J! .-*--■ ^-oci^^ "m. JOHNA.SEAVERNS TUFTS UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES 9090 01 409 905 Webster Family Library of Veterinany Medicine Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine at Tufts University OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS THEIR HABITS, INTELLIGENCE AND USEFULNESS Translated from the French of Gos. DeVoogt, by Katharine P. Wormeley EDITED FOR AMERICA BY CHARLES WILLIAM BURKETT WJTH ILLUSTRATIONS BOSTON, U.S.A. GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS Cbc 9[tl)fnS Swiss Goats called "de Sarnen " i'i5 Three Mahese Goats (left), Two Native Belgian Goats (center) '9'' A Dangerous Situation 196 Wonderful Tolerance ! '97 Norwegian He-Goat '97 Ready to take out Baby 19S Vearhng Angora Buck 19S Exhibition of Goats in Harness 199 Yearling and Aged Angora Bucks, California . . .199 Playfulness -oo A Drove of Hogs in Ohio -02 Pigs at Home -03 Grand-Champion Tamworth Boar and Sow .... 204 Property of Ohio State University 205 Feeding Pigs -oO Mother Hog and Little Ones 206 Cow with Uneven Horns 20S Two Orphans 208 Norman Milch Cow 209 Maternal Cares 209 French Steer -lo In Alabama -'° Good Draft Oxen 211 Ruminating 211 Bull, French Breed 212 An American Type 212 In Scotland 212 Milking Cows in France 213 A Fine Dutch Bidl 213 A Winner in Three-Vear-Old Class at Stark County Fair 213 Page Team of Four Oxen in the Nivernais 214 In Alabama 214 Good Dutch Pasturage 215 Groningen Bull 213 Cornelia XXVII, Celebrated Dutch Milch Cow . . .215 Friesland Milch Cow 216 Dutch Calves 216 Head of Highland liull, •• Sir Audrey " . . . ■ . . 2i5 Grand-Champion Hereford Bull and Cow 217 Shorthorn Cattle 217 Hornless Cattle 21S In Ohio 218 Long-Horned English Bullocks 219 Mr. Cock 220 The Mrs. Hen 221 The Family Complete 221 White Wyandotte Cock 222 " Ursus" 222 Plymouth Rock Cock 222 "Nero" 223 Black Cochin-China Cock 223 Black Minorca Cock 223 Plymouth Rocks 224 A Brahma Hen 225 " Rita," a Braekel Pullet Prize \Yinner 225 A Mechlin Coucou Hen 226 White Mechlin Cock . 226 A Mechlin Coucou Cock 226 Mother Hen with Little Duckhngs 227 Incubating Box 227 Incubators 228 Incubator with Chicks One Hour Old 229 White Mechlin Hen 229 A Celebrated Specimen of the Mechlin Breed . . . 230 Dutch Hen, Goudpe! Breed 230 Cock of Fine Stature 230 A Silver Braekel Hen 231 Vear-Old Pullets 231 The First Egg 232 A Divided Hen Yard 233 Poultry Yard 234 White Wyandotte Hen 234 Silver-Penciled Wyandotte Hen 235 Silver-Penciled Wyandotte Cock 235 Partridge-Colored Wyandottes 235 Cocks' Combs are a Dainty for Epicures 236 Black Minorca Cock 236 A Typical Light Brahma Hen ■ 237 A Fine Specimen of the Cochin-China Breed . . .237 Plymouth Rock Hen 237 White Leghorn Hen 238 A Brahma Cock 238 A Pair of Mechlin Coucous 23S A Lover of Fights 239 Small German Cock 239 A Paduan Cock 239 A Dutch Cock with White Topknot 240 A Dutch Cock, Goudpel Breed 240 The Dutch Breed " Zilverlaken " 240 A Silver Braekel Hen 240 A Ladder for the Babies 241 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XI Pace A Hen with Young Ducklings 241 Inclosure for Ducks 242 Wild Ducks 242 Indian Runner Ducks (Male and Female) 243 Speed 243 Muscovy Ducks (Male and Female) 243 Geese fattening for the Market 244 A Family of Geese 245 The Arrival of the Feeder 245 Toulouse Geese 245 Chinese Geese 246 German Geese 246 Embden Geese 247 A Pair of American Bronze Turkeys 247 Turkeys in a Field 24S Young Turkeys 248 Turkeys in a Park 249 A Swan's Nest 249 The Bosom of the Family 250 Black Swans 250 White Swans 251 A Dark Silver Rabbit 252 A Pair of Russian Rabbits 252 An English Lop-Eared Rabbit (Female) 253 An English Lop-Eared Rabbit (Male) 253 A Leporide Rabbit (Female) 253 A Blue-and-Tan Rabbit 254 A Giant Flanders Rabbit (Female) 254 A Young Giant Flanders Rabbit 255 A Giant Vienna Rabbit (Male) 255 A Leporide Hare-Colored Rabbit 256 A French Lop-Eared Rabbit 256 A White Angora Rabbit 257 A Light Silver Rabbit 257 A Dutch Rabbit 258 A Russian Rabbit 2 58 A Tricolor Rabbit of Japan 259 A French Papillon (Male) 259 A Blue Beveren Rabbit (Male) 260 A Polish Rabbit 260 A Black-and-Tan Rabbit 260 Box for Transporting Rabbits 261 A Dutch Rabbit (Ill-Marked) 261 A Female Leporide with her Young 262 Wild Canaries and their Nest 263 The Norwich Canary 264 A Norwich Canary with Hood 265 Cage for Small Birds 265 A Nor^vich Canary with Gray Hood 266 Young Thrushes 266 The Red Bengal Finch 267 An English Canary with Hood 267 The Tricolor Canary 26S Page The Gray Wagtail 268 The Toilet of a Canary for the Exposition .... 269 Dry with Care ! 269 The Arrest of a Fugitive 270 The Woodpecker 270 Our Friend the Sparrow 271 Nonnettes with Black Head and Blue and Black Belly 271 An Aviary de Lu.xe 272 Grand Annual Exposition at London 273 A Belgian Canary 274 A Yorkshire Canary 274 A Flat-Headed Canary of English Breed 274 The Aviaiy of the King of England 275 The Thrush 276 The Green Finch 276 The Winter Canary 277 One Type of Canary 277 The German Linnet 277 The Blackbird 277 The Linnet 278 The Dutch Bullfinch 27S The Spring Wagtail 279 The Lark 280 The Goldfinch 2S0 The Wavy Paroquet 281 Gray Paroquet, or Poll Parrot 2S1 The Green Paroquet 2S1 The Starling 282 A Trained Crow 2S2 The Crow and the Rook 2S3 The Dragon Pigeon 2S4 A Collection of Various Pigeons . • 285 The English Falconet Pigeon 285 Young Pigeons 285 Common Domestic Pigeons 286 A Corner of the Garden 2S7 A Wild Pigeon with hei" Young 288 A Loft of Fancy Pigeons . 289 The Carrier Pigeon 289 Scotch Pigeons 2S9 The Tumbler Pigeon, Old Dutch Breed 290 The Magpie Pigeon 290 A Dovecote at a Proper Elevation 291 The Dwarf Pouter Pigeon of Amsterdam 292 The Almond Pigeon 292 Carrier Pigeons 293 The Barb 293 The English Pouter Pigeon 294 An Old Carrier Pigeon 294 GeiTTian Pigeons 295 The English Falconet Pigeon 295 Peacock-Tailed Pigeons 296 Baskets, etc., for Transporting Carrier Pigeons . . . 296 LIST OF COLORED PLATES German Dog Frontispiece Pace Kittens 73 Horse 96 Donkeys 158 Sheep 164 Rabbits 252 Cockatoos 280 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS INTRODUCTION Our subject is inexhaustible. From the boy who believes that his clog knows as much .i-- hr to the scientist who demonstrates to his satisfaction by laboratory experiments that animals are but creatures of habit and not of rea- son, all the world is interested in the animals of the home. Their presence seems to be necessary to complete the family circle. What touching tales we read of the fidelity of dogs ! Who has never amused himself by playing with kittens, whose gracious little- ways are equal to their graceful- ness ? Who does not remember the anguish of heart when his pet lamb of childhood was laid away in the garden grave, or when the pet of any kind, whose last flays had come, was returned to the earth for burial and repose .'' These things indi- cate the affection which man has for domestic animals, and the almost human ties that fiften liiii'l liiiii til the brute n-calion. The numerous photographs that illustrate Our Dovicstic Aniiitals will cast light on the descriptions in the text, and we have striven to make the style of the volume agreeable and, abo\e all, anecdotical. It is by stories and pic- tures that we teach children the principal things of life ; it is equally by stories and pictures that we now desire to create a love for the animals who share our lot, and for those whose fatal destiny it is to feed us. Scientific men have concerned them- selves seriously (though relatively only of late) with most of the domestic animals in a manner that promises the speedy solu- tion of many problems. Designers have cleverly, though less seriously, represented these animals, while painters have tried to reproduce them, as far as brush and palette would allow, — more particularly horses, dogs, and cats, — in all their mani- fold variety of form and color. Sculptors and poets have immortalized them in many a masterpiece, and they serve as models of desiarn for the various branches of the arts OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS and industries. The first toys we give to chil- dren are miniature reproductions of the animal kingdom ; the first scribblings of a baby resem- ble more or less the shapes of domestic animals. Young and old, )0or and rich, earned and igno- rant, all take an interest in one or another of . the animals. Mow- shall we i n c r e a s e that interest ? How can we give a general idea of the lives of the chief domestic animals to those who cannot, or will not, have all the species con- stantly about them, and yet desire to know as much as possible on the subject without being obliged to consult a scientific library ? W'e believe we shall attain this end, in the first in- stance, by photography, which alone can reproduce with i)er- fect accuracy the acts and mo- tions of animals. This work has been undertaken on the express condition that the photographs shall be taken from life, and as recently as possible. Numerous photographers from all parts of Europe and America, some of them of great experience, have well fulfilled their extremely difficult task (the reproduction of animals being one of the most troublesome problems of their art), and have sent us an ample and striking collection of portraits of animal life. All that was needed, in addition, was descrip- tion — description that should not weary, but give relaxation — and a succinct treatment of topics which, from a zoological point of view, might have required more attention and also more space. The origin of the various species, the study of propagation, the question of the play of color, the numerous anatomical subdi- visions, are merely indicated in the following pages. The inquiring reader may consult learned books and place them beside the present vol- ume, which treats of the same matters in an absolutely popular waw The choice of domestic animals and their classification was not easy to make. What to us is a domestic animal is generally so elsewhere ; \et the line is sometimes difficult to draw. The dog, the first beast ever tamed, has the most ancient claims, if by "domestic animals " we mean particularly those that have been completely tamed. The cat incontestably holds its place in every household, where it takes precedence of the horse because of its small size. After the horse come the ass and the nnile, closely re- lated, and then the goat. Sheep form the extreme limit of the kingdom of domestic animals, and one step more brings us in the midst of — cattle ! And the pig ! Surely we must not omit him Watching a Bird Then come the gallinaceous tribes, and with them we enter the inclosures and poultry yards ; for, after all, by "domestic animals" we do not mean exclusively those that live within the INTRODUCTION walls of our houses. All the quadrupeds and bipeds that for centuries have been in contact with man. that are grouped in friendly confidence around his dwelling, that live for his use and pleasure, and are, more or less, under his direct supervision, being fed and cared for by him, are domestic animals and those who know true coun- tr\' life are never surjirised to see Brown, the horse, poke his head through the garden gate, or Blanche, the cow, walk up to the kitchen door and eye the meal that the housekeeper has prepared for the mother hen and her brood That horse, that cow, those chicks, take an active part in the external life of the household. We follow with interest their good ana ~-^^^^^— their evil fortune (they have both from time to time), and we soothe their sufferings as much as possible. And the hens ! if the)- are not domestic animals in the true sense of the term, we invite the city denizen who doubts it to go without e,L,'gs. What privation if there is no white of egg for the sick baby, no fresh-boiled egg for the debilitated old man ! Hens in the poultry yard and eggs on the table, such is the true order of things ; so the poultry yard, as well as the hens and the cocks, is part of the homestead. Besides these there are many birds living about our dwell- ings which, though not actually domestic imder all aspects, are neverthe- ess tame. Swans and ducks, turkeys and geese, are rather nearer to us than pigeons and canaries, but they all come under the head of domestic animals. The anary, especially the one that ^ puis a little gayety into the dull --'-"" ,, line of the workingman, is a domes- tic animal we should regret to be without ; also those handsome, many-colored birds in our aviaries which herald the dawn with their warblings and disperse our waking cares. Thus domestic animals deserve attention. We very often see pretty traits in their charac- ter which, unfortunatelv, we do not remember OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS later. The photographs here presented endea\-or to recall them. In the following pages there will also be found much advice that may be useful to the breeder of each particular race. It does not enjoin more or less precise methods, or give special rules, but simply gives counsels of general utility, recognized, collected, and applied for many years by the most noted breed- ers with fortunate results. The breeding of stock for profit or pleasure (but specially for profit in the care of horses, sheep, and poultry of all kinds) has become very extensive of late, and the regions where it is chiefly carried on have derived much benefit from it. The raising of useful and handsome animal stock has become a science, which now actually forms a subdivision in zoology. The zoologist could prob- abl_\- derive large profits from the breeding of horses, dogs, and poultry, if closer relations could be established between the two sciences, and if the halls of study opened wider in the direction of stables and kennels. Zoology is the theor)- of practical breeding ; for without e.xact knowl- edge of the life of animals the breeder will never succeed in perfect- ing certain qualities. But it is not from books that he can learn the prac- tical working of life or the art of giving it : he must, above all, rely on experience. The special literature on these topics is not in all hands. He who owns a dog or a pony does not fill his library with books on dogs, nor does he put in his stable a shelf of bf)nks treating of ponies. But there ire manv things to be told of the dog and the pony which would in- terest that owner and perhaps give him fresh ideas about them. The history of dogs, like that of other domestic ani- mals, is of very ancient date, and is closely related, in fact is even parallel, to that of 1 w ^^M ^^^m n W~^ *" fl^^H^ ^^^li^Ua^^l ,*F^ IK- ^ ',■-??" jji i L«> - - -•V-v-t- . > ^ . V INTRODUCTION man. Their structure, their characteristics, their peculiarities, give rise to very remarkable comparisons. Numberless are the traditions, the anecdotes, and the facts which show to what extraordinary development the intelligence or instinct of these animals can attain, whether spontaneously, or by exercise or experience. How is it possible not to wonder on seeing a hunting dog stop short in the open country, motionless as a statue, seeing nothing around him for yards till the par- tridges take wing, giving proof of thejiairoi the animal ! Horses and some other species of domestic animals have also given almost incred- ible proofs of intelligence, attachment, courage, and cau- tion, which can only increase the regard they inspire in us. All this, no doubt, increases the desire to know more of the life of animals, and this desire we shall try to satisfy in the course of this work. We have given our atten- tion, in certain places, to the manner in which sick or wounded animals should be cared for. In ci\'ilized society. a society of progress, all negligence of the comfort and well-being of ani- mals is a step backward in the path of civilization. In such a society, surely, we ought to find asylums for animals, and the art of animal heal- ing should obtain universal sympathy. Nor should we fail to speak of the protection due to animals from the point of view of humanity as well as of usefulness. It is proper here to insist once again upon the fact that ever)' one can contribute in a vast degree — if he will — to diminish the unnecessary sufferings endured daily by cats, dogs, and horses; for instance, many children, whose education has been sadly neglected, make martyrs of cats and dogs. If, therefore, this work can attain its object, it will not only afford a few hours' amusement to the reader, but it will benefit more than one of those intelligent creatures who, during our own lives, have lived with us as faithful companions. THE DOG I. Bond of Friendship between Man AND Dog Buffon said and wrote, " The dog is the friend of man." Though the works of that writer, very learned in his time, no longer fill the prominent shelves of our scientific libraries, the vvords just quoted are to this day con- firmed and established by reiterated proofs. How was this junction between the man and the animal brought about, and why have dogs, from the earliest antiquit}', so sepa- rated themselves from other animals that they have been in favor with the " most civilized creature of the earth," even when the civilization of