. 22, is a shell from the same cliff, of very curious structure; it appears to be M. Erinaceus, Linn. Its specific characters are,* an oblong ovate form ; the spine, formed by five 05 or six angular turns ; rather obtuse longitudinal ribs, appearing as if interwoven with transverse, close, squamose, cord-like ridges; the colu- melia slightly umbi Heated, with a very small tooth-like projection ; and the right lip rather denticulated. Murex 'tubifer, Lam. Murex pungens, Brand. Foss. hant. Fig. 81, 82. An oval shell, terminating in a point at each end, and furnished with, generally, four ridges, beset with hollow, bent, and pointed spines, and with short tubes ; and not, as thev appear to be, broken spines, disposed between the spinous ridges. The fistulous spines and short tubes with which this shell is beset, render it very remarkable, and distinguish it from every other shell. It is found both in Hampshire and Grignon. A very fine specimen of this shell is represented Plate V. Fig. 15. It is said by Bruguiere, that the recent analogue of this extraordinary shell was in the late Dr. Hunter's Museum. In this genus must be also placed the shell which is so well known by the appellation of the Essex reversed whelk, the twirls passing from the right hand to the left. This shell is figured by Lister, Histor. Conchyl Tab. 950, Fig. 44, b and c ; and by Dale, History of Harwich, Plate x. Fig. 6 ; and is considered as a murex, M. contrarius, by Linnaeus, Sys- tem. Natur Tom. i. p. vi. p. 3564. Considerable variety occurs in the surface of these shells : some are strongly marked with longitudinal linear markings, and are without any transverse markings; whilst in others transverse linear markings, single or double, are plainly seen, and no longitudinal rugae exist. In some few I have observed these markings so determined and distinct, as almost to authorize the regarding of them as specific characters. Plate VI. Fig. 1, represents one of these shells, of rather a small size. This shell, which sometimes reaches to full three inches in length, has six or seven turns in the spire ; the last, or body-whirl, is large and glo- bose: the left lip sometimes rising in a strong ridge; and is, as well as the right lip, very smooth on its inner side : the columeJla is disposed to VOL. III. K 66 be umbilicated, and the aperture is nearly oval, terminating in an open canal. The original shell, with the twirls passing from the left to the right, of which the one just spoken of may be considered as a variety, has not been yet mentioned as having been found in the Essex clifK Dale, in- deed, queries whether Buccinum roslratum, out of Harwich cliff, thus mentioned by Woodward, Catalogue, Part n. /?. 37, e. 115, may not be referable to this shell : but this can hardly be supposed, from so general a designation ; since, having so strongly particularized the reverse shell, it is not likely that he would have omitted to point out this as being the same shell, turning in the ordinary direction. In the many visits which my late respected friend, Dr. Menish, paid to this cliff, he discovered two specimens of this shell, with the whirls in the ordinary direction. My repeated researches having been always unsuccessful, I purchased these shells from Dr. Menish's collection. One of these seems to differ from the heterostrophe in not having its whirls so obliquely disposed, in the spire not being so long, in the aperture being every way larger, and in the left lip rising higher, and being larger and more detached. The other is a very old shell, and measures full five inches in length, and three in width. A shell, which has been supposed to resemble this last-mentioned fos- sil, has been found on the coast of New Holland ; but the columella, in this shell, is so nearly naked, as, I think, renders it specifically different. A recent shell is however found on the Essex coast, turning the right way, which very nearly, if not exactly, agrees, in its specific characters, with the heterostrophe. Lamarck describes seventeen species of this genus as found fossil in the neighbourhood of Paris : M. tripterus, M. tricar inatus, M. contabulatus, M. calcitrapa, M. crispus, M. frondosus, M. clathratus, M. cingulatus, M. striatulus, M. cancellinus, M. pyraster, M. textiliosus, M. colubrinus, M. Viperi?ws, M. nodularius, M. reticulosus, and M. tubifer. 67 XXXI. Fusus. A subfusiform univalve, ventricose in its middle or lower part, with a canaliculated base, arid no varicose sutures ; an elon- gated spire, a smooth columella, and the lip not slit. This genus is formed by Lamarck of shells which were comprised in the genus Murex of Linnaeus, and in the genus Fusus of Bruguiere, who had also retained in it pyrula, fasciolaria, and pleurotoma, with which La- marck has formed separate genera. Murex long&vus, Brand, is very properly disposed under this genus, by Lamarck, as Fusus longavus. Mure.r deformis, Brand, is also brought here as Fusus clavellatus. Fusus rugosus he considers as the same shell as Murex porrectus, Brand. Lamarck has discovered, in the environs of Paris, thirty-three species of this genus which he has so much diminished : F. rugosus, F. Noa, F. longavus, F. clavellatus, F. aciculatus, F. subulatus, F. hordeolus, F. zw- tortus, F. polygonus, F. abbreviatus, F. excisus, F. minutus, F. asperulus, F. plicatus, F. scalaroides, F. coronatus, F. alligatus, F. marginatus, F. no- dulosus, F. angulatus, F. uniplicatus, F. funiculosus, F. heptagonus, F. sub- carinaius, F.ficulneus, F. bulbiformis, F. terebralis, F. citharellus, F. lavi- gatus, F. striatulatus, F. biplicatus, F. variabilis, and F. truncatulus. XXXII. Pyrula. A somewhat pyriform univalve, swelling in the tipper part, with no variciform sutures, and having a caudated canali- culated base and a short spire. The columella smooth, and the lip not slit. P. l&vigata and clathrata, Lam. approximate to Bulla ficus, Linn. P. subcarinata^ Lam. has much of the form of Valuta labrella, but has no fold on the columella. P. nexilis, Lam. is Murex nexilis of Brander. P. Itevigata, Lam. also agrees, I think, with No. 54, of Brander. Six species of this genus have been found fossil by Lamarck : P. l and by the columella being smooth. I do not know of any English fossil of this genus; but they appear to be frequent in the environs of France ; since Larnarck enumerates and describes twelve species : M. costellata, M. lactea, M. marginata, M. hor- dacea, M. canicularis, M. corrugata, M. semiplacata, M. nitida, M. semi- striata, M. cochlearella, M.fragilis, and M. dubia. M. marginata, represented PL V. Fig. 9, judging from the specimens in my possession, exists in a very unimpaired state. LI II. Auricula. An ovate or oblong pyramidal univalve, with the spire extruded : the opening entire, oblong, and narrowed upwards ; the columella plicated, with different plicae in the opposite lip. Those volutes of Linnaeus, which are not notched at their base, Bru- guiere, without considering their plicae, placed under the genus Buli- mus. Lamarck has, with great propriety, placed those shells whose openings arfe entire, but whose columelltfe are plicated* under this genus, Auricula. One of the most interesting shells of this genus, is Auricula ringens, Lam. acutely ovate, rather turgid, transversely ribbed, with minute longitudinal striae, the edges of the opening thick and bordered, the right lip dentated, and the columella with three plicae. This shell is found at Grignon and in the neighbourhood of Bourdeaux. The spe- cimen which is represented Plate V. Fig. 4, and which appears to be A. ringens, is nearly transparent. It is one of those extraordinary sili- cious fossils which are yielded by the Blackdown whetstone-pits, and for a supply of which I am under great obligations to R. H. Clarke, Esq. of Bridwell, and the Rev. J. R. Cleeve, of Kentisbeare, who have kindly assisted me with the interesting fossils of their respective neigh- bourhoods. LIV. Volvaria. A cylindrical convoluted univalve : the spire not extruded : the opening narrow, the length of the shell : the columella plicated at its base. 85 This shell, for Lamarck knows but of one species, V. bulloides, which is fossil, approaches very near to Bulla cylindrica, or Bulla solida\ but differs from the genus Bulla, in having its columella plicated. LV; Ampullana. A ventricose subglobose univalve, with an um- bilicated base : the opening oblong and entire, with no thickening on the left lip. The Ampullana is a river shell of the warm climates. Its spire, which always projects a little, distinguishes this genus from Planorkis ; and there being no thickening on the left lip, distinguishes it from Natica. Ampullaria patula, Lam. is Helix" mutabilis, Brand. Foss. 57. Tab. iv. In Brander's figure the back is only seen ; and the patulous opening, the specific characteristic, is not shown. A. sigarttina, Lam. differs from the preceding, chiefly in having no umbilicus. From the greatest part of these shells, answering to the preceding description, being marine shells, and somewhat approaching in charac- ter to the genus Natica, Lamarck is disposed to think that they belong to a genus not yet established. Twelve species appear to exist among the fossils of the environs of Paris : A. pygmtea, A. e.rcavata, A. conica, A. acuta, A. acuminata, A. spirata, A. depressa, A. canaliculata, A. patula, A. sigaretina, A. crassatina, and A. hybrida. A. spirata, I find among my Veronese fossils ; and A. conica, and a shell much resembling A. rugosa, I have found among the shells of the Essex cliff. LVI. Planorbis. A discoidal univalve. The spire depressed, hardly at all prominent, the turns conspicuous on both sides. The opening entire and oblong; the margin never reflected. The shells of this genus are fresh-water shells: their inferior face is known, by its being more sunk in than the upper; and from the gra- dual diminution of the turns towards the centre, forming a funnel- formed cavity. From the original delicacy of structure of these shells, from the cir- 86 cumstances under which they have become buried, and from the slight degree of mineralization which they have undergone, it is difficult to obtain their fossil remains in tolerable preservation. Lamarck has met with three species among the fossils of the environs of Paris : P. nitidula, P. subangulaia, and P. bicaiinata. LVII. Helix. A globular or orbicular shell, with a convex or co- noidal spire : the opening entire, wider than long, and diminished in its upper part by the projection of the last turn but one of the spire. Shells of this genus, as well as other land and fresh-water shells, are rarely found in a state of petrifaction. The circumstances of conserva- tion in which they are found are, generally, such as are explicable on the supposition of their having become involved in the gradually acre- ting tufaceous matter, which is deposited by certain streams and rivers ; or in the stalactitic concretions forming in the cavities of limestone rocks, of comparatively modern formation. Instances of the former kind are to be met with in various parts of this island, as well as in numerous other parts of the world ; but the most remarkable instance of the latter kind is in the rock of Gibraltar, in which shells of this description are sometimes found. LVIII. Helidna. A subglobose univalve, with no umbilicus : the opening entire and semi-ovate ; the columella callous, depressed at the lower part, and flattened. The analagous recent shell on which, I believe, Lamarck founds this genus is trochilus, labro protenso, fasciatus, List. Hist. Conchy I. PL 61, Fig. 59. It differs from Helices in its callous columella, and in a little angle, which the base of the right edge forms, before re-uniting itself with the base of the columella. This ingenious naturalist finds only one fossil shell which he can place, even with hesitation, under this genus. This incertitude, he candidly acknowledges, and even implies it, in the name which he has affixed to this species, Helidna dubia. 1 know of no fossil shell of this genus. 87 LIX. Nerita. A semi-globose univalve, depressed beneath, and having no umbilicus : the opening entire and semicircular ; colu- mella nearly transverse and flat, with an acute, and generally dentated edge. The shells of this genus differ from those of Natica, in never being at all umbilicated. Nerita conoidea. Lam. Nerita perversa, Gmelin, is, as well from its form, as from the extraordinary magnitude which it sometimes possesses, a very remarkable fossil. It is conical, with a very broad base; the apex of the spire is inclined, and the columella is furnished with eight teeth. Chemnitz, and other naturalists, have thought that this was a reversed shell ; but Lamarck has shown that its turns are in the ordinary direc- tion, from the left to the right. It acquires, however, a peculiar ap- pearance, from the top of the spire being inclined to one side, as if the axis of the spire had been broken or bent in its upper part ; hence the shell is irregularly conical. The upper part is smooth, or only slightly striated, in a transverse direction, agreeable to the successive addition of new matter to the shell. The opening, which is nearly semicircular, possesses about one third of the base. The size of some of these fossils is very considerable. Lamarck observes that the width of the largest spe- cimen is seven centimetres (about two inches Fr. and seven lines.) One of the specimens 'which I possess is hardly more than an inch across its widest part; whilst another, which I purchased from the collection of M. de Calonne, measures in the same direction full three inches and three quarters, and exceeds two inches in height. These gigantic proportions widely distinguish it from any recent shell of this genus. These fossils are from Retheuil and Courtagnon. I am not acquainted with the dis- covery of any shells of this genus among our English fossils. Plate VI. Fig. 4, is a curious fossil, being a calcedonic cast of the hollow of a nerite of this species, displayed by the removal of the top of the shell, 88 The under side of this fossil, showing the mouth and dentated lip of N. conoidea, is represented Plate VI. Fig. 6. This, with another specimen, in which the cast is entirely detached from the shell, was purchased from the Callonnean collection, and is from Courtagnon. I have the N. conoidea, in very good preservation, from the Valley of Ronca. Lamarck particularizes three species of this genus as being found among the French fossils : N. conoidea, N. tricarinata, N. mammaria. LX. Natka. A nearly globose umbilicated univalve : the opening entire and semicircular ; the columella transverse, without teeth, and callous externally ; the callosity narrowing, or even covering, the um- bilicus. These shells bear considerable resemblance to Nerita, in the form of their opening ; but they obviously differ from the shells of that genus, in always being umbilicated, and never having their columella dentated. Natica cepacea, Lam. is a species remarkable for its flattened roundish form, and still more for the large thick callous mass, writh which the umbilicus is covered, in the adult specimens. N. canrena is a frequent fossil in the Essex bank of fossil shells. Another species of this genus is also frequently found in this bank, which is figured by Dale, History and Antiquities of Harwich, Sfc. PL x. Fig. 16, and by him referred to Cochlea sublivida orefusco, ad basin atjusque orbis velut funicuius depingitur, Lister, Hist. Conchy I. PL 508, Fig. 19. The shell there depicted is evidently N. canrena ; but the Harwich fossil shell has a simple umbi- licus, and not an umbilicus intersected by a callous process, as is the case in N. canrena. This fossil seems more nearly to resemble N. glaucina, as represented by Lister, PL 562, Fig. 9, of the same work. Among the most rare of the Blackdown fossils, is a Natica, approach- ing in its character to N. canrena, Linn, and N. epiglottina, Lam. except that the callosity lays in the contrary direction to what it does in those species. The only one I know of was extricated from a mass of the 89 whetstone, which still fills its matrix, Plate VI. Fig. 2. It is so tho- roughly silicious, as to be transparent, where the matrix is not interposed, Plate VII. Fig. 2. Lamarck describes three species of this genus as French fossils : N. la- bellata, N. epiglottina, N. cepacea. LXI. Testacella. An obliquely conical formed univalve, with the summit a little turned spirally ; the opening oval, with the right edge turned inwards. LXII. Stomatia. An oval auriform univalve, with a prominent spire : the opening ample, and longer than wide ; the disk imperforate. LXI II. Carinaria. A very thin univalve, in the form of a cone flat- tened on its sides, the apex terminating in a very small involuted spire, and the back having a dentated keel : the opening entire, oval-oblong, contracted towards the angle of the keel. No remains of any shells of the three preceding genera have, I be- lieve, been found fossil; nor are the inhabitants of the two latter shells known. LXIV. Haliotis. A flattish, ear-formed shell, with a depressed spire, and a row of round holes along the right edge. The opening very large, and much longer than wide. M. Bosc observes that these shells are often found fossil in France and Italy. On this point I am obliged to observe, that, from the informa- tion which I have gained, from the sight of different collections, and from the examination of different authors, I conceive the contrary of this to be the fact. Indeed, of the seventeen species which M. Bosc enumerates, he mentions but one species, Haliotis plicata, as having been found fossil. I do not indeed, therefore, hesitate in saying, that the shells of this genus are among the rarest fossils. The nearest approach to this genus is a shell which is sometimes found among the fossils of St. Peter's Mountain, and has been hitherto considered as a Haliotis, but which certainly belongs to the following genus, which differs from Haliotis, in being without holes. VOL. III. N 90 \ LXV. Sigaretus. A depressed oval, nearly auriform shell, with a short spiral columella : the opening entire, very wide, spread out towards the summit of the right lip, and longer than wide. The shell, for the reception of which Lamarck formed this genus, is the Venus's ear ; Sigaretus, of Adanson ; Helix haliotidea, of Linnaeus ; and Eulla velutina, of Muller. This is an exceedingly rare fossil. The only specimen which I have seen is one which I obtained at the sale of the Museum of Mr. Strange ; and which, I afterwards discovered, by the purchase of some of Mr. Strange's manuscripts, had been thought of sufficient consequence to be the subject of a plate engraved by Antonio Gregori, from a drawing of Gaspero Massini. This is a Tuscan fossil. A fossil shell of this genus, but apparently not of this species, is found in St. Peter's Mountain, Maestricht, and is figured by Faujas St. Fond, Hist. Nat. de la Montagne de St. Pierre, P. 166, PL xxvm. Fig. 3. Plate VI. Fig. 9, is a magnified representation of a shell of this genus, which is shown of its natural size, Fig. 10. This microscopic fossil was found in the calcareous sand contained in the cavity of a gigantic cerithites. LXVI. Argonauta. A very thin involuted boat-like univalve; the spire turning into the opening ; with a double, tubercular keel. I have no knowledge of any shells of this genus having been found in a mineralized state. LETTER VIII. NEARLY STRAIGHT OR IRREGULARLY TWISTED SHELLS, WITH SIM- PLE OR DIVIDED CAVITIES PENICILLUS DENTALIUM VERMICULARIA SERPULA......SILIQUARIA. *» HAVING now arrived at those shells which are formed into nearly straight, or partly spiral and partly straight, or irregularly contorted tubes, some of which are inhabited by vermes and not by mollusca, I have concluded it to be better to introduce these shells together here, than to separate them according to the difference of their inhabitants. This seems to be particularly proper, since several of these shells, as will be seen, are known only as fossils, and consequently we can form no deter- mined judgment respecting the animals which formed and inhabited them. Besides, as several of these shells are concamerated, their exami- nation will very naturally precede that of the shells of the next division. LXVII. Penicillus. A tubular shell, narrow, and rather spirally turned at its origin, dilating into a club-form at the other end, which terminates in a convex disk, beset with small tubular perforations. This shell, which is Serpula penis, Linn, has not been seen fossil ; nor is the nature of its inhabitant known. LXVIII. Dentalium. A tubular, conical, slightly bowed univalve, open at both ends. Mr. Brander found, among the Hampton fossils, two species ; the one of which he considered as D. dephantinum, and the other D. entails. A specimen before me, of the latter fossil, seems in no respect to differ 92 from the recent shell. Another of my Hampton fossils seems to possess the characters of D. dentalis. The fossils which I possess of this genus are chiefly Italian. Among these I perceive, ]. D. fossile, Linn, approaching, by its numerous small longitudinal decussated striae, to D. striatulum ; but differing from that shell in not being angulated ; and in the cone, which it forms, diminish- ing more slowly towards its apex. 2. D. sexangulum, Linn. In this shell, the minuter striae, interposed between the large angular ones, vary in their number from one to three. Some of these fossils possess all the cha- racters of this species, but have their longitudinal striae interrupted by obliquely-disposed, transverse, or annular striae, placed at various dis- tances. These, perhaps, should be considered as D. annulatum. In the collection of Mr. Strange were some silicious casts, formed in the cavities ofdentalites. These, being partly transparent, and partly of the whiteness and opacity of china, have a very beautiful appearance. I am totally uninformed, as to the place in which they were found, but suspect them to have been formed in the fossils above described, from Italy. This shell is filled by one of the Vermes, possessing exterior organs, LXIX. Vermicularia. A tubular shell, turned spirally at its begin- ning, but continued more or less contorted : the sides entire, through its whole length, and the opening simple and round. The inhabitant a cephalous mollusca. Fossil specimens of shells of this genus appear to be by no means rare : silicious specimens are found in the green sandy stratum in Wiltshire. I have also specimens, from the collection of Mr. Strange, which were ob- tained by that gentleman from the hills of Tuscany. To one very fine fossil, which Mr. Strange considered worthy of being made the subject of an engraving of Gregori, after a drawing of Bonati, a piece of lace coral is attached, with a tubular shell, having the appearance of being formed by a series of funnel-formed bodies, the narrow parts of the supe- rior being inserted in the wider parts of the inferior. 93 These fossils were at one time supposed to be the fossil remains of earthworms: a supposition not now requiring to be further noticed. I do not know a more appropriate place to dispose of the fossils repre- sented Plate VI. Fig. 12 and 13, than under this genus. These vermi- culites are found in the fissile stone of Pappenheim and Gunsterhausen ; and have, I believe, no recent prototype. In some, as in Fig. 12, the covering itself of the animal is left, intertwined in a remarkably tor- tuous manner. In others, as in Fig. 13, the impression only is left. Bodies of a similar kind are sometimes formed on the Veronese fossils. Similar bodies are sometimes found in the Devonshire Whetstone ; but less contorted, and laid more lengthwise. Plate VII. Fig. 2. LXX. Serpula. A tubular adherent univalve, variously twisted or grouped, and sometimes divided by entire septa. The definition which I have here adopted for this genus, and which is the Linnsean, with the addition of the form of the shell, will for the present comprise several shells, which, as has been already observed, may, .when more fully known, be found worthy of forming distinct genera. I The common small tortuous and intertwined serpulae, S. glomerata, are very frequently found amongst, and attached to, the fossils of this and of other countries. Several different varieties; or perhaps species, of these shells, result from the different external forms which they derive from the longitudinal or oblique rugae which exist on their sur- faces. Hence their external figure is trihedral, tetrahedral, and even hexahedral, according to the number of these rugae. Plate VII.' Fig. 1, represents a portion of a trihedral serpula, and the polished slab. Plate VII. Fig. §, shows the appearance produced by a section, chiefly in the transverse direction of the shells of a species which is outwardly tetrahedral. The serpulite, Plate VII. Fig. 5, seerns to merit the term columnar. It is formed by a very small tube, disposed in contiguous turns, placed one on another, in nearly a horizontal direction, so as to constitute a small columniforrn body. The last and upper turn of the shell is 94 duced in a perpendicular direction; the termination, containing the aperture, which is round, standing upwards. It is from the neighbour- hood of Verona. Plate VII. Fig. 4, is a small serpulite, the turns of which are spi- rally disposed on a horizontal plane, excepting the last ; which, as in the preceding fossil, turns upwards. The Kentish chalk fossil, Plate VII. Fig. 11, is a serpulite of a very curious form and character. It is formed of four spiral turns, the last of which is carried out a little way in a straight line, and then appears to have had its termination marginated. From its aperture another tubular body appears to have proceeded, the inferior part of which closely imitates, in its general appearance, the fringed, rugous, flat disc, serving as the foot of the snail. This also terminates with a marginated ring, forming a round aperture. The whole surface of the shell is marked by very fine transverse striae ; and at distances, increasing as the shell has grown, distinct annular projections are ob- servable. The extraordinary form of this shell, and particularly the appearance of that part, which, though it must always have been oi a shelly hardness, bears so close a resemblance to the soft rugous part of the snail, led me very anxiously to seek for opportunities of examining its internal structure. I at last obtained two other specimens; and then found, on carefully breaking them, that at each of these annular pro- jections, and at that part where the shell seems to commence anew, a close internal septum existed, which presented externally a concave surface, and which prohibited any communication of the chambers with each other, or with the animal, which doubtlessly lived only in the last formed chamber. In this fossil we first observe a peculiarity of formation, which, as far as my knowledge extends, has not yet, although known to exist in several instances, obtained that attention which it seems ta demand. In the nautilus, it is generally believed, that the division of the shell 95 into chambers, into each of which a part of the animal is extended, gives to the animal a power of raising or of lowering itself in the water, as its will directs. But in this shell the posterior chambers are shut up distinctly separate from each other, and of course have no communica- tion with the last, or anterior chamber, in which the animal resides. A slight attention, only, being paid to this fossil, it is probable, that the first idea excited respecting it may be, that its original construction was deficient in that astonishing adaptation of means to the ends pro- posed to be accomplished, which always exists in the works of nature. Cut off from all communication with the closed apartments which he had quitted, but to which he was still adherent, the animal could have had no power in influencing its librations in the water, and consequently seems to have been fastened to an useless and ungovernable incumbrance. But here, as in every other apparent deficiency of design in the works of nature, only a further extension of our inquiries is necessary, to dis- cover the wisdom of the Almighty Creator. The conformation of the inferior part of this shell shows it to have been adherent to the shell of some other animal: a circumstance, indeed, which at first thought seems to add little to our information; since the parasite, depending on the shell which supports it, for its loco-motion, seems to need no other pe- culiarity of conformation, than that which secures its firm adherence. But the shell to which it was attached might have been likely to be im- peded in its own librations by an unlimited increase of the weight which was accumulated on it. To prevent the occurrence of this circumstance, the structure of this appendage appears to be admirably well calculated ; since the animal, with its shelly appendage, was, in all probability, thereby constantly kept at the same degree of specific gravity, through all the stages of the animal's growth. The formation of these several chambers doubt- lessly resulted from the animal increasing the size of its receptacle, by lengthening and widening it at its anterior part, quitting, as it advanced, the posterior part; and having finished its chamber for that period, 96 shutting and sealing up so much of the hinder part of the shell as it had then quitted. To enable it to do this, by forming a transvere septum of an appropriate form, it needed only to possess, at its .posterior termina- tion, an organization calculated for the secretion, deposition, and mo- delling, of shelly matter. The absolute weight of the animal must necessarily have increased with its growth ; but if with this increase of growth an additional chamber of air was produced, the animal and its appendage would preserve the same degree of specific gravity. It is evident, that whilst a due proportion was preserved between the solid part of the animal and these testaceous air-vessels, the animal to which they were attached would not be at all affected by their weight, let the number or size of those which were accu- mulated on it have been ever so considerable. It seems to be a characterizing property of the animals belonging to some ofthe shells of this genus, to close or fill up all that posterior part of the shell which they do not inhabit : and in some of these we have seen, that by leaving these chambers empty, the shell and animal have probably preserved the same degree of buoyancy through their whole growth. But in another very curious species, the Serpula heliciformis, known only in a recent state, the whole dwelling of which appears to be not testaceous, but actually spathous, the posterior seeming snail part is gradually filled up, so as to become a solid mass of apparent spathose matter. To account for this difference, it only seems to be required to consider that this shell does not attach itself to light bodies, whose buoyancy it would affect, but that it is always found imbedded in fixed masses of madrepore, and in general of Madrepora meandrites, Linn, where, from the body being fixed, in which it inhabits, no regulation of its weight is necessary. The fossil, Plate VII. Fig. 7, formed by almost horizontally disposed spiral turns, flattish, but rather rounded and slightly carinated on each side, the last turn being a little produced, and terminating in a round and dis- tinctly marginated aperture, is, as well as the following, introduced in this place with much doubt of the propriety of thus disposing of them. The fossil, Plate VII. Fig. 8, is from Shepey : some, still larger, are found at Bognor. Its spiral turns are placed partly one on the other,, so as to form a nearly smooth convex upper and concave under surface : the turns themselves being nearly round, and beset with slight longitu- dinal ridges. The last turn, of this fossil is very much produced, and terminates in a round distinctly bordered aperture. The produced or extended turn of these and the preceding fossils, with the completely round and distinctly marginated mouth, have in- duced me to place them together: and, in consequence of the peculiar organization of the rugous part of the species, Fig. 11, I have no hesitation in considering it as an adherent shell, and of placing, it among the serpulae. But with respect to the other two species, agreeing as they do with this fossil, as to their peculiar termination, I must acknowledge that I have no reason for supposing them to have been adherent shells. I have however ventured to assume this situation for them, until more correct observations shall allot them one more appropriate. LXXI. Siliquaria. A tubular shell, spiral at its beginning, continued in an irregular form; being divided laterally, through its whole lengthy by a narrow slit, and formed into chambers by entire septa. This is Serpula anguina, Linn. Rumpf. Tab. XLI. Lit. n. Baron Born has figured, Born. Mus. Cf an animal which was much injured, not only gives the idea of a similar animal, and shows the appendage by which it was connected with the siphunculus of the shell ; but also seems to bear that figure which authorizes the supposition, that part of the shell had been let into the body of the animal. This partial envelopement of the shell by the animal is also confirmed, as is justly observed by Lamarck, by the blanched appearance, which extends some little distance from the edge of the mouth of the shell of the N. pompilius, and which differs so widely from that which is yielded by the other external part of the shell, wtiich is beautifully marked by transverse orange-coloured stripes. LXXII. Nautilus. A spiral, many-chambered, discoidal univalve, with smooth sides. The turns contiguous, the outer side covering the inner. The chambers separated by transverse septa, which are con* cave outwards, and perforated by a tube passing through the disk. The different chambers of these shells are very shallow, when com- pared with the last, which forms the opening, and which is, doubtless, the residence of the animal. Whilst examining these shells, it is necessary to pay particular atten* tion to that particular organization, by which a communication is kept up between the animal and the most interior part of the shell ; since we shall not otherwise be able to judge of the peculiar modifications of these parts, which occur in the fossil remains of this and of other genera of this family. Some have supposed the siphuncle of the nautilus to have been a rigid testaceous tube : thus M. Bosc says : " Toutes ces cloisons sont traversees par un petit tuyau cylindrique, epais, creux, imperfore late- ralement, qui paroit composoit de petits tuyaux plus evases d'un cote, et implantes les uns dans les autres, et grossissant avec les cfcisohs/' 'Hist Nat. des Coquilles, Tome V. p. 164. But that the tube in the nautilus was partly a membraneous tube, was known so long ago as the time of Hooke, who believed it to be a tube dilatable or compressible at pleasure ; and that, like the air-bladders of fishes, it served, by its expansion or contraction, to render the animal buoyant or not. In the representation given by Rumphius of the dead animal which had inhabited the shell of N> pompilius, a round membraneous process is seen in the posterior part of the animal, which exactly agrees with, and had evidently been separated from, the siphunculus; and serves to show, that a connection existed between this part and the body of the animal. In the dried recent shells of the nautilus, the membraneous part of the siphunculus is, I believe, seldom found, it being either removed by decay, or by the process of slitting the shell, to obtain the display of its internal structure: but I am pleased in being able to say, that frequently, in fossil specimens, not only is the existence of a continued siphunculus, extending through every chamber of the shell, proved, as in Plate VII. Fig. 12 ; but, that it is sometimes to be seen so much larger than the shelly part of the tube with which it is joined, as gives reason for supposing it to have been capable of a considerable degree of dilatation. This I am able to demonstrate in several specimens, as at Plate VII. Fig. 10, in which even the anatomy of this part may be ascertained. It may be there seen, that the testaceous part of the tube, extending through about one fourth of the chamber, is formed by an elegant sinu- ous turning of the septum. It also there appears, that the mem- braneous tube which has proceeded from the animal is extended over 4he internal surface of the testaceous tube, is reflected a little on the exterior surface of the tube, and then returns and passes on to the inner surface of the next testaceous tube, and may thus be traced 102 oii,; in -a similar manner, through all the compartments; it appearing to be a continued membrane, beginning with the animal, and extend- ing to the first and smallest compartment; the end of each testaceous tube seeming to be included in a duplicature of this membrane, and placed on its outside, somewhat in the manner in which the abdo- minal viscera are involved in the duplicatures on the outside of the peri- toneum. We have thus, I trust, by the fossil remains of this genus, obtained a confirmation of the opinion of Hooke, and established the fact of a con- tinued tube, capable of dilatation and contraction, passing through all the chambers of the shell. From what source the gaseous matter is de- rived with which this tube was filled, and in what manner the animal effected those modifications of the tube and its contained air, on which the variation of its buoyancy depended, are subjects of inquiry still de- manding the assiduous attention of the naturalist, and on which I will not pretend to hazard a conjecture. The power of raising or sinking the shell appears, from the observa- tions just made on the siphuncular membrane, to depend on this organ alone : some other use remains, therefore, to be found for the closed cavities of the chambers. With these it is observable, that the animal preserves no communication, except for the passage of the siphunculus; he closing each chamber, and completely excluding himself from them, as he extends the siphunculus, and, as agreeable to the increase of his growth, he forms himself a new dwelling. Hence it appears, I think* highly probable, that the only use of the vacuities formed by these nu- merous chambers, is to counteract the weight of the increasing mass of the animal, and of the thick shell ; and thereby to render the whole so nearly of the weight of the water, that the difference arising from the siphuncular membrane being contracted or dilated, may occasion the mass to swim or sink. It will, I trust, appear, in confirmation of this opinion, that in another genus of the multilocular shells, the belemnite, 103 another contrivance is adopted, apparently for the production of this effect — the rendering the weight of the mass so near to that of water, that a very slight change may occasion or destroy its buoyancy. Should the opinions here offered be found to be objectionable, it may be considered, in excuse, that the economy of the animal has hitherto undergone but little investigation. So little, indeed, has the structure and the nature of the siphunculus been understood, that even De Bosc, the latest writer, perhaps, on the subject, points out no other use of this tube to the animal, that of its serving to conduct its tail to the beginning of the spire. " II n'y a pas de doute que ce tuyau ne serve a conduire la queue de Panimal a Porigine de la spire ou elle s'attache." Histoire naturelle des coquillcs, Tome V. p. 1 64. We at present know, in a recent state, and of a size sufficiently large to allow of an examination of the structure, without the aid of a micro- scope, but one species of nautilus, N. pompilius. There is, however, no doubt of several distinct species existing in a mineralized state. In Shepey Island, in the corresponding stratum of Brentford, in some parts of Somersetshire, particularly near Bath, and, I doubt not, but in several other parts of this island, a fossil nautilus is found, which, from the roundness of the back part of the shell, may be con- cluded to approach exceedingly near, at least in its form, to N. pompilius. Some of these, which have been found at Shepey, where they are mostly imbedded in septaria, as well as those which have been found at Brentford, are of very considerable magnitude, and seem to resemble N. pompilius in their internal structure. The outside of these fossils are frequently resplendent, with a1 pearly coat. This circumstance demands some little consideration ; since, as this is not the case with the outside of the shell of N. pompilius, it seems to point out the fossil as a different species, as the nacre does not exist on the outside of the shell of the recent species. Future observations will determine this question more decidedly; but at present, I am dis- posed to imagine, that, in the fossil specimens, the external part of 104 the shell may have been removed by decomposition; whilst the na- cre, which has remained, in consequence of some peculiarity of struc- ture or of composition, assumes the appearance of being the real external shell. The nautilites of Sheppey particularly engaged the attention of the late Mr. William Jones, who, speaking of those which are imbedded in septaria, observes : " When this shell (Nautilus) is found lodged in the waxen vein, a phenomenon is observable in some of the specimens, which seems the most surprising and unaccountable of any that occurs in this branch of philosophy. The stone is quartered irregularly into tali or cubes, by seams of a coarse yellow spar, of the colour of beesr wax, which intersect the stone in many directions : and what is won.- derful to see, these seams of spar pursue their course through the sub- stance of the nautilus, as if nothing had been interposed, though the shell is nearly as impenetrable as a flint. The case is very difficult, if we consider it as a penetration of the shell : but perhaps, when the shell was detained within the stone, it was obliged to part and crack, by the subsequent shrinking of the stone; so that when the spar filled the seams of the stone, it filled up the crevices of the shell at the same time. The insinuation of the spar through the siphunculus, and its forming a column within the chambers of the shell, is another remarkable cir- cumstance. Upon the whole> the nautilus, thus inclosed, and affected by the waxen vein, is one of the most curious fossils in the world *." In the neighbourhood of Whitby, situated on the sea-coast, in the North Riding of Yorkshire, a species of nautilites is found, which dif- fers from the preceding in the back part of the shell, or of its turns being flat instead of round : so that the sides go off almost at a right angle from the back of the shell. Between Bath and Bristol, in the neighbourhood of Keynsham, there is sometimes found another species, in which the back of the shell is * Physiological Disquisitions, &c. by William Jones, F.R. S. p. 392, 1781, 105 actually depressed in its centre. A specimen of this species, which I possess, is a German fossil : the siphunculus, in this specimen, runs about midway between the middle of the chamber and its inner side. The line, Plate VII. Fig. 13, is that which is described by its posterior surface. Breynius had observed, that all nautili did not agree in the form of their septa; and hence divides them into two orders: 1st. Those with concavo-convex semilunar diaphragms; and, 2dly, Those with jagged or sinuated diaphragms. Dacosta also, in his " Elements of Con- chology," says, " I have seen fossil kinds with foliaceous sutures, like the ammonitse; which implies, that all the species have not such regular roundish partitions." P. 168. The fossil shell of this description which appears to be the most uncommon of those which I have seen; differing the most widely of any, not only from the recent, but from the other fossil nautili, is one, of which I purchased the remains at the sale of Dr. Menish's collection. Of the place where this fossil was obtained, I have no information : its striking characters are, its great size, the situation of its siphunculus, and the peculiar form of its septa, and of course of its chambers. Plate VII. Fig. 15, is an outline sketch of this fossil, one third of the size of the original. The outermost septum in this specimen, which is not that which was the last, and consequently the largest, of the original shell, measures full nine inches in its longest, and seven inches in its shortest diameter. But the most striking character which it offers to our observation is, the form of the septa ; since these, instead of having a regular rounded sweep, as in the recent nautili, and in most of the fossil species, have an undulated form. This results from each septum forming a deep lobated process, extending backwards, on each side, over which process is hollowed out a deep sinuous notch, for the reception of the cor- responding lobated process of the next anterior septum. VOL. III. P 106 From the peculiar form of the chambers and septa in this fossil, an undulating or ibliaceous suture is formed, which necessarily approxi- mates it to the genus Ammonites, and prevents our regarding any longer this simple suture as one of the generic characters of Nautilus. The siphunculus in the recent nautilus, I believe, always passes through nearly the middle of the septa. This is the case also with those nautilites of Shepey, which bear the general form of N* pompilius ; and with those found at Brentford, one of which, impregnated with pyrites, is represented Plftte VII. Fig. 12. But in other specimens, as in the one just noticed, it passes much nearer to the inner part of the shell. In others, again, it passes nearer to the outer part of the shell ; and in one specimen which I possess, from Yeovil, Plate VII. Fig. 16, it is seen to run along the back of the shell. The septa, in these last specimens, frequently have an undulating direction : the fossil approximating, both in the situation of the siphuncle and form of the septa, to the Cornu ammonis. It should be remarked, with respect to the size of the siphunculus, that, independent of the difference which may perhaps take place in the degree of dilatation of the tube, at the time of its becoming involved in its matrix, considerable difference may result from the section of a specimen by which the tube is displayed. Thus, if the longitudinal section of the siphuncle is made directly along its middle, it will neces- sarily display a wider opening than if the section had been made more to either side. I am perfectly unacquainted with the nautilite without distinct cham- bers, or visible concamerations, mentioned under the article nautilite, by Bourguet, in his dictionary, on the authority of Spada, who describes it : " Nautilites unius aufractus, dorso subrotundo, squameo, reliqua corporis parte palmata." Spada, Cat. Lap. Agri Veron. p. 20. I am also ignorant of the fossil which the inhabitants of Maltha call Capo di gatto\ and which Lhwydd describes as Nautilita articulus, Lithoph. 107 No. 303. I should however suppose it not to be the cast of a chamber, but a disengaged septum ; some of which I have, I believe, from She- pey ; and others, which I have reason to suppose to be foreign. Plate XI. Fig. 25, is a minute fossil shell found on the Appennines, near to Sienna, by Thomas Meade, Esq. of Chatley Lodge, near Bath, whose kindness I shall have repeated occasion to acknowledge. This shell appears to be N. crispus, Linn, having lateral spires, with about twenty flexuous crenated joints in the exterior whirl, marked by elevated striae; outer edge caririated ; inferior volutions occult; aperture clasping the body, semicordate, furnished Avith a small perforation or syphon. Testae. Britan. />. 