that sovereign of creation still left something, or to be more frank, still left much to be desired ? If we knew with certainty whence the domestic dog {ca/n's faniiliaris, the learned call him) is descended, it would be easier to answer the above questions. But we cannot as yet point with ab- solute certaint)" to the animal species with which man's amicable ties were formed. Perhaps it was a species of wild dog now extinct ; perhaps wolves and jackals had their share in the matter. Men of science in the olden time took \-ery little interest in knowing whence our useful domestic animals had descended. Though most of them were not disposed to consider Noah's ark as the cradle of all the species, they did not delve much deeper into this inter- esting problem. We may even say that the study of the races of the domestic animals The Friend of Man extends back, at the most, half a century. It is true that men like Belon (1554), Kampfer (1712), Guldenstadt (1776), and Pallas (1776), as well as Ehrenberg, Reichenbach, and others, tried to throw some light upon the question, which, however, was not cleared up until 1884. About that year very interesting excavations were made of prehistoric lake cities in Switzer- land, which brought to light remains of animals, chiefly dogs, older than any hitherto known and recognized. Then, and especially after the pub- lication of the masterpieces of Darwin on "domestic ani- mals and plants," scientific men, like Yeiteless, Ruti- meyer, and Naumann, con- cerned themselves seriously about the unknown ancestors of the domestic dog. Alas ! those ancestors had left no other inheritance than a few bones and broken skulls ; but these remains, such as they were, were minutely exam- ined. The Austrian profes- sor, L. H. Yeiteless, was so enthusiastic in his work along this line that he even dedi- cated one of the skulls, found near Olmiitz, to the memory who had died in 1869, — of his mother "skull of canis tnatiis optimac!' Nevertheless, in spite of minute researches, no certainty has yet been attained as to the origin of the domestic dog. We can still make only suppositions, and these attribute the pater- nity of the race, in the first instance, to the jackal and a species of Indian wolf. We can- not therefore know with certainty what animal species it was that, in its primitive state, first THE DOG felt itself attracted to man ; but it is cer- tain that individual self-interest, both in man and beast, played a chief part in that treaty of friendship. The fires where they could warm themselves, the mounds > ^H Kin fl ^^^, 1^ ^nm Rir — -'f|[ WiiuLiA- Hair (English Shlli- Doc) SiLKV Hair (Vui:!. iiiki. Ilkkii.i.j 12 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS for which they are chosen. For dogs of mere fancy, — for pets, — the color and especially the markings about the ears, the head, and the back should be as decn- rative as possible, while hunting dogs should be of a color easily distinguish- able at a great dis- tance in the hunting field. Hounds, on the contrary, ought not to show against the bushes or fields when at work. A beagle, w h i c h creeps among the fox burrows, woukl be useless if he were white and could thus show the fox where his enemy lay. We frequently find local disappearances of the color of the hair, very noticeable in spotted German watchdogs and in Dalmatian or tiger dogs. A very remarkable phenomenon is the striking tendency in dogs — as in other animals Undkr Arrest — to a complete obliteration of color (albino- ism) ; this is accompanied by the appearance of red eyes and a very injurious blunting of certain organs, or else by a delay in their development. The conformation of the dog presents as great a variety as his coat and his color. Here Frolicking Ri:sT .\Nii I'l.w again we must never lose sight of the purposes for which the different species are employed. It is important, therefore, to have seen dogs at their work and in their element. Then, and then only, does the e.xternal beauty of eath breed show itself fully. IV. Gen'er.xl Ch.ar.\cteristics ; Special H.XBITS It is quite possible that dogs now and then •malign one another v.-hen alone by themselves, but as long as their language is incompre- hensible to us we have only good things to say of their chief characteristics. Their fidelity is proverbial. Hundreds of instances could be given in which dogs will not quit the dead bodies of their masters, but seek — positively jcc/- — death upon their graves. As for their vigilance we could cite not hundreds, but thousands of cases in which THE DOG 13 they have prevented great evils, and many more will remain forever unknown. On January 27, 1897, the little daughter of a shepherd, in the province of the Loire, was sitting at the edge of a forest when a wild boar rushed out in front of her. She tried to run away, but fell ; the animal wounded her in the back and was about to strike again, but as she fell she called to the dog which was not far off : " Help ! help ! Bas Rouge ! " The brave dog, understanding the danger, sprang upon the boar, which was far stronger than himself, and caught his ear, not letting it go till the child had time to get up and run away ; he then aban- doned the unequal contest, and the boar, severely bitten, took to the woods. Every one knows how the little dog of Prince William I of Orange saved his mas- ter from an attempt on his life by bark- ing, in order to wake him, the memory of which act is immortalized in the statue of William the Silent at The Hague. Another of the dog's good qualities is that he forgets very quickly any wrong that has been done him — if the doer is a friend. If, ■on the contrary, he is an enemy, he is never safe in the vicinity of the animal he has preju- diced against him. Dogs never fail to recognize their friends. Is it by sight, smell, hearing, or some intuitive per- ception of good will .' It is probably not by the first of those senses, for a do; seems not to see thing very clearly when close at hand, at least not in comparison with man. On the other hand, he sees things at a distance easily and more accurately, thanks to the more or less oblique position of his eyes. But in any case he trusts his ears more than his eyes. Young dogs, especially, guide themselves by sound rather than by sight, for they are almost blind till they are twenty-five days old. Yet a dog will see better than a man in a dim light, and this acuteness of vision is owing to the peculiar construction of his visual organs, a construction that equally A.sTONISllMEXT explains the luminous brilliancy of his eyes in the dark. The nose of a dog far surpasses that of man in capacity, without referring to the difference in shape, though that does undeniably exercise some influence on the scent. It is not necessary that the noses of all dogs should be moist to keep them in good health, but those with wet noses are much more ikely to be healthy, and vice versa. We shall have occasion later to speak of the miraculous, scent of b 1 < ) o d h o u n d s an d of hunting dogs, for it is miraculous, though belonging to modern times. It is generally ad- mitted that the hearing of dogs does not greatly differ from that of man. His musical knowledge and his taste for music alone leave something to be desired. This explains his manner of H OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS greeting with lamentable howls a street organ, the good or bad playing of a piano, the vulgar or the artistic twanging of a violin, or the soft, sweet singing of a lute. People call it howling. A dog neither laughs nor weeps. Is he sad, The bite of an angry dog is to be feared. His teeth are shown as far as possible, his lips and ears are drawn back, and his hair bristles up along his spine. The meeting of two dogs, strangers to each other or distrustful, is nearly he puts his tail between his legs, hangs his always accompanied by these phen(jmena. V. The Pkinxip.vl F.amilies OF DcxiS It has always been, and still is, a brain puzzle to class cor- rectly the innumerable canine races. Aristotle (333 B.C.) began to do so, and the end is not yet in sight. Hunting (.logs, pet dogs, useful dogs great and small, street dogs, watchdogs, have served as the main groups. Cuvier de- sired to introduce a new classification of the canine races according to the length of their skulls. Linnaeus gave only a passing attention to them, and Fitzinger estimated head, and emits a plaintive howl. Is he joyful, that three hundred species were altogether too his behavior is just the contrary : the expressive few. Suppose we try, in our turn, to make no thermometer of his soul rises, quivers, wags, classification at all. Open the iron gates wide and a joyous bark, quite different from all other and let them all come in pellmell — dogs with barks, sharper and shorter, is heard. When short hair, long hair, wiry hair, and smooth hair, certain dogs are in particularly good humor little dogs and great dogs, sporting dogs, hunting they show their teeth from time to time and dogs, watchdogs, and let one and all show what clack them, protruding their li}is and a sort of grimace spreads Tdd H(^T IX F C(iLI) lil HIM) over their visage. They also express joy by leaps, rolling on the ground, / and all sorts of comic contortions ; and, what is very remarkable, the .same expressive motions arc- seen in wolves and jackals. The licking of their master's hand must be regarded as derived from the habit of SCRUTIXY they are and what they can do. Fox terriers. It w'ould be marvelous if the agile, \ combative fox terrier did j not come first. He is a / joyous animal, who is no longer exclusively em- '- ployed in fox hunting or in starting game (foxes and badgers). He has become the fashionable pleasure dog, and such he remains, due, doubtless, to his neat licking objects that are dear to them — their figure, his lively air, and his amusing nature, young, for instance. Hence comes also the Belonging to the great family of terriers (known habit of some dogs and their congeners of in England in 16 17, during the reign of James I, biting one another in play. as earth dogs, terriers), he is really much less THE DOG 15 Modern Types of Fox Ti;kkii:ks, Smooth Haired and W'ikv Haired suited in form to subterranean work than the bassets, for instance. Consequently the fox terrier now contents himself with rats and mice, which he attacks furiously, to the de- light of amateur sportsmen. The breeding of these terriers with smooth hair and wiry hair has been carried on extensively, espe cially in England, and fabulous sums are given for the best specimens, which often win first prizes and are exported from time to time to European countries or to America, where they become the founders of new families. F'or such competitive ani- mals special account must be taken of the bones, and of the sym metry of the body, the head, and the paws, though even here there is great difference of tasle The prize-winning fox terrier of to-day differs in essential points from the one of five or six years ago. The nose must be decidedly black, but less importance is now attached to the distribution of white, which is, of course, the dominant color, and to the black, which may now form spots around the eyes, on the ears, the tail, and along the back. A fox terrier must be neither brown nor Bulldog, Pure Blood striped, and the ears should be small and bent forward along the cheeks in the form of a V. The Mastiff. More persons than one will think that the mastiff is not made for a pleas- ure dog, thanks to his great height, his thick, big head, his enormous muzzle, and more es- pecially to the sinister expression given by wrinkles around and between the eyes. Yet these dogs are usually mild and placid, t h o u g h \- e r y strong and very brave on occasion, which trails make them well suited to serve as ter- rors. Idstone relates that a mastiff allowed to roam at night around a country house did no harm to tramps r thieves so long as they stayed outside the fences ; ut he watched them, walking continually round them, so that the poor fellows ended by standing in the same place till daylight, not daring to stir. The patent of nobility for mastiffs will be found in England, where they were bred, it is said, in the fifteenth century by the family of Leigh of Lyme Hall. When bear hunting came to an end in England (for want of bears) bear gardens were invented, where sportsmen amused themselves by seeing ID OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS English Masti combats between mastiffs and bears or bulls. These aren:i contests were probabl) fought by a cross breed of mastiffs and Irish wolfhounds ; very cer- tainly they did not resemble the modern mastiff. The latter now stands fro m twenty-five to twenty eight inches high from ground to shoulder, and has a weight of one hundred to two hundred pounds. The muzzle and ears are black, and the dog himself is the color of a roe- buck or deer. Sometimes, also. the whole body is of a much darker shade. TIic bulldog. The bulldog, smaller than the mastiff, is related to him and to his combative ancestors. These dogs seem much more furious than they really are. To what caprices have they not been subjected in view of ex- hibitions ! At one time breeders even went so far that little was wanting to make their bodies and paws so eccen- tric in form that they could hardly drag themselves about. Happily, in the present day, this danger is averted, to the great joy of all true sportsmen, and the bulldog now stands on his own four paws. It is doubtful, however, whether the prize winners of to-day would issue triumphantly from the arena after such bullfights as those in which the seventeenth-century mastiffs took such a prominent part. Henri II, Queen Mary, and Princess Elizabeth of England encouraged those combats, but in 1689 we find them forbidden at Amsterdam, dogs trained for such fights being called "bear biters," a name still to be heard on the banks of the Amstel. The bull- dog should be small, massive, and rather thickset, especially about the head ; the muzzle should be thrust forward and raised impudently, the under jaw ad- vanced beyond the upper, the lips hang- ing heavily on each side of the chops, the nose broad, and the teeth large and often visible, — all of which contribute to his ungra- cious appearance. The color is rather \'ariable. A bulldog may be brindled with Champion Bulldog black, or may be all white, spotted PhotoJ. T.Newman, lierkhampstead with white, rcd-broWn, tawny THE DOG 17 i^^ yellow, or tawny red, but never all black. Each color should be clearly defined and distinct. T/ie black and tan tcrrici' and his zvJiite colleague. This race brings us back to the land of the terrier. They are small, refined, black and brown animals, which, by their slim bodies, resemble greyhounds and harriers. They have lost their terrier instincts, and their talents are more admired in a drawing-room than out of doors. Careful breeding has transformed this race, which is of very ancient English origin, into a neat and elegant pet dog. They are often called Manchester terriers. The cut of the ears is of great importance in all of these dogs that are exhibited, and they are thus dependent on fashion. The brown or tan color should be visible on the jaws, under the throat, above the eyes, on the cheeks, on the inside of the hind paws, under the tail, and on the front paws up to the first joint. The legs should be black. There is, as we perceive, a whole series of colors, but the dog himself takes his name from his particular colors. The English terrier is all white, and was pro- duced by numberless crossings of the black and tan terriers with small hounds. Si'OTTKi) Bllldik; rhotii J. T. Newman, lierkhampstead Pointers and setters. These animals by nature and training are sporting dogs. They form part of a group of dogs which, when they perceive their feathered or their furry game, stop short, and by their fi.xed attitude indicate to the sportsman the direction of that game. Probably we must seek the explanation of this act, which astonishes all who behold it, in the innate habit of all dogs which hunt their prey of waiting a brief moment English Setters Bl.ack and T.\n Terrier before leaping forward to seize it. But our present hunting dogs are trained, from father to son, merely to find and indicate the game, never to seize it. The three chief races of set- ters are the Irish, of a beautiful golden brown ; the Gordon setter, black and tan ; and the English breed, which is white, or white and brown, or white and black. These dogs are necessarily- very agile in their movements, which is shown by their sloping shoulders, their long chests, their very muscular and rather long necks, and also by i8 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Good Tvpk of Sirni.R their long thighs and vigorous loins. Their undulating silky hair does not render them very suitable for hunting over a bushy country, but in all other respects they are invaluable sport- ing dogs. The Scotch, or Gordon, setter has a rather larger head than other setters, with a larger muzzle and longer ears ; he is black, with tan markings on the jaws, above the eyes, on the paws, and on the articulations. If we caii beliexe tradition, a Duke of Gordon obtained the breed by a crossing of his dogs with a Scotch collie, or sheep dog, which excelled in hunting partridges. They have had their epoch of fame since 1S53, ^vhen some fine speci- mens of the breed were sent to a bench show. They are, and by good right, much in \'ogue as pleasure dogs and companions. The Irish setters e.xcel especially in their magnificent golden or red-brown color, which gives additional charm to their elegant shape. H.WDso.ME I'.^iR OF Gordon Si/iters Gl-K.\1.\.N ."^lloRl-H.VDiFD HlNTI.NG DOO They are by nature quick and agile in their movements, like the English setter, which, however, has rather shorter legs. Their eyes, which are hazel brown, have an expression of great gentleness. Certain German sporting dogs. The Ger- man pointing dogs with smooth coats are of quite another kind. The\' are much valued for sporting in their own country and elsewhere, — in Holland, for instance, — for they are strong constitutionally and are not injured by rain or by mud in the ditches. They are excellent for partridges and hares ; they do not always carry their noses in the air, but often follow the trail of the game along the soil. Their usefulness is considerably increased by their almost perfect intelligence and the ease with which they can be trained. Much time elapsed, however, before their breeding was brought THE DOG 19 to the point now reached. Opinions and tastes have long differed regarding a desirable size of these dogs, their crossing with English pointers and even with spaniels, and also regarding the qualities, more or less good, of the different breeds. But the final product, the German smooth- haired sporting dog, is a success and an honor to his breeders. The height of the shoulder ought to be from twenty to twenty-five inches, and the weight may vary from fifty-five to seventy pounds. The color is brown, or white, spotted or specked with brown, and now and then black and white. The long-haired dog of the same kind differs very little from the short- er smooth-haired animal, except that the chest is slightly narrower and the feet rather longer. The wiry-haired pointing dog may be re- garded as belonging to an international breed, though Germany has spared neither trouble nor expense to make of them a special race. Gehm.an Loxg-Hairkii Hlntini. Dij(, \VlRV-H.\lKF,l) Hu.VTlXG DoG E. K. Korthals, the Dutch breeder, has applied himself in a very meritorious manner to cross- ing all German sporting dogs with the indige- nous, wiry -haired dogs of the Low Countries, Belgium, and France. The results, known in France under the name of griffons', were not at first accepted by German sportsmen, and a long debate arose on the name that should be given to the animal. To-day, thanks especially to the broad-mindedness of the German "Club Griffon," these dogs have passed through their difficult period and are now animals of recognized usefulness, which is the essential thing. The head, large and long, has rough, wiry hair, and shows a mustache and eyebrows fitted to in- spire respect, in spite of their great eyes which express much intelligence and win all sympathies at first sight. Their iron-gray or gray-brown color, and their hair, which feels to the touch like iron wire, give to these dogs a certain resisting quality which we seldom find to the same degree in other breeds. Some much more ancient races of German dogs, such as the brach 20 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS German Lonc-Haiijf.d Hintinc Dog hound, raised chiefly in the north and northwest of Germany, ought to be considered more as beaters of game, or coursers. Hunting having been much changed and modified in the lapse of ages, these dogs are to-da_\- in the background of the large race we are now considering. Pet doi^s. " Have women no children that they caress those beasts?" asked a Roman emperor, on observing the e.xcessive care given by women to little dogs ; whence we may conclude that the habit (jf having pet dogs is as old as civilization, perhaps older. Ladies especially, in all lands, had such dogs, and it is not sur- prising that those who had the time petted and spoiled the little beasts, which slept not only in the laps of their mis- tresses but even in their beds. All this could not fail to injure the favorite races. They became sickly, capricious, feeble, and melancholy. Some little amelioration of their state came about when King Charles I conceived an affection for small black and MP ■ 1 wKKK^^ i s 9 ^^^H B&;' ■ f \^t ^^'^sS 1 ^\ Children of Charles I {Van Dyck) Ijli.nhi;l\i Sfa.niel Photo J. T. Xe^vnlan, Berkhampstead brown spaniels, and the court, as well as all the nobililw f. hU hoL'MlL.A.M) Plioto J. T. Newman, Berkhampstead incon\enient and clums)- about the house. In England, however, they breed them to a still greater height. So long as children's nurses are not superseded by Newfoundlands in duties for which the latter are well Pttetl, this race is better suited to the coun- try than to cities. No better watch- d(.igs could be foimd, and no one is in danger of drowning as long as a Newfoundland is on the place. They are ver)- observant of domestic matters and of the habits of a household, as the following instance shows. A Newfoundland was accustomed to go out ers consec[uently put upon the market, as soon at a certain hour with his master, who had taught as possible, a black and white variety, which him to fetch his cane. One day it rained so has now as much right to existence as the heavily that there was no cjuestion of going wholly black species. The Newfoundland is an admirable swimmer, being able to swim for an hour without resting. He literally lives in the water and has often ren- dered great service in saving lives. Examples out. The dog brought the cane as usual, and seemed puzzled and distressed at being sent away. He left the room, howe\er, and pres- ently returned, bringing an umbrella ! The paws of a Newfoundland serve him as of this are almost innumerable, and on all oars ; they ought to be straight and slim though D.ANDIE DiNMO.NT TeKRIER Skve Tkkkier sides the race is lauded as very intelligent, and strongly muscled. The toes are united bv extremely faithful and gentle, especially with skin, or webbing, which must be regarded as a children. Byron wrote a touching poem on his help in swimming. The tail should be carried Newfoundland, and so have many others ; yet, straight. The head is large and flat, and the strange to say, the taste for these dogs is weight required for bench shows is from one diminishing b)' degrees, and we no longer see hundred to one hundred and thirty pounds. 26 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Bull Terrier The bull terrier and the Seoteh terrier. The great family of terriers counts many other breeds besides those we have ah'ead\ named. We now come to th bull terriers, the Scotch, Skye, and Dandie Din mont terriers. The bull terrier, as his name indicates, comes from the crossing of bull- dogs with terriers. A strong and agile race was desired, and agile the bull- dog was not. In 1 85 2 a breed of English terriers of unusual height seems to have at- tracted the atten- tion of all breeders on the continent of Europe ; and when combats between bulldogs and other animals w ere gradually forbid- den, an effort was made to turn the race into a safe domestic dog. Bench shows Her F.worite \v.\s .\ Scotch Terrier Photo J. T- Newman, Berkliampstead assisted the purpose, and now this lithe and slim white dog, called a bull terrier, with his strong constitution, is an orna- ment to the tribe. His native strength is still shown by his solid shoulders, his power- ful hind quarters, his supple body, and his muscular paws. No other trace of the bull- dog is in him, unless it may be a species of enlargement around the eyes and jaws, which is only shown in a few individuals about their third year. This race is a proof of the excellence of English breeders, for while it gains from the terrier more intelli- gence than from the bulldog, it has kept all the strength of the latter. Very different is the Scotch terrier. Small ody, clever and shrewd, with his rough ray or black hair and his long body, he is not at all vulgar in air or manner. The late Queen Victoria had a Scotch terrier named Caer- nach, who accom- panied her on all her journeys. Giving orders that the ship of war Ligli tiling should escort the royal yacht, the Queen wrote," The L igh t n i ng will carry the eighth battalion and our footman, Ben da, with our terrier Caernach." The Skye terrier is also a Scotch race, and, like all animals living in northern climates, he is provided with a heavy coat. His body is long and his legs short, so that his hair, which hangs straight down on both sides, THE DOG 27 old race of bulldogs found in England, and which also existed in Germany in times gone often touches the ground. This hair, which is rough and bristling, is sometimes five and one- half inches long. The hair of the head is shorter by. They were used as butchers' dogs, to and softer than that of the body. There are guard and drive cattle, and also as watchdogs. Skyes with erect ears and Skyes with pendent The old engravings of Ridinger give a good A Fi:\v Prize Boxkrs ears. Their color varies from a dark blue gray to a tawny gray with black points. The Dandie Dinmont terrier completes the Scotch trio. His name is well known to those who are familiar with the novels of Walter Scott. If any one, by chance, has forgotten him, he may open Giij JSIanncring and turn to the energetic character of farmer Dinmont. It is said that Scott reproduced in him a cer- tain Da\idson of Hindlee, who had some little pepper-and-salt dogs, two of which, named Pep- per and Mustard, were the progenitors of the Dandie Dinmont breed. The present weight of these terriers should be about si.xteen or eighteen pounds. The long hair of the animal ought to have certain characteristics ; there should be a mi.xture of soft hair and stiff hair, but neither should be wiry nor silky. It is not cjuite so long as in other Scotch terriers and is rather shiny on the head. They are lithe clogs, solidly built, low on the front legs, the tail rather thick, being wide at the roots and tapering to a point. The boxers. We can study boxers in the Old World without having anything to do with the Chinese. By boxers is meant a collection of dogs which differ very much in form and color, but yet are very closely related to an idea of them. Here and there in the north of Germany and also in Wiirttemberg there still exist traces of this original species, which is far from handsome. Lately much serious attention has been given to this race of dogs, and the result is the boxer, called also the Boston terrier, although he is not related to our own American breed of the same name. Skye Terrier with Long Ears Photo J. T. Newman. Berkliampstead The exhibition of types of boxers obtained by careful breeding has caused much improve- ment in the unity of the race. Very fine speci- mens were seen in the bench shows of last 28 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS W.ALDMANX year, especiall}' in Holland, the Dutch breeders even carry- ing off the first prizes in Germany. We ma\- now consider the boxer as a good dog which shows no peculiarity of shape, but takes his place between the bulldog and the bull terrier. The Waldmaint or Dachsliuihl. In Ger- many they give this tlog the syh'an name of W'aldmann (forest man), but he is by no means exclusively a forest dog. He is, however, inseparable from the German hunter or forester, and as these men spend their lives in the woods and mountains their dog re- ceives the name of forest or mountain dog. The shape of this German basset is almost weird. He is low on his paws, with a very long body, and, seen from in front, his legs appear so con- torted that it were well he had never been born. Seen on the right or the left, the legs of a good German basset are straight from the body. The head is long and narrow, the ears hang down the whole length of the head, and the body is also long, but has no saddle, a form which, if present, betrays weakness. The tail should be as slim as possible and should not turn \\\) upon the back. In color some are black brown-black, red-brown, light brown, mouse color, or white spotted. The white and mouse-colored varieties are very rare. We shall see the German bassets at work when we come to ferreting out foxes Ghr.m.an B.asset and badgers, and we can then admire their \ivacity, their courage, and their slyness. The beagle. Among the small hunting dogs that are employed, sometimes in packs and some- times singly, to ferret out, chase, and catch, if possible, small game, we find the beagle, a \-ery ancient race, well known in 1614. It is said that his English name of " beagle " comes from the old French word bugle (the etjitga reftaiis, a woodland plant). Like the French bassets, they give voice, when the passion of the chase seizes them, to a peculiarly sonorous note. The beagle is a popular breed in many parts of America and is commonly used in hunting rabbits and such game. The French basset, very wrongfully con- founded sometimes with the German basset, makes part, together with the beagles, of what is called in France the " minor hunting estab- lishment," to distinguish them from the races of large hunting dogs which make up what is called the " great establishment." The two spe- cies may be regarded as dwarf varieties of the larger dogs. For a pleasure dog the basset, as he is bred in France (and not as he is badly bred in America), is a charming domes- tic dog, excellent for his sociability and for his extraordinary patience with children. The most esteemed are three-colored, white, brown, and black, the different patches of which are gracefully distributed over the body. A young basset ought not to be more than a dozen inches in height, meas- ured from the shoulder. There are two varieties of hair, smooth and rough. It is very curious to watch the waddling gait of his plump body on its big short legs, of which the front ones, not more than four inches ong, are sunk in at the knees and then bent outward, like those of a turnspit. The head has a well- developed bump at the back, called the hunt- ing bump, round which the plump flesh forms THE DOG 29 numerous folds. Long ears, some- times touching the ground when the dog is following a scent, complete one of the most original of the canine race. Besides these three small species hunting is still done with little span- iels, among which are the yellow clumbers, the Susse.x browns, the fields, black or variegated, and the cocker spaniels, also black or striped. All these dogs, trained to bring back the game, have long, low bodies and are very active and easily trained to their work. The weight of a good cocker spaniel should never exceed twenty-five pounds. Water spaniels have frizzled, close- curled hair. There are two species — the Irish, which is brown, and the English, which is black, brown, or pie- bald, both being excellent and very active hunters. A taste for hunting- seems inborn in them ; they are scarcely out in the open country be- fore they forget everything except their train- ing. It is not surprising, therefore, that a cocker spaniel on one occasion showed his contempt for a bad sportsman. His master had lent him for some days to a friend, and Banker (that was the dog's name) started at once to search the fields with the greatest zeal. He had already scented a covey of par- tridges and caused them to take wing, but the sportsman missed his shot, to the great Beagles Photo J. T. Newman, Berkhampstead French B..\sset amazement of the dog. The latter repeated his duty three times, the sportsman proving equally inexpert. This angered the dog. He stopped his work, appeared to reflect, walked back to the sportsman and three times round him ; then he raised his paw, laid it on the man's boot, turned away, and went straight back to his own home. And yet people say that dogs have no minds ! The German zvatcluiog. In judging of the beauty of a breed we often run up against the impossibility (in this and in other cases) of giving a clear definition, applicable in all cases, of the idea of beauty, and the dog which shows in his exterior neither monotony nor excess in any particular is apt to carry the day. The German watchdog is such a one, and he imites his good qualities in ex- cellent proportion. Strength, elegance, a slim neck, the head high, the movements rapid but ^o OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS ■■9 El ^L M m mI m CllCKF.K Sr.W II I dignified, a frank, open glance, penetrating but inspiring confidence — such are the gener- ally recognized cjualities of this race, and by them they have won both esteem and admiration. The early dogs of this species came of a crossing between the English mastiff and the Irish hound and were then large and savage. At the beginning of the sixteenth century they were imported to Germany for hunting the wild boar, and when that sport ceased, or fell off in popu- larity, the breeding and taming of the race for pleasure dogs and watchdogs continued, and they then received the names of Ulm dogs and Danish dogs. These two names, which are still frequently met with, are now given erroneously. It is possible that the Danish dog has been crossed from time to time with the dog of south Germany or WiJrttemberg ; but the German dog of our day is a Gcniian dog, and the name of Great Dane, given in France, England, and America, is incorrect. The variety of color in dogs of this race con- tributes to increasing their friends and admirers. Some are brindled (black lines on a yellow or orange ground), and some are uniformly yellow or mouse color, although these are becoming rare. Others are spotted black and white, or are uniformly black. The ears, being cut at a very early age, give the animal a better appear- ance and save him from injur)' to their lobes. It is an error to represent these dogs as false. Of course there may be specimens in this race, as in all others, that will not endure being played with, but they are not treacherous. On the contrary, they are good and faithful guard- ians of the house and of children, and though ' .