187. Plancus observes, that none of these beauttful fossils are found on the yellow sand of Bologna; but that they are very abundant in the sand of the mountain Covignani, in Rimini. To the kindness of the same gentleman I am indebted for the oppor- tunity of laying before you the minute fossil nautilus, Plate XL Fig. 26, which is perhaps one of the species alluded to by Colonel Montague, as a very minute non-descript species, found with the other minute Sienna fossil shells. This is spiral : the inner turns concealed ; the outer turn is wide toward the middle of the shell, where it is umbilicated; but very narrow at the back, and is formed of about fifteen chambers. I have but one specimen of this fossil, and am unable to discover any thing respecting its siphuncle. This shell is more minute than the preceding fossil, and in its general form very much resembles a reduced N. pom- pilius. Considering the genus Nautilus of Linnaeus as too comprehensive, and that Nautilus should contain only those spiral multilocular shells, whose inner turns are concealed, and whose siphuncle is obvious; and that Ammonites should include those whose turns are apparent on both sides, but whose siphuncle is concealed ; no genus is left for the reception of those minute shells which were discovered by Beccarius and Plancus, in 108 which the characters of Nautilus and Ammonites are blended, the turns being apparent on both sides, and the siphuncle obvious ; but which have been generally considered as recent Cornua ammonis. It is true that Lamarck says : " Les discorbes seroient de veritable nautiles, si leur tours de spire, au lieu d'etre tous entierement apparens et a decouverts, etoient caches par la dernier tour enveloppant les autres ou les recouvrant par sa paroi exterieure, et si elles ne man- quoient de syphon. Si ces memes coquilles ayant leur tours de spires a decouvert et bien apparens, avoient leur cloisons perfbrees par un sy- phon, elles seroient alors des spirolines *, " But on referring to the genus Spirolina, this genus is found to have been formed for the recep- tion of those minute shells, which, being partly spiral and partly straight, differ from those of the genus Spinda, only in having their spiral turns contiguous. It therefore seems necessary to make a still farther separation, and to dispose of these shells, in which the characters of Nautilus and Ammo- nites are blended, under a distinct genus. This is the more requisite, since thus the error would be more plainly shown of considering these shells as ammonites, of which genus none have been yet found in a recent state. The characters of such genus — a discoidal, multilocular spiral univalve, with all the turns visible on both sides, arid the septa pierced with an obvious siphuncle — seem to me sufficiently strong and distinct to authorize the formation of a separate genus, which might be marked by the term Ammonautilust expressive of its mingled characters. I shall not, however, presume on such a change ; but having made these suggestions, will leave them under the genus Nautilus. N. Beccarii, Linn. Plane. Conch, min. not. Tab. I. Fig. i, claims the first notice, in consequence of its being the first discovered shell of this family, and that which gave rise to the supposition of the existence of recent Cornua ammonis. * Annales de Mus. d'Hist. Nat, Tome V. p. 182. 109 The existence of these shells, in a fossil state, was known to Beccarius and Plancus, who found them in considerable numbers in the moun- tains not far distant from Rimini and Bologna. Plate XL Fig. 27, is one of these fossil shells, brought from the Appennines, in the neighbour- hood of Sienna, by Mr. Meacle. The matrix is a yellowish spathose concretion. The reversed variety of this species, or, as it is in general considered, the reversed species JV. beccarii reversus, is also found in considerable numbers on the Appennines, along with the former. This reversed fossil shell is represented Plate XI. Fig. 28. The opposite side of the shell is here represented ; but, being of a reversed shell, it runs in the same direction as Fig. 27. Among the minute shells which Plancus considered as recent Cornua ammonis. were some which he distinguished as being bordered; since many of them, especially those which were whole, possessed a wide pel- lucid margin, which was spread round the whole shell. Whether all these shells were naturally thus bordered, and lost this border by the violence of the waves; or whether those which are bordered are of a distinct spe- cies, he attempts not to determine. De Conch, min. notis, Cap. iv. Similar shells have been found fossil in the hills of Bologna and of Pied- mont ; and both the recent and fossil ones, he observes, are sometimes found as large as small lupins. App. i. p. 85. One of these fossils, through the kindness of Mr. Meade, is repre- sented Plate XL Fig. 30. It appears to accord very nearly with Nau- tilus subarcuatulus, Supp. to Test. Brit. PL xix. Fig. 1, the separated con- voluted portion of which had been taken for N. calcar. LXXIIL Spirula. A multilocular shell, partly spiral and partly straight, the turns being disposed in a discoidal form, and separate from each other; the last turn being elongated, and continued in a straight line. The septa are transverse, regularly concave outwards, and pierced with a shelly tube : the opening circular. This genus is very properly separated from Nautilus by Lamarck; 110 since, except in the form of the septa, and the disposition of the siphun- culus, there is no concurrence of character. The fossil shells of this genus appear to resemble Spirilla J'ragilis, Larn. Nautilus spirulus, Linn, very closely, except in size. In this respect the difference is so very considerable, the fossil shells being so much larger, as almost to warrant: a specific distinction, founded on this circumstance alone. The fossil shells of this genus have hitherto been named Lituites, from their resem- blance, in form, to a bishop's pastoral staff; but, in these pages, I shall denominate them Spmilites, in concordance with the name of the genus. The siphunculus, in the recent specimens of this shell, differs from that of the nautilus, in being formed by one continued shelly tube, or by the smaller end of each anterior one terminating in the larger end of each posterior one ; but whether this is constantly the case or not, in fossil specimens, I am unable to decide ; since, in those specimens, in which I have discovered such appearances as would lead to a suspicion of the siphunculus being partly membranous, I have not been able to ascer- tain whether they were fragments of the spirulites or of orthoceratites. The very great length of the straight part of shell, in the spirulites, will necessarily occasion this ambiguity, until some decidedly distinguish- ing marks of the orthoceratites and of the straight part of the lituites can be discovered. As in the nautilites, so in the spirulites, the situation of the siphunculus, varies in different specimens, and perhaps in those which are in every other respect similar. We have seen that, in the nautilus, the siphunculus is partly mem- branous and probably elastic ; whilst, in the shells of this genus, we find that the whole siphunculus is of shell, and consequently unyielding. From this difference of organization, a considerable difference must ne- cessarily exist, as to the influence which the introduction of water or of air must have on the buoyancy of the several shells: a difference depending on the greater quantity admissible in a dilatable than in a rigid tube. A more intimate knowledge of the nature of these shells must he Ill obtained, before we can form any opinion respecting the circumstances in the economy of the animals inhabiting them, which have demanded these particular modifications. The fossil shells of this genus are, 1 believe, always found imbedded in a matrix, excepting those fragments of the straight part, which are perhaps not to be distinguished from orthoceratites, the genus which must next employ our attention. Spirulites are found in chiefly a red- dish marble, in Mecklenbourg, in some parts of Normandy, and, it is also said, in Switzerland. But they are obtained, by far most frequently, from Gothland and Oelarid : the latter place affording the finest specimens : those in which the spiral part of the shell is preserved are very rare. The one which is figured Plate VI. Fig. 11, is from Oeland, and was purchased from the Calonnian collection. In this specimen, not only are the spiral turns of the shell seen, but traces of the continuous shelly siphunculus also are evident, Plate VII. Fig. 18, in a dark red lime-stone, evidently containing a large proportion of iron ; in which is displayed the spiral termination,, and a small part of the straight portion of the last turn of one of these shells. Plate VII. Fig. 19, represents another of these fossils, imbedded in grey marble, from some part of Germany. LXXFV. Orthocera. A straight or slightly bent, rather conical, mul- tilocular shell ; the chambers separated by transverse curved septa, pierced by a tube. The shells of this, as well as those of the former genus, were placed by Limiaeus under the genus Nautilus; the considerable dif- ference, which is observable in their external form seems, however, fully to warrant their separation. Most of the shells, which, though straight, have been considered by Linnaeus, and other naturalists, as nautili, are minute and even microscopic shells ; and, when sufficiently examined, some of them may be found to possess characters distinctive even from both those of Nautilus and Orthocera. These are N. jugosus, N. costatus, N. radicula, N. subarcuatulus, N. semilituus, N. rectus, N. spi- 112 tiulosus, N. legumen, and N. raphanus. But, obliged to observe certam limits, I shall not dwell, in this work, on those fossils which are so small as to be microscopic objects, except where it is required, for the sake of particular illustration. In reviewing the history of these fossils, we find many instances of the perplexity and confusion proceeding from an endeavour to ascertain the nature of a body, which cannot be referred to any known recent animal, as strictly analagous. Gesner. de Figuris Lapidum, cap. xiv. p. 167, and Aldrovandus, Museum Mctallicum, pag. 732, considered them as the petrified tails of crabs; the former naming them Cauda cancri, s, astaci fluvia- tilis ; and the latter, Cancrita. But as the knowledge of fossils advanced, their resemblance to the alveolus of the belemnite was perceived, and they were considered by many as the alveoli .of large belemnites, and there- fore obtained the name of cylindrical alveoli. Some of these fossils were even considered as part of the vertebral spine of some marine animal : an excuse for which may be found in the particular forms possessed by some of these bodies. Our countryman, Lhwydd, did not make much progress in developing the nature of these fossils; he was satisfied with naming them Alveoli; and, of course, with considering them as the alveoli of large belemnites. Scheuchzer, although not informed of the real nature of these fossils, very properly separated them from the belemnites. No correct know- ledge, however, was obtained respecting them, until Breyn and Klein made them the objects of their investigations, and were led to the con- clusion, that they were the remains of some marine, univalve, cham- bered shell. This opinion was soon confirmed by the discovery, by Plancus, of minute recent shells on the shores of Rimini, which appeared to possess the characters of orthoceratites: but no recent shells of this genus are known, except those which have been found in the sea sand of dif- ferent parts, and which are so minute,' as to be microscopic objects. The shells of this genus, Plate VII. Fig. 14, like the nautili, are divided into chambers by septa, through which passes a tube or siphun- 113 culus, varying much in its form, situation, and size, in different spe- cimens. The surfaces of these fossils vary so considerably, as to form very striking differences, on which may be grounded their separation into dif- ferent species. In some their surface is smooth, and in others marked by longitudinal or transverse striae. The parts possessed by the cham- bers are in some marked, externally, by a considerable depression; whilst in others, these corresponding parts are distinguished by a slight degree of protuberance. They differ, also, with respect to their form ; some being straight, while others are described as slightly curved at their smaller end. Their size varies, from being, as has been just observed, so small as to be a microscopic object, as to equal the thickness of a man's arm. M. Walch observes, that they are sometimes nearly four inches in dia- meter, and more than an ell long, possessing nearly seventy chambers. A specimen now before me is full four inches in diameter. Dr. Wright describes an orthoceratite in marble, two feet four inches in length, in which were sixty-six partitions. Phil. Trans. Vol. XLIX. p. 670. Some care is however necessary, before we determine on the actual form of such of these fossils, as, being imbedded, have had their parts displayed by section. If we suppose a spirulite thus imbedded, and a section commenced at its straight part, should the section not happen to be made on the same plane with that on which the spiral part is dis- posed, a part only of the last turn may be cut through, by which the straight part may be separated from the spiral, and the part of the last turn left with the straight part, might lead those, who did not take this circumstance into consideration, to consider it as a bent orthoceratites. Indeed, so easy it is for mistakes to have been thus made, that I should be disposed to look with suspicion at all the sections of orthoceratites bearing this bent figure, were it not that analogy authorizes the belief that such is sometimes their natural form; since this form is observable VOL. III. Q 114 in many of the different species of the minute recent concamerated shells. In none of the multilocular shells are such differences observable, with respect to the size of the siphunculi, as in this genus. In some the siphunculus does not equal one tenth, whilst in others it exceeds a third, and is sometimes nearly one half, of the diameter of the orthoceratite itself. It generally assumes that tumid form, which a membraneous part might be expected to assume, when dilated between the septa : as may be seen in the large siphunculus, Plate VIII. Fig. 2, and in Fig. 7, where the siphunculus is seen intersected by the septa of the orthoce- ratites ; the whole being imbedded in a mass of whitish marble. The siphunculus, or rather the cast of the siphunculus, of this shell, very often yields a striking appearance, from an obliquity in its form, as in Plate VIII. Fig. 2, and Fig. 6. This appearance has contributed somewhat to the degree of error which has existed, re- specting the original nature of tbese bodies; since, even those who might be disposed to consider them as deriving their form from the siphunculus of an orthoceratites, might expect to find a corresponding obliquity of form in the orthoceratites itself. But a slight investigation will show, that there exists no reason for supposing, from this circum- stance, that the shell to which it belonged possessed any particular degree of obliquity of form. The septa, by which the siphunculus is intersected, being a seg- ment of a hollow sphere, the divisions of the siphunculus must neces- sarily vary with the direction with which the siphunculus passes through them. If the siphunculus passes through the centre of the septa, and in a line nearly parallel with the parieties of the tube, it will be marked by segments of a hollow sphere, the sections of which are disposed in nearly transverse lines, as at Plate VIII. Fig. 3. But if the siphun- culus does not pass through the centre of the septa, and yet keeps a line nearly parallel with the parieties of the tube, it will be marked by seg- 115 ments of a hollow sphere, the sections of which will be disposed Fn oblique lines, as at Plate VIII. Fig. 4 : the obliquity of the lines increasing with the increase of the distance from the centre. This obli- quity, however, may not always depend on this circumstance ; since, in some species, the septa themselves are disposed in an oblique, or rather undulating direction. When it is considered, that of the recent spirula, very few are found with more than three or four concamerations of the straight part of the shell attached to the spiral, it is not to be wondered at, that the straight is .so seldom found connected with the spiral part, in the fossil speci- mens. In consequence of this circumstance, some difficulty arises in determining which of the straight concamerated fossils are to be con- sidered as having been of that form, whilst existing in their complete or perfect state, and therefore belonging to the genus Orthocera\ and which are to be considered as having originally terminated in a spiral form, and which may consequently be considered as the remnant of shells of the genus Spirula. An instance of the confusion thus occasioned may be seen by comparing the representations, Plate VII. Fig. 14, and Fig. 19, a. The first of these figures, Fig. 14, represents a fossil, which has always been so much regarded as an orthoceratites, that if any one, who had studied these fossils, had been desired to point out one which was most decidedly an orthoraceratite, and not a spirulite, he would have immediately referred to this fossil. But the acquisition of the slab of marble from which the fossil repre- sented Fig. 19, a, was taken, has determined, that such an opinion should be adopted with some reserve. It is a slab of light-coloured Oeland marble, in which the fossils are seen on one side, in their natural state, in relief; and, on the other side, their internal structure is displayed, in numerous sections, by the cutting of the marble. By an examina- tion of the fossils on the rough part of the marble, as well as by exa- mining some of the sections, it will be seen that they bear not only the exact form of the preceding fossil, Figure 14, but possess also a surface 116 striated exactly in a similar manner. The correspondence is indeed so very close, as to render it a subject of future inquiry, whether these fos- sils are not of the same species. If this question were decided in the affir- mative, then would it unexpectedly turn out that the fossil, Plate VII. Fig. 14, which has always hitherto been regarded as an orthoceratite, is really a spirulite ; since, in another part of this slab, Fig. 19, b, an oblique section is seen, of one of these fossil bodies terminating in spiral convolutions. It is here proper to remark, that the spirulite in red lime- stone, Plate VII. Fig. 18, also has its surface marked in a manner very much resembling that of the assumed orthoceratites, Plate VII. Fig. 14. These fossils are far from being very abundant; nor are they very generally diffused, being known, at present, to exist in very few places. They are said to be found in greatest numbers in Mecklenbourg, and sometimes in the neighbourhood of Francfort, where they seldom exceed the ordinary belemnite in size. They are also said to be found, though but rarely, in Switzerland. M. Gmelin ibund them in Siberia, and M. Zukert mentions them as existing in the marble quarries of Blankenbourg ; but the greatest quantities of them are discoverable in the marble of Oeland, which, being of a reddish colour, and variegated by the different colours of these bodies, and of the spathose matter which fills their chambers, and being also susceptible of a fine polish, very often yields an extremely beautiful appearance. Some of the pavement of Chelsea College, and of Hampton Court, is paved with slabs of this, and a grey marble ; in which, when wetted, numerous sections of this fossil are discoverable. The grandest specimen which is, I believe, known, of this kind, is a slab, now in my possession, and which originally formed a part of the museum of Mr. Strange. In this specimen, a square slab of eighteen inches by thirteen, are contained more than fourteen longitudinal, besides numerous transverse sections, of different orthoceratites; showing, by the different directions in which the sections have been formed, the various structure of the several parts of these fossils. 117 I am not, of my own knowledge, able to speak of the existence of these fossils in Great Britain. They appear, however, from Lhwydd's catalogue, to be by no means rare, in different parts of Gloucester- shire, Oxfordshire, Northamptonshire, &c. It is exceedingly gratifying to me, to be able, through the kindness of Mr. Meade, to place before you a representation of a beautiful minute orthoceratite, brought by him from the Appennines, near Sienna. Plate VIII. Fig. 16, is the fossil of its natural size ; and Fig. 17 is the representation of the same fossil, magnified by a single lens, for the purpose of obtaining a more distinct view of its structure. Colonel Montague, alluding to a recent, minute, straight, chambered shell, varying in some respects from N. costatus, Linn, gives the follow- ing description of this fossil, which I take the liberty of introducing, not merely on account of its perspicuity and correctness, but because I could not myself have subjected a sufficient number to real inspection, with- out trespassing further than I wished on Mr. Meade's kindness. " A most elegant shell of this kind is found fossil upon the Appen- nines, near Sienna, several of which we have been favoured with by Mr. Meade and Mr. Higgin-sori. These vary a little; but the most per- fect are an inch in length, completely cylindric, except at the last joint, which is rather larger, and terminates conically, ending in a small protuberance, nearly half as long as the joint to which it belongs: the anterior end of those which appear perfect, is a little contracted round, and smooth, or projecting beyond the ribs ; in the centre is placed the aperture or syphon, whose margin is finely crenated. " They vary also as much in the number of chambers as in that of the ribs; possessing from ten to fifteen of the former, and from nine to twelve of the latter: the joints are not much raised, but usually two or three at the anterior end more than the rest. The shell is extremely thick in proportion ; and we found, by dividing several down the mid- dle, that the septa were equally strong, and each furnished with a small 118 crenated perforation in the middle, but not a continued syphon : the cells are not round, but in the section appear rather concavo-convex. The colour is of a pearly white. " May not this be a variety of the N. costatus of superior growth, occa- sioned by a more southern climate ? But whether it is found at present in a recent or living state, we are ignorant." Testae. Brit. Sup. p. 85. LETTER X. HIPPURITES DALMATIAN AND VERONESE FOSSILS OF A SIMILAR APPEARANCE BELEMNITES, OPINIONS RESPECTING SPECIES DESCRIBED. LXXV. .HippujiiTEs. A straight or conical shell, furnished in- ternally with transverse septa, and with two lateral, longitudinal, obtuse, and converging ridges; the last chamber being closed by an operculum. The Baron Picot de la Peirouse first noticed these bodies, is the same shell, rubbed down, to show the internal structure. I have suspected the former of these shells to be, perhaps, N. semi- lituus, or subarcuatulus, and the latter to be N. carinatulus, Fig. 73, of Walker ; but there is no agreement in the openings. LXXXVIII. Spirolina. A multilocular univalve, in part spirally con- voluted : the turns contiguous, the latter ones straight : the septa trans- verse, perforated by a tube. These minute shells are so alike in their general form to those of the genus Spirula, that Lamarck, who has discovered several species and VOL. III. ' Y 162 varieties of them at Grignon, was much disposed to place them under the same genus, until he adverted to the circumstance of the spiral turns in these shells being contiguous, whilst in Spirula they are se- parate. They in general form one or two spiral turns in a horizontal direction, and then become elongated in a straight line. In some species there is only a little curvature, instead of the spiral turns; and, in others, the whole shell is entirely straight. Some have their spiral turns flattened, others have them cylindrical ; but the chambers in all form some degree of projection externally, which gives the shell the appearance of being divided by transverse ridges. May not the straight species be the Nau- tilus radicula of Montague? Plate XI. Fig. 8 and 9, represent the dif- ferent species particularized by Lamarck ; S. depressa and S. cylindracea, Fig. 10, being supposed to be a variety of S. cylindracea, Fig. 9. LXXXIX. Miliola. A transverse, ovato-globose or elongated, mul- tilocular univalve, with transverse chambers, involving the axis alter- nately, and in three directions : the opening small and circular, or oblong, at the base of the last chamber. The frequency of these fossils, in the neighbourhood of Paris, is such, that some species of them form the principal part of the masses of stone in some of the quarries. Lamarck describes seven species : and gives figures of live of these species, which are here copied. These figures are considerably magnified, the actual size being about that of a grain of sand, Plate XI. Fig. 11, is Miliolites ringens ; Fig. 12 and 13, are of M. Saxorum ; Fig. 14, 15, and 16, of M. cor anguinum ; Fig. 17, 18, and 19, of M. trigonula; and Fig. 20, of M. opposita. The other species men- tioned by him are, M. planulata and M. birostris. It is also mentioned by this author, that he possesses recent specimens of these animals, which were taken on focus, near the Island of Corsica. Agreeable to this account of Lamarck's, of these animals having been found in a "recent state, are the discoveries of the late Mr. Boys and of 163 Mr. Walker, who found on our shores, in a recent state, three, and perhaps four, of the species which have been just shown to exist, as fossils, in the neighbourhood of Paris. Miliolites Saxorum, Lam. appears to agree with the hollow oval worm- shell, Serpula subovalis intorta, of Mr. Walker, Testae, minut. rarior. PL I. Fig. 1. Mr. Montague, who separated from the genus Serpula those shells of this family which are independent, or not attached to other bodies, and placed them under a new genus, which he names Vermi- culum, considers this shell as V. intortum ; and very justly observes, agreeable to the observations which I have myself made on the fossil shells in the sand from the neighbourhood of Paris, that it is so variable in its formation, that, without great attention, it might be formed into several species. Testae. Brit. p. 521. Miliolites opposita, Lam. Plate XL Fig. 20, is undoubtedly the same shell as the bellied semilunar worm-shell, Serpula bicornis ventricosa of Walker, Testae, min. rar. Plate i. Fig. 2. The difference which exists between the representations of Lamarck and Walker, is very satisfac- torily explained by the observations of Mr. Montague, who, previously to the same shell having been figured as a fossil, suggested such altera- tions in the figure given by Mr. Walker, as would make it agree per- fectly with that of Lamarck, and names it Vermiculum bicoj-ne, Testae. Brit. p. 519. Serpula bicornis umbilico perforate, Testae, min. rar, Plate I. Fig. 3, appears, in Mr. Montague's opinion, to be no other than a mu- tilated specimen of the former shell. The recent shell was found at Sandwich and Reculver. Miliolites cor anguinum, Lam. Plate XI. Fig. 14, 15, and 16, exactly corresponds with Serpula subrotunda dorso elevato, of Walker, Test. min. rar. Plate i. Fig. 4, Vermiculum subrotundum, of Montague. M. trigonula, the different sides of which are shown Plate XI. Fig. 17, 18, and 19, is an inflated body, of an ovato-trigonal form: its recent analogue does not appear to be known. XC. Renutina. A flat, sulcated, reniform, many-chambered shell: 164 with linear chambers, adapted to the curves of the shells; the last being longest. The axis marginal. The fossil which is represented from Lamarck, Renulinites opercularia, Plate X. Fig. 21, is the only species of this genus with which he appears to have been acquainted, and is about six lines in length. Whilst viewing this shell, he remarks, we might conceive that it was a very thin, fragile, flat, semilunar operculum, with the surface co- vered with parallel bowed grooves ; but, on examination, it will be found that it is composed of two plates, placed close against each other, with their inner surfaces hollowed out in contiguous bowed grooves, which, as the plates are applied to each other, form distinct chambers. This, it is justly observed, is not the kind of structure observable in any operculum whatever. Notwithstanding the different appearances exhibited by Lamarck's figures of M. opposita, Plate XL Fig. 20, and the figure of Renulinites, I am very much disposed to believe them to be of the same genus, if not the same species. This notion I have been led to, by observing the figure of Walker's bellied semilunar worm-shell, which indeed seems to unite the two figures of Lamarck, by possessing the general form of M. opposita, and the contiguous bowed grooves of Renulinites. To illus- trate what I have here said, I have introduced Walker's figure, at Plate XL- Fig. 22. XCI. Gyrogonites. A sphaeroidal hollow shell, composed of linear curved pieces, slightly grooved at the sides, where they are joined ; by the joining of which grooves, linear chambers, following the direction of the pieces, appear to be formed. At these joinings, on the external surface, are carinated ribs, disposed transversely about the middle, and spirally at each pole of the shell. At one of the poles there is sometimes to be seen a circular opening, which sometimes appears to be closed by a particular valve or operculum. This shell is represented magnified, Plate XI. Fig. 23, its natural size being that of a small pin's head. It is found in silicious stones, not 165 possessing transparency, at Montmorency, Erappes, &c. Lamarck observes, that it has the form of a very small seed of some species of lucern ; and, hesitating at determining it to be really a multilocular shell, only assumes it as such for the present. At Fig. 24 is represented one of its detached carinated ribs, LETTER XIII. BIVALVES WITH EQUAL VALVES, AND REGULARLY FORMED PINNA MYTILUS MODIOLA ANODONTA UNIO NU- CULA PECTUNCULUS A RCA CUCULLCEA TRIGONIA TRIDACNA HIPPOPUS C AUDIT A ISOCARDIA CARDIUM CRASSATELLA PA PHI A LUTRARIA MACTRA ERYCINA I'ETRICOLA DON AX TRIGON ELLITES VENUS....C YTHERE A.... VENERICARDIA CYCLAS LUCIN A.....TELLINA CAPS A SO- LE N SANGUINOLARIA GLYCEMERIS MY A. ...PANOPEA. W E now proceed to the examination of the fossil remains of bivalve shells, the dwellings of acephalous molluscae, having no distinct head, and therefore unprovided with eyes, ears, &c. Bivalves, with equal valves. XCII. Pinna. A cuneiform, longitudinal bivalve, with an acute base, gaping in the upper part : the hinge without a tooth, lateral, and very long : the valves coalescent. One species only, P. margaritacta, Lam. is found in fragments, at Grignon. Specimens which may be referred, perhaps, to the same species, are found in the cliffs in the neighbourhood of Bognor : these 166 are casts of stone, and sometimes bear the complete form of the shell, although the internal margaritaceous part alone is remaining. Mr. Mar- tin found specimens which he at first thought were P. nobilis in the neigh- bourhood of Buxton, but he was afterwards satisfied that it was some unknown species. One of these is represented in Plate vi. of his inte- resting work on Derbyshire petrifactions. Plate XI. Fig. 31, is a magnified representation of a minute fossil pinna, resembling Pinna saccata, which I lately discovered in sand from Grignon. It is observed by Bosc, that the texture of the Pinna is different from that of any other shell. Instead of possessing any thing of the laminated structure, the shell of the Pinna seems to be formed by the juxta posi- tion of calcareous molecules — perhaps by a species of crystallization. The fracture of these shells, when viewed by a lens, shows exceedingly fine striae, perpendicular to the surface of the shell. This structure, he is of opinion, is sufficient to distinguish this shell, even in ever such small fragments, and in a fossil state. Histoire naturelle des Coquittes, Tome in. p. 123. This, however, is not strictly the case ; since fragments of other shells, of a similar structure, are frequently found, especially in chalk. Such are, Trichites pactilis undulatus cretaceus, and Trichites pactilis cretaceus, lamellatus, ofUiwydd,Lith.Brit.Ichnogr. Nos. 1751 and 1752, which are the remains of the remarkable shell, of which I have already spoken, under the genus Patella, Letter vi. page 51, of this volume. A similar structure I shall also have to notice, in a fossil oyster. This astonishing secretion by an animal, of calcareous spar, in a crystallized form, appears to be a circumstance highly deserving the attention of the physiologist, as well as of the admirer of crystallography. The pinnite is rather a rare fossil. It is however sometimes found, with the Oolites, in the lime-stone of the northern parts of Wiltshire, in Somer- setshire, and in the lime-stone of Gloucestershire. I have two of these specimens; but sufficient of the shell is not visible, to allow of an opinion being formed as to their specific characters; excepting that, neither of them seem to accord with any of the species particularized by Linnaeus. The remains of a shell belonging to this genus is- sometimes found among the Devonshire Blackdown fossils. XCIII. Mytilus. A longitudinal bivalve, with an acute base; the beaks straight, subacute, and terminal ; the hinge, in most, without a tooth : only one muscular impression. Bruguiere separated from this genus the avicute and anodontte, with such oysters as Linnaeus had included in it; and Lamarck has rendered the genus more precisely determined, by abstracting from it also the shells with which he forms his genus Modiola. Lamarck describes two species of fossil muscles, M. rimosus and M. dentiadatus, found at Grignon and Long-Jumeau. Dr. Woodward mentions several shells of this genus found in different parts of England, Catalogue, Part n. p. 62. I do not know that I can introduce the following extraordinary fossil, Plate XL Fig. 32, in a more appropriate place than under the genus Mytilus, agreeable to the label attached to it, which thus describes it: Muscolo petrefatto rappresmtante unafoglia e di ughezzano net Veronese non pi ancora descritto efigurato da alcun litologo. I have however met, in Cata- logi lapidum Veronensium mantissa, with two figures of this fossil, and the following remarks on it: — " Abunde hi lapides occurrunt in Valle vulgo tfAnguilla agri Veronensis, qui etsi aspecto suo, folia demonstrare videantur, nihilominus minime ad folia; sed potius ad tegumentum cujusdam piscis armati eos pertinere puto, quam tamen opinionem aliorum judicio pennitto. Egre e multitudine horuin lapidum, quadra- ginta bene impressos sejunxi, nam ceteri, qui nuncusque inventi fuere, nullius momenti sunt" P. 11. — The great number of these bodies exist- ing in one part, affords a strong argument against either their figures, or their markings, having depended on any accidental circumstance : and their spathose substance, as well as their thickness, determine them not 168 to have been of vegetable origin. There is, I think, very little reason for doubting its being a bivalve shell ; and its general form induces me to place it under this genus. I obtained it at the sale of Mr. Strange's collection ; and am disposed to consider it as remarkably interesting, from the singular markings which it bears. XCIV. Modiola. A subtransverse inequilateral bivalve ; the posterior side being much the shortest, and the beaks lying towards the shorter side : the hinge without a tooth, having only a marginal, linear, carti- laginal groove : only one muscular impression. This genus is exemplified in Mytilus modiolus, Linn. The modiolae are separated, by Lamarck, from the mytili, on account of their width allowing them to be considered as transverse shells, of their beaks not terminating the shell, and of their not attaching themselves by a bys- sus, as the muscles do. He figures five species, as found in the envi- rons of Paris : M. subcarinata, M. sulcata, M. pectinata, M. arcuata, and M. cor data. Dr. Woodward describes specimens of this genus, as found in Glou- cestershire, Catal. p. ii. p. 62, No. 660, &V. whence I have obtained M. subcarinata. XCV. Anodonta. A transverse shell, having three muscular im- pressions: the hinge plain, without any tooth. Mytilus anatinus is of this genus ; but I know of no fossil shell which can be referred hither. XCVI. Unio. A transverse shell, having three muscular impressions : an irregular callous hinge-tooth, prolonging itself on one side beneath the ligamental slope, and articulating with that of the opposite valve. This is a river shell, which does not appear to be known fossil. XCVII. Nucula. An inequilateral, equivalved, subtrigonal bivalve : the hinge on a line, bent at an angle formed by numerous, alternately inserted teeth ; the beaks approximating, and turned backwards. Lamarck divides the Area of Linnaeus into three genera : Area, having 1(39 • the hinge on a straight line ; Pectunculus, having the hinge arched ; and Nucula, having the hinge on a line bent at an angle. The shells of this genus are marine shells. Nucula margaritacea, Lam. Area nucleus, Linn, are found at Grignon, Courtagnon, &c. I have also found shells of this species, with their fine comb-like teeth, and their pearly coat, quite perfect, in the Essex bank of shells; and in a perfect state, and of a microscopic size, at Plurnsted. I have also disengaged one or two minute calcedonic specimens of this delicate shell, in a perfect state, from the Devonshire whetstone. Lamarck describes two more species of this genus among the Parisian fossils : N. striata and Ar. ddtoidea. In a minute fossil-shell of this last spe- cies, not larger than a small pin's head, which I found in a Ceritkium gigds, the original margaritaceous lustre still exists ; and in one of the former, of the same size, the striae are very evident. XCVIII. Pectunculus. An orbicular, subequilateral 'bivalve, with an arched hinge ; with numerous teeth, alternately inserted in a single row. Lamarck enumerates five species: P. angusticostatus, P. pulvinatus, P. terebratularis, P. granulatus, P. nuculatus. The shells of this genus are easily known by their rounded or lenti- cular form. Their teeth are larger, and less closely set, than those of the arks, and disposed in an arched line, which becomes very narrow, or is even interrupted, under the beuks. The muscular impressions are two, and strongly marked ; each forming a callous projection^ the -edge of which is sharp. In the Essex bank, numerous shells of this genus are found, which seem exactly to agree in character with P. elvcemeris, Lam. Arca&bN- v O C* , -^ ./ cemeris, Linn. The species of this genus are, rrom their general agree- ment, difficult to separate ; but I believe that the skihul concholo^jst would be able to make further divisions of these Essex she j is. Sheik of this genus, and chiefly, I believe, P. august icostaius, L^m. are freqpent in the Bognor rocks. In the whetstone sand-pits, at Blackdown, a small species of this ge- VOL. III. Z 170 nus is found, in which the shell is very thick, and the teeth of the hinge few and large. These pectunculi, with several of which I have been favoured by the Rev. Mr. Cleeve and Mr. Clarke, are so much impreg- nated with silex, that. some of them possess a considerable degree of transparency. XCIX. Area. A transverse inequilateral shell: the beaks distant; the hinge with many teeth, disposed in a straight line ; the teeth lamel- lated, close, and alternately inserted between each other : a subrhom- boidal smooth area, between the beaks, on which the cartilage was disposed. These are marine shells ; and are easily recognised by their general form. They frequently gape along their superior edge, and have two marks of attachment on each valve. Lamarck particularizes seven spe- cies, which are found fossil in the neighbourhood of Paris : A. diluvii, A. biangula, A. barbatula, A. angusta, A. interrupta, A. scapulina, A. qua- drilatera. Shells of this genus are frequently found fossil in this island. One cast from Bath seems to be of A. Note. At Plate XI. Fig. 29, is represented an ark of an uncommon form, the valves terminating in an alated form. This is a German fossil, and is attached to some oysters, with serrated margins : a sufficient portion is, however, visible, to allow of the drawing to have been fairly taken, although not sufficient to allow of particularizing its specific characters. C. Cucullaa. A nearly transverse, inequilateral, ventricose bivalve, with distant beaks: the hinge formed of many teeth, disposed in a right line, and terminated at each end by three or four transverse parallel teeth : a flat and sulcated area, for the reception of the car- tilage. The shells of this genus differ from the arks, in the teeth at the end of the hinge, which are placed in a transverse direction, directly contrary to that in which the row of small lamelliform teeth are disposed. Area cueullata of Chemnitz, Tom. vn. Tab. 53, Fig. 526—528. 171 The largest shell of this genus is Cucull&a crassatina; a ventricose shell, of considerable thickness, three inches and a half in length, and four in width ; the external surface smooth, except from fine transverse striae, marking the growth of the shell, and faint traces of longitudinal sulci. This shell is found in the neighbourhood of Beauvais, and is the only species mentioned by M. Lamarck. Among the beautiful fossils yielded by the Devonshire whetstone-pits, is a shell belonging to this genus, with specimens of which I have been kindly favoured by Mr. Cleeve. This shell, which, if it has not been already otherwise designated, may be named C. glabra, is a thick^ ob- long, transverse shell, nearly smooth, being marked only by the fine transverse striae formed by its growth. The beaks are separated by a large flat rhomboidal area, with markings, which, when the valves are united, assume a lozenge form. The line of the hinge is finely crenu- lated, as well as the three transverse teeth, which terminate the hinge at each end. Mr. Francis Crow, who, as has been mentioned, found, in a field at Faversham, a silicious specimen of Strombus pes pelicani, ex- actly agreeing with that which I had been favoured with from the Devonshire whetstone-pits, found, in the same spot, several silicious shells of this genus also. This coincidence deserves particular notice, since it points out a singular agreement in the strata. The shell of this genus found by Mr. Crow, though not unlike that of Devonshire in its general form, is specifically different. This shell, if not already named, might be designated as C. decussata. It is a thick oblong transverse shell, with flattish longitudinal ridges, decussated "by fine transverse striae. The area, separating the beaks, large, with slightly undulating markings in the form of half a lozenge. The long line, as well as the transverse teeth of the hinge, which in the preceding species were crenulated, appear, in this, to have been smooth. Among the shells which I was favoured with by Mr. Crow, is a single valve, which, from its extraordinary thick- ness and great obliquity, I am disposed to consider as of different species from either of the preceding : it is, however, in a state which will not 172 allow of this being determined. A representation of the inside of this shell is given Plate XIII. Fig. 1. CI. Trigonia. A trigonal or suborbicular inequilateral bivalve. On the right valve are two oblong, flat, diverging hinge teeth, transversely grooved on each side : on the left valve, four flat hinge teeth, transversely grooved on one side only, disposed in pairs, each pair diverging and ex- actly, receiving those of the opposite valve. These shells have been long known and admired in their fossil state, both in this island and on the continent. The first notice that I find of them is that of Langius, who gives a figure of one of these shells, Hist. lap. fig. Helv. Tab. 44, Fig. 5, and speaks of it as Conchites Helvetica visu prodigiosus, triqueterus striatus, and thinks it resembles Concha indica, visu prodigiosa, Bonanni, No. 91. Our English naturalists very early noticed this curious fossil. Dr. Plot gives to a cast of this genus the name of Hippocephaloides, Hist, of Oxford- shire, Plate vu. Fig. I.; and Lhwydd, who gives to these shells the name of Curvirostr T. donacialist T. rostralis, T. corneola, T. pusilla, T. rudis. The habitat of the rostrated shell represented Plate XIII. Fig. 4, I am not acquainted with ; nor, though I have placed it here, am I satis- fied of this being its most appropriate place, being entirely unacquainted with its hinge. CXXI. Capsa. A transverse shell, with two cardinal teeth in one valve, and one entering double tooth on the other. This genus is* exemplified by Venus deflorata, or Capsa rugosa, Linn. List. Conch. Tab. 425, Fig. 273. The shells of this genus are not, I believe, known fossil. CXXII. Solen. An equivalved, transversely elongated bivalve, gaping on each side; the hinge-teeth single, in each valve, or double in one valve ; the beaks exceedingly small ; the ligament external, and most frequently near to the extremity of the shell. The wngumolarivf the Irish Academy, Vol. v. p. 281, are par ticularly interesting. Monte Bolca lies on the border of the Veronese territory, about fifty miles W. N. W. of the Lagunes oi Venice, which is supposed to be the nearest sea. Its height has not been ascertained, but it is pretty consi- derable. It forms one of the chain, or ladder, of secondary hills, which, from some distance from the adjoining Vicentine, rise gradually above one another, to the Alps of the bishopric of Trent. Great part of this tract has been considered by many naturalists as being covered with pro- ductions of extinct volcanoes; but the supposed .compact lava of the Vicentine and Veronese is wholly of the argillaceous genus, and of the traph or horn-Wend species, resembling basalt : indeed, the summit of this hill itself was, many years ago, discovered, by Abate Fortis, to be crowned with a great mass of tolerably defined columnar basalt. The whole of the hill, as far as I could observe, Mr. Graydon says, seems to be composed of similar, or at least of argillaceous matter, except the quarries in which the fish are found, which are calcareous, and lie at about halt a mile from the summit. Besides, the dissimilarity of these to the other materials of the hill, it is further important to remark, that they do not form a continued stratum, but lie in great and wholly de- tached and distinct masses, as it were accidentally imbedded in the side of the hill, set in a loose rubble of argillaceous and the same kind of cal- careous fragments, the whole, more or less, in a state of decomposition. What is most remarkable is, that these tish are described as the mo- dern natives of various seas, most remote from each other, and not of 248 Europe only, but of Asia, the Indian Ocean, the South Sea, Africa, North and South America ; and, in addition to these, some few of fresh water. M. Bozza, the original proprietor of the soil, speaking of his collection, in a paper published by him, says : " In my cabinet, which contained upwards of six hundred fish of different sizes, all ox' "acted from Bolca, there are more than one hundred whose kinds are known, which differ from each other in genus and species, and many others besides, to which similar living ones have not yet been discovered." In another passage he adds : " The first decade of fish published by M. Broussonet, has ascertained to us, that many of these found at Bolca are natives of the South Sea — of these I have four, which agree exactly in form, in proportions, and in fins, with four described by M. Broussonet, which are peculiar to the sea of Otaheite, which are the polynemus plebeius, or Emoi of the Otahei- teans ; the Gobius striatus, which they call Jaipoa ; the Chatodon triostegust and the Gobius oscellaris." These perfectly correspond with the fish given by Sir Joseph Banks to M. Broussonet. * The stone has been generally termed a marie or marley schist. It is a whitish, yellowish, or bluish grey, and in general yields easily to the knife, emitting at the same time, a peculiar fetid smell, differing consi- derably from the smell of the common lapis suillus. The forms of the fishes are well defined, and the harder parts are remarkably well expressed. The dark brown matter composing these fish remains distinct, and may be picked off from the stone, and projects in proportion to the thickness of each part in its natural state. It is hard, brittle, and rather glossy, through its substance, except in some of the grosser bones, such as the joints of the vertebrae; which, though of this appearance externally, are found, when broken, to consist internally of laminar crystallized calcareous spar. Mr. Gray don proposes a very ingenious explanation of the phenomena yielded by the fish of Monte Bolca and their surrounding matrix. He sup- 249 poses the fine light-coloured calcareous