^■^9 ^ ^^K^ Hlff i ' '''^ ^.1 % b> IJl ACKI-Il Ml .'-•I' \M Handsome P.air of German Hounds they are strong enough to be recalcitrant, they remain calm and dignified in critical moments, and are always responsive to the call of their master or mistress. Their tail is their weak point in two respects. First, they often break the end of it in their joy, and the harm is difficult to repair; and secondly, the modern system of breeding for bench shows requires that the tail of this German dog shall never be raised higher than the level of his back, even in moments of agitation; and that is a very difficult thing to compass, even in a dog with THE DOG 31 German Hound with hi-:k Vocng and a Dutch Shkep Dot;, hi:k Kennel Comhamox a sad disposition, when nature has given his tail an upward turn. Dogs ivitk pointed muzzles. The dogs with pointed muzzles formed for centuries a race apart in the north of Europe ; and, strange to say, they have undergone but little change to this day. The Eskimo, Lapp, Finnish, and Iceland dogs, together with the Pom- eranians, all have the same protecting long hair and pointed nose. The Pomeranians, which may be white, black, or iron-gray, and which vary considerably in size here and there, far e.xcel all the other breeds of their race by their vigilance and their sharp barking. Very intelligent, quite inquisitive, and rather distrustful, they utter a cry of alarm on the slightest occasion. Dogs com- peting at bench shows must have their ears erect, their color clear and decided, their tails laid up over their backs, and their legs straight. The hair should be long, straight, and silky, and form a mane around the neck. The animal should not weigh more than twenty-two pounds. The Belgian schipperke, which belongs to this race, is very small and is much in demand for its typical exterior. The brave little fellow, who is all black and yaps more than he barks, has some talent for sport and is a great lover of horses. He attracts attention by his very pointed head and sharp nose, his thick black hair with its ruff, and the total absence of any- thing resembling a tail. Our space does not permit us to inquire if that absence is the result of artificial breeding, or is a transmission of inheritance. A good schipperke ought not to 32 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Spotted German Watchdog this we must add that beating for game has become so much the fashion that the [jointer is less in demand. It is said that he was frequently crossed in former times with the bulldog and the greyhound. When the race was sufficiently improved magnificent breeds were obtained ; among which may be mentioned the white and brown pointers of Garth, Bentinek, Arkwright, and Price, and the yellow and white dogs of Whitehouse, Brierly, and Salter. It may be said of the modern pointer that he has but one defect, — his weak constitution. He is a model of beauty. A magnificent gallop, rapid motions, an im- posing air, and an expressive, undulating tail are characteristics of this noble dog. weigh more than twelve pounds if he belongs His every muscle performs its function when to the small kind, or more than twenty pounds if he be- longs to the large kind. Pointers and retrievers. The very noble English sport- ing dog, called a pointer, who owes his name and universal reputation to his excellent manner of pointing out the game, originated probably in Spain. The modern pointer, bred and improved with the utmost care (though subjected now and then to the caprices of sport and fashion), differs in the present day from his Spanish ancestors and is an honor to Eng- lish breeding. He is exclusively employed by English and American sportsmen to discover and point out the game ; and his wonderful flair (perception) transmitted from generation to generation, his admir- able immobility from the moment he scents the game, and the willingness with which he lends himself to training cannot be too. much praised. The pointer seeks eagerly with rapid steps; but the game of late years growing more and more wild, he is less used now than formerly. The grouse, especially, no longer finding as much shel- ter in the fields, fly more hurriedly. To Black Wolf Dog traight as the barrels of a gun he is at work, and he gives him- self body and soul to the task confided to him. The sports- man often goes out with a pair of pointers who, as they seek, approach each other obliquely. When one dog finds game the other respects him by stand- ing still, which evidently re- quires severe training. Pointers for exhibition must have broad chests of good depth, between two legs as The feet 1;la(_k a.mi Whim. W uli D THE DOG 33 should be round and very com- pact. The shoulders and also the back must slope towards the short and pointed tail, whereas the hind quarters must be robust and muscular. The head should be broad between the ears and the muzzle lonj;'. The color of the body is white and liver colored, or lemon-yel- low and white, or white flecketl with black. But the essential thing is a respectable geneal- ogy, which all competing dogs of renown possess. With the pointer we may name the retriever, an English race of which two varieties exist, — the long haired and the frizzled or crinkled haired. They have in them the blood Belgian Schipperkens of the setter and the Newfoundland. The friz- zled retriever shows traces of the blood of the water spaniel. His hair is black, and the head is long, with strong jaws by which to carry heavy game. His business is to recover, or " re- trieve," the game that the sportsman has shot. Prize Dog Brussels, and the race is now carefully kept up, thanks to the Club of Brussels Griffons, founded in 1889. They may be regarded as a dwarf form of the rattler (pinchers). They are intelligent dogs and very lively, and their eyes have an almost human expression. The apple-shaped head is covered with stiff hair, which is longer about the eyes and jaws than elsewhere. The black eyelids bring out the brilliancy of the eyes. The lips ought always to be black, while the rest of the body is reddish brown; T//e Brussels griffon. This is a v&xy pretty dog and much in demand. He became known to fanciers about forty years ago, and he made his first appearance on exhibition at Brussels in 1880. The specimens then exhibited were sold in England, but their descendants remained in .A \'l K\" I-'l\ I '\'\\'\ W'l 1(11 I. v-H AIRED Retriever 34 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Superb Collecti the nose is brown, the eyes light, the crest of the head siliW come out of the kennel to get air. The ^ ^ floor may be of planks, but it must always ^^:?lii'^ be possible to clean it with water and disinfectants. Some kennels are detached from the ground or tur back on hinges, thereby contributing much to cleanliness, which is so im- portant, especially for young dogs. If it is desired to prevent the dis- eases of dogs, disinfectants should be used every week in all ken- nels, but never to the extent of leaving the floor damp. Dryness and a layer of clean straw, sand, A Kennel of P.ast Times The Model Kennel or any peaty substance is the safety of young dogs. A layer of peat, re- newed once a month, and covered with a layer of good straw fresh every The B.arrel Kennel week is a delightful bed for all kinds dogs. Sawdust, carpets, and matting are less advisable. It is well for dogs to have a ])lace outside their shelter, covered whoU)' or in part with sand, and surrounded by a hedge without thorns or sharp edges. It should be near the kennel, and should be large or small according to local cir- cumstances ; it should be paved in part with stones or cement and pro- vided with little trenches or ditches. It might also form a grassy inclosure in the garden near the house, preferably with a southern exposure, but partly shaded. Some kennels are paved with marble and have water running in trenches along the sides. They form, with a separate building for the gardener, a pretty group, but dogs are apt to be ill in them. 3ther kennels are built by members of a family in few days ; these are simple and practical, the animals who live in them are healthy and of exemplary good temper. In kennels of a The Same Kennel Wide Open certain character 42 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Large Kennels seen from Withoi Photo J. T. Newman. Berkhanipstt^ad Large Kennels seen from Within and size the dogs are almost always provided with interior retreats or lairs ; these must be suitably ventilated, but protected from drafts. It is best to have the kennel face the south, but there should also be a shady side to it, where the animals could stretch themselves out against the railings. The space be- tween the rails should not be too wide, lest the dogs, espe- cially the young ones, should get their legs caught in them. All kennels should be dry, well aired, and provided with fresh water. The gravel of the paths is apt to hurt the toes of certain dogs, and is uncomfortable in winter from frost and snow. The water troughs, which are in or near the kennel, ought to be within easy reach of the dogs, fresh water being an indispensable necessity. It is not well to put many dogs in the same retreat ; and THE DOG 43 it is best to separate the sexes not by a railing but by a stone wall, through which they cannot see each other. In large kennels, where packs of sporting or hunting clogs are kept (foxhounds, for instance), a dozen are often put together ; but in such kennels the conditions differ in many respects from those elsewhere. It is curious to see and hear, once or twice a da\-, the whole pack of these hounds give a sudden bark without apparent cause. A few will begin, and soon the noise (full cry) is deafening : then it ceases as suddenly as it began. Each set of dogs seems to know not only its own name but the names of the other sets. In the evening, when the dogs return in charge of their keepers, the young dogs will go to their own quarters at Rkw.akdf.d the command " Hounds ! hounds ! " the male dogs enter their cjuarters. The training of dogs, especially pointers, is always admirable in kennels of a certain size. N'lII. Indispens.able Arti- cles FOR THE Kennel Besides the ordinary im- plements for cleaning there ought to be in every kennel , ^^^^^ plent_y of water and disinfec- A ^^^^1 tants, also brushes, combs, fl|^ ^^^H and leather or india-rubber gloves. These articles should be kept in some fixed, clean place apart, for it often hap- pens that servants will use them for all sorts of purposes for which they were not intended. If the kennel is large, it is easy to make a place for them ; and if there is plenty of room, the food of the dogs — biscuit, L.ARDER KOK KlCNNELS the call of "Pups! pups!" Next follows the meat, eggs, bone dust — and some medicaments summons of " Ladies, come in ! " and all the may also be kept there. The biscuit must, of females press in to their retreat. Lastly, at course, be kept dry, the meat protected from 44 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS flies, and the whole larder made safe from attack by the inhabitants of the kennel. The wardrobe of dogs, great and small, has its place in the kennel. First, there is the collar Do ! I 'I !■> ! " Ladies, come in !" Photo J. T. Newman. Berkhampstead 46 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS A Walk with a Dm; on a Chain is often iu't Half a Plfasikl collar and chain, often retain the disagreeable trick of jnilling forward with such force that the promenade becomes mere dragging, — a fatigue and not a pleasure. Dogs cannot be given too many walks, especially in the country. They learn to understand the will of their master and end by obeying the slightest sign. Choose between Ml and your Machine Every infraction ought to he punished, at tirst b\- words and then by actions. If the dog lingers behind and does not come promptly at the first call or whistle, he should be fas- tened at once to the chain. When he is too busy with his congeners, or when he runs off too far, the same punishment should follow iiinncdiatcly upon the fault. Another habit of which it is very difficult to break a dog is that of wallowing in the mud. This is probably a relic of the habits of his ancestors or an inheritance from the wild dog, but it is none the less annoying. It is said that if a decoction of cabbage is given to them with their meals they will lose the habit, but people say a great many things, and natural habits are hard to change. In bicycle riding a dog is certainly a good escort on lonely roads, but in other respects, both for dog and cyclist, it is only a half pleasure. Actual torture is sometimes seen. Greyhounds, certain terriers, and a few large dogs can accompany a cyclist without too THE DOG 47 much fatigue ; but to take a basset hound, a bulldog, a collie, or a St. Bernard on a rapid trip is injurious to the animal and distressing to his owner. A short trip on a summer's afternoon in the park or half an hour into the country will not harm any dog, whereas a long and rapid run injures both his heart and his lungs. " Choose between me and your machine," says the dog, and he is perfectly right It is also injurious to send a dog out twice a day on the chain with a servant, — in the morning when the milkman is at the door, in the evening when the maid goes to market. In the morning Turk or Mimi will want to make acquaintance with his or her con- geners of a doubtful kind ; in the evening it is the maid's acquaint- ance who makes the promenade disagreeable to the dog. Go out yourself with your dogs ; feed them yourself ; con- vince yourself daily that they are cared for as you desire, — these are some of the rules that every owner of dogs should inscribe in gilt letters on his kennels. Above all, carry the food yourself to your dogs ; animals accustom themselves and attach themselves most to those who feed them. IX. C.\RE AND Food It is very difficult to say what is the best food to give to dogs. The harness dogs, for instance, who never get anything but bread and potatoes, continue i good health while doing hard work Some are fed solely on biscuit made of flour mixed with a certain quan- tity of minced meat, fish, or other substances ; these dogs also do well and are healthy. For kennels of a dozen dogs or more it is ]irudcnt to ci)nk broth at home, and to gi\'e to the best dogs great quantities of dog biscLiit. Biscuit is also very convenient for those who have onlv one or two dogs, as it A(:kf.f..af.lf, Pko.mknadf. for the Dog merely requires to be broken up and Sf)aked, or it can be bought broken up. Thus dry food in sufficient quantity is at hand at all times. It is necessary, however, to be sure of a good dealer, who will supply fresh biscuit from the best manufacturers, who prepare their product with the utmost care. Many brands of adulter- ated biscuit, made of refuse of all kinds, are now on the market. To certain dogs who cannot bear meat, excellent fish biscuit may be given now and then. It is best not to give it dry, though all dogs, espe- :ially young ones, ought have hard food often in order to cleanse and strengthen their teeth. It is not bad to vary the food with rye bread, brown bread, and occasion- ally vegetables. Mil. Fl.l.DINti OF Do(iS 48 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Young dogs should be given much milk, with their work. Horse flesh, beef, and mutton or without water, and sometimes a little whey, are good for them, provided the meat is fresh What is left fmm the table or from restaurant and not fat. In the great kennels broth is dinners, like moistened crusts, sour potatoes, often made of calves' heads and feet. Rice the skins and heads of fish, and such things as we hear people say, " Oh ! the dog will eat that," are certainly swallowed by him, but the results are diseases the skin or of the intestines ulcers in the throat, and bills from veterinaries If a dog will not eat potatoes without sauce, give him no food until his stomach begins tn crave it. Al- r ways give a dog less than his stomach , demands. To j be kept in ,^,„„,, good health a dog should never turn from his plate till he has their own bony structure ; they bury a bone to licked it clean with pleasure. When he leaves make it tender, but it sometimes happens that any food upon it, it is a sign that he has eaten a hard bone is thrown to a puppy, and this is too much. Two meals a day are sufficient, — always injurious. What the dog needs to find one cold in the morning, and the other hike- now and then on his diet list is grass — just warm in the afternoon. T'ii| li nil m ' 'I ' "<>i|^' ^^B^ ' " g'rass. He often goes in be fed three or four times a day, and they ought to ^, ' have twice as much milk as vegetables N sAr.l-i Ai; I II I is an excellent food, and mixed with codfish is a favorite winter food for dogs that are not pampered. From time to time a little cod-li\'er oil (which can be ob- tained in biscuit form) puri- fies the blood and gives a luster to the coat. Over the food of young dogs and those nearly adult a pinch of phos- ]ihated lime or pure b (1 n e d u s t should be scat- tered. Dogs like to gnaw tender bones, which help to FOR Tin: Ki.nm:l .\m> \\',\i;ii 1).J(,S Strengthen Food should nevei be hot, for a dog dislikes as much ^ as a man to burn his tongue, but he is not cautious enough to refrain from gulping down a half boiling mess. Every dog, being born carniv- orous, ought to have meat ; but it is impossible to fix the exact search of it himself, and eats ■ it like a famished cow. Once a month he must 1 le made to take a vermifuge mixed with his milk and given preferably j when he is fasting A vermifuge in bis- ( uit form, a teaspoon- ful of calomel, or any of J ^j.'^' the vermifuges ad\-ertised m the papers do good service when the ailment is merely earth- worms, wdth which nearly all dogs are troubled, just as they are by quantity he should receive without considering threadworms. Visible emaciation and the rub- his form and the conditions under which he bing of the hind parts on the ground show the lives. Draft dogs and hounds which hunt and presence of these mischief-makers. But dogs course ought to have meat in proportion to can have other species of worms that may be A Doc, olHiHl" TO K-Al Willi Pleasure THE DOG 49 dangerous to man. They must absolutely be prevented from licking plates and dislies used in the kitchen, or any utensil used for was/iitig the face, especially that of a child. After each vermifuge a dose of castor oil should be given, in a quantity propor tioned to the size of the animal, befrinning with a teaspoonful and in creasing until the maximum of a tabli-- spoonful is reached. Here is anothci piece of serious advice to those who have young dogs : never fatten them. The Chinese and some tribes of negroes in Guinea consider ddi; flesh a delicacy, but as long as it j^^ ought never to does not appear on the dinner lists have too much to eat of America there is no object in giving dogs excessive nourishment, which undoubtedly shortens their lives. The care given to dogs for bench shows differs considerably, as we shall see later, from j that which they receive in private families. Among the latter external care is, unhappily, so neglected that the animals finally acquire skin diseases, which make them objects of dis- gust to every one, and they exhale an odor which is very hard to remove. All dogs which a family desires to keep in good health (for their own sake as well as the dog's) should be freed at least once a week from dust and all other impurities that have collected on their skin and in their hair. This ought, by rights, to be done daily, and it is not a really difficult matter, with leather gloves and a good brush. A few strokes of the brush in the direction in which the hair lies will suffice to give another aspect to the coat of a short-haired dog. Long- haired dogs must be combed after massage with the gloved hand. The dead hair should be care- fully removed. During the period of shedding the hair it is wise to proceed carefully, as the skin is very sensitive at such times. All combs and brushes used upon the animal should be cleaned at once, and preferably with a disin- fectant. Besides dust and dirt the hair of a dog frequently hides vermin, but if he is cleaned daily he will have few or none. It is not bad to wash and bathe dogs, though this is often done to excess. They may be allowed to swim from time to time, but there is a great dif- ference between swimming and a bath for cleanli- . ness. A dog should have a bath once a month, and should then be luet to the skin. After rubbing him well with soap and warm water, every particle of soap must be rinsed off and the dog allowed to shake himself vigor- ously. He should then be dried with towels and taken on the chain for a short walk ; if this is not done he almost always takes cold, or else he goes and dries himself against a dirtv A Good Combing 50 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS wall or in the sand. Baths are quite injurious to the hair of collies and to Russian hounds with long waving hair. Those dogs should be rubbed with equal quantities of magnesia and rice powder mixed, which should previously be CuMK OKF THK Dk.AD HaIR thoroughly dried. A chamois skin and a little oil in the palm of the hand contribute much to keeping the coat smooth. There are all sorts of domestic remedies for fleas and other vermin, but the best and most lasting results are obtained from the medica- ments put forth by the best manufacturers. To permit a dog to swim as much as he likes is a good and easv wa\- of cleansing the skin; on the other hand, we disapprove of the mania some persons have of making dogs take cold baths in ponds and rivers against their will, especially since such baths are usually too short to produce any cleansing effect. Proper care of the skin and coat will give a healthy dog a brilliant exterior, which together with a greater vivacity and gayety distinguishes him at a glance from a neglected dog ; while at the same time he will lose the disagreeable trick of scratching and biting himself, and will no longer e.xhale an odor. The hair of a dog being his natural cloth- ing, he needs no other fur in winter. Neverthe- less, there is a whole wardrobe of garments for dogs ; and dressmakers in London, Paris, and New York do a good business by making them. Traveling cloaks, evening cloaks, jackets for the carriage, waterproofs, and even india- rubber boots find purchasers of both sexes Shirts for dogs, monograms embroidered on their garments, visiting cards, etc., form part of this branch of industry. There is a shop in the Galerie d'Orleans, in Paris, where Grand Duke Michael of Russia is one of the best customers, and where the Khedive of Egypt once ordered for a little dog an incroyablc ; in other words, an over- coat with velvet lapels. The Comtesse de Paris, the queen of Portugal, and Prince W'aldemar of Denmark all order their dog's clothing at the same place ; but it goes without saying that, excepting delicate grey- hounds, no dog needs to be clothed, and they had better be left to their natural L;arments. Pornierl\- the great hounds that were sent against big game were protected by a sort of cuirass. This is seen in a picture b)' Rubens, in the Belvedere of Vienna, and also in the gallery of the Duke of Coburg. This covering had a useful purpose, protecting the dog from the bites of boars and bears. But the feebler animals of our day never dream of Toilet C<3.Nn'i.F:TED fighting ; they crouch to earth and tremble in their collars if a grunt is heard. When _\'ou see two dogs fighting and biting each other don't break your cane over their backs, but pinch the nose of the top dog or THE DOG 51 grip his throat, shpping your stick through his collar. He will let go immediately for want of air. But if you are the one the dog has bitten, send at once f<.)r the doctor. X. Birth and Early Youth If a person owns a well-bred female dog and desires to reproduce the breed, or if he owns a male and desires to have pups which later will have a money value, let him never lose sight of the following maxim : " Marry gold to gold or silver to gold." The male and the female can never be too good. The selection should be left to an e.xperienced breeder, taking care to put in writing the condi- tions of the trans- action. When the time comes for the pups to be born the mother should be kept in perfect repose. For some weeks previous she should not he allowed to take fatiguine: walks M.\ 1 ITvNAI. C.VRES or to jump and bound. A place should have been already prepared for her, apart from the other dogs. It is best not to put too much straw in it, or the pups cannot be dried fast enough by the mother's licking. The mother will choose for herself the best side of the kennel or barn. It is well that she should be habituated to the place some time in advance, or it might happen that her new residence would not please her, and then, at the last moment, an an.xious mother will give birth to her pups in some unexpected place which may be injurious to them. It is needless to say that nature ought to be left to itself, but the present system of breeding has put many dogs into a state that is unnatural. It is not surprising, therefore, that some mothers crush their progeny, or, in the agitation of the moment, do not know what to do with the wet and whimpering pups ; and thus whole litters are sometimes lost. It is not superfluous to take precautions. Among other precautions a large box or case should be provided, with vertical partitions about six inches high, where the mother can give birth to her young. In it should be laid a second wooden floor, carefully planed, with small holes pierced through it, by which the ni<.)isture can drain off. This floor should be covered with peat dust. There should also be four trans- versal laths placed along one interior side of the box, under which the pups can lie without danger of being pressed upon by the mother. These laths must not have sharp edges that might w (.) u n d the mother's breast. If the weather is cold an empty sack or a piece of old carpet might be nailed over the opening, which arrangement is always excellent to close a dog's retreat, because it excludes cold, and yet the animals can easily- pass in and out by pushing aside the portiere. Nature has provided that the mother can feed all the offspring that she brings into the world ; but our system of breeding, no doubt unintentionally, has put a spoke in her wheel, and very large litters are nearly always a fail- ure. The strongest of the newborn quickly choose the best places under the mother's teats, and push aside the weaker ones ; so that when the litter is large some of the pups get little nourishment, while others get none at all, and die. It is quite a risk to leave six with the mother. Breeders usually try to leave four or five. The best and strongest can soon be dis- covered ; but in every litter there is usually 52 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS a laggard, which remains small and feeble even off matters which they have in their bodies, and when adult. A mother can suckle ten at a time, but the anatomical construction of her breast gives a smaller relative production of milk than is the case with any of the other domestic animals, which alone is reason enough to limit the number of pups If the mother is a ven' valuable dog, a substi- tute is found for her after a time; and advertisements often appear in the news- papers, to the great amusement of those who know nothing of dogs, soliciting the serv ices of a "wet-nurse bitch." An attempt has been made to manufacture an artificial nurse, consisting of an apparatus in which the pups are kept warm and supplied with nursing bottles of warm milk. Some pups are brought up on the bottle, but the mother's milk is so efficacious You.xG Mastiffs Photo J. T. Newman, Berkhampstead which ought to disappear as soon as possible. Mothers who are very young give birth at first to few pups. Their litters become larger till their fourth year, when they begin to diminish. During the period if suckling the mother shfiuld iven food that is easy to digest, and in which there is much white of egg, grease, and salt, which serve to make milk for the young lines. A broth of flesh, with much warm milk and rice, makes e.xcel- ent nourishment for the nursing mother. At the end of five or six weeks meat can be given to her, either cooked or raw, minced fine, with bread and, if necessary, biscuit. Salt must not be forgotten, nor phosphated chalk, nor bone dust to strengthen the bones. If the weather is warm, the pups can be from the birth of the little ones that art is taken out of the bo.x on the fifth day and put found powerless to equal nature. It is, in fact, in a basket. The bo.x should then be thor- absolutely necessary that the pups should suck oughly cleansed. At the end of eight days thefirst drops from the mother's breast, because the young dogs begin to open their eyes and that milk, watery in appearance, contains sub- try to creep ; by the fifteenth day they can, stances which warm them internally and carry Young B.asskt Hhunds — Gekm-\n though very awkward!}-, lap milk from a dish or a plate. The milk, however, should be mixed with water or limewater. Weaning must not begin till after the fifth week. The mother will tr_\' to fulfill her nursing duties as long as possible ; but if the pups are fed during her absence from them (which ought to take place four or five times a day), the difficulty will soon be overcome. If the little creatures are fed at first on milk, broth, cod-liver oil, or biscuit prepared for young pups, they will soon take these things as their regular food. Rut they should be fed several times a day in small quantities, and not all at once, in which case they will be likely to stuff themseh'es to their ears, to the great detriment of their health and well-being. THE DOG 53 The place where the pups live must be often cleansed and disinfected, as they are far from cleanly themselves. The habit of cleanli- ness must be taught to each puppy, one by Hdw TO Lift a Youno Dog one ; they will not learn it in a body. In lift- ing young dogs they should never be taken by the neck, but always under and round the body by both hands. They will soon become the victims of fleas, which, in spite of all efforts, do infest all ani- mals. The pups must be washed carefully, but no disapproval of the use of tobacco water or turpentine can be too severe. Neither is it well to use kerosene, which will destroy no more fleas than careful washing. Dotzer's Cream of Parasites is now the universal remedy against these pests ; it is also a preventive of eruptions of all kinds. XI. Old Age Dogs are in their prime when three or four years old. Until their si.xth year they are strong and healthy ; after that they decHne, and a dog that is eight years old is regarded by his kind as an old fellow. At ten he is really an old dog, and though he may live a few years longer, the usual life of the domestic dog lasts only ten or eleven years. The great- est age on record is that of a spaniel who lived to be twenty-si.x years old. It is remarkable how old dogs, especially those who have given proofs of perspicacity through life, retain their intellectual faculties to the last. Leibnitz de- clared that these animals never wholly die ; and according to the Scandinavian mythology the dog is the messenger of death. On the other hand, in our matter-of-fact epoch, a dead dog is dead ; and the first thing to do is to take the body of that friend of man and bury it. Dead dogs are sometimes H(i\v .NOT T(i Lift Hni thrown into the water, where they float among the reeds, and swarms of flies and mosquitoes disseminate germs that are certainly injurious and even poisonous. The proper way of pre- venting this would be to burn all bodies of animals ; but so long as the cremation of man makes slow progress, that of animals will be slower still. We must, therefore, bury them, THE DOG 55 and whatever we may think, it is the best way for the present. There are cemeteries for dogs in London, Paris, and Amsterdam. Many a tear has been shed in those cemeteries where lies the old and faithful friend of the family, who has shared its joys and sorrows ; and where the sporting dog, the joy and comfort of the sports- man, sleeps his last sleep. Persons have some- times laughed both at and in those cemeteries ; exaggeration ; but the simple burial of the domestic dog is less shocking, especially for the children, than his consignment to the ma- nure heap. XII. The Usefulness of Dogs If it were asked by which of the dog's gifts or organs mankind has chiefly profited, the __ answer undoubtedly would be scent, — flair. we leave it to our readers to judge whether or Hunting and sporting dogs of all kinds are not they have cause to do so. proof of this, and bloodhounds, which of late The burial of dogs dates far back. Among have been again much talked of, will probably the ancient Mexicans they were buried in the render much service in future to the laws and tombs of their deceased mas- ters, and the same was done on the death of children, be- cause, according to their ideas, those faithful friends would help the little ones to find their way ; while our advanced civilization, that knows so much better, casts them into the manure pit. There have been exceptions to this rule, however. In Celebes, the largest of the Molucca Islands, they are buried to improve the soil, and thus continue their services to man. Frederick the Great caused tombs to be built for his hounds at Sans Souci, and numerous are the monuments that have been raised to the A Distinguished Member of the Hr.M.