mass in which they are imbedded to have been formed by the deposition of carbonate of lime from lime-stone heated by volcanic fires, and plunged in this state in the ocean. By this means, he thinks the fish would be destroyed, and would remain in the calcareous magma, which, as it became condensed, would retain and absorb the putrid gases evolved from the fish, and would thereby become a stink-stone, yielding its peculiarly offensive smell by attrition. The British Isles are not so productive of this class of fbsssils as are several of the places on the Continent, which have been just particula- rized. In Oxfordshire, Gloucestershire, Leicestershire, Lincolnshire, Dorsetshire, and Kent, however, some specimens of entire, or nearly entire fishes have been found. In Mr. Donovan's collection is a very beautiful and complete impres- sion of a small fish on Portland stone. This fish much resembles a smelt in size and form. In the same collection is a very fair and perfect im- pression of a small fish, in bluish lime-stone, from Burfbrd, in Oxford- shire; but which I have never had the opportunity of examining so closely, as to be authorized in forming an opinion under what genus it might be placed. The Hon. Daines Barrington communicated to the Royal Society, in 1755, the figure and description of a fossil, found at Bath, which he conceived to be part of a fossil beaver's tail. A comparison, however, of this fossil, with some specimens which were formerly in Mr. Strange's Museum, and which were found in the neighbourhood of Weymouth, determines this fossil to be part of a fish. This is plainly evinced in one of these specimens, in which the form of the body is observable, and its upper and lower terminations are nearly preserved. From the comparative thinness and width of the body it may perhaps be considered as of the family Leptosomes, of Dumeril, and of the genus Pleuro?)ectes. As neither the fins nor the gills are pre- served, in any specimen which I have seen, no opinion can be formed VOL. III. K K with respect to its generic or specific resemblances. The square scales with which its body is covered, and which are so large in proportion to the size of the animal, render it different, I believe, from any recent fish which has been yet described. A patch of these scales is represented Plate XVI. Fig. "l2. Numerous remains of fishes are found in the pyritous clay of Shepey ; but in so mutilated a state, as not to allow of forming any probable conjecture as to the relationship which they may bear to any existing fish. " Our own country hath lately afforded what (says Mr. Jones) I ap- prehend to be the greatest curiosity of this sort that ever yet appeared. Jt is the entire figure of a bream, more than a foot in length, and of a proportionable depth, with the scales, fins, and gills, fairly projecting from the surface, like a sculpture in relievo, and with all the lineaments, even to the most minute fibres of the tail, so complete, that the like has not been seen before. It was taken from the stone quarries of Barrow, in Lincolnshire, and is now, by a fortunate circumstance, in the possession of the learned Mr. Green, Woodwardian Professor of Fossils in the Uni- versity of Cambridge." P. 41 1; " Another very fine fossil fish, of a different constitution, was dis- covered in a block of Leicestershire coal, at the house of the late Sir J. Robinson, in Northamptonshire. It is a considerable part of the body of a salmon (or rather the image of what once was its body), in a white sand-tone, with the lineaments of the scales. The cavity of the body is filled with coal, which is a very singular circumstance. It was lately presented, by Sir George Robinson, to Sir Ashton Lever, and is now .preserved in his Museum *." We are, however, by no means to admit of the existence of an identity of species, between fossil and recent fish, in all the instances in which it has been claimed. Similarity of appearance is by no means sufficient to * Physiological Disquisitions, &c. by William Jo^es, F. R.S, 1181, 251 warrant a decision in these cases ; the specific, or at least the generic characters, should be discoverable in the fossil specimen ; which is not the case, at least, in the figure of the fossil fish considered by Mr. Jones as a bream. The fossil also, above described, as being part of-a salmon> Mr. Jones afterwards discovered to be the remains of a vegetable, arid took the first opportunity to acknowledge his error. The paucity of fossil fish is attributed, by M. Faujas, to the quickness with which fish are decomposed after death, and to the vast numbers which are destroyed by the stronger devouring the weak. But these two circumstances by no means account for this interesting fact. It is true, that the flesh may, if exposed to the air, soon run into putrefaction ; but even then, the bones in the spinous fishes, and the scales and spiculae, would be left ; the two latter being, as has been observed by Mr. Hatchett, true bony substances, containing much phosphate of lime, with a greater proportion of the membranaceous part than in common bone. The destructive wars between these animals must immediately be seen to have no bearing on this particular fact; since, if the waters continued to be well peopled, the number of fossils of this class would not be thereby diminished. I should not have noticed the insufficiency of M. Faujas's argu- ments, but from a fear lest they should have been- too easily admit- ted, and the further consideration of this important fact too speedily closed, I am the more anxious to prevent this, since I conceive that the desired explanation may be more likely to be found in the circum- stances under which the bed was formed, in which they have become mineralized. The same writer conceives that the opinion of the fish of Vestena Nova having been instantly killed (asphi.iies subitement), is supported by the position and the horizontal and tranquil situation in which they are found : Essai de Geologic, p. 107. It may be sufficient, to show how lit- tle reliance is to be placed on this reasoning, to observe, that the cele- brated Werner has deduced the same inference from the opposite fact ; he being of opinion, from the contorted aspect of the fish, in the bitumi- 252 nous slate of Mansfeldt, that the fish have been suddenly killed by an irruption or instantaneous formation of sulphureo-metallic matter *. Nor does the particular circumstance which has been so much insisted upon, as a proof of this opinion of M. Faujas, appear to be at all conclusive. The circumstance to which I allude is, that which is displayed in one of the specimens from Vestena Nuova, in the Museum of Natural History at Paris. In this specimen a pike is seen, which has died, with another fish of the same species still in his throat ; it having been supposed that its instantaneous death was produced by a sudden volcanic irruption into the water, at the moment of its having swallowed its prey. The fact, however, really is, that fossil fish are found in all the different quarries in which they exist, in almost every state and position which can be conceived. Sometimes, with their altered flesh still covering their bones, and at other times the skeleton only is preserved. Many are seen laid out in a straight line, but nearly as many are also seen in various contorted positions. There are no fossil remains of any class of animals, except, perhaps, of the Crustacea, which accord so much with the existing genera, and even species, as those of fish. The proportion, indeed, of fossil fish, which have existing analogues, is so great, as to render it by no means improbable, considering how frequently, in the present day, new genera are discovered, that the analogues of such as are now only known in a mineralized state may yet be found. Among the fossil fish, whose living analogues are known, the pike, the carp, the perch, the eel, the sea-scorpion, the scarus, the mackarel, the turbot, the sword-fish, lod, gadus mustela, gobius, and several others, have been mentioned by different authors, among the fishes found in the neighbourhood of Verona. M. Faujas particularizes a Fistularia, of Japan ; a pegasus, of the Indian Sea and of Brazil ; and three cheto- dons of India. M. Lacepede, in the preliminary discourse to the second volume of his Natural History of Fishes, informs us, that more than * System of Mineralogy, by Mr. Jamieson, Vol. I. p. 530. 253 thirty Asiatic, African, and American species of fishes, have been here discovered. M. Fortis also observes, in a letter to M. Faujas, that the approximation which he has been able to make of these fishes to the figures of those of Otaheite, published by Broussonnet, has convinced him, that it is absolutely in that distant sea that the actually living de- scendants of the ancient generation, now found mummified in the quarry of Vestena-Nova, are to be sought for: as it is in these same parts that we find the originals of almost all the 'petrified shells of the mountains of Verona and of Vicentino *. LETTER XVII. PARTS OF FISHES HEAD, EYES, JAWS, TEETH, PALATES, PRO- BOSCIDES, SCALES, BONES, &C. IT is sometimes difficult, when- separated from the parts with which they were originally united, to refer the fossil remains of fishes to the real situation which they held in the living animal, 6r to ascertain the offices which they performed. In many of these instances we may, however, derive considerable assistance from the examination of the analogous parts in living animals. The heads of fishes are very frequently found among the Shepey fossils, and have sometimes been supposed to bear a strong resemblance to known species, as the pike, gurnard, &c. In some of these, an appearance is observable, although rarely, which gives the idea of the eye of the ani- * Essai de Geologic, p» 112. 254 -mal having been petrified : and a careful examination of this part allows me to suppose that it is, in fact, either the Cornea or the Membrana nic- titans, which has been thus preserved. I have been led to this supposition, by discovering, by means of a lens, that in one specimen this part retains an uncommonly smooth and polished surface, whilst, in another, it has such a rugous appearance, as might be expected to be found in the mem- brand ?iictita?is, on being exposed to the action of moisture after death. In some of these specimens, the branchial operculum, or covering of the gills, is found in very tolerable preservation ; in others, the bony rays of the fins are preserved ; and in most, where it is possible to remove the adherent matrix, which is rarely the case, the bones of the head may be displayed, in situ, and very interesting fossils thereby obtained. The jaws of the spinous fishes are also sometimes found in a very tole- rable state of preservation ; being sometimes closed, and other times very widely separated. In the British Museum is an uncommonly beau- tiful specimen of the skin of the under lip of a fish in a mineralized state, and in perfect preservation. This is the only fossil of the kind that I have seen; nor can its rarity be wondered at, when it is considered, that the proneness to decomposition, in this part, can hardly be expected to give time for the impregnation necessary for its mineralization. The teeth of fish are, from their nature and structure, among the best preserved and most numerous fossil remains of these animals. From the number in which they exist, they particularly engaged the attention of the early oryctologists, who distinguished them by names chiefly derived from their forms. Hence we find them spoken of by the names of Glossopetra, Plectronites, Rostrago, Falcatula, &c. Glossopetra was, however, employed as the general term, expressive of a tongue converted into stone : and, from certain differences in their size and forms, these were supposed to have been the tongues of birds, serpents, &c. Gesner, Keis- kius, Lang, and others, regarded them as sports of nature ; but Steno and Fabius Columna at once asserted their animal origin, and pointed out the animal to which they conceived they had belonged. These fossils vary considerably in their size and form : some scarcely exceeding a quarter of an inch, whilst others are full five inches in length ; some heirig triangular and flat; some long, straight, and conical; and others very nearly resembling, in form, the beak of a bird. The great variety in their forms serves to show us, that the animals from which they derived their origin must have differed materially from each other. The large triangular glossopetrse, with nearly straight and finely jag- ged edges, rather an obtuse apex, and a flattish or slightly-forked base, appears to have belonged to an animal differing, at least in its magni- tude, from any animal with which we are acquainted, that is furnished with teeth of a similar form. The specimen Plate XIX. Fig. 11, though inferior to many in size, must have belonged to an enormous animal : it is four inches and a half long, and three inches and a half wide at its base. M. Lacepede has made some very ingenious calculations respect- ing the size of the shark to which a fossil tooth in the National Museum had belonged, which tooth was rather smaller than the one here figured; and he concludes, that it could not have been less than seventy feet nine inches in length. These teeth have been supposed to approach the nearest in form to those of the white shark Squalus carcharias, Linn.; and calculating the size of the animal, to which some of these fossil teeth have belonged, from the size of the teeth in the white shark of the present time, it cannot be doubted that some of these animals must have been at least an hundred feet in length. These teeth, from their supposed origin from these animals, have been named carchariodontes. They have been also called Lfrmiodontts, from these animals having been named Lamia, by the earlier naturalists. They have been found in different parts of the world ; but, in the greatest numbers, in Malta and t^e neighbouring islands. Teeth of a nearly similar form, but of much less magnitude, are also frequently found. It is difficult to say whether these have belonged to young animals of the same species as those which bore the teeth, just 256 described, or to animals specifically distinct. The circumstance, how- ever, of the vast difference in size, leads me to believe the latter to be the case. Plate XIX. Fig. 2 and 9, represent some of the smaller specimens of triangular teeth. The straight conical glossopetrae, have been supposed to resemble the tongue or beak of a raven, and have been named Ornithoglossa and Grazirrhinchi. These appear to have belonged to fish approximating very nearly to those to which the preceding teeth have belonged. Scilla, who carefullf examined the fossils of this description, supposed these fossil teeth to have belonged to that species of shark which the Messinese have named Stampella, (Squalus zygena, Linn.) the balance-fish, of which fish he gives a correct figure, as well as three figures of the accordant fossil teeth, so frequently found at Malta *. A representation of a fossil tooth from Malta, of this species, is given Plate XIX. Fig. 2. The fossil tooth from the Kentish chalk- pits, Plate XIX. Fig. 3, very much accords with the description of the teeth of the Squalus galeus, Linn. Its length hardly exceeds its width ; and its point is so much inclined to one side, as to form a notch on that side. The edges are very finely serrated. The teeth of the Squalas miistelus, according to M. Cu- vier, agree in form w ith the preceding, but are scarcely at all jagged on their internal edge. It seems to be to this species that the teeth named Acanthiodontes, and figured by Lhwydd, No. 1417, may be referred. The fossil tooth, Plate XIX. Fig. 5, rising into a sharp simple point, with a small point on each side, projecting immediately from the root, resembles, in these characters, the teeth of the Squalus dnereus. All the teeth of the Squalus stdlaris are also long, and pointed with a small point on each side, at the base, like the last figured tooth. In the Squalus nasus are similar teeth, but not so numerous as in S. stellaris. Triangular teeth, with three points, are the Glossopetrte tricuspida faves* tridentul Luidii. Teeth of this figure are found in the Isle of Shepey, and * De Corp. Marin. Lap. Tab. xxvin. Fig. n. in. 257 are generally of a dark colour, from ferruginous impregnation, Plate XXIX. Fig. 5. Teeth of this figure are sometimes, but very rarely found, with their surfaces covered with close longitudinal striae, and bearing a very high polish. The specimen, Plate XIX. Fig. 10, is a magnified representation of one of these, from a mass in which are several other teeth, which, though varying considerably in their form, are all evidently of the same fish, and all have similar markings. This mass was found at the Old Passage, Gloucestershire, by Mr. Johnson, of Bristol, who has a beautiful mass of similar teeth, but of a larger size, which he obtained from Charmouth. In the Squalus squatina the teeth are simply pointed, with a broad base, but with no lateral points ; somewhat resembling Plate XIX. Fig. 9. In the Squalus maximus and glaucus the teeth have a sharp cutting edge only, agreeing nearly with Plate XIX. Fig. 2. Spallanzani speaks of the very singular dentature of two jaws similar to that of the Squalus of Messina, which, he thinks, has not been yet described. These jaws were brought, with a number of exotic fishes, from Holland, and appear to have belonged to a very large Squalus, but of a species hitherto unknown ; at least, he says, he does not find;teeth of a similar structure described by any writer. The opening of the jaws is full three feet and a half in circuit, and consequently large enough to receive a man of middling size lengthwise *. The figures of these teeth, as given by Spallanzani, exactly agree with those which are given by Scilla, as belonging to the kind of dog- fish, which have obtained, in the Mediterranean, the name of Colom- bina, or Vacca, and which he thinks may be, perhaps, the same fish of which Aldrovandus speaks, Lib. 3, Cap. 52. Scilla gives a representa- tion of the head and jaws of this fish, in which the agreement with the jaws described by Spallanzani is very evident. Plate XVIII. Fig. 10, is a fossil tooth of this species from rny collection, which is very small. * Travels in the Two Sicilies, Vol. iv. p. 370. VOL. III. L L 258 Fig. 11, is one figured by Scilla; and each exactly agree, in form, with those of the recent fish both of Scilla and of Spallanzani. It is worthy of observation, that the triangular Glossopetrre are never found attached to any bony substance ; a circumstance confirming the opinion of their having originally been the teeth of fishes of the genus Squalus. The teeth of this genus, as has been some time since remarked by Scilla, and very lately by Spallanzani, not being placed in bony sockets, but implanted in a hard and fungous flesh ; and which, decay- ing by putrefaction, allows the teeth to become detached. Conichthyodontcs striati. These rare fossils are very exactly described, by M. Walch, as being of a conical form, round on all sides, with the superior termination, as it were, truncated ; and the whole surface of the teeth so covered with longitudinal striae, as to give them somewhat of the appearance of a Dentalite. These are sometimes found in the quar- ries of Chippenham, and of other parts of Wiltshire and Oxfordshire. One of these fossils is represented Plate XIX. Fig. 4. The straight or slightly bent conical teeth, Conichthyodontes recti teretes, have been termed Plectronit& and Rostragi?ies ; and, indeed, are fre- quently called birds' bills by the quarrymen who find them. Plate XIX. Fig. 8. The teeth of which I have hitherto spoken may be considered as being of the class of Incisores, and as being of the most decided kinds. There are others, which differ from these in their forms ; but so little, as not to require further notice here : such are those, which display little degrees of variety of curvature, or which have suffered some change of figure from accident. The molar teeth, which are placed in the back part of the jaws, and even on the palate and in the back part of the fauces, are the next subjects for our examination. These have been long known in their mineralized state ; and some of them, for their imaginary virtues, have been held in very high estimation. These are the fossils generally known. 259 as Bufonites, and are also called Serpents' eyes, Batrachites, and Crapau- dines, from the notion of their having been formed in the heads of ser- pents, toads, or frogs ; and, on account of their assumed virtues, were preserved, and set in rings and other ornamental articles. A large spe- cimen of this kind is represented Plate XIX. Fig. 6. Their real origin has however been long ascertained. They are the rounded grinders of the jaw and palate of fishes of the genus Anarhicas, and chiefly, perhaps, of the Anarhicas lupus. In this fish there are six and more sharp and conical fore-teeth in each jaw ; and behind these, in the lower jaw and in the palate, are disposed the round molares, or bufonites. With these weapons they are able to crush the crustaceous or testaceous coverings of different marine animals, and thus obtain their prey. It is even said, they will gnaw, and leave the marks of their teeth on the anchors of ships. From the considerable size of these bodies^ in the teeth of recent fish, it does not appear that the size of the fishes, in the jaws of which the bufonites, or fossil teeth, had been formed, had vastly exceeded that of the wolf-fish of the present day. In part of a recent jaw before me, these molar teeth are of a very large size in propor- tion to the bones of the jaw. It is extremely probable, that some of the smaller bufonites are the molar teeth offish of the genus Spams ; and particularly S. sargus, S. dente.v, and S. aurata, or Gilthead, similar teeth existing in the jawrs of these fishes. In the recent jaws and palates of these fishes, secondary teeth of this kind may be seen concealed in the cancellous part of the bone, ready to be propelled, as any of those already in use are broken away. Plate XIX. Fig. 7, is an interesting specimen, displaying three rows of moderate- sized bufonitae, imbedded in their original bone. Plate XIX. Fig. 12, are two bufonitae, attached to a part of the jaw, and supported by their original columnar bony processes. Sir Hans Sloane relates, that a"mong some fossils which were shown to him from Maryland, he perceived one which agreed very closely with the bony tongue of a fish which he had seen in Jamaica; and on com- 260 parison with a tongue of this kind, found in Mr. Charlton's collection, from the Pastnaca marina, he found their agreement very exact *. lam happy in being able to place before you two illustrative speci- mens of this kind. Plate XIX. Fig. 16, is a fossil from the Isle of She- pey, which appears to have belonged to some fish of the genus Raia, being very closely accordant with the recent bony tongue of the fish of this genus, figured, in outline, Plate XIX. Fig. 13. I have another recent specimen of this kind, the jointed bone of which is longer, and exactly agrees with that figured, by Sir Hans Sloane, as the tongue of the Raia pastinaca. Another fossil specimen of this kind, in my possession, is considerably larger than the one which I have here figured : and in my friend, Mr. Crow's collection, of Faversham, is one which is six inches in length, and three inches and a quarter in breadth. The structure of this body, as is most evident in the analogous re- cent specimen, is singular and interesting. It is formed of two hori- zontally-disposed laminse : the upper of which is of a very close and dense structure, and forms the masticating surface; the other is of a more cel- lular texture. Both these substances are transversely divided into six plates, which are united to each other by very fine and close sutures, and have a row of interstitial substances, of a hexagonal form, placed between their lateral terminations. This body, as appears in the recent specimen, was attached to the surrounding bones : the masticating sur- face is placed upwards in the fossil, as well as in the recent specimen. Plate XIX. Fig. 17, is another fossil from Shepey, the general struc- ture of which agrees with the preceding, excepting that, in this body, there appears to have been two rows of hexagonal bodies. As, in the preceding figure, the masticating surface was shown ; so here the other surface, the bony base, is shown ; and this chiefly for the purpose of showing the perpendicular fibres, which, giving to this surface a brush- s '* Phil. Trans. Vol. xiX. N'o. 232. 261 like appearance, induced Lhwydd to give the name of Scapula litoralis to this fossil. The comminuting surface of the first of these fossils, Plate XIX. Fig. 16, is gently convex ; whilst that of the latter, Fig. 17, possesses a correspondent degree of concavity. From this circumstance I am led to suppose, that the former has been the lower part or tongue, and the latter the upper part or palate, of perhaps the same species offish. Plate XIX. Fig. 14, is another fossil palate, of a different species. This differs from the preceding species not only in the form of its plates, but in its structure. The lateral substances are here plates, laying over each other, like the tiles of a roof, ready to succeed, as the upper plates are worn or broken away. The substance of the plates, in this speci- men, when examined by a lens, are seen to be very different from that of bone ; appearing, indeed, rather deserving a place between enamel and horn : possessing, with a denseness of structure like that of the for- mer substance, a small degree of the transparency observable in the latter. Those bodies which are called by the quarry men petrified leeches, of which one is figured Plate XIX. Fig. 15, and which are frequently found in the lime-stone of Wiltshire and of Oxfordshire, were termed bv Da «/ Costa Palatum Umax, or the slug-palate. These bodies are of an oblong figure, and generally a little pointed towards their ends. Their colour is of a dark brown, and they frequently possess a tolerable polish. On their upper surface are innumerable fine and slightly undulating rugae, which commence at the sides, and sometimes unite in a fine irregular line, which passes longitudinally along the middle of this surface. The whole appearance of this fossil very much resembles that of a leech or slug in a contracted state. From these bodies having been found regularly disposed together, and particular!}' from one instance mentioned by Mr. Walcot, in which twenty-five of these oblong bodies were regularly placed in four rows, there can be no doubt that they are not single palates ; but that many 262 -of them, regularly disposed, constituted the platform of the palate of some unknown fish. The palate of another species of unknown fish appears to have been formed by the regular arrangement of quadrangular bodies, a beautiful specimen of one of which is figured Plate XIX. Fig. 18. The hard part of these bodies, corresponding to the enamel of teeth, is disposed, on the middle part of the upper surface, in sharp and slightly-curved ridges, alternating with corresponding depressions. These are surrounded by a border, formed of obtuse papillae and rugae, disposed in a very confused and irregular manner. In some specimens, this border is not present. These palates are chiefly found among the chalk of Kent and Surry. The most interesting fossil of this description, which I possess, is one which is imbedded in the centre of a nodule of flint. The fossil, Plate XVIII. Fig. 12, is one of the component parts of the roof of the mouth of some other unknown fish. It resembles the preceding fossil in the disposition of its ridges, &c. but differs from it in having a much greater convexity, being full as high as it is long. It is found, though much more rarely than the former, in masses of chalk, and most frequently in the neighbourhood of Devizes, in Wiltshire. Several of this, and of the two preceding species of fossil palates, were exposed to the action of dilute muriatic acid ; when the existence of their membranous laminae was evinced by numerous delicate flocculi becoming partly detached from the surface. In the leech-like palate, the phenomena which occurred were very interesting. After the fossil had been exposed about twelve hours to the action of the acid, its dark surface gradually disappeared, and was succeeded by one of a silvery grey colour, having somewhat of a pearl-like lustre. On this being exa- mined with a lens, it was found to be an exceedingly fine membrane, which, on being touched with the finger, was immediately removed, and with it the rugae with which the surface had been originally marked. On being suffered to dry, the surface became of a dead white, and marked the fingers, the rugae being nearly effaced. 263 A portion of flat bone, about a foot in length, and four inches broad, bearing a general resemblance to the saw of the saw-fish (Pristis) with apertures or sockets for the lateral teeth, very distinct along each side, from Gloucestershire, was exhibited in the Leverian, and, since, in the London Museum. In the neighbourhood of Bath is found a fossil proboscis, or jaw, of some unknown animal, of a curious form. It is long and tapering; sel- dom, however, exceeding six inches in length, of a dark brown colour, or nearly black : it is flat, and fluted on its two broader sides : and, on one of its edges, has a series of small teeth disposed in a straight line. Not the least curious of the weapons of the finny tribe is a spear- formed bony substance, of a dark brown colour, found in the Isle of Shepey, which I purchased from the collection of Mr. Strange. It is of a conical form, tapering nearly to a point; eight inches in length, and three inches in width, at its largest part. It appears to have been the proboscis of some unknown fish. The scales of fishes are frequently found in a state of high preservation in the pyritous clay of Shepey, sometimes possessing even a metallic lustre. They are also sometimes, but more rarely, formed in the masses of chalk, and very rarely indeed in the flint nodules. Plate XVIIL Fig. 13, is a curi6usly-formed scale, found in the Kentish chalk-pits; and in Plate XVIIL Fig. 9, is shown a single scale, with its processes for attachment, found in a lump of calcareous matter, in Dorsetshire. This scale seems to differ only in size from those which are described Page 250, and figured Plate XVL Fig. 12. The bodies of the vertebrae are very frequently found both in pyritous masses, and in the several lime-stone strata; but it is very rare to find them possessed of either their spinous or transverse processes. Among those fossils which have been desribed as scarce, are those vertebra which bear somewhat of the form of an hour-glass. These, however, are by no means so rare as has been supposed, the vertebrae of fish in, general approaching to this form. 264 When a longitudinal section of a series of the vertebrae of fish, imbed- ded, for instance, in lime-stone, is made, a series of bodies are seen, bearing the hour-glass form, each being the section of a body of a ver- tebra. For as there is a conical cavity both in the fore and hind part of each vertebra, from which results, when the vertebrae are united, a series of cavities bearing the form of two cones united at their base ; so the body of each vertebra, narrowing to its centre, presents, by a longitudinal section, a surface which, in its longitudinal direction, bears the form of a longitudinally-divided hour-glass. It is in these cavities, formed by the union of the vertebrae, that the fluid is contained, which, according to the observations of Mr. Home, being incompressible, preserves a proper interval between the vertebrae, to allow of the play of the lateral elastic ligaments, and forms a ball round which the concave surfaces of the ver- tebrae are moved, and which readily adapts itself to every change which takes place in the form of the cavity *. Among the Shepey fossils are sometimes found the last vertebrae of the tail. These are flat and of a triangular shape, and at their widest extre- mity frequently show the articulations of the small long bones which support the finny membrane of the tail. One of these is represented Plate XIV. Fig. 14 ; and another, of a peculiar form, is shown Plate XIV. Fig. 15. * Phil. Trans, for 1809, p. 111. *257 LETTER XVI*. ENTOMOLITHI INSECTS IN PAPPENHEIM LIMESTONE IN COAL SLATE CRABS OF SI1EPEY, VERONA, EAST-INDIES, AND MAES- T RIGHT ONISCITES MONOCULITES TRILOBITES. 1 HE extreme softness of the parts, and the general delicacy of struc- ture, which exist in the smaller insects, will easily explain the circum- stance of their being rarely met with in a mineralized .state. Very few indeed are the instances which I shall be able to adduce of Entomolithi, or of the mineralized remains of this class of animals. The specimen represented Plate XVII. Fig. 2, is a slab of the fissile cream-coloured lime-stone from Pappenheim, in which the traces of an insect are sufficiently plain to mark its presence, without, however, being sufficiently distinct, to point out the genus in which it should be placed. The head of the animal is plainly to be seen, but none of its parts are distinguishable. It appears to have been connected with the thorax by a contractile neck ; since, in another specimen, apparently of the same species, the neck appears to be as long as the thorax ; whilst, in the spe- cimen here depicted, the distance between the head and the thorax is very small. The thorax appears to have been nearly cylindrical, and much shorter and wider than the abdomen, which is of a lanceolated form, and is evidently composed of about eight articulated rings. In one of M. Knorr's figures, PI. xxxni. the tail of this animal terminates VOL. in. * L L in three points; but the form of the tail varies in every one of the three specimens which I possess. In one, the tail terminates in a bifurcation ; and, by careful inspection with a lens, a fold is perceptible in the last articulating ring of the ab- domen, which, it is evident, would have been obliterated by the approxi- mation of the bifurcating points. That the animal, therefore, possessed the power of opening and of shutting these, appears to be highly pro- bable ; and the appearances yielded by another specimen authorizes the opinion, that these, on closing, formed a sheath for the sting of the ani- mal; and, on being opened, left it in a state fit to inflict a wound. An apparently cylindrical body is seen standing out between the bifurcation, and may be even traced some little way within the abdomen. In a third specimen, which, from its having lost its legs, has very much the appearance of a pupa, the caudal termination is in a single point, giving to me the idea of the bifurcating points being united, and inclosing the sting. Plate XVII. Fig. 2, a, represents the animal with the bifurcating sheath : b, shows the sting, which has passed out of the sheath : and c, shows the termination in a single point ; which I suppose to be formed by the closing of the bifurcated sheath over the sting. The most accurate examination which I have been able to make does not enable me to discover any traces of wings. The legs, which I am of opinion are eight in number, are attached to the breast. If these in- sects have not been despoiled of their wings, and if my observations have been correct, they cannot any longer be considered as belonging to the genus Vespa : but, it being admitted that they were apterous insects, I yet must acknowledge my inability to dispose of them under any known » genus. Lhwydd, in a postscript to a letter to Dr. Richardson, thus speaks of the remains of insects, which he had perceived in coal-slate. — *' Scripsi olim suspicari me Araneorum quorundam icones, una cum *259 tithophytis, in schisto carbonaria observasse : hoc jam ulteriore experientia edoctus aperte assero. — Alias icones habeo qua:; ad Scarabseorum genus quam proxime accedunt. In posterum ergo non tantum Lithophyta, sed et quaedam insecta in hoc lapide investigare conabimur." Lithophylaciiy p. 112. Plate XVII. Fig. 3, 4, 5, and 6, are sketches of these insects, as given by Lhwydd, Ichnograph. Tab. 4. The petrified nests of bee& and wasps, of which some have spoken, may, I believe, be all referred to deceptive specimens of rnadreporites, or of septaria, in which the loose matter forming the tali, has allowed the crystallization to have formed small and numerous polygonal cells. The insects,, which have been said to have been found in these cells, must have originated in an active imagination. The only specimens which can have any pretensions to the term Hel- mintholites, are those of which the representation of one species is given Plate VI. Fig. 12, and of which the impression of another is shown Fig 13. Both these fossils are from Oeningen. The enormous length of this animal, and its knotted or jointed struc- ture, with its numerous contortions, and its general form, serve to distin- guish it decidedly from the earth-worm, with which it has been con- founded by some authors. These peculiarities do not, however, enable us to discover any known genus in which it may be placed. Knorr, Wolfart, and other oryctologists, have figured several varieties of this very curious kind of animal. Baier denominates it Lumbriciis marinus petri- ficatus. The analogue of Plate XVII, Fig. 9, is, I believe, entirely unknown. By some it has been considered as the wing or wings of a moth or butterfly, and by others it has been supposed to be the scale of some species offish or tortoise. For my own part, I acknowledge, that I can offer no conjec- ture respecting it ; and therefore introduce its representation here, with the hope of obtaining some illustration of it, from any one who may have *260 i been led to make such observations as may assist in ascertaining its ori- ginal nature. I am unacquainted with the place where these fossils are found ; but, from the nature of the matrix, suspect it to be Stunsiield, in Oxfordshire. The markings on the stone are so very thin, as to lead to the sup- position that the fossil body has been removed, and has only left its im- pression and stain on the stone. The stone itself is a lime-stone, very full of Oolithes, with shells dispersed through it, exactly resembling the Stunsfield stone, in which are found the teeth and palates of fish. In another fossil of this kind, the markings vary so much from the pre- ceding, as to render it, I think, deserving to be regarded as specifically different. The wings of butterflies are said to have been found in a mineralized state ; but this I very much doubt, suspecting that the opinion has been derived from some delusive appearances. When you take into consideration the particular characters by which the several species of the genus Cancer are marked, and the injuries which the fossil animals of this genus have sustained, you will see, I trust, the very great difficulty of distinguishing the species, even by those who possess, what I do not, an intimate knowledge of this branch of natural history, and an ample collection of both the recent and fossil objects of our inquiry. It happens, indeed, very unfortunately, that in the fossil remains, traces of the antennae, and the terminations of the hinder feet, are hardly ever to be seen. The containing crust of the animal, with some portions of its claws, are generally the only parts preserved ; but the in- cisural and dentated markings on the sides and fore part of the former, and the terminations of the latter, are very seldom discoverable. It is only from the size and general forms of this kind of fossils, that we can offer any opinion with respect to their species ; and, where the approxi- mation of the fossil is, in this respect, near to the recent animals, but lit- *261 tie prospect of success can exist in attempting to make a distinction be- tween them. I am entirely unable to say any thing with respect to the specific distinctions of any of the crabs which I possess. Mr. Francis Crow, of Faversham, is of opinion, that he possesses about twelve different fossil crabs, from Shepey ; and, in the collection of the London Museum, there existed, in the opinion of its learned possessor, more than three times as many; none of which he finds exactly agrees with any in his extensive recent collection. Plate XVII. Fig. 1 and 7, represent two different specimens of fossil crabs from the Isle of Shepey, distinguishable from each other by the markings on the dorsal plate. Crabs, apparently similar to those which are found at Shepey, are also obtained from the neighbourhood of Ve- rona. Very fine fossil remains of this kind are also found, in Malta, ,as well as in Anjou, in the department of Maine and Loire. Fossil remains of lobsters are sometimes found, in very good preserva- tion, in the Isle of Shepey. We learn from M. Knorr, Monum. des Catast. T. i. p. 19, that the fos- sil remains of river animals of this genus, the cray-fish (astaci), are found in no other part of the world, but in a narrow district, reaching from Gunzenhausen, in Anspach, to Aichstaedt, a length of about seven or eight leagues, bordered on one side by the river Altmuhl, which, he observes, abounds with animals of the same kind. The matrix of these petrifactions is a fine light yellow limestone, which frequently separates in tables, by which the contained fossils are beautifully displayed. These animals appear to have been imbedded in their matrix during the precipitation of the calcareous particles from the fluid in which they had been held. A fossil shrimp, from these quarries, is shown Plate XVII, Fig. 8. Plate XVII. Fig. 12, is the representation of a fossil crab, from the East Indies. These fossils are known by the name of Ceylon crabs; they having been formerly brought into Europe by the Dutch, who used to state that they were brought from Ceylon, where only they were to be found. Father Martini, in his Chinese Atlas, relates, on the autho- rity of several Chinese, that similar crabs are found in a lake in China, and that they possess the wonderful property of changing into stone, im- mediately on their being taken out of the water. These fossils are however, in fact, found, according to Bourguet, in different parts of the sea-coast of China, in the island of Hainan, and on the coasts of Japan and of Coromandel. They are generally very much mutilated ; but their crust bears oftentimes more the appearance ' of that of a crab recently taken from the sea, than those of Shepey. Plate XVII. Fig. 10, represents part of the claw of a crab, in its ma- trix, from St. Peter's Mountain, Maestricht. It is observed, by Faujas St. Fond, that there is no fossil, in this and the neighbouring mountains, more frequent than claws of crabs; but it is an extremely remarkable circumstance, that, notwithstanding the abundance in which these re- mains are here found, no remains of the body, or of the other parts of the animal, are discovered. After long reflecting on this circumstance, this industrious inquirer thought it right to conclude, that these remains had belonged to some crab of the parasitic kind, as Cancer bernhardus, Linn, The softness and delicacy of every other part of its covering, except that of its claws, would, he thinks, satisfactorily explain why these alone have been thus preserved. In confirmation of this opinion Latreille, a naturalist who has paid particular attention to the examination of Crustacea, concludes, from the curvature, direction, and general form of the arm of the crab, figured in Faujas's work, and from the absence of any other part of the animal, that it must have belonged to an hermit crab, Pagurus bernhardus. In both, he observes, the right arm is the strongest, and the form of the hand is the same ; the only difference between them being a larger number of asperities on the finger of the fossil crab, which is* also rather longer than that of the recent crab. The upper edge of the hand, too, of the recent animal, has also some asperities which are not observable on the fossil hand. But these, he thinks, may possibly have been removed by friction. The fossil remains, Plate XVII. Fig. 11,14, &c. which we shall now exa- mine possess so few of the appearances exhibited by any existing animal, as to have rendered many ingenious naturalists doubtful, whether they should consider them as the remains of a crustaceous or of a conchiferous animal. Various names have been given to this fossil, derived chiefly from the three lobular divisions by which it is so particularly marked ; but several appellations have also been applied to it, founded on these re- mains being sometimes found in a coiled, and sometimes in an extended state ; as well as from the head and tail part being frequently found separated, and giving room for suspicion that they might belong to dif- ferent animals. From Bromel this fossil received the name of Lapis in- sectiferus and Insectum vaginipenne; by Wolsterdorf, who considered it as a fossil bivalve, it was called Conchitus trilobus ; by Hermann, Pectun- culites trilobus bnbricatus \ by Da Costa, Pediculus marinus ; by Linnaeus, Entomolithes par adorns; by Baumer, Trigonella striata; and by Wilke, Entomolithus cancriformis marini. Mr. Martin, who, in his Petrificata Derbiensia, inquired, with consider- able success, into the nature of this fossil, concluded that the original of the petrified insect, found in Derbyshire, was an oniscus. But as we have been hitherto able to examine a part only of this animal, and as there ap- pears to be very considerable differences in the forms of the fossils of this kind, which have been found in different parts, it seems to be advisable, until we gain further information, to form for it a temporary genus, which may be named and characterized Trilobites — the fossil crustaceous upper covering, oblong, convex, and surrounded by an entire margin : the head or thorax large and gibbous, with two tubercles or eyes : the back convex, formed of triarcuate, imbricating segments, generally agree- *264 in their number with the size of the .animal : the tail varying in its size and form. The Dudley fossil, or that species of this fossil which is found at Dud- ley, in Shropshire, is evidently the upper covering only of the animal, and appears to have been of a crustaceous nature. It is of an oblong ovate form, convex, and surrounded by an uninterrupted border. The head is large and gibbous, and divided longitudinally into three parts : the middle one rounded, gibbous, and rough, having at its posterior part two round projecting knobs, and just before these two smaller. On each side of this body is a triangular surface, from the centre of each of which proceeds a valvular projection, which, from its form, appears to have been capable of being occasionally opened or closed. I acknowledge that, in the specimens which I possess, I am unable to discover the reticulated surface of the eye of this animal, of which many have spoken. Instead of this, I only find the lunated valvular pro- jection, by which, it seems, the eye of the animal might be occasionally covered or exposed. A magnified representation of this part is given Fig. 14,0. The back is formed of strong, convex, triarcuate segments, varying in number with the size of the animal, and diminishing in size, as they approach the caudal termination. These segments are more raised in their middle than at their sides; and in the recent animal, the supe- rior, by sliding over the inferior ones, allowed the animal to make very considerable changes in its form, by extending or contracting itself) as is shown Plate XVII. Fig. 11 and 14. The tail is obtuse, and without any appendage. In no specimen has the under part of the animal been seen, consequently nothing can be said respecting the structure of this part, its legs, &c. The Derbyshire trilobite differs from that of Dudley in being nar- rower, and particularly so at the upper part ; in not having the four tu- bercles at the posterior part of the head, and in having the dorsal seg- merits marked with a line of minute tubercles. Mr. Martin has given a representation of the reticulated surface of the eye in this animal. On breaking the Dudley fossils, the inner surface of their covering is •found marked with undulating striae, the impressions of which are also found on the inclosed matrix. In none of the specimens which I have thus broken, or have rubbed down, have I been able to discover any remains of an inferior or ventral covering, corresponding with the upper one, which has been just described. M. Walch, indeed, observes, that no under covering, or plate, have been ever discovered. A trilobite is represented in the Memoirs of the Swedish Academy, as possessing antennae. This seems to have been the consequence of some mistake ; since, in none of the specimens which have been since exa- mined, has the appearance of such a part been ever seen. Another species of this animal is found in the schistose strata in the neighbourhood of Llanelly, in Carmarthenshire. Plate XVII. Fig. 13. This differs from the preceding species in two material respects: the lateral lobular divisions are nearly three times as wide as the central one; and the outline of the animal approaches much nearer to the elliptical than the ovate form. From this latter circumstance, it obtains some slight resemblance to a sole, and has therefore been considered by some as the petrifaction of a fish of that tribe. The mutilated remains of this species, in consequence of the fossil being frequently severed transversely, have been regarded as petrified butterflies. On the remains of one of these I have perceived a very curious struc- ture: it is in that part of the fossil which presents itself to view on the removal of the external covering, and which was probably the cuticle of the animal. Here the form of the parts appears exactly to correspond with that of the crustaceous covering, being transversely and somewhat obliquely disposed ; but, aided by the lens, the eye discovers, that this pellicle is marked by frequent and regular rugae, as if the pellicle had 4>een disposed in folds, not as in the outer coat, in a transverse, but in a longitudinal direction, Fig. 13, b. VOL. in, * M M *266 Another species, the representation of a mutilated fragment of which is given Plate XVII. Fig. 16, is a very extraordinary fossil. In this ani- mal, the lobular divisions seem to have very nearly corresponded with those of the Dudley species. But the structure of the head-part of the animal differs exceedingly from every other species. In this fossil, instead of the appearance of the distinct parts of a face, there are three large round protuberances, the middle being the largest; and all these pro- tuberances are closely beset with small tubercular risings. These pro- tuberances possess nearty the whole space of the head, the eyes being placed in the centre of each of the lateral risings. The matrix of this is a white fine limestone, but I am not able to say where it was obtained. The fourth species, which is much more rare than any of the former, is almost always found imbedded in fuller's earth. The lower half of one of these is represented Plate XVII. Fig. 17. The form of the head I am unacquainted with. The structure of the back, and disposition of its plates, appear to agree with that of Llanelly ; the central division of the plates terminating, like that of the Llanelly species, within a marginal line, which surrounds the divisions. From the inferior part of this line proceeds a long and narrow caudal process, which tapers as it descends, and appears to have been formed of a single plate or substance. These specimens seldom possess the process itself, the impression only of its lower surface being left, and which possesses somewhat of a bronzed ap- pearance, probably from some stain which the fullers' earth has derived from the animal matter. Plate XVII. Fig. 18, represents another species as imbedded in a nodule of iron-stone from the neighbourhood of Bewdley, in Shropshire — a spot exceedingly rich in fossil vegetable remains, as I may infer from the valuable collection with which I was favoured by Thomas Botfield, Esq. of Hopton Court, near Bewdley. The species of this animal, which is here preserved, differs essentially from any of those above de- scribed. Of the head, very little can be made out : it is evidently, how- ever, much larger in proportion than that of any of the former species. *267 It is nearly semiorbicular, lunated posteriorly, and terminating at the sides in an acute angle. The body, which has only five transverse plates, is remarkably short; its sides going off directly from the head, and meeting speedily at an obtuse angle. From this point proceeds the tail of the animal, which is of a greater length than both the head and body. The structure of the tail may be here so far made out, as to enable us to ascer- tain that it is formed by a long central spine-like process, on each side of which a membrane has been evidently extended, wider than the process itself. This fossil appears to be the same with Monoculites lunatus of Mr. Mar- tin, Plate 45, Fig. 4, who supposed it to approach nearer, in size and figure, to the Monoculus apus, than to any other known recent species of that genus. The opinions respecting the analogue of the trilobites have been very different. Some have supposed it a testaceous animal, and some have imagined it to be a coleopterous, whilst others have conjectured it to be an apterous insect. Guettard and Davila have placed it among the crustaceous animals. Linnaeus, Mortimer* and Wilke, think it should be placed among the monoculi. Several writers have considered it as proper to place it among the bivalve shells; and Leigh, Hist, of Lancashire, Tab. vn. f. even regards it as a portion of a nautilus; Scheuchzer supposed that it might have been a patella; and Bruckman speaks of it as a polype. We must content, ourselves, I believe, with allowing that no animal resembling it is known. Its surface, however, viewed with a lens, confirms the opinion of M. Walch and others, who have supposed it to be an animal of the crustaceous kind ; the rough- ness resulting from the numerous little pits and risings appearing to be very similar to that of the crust of the crab, lobster, &c. Plate XVII. Fig. 19, is the fossil remains of some crustaceous animal,, which are frequently found with the trilobite in the Dudley lime-stonCo The head part of the animal appears to have been separated and r&~- moved: sufficient, however, of the animal here exists, to show that it is comparable with no known animal. Plate XVII. Fig. 15, is the representation of the upper part of an extraordinary fossil; but with where it was found I am totally unac- quainted. Its matrix is a ferruginous lime-stone, in which are discoverable particles of pyrites. It appears to be the dorsal plate of some enormous insect. On this plate regular transverse markings are observable, none of which are to be seen on the abdominal plate. It may perhaps be the remains of some huge insect of the genus Oniscus, or rather Monoculus; 'but it differs so much from any known animal, as to render guessing at even its genus presumptuous. 