^NE Society memory of dogs. Alexander the Great built the police. Up to this time the employment of a town in memory of one of these friends, and bloodhounds (r/«V;w c/f Saint Hiibert)\xv England Sergius, Patriarch of Constantinople from 608 has been merely tentative. Thanks to his scent, to 639, decreed that the anniversary of the death the bloodhound is well fitted to follow a human of his dog Arzibur should be kept annually as trail, and they have been used for this purpose a day of mourning. Lately a well-known dog in America with such brilliant results that it is named Syras (by Prince Charles of Denmark, reall\- surprising that the European continent now king of Norway, after an English actor) has not, as yet, attempted to get this service died in London and was buried at Scarsdale, from them. Trained to the work, these dogs his head resting on a cushion of flowers in will indicate where the person wanted is to be a rosewood coffin. A procession of f(jrty per- found, without doing him the slightest harm, sons in automobiles followed him to the ceme- They must not be confounded with ferocious tery, where a fine monument is now in process bloodhounds sent in pursuit of negroes, about of erection. All that, undoubtedly, is sheer whom all sorts of exaggerated tales have been 56 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS German I'ciijm i ' told. There is now a club for the de- velopment of these hounds and their congeners. The law could profitably use these animals in certain cases, and they might be given to the police as watchers and companions. In remote quarters, where only two police agents can be employed, a dog would answer well as a reenforcement, and would be cheaper than a man. In fact, in Ham- burg, Stuttgart, Leipzig, Brunswick, Oldenburg, and Strasburg the police have dogs. In Paris the police have a brigade of life-saving Newfound- lands, who are particularly fitted and used for rescuing persons from the Seine. In Austria the attention of the authorities has been drawn to such use of these animals, while at Zurich, Ghent, and Rotterdam they now form part of the police force. It is difficult to decide which race or breed is best fitted for such purposes. Lovers of the shepherd dog favor that race ; breeders of terriers (which have already done good service with the armies) recommend them highly. In any case the dog must be dark in color, not too small, courageous, hardened, not pampered, and possessed of a keen scent. There are places on certain frontiers where the customhouse officers employ dogs with great success in tracking smugglers. On the other hand, it often happens that the dog helps the smuggler by car- rying prohibited merchandise across the frontier with caution and great rapidity. War dogs, introduced of late into armies, never miss the roll call. The Scotch shepherd dog and the Aires- dale terrier have been found most suitable for both cam- paign and ambulance use. They do incalculable service in seeking for the wounded among bushes and under- growth, where the poor fellows escape the eye of the Docs OF THE River Brig.ade, P.aris Hi.ooniioL'Nii^ ; Tin-: Qi'AHKV is Founi) A Brigade of Life-Saving Dogs organ-izko hv M. Lepine, Prefect of Police at Paris 58 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Red Cross but not the nose of the dog. They are trained to bring rehef and food to the slightly wounded, and to carry cartridges along square, the nose thick, the ears small and car- ried high, the color, preferably dark. The legs, with catlike paws, must be strong, the chest well rounded, the back broad and straight, and the tail pendent. Both varieties, the short haired and the long haired, should measure at least twenty-six inches to the shoulder for the males and twenty-five for the females. The color may be all shades of red to brown, with the collar, chest, feet, and tip of tail white. The catlike shape of the feet enables the animal to walk on the snow without sinking deep, which would lessen his chance of saving life. Obviously these C|ualities are of use only on a mountain. Every one remembers the legend of Barry, the most famous of all the St. Bernard dogs, who, in the seventeenth century, saved hun- Germ\n War Dog dreds of lives on the Alps. It was said that this faithful animal was killed by a w'ounded the lines and dispatches to the generals ; they soldier, who thought he was about to attack are also trained to warn the outposts at night him, whereas the dog was really trying to pull (without barking) of an intended surprise. him from the edge of a precipice. This touch- At the hospital on Mount St. Bernard a race of dogs has for centuries been kept to rescue travelers who have lost their way. The manner in which this was done in past years, when there were many more foot passengers than at present, has been too often described to need repetition here ; it is enough to say that along the route at regular intervals there are " refuges," now connected with the hospital by telephone. The dog, accompanied by a monk, carries the traveler to one of these shelters, and no longer needs the traditional little key around his neck. The St. Bernard dogs on the mountain of that name do not present the imposing appearance of their congeners as seen in the bench shows of the present day. The care and study given to the breeding and improvement of the race have been admir- able. While in England and America breed- ers have chiefly paid attention to size, and have wandered from the original type, those of the continent of Europe have striven to pre- serve the pure blood of that type as much as because of old age, and sent to the museum possible. The head should be heavy, the muzzle where he was stuffed and may still be seen. St. Bkrn.ard (Gerjian Type) ing tale is false, for Barry was killed in 1S17 THE DOG 59 In the ranks of the use- ful dogs we must place the draft dog, though it is more than doubtful whether the structure of this animal is fitted to draw vehicles. It is cer- tain, however, that they render incalculable serv- ices by drawing the sledges of the inhabitants of northern regions and those of explorers who travel to the Pole. M. Fridtjof Nansen wrote to us recently as follows : "The dogs of the Eski- mos and those of Siberia can easily do ninety miles a day. In fine weather they will run without stop- ping for four or five hours, and each dog can draw a weight of three hundred and twenty-five pounds. The sledge dog, or 'narta,' is relatively light, but vigorous. The runners of the sledge, over which water is poured from time to time, forming a smooth coat of ice half an inch thick, glide with rapidity over the snow. None but male dogs at least three years old are used for this purpose. St. Rerxaki) Special photo from the convent For the leading couple the best dogs are chosen ; these are followed by si.x other couple, guided by means of a stick five feet long and by the voice of their driver. The life of travelers, also the conveyance of the post throughout northern Siberia, depend entirely on these dogs. Consequently they are carefully treated A Splendid Lot of St. Bernards 6o OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Over\vr(iu(;ht Draft Drx; and fed. They cannot be compared with those There is more humanity in the attempts that martyred draft animals that we see, ill harnessed have been made to utilize the dog in various and ill fed, in more than one civilized land," industries. Sometimes the end of a telephonic The Belgian draft dog, a model of strength cord is put into his mouth, and he climbs the and health^ makes an exception to the above pole with it, thereby saving much labor. At charge. Any one who has seen these dogs other times he turns the crank of the churn, for which the old-world peasant woman gives him a good lump of liver as a reward. At a printing press in Plymouth a dog named Gipsy turns a wooden wheel that sets the press in motion ; he takes pleasure in his work and is much more regular, and also cheaper, than men employed in the same labor. We must not forget to put in the class of use- ful dogs those who take care of the blind. There was one who for years attended his mendicant master at one of the London railway stations, and collected alms enough to make the poor man comfortable. Later he was promoted to the rank carrying round milk and vegetables in Brus- of assistant railway guard, because he always sels must have been struck with the superiority announced to the station master by a short of their harness over that used in the Low bark the approach of a train. Countries and elsewhere. Holland, however, In short, the usefulness of these animals is is beginning to take more interest in the fate great and does not cease with their lives, for of draft dogs ; and a society has recently been many are the kid gloves and the true clianiois formed, establishing a tariff of distances and leather portfolios that are cut out of his skin, — rewarding owners who can show ofood care, good harness, and good carts. We can only ap- plaud such effort to put an end to the martyrdom of draft dogs. It is admitted that the large herbivorous animals are more fitted to draw and to carry than the carnivorous animals. The shape of a dog's foot is unfavor- able to traction ; nor can a dog's chest stand the effort, and a col- lar is martyrdom to him. Their natural way of lorogression is , A Fine Team somewhat oblique, and the hind feet never step in line with the front ones. The unless, indeed, it has already been used to make back is strong to leap, but not to pull, and above beautiful heads of hair for dolls, or a charming all not to carry. Their shoulders are more de- set of furs. tached from the body than those of the horse. ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^,,^,^,. of Dogs And yet, in spite of these objections, the dog has been made a draft animal in many of the Nearly all dogs lend themselves readily to European countries. training ; there are only a few very backward 'MmffTWiir'''^'''''''''''^''''^'-'^' Dogs of thi-; Customs Service at Roubaix Ready to Start 62 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS individuals who do not soon learn their lessons by heart. Thus, for example, we can teach a simple domestic dog not to take anything from |-»sw3-.«r ~^0T L LMiiMUDL si: Oiiii:i;ks and tiu;ik Dc the left hand by offering him a certain number of times something in a spoon held between the thumb and forefinger of that hand, and then tapping him on the nose with the other end of the spoon when he tries to take what is in it. If we repeat the same thing with the right hand and gi\e him the dainty, speaking caressingly, he will learn veiy quickly to know the difTerence ; and even if the hands are crossed, he will know which is which. If a dog has his basket in a certain room, he must never be allowed to seek a lair elsewhere, and he should be taught not to leave his basket at every noise. He ought to follow his master when he leaves the house, and not rush out in his joy, often between the legs of the passers. His master can teach him to walk after or beside him by walking thus regular!) up and down a room daily for a c|uartcr of an hour. If the dog persists upon running before your feet, step upon his toes, calling out, " Back ! " Animals always learn by experience, which is more than can be said of human beings. Sporting dogs of all kinds are subjected to a much more severe discipline ; it is sometimes necessary to use a spiked collar, while the trainer must possess a patience equal to any test. The sportsman must be absolutely sure that his orders will be precisely executed ; consequently a plan of precise in- struction should be carefully laid out in advance, as the training of sporting or hunting dogs requires perpetual repetition of what has been taught and learned, with im- mense caution not to spoil the dog. An animal is easily frightened by rough words and the use of the whip at the wrong moment. He soon loses all confidence in his master if he receives blows on the slightest occasion. An angry or a thoughtless man may obtain a servile submission by striking his dog on the head or nose, but he will never bring him to learn willingly or to take pleasure in obeying him. This fault is committed hundreds .\\ .\kui;st of times by the masters, which shows how dif- ficult it is to punish a misdemeanor justly and firmly, but no farther. We are, moreover, ab- solutely convinced that more can be obtained, THE DOG 63 always and everywhere, by rewards rather than by punishments. A firm oral order, expressed each time in the same words, accompanied by the same movement of the hand or arm, is certain to be efficacious. One of our dogs always stopped short if we raised our hand slightly without saying a word. Even when a turn of the road hid us from his sight, he re- mained in the same place ; but he lay down, which showed some uneasiness of mind. A dog is easily taught the simplest tricks, such as jvmiping over a stick or through a hoop, by offering him a dainty with the stick or hoop. High jumps are, however, injurious to the artic- ulations and also to the lungs of young or small dogs. When a dog has seriously hurt himself in doing one of these tricks he (very wisely) will never attempt it again. Dogs that are trained for gymnastic performances in public go through a long and laborious process, the details of which it is useless to give here. Firmness, infinite patience, kindness, and en- couragement more than punishment are still the secrets of success. To the true lover of dogs, however, such exhibitions are far from being a pleasure, wonderful as they are Nothing is easier than to teach the d(jmestic dog certain things, such, for instance as shutting the door. A piece of meat should be held against the open door, high enough for him to reach it when standing- upright on his hind legs. When he touches it the door swings to, and at the same moment the teacher says, " Shut the dtx.ir." With a little patience the dog is scxm taught to go to the door and shut it at a simple word of command. A number of such little things can be taught to an obedient dog, but he will never do them with pleasure and good will unless he is continually with his master and understands his looks and signs. Allow^ed to be away from home all day, he will lose interest in these tricks. It is in some such way that a dog is taught to "fetch," — a lesson so important for some sporting dogs, requiring, as it does, so many Larkfll OF G Kl..Ali\ 111 OHEV OkuEKS preliminary exercises. At the word of com- mand, " fetch," every young dog will seize very eagerly a ball or a handkerchief thrown to a certain distance. Will he bring it back } It is exactly here that we must proceed with much patience and reflection. In the first place, the distance ought to be short and the dog should be fastened to a long string. A still better way is to make him sit before you holding articles (not too light) in his mouth, and make him drop them at the word of command. Later he can be trained ti) pick up such articles at distance and bring them lack at the command. Much success has come from using a piece of wood provided with small weights at each end, which can be taken off or put on by means of a peg, so that the article can be weighted at will ; the wood should have small transverse pieces to keep it from lying flat on the ground, thereby making it more difficult for the animal to pick up. Sporting dogs, trained by the excellent IJK1N(.KR 64 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS method of Oberlander, have always received never have the strength of a circus dog, who their first lessons with this article. can balance himself on a bottle or on a man's If persons play with an animal and neglect head, make the "perilous leap," turn somer- to use, very precisely, the different commands and gestures to which he is accustomed, he will soon perceive that the th not serious, and their influence upon him will be k children play wi young dog that is be trained, and mak him fetch things without t a k i n y them and without praising him, that dog will never answer readily to a command. Sever- ity, exactitude, and patience are the con ditions of success, is not necessary tf) whi] a dog ; at most, a slight touch with a switch may be given in case of ill will or negli gence. The dog understands per- fectly a stern reprimand or a shake given to the rope ; if he does not Ch.vrc.ixo, AFTKR r.RINfi ixfi IT H()>u-: saults, dance, shoot, and ride a bicycle as if he ad never done anything else. All this seems tremely difficult, as in fact it is ; credit belongs to the er only, to his patience I his judgment. It is rue that he chooses the most intelligent dogs, oftenest poodles, but the innumerable lessons which in- evitably precede exhibition are