26,5 LETTER XVIIf. A MPHIBIOLITH I.... ..TORTOISE CROCODILE. 1 HE Amphibiolithi form a very large and important class of fossils, and of which our own country has produced some very interesting specimens. It must, however, be to those of the larger kind that our attention must be directed ; since, from their minuteness and extreme delicacy, the remains of frogs, serpents, and of the smaller species of the genus Lacerta, are very rarely met with, and then can hardly be expected to afford us anv real instruction. The remarks which I shall have to offer will be «/ entirely confined to the Amphibia reptiles, since I know of no decided instance of the mineralized remains of any of the A. serpentes. The fossil remains of the genus Testudo are rarely found, and seldom in such a state as can yield any positive information respecting the ori- ginal animal. Indeed, when we consider that the sections into which this genus (Testudo) has been divided by Linnaeus, of the sea, the fresh water, and the land tortoise, are distinguishable by the feet being like fins, or palmated, or club-shaped, with nails, it will be seen that any distinc- tion of this kind can rarely be made in the fossil remains of these animals; since, except in the impression in schist, which will be presently men- tioned, no traces of the feet are, I believe, to be found among their fossil remains. It may not, however, be improper to observe here, that should any re- mains of this part of these animals be found fossil, they will not serve, with VOL. III. M M 266 certainty, for the distinctions pointed out by this illustrious naturalist ; since subsequent discoveries and observations have shown, that the habits of these animals do not always accord with the forms of their feet. Thus the curious box-like tortoise, T. Carolina, Linn. ; T. clausa, Bosc, though possessing the feet supposed to belong to the river tortoise, often wanders up into the country : whilst that of Japan, which is organized, in this part, like the sea tortoise, has the habits of the river tortoise. The hard, bony, and sometimes, perhaps, the scaly covering of these animals, are the only parts which can be expected to be preserved in a mineralized state. But these can so very rarely yield any marks distinctive of species, that any attempts to make out specific differences in these fossil remains must in general be fruitless. M. Knorr gives the representation of a fossil tortoise, from a very valuable specimen in the possession of Dr. Gesner, found near Claris. The matrix is a black schist, in which the form of the animal appears to be very strongly marked. Towards the superior extremity, traces of the head are discoverable ; and a little on one side the marks of one of its feet extended, and somewhat resembling that of a frog, are also observable. The back part of a fossil tortoise has been found in the Isle of Malta, Bocconi Mus. dijisic. et d'experienza, pag. 181. Gesner also mentions the back part of a tortoise having been found in a quarry near Berlin, De petrifactis, p. 86; and in the Museum of Dresden was a portion of a fossil shell of a tortoise, seventeen inches in length and about five inches wide. Some fossil remains found in Aix, in Provence, and which had for some time served to perplex the oryctologists, who had been doubtful whether they should consider them as remains of human skulls, or of nautili, were determined by M. Delatour-d'Aigue, M. Adanson, and M. Lama- non, to be the fossil remains of the tortoise, Journal de Phys. T. xvi. p. 468. Fossil remains of these animals have also been found in the neighbourhood of Melsbroeck, near to Brussels, Oryct. de Bruxelles, par Francois Xavier-Burtin. From an examination of these last-mentioned 267 fossils, Lacepede has thought himself authorized in considering them as belonging to Testudo marina vulgaris, of Ray ; or Testudo mydas, of Lin- naeus. Camper mentions his possessing the entire back of a fossil tortoise, four feet in length and six inches in breadth, found in St. Peter's Moun- tain, Maestricht. He speaks also of other remains of the tortoise found in the same part, and particularly of a fossil, similar to his own, in the Museum of John Hunter. Philos. Trans. 1786. The great disproportion existing between the length and breadth of the back of the fossil described by Camper, has also been found to exist in another fossil from the same spot, in the possession of M. Preston, at. Liege : it being four feet two inches in length, and only six inches in breadth. This peculiarity of form is considered by Faujas St. Fond, as proceeding from these being the remains of some unknown species of this genus, in which the hard and osseous covering was extended only along the vertebral column, whilst the remaining part of the back was covered with a coriaceous or horny covering, somewhat resembling that of T. lyra, Linn. Faujas St. P'ond has presented to the Museum of Natural History at Paris the fossil remains of three tortoises from Maes- tricht. Two of these resemble each other in possessing, different from the ordinary tortoise, two prolongations at the upper angles, as if of the arm, and forming an oval notch where the head was placed. The third differs from those just mentioned, as well as from the common tor- toise, in the general form of its shell ; which gives, at first view, the idea of a cuirass, with a double neckpiece or gorget. M. Faujas St. Fond obtained from the quarry of Grand Charon e part of the shell of a tortoise, which was connected with an alated bony appendix, such as was observed in the remains of the more gigantic tor- toises which he found in St. Peter's Mountain. Ann. du Mus. Tome n. p. 108. Reviewing the preceding account, it appears, that all of the six speci- mens found at Melsbroeck, appear, according to Faujas St. Fond, to belong to T. mydas — four specimens from Aix, all belong to one unknown 268 species — of the eight specimens from Maestricht, which are all unknown, three are ascertained to belong to as "many distinct and new species— and the one found in the quarry of Grand Charonne, near Paris, also is of an unknown species. Hence it appears, that of fourteen fossil tor- toises, one only appears to be of a known species, and that of the re- maining thirteen, none can be referred to any known species, but five of them are decidedly of new species. In this island the fossil remains of this genus are but rarely met with. In the Isle of Shepey some fragments, and a few very good specimens, have been found. Two or three fossil tortoises from this part, in very fine preservation, are in the British Museum ; and Colonel Hawker, of the 14th Light Dragoons, also possesses a very perfect specimen, which he very kindly offered for my inspection and information. Mr. Francis Crow, of Faversham, possesses perhaps the most complete fossil animal of this genus, which has been yet discovered in Shepey. The specimens which I possess from Shepey do not empower me to decide as to their species. They are of four different sizes, and appear to me to be of the same species, but of different ages. In no one of them is the dorsal plate perfect, surrounded by its marginal scutelke. Thus, in a very fine specimen, with which I was favoured by Mr. Crow, a series of eight small and narrow hexagonal scutellae, corresponding with the vertebrae, are disposed along the middle of the back; and from these proceed, on each side, as many transversely long scutellae, which appear to have been of a hexagonal form ; but this cannot be determined, since their outer sides, and of course the margin of the shell, has been removed. From this circumstance, I am led to the supposition, that these are the remains of animals whose coverings were partly soft, and that conse- quently the marginal plates, if any existed, were removed as the inter- vening membrane was destroyed. In this opinion I am confirmed by the appearance of the breastplate in one of the specimens, as represented Plate XVIII. Fig. 2 ; where it may be seen, that the sternal plate, with which, in this respect, the dorsal plate may be supposed to agree, has not been united, but tbat it has been connected by interposed mem- brane. This part happens, fortunately, to be in so good a state of preser- vation, as to allow the several osseous parts of this plate to be distinctly made out. At .#, is seen a part of the anterior appendix; at b, is the anterior branch; ate, the posterior branch; and at d, is the posterior appendix. rq In Verona, and chiefly in the Valley of Ronca, fragments of tortoise- shell are found; and, from the rugous state of the outer surface of some of these, I have little doubt of their having belonged to some of these animals, whose coverings were partly coriaceous; for in these, although the outer surface of their covering would be smooth whilst living, they would be thus rugous after the death of the animal. Mr. Johnson, of Bristol, was lately so fortunate as to find, at the Old Passage, in Gloucestershire, some fossils of a very curious appearance and form. One of these is represented Plate XVIII. Fig. 1. This, with several others, most of which are much larger and possess a fine polish,, and are of a deep black, I conceive to be the digitated terminations of the sternal plate belonging to one of these animals, with a partly mem- braneous or coriaceous covering. These fossils approach the nearest to the corresponding parts in the Trionyx carinatus of M. Geoffroy St. Hi- laire. One of the fossils found by Mr. Johnson is decidedly the osseous plate belonging to the posterior appendix, and resembles very much, in its form and rugous surface, the corresponding part in Trionyx Mgyp- tiacus, of M. Geoffroy St. Hilaire, but is full six times as large. I must not conceal from you, that the ingenious gentleman who pos- sesses these fossils is disposed to entertain a different opinion, and to believe that they are the parts of the jaw or palate of some 'fish. This must remain to be determined by some more illustrative and analogous ^pecimen : until then, I shall hold my opinion with diffidence ; for, as I . have had already occasion to notice, error in these inquiries are very, easily fallen into. Thus has Faujas St. Fond, in the elegant work where he has displayed so many remains of these animals, mistaken the shoulder- 270 bone of a tortoise for the horn of a stag; fragments of the sternal plates (plastrons) of a tortoise for the branched part of the horns of the elk ; and two bones of the carpus, belonging also to the tortoise, for the pubis and the clavicle of a crocodile. Similar remains to those found by Mr. Johnson, are sometimes found in the Stansfield lime-stone. Plate XVIII. Fig. 3, is the fossil head of a tortoise, found at Shepey by Mr. Crow. The necessity of ascertaining the number of existing species of the crocodile, and of pointing out their distinctive characters, previous to the examination of their fossil remains, must be obvious ; and that this task has been performed by M. Cuivier, who possesses abilities arid oppor- tunities so well fitted for the undertaking, is a circumstance which has considerably promoted the advancement of our knowledge in our fa- vourite science. The gratitude due to him, on the present occasion, is considerably augmented by the consideration, that at the period at which his investigations were made, almost every one who had written on the subject had unfortunately contributed, by their errors, to envelope the subject in confusion. M. Schneider, however, had sedulously em- ployed himself, and with some success, in makjng some useful and important distinctions, with respect to these animals ; Histoire des Am- phibies, cap. n. But the most instructive labours were those of M. Geoffroy, who not only made some important anatomical researches on the crocodile of the Nile, but also on the crocodile of St. Domingo, which bore so strong a resemblance to that of the Nile, as to have led to the suspicion that they were both of the same species ; and, of course, to a doubt as to the circumstance dwelt on by Buffon, that no species belonging to the torrid zone had been primitively in both continents. The observations, however, of M. Gregoire, determined that the croco- dile of St. Domingo deserved to be regarded as of a different species from that of the Nile. Ann. du Mus. Nat. T, i. p. 37 and 53. This same naturalist suspected, from the accounts he had received, that two distinct species of the crocodile existed in Egypt; one of these 271 he conceived to be the common crocodile of Egypt, and the other the Suchos, the sacred crocodile of Thebes. This opinion was strongly cor- roborated by the skull of this animal, contained in some of the mummies found in the ruins of this celebrated city, and by a well-prepared spe- cimen of an animal of this species. M. Cuvier himself, although doubt- ing as to M. Geoffrey's employing the word sitchus in the same sense as the ancients did, is satisfied that a difference exists between some of the cro- codiles of Egypt, sufficient to allow of admitting the existence of a race, if not a species, distinct from the common crocodile of the Nile. Aided by the observations of M. Geoffroy, and by the anatomical examination of the crocodile of St. Domingo by M. Descourtils, who dis- sected more than forty of this species; and availing himself of the oppor- tunity of examining nearly sixty animals of this genus, of both sexes, and of different ages and sizes, from their passing out of the egg to the length of twelve or fifteen feet, arid examining anew the different works which had been written on this animal, M. Cuvier considered himself as authorized in arranging these animals in the following order : — The following characters: — conical teeth, in a single row — a broad fleshy tongue, affixed to the mouth — a compressed tail, carinated and serrated on its upper part — palmated or semipal mated feet — and broad and nearly square scales on the back, belly, and tail ; he considers as forming the genus CROCODILE, of the order Sauri, in the class Am- phibia. This genus he considers as divisible into three sub-genera : — I. Alligators (caimans). The head oblong, but its length being to its breadth not more than as three to two — the fourth lower tooth on each side being received in a pit in the upper jaw — the feet semipal- mated. Under this sub-genus he places the following four species : C. Indus, C. sclerops, C. palpebrosus, and C. trigonatus. — II. Crocodiles. The length of the head double that of its width, the jaws being oblong — the fourth lower tooth on each side passing through a notch on each side of the upper jaw — the feet palmated. Under this sub-genus he disposes C. vulgar is, C. biporcatus, C. rhombifer, C. galeatus, C. biscutatus, and C, 272 , acutus. — III. Longbeaked (Gaoials). The jaws elongated and cylindri- cal—the feet palmated. Under this sub-genus he places the large and small gavial, as C. gangeticus and C. tenuirostris. The remains of animals referable to the genus Crocodile, and of others, which though not of this genus, may be considered as of the family of lizards, have been found in a fossil state in different parts of the world, but particularly in this island, in Germany, and France. In the greatest part of Thuringia and of Voigtiand, bordering upon Hesse, and even in Franconia and Bavaria, is a bed of bituminous inarl-slate, which Mr. Werner considers as the lowest stratum of the first floetz lime-stone. It is from this bed of schist, in the neighbourhood of Mansfield, Eisleben, Ilmeneau, &c. that those impressions of fish are obtained, which are so frequently beautified by the brilliant coatings of copper and silver pyrites. Above this cuprous schist are beds of lime-stone, in which exist belem-* nites, entrochi, anomise, and other remains of high antiquity. On this lime-stone is gypsum, accompanied with sal gem, above which is sand- stone, covered by gypsum, without salt; and on this is another shelly lime-stone, in which are the celebrated caverns, containing the remains of bears and of other carnivorous animals. The bed of bituminous slate, in which the impressions of fishes, and also of oviparous quadrupeds, are found, are indubitably, from their situation, the most ancient of the strata here enumerated ; whilst the fishes, whose impressions are here found, are generally supposed to be those of fresh-water fish ; and the oviparous quadrupeds, whose im- pressions accompany them, are always, according to M. Cuvier, ani- mals which frequent marshes and the banks of rivers. From the repre- sentations of four fossil specimens, that by Spener, MiscelL berol. i. Fig. 24 and 25, p. 99, from the neighbourhood of Salzungen ; that of Link, from the same place, Letter to Dr. Woodward, &c. ; that by Sweden- bourg, from Alteristein, DC Cupro Tractat. PL n. ; and one from the mines of Rothenbourg, near Saal, at the depth of 264 feet; M. Cuvier 273 was satisfied that the traces here preserved are of animals of the sarra? species. The form of the head, the pointed teeth, the size of the vertebrae of the tail, would be sufficient, he observes, without the limbs, to show de- cidedly, that this animal must have been an oviparous quadruped. The head, however, does not, as was supposed by Spener and Link, bear any resemblance to that of the crocodile of the Nile. So far, also, is it from being, as is asserted by M. Faujas, a real Gavial,. that M. Cuvier is convinced, that it differs more from the Gavial than from any other reptile of the lizard tribe. From the head engraved by Spener, M. Cuvier was enabled to deter- mine the genus to which this animal belonged. In the upper jaw he could discover only eleven teeth on one side, and which only reached to the anterior angle of the orbit ; a circumstance which characterizes the Lacerta monitor of Linnaeus, or Tupinambis of Daudin. In the upper jaw of the crocodile there should be at least fifteen teeth on each side, and these should reach to the middle of the orbit. The hind feet also, as seen both in Link's and Swedenbourg's speci- mens, show five unequal toes, of which the fourth is the longest : these toes have the following number of bones in each, beginning with the great toe, and reckoning the metacarpal bone — 3, 4, 5, 6, 4. This number, and this proportion of the toes, as well as the number of the joints of each toe, are exactly the same in the Monitor, in the common lizards, and in the iguana; but are different in the crocodile, which has but four toes to the hind feet, differing but little in their length, and being formed by bones disposed in this number and order — 3, 4,. 5, 4. The fore feet are discoverable in the specimen of Link, and have each five toes of nearly equal size. The crocodiles also, as well as the lizards, have five toes to their fore feet, but the little toe is evidently smaller in proportion. The size of these animals also appears to agree with that of the most common species of Monitor ; such as, those which belong to the land, and VOL. Ill, N N 274 to the river of Egypt; that of Congou, described by Daudin; those of the East Indies, &c. They accord indeed so well, in almost every respect, that M. Cuvier, by comparison with different specimens and skeletons of these animals in the Museum, has been able to detect only one or two apparently specific distinctions. The one of these is, that the spinal processes of the dorsal vertebrae are much more raised than in the Monitors. The other is, that the leg appears to be longer in proportion to the thigh and foot, than is the case in the Monitors. In the neighbourhood of Altorff, in Bavaria, are quarries of indifferent grey marble, containing ammonites, &c. in which the impressions of large heads, with long jaws, armed with pointed teeth, have been repeat- edly found. The specimens which have been there discovered, have not hitherto warranted the determining with what species of animal, or even hardly with what genus they should be placed. In the opinion of Merck, Troisicme Lettre sur les Fossiles, p. 25, the one which he possessed, but which is now in the Museum of Darmstadt, may be considered as a Gavial. Ano- ther, in the Museum of Manheim, and which has been carefully figured and described by Collini, Act. Ac. Theod. Palat v. PI. in. Fig. 1 and 2, is thought, by this author, to have belonged either to a saw or a sword- fish, or to some unknown sea animal. The fore part of another was found by M. Bauder, Burgomaster of Altorf ; and this one has been merely described as part of the head of a crocodile. M. Faujas, who has published figures of the two first of these fossils, agrees positively with Merck in the opinion of their being the heads of the Gavial. This opinion is however opposed by M. Cuvier, who has discovered some important points in which they differ. The length of the head at Manheim is to its width as 38 to 11, whilst, in the larger Ga- vial, the length of its head is to its width as 25 to 9. The general figure of the head also differs from that of the larger Gavial, it narrowing gradually to form the muzzle. From these two circumstances, and from the long oval marks of the eyes, it would seem to resemble the head of the 275 smaller, whilst its size is nearly that of the larger Gavial. From the figure given by M. Faujas, of the head at Darmstadt, it appears to differ from that of either of the Gavials; since the symphisis of the lower jaw does not extend so much backwards, and there are seven or eight teeth in the separated parts of each branch of the jaw ; whilst, in this part of the jaw, in the Gavials, there are only two or three teeth. Some have imagined these fossils to have been the remains of a dol- phin j but that this is not the fact is evinced by the nostrils, which, instead of passing in vertically, at the root of the muzzle, are disposed at its end, and open into a double nasal canal, reaching even beneath the skull. It is evident, that there can exist no reason for supposing that these remains can be referred to any kind of fish ; and that they have belonged to some animal of the crocodile kind is certainly the most reasonable conjecture. Part of the head of a crocodile has also been found in a mountain near to Rozzo, on the borders of Vicentin and of Tyrol, the lower jaw of which is twenty-five inches and a half long, and eight inches wide. Its matrix is a limestone of a yellowish red colour. Voyage en Tyrol, par M. le Comte de Stemberg. This fossil has also been referred to the Gavial by M. Faujas ; but, as is observed by M. Cuvier, it differs from it in the posterior part of the jaw not being in a straight line with the anterior pint, where it is united by the symphisis, but forming an angle, by which the branch of one side becomes separated from that of the other side : a character which sufficiently shows, that this cannot have been the remains of an actual Gavial. M. Cuvier is of opinion, that these fossils, as well as those of Altorf, are the remains of an unknown spe- cies of the crocodile, and similar to those which will form the subject of our next letter. 276 LETTER XIX. FOSSIL CROCODILES TWO SPECIES FOUND IN FRANCE, DIFFERING FROM ANY KNOWN SPECIES FOSSIL SPECIES FOUND ALSO IN ENGLAND. 1 HE fossils which we shall now examine will, I doubt not, excite in you a considerable degree of interest ; since they have been found in such a state, and in such numbers, as to allow of their comparison with the correspondent parts of animals of the same genus ; and since they have been thus compared by M. Cuvier. These fossils were collected in the neighbourhood of Honfleur,. by the Abbe Bachelet, an assiduous naturalist at Rouen, and were sent, by orders of the Prefect of the department, to the Museum of Natural History ! Similar fossils are also obtained at Havre. They were found in a bed of hard limestone, of a bluish grey colour, which becomes nearly black when wet, and which is found along the shore on both sides of the mouth of the Seine, being in some places covered by the sea, and in others above its level, even at high water. This bed, M. Cuvier observes, is certainly more ancient than the im- mense mass of clay which rests on it, and which rises in cliffs of 300 or 400 feet in height, forming the whole of Caux, a part of Auge, and spreads into Picardy and Champagne, and even into England. These bones of crocodiles, as well as those of lizards, in Thuringia, belong, then, to strata considerably anterior to those which contain the bones of qua- 277 % drupeds, and which are themselves of very high antiquity; such as the beds of gypsum, at Paris ; since these rest on the more common shelly lime- stone, beneath which is the chalk. The larger cavities of the bones are filled by the same hard grey lime- stone ; but the pores and smaller cells are filled by a semi-transparent spar, which has sometimes a yellowish tinge. In general, a thin coat of pyrites is seen to line the cavity, and, of course, to immediately include the spar : and sometimes the whole of these minute cavities have been filled with pyrites. The most important specimen in the National Museum is a lower jaw, nearly complete. This jaw, indubitably of a crocodile, is beset with conical striated teeth, with the two sharp edges, one on the fore and the other on the back part, and having the cavities for the germs of the suc- ceeding teeth. In this specimen are also discoverable the sutures which divide each branch of the jaw into six bones. An outline sketch of this jaw is given Plate XVIII. Fig. 7. That this jaw belonged to some animal of the genus Crocodile, there can be no doubt ; and the following differences, noticed by M. Cuvier, as undoubtedly show that this animal could not be of the Gavial species: 1. The branches are much longer, in proportion to the anterior con- nected part, than in either of the Gavials. 2. The branches do not form so open an angle as in the Gavial ; the angle in the Gavial being about 60°, and in the fossil jaw but little more than 30°. 3. From this cir- cumstance, the outer lines formed by the branches, separate gradually from the part where they are united ; whereas, in the Gavial, they sepa- rate by a sudden and very sensible flexion. 4. The notch which sepa- rates the branches penetrates forwarder Between the teeth than it does in the Gavial : in the Gavial there are but two or three teeth, and in the fossil jaw there are seven in each branch. 5. The whole number of the teeth is, however, less : in the fossil jaw there are only twenty -two on each side ; whilst, in the Gavial, there are twenty-five. 6. There 278 does not appear, in the fossil the oval hole which exists in the posterior part of the branch, in the known species of crocodiles. The fossil upper jaw was also ascertained, from different fragments, to differ materially from the upper jaw of the Gavial. The snout, corre- sponding with the symphisis of the lower jaw, is shorter and flatter than that of the Gavial ; and the anterior end terminates in a point, and does not spread out as that of the Gavial does. The anterior edges of the orbits also appear to be more flattened than in the living species. From fair grounds of calculation it also appears, that the skull must have been much longer in proportion to the snout, in the fossil species than in the Gavial. One of the specimens from Honfleur, a fragment of the base of the symphisis part of the lower jaw, appeared to differ from the lower jaw already mentioned, in being rather flatter; approaching a little, in this and some other respects, to that of the gavial. This circumstance led M. Cuvier to the suspicion of there being the remains of two species of crocodiles in this stratum. An attentive examination of the fossil vertebrae confirmed his opi- nion ; since he discovered that the vertebrae also belonged to two different systems of bones, neither of which was similar to that of the known cro- codiles. With respect to the first species of fossil vertebrae which he found, he ascertained that the posterior face of the body of the axis is concave, whilst it is convex in all the known crocodiles ; a characteristic which is distinguishable in many of these fossil vertebrae, whilst in the known crocodiles this part is convex. Plate XVIII. Fig. 6, represents one of the dorsal vertebrae, in which this circumstance is observable. It is proper to remark here, that wnole orders of viviparous quadrupeds, such as the ruminants and solipeds, have the bodies of their cervical vertebrae convex in their fore part; but, in these, their apophyses are very differently disposed. The transverse apophyses in the fossil vertebras arise by four pro- jecting processes, which give them a pyramidal base ; and behind the sur- 279 face, receiving the head of the rib, is a deep pit : these are two peculiarities which do not exist in the known crocodiles. In the place, also, of the single inferior spinous apophysis, which exists in the known crocodiles, there are two ridges, each terminating in a tubercle placed forwards. The body of these fossil vertebrae is also more contracted in its middle than is that of the vertebrae of the common crocodile. The other series of vertebra also appeared to belong to a crocodile, different from those which now exist, as well as from that whose ver- tebrae have just been described. Their characteristic differences are : their body is not contracted in the middle, and their transverse apophy- ses do not arise from the reunion of several projecting ridges. They therefore resemble those of the living crocodiles much more than the preceding ; but their principal difference, distinguishing them from the preceding fossil vertebras, as well as from those of the living crocodiles, is that the faces of their bodies are neither of them convex; but are both slightly concave. In other respects, in the disposition of their apophy- ses, in the suture which connects the annular part and processes with the body of the vertebrse, &c. they agree with the vertebrae of crocodiles in general. A vertebrse belonging to this species is represented Plate XVIII. Fig. 5, which answers to the second dorsal vertebrae of the com- mon crocodile, by the position of its costal pit a, b ; but differs from it in having no inferior spinous apophysis. It is undoubtedly exceedingly desirable, to determine to which of these two systems of vertebrae, the fragments of the head and jaws just de- scribed may be referred. This is however, at present, hardly possible, the specimens which have been hitherto described not having been found under circumstances which would allow of determining the connection. M. Cuvier, however, thiriks it most probable, that the nearly complete jaw belonged to the same animal to which the first described vertebrae be- longed ; and that the fragment of the jaw which seems to approach nearer to that of the Gavial might be placed with the second species of vertebrae. It must be however observed, that the vertebrae of the second 230 species were found in the same mass with the large specimen of the lower jaw. Remains of crocodiles have also been found in other parts of France; as, at Angers and Mans. Some of these remains seem to show, that at least one of the fossil species above noticed is also found in other parts of France besides Honfletir and Havre. The remains of crocodiles have been also found in different parts of England ; but particularly on the coast of Dorsetshire, and of Yorkshire, near Whitby ; in the neighbourhood of Bath; and near Newark, in Not- tinghamshire. Dr. Stukely describes a stone three feet long, and two feet two inches broad, found at Elston, near Newark, in Nottingham. The Doctor described it as containing the marks of sixteen vertebrae of the back and loins, and eleven joints of the tail ; nine whole or partial ribs of the left side ; the Os sacrum ; the Ilium in situ ; the two thigh-bones, a little displaced ; with the beginnings of the tibia and fibula of the right leg. On one corner, he thought, the vestiges were to be seen of a foot with four toes ; and, at a little distance, an entire toe. The Doctor consi- dered this fossil as the remains of a crocodile or of a porpoise. The stone in which these traces were discoverable, had been used at a well, for placing the vessels on in which the water was obtained. It was of a blue colour, and came probably from Fulbeck quarries, which are on the Western declivity of the long chain of hills which reach through the whole of Lincolnshire, and which contain numerous shells and other marine bodies *. M. Cuvier considers this fossil to have derived its markings from the remains of a crocodile : that it could not Jiave been from the remains of a porpoise, he observes, is evident, from vestiges of the pelvis, a part which does not exist in the porpoise, being here plainly observable. He discovers, also, in this fossil, the square and nearly equal sized spinous * Phil. Trans. Vol. xxx. p. 963. 281 processes of the vertebrae ; the six anterior vertebree, with large ribs at- tached to them, and three ribs at the end of the stone, the vertebrae belonging to which are broken off. The live vertebrae next., to those which are connected with the ribs, he remarks, have large transverse processes, whilst those of the next four are small. The ilia are situated after these four; but he is of opinion that they have been displaced, and that they should have been found behind the five vertebrae with large transverse processes, which he considers as vertebras of the loins. The impressions of the ossa ilia were supposed by Stukeley to have been of the thigh-bones ; and two large and short impressions near them, which M. Cuvier is unable to refer to any particular bones, he considered as the heads of the tibia and fibula. No marks of the head existing in this fossil, and the vertebrae not having been figured with precision, no conjectures can be offered with respect to the species. Captain William Chapman, in the fiftieth volume of the Philoso- phical Transactions, p. 688, gives an account of the finding, on the sea- shore, about half a mile from Whitby, part of the bones of an animal appearing to have been an alligator. They were found in a kind of black slate, which had been covered five or six feet with water every full sea, and were about nine or ten yards from the cliff, which is nearly perpendicular, and about sixty yards high, and is continually wearing away by the washing of the sea against it. The place where these bones lay was frequently covered with sea-sand to the depth of two feet. Mr. Woollers, p. 786, of the same volume, gives a further account of the foregoing fossil skeleton. He says : " In this same rock, ammonitge, or snake-stones, as they are called, are found. The animal, when living, must have been twelve or fourteen feet long. It lay six yards from the foot of the cliff, which is sixty yards in perpendicular height, and must have been covered by it, probably, not much more than a century ago. The cliff there is composed of various strata, beginning from the top of earth, clay, marie, and stones, of various thicknesses, till it comes to VOL. III. O O the black slate, or alum rock ; and about ten or twelve feet deep, in this rock, this skeleton laid horizontally. The probability of this cliff formerly covering this animal, and extending much more into the sea, is not in the least doubted of by those that know the cliff. The various strata which compose it are daily mouldering and falling down ; several thou- sand tons often tumbling down together. Many ancient persons now living remember this very cliff extending, in some places, twenty yards further out than it does at present, so much has the sea gained of the land." From the figure of this fossil, as given in the Philosophical Transac- tions, Plate XXII. and Plate XXX. of the same volume; and, from the description, it appears that the remains and traces were observable of a vertebral column, probably, however, not complete at either end, nine feet in length. Twelve vertebrae of the tail, and a series of ten other vertebrae, which seemed to have formed the loins, sacrum, and the commencement of the tail, still remained, and were about three inches in length. Those of the neck, of the back, and the middle of the tail, had only left their impressions. The head is seen on its lower side, showing the occipital condyle on the back part ; the zygomatic arches, on each side, terminating, as in the crocodile, in two large condyles for the lower jaw, and placed in the same transverse direction with the occi- pital condyle. The skull fills but a narrow space. Forwards, the head contracts not suddenly, as in the Gavial, but gradually; and, in M. Cu- vier's opinion, like the fossil head of Altorf ; and probably, like that of Honfleur, in a pointed muzzle. Large pointed teeth are placed alter- nately in both jaws, about three quarters of an inch distant from each other ; and towards the end of the jaws are fangs which are larger than the others. It is extraordinary, that the celebrated Camper should have concluded this fossil to have been the remains of an animal of the species Balcena, when teeth were observable in both jaws, whilst the balaenae are not iisrnished with any teeth. Nor is it less surprising that M. Faujas should 583 have considered this fossil as belonging to a physeter, and describe it as being without arms or legs *, since the physeters have teeth in the lower jaw only ; and since, in this fossil, the traces both of the fore and hind legs were discoverable. From the researches which M. Cuvier has made, respecting the fossil remains of this animal, he concludes, that at Honfleur and Havre the fossil remains of two species of crocodiles are found, both approaching to the Gavial, but both unknown ; that one of these two species at least is found in other parts of France, at Alencon and elsewhere ; that the ske- leton discovered at Whitby was probably of one of that species found in France, the under jaw of which he has figured ; that the fragments of the heads found in the territory of Vicentino may be referred to the same species ; that the fossil heads found at Altorff are different from those of the Gavial, and have a longer snout than that of the animal of Honfleur, whose jaw is figured, and may therefore belong to the other fossil species found in France; that the skeleton described by Stukeley is a croco- dile's, but of an indeterminable species; that the supposed crocodiles, the remains of which are found in the pyritous schist of Thuringia, were of the genus Monitor, Cuvier, formed of Lacerta monitor, Linn. He also concludes, that all these fossil remains of oviparous quadru- peds belong to very ancient beds, among those which are termed secon- dary ; and even much anterior to the regular stony beds, which contain the bones of unknown genera of quadrupeds, such as the palaeotheriums and the anoplotheriums ; which opinion, however, does not oppose the finding of the remains of crocodiles*- with those of these genera, as has • been done in the gypsum quarries. The opportunities which I have had of examining British fossils of this kind, have not been such as to enable me to add to the very important information yielded by M. Cuvier, as to the specific differences of such of animals as have been found in a fossil state. The observations, how- * Essais de Geologic. I. p. 360. 284 ever, which I have been able to make, are such, as far as they extend, as serve to confirm the opinions of M. Cuvier. Several fragments, which I have seen, from the Dorsetshire coast, as well as those which I possess, show, that the anterior termination of the snout of one species of these fossil animals, whose remains are found in this island, was long and narrow, like that of the first species described by M. Cuvier. Three other specimens which I have seen, one containing almost the whole skull, and the others the anterior part of the skull, and all having the posterior part of the branches of the lower jaw attached to the upper jaw, manifest decidedly the same gradual approximation of the branches of the lower jaw, which we have seen distinguishes this fos- sil species from all the known species of the sub-genus Gavial. The first of these was exhibited in the London Museum; and, of the latter two, one was in the possession of the late Mr. Row, of Dorsetshire, and the other was exposed for sale by auction. These specimens were all British fossils ; and evinced, by the form of their anterior part, that they had derived their origin from the same species of animal to which the spe- cimens above mentioned had belonged. The union of these specimens prove therefore decidedly, that in this island, as well as on the continent, there exist the remains of a species of crocodile, approaching towards, but essentially differing from, any known species of the Gavial. Of the head of the second species, no specimen which I have seen affords me any positive information. Of the two species of vertebrae described by M. Cuvier, I only possess specimens corresponding with those which he supposes to belong to the first species which he has particularized. Two detached vertebrae, which are, I conjecture, from Bath ; three which are disposed in their natural order, and imbedded in the Dorsetshire blue limestone ; and several others, in the same limestone, the sections of which are only seen, are all referable to this first species ; both of their articulating surfaces being slightly concave. Somersetshire, particularly in the neighbourhood of Bath, the cliffs 285 on the Dorsetshire, or Southern coast, and on the Yorkshire, or Northern coast, are the places in this island in which the remains of the animals of this tribe have been chiefly found. The matrix in which they are found is in general similar to that which has been already mentioned as containing the fossils of Honfleur and Havre : a blue limestone, be- cofaing almost black when wetted. This description exactly agrees with the limestone of Charmouth, Lime, See. in Dorsetshire, on the opposite coast to that of France, on which Havre and . Honfleur are situated. At Whitby and Scarborough, where these fossils are also found, the stone is indeed somewhat darker than in the former places; but no dif- ference is observable which can be regarded as offering any forcible op- position to the probability of the original identity of this stratum, which is observed on the Northern coast of France, on the opposite Southern English coast, and at the opposite Northern extremity of the island. Some of these remains are also found in quarries of common coarse grey and whitish limestone. Instances of this kind of matrix, for these remains, are observable in the quarries between Bath and Bristol. The Rev. Mr. Hawker, of Woodchester, in Gloucestershire, possesses, perhaps, one of the handsomest specimens of the remains of the croco- dile that has been found in this island. It was found by him in the neigh- bourhood of Bath, and contains great part of the head and of the trunk of the animal, which appears to have been of the species noticed by Cuvier, with the gradually tapering jaw. 286 LETTER XX. LARGE FOSSIL ANIMAL OF MAESTRICHT ASCERTAINED TO BE NEITHER PHYSETER, FISH, NOR CROCODILE OPINIONS OF DR. PETER CAMPER, M. FAUJAS, M. ADRIAN CAMPER, &C REMAINS OF THE EXISTING MONITORS ENGLISH SPECIMENS. 1 HE large animal, whose fossil remains are found in the quarries of Maestricht, has been deservedly a frequent object of admiration ; and the beautiful appearance which its remains possess, in consequence of their excellent state of preservation, in a matrix which admits" of their fair display, has occasioned every specimen of this fossil to be highly va- lued. The lower jaw of this animal, with some other specimens which were presented by Dr. Peter Camper to the Royal Society, and which are now in the British Museum, are among the most splendid and in- teresting fossils in existence. A particular account of these fossils, with the opinions of the learned donor respecting the animal to which they belonged, and some excellent engravings, are given in the Philosophical Transactions for 1786. The remains of this animal are found chiefly in that part of St. Peter's Mountain, on which is built the fort St. Peter. Whilst speaking, in a former part of this work, of the alcyonic fossils from this mountain, I re- marked that their matrix was " a very pure carbonate of lime." M. Cu- vier has also ascertained this to be the case, and that the description of it by M. Faujas, who says it is " Un gres quartzeiix a grain fin, foiblement lie par un gluten calcaire peu dur*," is erroneous. The mass of calcareous matter in which they are imbedded is at least 449 feet in thickness. The first collection of these fossils was made by an intelligent officer, M. Drouin, who commenced his researches about the year 1766. This collection is at present in Teyler's Museum. M. Hoffman, the surgeon of the fort, of whom I have already spoken, also made a collection of these specimens, which at his death was purchased by Dr. Peter Cam- per, who presented some of them, as has been already related, to the British Museum. In 1770, the workmen having discovered part of an enormous head of an animal imbedded in the solid stone, in one of the subterranean pas- sages of the mountain, gave information to M. Hoffman, who, with the most zealous assiduity, laboured until he had disengaged this astonishing fossil from its matrix. But when this was done, the fruits of his labours were wrested from him by an ecclesiastic, who claimed it as being pro- prietor of the land over the spot on which it was found. Hoffman de- fended his right in a court of justice; but the influence of the Chapter was employed against him, and he was doomed not only to the loss of this inestimable fossil, but to the payment of heavy law expenses. But in time, justice, M. Fanjas says, though tardy, at last arrived — the troops of the French Republic, secured this treasure, which was conveyed to the National Museum. This fossil is described by M. Faujas, in his work on the Mountain of St. Peter. In this work M. Faujas endeavours to show that this animal must have been a crocodile, in agreement with the opinion of Messrs. Drouin and Hoffman, and in opposition to that of Dr. Peter Cam- per, who believed it to have been a cetaceous animal. M. Adrian Cam- per, after the most careful investigation, has thought it must have been a reptile, allied, in some respects, to the family of Monitors, and in others to the Iguanas. Furnished by M. Loisel, Prsefect of the Lower Meuse, with numerous other specimens, not only from the quarries under Fort St. Peter, but from several other hills, and particularly from the village of Seichem, in addition to those which had been secured by M. Faujas, the indefatir- * Hist, Nat. de la Mont de S. Pierre, p. 14. 288 gable Cuvier proceeded to a careful anatomical examination of these specimens, with the hope of furnishing some information respecting their origin. This undertaking he conceived to be more particularly necessary, since the splendid work of M. Faujas contains no really illustrative osteo- logical remarks ; and since M. Faujas considers M. Adrian Camper as being of the same opinion with him, as to the agreement of this fossil animal with the crocodile ; whilst the animal to which the latter gen- tleman refers this fossil is essentially different from the crocodile, although placed by Linnaeus with it, under the genus Lacerta. To M. Adrian Camper we are indebted for the knowledge of the real characters of this enormous animal, known only at present as a fossil. By the observations of this gentleman, corroborated by those of M. Cu- vier, which I shall now place before you, I trust you will be fully satis- fied respecting the original nature of this wonderful animal. Dr. Peter Camper had been led to the conclusion, that this animal should be placed among the cetaceous animals; 1st, from its being ac- companied by marine remains ; 2dly, from the bones being polished ; 3dly, from the lower jaw having, externally, numerous openings for the passage of the nerves ; 4thly, from the roots of the teeth being solid ; 5thly, from their being teeth on the palate ; 6thly, from the vertebroe being without sutures ; and, 7thly, from the phalanges and ribs being of a different form from those of the crocodile. All these circumstances, except the first, are allowed by M. Cuvier, to prove that this animal was not a crocodile ; but he does not admit that any of them prove its having been a whale ; since, in several reptiles, and particularly in the monitors and iguanas, the bones are polished, numerous openings exist in the lower jaw, the roots of the teeth are bony and solid, and the vertebrae are without suture. The fifth circumstance proves also, that the animal could neither be a cetaceous animal, nor a crocodile, since none of these animals have teeth in the palate. Dr. Camper, whilst distinguishing this fossil animal from the cro- codile, observes, that in the fossil jaw-bones of St. Peter's Mountain, a small secondary tooth is formed, with its enamel and solid root, within 289 the bony substance of the primordial tooth itself. These secondary teeth, by continuing to grow, seem to make, by degrees, sufficient cavities in the bony roots of the primary teeth; but what becomes of them at last, and how they are shed, he adds, I am not able to guess *. From the existence of a hollow in the primary teeth of the fossil ani- mal, and from the growth of the secondary tooth in this hollow, M. Fau- jas is led to exclaim : " It is difficult to conceive how this illustrious phi- losopher could permit so striking a character to escape him; and, after witnessing this circumstance (the secondary tooth being formed near the centre of the bony support of the primary tooth), how he could conceive these teeth to belong to a cetaceous animal ~f ." The approximation of the secondary towards the centre of the primary tooth appears, however, in this animal, to have been merely an accidental occurrence. Nor does it appeaj that the mode of dentition at all coincided with that which is known to take place in the crocodile. On this subject, M. Cuvier observes, that in the crocodile :the tooth is always liollow; -that it is fixed in, but never attached to the bone of the jaw ; and that the secondary tooth forms in the same socket, and fre- quently grows into the hollow of the primary tooth, thus shivering it, and occasioning it to be shed. The fossil animal of Maestricht, he remarks, on the contrary, like other animals, appears to have had its teeth hollow only whilst they were growing, they afterwards filling up, and becoming solid and fixed in the jaw by a fibrous and osseous substance, materially differing from the real substance of the teeth, although closely united with it. The se- condary tooth, too, is here formed in a particular socket, which is formed at the same time with this tooth, which passes out, sometimes at the side, arid sometimes through the osseous substance which supports the primary tooth. In the end, it detaches this substance from the jaw, occasioning it to fall off, by a species of necrosis like that by which the horns of stags * Philos. Trans, for 1786, p. 178, f Hist. Nat. de la Mont, de St. Pierre, p. 240. VOL. III. P P 290 are separated ; the secondary tooth, and the osseous body which Supports it, filling the place of the tooth which has been expelled. The cellular and osseous body supporting the teeth, and which have been erroneously assumed by M. Faujas, as well as by others, as the root of the tooth, ap- pears to be the pulp of the tooth; which instead of remaining pulpy, as in quadrupeds, ossifies, and performs the office of a root, becoming one body with the bony socket. This mode of organization and of dentition sufficiently distinguishes this animal, therefore, from the crocodile, and indeed displays further proofs that it cannot be considered as a cetaceous animal : M. Cuvier is therefore induced to place it between the osseous fishes and the iguana and tupinambis. To enable you to form a better judgment respecting the opinions of M. Cuvier, to which I shall now call your attention, I have given, Plate XIX. Fig. 1, a copy of the engraving of the large head of this animal, from Plate XIX. Vol. xn. of Annales du Museum, &c. a, b.\ The left side of the lower jaw, nearly whole, and seen on its outer side. c, d The right side of the lower jaw, seen on its inner side, the posterior part of which, a little concealed by the palate- bones, is continued to e. f, g The right side of the upper jaw, seen on its inner side, and with the palate. This jaw has nearly kept its natural situation, with respect to the preceding bone. h, i A fragment of the left side of the upper jaw, displaced and fallen on the lower jaw. ky I, m, 7 The two palate-bones, displaced and thrown one over the k', l',m',o', ) other, and also over the right side of the lower jaw. In the original specimen, a portion of bone is placed from m to p, and another at q, which are omitted ; as, being mutilated, they cannot be made out, and conceal the more instructive pieces. In the lower jaws are fourteen similar teeth on each side, but the mo- 291 nitors have only eleven or twelve; and the crocodiles have fifteen, which are very unequal. In this jaw also are from ten to twelve large and pretty regular holes. In the Monitors are six or seven, and in the Crocodiles a considerable number of small and irregular openings ; whilst in the Dol- phins there are but two or three, which are towards the end. At p is an obtuse raised coronoid apophysis, the anterior ridge of which is enlarged, as in the monitors. In the crocodiles there is nothing similar, in the dolphin it is smaller and much backwarder, and in the iguana it is more pointed. The articulating surface, r, is concave, and very near the posterior end, as in all the lizards ; but it is lower than the dental edge, as in the monitors ; in the crocodiles, and in the iguanas it is higher. In the dolphins it is convex, and placed quite at the end. The apo- physis b, for the attachment of the muscle analagous with the digastric, is short, as in the iguana; in the crocodile, it is longer; and still more so, -in the monitor. The formation of the lower jaw shows that this animal more nearly accorded with the monitors than with any other of the lizard tribe : as to the cetacea, there exists no resemblance; since in these, as in all the mammalia, each side of the lower jaw is in one piece. But to be con- vinced of the closer agreement of the lower jaw of the fossil animal with that of the monitor than with that of the crocodile, it is necessary to attend to the following comparison. In the lower jaw of the crocodile are six bones on each side : the dental, in which are formed the alveolae of the teeth, the two being articulated with each other in the fore part, and forming the anterior angle ; the opercular , which forms almost all the inner surface of the jaw, except on the fore part where it is formed by the dental ; the coronoidal, with the angular; the former placed over the latter, reaching to the posterior extre- mity; leaving between them a space in the fore part, which is occupied forwards by the- end of the dental, and forms in the back part a large oval hole. The angular bone curves upwards, to occupy a space in the inside of the jaw. Between this bone and the opercular is another oval 292 Bole, smaller than the preceding ; and above that a void, in consequence of the coronoidal not turning towards the inner surface : the anterior point of this space is bordered by a small bone of a crescent form. The condyle, all the superior surface of the posterior apophysis, and all the internal surface of this part, belongs to the articular bone. In the crocodile there is no sensible coronoidal apophysis. The lower jaw of the monitor is composed of the same number of . bones as in the crocodile ; but, in the monitor, the angular is much shorter and narrower, and the coronoidal terminates as if truncated, where it unites with the dental ; the large oval hole not- being left be- tween them, which is observed in the crocodile. The coronoid apo- physis is formed by the bone which, in the crocodile* is termed the cres- cent bone. The articular bone alone forms the posterior apophysis ; and joins, with its internal surface, the crescent,, and carries to the upper edge of the bone the opening for the entry of the maxillary nerve, which opening is so large in the crocodile. In the monitor, also, there is no opening in the inner surface between the opercular and the angular bone; but there is a small one in the opercular itself, and a larger one between that bone and the dental.: In the lower jaw of the animal of Maestricht, of which the coronoidal apophysis, is seen, at s, the angular bone at t, and the dental at u and y, there is no large oval hole in the external surface ; the coronoid process is a distinct bone> analogous with the crescent-formed bone f the articular bone alone forms the posterior apophysis, and disposes the angular much forwarder ; the coronoidal unites with the dental bone in a straight trans- verse suture ; and there exists a small opening in the opercular bone. This animal, therefore, approaches the nearest to the monitor, nearer even than to the iguana, in the conformation of the lower jaw, as well as in the structure, figure, and insertion of the teeth; although, in this jatter respect, there exists a peculiarity in the fossil animal. In the monitor, as in the iguana, the teeth simply adhere to the in- ternal surface of the two jaws, without the maxillary bone rising to form sockets round them ; but in the fossil animal, the feet, or bony nu clei, which sustain the teeth, are adherent in the cavities, or real sockets, formed in the thickness of the edge of the jaw. In the fossil upper jaw are eleven teeth; but, as the intermaxillary bone appears to have been removed, and as it might have contained three teeth, as in the monitors, it most probably contained the same number in the upper as in the lower jaw. The water-monitor of Egypt has four- teen at the top, but only twelve at the bottom. In the fossil animal all the teeth are pyramidal, and a little bowed; their outer surface is flat, and is separated, by two sharp ridges, from the inner surface, which is round, or rather semi-conical. Some of the mo- nitors have conical teeth, and others have them rather flat and edged; all the iguanas, and even the lizards and ameiva, .among which may be reckoned the pretended tupinambis, or monitor of America*, have teeth, with dentated edges. , Thus far, then, the fossil .animal of Maestricht appears to approach nearer to the monitors than to any others of the lizard tribe ; but a fur- ther examination, , at once, shows a remarkable variance of character; the palate-bones being armed with, teeth, which at once approximates it to the iguanas. • M. Cuvier has, by, his rich resources in comparative anatomy, been enabled to determine that the crocodiles, the monitors, the common lizards, the dragon of Lacepede, the dracena of Linnaeus, the ameiva, draco, stellio, agama, basiliscus, gecko, cam&leo, scincus, and chalcides, are without teeth on the palate-bones. The iguana and the anolis only, among the lizards, agree with many of the serpents, batracii, and fishes, in possessing these peculiar weapons. ,But the serpents have them on both their anterior and posterior palate- bones ; the frogs and hylte on a transverse line on the anterior; .the igua- * This American monitor differs from those of the old continent, and approximates nearer to the common lizards, by its teeth, with dentated edges^ and by the; square- scales of belly, tail, &c. 294 nas and salamanders lengthwise on the posterior ; many fishes, such as the pike, salmon, and genus Gadus, have them also lengthwise. This circumstance had somewhat misled P. Camper and M. Van Marum. Comparison will, however, show that the bones in the fossil animal in which these teeth are implanted, resemble those of reptiles, and not those of fishes. In the monitor and the iguana, the bone which M. Geoffrey calls the posterior palatine, and which M. Cuvier considers as the internal ptery- goidai apophysis, is not, as in the crocodile, united with the sphenoidal bone, nor enlarged into a large triangular plate. It is here a bone with four branches, one of which extends forwards, and unites with the anterior palatine; the second passes to the side, to join the bore called, by M. Geoffroy, the alar bone, which unites itself with the superior maxillary bone; the third rests, by a surface covered by a cartilage, on an apophysis of the base of the skull ; and, lastly, the fourth extends back- wards, and gives attachment to muscles, but does not articulate with any bone. It is on the inner edge of the anterior branch that the series of teeth is implanted which distinguish the iguana. The anolis has this bone wider in all its parts, and the posterior branch shorter, but it in other respects resembles that of the iguana. In the monitors, on the contrary, all the parts of this bone are narrower, and it is without teeth. Now, viewing the palate-bones of the fossil animal, all the parts are directly seen, which have been just described as existing in the iguana. The one which is in the upper part, k, I, m, is that of the right side. Its external apophysis, o, is concealed, but the posterior, /, although broken at the end, shows plainly that it must have been as long in proportion as in the iguana. The other, o', k'y I', m', is that of the right side : it shows the four apophyses very distinct. The chief specific difference whicli it shows is, that the internal process m , is longer than in the iguana, or in the monitor. Each of these bones, in the fossil animal, appears to have 295 borne eight teeth, which grew, were fixed, and were renewed in the same manner as those of the jaws ; but which were, of course, much smaller. We have therefore now sufficient grounds for assuming a place for this fossil animal. Its head fixes it irrevocably between the monitors and io-uanas. But how enormously must its size have exceeded that of v all the iguanas and monitors now known ! None of them have a head longer, perhaps, than five inches; whilst, in the fossil animal, it must have been nearly four feet. Prepared by the knowledge he had obtained, respecting the head of this animal, M. Cuvier proceeded with confidence to the examination of the vertebrae. P. Camper had given a figure of one of the vertebrae of this animal, under the impression of the animal being one of the cetacea; and M. Faujas has given four plates of them, as belonging to a species of the crocodile. But M. Cuvier, aided by an important series of spe- cimens, found at Seichem, a village about two leagues from Maestricht ; and by a memoir of M. M. Minkelero and Herman, which accompanied the specimens, has been enabled not only to point out the several kinds of vertebrae, and to compare them with the analogous vertebrae in exist- ing animals, but even to point out, with a high degree of probability, their succession, and the number of each sort composing the spine. All these vertebrae, like those of crocodiles, monitors, iguanas, and the greater part of the lizard and serpent tribe, have their bodies con- cave in their fore part, and convex on their posterior part ; which distin- guishes them decidedly from those of cetacea, in which they are nearly flat ; and still more from those of fishes, in which the two ends are hol- lowed into conical cavities. The concavities and convexities of these ver- tebrae are, as in all similar vertebrae, more strong in the anterior than in the posterior vertebrae. The apophyses establish, by their number, five kinds of vertebrae. The first sort, the last of the neck and the first of the back, have a superior spi- nous apophysis, long and compressed ; an inferior, terminated by a con- 296 cavity; four articular, the posterior of which are short, and are directed outwards ; and two transverse, which are thick and short. Their bodies are longer than wide, and wider than high ; their faces are transversely oval. Those of the middle of the back have not the inferior apophysis, but resemble the preceding in every thing else. The last of the back, those of the loins, and of the beginning of the tail, have no articular apophyses, and their places may be known by their transverse apophyses, which become elongated and flattened. The articular surfaces of the posterior of these vertebrae are nearly triangular. The next of the tail, be- sides their superior spinous apophysis, and the two transverse, have at their inferior side two small surfaces to receive the angular bone *, (los en chevron). The articular surfaces of these vertebra? are pentagonal. The next set, Plate XVIII. Fig. 8, differ from the preceding in not having any transverse apophyses. These form a large part of the tail. The angular bone a is not here articulated, but united into one body with the vertebra. The succeeding vertebrae become more and more -compressed at the sides; «nd, as they approach the end of the tail, cease to have any apophyses at all. This series of vertebrae gives opportunity to M. Cuvier to offer some important observations. The angular bone first claims his attention. Its great length, with that of the spinous apophysis, which is opposite to it, sufficiently prove that the tail of this animal was considerably extended vertically. The absence of the transverse apophyses from a consider- able part of the length of the tail, prove, at the same time, that it was much flattened at the sides. Hence he concludes, that this animal was aquatic, and swam in the manner of the crocodile, working its vast tail, as an oar, from side to side, and not upwards and downwards, as in the cetacea. * That which I have termed angular bone, and which is by the -French designated by the term Vos en chevron, is a bone, of which several are sometimes placed at the juncture of the yertebrae of the tail, on their lower part, where they are disposed so as to form an angle, as in the letter V. 297 In the monitors the tail is rounder, and the transverse apophyses reach much further. In, the crocodiles, the basilisks, the lizards, the stellions, and in the lizard tribe in general, except the monitors, and even in the cetacea, and in all the quadrupeds with a large tail, the angular bone is articulated on the lower part of the joining of the vertebrae, arid is there- fore common to two vertebrae. The monitors alone have beneath the body of each vertebra two sur- faces ior its reception, as in this animal ; only the body of their vertebrae being more elongated, these surfaces are on them placed more posteriorly. In the fossil animal, these surfaces are near the middle. But M. Cuvier observes, that he does not know any animal, in which the. angular bone is united in one body with the vertebra, as it is in this, through the posterior part of the tail, by which its solidity is of necessity much aug- mented. Another character, distinguishing the fossil animal from the monitors, and from others of the lizard tribe, is the sudden ceasing of the articular apophyses of the vertebrae, which takes place in the middle of the back, whilst, in the greater part of animals, they extend very nearly to the end of the tail. The fu>t twenty vertebrae of the tail appear to have had no angular bones attached to them ; whilst, in the crocodile and monitors, only one or two vertebrae of this description exist. Hence the tail of this animal must have been, in all probability, cylindrical at its base, and have en- larged in a vertical direction, and become flattened, only at some distance from the body, assuming the form of an oar much more than is the case in the crocodile. Besides other differences between these vertebrae and those of the cro- codiles, it is observable that those of the neck, in the fossil, do not possess the two tubercles which, in the crocodile, bear the little false rib on each side ; which is another proof that this animal was not a crocodile, and that it possessed more liberty of moving its head from side to side. VOL. III. Q Q 298 By the vertebrae found at Seichem, which appeared to be of 6ne and the same spine, and by the memoir of M. Hermans, M. Cuvier found himself able to determine the absolute number of the vertebrse of each sort. The number of the vertebrse of the neck, back, and loins, without reckoning the atlas and axis, he concludes to have been twenty-nine ; and supposing the two last of the number to have belonged to the pelvis, they would be twenty-seven, precisely the same as in the monitors, in which animal, four of the neck, and two of the loins, are without ribs. There are, therefore, in the monitors, twenty-three pair of vertebral ribs; whilst the crocodiles have but seventeen, even when counting the five little false cervical ribs ; and it is very probable that the fossil animal had twenty-two or twenty-three at the least. The number of the vertebrae of the tail appears to have been ninety- seven. This number much exceeds that of the crocodile, which has but thirty-five : but they very little exceed those of the monitor, M. Cuvier having found seventy-nine caudal vertebrse in a skeleton of this animal, in which some were known to be wanting. The length of the cervical, dorsal, and lumbar vertebrae, appears to have been about nine feet five inches, and that of the vertebrae of the tail about ten feet; adding to which the length of the head, which may be reckoned, considering the loss of the intermaxillary bones, at least at four feet, we may safely conclude the whole length of the skeleton of the animal to have approached very nearly to twenty-four feet. The head is a sixth of the whole length of the animal ; a proportion approaching very near to that of the crocodile, but differing much from that of the monitor, the head of which animal forms hardly a twelfth part of the whole length. The tail must have been very strong, and its width at its extremity must have rendered it a most powerful oar, and have enabled the ani- mal to have opposed the most agitated waters, as has been well remarked by M. Aclrien Camper. PVom this circumstance, arid from the other remains which accompany those of this animal, there can be no doubt of its having been an inhabitant of the ocean. The fossil remains of the extremities of this animal appear to have been so rarely found, that M. Cuvier, at one time, was led to suppose that it had none. M. Faujas has however given, Mont, de S. Pierre, PI. xi. under the name of Scapula, the figure of a pubis, which very nearly resembles that of a monitor. Among the specimens sent from Seichem, M. Cuvier found a portion of a real shoulder-blade, much re- sembling, in its form, that of the monitor's, but very different from the narrow shoulder-blade of the crocodile, or from that of the iguana. It is right to observe that the bone represented by M. Faujas, Mont, de S. Pierre, PL x. is merely the humerus of a large tortoise. P. Camper, as well as his son, speak of, but neither figure nor describe, a bone of the carpus and of the phalanges: M. Cuvier, who has not seen any of these bones, thinks we may however be allowed to conjecture, from the agreement of the teeth and vertebrae with those of the monitor's, that this animal had five toes ; whilst, from its being a marine swimming animal, we have reason to suppose, that neither its toes nor hind feet were so elongated as in those reptiles, w/hich are for the most part terrestrial. Taking all these circumstances into consideration, M. Cuvier concludes, and certainly on fair, if not indisputable grounds, that this animal must have formed an intermediate genus between those animals of the lizard tribe, which have an extensive and forked tongue, which include the monitors and the common lizards, and those which have a short tongue and the palate armed with teeth, which comprise the, iguanas, marbres, and anolis. This genus, he thinks, could only have been allied to the cro- codile by the general characters of the lizards. The history of this wonderful fossil gives us, then, an instance of an animal far surpassing, in its size, any of the animals of those genera to which it approaches the nearest, in its general characters : at the same time 300 that, from its accompanying fossils, we find reason to believe it to have been an inhabitant of the sea, whilst none of the existing lizard tribe are known to live in salt water. These circumstances, however wonderful as they are, are more than equalled by many of the numerous discoveries which we have yet to contemplate in the natural history of the former world. We have here seen a monitor possessing the magnitude of a crocodile ; but we have yet to examine a tapir of the size of an elephant, and a sloth (the megalonix) as large as a rhinoceros. We have seen, in the preceding letter, that the remains found in the pyritous schist of Thuringia were referable to Lacerta monitor, Linn, or rather to some species of the genus Monitor, of Cuvier; and this we shall find to be the case with other supposed remains of crocodiles. Spener, in 1710, published, Miscel berolin. I. Fig. 24 and 25, a plate, representing a supposed fossil crocodile. This fossil was found at the depth of three hundred feet, in the mines of Kupfer-Suhl, near to Eisenach, in Prussia. In 1718, Linck, of Leipsic, published the letter already men- tioned, to Dr. Woodward, describing and figuring a supposed fossil croco- dile, of which he says: — " Non terrebit musas tuas hie crocodilus, acutis- sime Woodwardi. Neque enim e Nilo canibus hominibusque formidandus, sed ex mediis Germanise montibus venit." Another fossil was particula- rized by Swedenborg, Tractat. de Cupro, PL n. found in the mines of Glucks- bronn, near to Altenstein, and was placed by Swedenborg among the apes, he supposing it to have been a species of Guenon or Sapajou. An- other fossil of this kind is one which was found in the mines of Rothen- bourg, at the depth of two hundred and sixty-four feet, but is at present in the Royal cabinet of Berlin. These fossils, all of the same character and size, and found in a simi- lar matrix, appear to belong to one species of animals. The form of the head ; the teeth, all sharp ; and the size of the vertebrae of the tail ; de- termine it to be an oviparous quadruped, without the proof of the pos- terior members, which afford full confirmation. 301 Spener's fossil was supposed by him to be a crocodile; and Faujas has gone so far, as to determine it to be actually a gavial ; but his error is at once proved, by the shortness of the muzzle. Cuvier, on the contrary, shows that this head alone determines the genus of this animal. If it had been the head of a crocodile, there must have been at least fifteen teeth in the lower jaw, and seventeen or eighteen in the upper jaw ; and which would have reached to beneath the middle of the orbits : but in these fossil remains there have been but eleven, which stop at the ante- rior angle of the orbit. These are the characters of one of the numerous species which have been heaped together by Linnaeus, under the name of Lacerta monitor, and distinguished by Daudin by the inappropriate generic name Tupinambis. In the fossil of Swedenborg, the hind feet, the impressions of which are well preserved, show five unequal toes, of which the fourth is the longest. These are formed of the number of small bones, and in the order here set down, beginning with the thumb, and including the meta- carpal bones — 3, 4, 5, 6, 4 ; but in that species of ape Guenon> or Cerco- pithecus, the number and order would be 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, and the third toe the longest. In Linck's specimen the same series is discoverable as in Swedenborg's. Hence it appears, that the number and order of the toes, as well as the number and order of the articulations of each toe, of this fossil animal, precisely agree with those of the monitor, as well as of the common lizards and of the iguana; but not at all with those of the cro- codiles, which have on their hind feet but four toes, differing but little in length, and the number and order of bones being 3, 4, 5, 4. In the fore feet of the fossil animal five nearly equal toes may be made out. This agrees with those of the crocodile and lizards, but in these the last toe is evidently smallest. The length of the fossil animal appears to have been about three feet, which is about the size to which the monitors of Egypt, of Congou, and 302 of the East Indies, generally attain. Of these fossil animals having, therefore, belonged to some species of animals which have been con- fusedly ranged by Linnaeus under the species Lacerta monitor, and of which Daudin has formed the genus Tupinambis, there can remain no doubt. The polished section of a specimen from the Dorsetshire coast, which I obtained from Mr. Strange's Museum, displays the remains of an ani- mal of this kind. In the remains of the head, teeth, vertebrae, &c. the characters of this animal may be detected. LETTER XXL ORNITHOLITES. 1 HE various coloured and figured stones, bearing accidentally the ap- pearance of birds, need be here noticed only for the purpose of ob- serving, that to such accidentally figured stones the ancients gave the names of Hieracites and Perdicites. Nor would it be necessary to mention here the pretended petrifactions of birds'-nests, eggs, &c. of Lesser, Ges- ner, Baccius, and others, but to remark, that there is every reason for believing that all these were either stones of the kind just mentioned, or mere incrustrations, including the substances, which had themselves un- dergone no change. Specimens of this kind may be obtained at Mat- lock, in Derbyshire, and at various other places, where the water is sur- charged with lime. 303 Few indeed of the supposed ornitholites of modern writers can support their claim to this distinction, when subjected to a careful examination. Thus the birds' beaks from Jena and Weimar, mentioned by Wallerius and Linnaeus, are substances which, according to Walch, merely bear an external resemblance to these bodies. But when it is recollected, that plants of the family of ferns, of mi- mosa, and of other terrestrial plants, are found in the same stones with the fossil fish at Vestena Nova, GEningen, Pappenheim, and Roche- sauve, no doubt can exist, that at the period when these fishes existed in the ocean, the whole surface of the globe could not be covered with water, but there were parts of the earth in which the riches of vegetation were displayed. Ann. du Mus. T. in. p. 19. That a part of the surface of the earth was not then covered by water is also rendered highly probable, by the rareness with which the fossil remains of birds have been met with. So seldom, indeed, have such fossils been seen, that their existence has been doubted, I believe I may assert, by the greater number of oryctologists. Passing the erroneous accounts of the earlier writers on this subject, who appear to have con- sidered different incrustations arid figured stones as real fossil remains of birds, we have had the figure of a supposed ornitholite given in one of the numbers of the Journal de Physique, and the original specimen having been examined by M. P. Camper and the Abbe Fortis, neither of them would admit its supposed origin. An engraving was also given, in the same work, Thermidor, An. 8, of a stone, with the impression of the two legs of a bird ; but it is said, that no one at Paris has seen the original specimen. In the same work, however, an indubitable ornitholite, the foot of a bird, incrusted in the gypsum from the quarries of Clignancourt, near Montmartre, is figured and described by Cuvier, showing that real orni- tholites exist in the ancient beds of gypsous matter. Blumenbach men- tions the discovery of the bones of a water-fowl in the marly schist of 304 (Eningen, and the bone of one of the anscres in the calcareous schist of Pappenheim; Manuel dHist. Nat. T. n. p. 408. Faujas St. Fond has also presented us with two indubitable fossils of this class, being two fea- thers from the quarries of Vestena Nova, imbedded in the same stone in which the fishes are found. Fossil feathers are very rarely met with. A fine specimen of this kind is figured by Scheuchzer, part of a feather being enclosed in a piece of the fissile stone of CEningen. M. Walch also describes two specimens in his possession. One of these is the barrel part of the quill, about the size of a goose-quill, to which a part of the feather is adherent. The other is a small feather, with its tubular part. A beak is described by Rome de Lisle, and figured in Davila's Cata- logue, said to be from the neighbourhood of Reutlingen (Catalog, m. No. 25.), which, in the opinion of M. Cuvier, is merely a bivaive shell, fixed obliquely in the stone. In the same work, a fossil bone ot a bird is mentioned ; but it is neither figured nor described ; being only spoken of as being from Canstadt. This also, I conceive, should be admitted as an ornitholite, with much hesitation : bones which I have received from Canstadt, under the same description, are bones which are merely in- crusted by a calcareous deposition. Scheuchzer speaks of the head of a bird in a piece of the black schist of Eisleben, but at the same time ad- mits of its near resemblance to a pink-blossom. The Abbe Fortis, than whom very few have had equal opportunities of exercising an excellent judgment on the nature and characters of dif- ferent fossils, is remarkably sceptical as to any fossils of this description. This assiduous naturalist is not even satisfied with the specimens of fossil feathers of Mount Bolca, which have been just spoken of as having been figured by M. Faujas, Annales du Mus. 8fc. vi. p. 21, /;/. 1. Lamanon described, in 1782, the impression of a whole bird from Montmartre; but, in its delineation, he allowed his fancy rather too free scope, adding to it the feathers of the wings and tail. Fortis, on the 305 other hand, examined the same specimen ; and allowing his imagination to strengthen his prepossessions, at the same time taking a few liberties with the original figure, determined it to be the remains either of a frog or toad. Cuvier has, however, since examined the same specimen, and is confident of its being really the remains of a bird. Subsequent exami- nations have discovered several bones of birds in the plaster quarries; and in a number, indeed, so great, as to leave no doubt of a consi- derable number of the fossil remains of birds being contained in these quarries. To enable him to show satisfactorily to others the nature of the several specimens which he obtained, M. Cuvier has given the characteristic marks of the correspondent parts in the living animal ; and the circum- stances by which these parts, in birds, are distinguishable from those which approximate to them in form or appearance in other animals. Consi- dering that information of this nature cannot but be highly acceptable to those who are engaged in pursuits of this kind, I have here introduced a sketch of the most important of these observations. 1st. The foot of a bird differs from that of any other animal, in having a single bone in the place of the tar sal and metatarsal bones. 2dly, Birds are the only class in which the toes all differ, as to the number of joints, and in which this number, and the order of the toes which have them, is nevertheless fixed. The great toe has two ; the first toe, reckoning on the inside, three ; the middle, five ; and the outer- most, five. The crocodile has the same number of phalanges as birds ; but as these have each a metatarsal and tarsal bone, they cannot be mistaken. There exist but two kinds of exceptions to this rule: the one is, that some birds have no great toes ; but in these, the other toes preserve the usual order: the other is, in the ostrich and cassowars, which have three joints to each toe. The crocodile, indeed, has the same number of pha- langes ; but as every one of the toes is supported by a particular me- VOL. III. R R 306 tatarsal bone, and these by several tarsal bones, the distinction is easily* made. The os femoris of birds is distinguishable from that of quadrupeds by its external condyle, which instead of having in its back part, a simple convexity for the outer pit of the head of the .tibia, has two projecting lines: the one, which is the real condyle, and which answers to the upper and outer pit of the tibia, and to the inner pit of the fibula, is stronger marked than the other, which is more external, descends less, and rests on the upper edge of the fibula. Thus the external condyle, in birds, is forked, or hollowed out into a canal more or less deep, in its back part. The only quadruped, in which any analogous structure is discoverable, is the kanguroo. In this animal there exists a slight depression on the back part of the external condyle of the os femoris; but the great width of the great trochanter, and several other characters, will always prevent the confounding of the os femoris of a bird with that of a kanguroo. Reckoning upon the apparent specific characters of different thigh- bones, found in the neighbourhood of Paris, M. Cuvier concludes that they point out the remains of five or six different species of birds existing in these quarries. The shoulder-bones of birds are also easily known, by the particular characters of their extremities. The head is always oblong, from right to left, playing in a corresponding groove formed by the scapula and clavicle ; the two lateral ridges widening this part of the bone consider- ably. The lower end is distinguishable by an articular pulley, divided into two parts: one of which, the inner or lower, which is nearly round, is for articulation with the ulna; and the other, the outer or upper, which is oblong in the direction of the bone, and rises a little obliquely on the anterior face of the bone, is for the radius. In quadrupeds, the head is always round and the ridges small ; and in the lower end, the ulnar pul- ley is always concave, and the radial is hollowed into a groove in those in which the fore-arm has no supination. nice investigation and comparison, M. Cuvier is supported in his 307 conjectures, that he has found the mineralized remains of a pelican less than pelicanus onocratutus, and larger than P. car bo ; of one of the large curlews, with naked necks, disposed by Gmelin under the genus Tantalus; of a woodcock, a starling, and a sea-lark (alouette de mer). Judging from the form and proportions of a bone which I have in the marly schist of CEningen, eight inches in length, I suppose it to have been the tibia of some water-fowl. Its extremities are very much in- jured, and the bone has been split through its whole length with the stone ; so that no characteristic marks can be observed. On the back of the stone, and in different parts where it has been shi- vered, the seeming remains of feathers are observable. Another spe- cimen, a slender bone seven inches in length, so deeply imbedded in the hard lime-stone of Stunsfield, in Oxfordshire, as not to allow either of its extremities to be examined, is, I have very little doubt, also either the tibia or tarsal bone of some bird. LETTER XXII. FOSSIL REMAINS OF MAMMALIA CETACEA, WHALES, &C AM- PHIBIA TRICHECUS, SEALS, &C SOLIPEDES, THE HORSE. HAVING now to commence the examination of the fossil remains of those animals which are comprised in the Linnean class Mammalia, I feel that it may be necessary to endeavour to satisfy you with respect to the manner in which this part of my task is accomplished. I fear that you will, at first, experience feelings of disappointment, on my avowing to you, that the following pages will almost entirely be employed in 308 placing before you the discoveries which have been made by another ; and you will probably imagine that this acknowledgement can hardly be made without occasioning me to experience some degree of mortifica- tion. But the truth is, that knowing, that as you proceed you must be highly pleased, I am thoroughly satisfied with merely recounting to you the most prominent particulars of those important discoveries, which have rewarded the patient and unabating exertions of Cuvier. If it should occur toyou that the name of thisjustly celebrated anatomist should too frequently meet your eye in the following pages, remember that this necessarily re- sults from the number and importance of his discoveries, and consider, that if we were giving a history of galvanism, of the alkalies, earths, metals, &c. how frequently, in like manner, must the pen be engaged in reporting the important discoveries of our illustrious Davy. To have admitted less of the discoveries of Cuvier, in the present work, would have been unjust to those many who cannot obtain the voluminous, expensive, and almost prohibited works, in which they are contained. To have introduced less would indeed have been to have sparingly employed the only light almost which has ever been thrown on this most interesting subject. I must here also crave your attention, while I excuse myself for again departing from that classification which has been so long established by the truly great Linnaeus. The natural method of classification, employed by Dumeril, Zoologie Analytique, ou Methodc Naturelle de Classification des Animaux, par A. M. C. Dumeril, is generally adopted by Cuvier ; and his discoveries are related in the nomenclature, as well as in the order, of that arrangement. Hence, although it will not be difficult for those who wish to adhere to the Linnaean system to understand, with a little explana- tion, to what species, &c. every observation is intended to refer, yet it would be impossible, without considerable confusion, to give the disco- veries of Cuvier in the terms, or agreeable to the arrangement, of that system ; since his observations refer to particular families which are com- posed of genera, which in the Linnsean arrangement are dispersed under several different orders. 