essential. The dog may not possess in- tellect, so called, but he has a good memory d a strong love for a game. The routine once acquired, the exhibition, which should always be done in [jrecisely the same order, lest the dog be bewildered, is sure of success. A few years ago the Bertrand brothers of Paris had a little dog named Papillon, who could speak. In France understand, it is useless to go on training him Pets and small fry of that kind are incapable and in other countries journalists worthy of all of being taught to fetch. They can merely do confidence related the fact, which they them- the pretty thing, — give a paw, pretend death, selves had witnessed. The questions addressed etc. Sporting dogs, on the contrary, are useful; they will search for lost objects, n(j matter how small they are, and find them among bushes or in sand. " Seek ! Lost I " is enough to start a well- trained dog on a search at once. Nevertheless, to reach this result and to make the animal couch before the game when the shot is fired requires many months of training according to fixed rules. Pleasure dogs can be to the little animal were : "Who am I .? Do you taught to limp, to fetch the newspaper, and to love me .? What did the people shout when the perform other similar tricks ; but they will Russians came ? Which is the largest building Playing Chf.ss THE DOG 65 A Spdki im, I j in Paris ? Can you count ? " The answers were said very clearly though a little haltingl)'. The clog could pronounce seventy words. At the close of the exhibition he always said, "Adieu, Messieurs ! " Marvelous as it was, careful examination showed that there was no ventriloquism in it. There was one fact, however, which we ought not to omit, to save any would- be imitators of M. Bertrand from disap- pointment: Papillon's performances occurred at the time of the " silly season " in journalism, — a fact which may not be precisely in his favor. The training of watchdogs, police dogs, war dogs, and, in general, of all those dogs required to perform special services demands infinite patience and perseverance in making the ani- mal go over and over again what he has learned, with as little punishment as possible. Watch- dogs are sometimes taught to attack persons at the word of command. This is very danger- ous and cannot be too highly disapproved ; it has already caused many misfortunes. The training is done by putting a straw figure behind a fence or hedge ; the figure is moved by a servant, and when it is made to jump the hedge the door is opened and the dog is taught to spring upon it and hold it. But in some cases he bites ; and if the order is given has- tily, or if it is not fully understood, accidents happen. This proceeding should never be taught to any but old dogs whom we can abso- lutely trust, — dogs who do not run much at large and are perfectly safe among their own surroundings. It is well to state here that if a dog comes at you with an evident inten- tion to attack and bite, it is dangerous to defend yourself with a cane or umbrella, which will onl\' make him more furious. If you want to save the calves of your legs, it is better to let him bite the cane or the umbrella, and hit him with your fist as hard as you can on the nasal bone. He will let go immediately and run away. While giving dogs good habits it is well to break them of bad ones. Many dogs will gnaw >L1/1. I AL lliiLM.V Charging after the Shot is fired Rl-.TRIKX lN(i KKliM THIC Rl\ l-.K furniture and carpets, but this annoyance will cease if, from time to time, they are given bones to gnaw. They should be sternly for- bidden to lie on chairs and sofas. This can be prevented at night by laying the chairs on their sides and putting hard things on the sofa. A dog who begs at the table is also very annoying. He ought not to be allowed to enter the room dur- ing dinner, or, if he is, should be tied in some corner that belongs to him. The leaps he makes in his joy at going out with his master are often prejudicial to the coat and trousers of the latter, espe- cially in rainy weather. It will usually 66 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS A Difficult Ff.at which REQUIRES Loxci Practice Circus Training suffice to take him by the two front paws and make him walk backward on his hind paws. That will cure him of his de- sire to leap upon you in future. XIV. Bench Shows and Co.MPETITIONS Bench shows, which are really a subdivision of six)rt with dogs, are among the most important things for a breeder. That which attracts or ought to at- tract thither the amateur breeder is not so much the chance of car- rying off prizes as the honor and satisfaction of seeing them won b)' animals he has bred himself. The first canine bench show took place in 1859 at New- cast 1 e - u p o n - T3ne. Although f)nly pnin ters and setters were shown, it was an exhibition very superior ti> the dog sales hitherto organized by dealers at the inns, where visitors (mostly coachmen) did business and drank brandy together. In i S60 the great bench show at Birmingham took place ; this was fol- lowed by many others, not very large ones, it is true, but held under the stern control of the English Kennel Club and the best known ex- perts, who now make a business of it and form the jury of awards. The great English bench shows — those of the said club, for instance — last three days and are attended by thousands of paying visitors, who can thus review from one thousand to fifteen hundred dogs. In France the first bench show took place in May, 1863, at the Jardin des Plantes. The committee was formed of the members of the Jockey Club, and the cost of the show was paid by subsidies from the railways, the city of Paris, and Baron Rothschild. The prizes given amounted to three thousand dollars, which was certainly a good send-off. Later there were several shows eveiy year. Those which are now held in France, usually lasting three days and devoted to different races of dogs, are considered among the best. The THE DOG 67 last great Parisian show, which was organized for instance), prove that these dog shows are by the Socictc Centralc, toot; in daily receipts not for the mere amusement of dog fanciers, of more than twenty-five hundred dollars. Germany has not remained behind, and several of its cities have had very successful shows, lasting two or three days. Belgium, thanks to its Royal Society of St. Hubert and other clubs, organizes in sum- mer very important shows, to which are sent magnificent specimens which attract much interest in other countries. The United States is not backward, either, in the num- ber or the quality of her bench shows, which are now annual affairs in many of our large cities. But it is generally admitted and agreed that Holland takes precedence of all other countries in the organiza- tion of shows, the arrangement, preparation, and administration of which (striking an outsider with amazement) are taken as models by other countries. Annual shows are organized in Holland by the differ- ent clubs, and a body of excellent Dutch experts, who are often in- vited to other countries to judge of indigenous races (the German watchdogs, the Russian wolf- hounds, and the English mastiffs. Conscious of his \'ictorii:s 68 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Dog trying to cross the FKoxntR with Contraband Goods but that serious studies of a scientific nature are also made there. To the uninitiated a dog show has some- thing disconcerting. The deafening raclen basket with something soft at the bottom. Give her also all the Blue Cat with a vkrv Kk.makkablk Head ,.,.,111^ gj.|^j wants and a slight purga- From painting by E. Landor ^.^,^ ^^^^ produCCS Usually from tWO cat, a prize winner, if possible, if the speedy to five kittens without any help. Kittens born sale of kittens is an object. in the spring are stronger and larger than those Innumerable are the surprises in color that born in the autumn. The mother cat takes care occur in spite of all precautions. The chances of the little ones (which are born blind) herself, for obtaining what is desired ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ washes them, and keeps them black ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^. and The ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ weeks, head be broad ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^L things can and ^^I^^^^^^^H^I^^^^^^^^k ^^ a short Blue ^^|^^^^^P(|^^^^^^^^^^^^B '^'^''^'^' eyes are much in re- l^^^^^^^^pMfcl^WB^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^B ''^"^ Sometimes. PV^j^^^^HJ^ -^^^^^^^^^^| """'''3^^' but mere L^^^^^KQ^P^^^^^^^^^^^^^H the weakest. On the the litters ■Hj^^l^K^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^1 ^''"^^ '^^'^ of white cats a kitten ^^^^^^^^Bl*' ^ ^^^^^^^^^| ^heir eyes, and then be a ^^^^^^K^^ ^^^^^^^^^1^ ^^^^ ^" blue ^^^^^^P V^^^^^^^l ^^°^^'^' '^^ really ^^^^^^Mg/2^% v ^^^^^^^^1 ^'^'"^^^ and a |^^^^^Hli|k' ^|k ^l^^^^^^H ' ' ^ ^ ^ '^ In ^^^^^^^^Hlfli^ JhI^^^^^H ^^'^■^' England cats of pure ^^^^^^^^^^^^M^^^^^^^^H '^'^''^"S' blood often as ^^^^^^^^^B^HV .^^,^^^1 ^^^^^^^ much as twenty ^^^^^^^^^^^^H ,,^S^^H *^'' pounds ^^^^^^^^^^^^B Jji^E^^H "''°^^"">~g'^^^^ Generally cats are ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ftji^H^^^H clumsiness com- not mated until they are over a year old. But all that we have hitherto said con- cerns those persons XiKsiNo AI(irin:R bined. The mother, of course, must be well fed during this time, or she will not have THE CAT 89 milk enough for the little ones. Milk, bread, a little meat {but never the first three days), and by the end of the week her usual food, with an ample supply of milk, is a good diet list. When the time comes to wean the kittens the mother should be taken away, and the kittens taught to lap sugared milk from a saucer ; a little limewater added to the milk is beneficial. At the end of five weeks, when the teeth have come through, a little soft bread should be given. Thev should be allowed to be in the open air as much as possible, to play with their mother, and to make acquaintance with the mice which she will present to them. It is very droll to see her watch their proceedings with that hereditary enemy. The maternal instinct is so strong in cats that they have been known to suckle puppies, rabbits, and even rats. In a certain stable was a stall in which five young rats were play- ing. A mother cat had five kittens, three of which were taken from her and drowned. Pussv went to the stall, caught two of the Bkoux Anodra C.\t (M.alk) Cats are much more cleanly in their ways than dogs; and kittens can easily be taught clean habits. Fish, from time to time, is a great treat to healthy cats ; and it is well to give them either raw or cooked meat every day, in reason- able quantities. It is to be remembered that they feed themselves with mice, and in the country with moles, squirrels, birds, and even rabbits. Greediness, the cause of most of their ailments, is much developed in cats. Punishment does not cure it, but they will sometimes pay at- tention to a stern order given in a loud voice. \'I1I. Diseases of Cats Although in cases of actual illness it is necessary, as in the case of dogs, to call in a veteri- narian, if the life of the patient is valuable, yet there are many little ailments easily curable Celebrated Persian Cat, "Fclma Zaioki " . , . , ,. . with very simple remedies. In From painting by E. Landor ^^^^ ^^ diarrhea, for instance, little rats, suckled them and brought them up, from which cats very frequently suffer, rice which was all the more remarkable as she was with a decoction of sorghum, and as little a noted enemy and hunter of rats and mice. food as possible, will effect a cure. Diarrhea, go OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS however, is apt to weaken the animal, and a ceremony. Marriages were celebrated, if possi- watch should be kept for this. Cutaneous affections are very disagreeable for persons who live in the house with cats thus troubled ; they are contagious to other animals, dogs especially. It is therefore well ble, on Friday, the day dedicated to F"reya, and if the sun shone during the ceremony, it was said that the bride had taken good care of the cat and had fed her well. Young girls in Norway who caress cats are sure of a hand- to examine even healthy cats once a week, and some husband ; but if one of those animals if the slightest suspicious spot appears, to wash the animal with a solution of borax in water. It will be found on examination that the healthiest and finest cats are seldom free from vermin. If red spots, or pustules, appear on the skin, an ointment of lard, sulphur dust, Peruvian balsam, and creosote should be applied ; but it must never be forgotten that all cats are perpetually licking themselves with their tongues. The ;«//(.' of a cat, a tiny spider which harbors especially in the ear, gives rise to a species of mange, which can be cured by petroleum or any of the mange remedies that arc advertised. The insect or flesh worm of the mange is sometimes communi- cated to persons. Cats are also tormented at times with worms, the germs of which they get from the rats and mice they swallow. Any vermifuge will remed)' this trouble, but the cat should be kept in the house, so as to observe the effects of it. The madness of cats is even more dangerous than that of dogs, for they bite with greater violence. Yet we never hear of muzzles for cats. YouNO Tricolor Cat lies at the church door just as the marriage is about to be celebrated, the union of the two young people will be unhappy. According to an old legend of eastern Prussia, it is very dangerous for a married pair if two cats with their tails tied together run along the road in front of the wedding procession. In all the mythologies cats play a part. The popular tale of Puss in Boots is known e\'erywhere, but what is not so well known is that the skull of a "booted cat " is preserved in the osteological museum at Amsterdam. Evi- dently this cannot be a joke in so grave an institution ; conse- quently it is worth while to search the works of natural his- tory and find, if we can, a de- scription of the species of cat called " booted.." In the great osteographical history of De Blainville (among others) we find mentirjn of a group of " booted cats," which have much in common with our domestic animal, as far as their skeleton is concerned. To this group belong the Nubian cats K'/i's viainciilata and Fclis caligata (from which probabl)' came the skull preserved in the Amsterdam museum) : also Fclis Ihibastis, the cat of ancient Egypt. The name of "booted cat" was first given to it, according to Cuvier, by Bruce, the Egyptian tions and in mythology. A study of the origin traveler, on account of its legs, which are black or white at the bottom like boots. Temminck, who baptized the species in his Aloiiograph of ]\Ianiniifcrs with the name Fclis caligata, gives identically the same description of it. In the zoological garden at Amsterdam there is now a living specimen of these original wild cats of Egypt ; it has reddish-brown ears with little tufts at the points of them, and answers pre- cisely to the descriptions and drawings given of IX. Superstitions. Historical Notes We ha\-e already spoken of phantom cats, and of the part they play in popular supersti- of legends and fairy tales would shed much light into the still obscure lives of the peoples of past ages. Nearly all animals appear in the fabulous events and poetic legends that have come down to us ; but the cat, in its character of domestic animal, ])lays the chief role. In the old popular beliefs it was part and parcel of the dwelling. A new cat was made to walk three times across the hearth with solemn THE CAT 91 ^'et it by Cuvier. In scientific works " booted cat " sometimes bears the name of "booted lynx." In tlie seventeenth century it was not un- common to see, especially in Amsterdam, ti.t^- ures of cats carved on the fronts of houses. The custom came about in this \\3.\\ Civet cats, originating in North .-' Africa, and greatly prized, especially in Spain where they brought hisxh prices, were import^' into Holland by cer tain merchants, wh' ' formed a society foi the propagation and sale of them, and took for its emblem a civ cat. The value of the ani mal came from a gland or lia under its tail, containing a sub stance that was made into a perfume ,, "^ USES OF and also into a remedy. Towards the close of the seventeenth century this industry disappeared for the simple reason that the musk plant was discovered ; but the civet cat still lingers on the architecture of Amsterdam. Speaking of architecture reminds us that withered cats are found from time to time under or between the walls of old houses. They are marvelously well preserved ; death has caught and stiffened them in the moment of their utmost agony. Their remarkable pres- ervation comes, no doubt, from the fact that the animal has thrust itself through some very narrow aperture, so narrow that no air comes through it, and the poor crea- ture dies, and withers without decaying. We frequently find cats in heraldic art. The wife of King Clovis bore a cat sable on her blazon ; and the Katzen family of the present day bears an argent cat on an azure field. The celebrated printers Sessa, of Venice, always placed a cat device on the last page of their editions. The Romans painted cats on several of the banners of their legions. The famous cohort (subdivision of the legion) nf the llapjiy Old Men — Felices seniores — - .