309 This may be instanced in the second family, whose remains we shall have occasion to inquire into; since, in speaking of the amphibia, the walrus, the seal, dugong, and lamantin, which constitute this family, are all referred to; whilst, in the Linnaean system, the trichecus, lamantin, and dugong, are found with the elephant, sloth, and other land animals, under the order Bruta ; and the seals, with the dog, cat, &c. under the genus Fertf*. The remains of the family of Cete, or Ceti, composed of bal of Linnaeus, are distinguished by two toes and two hoofs; the hoof being, as it were, cloven. The genera are : 1, Camelus ; 2. Moschus; 3. Cervus; 4. Camelo-pardalis ; 5. Antilope; 6. Capra ; 7. Ovis; 8. Bos<> It is justly observed by Cuvier, that the study of the fossils of this family, either osteologically or geologically, is exceedingly difficult. The general resemblance to each other of the animals of this family is so great, that the several genera can only be characterized by parts, such as horns; which, from their frequently varying with age, sex, and climate, must, in their fossil and mutilated states, be very uncertain guides. The difficulties which occur, whilst considering them geolo- gically, also applies to the fossil remains of the horse. The remains of the ruminants, except those of the Irish elk, and perhaps of some species of Cervus, do not appear to differ from the corresponding parts of the ani- mals of our climates and our times; a circumstance in which they will be found to vary much from the remains of other families. The situa- tions in which they are found appear also to be difficult to account for. Most frequently they are found in beds which appear to be of the more recent alluvial formation; but sometimes they are also found in those alluvial beds which, from their containing the remains of the ele- VOL. in* s $ 314 pliant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, &c. in countries and climates where these animals have never been known to exist, were most probably formed before our continents existed in their present state. Among the fossils of the British empire, none are more calculated to excite astonishment than the enormous stags' horns which have been dug up in different parts of Ireland. Dr. Molyneux, in 1697, published a paper on this subject in the Philosophical Transactions, Vol. xix. No. 227, in which he concludes that these remains are to be considered as a proof that the American moose-deer was formerly common in that island. In this paper he particularly describes a pair of these horns which were found at Dardistown, near Drogheda. Mr. Henry Osborn, from whom Dr. Molyneux received them, says : — " This is the third head I have found by casual trenching in my orchard. They were all dug up within the compass of an acre of land, and lay about four or five feet under ground, in a sort of boggy soil. The first pitch was of earth, the next two or three of tur£ and then followed a sort of white marie, in which they were found." Plate XX. Fig. 2, is an outline sketch of these horns, drawn to the annexed scale. Their dimensions, Dr. Molyneux informs us, were as follow: Feet Inches, From the extreme tip of each horn AB 10 10 From the tip of the right horn to its root CD 5 2 From the tip of one of the inner branches to the tip of the opposite branch EF 3 7| The length of one of the palms, within the branches.. ..GH 2 6 The breadth of the same palm, within the branches.... IK 1 lOf The length of the right brow antler DL 1 2 The beam of each horn, at some distance from the head M In diameter 0 2-rV In circumference 0 8 Feet Inches, The beam of each horn, at its root, in circumference D Oil The length of the head, from the back of the skull to the extremity of the upper jaw-bone NO 2 0 The breadth of the skull PQ 1 0 A similar pair, found ten feet under ground, in the County of Clare, was presented to Charles the Second, and placed in the horn-gallery, Hampton-court, but was afterwards removed into the guard-room of the same palace. At Bally ward, near Ballyshannon ; at Turvy, eight miles from Dub- lin; and at Portumery, near the River Shannon, in the County of Gal- way ; similar horns have been found. In the common-hall of the Bishop of Armagh's house, in Dublin, was a forehead, with two amazing large beams of a pair of this kind of horns, which, from the magnitude of the beams, must have much exceeded in size those of which the dimensions are given above. Dr. Molyneux states, that in the last twenty years, thirty pair of these horns had been dug up by accident in this country : the ob- servations, also, of several other persons, prove the great frequency with which these remains have been found in Ireland. Various opinions have been entertained respecting this animal and its existing prototype. This, however, does not appear to have been yet discovered; and these remains may, I believe, be regarded as having belonged to an animal now extinct. Dr. Molyneux, in the paper above referred to, in confirmation of his opinion that these are not the horns of the elk, observes, that the elk's horns " are much smaller, and quite of another shape and make ; not palmated, or broad at the end furthest from the head, as ours ; but, on the contrary, broader towards the head, and growing still narrower to- wards the tips' end ;" and concludes with saying, " that it can only answer to that lofty-horned beast in the West Indies, called a moose. Mr. Samuel Dale, in the thirty-ninth volume of the Philosophical Transactions, gives a description of the moose-deer of New England ; but 316 observes, that the horn of 'the New England black moose best agrees with those found fossil in Ireland. Dr. Mortimer adds, in a note to this, paper of Mr. Dale's : " As to the large horns found fossil in Ireland, I have taken particular notice (in se- veral I have seen), besides the main horns being palmated, that the brow-antlers are likewise palmated; which is a circumstance peculiar to the rein-deer species, being of great service to them in removing the snow, in order to get at the grass or moss underneath, which is their chief subsistence in Lapland." M. Cuvier observes : — " II est cependant certain que les bois fossiles d'Irlande ne peuvent venir ni de 1'elan ni du renne : nous n'avons pas besoin de le prouver au long pour ce dernier, puisque leur difference saute aux yeux ; 1'andouiller qui descend sur le front, et qui a seul donne lieu a la comparaison, etant toujours simple dans le fossile, et jamais branchu comme dans le renne." The fact however is, as M. Cuvier has stated it, that the brow-antler in the rein-deer is palmated, and that in the fossil animal it is generally not: it is however sometimes flattened. It now remains to examine into the degree of accordance between these fossil horns and those of the elk, with the horns of which animal these horns have been most frequently supposed to agree. The first com- parative view furnishes us with these facts, that the fossil horns far surpass in size the horns of any known elk ; and that, in the horns of the elk, the antlers are much more numerous than in the fossil horns ; so that the fossil horns, although by far the largest, have the fewest antlers. In ad- dition to these, M. Cuvier notices the three following essential differences: 1. The antler, which in the fossil horn descends from the bottom of the beam, over the forehead of the animal, does not exist in the elk. 2. The fossil horn has antlers passing out from the inner edge of the palm, which is not the case with the horn of the elk. 3. The palm of the fossil horn enlarges by degrees, and takes the form of a fan ; whilst that of the elk is widest at its lower part, and narrows as it ascends. Another very im- portant difference results from the large cartilaginous and fleshy muzzle 317 of the elk. The space required by this part reduces the bony parts, and extraordinarily enlarges and elongates the bony openings of the nostrils,, and necessarily shortens the proper bones of the nose ; but nothing of this kind is discoverable in the fossil sk^ull. The fossil head differs also from that of the elk in the proportion between the length and the width : in the former the width bearing a proportion to the length, as one to two; and, in the latter, as one to three. It appears, that the magnitude of the fossil head does not by any means keep pace with the enormous size of the horns ; the largest fossil head not exceeding two feet, which is shorter than that of the common elk. To calculate the size of the body from that of the head, seems hardly admissible ; and not having yet obtained any authentic account of the discovery of any of the bones of the trunk, or of the limbs of this animal, there exists no sufficient basis for conjecture on this point. The resemblance which has been supposed to exist between this fossil and the moose-deer, or elk of America, M. Cuvier contends is imaginary; observing, that there does not appear to be any real specific difference between the European and the American elk. Every thing, therefore, he observes, agrees in authorizing us to consider the fossil elk of Ireland as an animal belonging to a species, which, as will be shown to be the case with several others, is now become extinct. The frequency with which these remains are found in Ireland is a cir- cumstance not very easily explained, when it is also considered that thei discovery of any of these remains in any other part of the globe is a very rare occurrence. A fragment of a horn, apparently of this species, has been found on the Rhine, near to Worms ; Ecrits de la Societt des Natu- ralises de Berlin, p\ 388. In this specimen, the brow-antler is flattened. The upper part of a skull, with two beams, resembling in their form and proportions those of the Irish elk, have been found in the canal of Ourcq, near to Sevrau, in the forest of Bondi, in the neighbourhood of that spot where we have already seen the remains of elephants were, discovered. 318 The only instance which I find mentioned of these remains being found in England, is related by Mr. Thomas Knowles, who states that a pair of horns was found six feet under ground, in a peat-moss, near North Dreighton, in Yorkshire, in the year 1744. These horns Mr. Knowles describes as being each of them five feet and an inch in length, and palmed ; and observes, that they were not at their full growth, since they were yet covered with what is called the velvet. PhiL Trans. Vol. XLIV. Dr. Mortimer observes, in a note to this paper, that the horns mentioned by Mr. Knowles are evidently of the same sort as those which are so often found in Ireland : but adds, " I do not remember to have met with any before of this species found in England, or any where else be- sides Ireland." Previous to my having visited the neighbourhood of Harwich, John Hanson, Esq, of Great Bromley Hall, Colchester, very kindly favoured me with a view of the fossils which he had obtained from the Essex coast, as well as several correct drawings from them, and two or three of the spe- cimens themselves. Among those in Mr. Hanson's possession was the beam of a horn, so large, and at the same time possessing a form so much resembling that of the Irish fossil horns, as led me, at the time, to men- tion their agreement. At my first or second visit to Walton, I procured the corresponding beam with that possessed by Mr. Hanson, and with it a fragment of the palmated part; and, in 1808, I obtained from the same place the fore- head, with the beams of both horns, broken off just at the commence- ment of tjie palmated part. This specimen very much resembles, except in being larger, one which was found in the canal of Ourcq, and which is figured by Cuvier in PI. i. Fig. 9, of Ruminans Fossiles. The agree- ment is very close between the proportions of the Essex specimen, and those which are given by Dr. Molyneux of the Irish horns, allowing for a circumstance which I did not expect, that the Essex horns exceed the other in size. The breadth of the skull of the Irish fossil, in its broad part, is 12 inches; and of the Essex skull, of which only the narrowest of its 319 upper part is left, is nine inches. The circumference of the beam of the horn, at its root, is in the Irish 1 1 inches, and in the Essex fossil 12 inches. The circumference of the beam, just before giving off the palm, is in the Irish fossil eight inches, and in the Essex ten inches. In Scania (Mem. de VAcad. de Stockholm, de 1802, p. 285), in France, in the valley of Sorame, near Abbeville ; and in Germany, fossil horns have also been found, which resemble in figure those of the fallow-deer, but are one third larger; and which, in the opinion of Cuvier, belonged to some unknown animal. Horns, resembling those of the common stags are very frequent in beds of alluvial production. In France, in the valley of Somme, these horns are found in very considerable numbers, either in the turf or sand. They are also found in several other parts of the continent. These fossils have been also frequently found in different parts of Eng- land. Lancashire, Yorkshire, Derbyshire, Northamptonshire, Oxford- shire, and Lincolnshire, are all mentioned in the Philosophical Trans- actions as having yielded these fossils : but Norwich, perhaps, has fur- nished more of these specimens than any other spot in this island. This species of horns also constitutes a part of the fossil treasures of the neigh- bourhood of Harwich ; affording another instance, with that yielded by the valley of Somme, of these remains being associated with those of the elephant. Here, indeed, they are found, not only with the remains of the elephant, but also with those of the ox, of the fossil elk, the rhino- ceros, and the hippopotamus. A large horn of this description is figured in the 37th volume of the Philosophical Transactions, No. 422, which was drawn up by the net of a fisherman, out of Raven's-barrow-hole, adjoining to Holker Old Park, on the sea-coast of Lancashire. M. Guettard discovered, between the blocks of sand-stone, and in the surrounding sand, in the neighbourhood of Etampes, with other bones of different sizes, the bones of an animal, which appears to have been of a size between that of the stag and of the roebuck. When these horns were first shown to the Academy of Sciences, they were suspected to have 320 belonged to some young animals of the species of the rein-deer, before they had acquired their characteristic palm. These horns are distinguishable by their being very small, thin, and rather flat ; and by their giving off, at a little distance from their base, one or two antlers on their fore part. From a variation in this last cir- cumstance, depending very probably on a difference in the age of the animal, these horns may be divided into two sorts. In the one, at about two inches above the coronet, an isolated antler is given off forwards ; and then the beam itself, which is but little larger than this antler, turns backwards, to be again divided, or at least to give off a second antler on its posterior part. A specimen of this sort, from Etampes, which I purchased from the collection of Mr. Strange, and which bears the description of " A fossil horn of an animal unknown to Dr. Hunter," is represented Plate XX. Fig. 3 ; the dotted lines, in con- tinuation, showing the manner in which the second antler was given off. In the other sort, two antlers are given off forwards, at about an inch from the base, and at a little distance from each other, the beam then passing backwards. It is worthy of notice, that although the root is nearly round, the beam immediately becomes flat ; and this is particularly the case in the horns of the latter sort. That these are not the horns of young rein-deer is evident ; not merely from their not agreeing in all the characters of these horns, but from their having belonged to adult animals, whose epiphyses were in union with their bones. There is no animal of the old continent to which these bones can be referred, nor do we know that the analogue of this fossil animal is to be found on the new continent. In the quarries of Montabusard, in which it will be seen two species of the genus Pateothei'ium and one of the genus Mastodon have been found, two fragments of the horns, and several portions of the jaws, which are not distinguishable from those of the common roebuck, have been found. This is a circumstance truly interesting, since we have here, on the same spot, the bones of lost animals, as well as of animals similar with those 321 •which are now in existence, in the same country in which these fossils are found. M. Faujas, on comparing the different large fossil heads of the ox kind, in the Museum of Natural History, was surprised to find that they dif- fered, not only in their size and form, hut in other characters also, from the urus, or aurochs, of Lithuania. By the examinations which he made, he also became convinced that these fossil horns were of two distinct species. The core or bones of the horns of the first species are placed in a hori- zontal position, and at rather more than fifteen inches from their base are fractured; but the size and form of the remaining part show, that, if there had been any curve, it must have been at the extremity. Although the animal must have been young, the bones of the horns, at their base, were more than twelve inches' and a half in circumference ; and the distance from one orbit to the other, more than thirteen inches. The distance from the upper extremity of the forehead to the edge of the occipital foramen is little more than four inches and a half; and on the forehead, between the commencement of the two horns, is a slight protuberance of an oval form. These two last circumstances M. Faujas considers as par- ticularly distinguishing this from the other species. In the second species the forehead, which is quite flat, is to be consi- dered, at its upper extremity, rather as forming a line, with a little con- vexity, towards its centre, than as having a protuberance. The horns form a kind of crescent, the inclination of which is downwards. The dis- tance of one horn from the other, taken at their extremities, is two feet six inches and a half; the circumference of the core of the horn, at its base, thirteen inches; and from the upper edge of the forehead to the edge of the occipital foramen, but four inches. These horns he considers as having been brought from India by the same revolution which has removed those remains of elephants and rhi- noceroses which are dug up in the North of Europe, in France, Italy, and England. VOL. in. T T On these opinions of M. Faujas, M. Cuvier observes, that it is not ne- cessary to go so far as the Indies to find the living species to which these horns belong. The truth is, he says, that the first of these skulls is that of an auroch, with no difference which can reasonably be considered as specific ; and the second belongs, he conceives, simply to the species of our domestic ox, of which it has all the characters. The magnitude of them, compared with the common skeletons, and the direction of the horns, occasion the illusion ; but these, he adds, are circumstances which naturalists know are not constant characters, arid not proper to be em- ployed for the distinction of species. To assist vou in making the necessary distinctions, I shall here intro- V «/ duce to you the osteologic characters of the skulls of the aurochs and -the ox, as given by M. Cuvier himself*. " The forehead of the ox is flat, and even a little concave; that of the auroch, although a little less so than in the ox, is rather tumid. In the o.r, the forehead has a square form, being nearly as high as it is wide, taking its base between the orbits ; in the auroch, measuring it in the same way, it is much wider than it is high, the width being to the height as three to two. The horns, in the ox, are attached to the extremities of the projecting line at the top of the head, which separates the occiput from the forehead; in the auroch, this line is two inches backwarder than the roots of the horns. In the o.v, the plane of the occiput makes an acute angle with the forehead; in the auroch, this angle is obtuse. Lastly, the plane of the occi,?ut, which is quadrangular in the o.v, forms a semicircle in the auroch." The cha- racters which M. Cuvier here assigns to the ox are common to all its known varieties. To these distinctive characters, taken from the skull, may be added these, which serve to determine the propriety of regarding the auroch as a different species from the ox. M. Daubenton ascertained, that in the auroch there are fourteen pair of ribs ; whilst in the ox, and the * Menagerie du Mas. d'Hist. Nat. art. du Zebu. - 323 greater part of the other ruminants, there are only thirteen : in the au- roch, the legs are longer and thinner than in the bull or buffalo ; its tongue, also, M. Gilibert observes, is of a blue colour. Those naturalists appear to have been mistaken who have supposed that there exist, in the North of Europe, two species, different from each other : one without a bunch, which they term the auroch ; and the other with, which is considered as the bison. The difference appears to be, that which results from the difference of age only ; the old male au?och ac- quiring much longer hairs, and a much larger projection, than exists in the female or the young. The identity of the auroch with the large wild bull or buffalo of America (Bos Americanos, Linn.) is not yet de- termined ; an examination of the osteological characters of its skull is therefore desirable. Justice to M. Faujas requires the observation, that M. Cuvier has bv no means established the fact, that the fossil horns of the first species are those of the aurochs ; since he has by no means pointed out any osteo- logical character which can be considered as deciding the question. It is very true, that the difference of size alone is not sufficient to de- termine a difference of species. But when the difference of size is enor- mous, the probability of there existing a difference of species is rendered more probable. The prodigious size of these fossil horns is attempted to be accounted for by M. Cuvier, on the consideration, that the horns grow through the whole life of the animal, and that an abundance of nourish- ment, through a long life, might have had a considerable effect in in- creasing the growth of these horns. But a long life does not appear to have been necessary for the production of the large horns of this animal; since M. Cuvier himself observes, of the specimen figured by M. Faujas, that " the skull is of an enormous size, although the individual to which it belonged was not very old, as appeared by the sutures." Nor can the magnitude of the horns be attributed to abundance of nourishment; since, as M. Cuvier observes, in the paragraph just quoted, the skull itself is of 324 an enormous size ; and it cannot be unfair to infer, that the other bones of the animal were in the same proportion: and that such a prodigious size of the bones of the whole animal can be attributable merely to plenty of nourishment, I cannot suppose to be admissible. The bone of a horn, most probably of this species, found by Mr. Peale, in Kentucky, was of still larger dimensions than those in the Museum of Natural History, since the circumference of its base was more than eighteen inches. Another fossil core of a horn, probably of this species, is described by M. Mayer, which must have even exceeded this in mag- nitude. The second species of these horns surpass in size those of our domes- ticated oxen, and differ from them also in having a different direction, The skulls to which these horns are attached are very different from those of the aurochs ; and, as has been already remarked, are supposed by M. Cuvier to have belonged to a very different race ; to that wild race, which was the original stock of our present domesticated oxen. The osteological characters of the skull, he supposes, prove their affinity; and the difference in the direction of the horns, he conceives by no means a character sufficient to mark a species. Horns of this latter description have been frequently found. Several have been found in France ; and M. Faujas has seen them in the cabi- nets of Manheim and of Darmstadt, and in that of M. Saltzwedel, at Francfort. They have also been dug up in the neighbourhood of Stutt- gardt ; and M. Soldani describes a skull of this species, found near to Arezzo, the forehead of which was a foot wide, and the horns two feet seven inches long, and fourteen inches in circumference at their base. He also mentions another found near Rome, at the depth of twenty feet. The width between the orbits was fourteen inches; and the circumference of their core, at its base, was eighteen inches. Essai Qryctogrtiphique, PL xxiv. and xxv. Gesner, more than two hundred years ago, engraved a skull of this sort> the design of which was sent him by his friend Caiu% 325 who informs us lie had seen a similar skull in Warwick Castle. The spe- cimen of this fossil which I possess was dug up in Dumfrieshire. The following are its measurements. Feet. Inches. The length of the bony core of each horn 2 6 Circumference at its base ..1 5 Width of the forehead at the root of the horns 1 Of Distance of the tips of the horns from each other 2 11 M. Pallas describes a fossil skull found in Siberia, which he concluded to have belonged to the common buffalo of India and of Italy ; to which opinion he was led by the angle or ridge, which runs the length of the horn. Nov. Com. Petrop. xm. p. 460. The examination of this fossil induced M. Cuvier to conclude, that this could not be a skull of the common buffalo ; since, in this animal, the width of the head is less in proportion to the length than in the fossil, particularly between the orbits; the distance of which, in the fossil, is a striking character. The curvature of the horns is also different. In the common buffalo they turn backwards, at the side, and upwards, without coming forward ; but, in the fossil, they go obliquely upwards by the side, and their point comes forward. The longitudinal projecting angle also appears to be less strongly marked. M. Pallas, indeed, afterwards concluded, that these horns were not of the common buffalo, but of a supposed large species described by Dr. Anderson in the Bee, Dec. 1792, and to which the name of Amis has been given. But M. Cuvier offers very good reasons for supposing that mistakes have been made with respect to the size of this animal, which he conceives to be nothing more than a race of buffaloes, with uncommonly large horns, but by no means of a particular species. From every con- sideration, he is therefore led to suppose that the fossil buffalos' heads of Siberia belong to a particular species, entirely different from the com- mon buffalo and the arne, as well as from the ox and the aurochs. These skulls have been found on the banks of the rivers in the furthest 326 parts of Siberia ; but sufficient is not yet known of the situation in which they are found, to allow of the ascertaining of the nature and comparative age of the beds in which they are found. Arguing upon what is known respecting these fossils, M. Cuvier concludes, that the}^ are cotemporary with the elephant with long alveoli, and with the rhinoceros with a long skull. This he however admits cannot be received as cert : in, until we obtain more exact accounts respecting the places in which they were found. To M . Pallas we are likewise indebted for the knowledge of another ' species of fossil skulls found in Siberia. Of these he found only two : one on the borders of the Ob, and the other on the side of Tuadra. Nov. Com.. Pelrop. xin. -p. 601. These skulls are chiefly characterized by the near approximation of the bases of the horns. M. Pallas, at first, suspected that these skulls were similar to those of the buffalo of the Cape ; but soon after found reason to attribute them rather to the musk-ox (Bos mos- chatus) of Canada. M. Cuvier is fully disposed to concur with M. Pal- las in his last opinion. Admitting the identity of- these skulls with those of the musked ox of America, Cuvier observes, that it should be remarked that they are in a relative position very different from that of the other fossil bones of that country. The only analogues with these latter, which it is supposed that we have found, are in the torrid zone, &c. : but the musk-ox dwells in the frigid zone. It is therefore, he thinks, probable, that if these skulls ac- tually belong to this animal, they will be found to have been deposited in depths, and in beds, very different from those which have furnished the bones of elephants, rhinoceroses, and large buffaloes. Reviewing these facts, relative to the remains of* ruminants found in alluvial tracts, M. Cuvier offers the following remarks. These remains, as well of the stags as of the oxen, appear to be refer- able to two classes, the unknown and the known ruminants. In the first class he places the Irish ' elk ; the small stag, with slender horns, of Etampes ; the stag of Scania ; and the large buffalo of Siberia : in 'the 327 > second class hp. places the common stag, the common roehuck, the au- rochs, the ox which seems to have been the wild original of our domestic ox, and the buffalo with approximated horns, which is analogous with the musk-ox of Canada. Besides these, there appears a dubious species, the great deer of La Somme, which much resembles the common fallow- deer. From what can be determined, with respect to the beds in which they are found, the known species are always, he observes, in those which are more recent than those in which the unknown species are found. This, he says, is certain, at least as to the stags, the roebucks, and the oxen, of the Valley of La Somme, which are in the loose and superficial sands, or in the turf. The aurochs equally appear to be found in the alluvial tracts of recent formation, which are yet susceptible of augmentation or diminution ; and the stags' horns of England have been frequently taken out of rivers. As to the unknown species, it must be remarked, he says, that the elk of Ireland, although it is necessary to get through the beds of turf to find it, yet it is not in the turf itself, but in the beds beneath it : the stag of Etampes, found in the sand of La Beauce, was lower than the earth deposited from the fresh water, which covers the sand; and lastly, the buffalo of Siberia, accompanying the fossil elephants and rhinoceroses, may be supposed to be of the same period, and to be enveloped in the same beds. The stag of Scania is the only one of the unknown animals which has been said to be found in the turf; but this circumstance, he thinks, requires to be proved. The knowledge which we at present possess of the situations in which fossils are found is at present so confined, as to give but little solidity to the opinions which he here offers. A remark of another kind is made with a much greater assurance of its certainty. The known fossil ru- minants are also animals of the climate in which they are now found ; thus the stag, ox, aurochs, roebuck, musk-ox of Canada, now dwell, and have always dwelt, in the cold countries ; whilst the species which we 328 consider as unknown, if we must refer them, at all events, to existing analogues, must be sought for in the warm countries. Our unknown fossil ruminants, in part, follow this analogy. The great buffalo of Si- beria can only be compared with the buffalo of the Indies, or amis : in the same manner, it is pretended, that in the elephant of India, and in the rhinoceros of Africa, are to be found the originals of the fossil ele- phant and rhinoceros, with which are found the bones of this buffalo. The elk of Ireland, and the stag of Etampes and of Scania, may indeed be compared with the animals of the cold countries; but they do not approach so near to them, he thinks, as to invalidate his reasoning. The facts, then, which are hitherto collected, seem, he thinks, to an- nounce, at least as plainly as imperfect documents can, that the two sorts of fossil ruminants belong to two orders of alluvial deposits, and consequently to two different geological epochs; that the one have been, and are now daily being buried, in the period in which we live ; whilst the others have been the victims of the same revolution which destroyed the other fossils of the loose beds, such as the mammoths, the mastodons, and all the pachydermata, the genera of which now exist only in the torrid zone. 329 LETTER XXIV. FOSSIL BONES OF RUMINANTS, &C. IN THE ISLANDS OF CHERSO AND OSERO ISLAND OF CERIGO AT NICE AND ANTIBES AT CETTE NEAR CONCUD, IN ARRAGON IN THE ROCK OF GIBRALTAR. - F EW among the interesting objects which present themselves for our examination can appear more wonderful than those which are now to engage our attention. In the rock of Gibraltar, in Arragon, in Nice, and Antibes ; on the more northern shores of the Mediterranean; in the more northern parts of the island of Corsica ; in Dalmatia, and in the islands of Cherso and Osero, as well as in several others of the islets of the Adriatic, the bones of similar animals have been found deposited, in situations and under circumstances extremely similar. Or, in the expressive language of Cuvier : " Des rochers epars, et souvent isoles, a plusieurs centaines de lieues les uns des autres, mais formes de la meme pierre, sont fendu en differens sens; leurs fissures sont remplies d'une concretion semblable partout, qui enveloppe des os et des fragmens de pierres, et a toutes ces distances les fragmens de pierres, et les os sont a peu pres les memes. An. du Mus. Tome xiu. p. 169. The first notice which appears to have been given of these fossils was in 1745, by Vitaliano Donati, to whose assiduous inquiries I have already acknowledged my obligations, whilst examining into the structure of the VOL. in. u u 330 recent alcyonia. In the work there referred to, An Essay on the Natural History of the Adriatic Sea, p. 8, French translation, being the only copy of the work which I possess, he says : " Dans le voisinage des lies appel- lees, Incoronate, est un rocher nomme Jadra, qui est tout plein de De- bris de petoncles entierement changes en substance de marbre. " Peu loin de ce rocher on trouve un bas fond, ou bane, appelle Raspp, ou Ton voit des os d'homme petrifies. Us sont dans un melange de marbre de Rovigno, de terre rouge, et de stalactites. C'est pourquoi je ne crois pas cette petrifaction aussi ancienne que les autres. J'ai aussi deterre de ces os petrifies avec le meme melange a Rocosniza pres de Sebenico, et sur les bords de la riviere Cicola du cote de Dernes." Abbe Fortis added to his other philosophical labours that of repairing to the islands of Cherso and Osero, to observe these wonders. The fre- quent heaps that are seen, the sameness of the substance, the variety of the positions, and the similar materials of the congeries, might give room to conjecture, he says, at first sight, that one immense stratum had been thus composed in remote ages. There are two different heaps on the desert rock of Gutim; and a mile from Gutim, at a place called Platt, on the island of Cherso, other heaps are to be seen. He also found them in the caverns of Gher- moshall, and at Porto Cicale, in the post of Vallishall, and at Balvanida. Two large heaps were also found in the small island called Canidole Picciola, and others in the small island of Sansego. The same charac- ters, he observes, marks the Illyrick bones over all these islands and along the coasts of Dalmatia. Along the torrent Cicola, between Sibe- nico and Knin ; in Isola Grossa; in Corfu, in the Ionian sea; and in the isle of Cyprus — it appears, that similar fossil bones exist. Among these bones the Abbe Fortis discovered the bones of sheep, and the teeth of horses and oxen ; with other bones, which he believed to be human. Tra- vels into Dalmatia by Abbt Alberto Fortis, p. 440, et seq. The island of Cerigo, in the Archipelago, is also mentioned by the Abbe Fortis, as possessing these fossils ; which circumstance is also men- 331 - tioned by Spallanzani ; who, without sufficient authority, also conceived these bones to be human. The accumulation of these fossils at Nice and at Antibes, have been particularly noticed by M. Faujas. Ann. du Mus. Tom. x. p. 409, &c. The rock which bears the castle of Nice, and in which these remains are found, is in a manner the last extremity of the chain of Alps, which bifur- cates a little, to form towards the West the mountains of Provence, and towards the East those of Genes, which are themselves the beginning of the chain of the Appennines. These fossils, according to Faujas, are also found in the ruins of Cimiez, an ancient city, a little higher up than Nice ; and there is niso reason to conclude, from his description, that the mountain of Montulban, Villetranche, and the greater part of those which surround the plain of Nice, are covered with a reddish ochry earth, similar to that which abounds in the Breccia, which contains the bones. The city of Antibes is separated from that of Nice only by a bay about four leagues wide, which appears to be surrounded by hills of the same nature. At Cette also, at the beginning of the canal of Languedoc, between Montpellier and Agde, on the Mediterranean, these fossils are also found. The mountain of Cette is an isolated cone, which is connected with the land by a very narrow neck of sand. Very lately, M. Ram passe has dis- covered similar fossil remains in Corsica. These are at some distance to the North of Bastia, at about half a league from the sea, and at about a hundred fathoms above its level. Cueva-rubia, a hill near to Concud, in Arragon, appears also to con- tain fossil bones; but the cementing matter differs from that of the pre- ceding fossils both in its grain and colour. Fossil bones are also found at Romagnano, in the valley of Pantena and of Ronca ; but these, like those of Concud, seem to differ from those previously mentioned, in the nature of the connecting matter. Mr. Bowles believed that he had found here the bones of the legs and thighs of men and women ; but Cuvier ob- serves, it must require great practice in researches of this kind, to make such a distinction, in fossil bones, almost always mutilated. 332 We are indebted to Major Imrie for a most useful and interesting mi- neralogical description of the mountain of Gibraltar, in the fourth volume of the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, p. 191, the whole of which is highly worthy your examination. That which most par- ticularly demands your attention I have here introduced. The eastern side of the mountain, mostly consisting of a range of pre- cipice, terminates with a bank of sand in the Mediterranean. The southern extremity terminates in the sea, with a rapid slope, and ibrms Europa Point. On the Western side, this peninsula-mountain is bounded by the Bay' of Gibraltar; and, upon the North, it is attached to Spain by a low sandy isthmus, the greatest elevation of which, above the level of the sea, does not exceed ten feet ; and its breadth, at the base of the rock, is not more than three quarters of a mile. This isthmus separates the Mediterranean on the East, from the Bay of Gibraltar on the West. The principal part of the rock consists of a grey dense marble, in some parts of which are imbedded testaceous bodies, in a spathose state. As is almost always the case, where this species of rock constitutes large districts, the rock of Gibraltar is cavernous ; the caverns being beset with stalactitic, and other calcareous infiltrations. On the surface of the rock are seen pot-like holes, hollowed out by the attrition of gravel or pebbles, set in motion by the rapidity of. rivers, or currents in the sea, •some of the pebbles now remaining in them. From this phenomenon, Mr. Imrie concludes, that however high the surface of this rock may now be elevated above the level of the sea, it has once been the bed of agitated waters. With respect to the fossil bones found in this rock, the general idea concerning them is, that they are found in a petrified state, and inclosed in the solid calcareous rock; but these are mistakes which Mr. Imrie thus aims at correcting : — " In the perpendicular fissures of the rock, and in some of the caverns of the mountain (all of which afford evident proofs of their former communication with the surface), a calcareous con- cretion is found, of a reddish brown colour, with an earthy fracture and 333 considerable induration, including the bones of various animals, some of which have the appearance of being human. These bones are of various sizes, and lie in all directions, intermixed with shells of snails, fragments of the calcareous rock, and particles of spar ; all of which materials are still to be seen in their natural uncombined states, partially scattered over the surface of the mountain. These having been swept by heavy rains, at different periods, from the surface into the situations above described, and having remained for a long series of years in those places of rest, ex- posed to the penetrating action of water, have become enveloped in, and cemented by, the calcareous matter which it deposits." It is right here to observe, that Mr. Boddington ascertained that these bones had been found fifty-seven feet above high-water mark. Phil. Trans. Vol. LX. p. 414. • This concreting matter may, in some places, be traced from the lowest part of a deep perpendicular fissure up to the surface of the mountain. In many parts of the rock this concretion exists, unmixed with bones of any kind: and on the elevated parts of the mountain, masses are found, consisting of snail-shells combined with a mass of opaque stalactitical spar of a yellowish brown colour. This spar often incrusts the inner sur- face of the hollow bones : sometimes the spathose crust is colourless, and sometimes of a reddish colour. The concretion in which these bones have been found, in Dalmatia, at Cette, Nice, Antibes, and Cerigo, agrees very closely, in its situation, colour, and composition, with that of the rock of Gibraltar. The fossil remains of animals, we have seen, -are found in the Vicentin and Veronese, but it does not appear to be certain that the concretions containing these bones, any more than those of Concud, are of the same kind with those of Gibraltar, Dalmatia, &c. ; their connecting matter be- ing of a different grain, and of another colour : nor has it been ascertained that they are found in similar situations. Many of the bones which have been thus found, have been supposed to be of human origin. Such was the opinion, at one time, of the Abbe Fortis and of Dr. Hunter ; but further observation has shown, that this 334 was erroneous. The latter gentleman, on the inspection* of more distinct specimens, corrected his former report on this subject, and determined them to be the bones of quadrupeds. Further examination afterwards enabled Mr. John Hunter to ascertain that these bones belonged to the family of Ruminants, to the genus Lepus, and to the class of birdsv Some, he also observed, belonged to a small dog or fox. Philos. Trans. 1794, p. 412. Major Imrie also remarked, that some of these bones are apparently human, and that these are chiefly vertebrae and bones of the upper and lower extremities. These are scattered among others, of various kinds and sizes, even down to the smallest bones of small birds. He found a complete jaw-bone of a sheep, with its full compliment of teeth, the ena- mel of which was perfect. Two skulls were found, which were supposed to be human ; but these appeared to Mr. Imrie to be too small for the human species, and seemed rather to belong to a species of monkey, of which considerable numbers still inhabit the inaccessible parts of the rock. To the indefatigable and justly celebrated Cuvier, we are indebted for still more correct information respecting these remains. The greater number of these bones, he observes, were evidently broken before they became incrusted ; but do not appear to have been bowldered. They are disposed in every direction, in the red stone which encloses them ; and by their not touching each other, we have proof that the concreting matter formed on them as the bones gradually fell in. This matter, he observes, resembles well-burnt brick earth, and has many small cavities, some of which are partly, and others quite filled, with a spathose matter, similar to that found in the cavities of the bones. The bones, he says, are decomposed, and very white : tjiey, however, are not wanting in hardness, and may be even considered as petrified. The enamel of the teeth is unaltered. The impressions of shells are those of land-snails : there are no traces of sea-shells. M. Cuvier is satisfied, that among the considerable number which he possesses of these fossil bones, there are none but the bones of a rumi- 335 nant, hardly of the size of a deer. These, from there not having been any horns or branches found, and from the lower head of an os femoris, which he possesses, resembling that of the antelope more than that of the stag or sheep, he is disposed to refer to the antelope. In the propriety of this, he is confirmed by the appearance of the teeth, and of the other bones which he possesses. It does not appear that any remains of any of the class of rosores (ron- geurs, mammiferes onguicules sans dents canines ou laniaires) have been found in this rock, except by M. Adrien Camper, who has two halves of a jaw, and some other bones, which appear to be referable to the genus Lepusy but which are too small for the common rabbit. Having ascer- tained that the remains of a species of Lagomys exist in the breccia of Corsica, and that the jaw-bones were about the same size with the one found at Gibraltar, he proposes, as an interesting object of research, the ascertaining whether traces of any animal of this species are discoverable in the breccise of the rock of Gibraltar. In the breccia of Cette, M. Cuvier discovered the bones of five different species of animals ; those of the common wild rabbit, and which were most numerous ; of a rabbit one third smaller than the preceding ; of an animal resembling the field-mouse ( mus arvalis}, of a bird of the size of the common wag-tail ; and of the common adder. It is, however, by no means certain that the fossil rabbits were in their exterior similar to ours ; since those differences, which mark the rabbit of Egypt and of North America as distinct species, are not discoverable in their osteology. Learning that M. Gouan possessed an os femoris from Cette, which had been said to be human, M. Cuvier examined it, and found that it had belonged to some ruminant about the size of a deer, and perhaps to the same animal with that whose remains are found at Gibraltar. The shells found here were of three sorts, two helices and a pupa ; but no trace whatever of any sea-shell or of any marine animal, contrary to the opinion of M. Faujas. Annales du Mus. Tom. x. p. 410. The bones contained in the ossiferous brecciae of Nice and Antibes are, ,336 according to M. Provencal, physician of Montpellier, only those of herbi- vorous animals; and, according to M. Cuvier, of horses and of ruminating animals. Of the latter, he has seen the remains of two species : the bones, or rather the teeth of one of these, appear to be of the size of those of the calf) and the others .of those of the stag. No teeth of any smaller ani- mals have been found here. The shells are all terrestrial, being either helicae or pupae. The Helix algira was found adhering to a jaw like that of a stag, by M. Provencal, but no remains of marine animals have been found. M. Faujas, indeed, speaks of serpulse, and a volute, which was said to have been found here; but these were shown him in a cabinet, and of course he might have been deceived. The ossiferous brecciae of Corsica differ materially from those of Gi- braltar, since they do not yield any bones resembling those of sheep or deer, but only those of the size of the rabbit, guinea-pig, or rat. All the fossil bones of Corsica, which have been examined by M. Cu- vier, are of the class of rosores; but they do not, like those of Cette, belong to species common to the adjoining country, since he found a complete head of a genus, the species of which have been but just dis- covered in Siberia. By the flatness of the skull, the upward direction of the orbits, the hooked apophysis at the base of the zygomatic arch, and by the long apophysis which carries this arch backwards, he was led to compare it with the skulls of the little hares without tails (Lag&mys, Cuv.), figured by Pallas ; and, on careful examination, found that it very nearly accorded with Lagomys Alpinus, which inhabits the loftiest rocks of Siberia. It how- ever did not exactly agree, either in its size or proportions, with any known species. An enormous quantity of the bones of the water-rat exists also in this breccia, as well as of some smaller animal, perhaps the land-mouse, Mus terrestris, Linn. Among the fossil animal remains of Dalmatia, M. Cuvier has only been 337 anb to find those of ruminating animals. Teeth which are In the Mu- seum of Natural History, and others in the possession of M. Faujas and of M. Camper, appear to be of the size of those of the deer, and perhaps belong to the same animal whose remains are found at Gibraltar. Mr. John Hunter's account of these bones agrees with that of M. Cuvier ; but Mr. Hunter states, that among these bones he discovered the os hyoides of a horse. Spallanzani, from whom alone we have obtained a particular ae- ount of the fossils of Cerigo, Memoir es de la Societl Italienne, Tom. in. ». 439), very loosely, and most probably erroneously, describes the de- posit as a mountain, in the form of a truncated cone, which is named the Mountain of Bones, and which he hyperbolically describes as be- ing full, inside and outside, of animal remains. His description of the state of the bones, and of the nature of the breccia, appears, however, to agree exactly with those of the places already spoken of. With respect to the nature of the bones, he has assumed, evidently on very indifferent authority, that they are human ; but there does not appear any reason for supposing that they are different from those which have been already mentioned. The fossil bones of Arragon appear, from Mr. Bowles's account, to be chiefly of herbivorous animals, of different sizes ; but these do not appear to have yet been subjected to a correct anatomical examination. Those which have been found in the Veronese, appear to belong to oxen and stags. The conclusions which M. Cuvier thinks himself warranted to form, respecting these phaenomena, are, " 1 . The osseous breccige have not been produced by either a tranquil sea, or by a sudden irruption of the sea. 2. They are even posterior to the last resting of the sea on our conti- nents, since no traces are found in them of any sea-shells, and they are not covered by other beds. 3. The bones and the fragments of stone fell in the clefts of the rocks, successively, and as they fell, became united together by the accumulation of the spathose matter. 4. Almost VOL. III. XX 338 all the stones proceed from the rock, even those in the clefts which contain the breccia. 5. All the bones, properly ascertained, are those of herbivorous animals. 6. The greatest number of them belong to known animals, and even to animals still existing in those parts. 7. The formation of these breccise, therefore, appear to be modern, in com- parison with the great regular beds of stone, and with the alluvial beds which contain the bones of unknown animals. 8. It is nevertheless still ancient, with respect to us, since nothing shows that such brecciae are formed at the present day ; and some of them, as those of Corsica, con- tain also the remains of unknown animals. 9. The most striking cha- racter which this phenomenon presents is rather the facility with which certain rocks have been thus divided by clefts, than the matters with which these clefts are filled. 10. This phenomenon is very different from that which is yielded by the caverns of Germany, which contain the bones of carnivorous animals only, spread on the ground, in a mould partly earthy and partly animal ; although the nature of the rocks in which these caverns are formed appear to be not very different from those which contain the ossiferous brecciae." At Plate XX. Fig. 4, is the representation of a part of a jaw of some ruminant, seemingly of a stag, imbedded in the reddish calcareous mass of Gibraltar. 339 LETTER XXV. FOSSIL REMAINS OF ELEPHANTS FREQUENTLY FOUND ..MANI- FEST THE EXISTENCE OF ONE OR MORE FOSSIL SPECIES. 1 HE family of PACHYDERMATA, Crassipelles, distinguished by the great thickness of the skin, by having more than two hoofs, and, except in the elephant, by having all the three kinds of teeth, is divided into the following genera: — 1. Hyrax, Cape marmot ; 2. Sus ; 3. Tapirus ; 4. Rhi- noceros ; 5. Elephas ; 6. Hippopotamus. To which may be added two other genera, the fossil remains only of which have been discovered. These have been named by Cuvier PaUotherium and Anoplotherium. Theophrastus knew of the existence not only of lapidified bones, but of fossil ivory, Plin. lib. xxxv. cap. 18. The enormpus bones related by Herodotus to have been found at Tegea, Herod, lib. i. sect. 68, as well as those at Caprea, Suet. Ann. sect. 72, .were doubtless the bones of elephants. The bones mentioned by Strabo, on the authority of Gabi- nius, Strab. Geogr. lib. xvn. were, in all probability, of the elephant, or of some cetaceous animal. Numerous remains of elephants have been found in Italy ; and al- though a very considerable number of elephants were brought from Africa into Italy, yet the vast extent through which these remains have been found, and the great probability that the Italians, particularly the Romans, would have known sufficient of the value of ivory, to have pre- 340 vented them from committing the tusks to the earth, lead to the belief that by far the greater number of these remains which have been dug up, have been deposited here, not by the hands of man, but by the changes which, at least, the surface of this globe has undergone, at very remote periods. The circumstances, indeed, under which many of these have been found, afford indubitable proof of this fact. In France, where it is well known that living elephants have been much less frequent, at least in times of which we have any record, than either in Italy or in Greece, their fossil remains have been found in a great number of places, and in situations which prove their deposition at a very remote period. The whole valley through which the Rhine passes, yields fragments of this animal, and perhaps more numerously on the side of Germany than on that of France. Not only in its course, but in the alluvise of the several streams which empty themselves into it, are these fossil remains also found. Thus Holland abounds with them, and even the most elevated parts of the Batavian Republic are not exempt from them. The whole of Germany and of Switzerland appear to particularly abound in these wonderful relics. The greater number which has been found in these parts is, perhaps, as is observed by M. Cuvier, not at- tributable to theiV greater abundance, but to the number of well-in- formed men, capable of making the necessary researches, and of report- ing the interesting facts they discover. As in the banks of the Rhine, so in those of the Danube, do these fos- sils abound. In the valley of Altmiihl is a grand deposit of these remains. The bones which have been found at Krembs, in Sweden; at Baden, near Vienna; in Moravia; in different parts of Hungary and of Transylvania; at the foot of the rfartz ; in Hesse ; at Hildersheim ; all appear to be re- ferable to this animal. So also are those which are found on the Elbe, the Oder, and the Vistula. Different parts of the British Empire are not less productive of these remains. In London, Brentford, Harwich, Norwich, Gloucestershire, Stafford- 341 shire, Warwickshire. Salisbury, the Isle of Shepey, and indeed in several other parts of Great Britain, have different remains of these animals been found. When we add to those places which have been already enumerated, Scandinavia, Ostrobothnia, Norway, Iceland, Russia, Siberia, Tunis, America, Hue huetoca, near Mexico; and Ibarra, in the province of Quito, near Peru; it will appear that there is hardly a part of the known world, whose subterranean productions are known to us, in which these animal remains have not been found. Ann. du Mus. Tome vm. p. 1. Notwithstanding the frequency with which the fossil remains of ele- phants have been found, there are hardly any fossils of a known genus of animals, respecting which so many mistakes have been committed. At no very remote period, not only the bones, but even the teeth, have been considered as the remains of a gigantic race of men ; and Aldrovandus, Kundmann, and others, have mistaken the fossil teeth of elephants for those of other animals. Leibnitz, who wrote in 1749, gives, in the twelfth plate of his Protogcea, the engraving of an elephant's grinder, which he describes as Dens animalis marini ; and even M. de la Metherie, in his ex- cellent work, published so lately as the year 1797, describes a tooth found in Dauphigny, as belonging to an elephant of Africa, which Cuvier has since shown to be a tooth of the great tapir : and the same author con- siders the teeth from the Ohio, and those brought from Peru by Dom- bey, to be those of the African elephant* ; whilst, as M. Cuvier observes, the fossil teeth of Dauphignj% of Peru, and of the Ohio, not only have no resemblance with each other, but are all totally different from those of the African elephant. So far, indeed, have mistakes respecting the re- mains of the elephant proceeded; that Kircher, Mercatus, and Aldrovan- dus, have described the fragment of elephants' teeth as petrified hands (chirites). Kundmann went so far as -to insist, not only that one of these fragments was the petrified paw of a large baboon, but that the skin, * Theorie de iaTerre, Tome V. p. 200 and 201. 342 flesh, nails, and veins, were all discoverable in it, in a petrified state*. Even the accurate Walch refers to this specimen as a real petrifaction of the ape f . I must here suggest to you the propriety of referring, previous to our examination of these fossil remains, to the ingenious observations of Mr. Home and of Mr. Corse, on the formation of the teeth of the elephant. Philos. Trans. 1799. By an attention to these observations, we are of course enabled to form a more correct judgment as to their fossil re- mains. From the information thus gained we learn, that the bodies of which we have just spoken, and which the older oryctologists considered as pe- trified hands, were the separated plates of which the grinders are com- posed : the more extended parts of these productions having been sup- posed to be the fingers. The unorganized and looser substance of the cortical crust disintegrates sooner than the two substances of which the plates are formed ; hence, in most fossil teeth, this substance is in a very loose state, and in some it has been quite removed, and has left the plates entirely unconnected. It is but at a very late period that the specific differences of the teeth of the East-Indian and African elephant have been attended to. These differences consist in the form and number of the plates. In the East- Indian, the two wide surfaces of the plates are flat, arid covered with numerous rough longitudinal striae ; whilst, in the African, there is on both of the wide surfaces an angular projection through their whole length, and the striae are much less numerous. The masticating surface shows that the transverse bands, which in the tooth of the East Indian elephant are straight, and all through of an equal width, are, in the tooth of the African, more in the form of a lozenge; or, much wider in the middle than at their ends. From these lateral projections, the African teeth must necessarily have much fewer plates than the East-Indian. * Rarior. Nat. et Ant. PI. in. Fig. 2. t Monumens des Catast. Tome n. Part 2, p. 150. 343 The females of the East-Indian elephants have but short and small tusks, projecting obliquely 'downwards. The African elephants, both male and female, appear to have large tusks. The degree, and even the direction of the curvature of these tusks, vary considerably. M. Cuvier is satisfied, from actual comparison of several skulls of the East- Indian and African elephants, that different specific characters exist in their respective skulls. In the Indian elephant, the top of the skull is raised in a kind of double pyramid ; but, in the African, it is nearly rounded. In the Indian the forehead is concave, and in the African it is rather convex. Several other differences exist, not necessary to be here particularized, which seem to be fully sufficient to mark a dif- ference of species. A cursory view is sufficient to enable us to determine that the ordinary fossil teeth of elephants are not of the African species, and it may be fur- ther said, that the greater number of these teeth bear a close resemblance to the East-Indian species, showing, on their masticating surface, bands of an equal thickness through their whole length, and rudely crenulated. So great, indeed, is the resemblance, that Pallas, and most other writers, have considered the fossil elephant as being of the same species with the f\ o| rj 4-] ft *v*«*m$. That the fossil elephants were specifically different from the Asiatic elephant, M. Cuvier had been long of opinion; and although the obser- vations of his friend, M. Adrien Camper, made him for a time hesitate, he became confirmed in his opinion from the circumstance, that he al- most always found the plates, in the fossil species, thinner, occupying sensibly a less space ; and being, consequently, in greater number, in the same length, than in the recent teeth. From this difference in the thick- ness of the plates, it follows that the number of these plates which are brought into action at once, should be greater in the fossil than in the Asiatic. Mr. Corse observes, that in the latter there are seldom more than ten or twelve in use at once ; but in the fossil teeth, there are fre- 344 quently twenty-four. M. Cuvier figures one found in the forest of Bondy, in which there are twenty-two. A second distinctive character, according to M. Cuvier, is, that the lines of enamel are thinner, and less scalloped or crenulated, in the fossil, than in the others, he having only noticed one exception. A third character is, he thinks, yielded by the much greater absolute, as well as proportional, width of the fossil, this being in the proportion of eight to six. The specimens which I possess do not, except as to the greater degree of thickness of the teeth, exactly accord with these observations of M. Cuvier. This is, I believe, in consequence of my happening to possess some fossil teeth, of different species, from those in the possession of that gentleman, or from those which I have seen described. As to the greater thinness of the plates in the fossil than in the recent species, this is, 1 think, undoubtedly the case, not only with the common fossil teeth, as appears in three or four detached teeth from Essex, and in one which is still retained in its alveolus, in a jaw nearly perfect; but it is also the case with the undulating plates of two other teeth, of which I shall soon have occasion more fully to speak. In the one which is still retained in the jaw, seventeen plates are seen in ten inches extent of sur- face, all of which were in use at the death of the animal : and, in the two last-mentioned, lamellae equal to twenty plates exist in a length of tritu- rating surface of six inches and a half. One of these is represented Plate XX. Fig. 8. In a fragment of. an upper tooth from Germany, in the length of five inches, are contained only eight lamellae. But the specimen which offers the strongest exception to the greater degree of thinness of the plates existing in the fossil teeth being admitted as a general rule, is represented Plate XX. Fig. 6, being a tooth of the left side of the upper jaw, which I purchased from Mr. George Hum- phries, in the sale of the Calonnian Museum, and which is described as having been found in Staffordshire. This curious fossil differs materially, not only from the teeth of the 345 living species of elephants, but also from every fossil tooth of which 1 have heard. Its peculiarities of character are, the great thickness of the plates, the smoothness of the sides of the line of enamel, and the ap- pearance of the digitated part of the plates, even in the anterior part of the tooth. The length of this tooth, which is formed of thirteen plates, is eight inches ; and the length of its triturating surface, on which are the termi- nations of nine plates, is six inches. The width of these plates may there- fore be taken at nearly double that of the plates of fossil teeth in general ; since, in a fossil tooth from Wellsbourn, in Warwickshire, twenty plates exist in the length of six inches and a half; and, in a tooth from Essex, Plate XX, Fig. 8, in a length of eight inches and a hal£ are contained twenty-four plates. The uncommon smoothness of the sides of the enamel in this fossil teeth, not only appears on its horizontal section, but, the cortical crust having been removed, by decomposition, from between the plates, the great degree of smoothness of their sides is rendered evident. On almost every triturating surface of the fossil teeth of elephants, ex- cept, indeed, when a tooth is first brought into action, full three fourths of that surface, anteriorly, will be found to be supplied with the plates rubbed down into single bands, passing quite across the tooth ; whilst the remaining one fourth of the surface is filled with detached rings or points, formed by the digitated processes of the plates. But in this tooth the reverse of this is to be seen. Only two entire bands exist, possessing, on the anterior part, about one fourth of the surface : the remaining three fourths being occupied by the terminations of the digitated pro- cesses. Taking all these circumstances into consideration, I think there is every reason for considering this tooth rather as belonging to a different species from any which has been hitherto noticed, than to regard it as an anomalous formation of a tooth belonging to the known fossil species. This opinion is founded on four important characters; the great width VOL. in. Y y 346 of the bands, the thickness of the plates of enamel, the smoothness of their sides, and the great depth to which the notches forming the digitated processes extend. So strong, indeed, are all these characters, and so nearly do the upper terminations of these plates approximate to the pro- tuberances on the grinders of other animals, and particularly of the mam- moth, as to give room for the conjecture, that this tooth may have be- longed to an animal, possessing intermediate characters between those of the elephant and those of the mammoth. The specimen, the surface of which is represented Plate XX. Fig. 5, also varies considerably from the recent as well as from the common fos- sil teeth, in the form and arrangement of its plates. This tooth, an up- per tooth of the left side, which I purchased at the sale of Rackstrow's Museum, was described in the catalogue as having been taken up with ballast from the bottom of the Thames. Of the variation which takes place in the form and arrangement of the plates in this tooth, it is very difficult to give a description. In the recent teeth, and in the common fossil teeth, the plates are continued straight across the tooth, the enamel being disposed in a long elliptical line, in which the osseous part, or the ivory of Mr. Home is included. Hence, by the abstraction of the surrounding crusta petrosa, as we have already seen, frequently is the case with the fossil teeth, the tooth falls to pieces, and each flat plate is found separated. 'But in the specimen, which has been just examined, an irregularity may be observed in the third ante- rior row of the plates, where the two digitated processes of a plate passing over little more than half the width of the tooth are interposed between the second and fourth plate, and thrust a portion of the latter plate ra- ther aside. It is an extension of this peculiarity of form which, in part, characterizes the present tooth, since very few of the plates, of which it is formed, pass directly across : leaving it difficult to say, how the osseous part is disposed. But the most characteristic peculiarity of this tooth is, the continuity of many of its plates, and the remarkable DaBdalian line in which the 347 enamel is disposed. This occurs most particularly in a space in the an- terior part of the surface. Here one deeply undulating line of enamel forms the parietes of one wide and deeply indented compages of osseous matter, occupying, as may be seen by the figure, the space of four or five plates. It is very evident that this tooth could not, upon the decompo- sition of the crusta petrosa taking place, divide, in this part, into detached flat plates, as in the teeth of the recent and ^ of the common species of fossil elephants. This structure is also observable in the fossil-tooth from Wellsbourn, which has been already noticed. This extraordinary structure also exists in the curious and interesting specimen, Plate XX. Fig. 7. This tooth, with the locality of which I am unacquainted, having purchased it at the sale of Mr. Forster's collec- tion, is one, which must have been on the point of being excluded from its alveolus; the plates on its fore part being entirely worn away, and, of those on the posterior part, some very shallow portions only remaining. These, however, are sufficient to show, that the plates in this tooth were formed and arranged in a similar mode with those of the preceding tooth. In the fore part of this tooth, from which the plates have been removed, is a very smooth and polished surface of a thin coat of the crusta petrosa. This is, indeed, so thin, that at the root of the small projecting piece of enamel, in nearly the middle of the tooth, a small part is discoverable, where the crusta petrosa itself is worn through, and a portion of the sub- stance of the root itself has been acted upon. Behind this are two de- tached bands, linearly and transversely disposed. Just above the upper part of one of these commences a line of enamel, which proceeds in un- dulations for the space of two plates, through half the width of the sur- face, the remaining half being filled up by two separate terminations. The line of enamel then passes on, by deep undulations, to the back part of the tooth, filling up the space of three more plates. This peculiarity of structure will however be better understood from the figure, than it can be from even the most exact description. This specimen is particularly interesting, from the circumstance of its showing that this particular modification of the arrangement of the ena- mel takes place in the part of the tooth nearest to the root, as the other specimens, that from Wellsbourn, and that whose surface is represented Plate XX. Fig. 5, show that it exists in the crown of the tooth. From this peculiarity of structure being found to exist in three different spe- cimens, I conceive that it cannot be regarded as an accidental difference; and from the considerable difference which exists between this arrange- o ment of the enamel and that which occurs in the teeth of the living spe- cies, and of the common fossil species, I trust it will be admitted as being likely to be one of the characteristics of a species which has not yet been remarked. M. Cuvier, anxious to discover the degree of accordance of the fossil elephant's skeleton with that of the living species, compared the fossil skull found in Siberia by Messerschmidt, a figure of which is given by Breyn, in the fortieth volume of the Philosophical Transactions, with those of the African and Asiatic elephants. The result of his comparison was, that in the fossil species the alveoli of the tusks are much longer ; the zygomatic arch is of a different figure ; the post-orbital apophysis of the frontal bone is longer, more pointed, and more crooked ; and the tu- bercle of the os lachrymalis is considerably larger, and more projecting. To these peculiarities of the fossil skull, M. Cuvier thinks, may be added the parallelism of the molares. The lower jaws of the fossil species of elephants accord with the pe- culiarity of form observable in the skull. From the teeth in this, as well as in the upper jaw, being placed nearly parallel with each other, the vacuity between the branches of the jaw, at its fore part, is wider, in pro- portion to its length, than is the case in either the Asiatic or African jaws. In the existing species of elephants the lower jaw terminates in rather a pointed apophysis, room to admit of the motion of which is yielded by the separation of the tusks. But in the fossil skull the alveoli of the tusks descend much lower, so that they would interfere with the motion of the lower jaw, unless prevented by some accordant modifica- 340 tion of its structure. This is found to exist; the lower jaw being so rounded off in the front, as to allow of its motion behind the descending alveoli. Both these circumstances are observable in the fossil jaws exa- mined by M. Cuvier, and also in two portions which I obtained from Essex. This structure must have materially affected the form of the face and the organization of the trunk, and must have given the animal a very different appearance from that which is borne by the Asiatic elephants. It must be, however, admitted, that the jaw-bone mentioned by M. Adrien Camper shows, that there does exist an elephant which possesses certain characters different from those of the known living species, and approaching to those which at present mark the fossil species. M. Adrien Camper, it must be added, informs his friend Cuvier, that he possesses a jaw-bone of an elephant of Ceylon, which differs much from the other recent jaws which he has seen, and very closely agrees in its dimensions with the fossil jaw-bones. Comparing together the bones of the Asiatic and of the African ele- phant, he was able to discover some differences between them, as well as between those and some of the fossil bones which he possessed. These latter he found, in general, approached nearest to those of the Asiatic elephant. He concludes with supposing .that the fossil remains are of a species differing more widely from the Asiatic elephant than the horse does from the ass, and therefore does not think it impossible but that it might have existed in a climate which would have destroyed the ele- phant of India. It may therefore be assumed as certain, from the observations of M. Cuvier, that at least one species of elephants has existed, of which none are now known living ; and should the difference of structure which I have pointed out, in some of the fossil teeth, be admitted as sufficient to designate a difference of species, it may be then said, that there exist the fossil remains of, at least, two species of elephants, which were different from those with which we are acquainted. 350 The structure of the fossil tusks of elephants agrees, as might have been expected, exactly with that of the recent. The transverse section shows very small striae, passing in a circular sweep from the centre to the cir- cumference, across each other, and thus forming curvilinear lozenges, which occupy the whole disk. This structure is truly characteristic of the ivory of the elephant, and, as I shall soon show you, of the masto- don, it not being found in the tusks of any other animal. It is much more plainly observable in the decomposing fossil tusk than in the recent one. This peculiarity of structure is shown Plate XX. Fig. 9, the sur- face being slightly magnified. The size of the tusks varies according to the species, the sex, and the age ; but no information is yielded respecting the difference of species, by the difference of size in the fossil tusks. It may however be remarked, that they do not appear to exceed in size the tusks, with which the indi- viduals of living species might be furnished, if they were to live to their natural period. The curvature of many of the ^fossil tusks agrees with that of the living species, but the curve of the greater number approaches nearly to a semi- circle. Four such have been described; and one of these, by Messer- schmidt and Breyn, in the fortieth volume of the Philosophical Trans- actions. Being apprized, about seven years since, that the remains of some large animal had been found in the brick-fields of Mr. Hobson, at Kingsland, I made the necessary investigations, and learned that a tusk of an elephant had been found between the stratum of gravel and of clay, but in so shattered a state, that only small fragments of it could be re- moved, and that it therefore had been again covered over. One of Mr. Hobson's clerks, a very intelligent gentleman, favoured me with a frag- ment of the tusk, which I now possess, and a fossil oyster-shell, which was found near it. He also obliged me with a sketch, which he had made, chiefly to mark the curvature of the tusk, which appeared to him as very extraordinary. From this sketch, it appears to have formed nearly four fifths of a circle. 351 On the other hand, the fragments of a pretty large tusk, which I have from Essex, are sufficiently long to show, that the degree of curvature could have very little exceeded that of tusks in general. Another spe- cimen from Essex, a portion of the smallest end of a pretty large tusk, laterally flattened, appears to have been full as straight as recent tusks generally are. The same was observable of another portion from Essex, which I presented to a friend. A very small tusk, from the same place, is particularly straight : this, however, belonged to a very young, and most probably to a female animal. From the preceding observations it appears then, that the fossil ele- phantine remains, notwithstanding their resemblance in some respects to the bones of the Asiatic elephant, have belonged to one or more species, different from those which are now known living. This circumstance agrees with the facts of the fossil remains of the tapirs and rhinoceroses, which appear to have differed materially from the living animals of the same genera. The remains of elephants obtained from Essex, Middle- sex, Kent, and other parts of England, confirm the observations of Cu- vier, that these remains are generally found in the looser and more super- ficial parts of the earth, and most frequently in the alluvia which fill the bottoms of the vallies, or which border the beds of rivers. They are generally found mingled with the other bones of quadrupeds of known genera, such as those of the rhinoceros, ox, horse, &c. and frequently also with the remains of marine animals. 352 LETTER XXVI. MASTODON. W E now come to the examination of one of the most stupendous ani- mals known, either in a recent or a fossil state ; and which, whether we contemplate its original mode of existence, or the period at which it lived, our minds cannot but be filled with astonishment. The first traces of this animal are sketched in a letter from Dr. Ma- ther, of Boston, to Dr. Woodward, in 1712, and are transcribed from a work in manuscript, entitled Biblia Americana. In this work, teeth and bones of prodigious size, supposed to be human, are said to have been found in Albany, in New England*. About the year 1740, numerous similar bones were found in Kentucky, on the Ohio, and dispersed among the European virtuosos. Buffon, speaking of these teeth and» bones, found by M, le Baron de Longueuil, M. de Bienville, and M. de Lignery, says : — " It can never be supposed that these teeth could have been taken from the same head with the tusks." — " In supposing this, it would be necessary to admit the existence of an unknown animal, which had tusks similar to those of the elephant, and grinders resembling those of the hip- popotamus." Mem. de I'Acad. Roy. des Sciences, 1762. In 1765, several of these remains were found by Mr. G. Croghan, * Philosophical Transactions, abridged by Jones, Vol. V. Part II. p. 159. four miles to the south-east of the Ohio, and were conveyed to England. «/ O These bones were discovered five or six feet below the surface; and, from the quantity of bones, it was concluded, that there could not be less than thirty skeletons of this animal. Mr. Collinson, in a letter to Buf- fon, also refers these remains to some large, unknown animal, with the tusks of the elephant and grinders of the hippopotamus. Buffon, Tomexm. Dr. W. Hunter, by whom these remains were examined, and who be- lieved that they belonged to some carnivorous animal, had the satisfac- tion of comparing the half of a lower jaw of this animal with the jaw of an elephant, and found so great a difference, as convinced him " that the supposed American elephant was an animal of another species, a pseud-elephant, or animal incognitum." Presuming that the American bones were not elephantine, the Doctor concluded that the Siberian were of the same kind. P kilos. Tram. VoL LV.III. The celebrated Camper, at first, concluded that this animal approached nearer to the elephant than to the hippopotamus; and that it, in all probability, had a trunk, and therefore was not to be considered as carnivorous. But contemplat- ing afterwards some fragments of the skull of this animal, in a wrong point of view, he changed his opinion ; and concluded, that this animal must have had a pointed muzzle and no tusks; that it did not resemble the elephant; and that he was unable to determine any thing with re- spect to its real nature. Dr. Hunter, in the paper above referred to, published in 1768, observes, that in the British Museum, and in private collections, he met with grinders of the incognitum that had been found in the Brazils and Lima, as well as in different parts of Europe. M. Buf- fon, in 1778, figured one of these teeth, which he had received from the Count de Vergennes, and which had been found in Little Tartary; also another, which had been brought by the Abbe Chappe from Siberia. Epoqucs de la Nature, PL i. n. tt in. — Pallas has also given the figure of a tooth of this animal, from the Oural Mountains. Many bones of this animal having been found, in 1799, in the State of New York, in the vicinity of Newburgh, which is situated on the Hud- son, or North River, Mr. C. W. Peale, of Philadelphia, purchased these, VOL. III. Z Z 354 with the right of digging for the remainder. In 1801, Messrs. Peale made every exertion to discover more of these remains in the spot where the former had heen found; but although neither labour nor expense was spared, they were not rewarded by finding any of the more im- portant and illustrative parts of the animal. Another attempt was then made in a morass, about eleven miles from the former, where almost an entire set of ribs was found, but nothing more. After this, they searched a morass about twenty miles west from Hudson River; and here, after a series of disappointments, arid slight successes, they found a right os humerus, a radius and ulna of the left side, the right scapula, the atlas, a complete under-jaw, and the great object of their pursuit, the upper part of the head, which was however so rotten, that they could only pre- serve the teeth and a few fragments. From the whole of the bones which they obtained, two skeletons were formed, composed of the appropriate bones of the animal, or exact imi- tations from the real bones in the same animal, or from those of the same proportion in the other. Mr. R. Peale, who has given a description of this animal, asserts, that there is one bone less in the neck of this animal than in that of the elephant, never having met with a single bone resem- tling a seventh vertebra of the neck. The dorsal vertebrae were sup- posed to agree in number with those of the elephant; as nineteen of these vertebrae and as many ribs were found, one in all probability having been lost : three vertebrae were thus left for the loins. From the formation of the teeth, the disposition of the enamel, the inca- pacity in thve jaw for lateral motion, and from the condyloid process, which is finished with an oblong head, being inserted into a transverse groove, Mr. Peale concludes this must have been a carnivorous animal. The •teeth of the upper and lower jaws, when shut, he observes, must have had their points and depressions fit into each other, like the teeth of two saws ; and whilst shut must have been immoveable laterally, and consequently incapable of triturating, like the teeth of graminivorous animals. The roots or fangs of the teeth, Mr. Peale observes, are inserted into the mass of bone, which not only surrounds the roots, but divides one root 355 from the other ; whereas, in the elephant, the grinders occupy one large and uniform cavity, from which they are gradually protruded. The only instance of hair, Mr. Peale says, heing found with the re- mains of this animal, occurred in a morass belonging to Mr. A. Golden. The hair was coarse, long, and brown ; a large mass of it was found together, but so rotten, that, after a few days exposure to the air, it fell into a powder*. The country in which these remains are found is like an immense plain, bounded on every side by immense mountains. On digging into the morasses where these bones are found, the following strata are gene- rally met with : one or two feet of peat, one or two feet of yellow marie, with vegetable remains; about two feet of grey marie, like ashes; and, finally, a bed of shell-marie. It is in the grey marie that the bones are chiefly found. This marie is found to contain seventy-three parts in the hun- dred of lime, and when dry will burn for a long time with a bright flame. In the neighbourhood of these morasses are found an infinite number of petrifactions of marine bodies, echinites, corallites, &c. one of which I had occasion to speak of in the preceding volume. From the accounts of Dr. Barton, General Collard, Mr. Smith Barton, Mr. Jefferson, Mr. Dunbar, and others, it appears that considerable quan- tities of these remains have been found in different parts, in the neigh- bourhood of the Ohio, of the Mississippi, and of the Missouri. They have iiot, however, been yet foutid higher than the Lake Erie, in about 43° * An account has been given of the discover\of the remains of a mammoth, on the shores of the Frozen Sea, with its flesh, skin, and hair, in good preservation. This account, written by M. Michael Adams, of Petersburgh, was kindly communicated by Sir Joseph Banks to Mr. Tilloch, by whom it was published, in the Philosophical Magazine, Vol. xxix. page 141. This discovery excited a considerable degree of attention, which was however, by many, misdi- rected ; since they should rather have regarded this animal as, perhaps, one of the lost spe- cies of elephants, than as a mammoth or mastodon. That it could not have been one of this latter genus is evident, from the account of M. Adams himself; who says: " The mam- moth in my possession is quite different from that found near New York, which, from the description," he says, " had carnivorous teeth." M. Adams concurring with the Russians, in. giving the name of mammoth to the elephants found imbedded in those parts. 355 of north latitude. These remains are also found on this side of the three great chains of mountains, the Aliganys, the North Mountains, and the Blue Mountains; in the anterior parts of Pennsylvania and Caro- lina ; and in New Jersey, a few miles from Philadelphia. Among the more curious discoveries which have been made respecting this animal, is that which is related by Mr. Maddison, of a considerable quantity of bones found in Virginia, near to Green Briar, where the bones of the megatherium were found. The discovery of these bones was accompanied with a circumstance particularly interesting. In the midst of them was found a mass of small branches, grass, and leaves ; and among the latter, some of a species of reed, which is at present common in Virginia. These were all half bruised, and appeared to be contained in a kind of bag, which was considered as the stomach of the animal : the contained substances were supposed to have been taken by the ani- mal as food. The teeth brought from Peru by Dombey and M. de Humbolt, as well as that brought by the latter naturalist from Terra Fir ma, are, in the opinion of M. Cuvier, of a different species from the North American. He also suspects this to be the case with the teeth from Brazil and Lima, mentioned by Dr. Hunter; and concludes, that these bones, so common in South America, are very rarely found else- where. These bones are always found but at a little depth, and seldom appear to have changed their situations since the death of the animal. Mr. Bar- ton relates two instances, where the soft parts of the animal appear to have been dug up ; and the Indians described one of the heads which were dug up in 1762, as having over the mouth a long nose, which Mr. Barton supposes must have been the trunk. Kalm, speaking of a ske- leton discovered by the savages of Illinois, says, that the form of a trunk was yet discoverable, although half decomposed. M. Cuvier informs us that there is at Paris a fragment, which, if the account of it be authentic, would make us doubt whether this species is really extinct. It is part of a foot, with five nails attached to it ; and 357 which the owner of it says, he obtained of a Mexican, who had pur- chased it of a savage of the West of the Missouri, who had found it with a tooth in a cave. But it being so fresh, appearing also to have been cut off with a sharp instrument, and so perfectly resembling that of an elephant, M. Cuvier is induced to suspect some fraud on the part of the Mexican. These astonishing remains have, as might be expected, been strictly examined by Cuvier. In the 46th number of the Annals of the Museum of Natural History, this illustrious anatomist has not only given a com- pendious account of the preceding discoveries which had been made respecting this animal, but has also entered into an anatomical exami- nation of the several parts which have been found. The grinders, he observes, are formed of two substances only; an in- ternal bony substance, and a thick coat of enamel. The form of their crown is in general rectangular, the hinder ones being rather narrowest behind. The crown is divided, by widely spreading grooves, into a cer- tain number of transverse risings, each of which is divided, in the con- trary direction, into two large obtuse and somewhat quadrangular and pyramidical points, the whole crown, when not worn, being beset with large points, disposed in pairs. In consequence of several of these teeth being much worn down, not only to the base of the pyramids, but eveu so low as only to leave one square surface edged with enamel, it has been inferred that they have been employed in the trituration of vege- table substances. The roots of these teeth being formed after the crown, they are not found complete until the crown has begun to be a little worn. M. Cuvier particularizes three sorts of these grinders : nearly square, with three pair of points, generally much worn ; rectangular, with eight points, which are less worn ; and others still longer, with five pair of points and a single smaller one, which are seldom worn in the least. These appearances agree with their situations ; those with three points being the foremost, and appearing the first ; whilst those with ten are the hindmost, and appear the last. 358 From observations made on the several lower jaws which have been found, it appears that the two first sorts of teeth may exist in the mouth of the animal at the same time ; but that those of the latter sort follow the others. M. Cuvier says, perhaps there may have been, in the infancy of the animal, a tooth with four points, /which would be cast early. This he was led to conjecture, from having been informed by M. de Beauvois, that, in a jaw belonging to Dr. Barton, there appeared to be the marks of an alveolus before the tooth with six points. There can be little doubt but that the teeth succeeded to each other, as in the elephant : there never, however, being more in the mouth, at once, than two, and at last only one. For want of attending to this succession of the teeth, and supposing many 'of these teeth to have existed in the mouth at the same time, very erroneous conjectures have been formed respecting the size of this animal. Thus Burton observes, that the square form of these enormous grinders prove, that several were in the jaw at the same time ; Epoqucs de la Nature, Notes justif. 9. But, if we suppose there were six, or even four, on each side of each jaw, how enormous must that head have been, which contained at least sixteen such teeth. Reckoning on these fallacious grounds, he concludes, the animal must have far exceeded the size of the largest elephants; whereas, we have no proof at present of this animal reaching to twelve feet in height, whilst, agreeable to Buf- fon's own account, the Asiatic elephants are sometimes fifteen or even sixteen feet high. One of the back grinders of this animal, with five pair of points, and an odd one at the end, is represented in the frontispiece to this volume. This tooth is in remarkably fine preservation, and was tor several years a part of the collection in this city, which was called Rackstrow's Museum. It is seven inches and a half long, 1& inches in circumference round its crown, and it weighs four pounds seven ounces. The remains of the under-jaw of this animal show us that, like the elephant and morse, it had neither canine nor incisive teeth ; that it ter- minated in the fore part, as in those animals, in a hollowed point, which was 359 however much shorter and less acute than in the elephant; that the posterior angle, although obtuse, is defined, and not rounded off as in the elephant; and that the arms or branches of the jaw, formed of the condyloid and coronoid processes, and their hases, are shorter and flatter than in the elephant, as is required by the peculiar form of the upper jaw. No perfect specimen of the skull of this animal has been hitherto found ; but, from the fragment in the possession of M. Camper, and from that of Mr. Peale, it appears, 1. That in the mastodon the grinders, in the upper jaw, diverge forwards; whereas, in the common elephants, they converge more or less; arid in the fossil elephant, or mammoth of the Russians, they are nearly parallel. The hog and the hippopotamus approach the mastodon a little in this respect. 2. The bony palate extends considerably beyond the last tooth. The Ethiopian sow is the only herbivorous animal which resembles the mastodon in this respect. 3. The pterygoidal apophyses of the palate-bones are of a thickness un- paralleled among the quadrupeds. 4. The notch before this apophysis has some agreement with that of the hippopotamus, which is however narrower. 5. That there is no trace of any orbit in the zygomatic arch; but that where the orbit occurs, in the elephant, is a large mass of bone; so that the eye must have been placed much higher in this animal than in the elephant. 6. That the maxillary bones have a less vertical eleva- tion than in the elephant. 7. That, hence, the zygomatic arch is less raised behind, agreeable to the conformation of the lower jaw ; and, of course, the position of the ear varies from that which takes place in the elephant. 8. From this proportion results the difference in the situation of the occipital condyles in the two animals; they being raised considerably above the level of the palate in the elephant, and nearly on the same level with it in the mastodon. With respect to the large cells, from which proceeds so great a degree of thickness in the skull of the elephant, there seems to be every reason for supposing that these existed in a similar manner in this animal. Of the form of the head nothing certain is as yet 360 known ; but it appears to have been proportionally longer than that of the elephant. Mr. Peale was the first who ascertained that this animal was provided with tusks, by discovering the remains of a skull already mentioned, in which the alveoli were evident. These tusks resemble those of the ele- phant : they are inserted in the incisive bone, and are composed of ivory, the grain of which shows curvilinear lozenges, enveloped by a substance, which is not of the texture of ivory, but is formed of fibres converging towards the centre; and which, though less hard than the enamel, seems very nearly to resemble that substance. Mr. Peale had been disposed to place the tusks of this animal in a situation the reverse of that which they hold in the elephant; that is, with their convex part forwards, and the point turning backwards ; but. no circumstance but the finding a skull, with the tusks thus disposed, can authorize the placing of them different from those of the elephant. From the circumstance already noticed, and from every considera- tion of the subject, there appears to be no reason for doubting that this animal had a trunk like the elephant, with whom it agrees in so many respects. The form of the vertebrae agrees in general with that of the cor- responding vertebras in the elephant. The ribs are formed different from those of the elephant, being thin towards the cartilage, and thick and strong towards the back. The six first pair are very strong in comparison with the others, which also become, proportionally, very short : which circumstance, taken with the depression of the pelvis, shows that the belly was less voluminous in this animal than in the elephant. The scapula appears to possess the characters of the scapula of the elephant, and particularly the recurrent apophysis peculiar to this genus, and to the rosores (rongeurs). The scapula seems to be narrower than .even that of the African elephant, and to have the recurrent apophysis .placed higher than in the Asiatic elephant. The length of the scapula is three feet and one inch. Mr. Peale describes the acromion as being 361 long and pointed. The long bones of the fore extremity are, according to Mr. Peale, much thicker in proportion than those of the hind extre- mity ; and this difference is greater than what exists in the elephant. The humerus, agreeable to the observations of M. Cuvier, is shorter, and the fore-arm longer, in proportion, than they are in the elephant. The humerus also is shorter, in proportion, to the scapula. The pelvis is much more depressed, in proportion to its width, than in the elephant : its opening is also much narrower. The enormous mass of the os femoris, and particularly its width, which exceeds that of both the existing and the fossil elephant, excites astonish- ment immediately on being seen. It is flatter from the fore part back- wards, at its lower end, in consequence of the groove answering to the rotula being shorter. The tibia, in the opinion of Mr. Peale, is less in proportion, in this animal, than in the elephant. The observations of M. Cuvier do not corroborate this opinion ; but rather prove, that the proportions here were nearly alike in both animals. Mr. Peale observes, that the bones of the hind feet are remarkably smaller than those of the fore feet, as is likewise the case in the elephant. The second phalanges of the fore feet, he observes, terminate in surfaces which seem to show that the bones of the third, or ungual phalanx, had more motion than they have in the elephant, and approached nearer to those of the hippopotamus. From a careful attention to every circumstance, M. Cuvier conceives that we have a right to conclude, that this great mastodon, or animal of the Ohio, did not surpass the elephant in height, but was a little longer in proportion ; its limbs rather thicker ; and its belly smaller. It seems to have very much resembled the elephant in its tusks, and indeed in the whole of its osteology ; and it also appears to have had a trunk. But notwithstanding its resemblance to the elephant, in so many particulars, the form and structure of the grinders are sufficiently different from those of the elephant, to demand its being placed in a distinct genus. From the later discoveries respecting this animal, he is also inclined to suppose VOL. in. 3 A 362 that its food must have been similar to that of the hippopotamus and the boar, but preferring the roots and fleshy parts of vegetables ; in the search of which species of food it would, of course, be led to such soft and marshy spots as he appears to have inhabited. It does not, however, appear to have been at all formed for swimming, or for living much in the waters, like the hippopotamus, but rather seems to have been entirely a terres- trial animal. Other teeth, bearing a very close analogy with those of the animal of the Ohio, have been long noticed by different authors ; but it is to M. Cuvier that we are indebted for collecting and comparing the different accounts which have been given of teeth belonging to this genus, but which have been found in different places on the two continents, and are of a different species than those of the Ohio. Dr. Grew, in 1681, in his History of the Rarities of Gresham, Plate xix. Fig. 1, figured the upper part of one of these teeth, which he describes as the petrified tooth of a marine animal. Reaumur figured part of a tooth from Simorre, in Gascony, somewhat resembling this, in the Me- moirs of the Academy of Sciences for 1715. D'Argenville has figured an entire tooth resembling these, Oryctologie, PL xvni. Fig. 8, and which he described as having belonged to some unknown fish. A similar tooth is also represented in Pfete vni. of the Supplement to Knorr's work. J. Baldessari, in 1767, described and figured, in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sienna, Tom. in. /?. 243, two considerable portions of a lower jaw found at Mount Follonico, and considered them as similar to those described by M. Guettard. A tooth of this kind, of a large size, was found in 1784, at Trevoux, and considered by M. de Morveau, Mem. de VAcad. de Dijon, T. vi. p. 102, as being of the same species of those from the Ohio. Besides these now mentioned, M. Cuvier was surprised to find, by his correspondence, that these teeth were not unknown in several other parts of Europe and America. In Sort, near to Dax ; Montabusart, near to Orleans; Saxony; Asti, in Piedmont; the Vale of A rno; different parts 363 of Lombardy ; Peru ; the Field of Giants, near Santa- Fe, in Terra-firma; and in the province of Chiquitos, in Paraguay; have teeth, which are referable to this genus of animals, been found. Besides the teeth found in these different parts, he obtained information respecting several others, of which the places where they had been found were unknown : the whole being so numerous, as to show that this race of animals had left a considerable quantity of their remains. From the general form of these teeth, from bones being found with them resembling those of the mastodon of the Ohio, and from their being reason for supposing that they were accompanied by tusks, no doubt can be enter- tained of their having belonged to this genus. But these teeth possess also other specific characters, which sufficiently distinguish them from those of the Ohio. The chief, and the most general of these, are, that the cones of their crowns are more or less deeply grooved, that they are sometimes ter- minated by several points; and that they sometimes are accompanied by other smaller cones, placed on the sides, or in the intervals of the larger cones. In consequence of this formation, as the crowns of these teeth are worn down by mastication, small circles, and then three-lobed, or club-like figures, appear where the points were, but not the lozenge- formed figures which these parts assume in the animal of the Ohio. From these club-like markings Daubenton, P. Camper, and M. Fau- jas, have been disposed to consider these teeth as resembling those of the hippopotamus: from which, however, they may be distinguished, independent of their greater size, by their having six or ten of the club- like markings; whilst, in the teeth of the hippopotamus, there are never more than four. The distinguishing of these smaller teeth from each other, was a task of much greater difficulty and labour, but has been in a great measure accomplished by the assiduous investigations of M. uvier. From these researches he has been enabled to distinguish five species of this genus, which he thus designates: 1. The mastodon of the Ohio. 2. The mastodon with narrow teeth, found at Simorre and elsewhere. 364 3. The small mastodon, that with small teeth. 4. The mastodon of the Cordilleras, the large animal with square teeth. 5. The mastodon of de Humbold, which is the smallest. — No individual of either of these spe- cies is at present known to exist. Of the teeth of the second of these species, that with narrow teeth, he obtained the examination of specimens from Sort, near Dax, Simorre, Peru, Monte Follonico, Irevous, La Rochetta di Tanaro, near Asti ; Arno's Vale, and the Field of Giants, near Santa-Fe. From a careful comparison of these specimens, he was able to deter- mine these detached but important facts. First, that in a specimen of the upper jaw of this animal there had been three teeth, the foremost having four points and one at the hinder part ; the middlemost six pair of points, with two supplementary behind ; and the hindmost divided in six rows of eminences, all subdivided in two except the last. Secondly, That these teeth were pressed from behind forwards, as in the elephant and in the mastodon of the Ohio, and that the fore-teeth disappeared at a certain period. He also found reason for supposing that the fore-tooth was capable of being replaced from beneath, as in the hippopotamus. Thirdly, That the lower jaw, in its fore part, terminated in a kind of beak like that of the elephant, and of the large mastodon; there being neither canine nor incisive teeth. In the lower teeth the outer side is most worn,, and consequently the inner is most projecting, the contrary being necessarily the case with the upper teeth : hence the outer points of the lower teeth obtain the club- like markings and the inner points of the upper. This is agreeable to a general law in the herbivorous animals, that when the two sides of a tooth are not similar, they are placed contrariwise in the two jaws. Thus the ruminants have the convex part of the crescents of their upper teeth in- wards, and that of the lower teeth outwards. The situation and form of the supplementary points in the different teeth of this animal, and the points assuming the club like markings on being worn down, show some analogy between these and the teeth of 365 the hippopotamus. Compared with the mastodon of Ohio, these teeth are so narrow, as certainly to warrant the distinguishing of the animal to which they belong, as the mastodon with narrow teeth. A tooth from Saxony, formerly sent to Bernard de Jussieu, and another from Montabusard, were found to correspond in their figures and proportions with the preceding species, but were exactly one third less. Knowing no instance of such a difference of size in any species of wild animals, and as this difference could not depend on age, since the teeth grow no more after being once formed, M. Cuvier had no hesitation in considering these as of a distinct species — that which he has named the small mastodon. M. de Humbold found a tooth near to the volcano of Imbaburra, in the kingdom of Quito, at the height of 1200 toises. It is considerably decomposed, and partly coated with volcanic cinders. The same cele- brated traveller found another of this species on the cordilier of Chi- quitos, between Chicas and Tarija, near Santa-Crux de la Sierra, in 15 deg. S. L. M. Alonzo also furnished M. Cuvier with a drawing of ano- ther tooth from the same province of Chiquitos. These teeth all appear to have belonged to the same species of animal. Their characters appear to be that of being of a square form, and having the same proportions with the teeth with six points belonging to the mastodon of the Ohio ; and so resembling them, that they might be mistaken for them, were it not for the club-like figures which their points assume, and which can- not be mistaken for the lozenge-like figures observable in the teeth of the latter animal. The teeth thus characterized he distinguishes as -the mas- todon of the Cordilleras. To M. de Humbold we are also indebted for another tooth, evidently of another species. This tooth, like those of the preceding species, is square, but is a third less in size ; bearing the same proportion to those of the preceding species as the teeth from Saxony and Montabusard bear to the species with narrow teeth from Simorre, &c. This tooth was 366 found in the neighbourhood of the City of Conception, in Chili. This is the tooth on which M. Cuvier establishes his species of the mastodon of de Humbold. At Harwich, as well as at the next promontory of Walton, blue clay appears, and most probably extends through the whole of the intervening marsh. At Walton, by digging in different parts of this stratum, and by the action of the waves against its edge, the bones of several large animals have been discovered. These I have ascertained to belong to the ox, sta^, Irish fossil elk, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, and elephant, of which mention was made in the preceding letter. But both at Harwich and at Walton are prodigious beds of fossil shells, highly ferruginous, and reaching thirty or forty feet above the clay stratum. Dispersed in these beds of fossil shells, polished bowl- dered fragments of bones are frequently found, which, like the shells, are strongly impregnated with iron ; so much so, as to have acquired a very considerable degree of hardness, and to emit a sharp ringing sound when struck against any hard body. These fragments of bones, being washed by the waves out of their matrix, are frequently found on the beach. From the smallness of these fragments, few being above six inches long, and hardly any possessing twelve inches in length ; and from their being almost all reduced to one shape by bowldering, previously to being placed in their present bed, no grounds have existed, on which any opinion could be founded as to the animal to which they belonged. But within these last few years, a tooth was found on the beach at Harwich, possessing the colour and appearance of the fragments of bones so strongly, as to, leave no doubt of its having been imbedded in the same bank of shells. This tooth was shown to me by my much lamented friend and companion in these pursuits, Dr. Menish, by whom, at my request, it was shown to the members of the Geological Society. Its figure had been much injured by attrition ; so that, although no doubt could be enter- 367 tained of its having belonged to an animal of the genus Mastodon, I think that no opinion could be formed respecting its species; but on this point I speak with hesitation, since, at the time I saw it, I was unacquainted with the existence of more than one species of this fossil LETTER XXVII. FOSSIL REMAINS OF THE RHINOCEROS ........... FOSSIL ANIMAL DIF- FERENT FROM THE RECENT SPECIES ...... HIPPOPOTAMUS ...... FOSSIL REMAINS ........ SMALL FOSSIL HIPPOPOTAMUS, AN UNKNOWN SPE- CIES.. ..FOSSIL ANIMALS APPROACHING TO THE TAPIR. N accurate knowledge of the anatomy and of the number of species of the rhinoceros has been but lately obtained, and that through the assiduous inquiries of Cuvier. Thus the celebrated Camper, unacquainted with the characteristic differences of the teeth of the unicorn and bicorn rhinoceros, and not finding incisive teeth in the two-horned species, he charged Parsons, Linnaeus, and BufFon, with error, in supposing them to exist in the one-horned species. But, on examining the living animal of the latter species at Paris, and seeing its incisive teeth, he imme- diately acknowledged the error into which he had fallen. M. Faujas also, for want of correct notions respecting the teeth of this animal, formed erroneous conclusions as to the number of species. In every adult rhinoceros there are twenty-eight grinders, seven on each side, at the top and bottom. It must be however remembered that, as the teeth of the rhinoceros, like those of other herbivorous ani- 368 mals, have their roots brought into use when the crown is worn away ; and as the root divides into two branches, the two stumps of the roots of one tooth, forced upwards by the filling up of the alveolus, will give the appearance of two teeth. In the lower jaw are two large incisors, placed at the anterior angle ; and between these are two very small incisive teeth, which remain con- cealed within the gums. There are also two large incisive teeth in the upper jaw; and Cuvier has discovered, that in this jaw also there are two very small incisors, which are disposed, contrary to those of the lower jaw, on the outside of the larger incisors. The differences observable in separate detached grinders of these ani- mals are not such as will serve to distinguish the species, but merely to point out the age of the individuals. Of course, it is not from the fossil grinders alone that we are able to determine whether the fossil remains of this animal belong to a species which still exists, or to one which is lost. Happily, however, complete information may be obtained on this point from the examination of the whole skull. By a careful comparison of the fossil with the recent skull, it is found that the fossil skulls exactly agree with each other, and belong to one and the same species, and that the fossil species is essentially different from those which are known in a living state. Omitting to notice the opinions of those who had written on this sub- ject before the necessary anatomical knowledge respecting the living species of this animal was attained and published, I shall place before you a sketch of the .observations of M. Cuvier, on the opinions entertained by M. Faujas on this subject. There appeared to be three living species of rhinocers : 1 . That of India, a unicorn, with a rugous coat, and with incisors, separated, by a space, from the grinders. 2. That of the Cape, a bicorn, the skin with- out rugse, and having twenty-eight grinders, and no incisors. 3. That of Sumatra, a bicorn, the skin but slightly rugous, thus far resembling that of the Cape, but having incisive teeth like that of India. 369 On comparing the skulls of the fossil rhinoceros with those of the ex- isting species, the following differences are observed: 1. The skulls of the fossil rhinoceros are, in general, much larger than those of the living species; but as the skulls of the living species, which have been obtained, may riot have been of the largest individuals, this difference is n$t such as should be insisted upon. 2. The occipital surface, which in the recent skulls is nearly perpendicular with the axis of the head, and which, in the unicorn, even inclines forward, in all the fossil skulls, inclines consi- derably backwards; which necessarily occasions the distance from the nose to the occipital ridge to exceed considerably that from the nose to the occipital condyles. 3. The meatus auditorius has its axis vertical in the living species ; but, in consequence of the obliquity of the temporal bones occasioned by the obliquity of the inclination of the occiput, this axis is oblique in the fossil species. 4. The fossil species has two horns, but the skull has nothing of the form of the bicorn of Africa. There is a considerable space between the bases of the two horns in the fossil spe- cies, whilst in the rhinoceros of Africa and of Sumatra the bases touch. This difference evidently proceeds from the elongation of the skull in the fossil species. The basis of the second horn, too, agreeable to the remark of M. Adrien Camper, has a more raised, and embossed, and a much more rugous surface, in the fossil, than in the existing species. 5. Instead of the anterior apophysis of the superior maxillary bone being short, and the intermaxillary very small, as in the bicorn of Africa, the fossil bicorn had these parts very strong, and longer than in all the other species, which renders the length of the nasal notch more considerable. 6. There is in the fossil species a prominence on the superior part of the incisive bone, which is not to be seen in the hicorn of Africa, in that of Sumatra, nor in a young unicorn, which appeared to approach to that of Sumatra. It was found only in the large unicorn, the skeleton of which is in the National Museum. 7. The most important character in the fossil rhi- noceros is the form of the bones of the nose, and their junction with the incisive bones : in these respects it differs not only from the other rhi- VOL, in. 3 B 370 noceroses, but from all other known animals. The point of the nasal bones, instead of terminating in a distinct projection, at a certain distance above the incisives, descends, without becoming thinner, before the na- sal notches; and, after being separated in three projecting tubercles, becomes united, by a portion which is a little thinner, to the incisive bones, where they unite, and form of themselves two other tubercles. All these four bones become so consolidated together, that the sutures by which they were connected, as well as that which distinguished the inter- maxillary from the maxillary bones, are not perceptible at only a mo- derately advanced age. This structure, so solid, was doubtlessly intended for the support of the horn, and would lead us to suppose, that it was more strong, and could be applied with more power in this species, than in any of those which now exist. 8. Behind this junction of the nasal with the incisive bones begins a bony partition, which separates the two nostrils, and passing backwards, is united with the vomer. 9. In consequence of this partition, the incisive openings are separate from each other ; whilst, in the living species, they are formed into one large opening. 10. From the length of the nasal notch, the eye is placed more back- ward in this than in the other species. With respect to the existence, or the number, of incisive teeth in the fossil animal, M. Cuvier observes, that after an infinite number of re- searches, he has not yet obtained any thing certain : he however thinks he has a right to assert, that the fossil rhinoceros did not possess them, at least in the upper jaw. In the lower jaw, M. Pallas, however, speaking of a jaw found at Tchikgi, says : hi apice maxillce inferioris, sen ipso mar- gine, ut ita dicam, incisorio, dentes quidem nulli adsunt ; verumtamen apparent vestigia obliterata quatuor, alveolorum ?ninusculorum equidistantium, e quibus exteriores duo obsoletissimi, sed intermedii satis insignibus fossis denotati sunt. Nov. Com. xin. p. 600. Supposing, then, this jaw had actually con- tained incisors, they, from being so very small, must have belonged to a different species from any which is known living ; since the incisive teeth, in the rhinoceros of Asia and Sumatra, are considerably larger, inde- 371 pendent of the age of the animal. Hence, if any of the fossil rhino- ceroses had incisive teeth, it appears that they must have existed in thd lower jaw only, and have also differed in size, and probably in form, from those of the living rhinoceroses. It appears that two incisive teeth of the rhinoceros are in the cabinet of the celebrated anatomist Soemmereng, which, it is said, were dug out of the earth in the neighbourhood of Mentz ; one of which has been figured by Merck, and another by M. Adrien Camper. Supposing, M. Cuvier observes, that these teeth are really fossil, they prove nothing contrary to what has been assumed above. This circumstance can only show, that there is also, among the fossil species, one which is different from that which has been hitherto found. The grinder teeth of the fossil species appear to agree precisely with those of the living species. The fossil remains of the rhinoceros have been generally found in the same countries where the remains of elephants have been found ; but they do not appear to have so generally excited attention ; and perhaps but few of those who discovered them were able to determine to what animal they belonged. Thus a tooth of this animal is described by Grew merely as the tooth of a terrestrial animal ; and the remains of this animal, found in the neighbourhood of Canterbury, were supposed to have belonged to the hippopotamus. In Hartzberg, in the principality of Grubenhagen ; Quedlimbourg, Darmstadt, the borders of the Rhine, Mentz, Strasbourg, the neigh- bourhood of Cologne, Westphalia, numerous parts of France, and in several parts of Great Britain, have the remains of the rhinoceros been found. In Siberia these remains have been found in considerable quantities. Pallas, whose researches have been particularly directed to this part of the world, made the astonishing discovery of a complete rhinoceros, still covered by its skin, and buried in the sand on the borders of the river Wiluji. From several fragments of bones which I met with in the Essex bank, 372 I was also Jed to suppose that the remains of some other very large ani- mal, besides those of the elephant and elk, had been here imbedded. This supposition was increased by finding one large fragment, a com- plete mass of pyrites, with the form and external surface of bone, which appeared to be the upper end of an os femoris; but which, either from distortion, or from very uncommon, though natural conformation, differed from that of any animal with whose skeleton I was acquainted. This induced me to be more particular in my research, and occasioned me to discover the tooth which is represented Plate xxi. Fig. 3. This tooth^ which is an upper molar tooth of the left side, is pretty much worn,, and must have belonged to a small animal, since it is not one half of the size of the teeth which were found at Chartham. My friend Mr., Fisher, whose kindness I have already had occasion to acknowledge, was so obliging as to procure for me five teeth, which had been found at Fox-hill, in Gloucestershire, with some fragments of bones. The fragments of bones were too small to allow of any decision respecting them. One of the teeth was of the elephant; and the other four were molar teeth of the upper jaw of the rhinoceros, and had suffered a very considerable degree of decomposition. Their size was more than double that of the tooth depicted above ; but their grinding surfaces had suffered very considerable injury. The horns of the rhinoceros have been repeatedly dug up in Siberia, and of a considerable size, some exceeding in size those of the living species. Hollman and Zuckert had fossil fragments of the humerus of this ani- mal, from which it appeared, that the obliquity of the radial pulley-like termination, which in the living species is very considerable, is -exceeded in the fossil ; and, that the inferior head is longer. On comparison with the humerus of the Parisian skeleton, it appeared that the fossil humerus, though shorter was thicker. A. scapula, apparently of this animal, found at the foot of the Hartz, 373 was found to have its lower edge straiter and thinner than in that of the recent animal ; the projecting part, too, of the spine of the scapula, was extended much further towards the articular termination. An atlas figured by Hoffman, and copied by Cuvier ; and which must have belonged to some animal of this genus, was compared with that of the skeleton, and found to be specifically different. A fossil axis (the second vertebra) is also figured by Hollman ; and, like the former ver- tebra, appears, from its proportions, to be a different species from the unicorn rhinoceros. A third cervical vertebra is also figured by Hollman, corresponding with the preceding vertebrae, and, like them, differing in proportions from those of the corresponding bone in the skeleton of the unicorn. From various comparisons of the fossil bones with those of the living species, M. Cuvier was able to conclude, that the head of the fossil spe- cies is not only absolutely much larger, but that it is also much larger in proportion to the height of the limbs, and, consequently, that the general form of the animal must have been very different from that of the living species. A large quadruped, then, of a species unknown at the present day, is thus found buried, M. Cuvier observes, in numerous parts of Europe and Asia ; and one very remarkable circumstance is, that it has not been brought from afar ; and another, that it has not been by any slow and in- sensible change of the earth, but by some sudden change, that this species has ceased to exist. The whole rhinoceros, found with its flesh and skin, buried in the ice, on the borders of the Wiluji, evidently demonstrates, he thinks, these two propositions. How, he asks, could it have come there from the Indies, or from any other warm country, without falling to pieces? How could it have been preserved, if the ice had not involved it suddenly ; and therefore, how could it have been involved in this man- ner, if the change of climate had been gradual and insensible? The discovery of this animal has furnished us with some facts respecting its external structure. None of those protuberances or irregular callo- 374 sities were discoverable on the head, which render that of the unicorn- rhinoceros so hideous, but which do not exist in that of the bicorn of the Cape. It appeared also, that the hairs were very abundant on the feet, whilst none exist on these parts of the rhinoceros of the Indies or of the Cape. The existence of the fossil remains of the hippopotamus has not been so generally admitted as those even of the rhinoceros. M. Faujas St. Fond, who is eager to establish the eastern origin of our fossil remains, is of opinion that the hippopotamus, which he believes to be an animal not known in the East Indies, has not been found among the fossil remains of animals in this part of the world. This opinion he founds, on his never having seen any of the fossil remains of this animal in the several mu- seums he visited in England, Scotland. Holland, France, and elsewhere; and in finding no mention of them in the accounts of different travellers, or in the writings of those authors which have treated of the fossil remains of the larger quadrupeds. In Daubenton's department of the Natural History of Buffon, it is observed by St. Fond, that a report is given of several fossil teeth of the hippopotamus, which were in the Museum of Natural History of Paris; but that, upon examination, these teeth appeared to be teeth of the mam- moth, or of the animal of Simorre. On the other hand, M. Cuvier, on examining the teeth mentioned by Daubenton, found two of them to be actually the teeth of the hippopo- tamus; and although he found that Lang, Rome de PIsle, Camper, Merck, and others, had mistaken the teeth of other animals for those of the hippopotamus, he found that Antoine de Jussieu, Mem. de L'Acad. 1724, had undoubtedly described the fossil remains of this animal, as found in Montpellier, at a place called La Mosson. On further exa- mination, it was clearly ascertained, that these fossils came from Lan- guedoc, where other remains of this animal were also found, sufficiently proving the existence of the fossil remains of this animal. From the account also of M. Fabbroni, Director of the Roval Cabinet 375 « i ' at Florence, it appears that there exists, in that cabinet, not only two of the molar teeth of the hippopotamus, but a fragment also of one of the tusks, or canine teeth of the lower jaw. Teeth of the hippopotamus, of different kinds, it appears, have been found scattered in several parts of the upper Vale of Arno. Remains of the hippopotamus have been found, I am informed, in some parts of Gloucestershire. Mr. Trimmer has kindly communicated to me the information, that the remains of these animals are found in the stratum of blue clay at Brentford; and has also kindly communicated the following account of the strata, as they there occur. The first stratum is nine feet of sandy loam, or common brick earth, in which no fossils are found. 2d. Seven feet of gravelly sand, becoming so coarse, as to deserve to be called sandy gravel. At the bottom of this stratum are found the remains of hippopotami and of elephants; but they are not found in those parts to which the next stratum does not extend : to which, therefore, they may be more properly considered as belonging. 3. From one foot to nine, of an earth highly calcareous, in which are found the horns, bones, and teeth of deer, with many small shells. 4. A few feet of gravel, with water. 5. Two hundred feet of blue clay, in which are found pyritified fruits and wood, with marine fossils, particu- larly nautili, which are found at all depths in this stratum. In my visits to Walton, in Essex, I have been successful in obtaining some remains of this animal. The most interesting of these specimens are — 1. An incisor tooth of the right side of the lower jaw. This tooth has lost much of its enamel, but is otherwise in good preservation, possessing all its characteristic markings. It measures fifteen inches and a half in length, and nine inches in circumference towards its base, and is of course too large to be figured in these plates. 2. The point of an inferior canine tooth or tusk, measuring full nine inches in circumference, and having seven inches in length of triturating surface. From the great size of this tooth, it is very likely to have 376 belonged to the same animal to which the preceding tooth belonged. Besides the longitudinal striae and grooves observable in the enamel of its sides and inferior part, it is characterized by strong transverse rugous markings, which are placed at nearly regular distances, of about two inches ; and are observed to exist in the same manner on the fragment of about eight inches in length, which joins to it. 3. A fragment of a tusk, or lower canine tooth, which is only about half the size of the preceding specimen. It has the markings of its enamel of a different character from that of the larger tooth, and par- ticularly is devoid of those transverse rugous markings which are so strongly formed in that specimen. From the roundness of this specimen in its circumference, and from the difference of its character, I am led to suspect that it may have belonged to the small hippopotamus, which, as will be presently observed, was discovered by Cuvier, and which is only, as yet, known in a fossil state. 4. One of the anterior grinders. 5. One of the last molar teeth of the right side of the lower jaw, and which does not appear to have long pierced the gums. Plate XXI. Fig. 1 . Among the most important discoveries made by M. Cuvier, is that of a small fossil hippopotamus, of not more than half the size of the com- mon species. The remains of this animal were found in two pieces of sand-stone, in which the bones and teeth were disposed in a manner much resembling that which is observable in the calcareous and stalactitic masses from Gibraltar, Dalmatia, and Cette. Unfortunately, no traces existed by which it could be known where this sand-stone had been found. After extricating, with extreme care, such bones, as could be removed, and as served to demonstrate the species, M. Cuvier was gratified by finding that they belonged to an animal, the existence of which had never been imagined. This animal, it is evident, from the minute and close comparisons which were made, must have agreed, most exactly, in every character with the genus Hippopotamus; and must have differed, not essen- 377 tially In any respect but in its size, from that species which we know living, and whose fossil remains, we have just seen, have been also sometimes found. The size of this animal could not have exceeded half that of the ordinary species; and it is evident, from the state of its teeth, and from the advanced progress of ossification, that its inferior size could not have proceeded from its being a young animal, but from its having been of a distinct species. In one of its large grinders, it appeared that, contrary to the hori- zontally worn surface of these teeth in the ordinary hippopotamus, it was worn obliquely on the anterior side, showing that its projections had shut in between the risings of the opposite tooth. But a more important difference was observable in the lower jaw. The hippopotamus is the only known animal whose jaw, at its inferior and posterior angle, turns backward, and forms a broad hook-formed process. In this small animal, this hook-formed process not only was also ob- servable, but it was found to be carried much further backward. In the common hippopotamus, the turn which it makes describes the fourth of a circle ; but in this animal the turn forms a crescent, and is equal to half a circle. The tapir is one of the pachydermata, and forms a genus in which there is but one species: it is an animal of South America. It is formed like a hog ; and although only the height of an ass, it is the largest animal known in those parts. Its snout is elongated into a trunk, which, although not long, is moveable like that of the elephant. The fore-feet have four equal-sized toes, and the hind feet three, all of which have hoofs. It has, in each jaw, six incisive teeth, and two canine, which are not longer than the incisors. The skin is black, and almost without hairs. It is a quiet and docile animal, which lives on the banks of rivers, and feeds on reeds, sugar-canes, &c. The tapir not having been known but in South America, it was with great pleasure that M. Cuvier ascertained the existence of the fossil remains, in France, of some animal of the same species, or very nearly VOL. in. 3 c 378 resembling it; since this must be most decided evidence against that system which attributes an Asiatic origin to our fossils. This celebrated naturalist first noticed two specimens in the cabinet of M. de Dree, and which had been described in a Memoir by M. Dodun, being two portions of lower jaws which had been found near the last de- clivities of the Black Mountain, at Issel, in Languedoc, near Castelnau- dari, by M. Dodun. Finding that the resemblance which these jaws bore to those of the tapir was exceedingly close, there being the same number of each sort of teeth, the same form in the molar teeth, and even the external incisive smaller than the others, as in the tapir, he was induced, at first, to declare, that the fossil jaw did not sensibly differ from the jaw of the recent animal. Subsequent examination, however, enabled him to discover, that a difference existed between the first molar teeth of the fossil and of the recent jaw. In the tapir of South America, all the molares have their crown divided into two transverse risings, of an equal width ; but in the fossil animal, the three first molares, instead of transverse risings, have a kind of points or pyramids, the foremost of which is larger than that which is behind it. The anterior part of the muzzle is more narrow and long in the common tapir, than in the fossil animal. In the tapir, also, the first molar is longer than any of the four or five fol- lowing ones ; but in the fossil jaw this is the shortest. These, and other less differences, induced M. Cuvier to conclude, that the fossils of the Black Mountain belonged to some species approaching to the tapir, but which was not precisely the same. These remains of an animal, the analogue of which, if living, can only exist in South America, are, in his opinion, entirely subversive of the notion of those who support the Asiatic origin of our fossils. M. Cuvier calls this ani- mal the small fossil tapir. In the Journal de Physique for February, 1772, there appeared the re- presentation of a milar tooth, found in the neighbourhood of Vienna, and which appeared to have belonged to some large animal, at least re- sembling the tapir. Another specimen was fouixd near St. Lary, in 379 • Couserans. But the most interesting specimens are, the two halves of a jaw, with five molar teeth in each, in the possession of M. Dree. These fossils were found at Comminge, by the side of Beine, five leagues from Alan, a castle of the Bishop of Comminge. Similar teeth are also said, by Fabbroni, to have been found in Italy. The teeth of the recent tapir are characterized by being divided by transverse risings ; but this character, Cuvier observes, is not sufficient to allow the attributing of any fossil teeth, with transverse ridges, to the tapir ; since the same transverse risings on the crown are observable in the teeth of the lamantin (Trichecus manatus), and in those of the kan- guroo. In the lamantin, the upper teeth have two large risings, and two smaller, or spur-like processes, one before, the other behind. On the lower teeth are three risings. These risings are, in the germ of the tooth, crenulated, both in the lamantin and in the fossil animal. Of the five molar teeth in M. Dree's fossil, the foremost has only one ridge, which is flat ; but the four last have two ridges, with a spur behind, which is largest in the hindermost teeth. The animal to which these teeth belonged could not, as M. Cuvier observes, have been very aged, since the ridges are not much worn, and since one tooth, at least, was wanting in this jaw. This is, however, assumed on the supposition that the tooth found at Vienna belonged to a similar animal. This tooth has three ridges and a spur-like process ; and in that case, would have been placed behind these ; since in herbivorous animals, the teeth composed of the most pieces are always behind the rest. The tooth found at St. Lary, and which agrees in the appearance of its enamel and matrix, with those of M. Dree, has also three ridges, which confirms the opinion of this animal having six molar teeth on each side. Reckoning from the size of the mo- lar teeth of the fossil animal, it is supposed that it must have been one fourth taller than the rhinoceros. But, by the same mode of reckoning, it would have been five times longer than the known lamantin, and eight times larger than the kanguroo, supposing it to have had the same pro- portions as the species to which it may be imagined to belong. These fossil remains M. Cuvier considers as belonging to a large ani- 380 nial, which might have approximated to the tapir, and which he calls the large fossil tapir. % Plate XXI. Fig. 3, is the outline of the fossil tooth of this gigantic animal, found at St. Lary, in Couserans, copied from M. Cu- vier's engraving,, PL II. Fig. 7, Ann. du Mm. Toms III, FOSSIL PACHYDERMATA OF THE ENVIRONS OF PARIS ....PAUEO- THERIUM MAGNUM, MEDIUM, CRASSUM, MINUS ANOPLOTHE- RIUM COMMUNE, MEDIUM, MINUS, MINIMUM — ..UNDETERMINED^ ANIMAL OF ORLEANS. 1 SHALL, with great pleasure, show you, in the present Letter, that the unceasing and ingeniously directed lahours of Cuvier have been rewarded, by the discovery of the fossil remains of two genera of pachy- dermata, containing seven or eight different species, the analogues of which are at present entirely unknown. To one of these he has given the name of Palaotkerium, or ancient large animal or beast ; and to the other, Anoplotherium, or beast without weapons, thereby implying its distinguishing character, its want of canine teeth. Much of this information was yielded him by the teeth alone ; but, in addition to these, he became possessed of other different bones of these animals, and particularly of the bones of the feet, by which the conjec- tures which he had already formed, respecting the nature of these animals, obtained a considerable degree of confirmation : but as he had found the heads belonging to two genera, one with and the other without canine teeth ; so he also found the feet of two genera, one with three complete; toes, and the other with two. 381 The bones of the feet of one kind required to be classed with the heads of one of these genera, and the bones of the feet of the other kind with the head of the other genus. But how was this separation to be effected ? Did the feet with three toes belong to the head with tusks, and those with two toes to the heads without tusks, or should they be disposed in a con- trary combination ? After much perplexing investigation, he derived considerable aid by meeting with a head without tusks, not larger than that of a hare, and fortunately with a didactyle foot of the same proportions. Thus assisted, he proceeded in his comparisons, and was at last able to determine that the didactyle feet belonged to the Anoplotherium, and the tridactyle to the Pal&otherium. M. Cuvier observes, that the first information to be obtained, in the examination of the remains of a fossil animal, is with respect to its grind- ing teeth. By these may be ascertained whether the animal was car- nivorous or herbivorous ; and if the latter, the order of herbivorous ani- mals to which it belonged, may even, thereby, be determined, to a certain extent. A superficial examination soon showed him, that almost all the ani- mals found in the plaster-of-paris quarries, round Paris, have the grinders of the herbivorous pachydermata ; those of the upper jaw possessing a crown formed of two or three simple crescents, succeeding to each other; a configuration whicb may be seen to exist in the rhinoceros and the da- man, Hyrax, Linn, two genera of the pachydermata. The ruminating ani- mals^ indeed, have also grinders composed of two or three crescents; but their crescents are double, and have each four lines of enamel ; whilst in the pachydermata they are simple, and have only two lines. These remarks were confirmed by the appearances yielded, in these fos- sils, by the upper grinders ; their outer lace having three projecting ribs, which divide it into two shallow depressions ; their crowns are square, and have peculiar inequalities. These characters serve to remove^ de- 382 cidedly, these fossil animals from the family of ruminants, and to ap- proximate them to the daman and rhinoceros. The teeth found in the plaster-of-paris are of different sizes, but those of the middling size occur most frequently. These, M. Cuvier has de- monstrated, belonged to two different genera, one of which possessed canine teeth, and the other, not. A careful examination showed also, that the grinders of these different animals, although seemingly similar, possessed decidedly different characters. Commencing his inquiries with the genus PAL^EOTHERIUM, the large ancient animal, with canine teeth, he was enabled to ascertain that, as in the rhinoceros and daman, so in this genus, there are seven grinders in each side of the lower jaw, the first of which is small, compressed, and rather sharp. The others have their outer surface formed like two portions of cy- linders, except the seventh, which has three of these portions. At the base is aprojecting line like a collar, beneath which is a root to everyportion. The internal surface of these teeth is, in some respects, the reverse of the inner surface. Opposite to each of the crescents is a depression, which narrows as it descends : the intervening projections, of course, narrowing as they ascend. Before the first small grinder, the jaw is void of teeth, or alveoli, for a little space, at the end of which space is the canine tooth. It is a simple oblique cone, a little bent ; the internal face of which is a little flat, and its external face more than half a cone. Its faces are separated by two longitudinal ridges, and its bases are girted by the same collar-like pro- jection as was observed in the molar teeth. The root is large, and pene- trates into the jaw nearly as far as the root of the first grinder. This canine tooth is not a tusk projecting out of the mouth, as in many species of hogs : it is rather concealed by the lips, as in the tapir, hippopotamus, and Mexican hog. By the presence of this tooth, this animal is separated from the rhinoceros and daman, whilst, by its grind- ers, it is brought near to the tapir and hog. 383 The incisive teeth are of the common wedge-like form, and are six in number, which is the exact number of those of the tapir, with which they also very nearly agree in their forms. In the fossil specimens of the upper jaw are also the corresponding number of six incisors; behind which is the upper canine tooth, which does not project any more than that of the tapir or pecari. Behind this tooth is a small space for the reception of the point of the canine tooth of the lower jaw. The upper grinders have their crown nearly square, and have four roots, whilst those of the lower have but two : the foremost only are a little narrower in proportion than the others. The outer face inclines obliquely inwards as it descends, and is divided by three longitudinal ridges, into two concavities, rounded towards the root, and terminating in a point towards the grinding surface. By the angles thus formed, a line results at the outer edge of the grinding, sur- face, in the shape of a W. ; and from the inclination and the concavities on the external surface results another line in the form, of a W. in the horizontal direction. In these teeth, then, are the same squareness of form, the longitudinal ribs on the external face,, and the same line in the shape of a W. as in the upper grinders of the rhinoceros; but the distri- bution of the risings and depressions on the grinding surface, and of the enamel, is essentially different. Plate XXI. Fig. 4,. represents the outer surface of the fourth molar tooth of the lower jaw of P. medium, and Fig. 5, represents its inner sur- face. Fig, 6 is the outer surface ; and Fig. 7 is the inner surface of one of the molares of the upper jaw of the same animal. Thus Cuvier has been able to determine, that in the gypsum there exist the remains of an animal which had 28 grinding teeth, 12 inci- sive, and 4 canine. The lower grinders formed in two or three simple crescents, and the upper square, with many markings on their crown : the canine teeth not passing out of the mouth. It appears, also that this animal must, from the number of its teeth, have been of a genus near to 5B4 that of tapir, and to that of rhinoceros, by the form of Its grinders. That it was an herbivorous animal is certain ; and that it belonged to the order of pachydermata is confirmed, as will be seen, by the struc- ture of its feet. The glenoid cavity, for the articulation of the jaw, had a flat surface, as in that of the tapir ; and as, in the tapir, this cavity was bounded backward by a transverse vertical plate : — a peculiarity, however, exists, with respect to this plate; for that of the tapir has its internal edge more forward, and the external more backward ; whilst in this animal it is exactly contrary. In the horse this plate is very short, and is from right to left. In the ruminating animals it is more projecting and entirely transverse ; or, as in the tapir, more drawn back to the outer edge. It makes less pro- jection in the hog : that of the rhinoceros is not behind, but at the inner edge of the glenoid cavity ; and the elephant has none. It ap- pears that no known animal has the glenoid cavity formed like that of the pal