^ bore a banner with a red cat landing on a gold ground. X. Tr.mmng and Mice Hunting The word "training" in its true sense applies, naturally, far less to cats than to dogs. They are not used for ordinaiy hunting, though in Cyprus they are taught to unt snakes, and in Russia the domestic cat catches great quantities of those reptiles in sum- mer. This same trait is not un- known in America. In Paraguay cats attack and kill rattlesnakes. They will also catch tortoises, and do good service during plagues of grass- hoppers, locusts, and cockchafers, of which they destroy enormous quantities. But in all this there is no question of training ; instinct and natural impulse are the sole guides to their behavior. There arc, of course, instances of cats ,\N Old H.\t BOOTEU C.\T 92 ol:r domestic animals A DANCiERous Plaything trained to jump over a stick, to ride horseback upon dogs, and even to dance to the word of command. But tricks of this kind, suitable only for fairs and circuses, can be taught just as easily to pigs and cockatoos ; in fact, the cats which, by dint of patience, have been taught these things must be regarded as great excep- tions. If it is desired to teach anything to a cat, the utmost gentleness must be used, for cats fear and resent blows and harsh words far more than a dog ever does. There is no question of training a cat to catch mice. All of them do not do it with the same agility, and it is claimed that the common, striped, gray domestic cat is foremost in the art. It may be that cats of that color come nearest to the wild cat, but it is more probable that the colur is not so easily seen by the little nidciils. A baker or a miller ou"lit, .\|1S(III|-.|-- therefore, to keep white cats to save his grain, because where all is white a cat of a dark color would be seen more easily. A cat kept exclusively to hunt mice must not be deprived, as is sometimes the case, of other food. To do so is more than imprudent. ■■ IP ^1 ^^^B^^^^^^^^^^^^l ^R^'a.t^. ^^77t .^^^^^1^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^H ^^Vf'^^^^ ''^^^H Un^X 0 ^^^^B ^^^^^^^^^H K "^^ ^ Btrj^Ary . m ■ 'JSL*; ■ ^^Hb<<>^ H y ^H jd^^^^^^BV^ ^^K^''^'^ jft^ '^^1 K O r w BB ^^^v'JNp. IkJL. Jf/M Wife-^ttO'^ftwJiBW jlsylii ^Us^K^.pwu s^ .--■«•-■■ H^£4^ '^^hF ii^^^^^pqi^ <^^ i >. - ji^ftt,^^^^!^ i^^ ^i^ . . '" . . Making Acquaintance with I'hotographv THE CAT 93 In the first place, mice do not afford sLifificient nourishment, and the hungry hunters will soon learn to go after birds and chickens ; or they will seek other food, often very injurious, and so fall ill and die. The patience of a cat when watching a mouse is really un- speakable, but as soon as the favorable moment arrives it moves forward, its belly to earth, gently shaking its hind quarters, that the elasticity of its hind legs may be in com- munion with the rest of the body ; then the spring is made, and it never misses its stroke. Trainers, bow your heads ! Here Nature has trained, and the pupil has absorbed the science in its blood, in its mar- row, and in every muscle. XI. The Cat's VV.av of Climbing and Falling Young cats love to climb, a pleasure readily granted to them, for however hazardous their performances may appear, there is usually little danger. Thanks to its sharp claws a cat can climb a tree very rapidly, as can tigers and other felines ; the taste, however, among tame animals seems confined to kit- tens and young cats. Old cats apply this faculty only to attain some purpose, — to reach the top of the garden wall or the gutter of the house. When cats fall from a considerable height they come down safe nine times out of ten ; but it is an exag- geration to say that they always fall on their feet, that is to say, without any accident, for we could cite many instances in Climbing 94 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS which they arc killed on the spot. Nevertheless, the fact is generally true, for they know how to turn and twist while falling, so that the center of gravity gets placed in such a way as to oblige the body to make a half turn at the last, bring- ing the feet to the ground. A cat once fell from the fifth story of a house, and though be- How stealthily, treacherously, it creeps along, like the cunning thief it is ! . . . Buffon, as we see, was no friend to cats ; but long before his day they had cruel enemies who fought them more directly. In 1747 Archbishop Clement Augustus of Cologne published an edict that all cats should have wildered for a moment, picked itself up quickly their ears cut off. This singular measure was intended to protect hares and young pheasants. The poor maimed creatures would no longer go marauding, or what is still more probable, the subjects of the prelate would feel their affection for the animal cool- ing after such disfigurement. Moreover, every ear not cut off was subject to a fine of a quarter of a florin. Madame de Custine, a great friend of cats, took up their defense. She wrote, among others, to Champfleury, another friend of pussy, saying that they deserved to be placed efore dogs, whose attachment nd fidelity was too mechanical, whereas we could not too much ad- mire the independence of cats. There are many extravagant judg- ments pronounced by partisans and should love to paint the figure of a seated cat adversaries of the feline race. The sportsman, beside the old dame knitting near the cradle in especially, cries out, " Death to cats ! " It is a tranquil home ! true that these animals can and do cause great damage to game and poultry. The wild cats XII. For and Against ^^st certainly be regarded as beasts of prey, In all that we have so far said there is surely deserving of antipathy and of all the measures no ground for an injunction against cats; the taken for their destruction; but the domestic fors certainly have it all their own way. But cat, provided it is not left to care for itself, let us now turn our eyes to the againsts. We does not do the mischief that many persons will take Buffon to witness. He does not spare imagine. In any case, it is easy to take effectual poor pussy ; he thinks her " an animal that measures against it without resorting to tor- deserves no confidence ; which should be kept tures, such as setting traps, or to open murder only from necessity, to guard against another by means of dogs. and scampered away. A cat seated is an ideal image of repose. No other animal conveys such an impression of perfect rest and quiet meditation. The dog, which is much nearer to man by reason of his development cannot equal the cat in that position. The graceful pose, the perpendicular front slope, the hind legs wrapped by the supple tail, the short and vigor- ous neck meeting the back in a pretty little curve, and the beautiful round head with its pointed ears give to the seated cat a singularly peaceful air, to which the contented expression of its neatly cut face contributes much. Is it sur- prising that the artist's eye has been so struck by this attitude that he " They mean to fling ME into the Water" unpleasant animal — the mouse. At night, instead of sleeping near its master," contin- ues the learned naturalist, " it rambles off, through woods and fields, pursuing and de- stroying game. How many nests it ruins ! The usefulness of the cat after death is relatively small, provided we except the intes- tines, which are used for making violin strings, and the pelt, which appears in commerce as a real fur. THE CAT 95 XIII. The Cat as a Mummv We cannot take leave of the cat without visiting with amazement and profound respect its mummied ancestors as they appear in vari- ous museums ; with amazement, because the ancient Egyptians, highly developed in many ways, held the cat in such esteem that they embalmed its body ; and with respect, because of the conscientious manner in which the em- balming was done, so that after thousands of years these mummied bodies can be brought to light exactly as they were when buried. It has not, so far, been decided why the Egyptians regarded the cat as a divinity. According to Plutarch there is an affinity between this animal and the moon, first, be- cause the cat is a nocturnal animal ; secondly, because it brings into the world first one little one, then two, three, four, five, up to twenty- eight, the number of days in the lunar month. Perhaps this latter reason is the cause of its adoration as a divinity. In the grotto of Arte- mis, near the ancient Bubastis, there are several cats which were buried there with great ceremony in the midst of costly fetes. Herodotus relates that as soon as the cat of an Egyptian died profound sadness took pos- session of the whole family, who put on deep mourning. The noble dead was laid out in state, embalmed with precious spices, and taken to Bubastis, where (as well as at Mem- phis) obsequies were performed which often cost as much as nine thousand ancrcs. Mummies of cats which had li\cd in the temple of the goddess Pasht were treated with extreme veneration, and we find in their tombs great numbers of gold ornaments bear- ing the same letters as those found in the tombs of kings. Also there are mummies of women which bear the inscription tec/tan, — cat, — signifying that they were protected by the goddess of that animal. Dr. Etienne Geoffroy was the first man to study the skeleton of an Egyptian mummy cat. He discovered that the animal differed in no particular from the domestic cat of Europe and America, — a discovery which was contested by another learned naturalist named Ehrenberg, who insisted that the existing mummies were the remains of the Abyssinian cat in its wild state, an opinion shared by Blainville. The latter very learned professor of anatomy made a searching study of these mummies, in which he distinguished three species, — the Felis Caligata, the Bubastis, and the Cliaus. The two first are still foimd in a wild state in cer- tain parts of Egypt. Careful search made by learned Egyptologists shows that the linen wrapped around all the cat mummies that have so far been found is of fine quality, the same as that wrapped around kings. In these days there is no such thing as embalming a cat ; instead of that we sweep them on to the manure heap or fling them into the water. No one ever dreams of bury- ing them, unless in some very exceptional case, when a petted cat is put to rest in a dogs' cemetery. Nevertheless, one cat is recorded as having been embalmed and mummified in the fourteenth century. It was Petrarch's cat, which died in 1374, and was long seen incased above the door of the poet's house at Vaucluse. Ill THE HORSE I. The Land of his Origin and his Ancestors It is from the vast steppes oi northern Asia, where the tempests rage and man can scarcely live, that the horse has come. He did not come (if himself, nor has he ever given himself wholly t(i man, like the dog. On the contrary, even now in his civilized state, he turns his back, and sometimes his heels, on those he does not recog- nize, if they come too near him. Feeding on those illimitable plains, the wild horse learned to perceive at a great distance the approach of his enemies, the wild beasts. The quick ears pricked, a short neigh sounded, and the horde dashed away with the speed of the wind. He fled before all strange life, and conse quently before man, who sought to capture him fur his flesh and his skin. Here we come upon the great natural motive, the first cause of the drawing to- gether of man and animals, — hunger and its satisfying. This is proved by the enormous quan tity of horses' bones found in the caves of prehistoric man. The skulls and the cleft bones show that fles marrow, and brains served as food dwellers in those caverns. more for his good qualities when at last he resigned himself and understood what was wanted of him. His speed made the first great impression upon man ; in fact, there are coun- tries where his name comes to him from that quality. In Hebrew, in Egyptian, and in some other ancient languages the word si/s stands for "horse" and for "swallow." The Greek word /////('j- signifies "rapid." When the horse was seen for the first time at Malacca he was called kuda-barons:, the horse bird. The people of the steppes finally identified themselves wholly with their steeds. The Mongols, horsemen from time immemorial, show it in their shape and their atti- tude ; they have made, so to speak, the horseman type, — curved legs \ and the upper part of the body bending forward. They sleep on their horses, live with them, boast of them, and love them more than wife or child. The wild horse still exists, how- ever ; he can be found in the southern regions of Siberia, on the plains of Mongolia, among the Ural Mountains, and in America, where he s a descendant of the horse stock brought to the over by the Spanish explorers. As late as the second half of the twelfth century he was It was probably not until much later that hunted in Spain, in the Belgian Ardennes, in the horse was tamed and subjected to the will of man. The people of the steppes, surrounded by wild animals of all kinds, learned to capture the laggards and stragglers, and from this dates a memorable epoch in the relations of man to the animal kingdom. In all probability a number of the smaller animals had sub- mitted, while the great horse still protested vehemently against enslavement. It is likely that it was not by gentleness (as in our day) Italy, and in the south and east of what is now Germany. Later still wild horses inhabited the forests of Russia, and in the seventeenth century were hunted in Poland and in Lithu- ania. Those that were captured alive were kept like cattle in inclosures, where they were trained for either riding or draft, chiefly for the former purpose. Mare's milk, which is still greatly esteemed for cheese or whey (koumiss) among the Tartars, was a chief that he was first subdued, which says all the article of food. 96 THE HORSE 97 Thus it was that the horse came from a wild to a semiwild state, till at last he reached the condition of a domesticated animal. It is to be remarked that the farther he came from the steppes of northern Asia the longer time it seems to have taken to domesticate and utilize him. In all directions the e.xplorer finds that the breeding and training of horses is an art which the peoples of Europe have learned from their neighbors on the east and north- east. It is ec[ually remarkable that in Russia, which serves as an intermediary between As for their distribution in cities and coun- try places, that depends on circumstances. The relation between production and demand naturally exercises great influence in certain countries. In the United States, which sup- plies its needs chiefly by its own production, the relative numbers show that about four fifths of the total number of horses are employed in agriculture or for draft purposes, the remaining fifth being in private use, chiefly in the cities. In 1899 Paris had 93,052 horses, and in 1900 statistics show a record of 98,284, — an A F.\Mn.V P.ARTV Europe and Asia, horses are still found in far greater numbers than elsewhere, and so are the races of horsemen. The horse has always retained the principal and best qualities of his ancestors, — speed and strength. These qualities, which served him once for flight only, are now employed in the service of humanity. Let us therefore caress that lowered head and rightly appreciate this quadruped, larger and stronger than ourselves, as one of the most useful and most indispen- sable of the domestic animals. II. The Breeds of Horses In spite of motor cars, steam, and electricity le number of horses is still mouslv throughout the world. the number of horses is still increasing enor- increase of 5200 horses in a single city in one year. This shows that just as photography has not killed portrait painting, so the bicycle has not killed horseback riding, for riding is an art, and the arts die not. It remains to be seen w'hether motor cars can kill the driving of horses, which also is an art, and a great one. In the United States the number of horses has increased nearly sixty per cent in twenty- five years, showing how great is the role that the horse plays to-day in all our social and domestic relations. A vast international commerce in horses goes on at all times. The countries that con- tribute most to this commerce are Russia, Hun- gary, Roumania, Denmark, and the United States. In 1S97 this commerce between the 98 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Half-Blood Mare of Holsteix different countries amounted in round number: to two hundred thousand horses at a tuta value of $30,000,000. Horses now existing may be dividetl into two great groups : the heavy, cool-blooded horses of western Europe, called also the horses ot Armorica; and the lighter, hot- blooded horses of Eastern origin. This difference relates to character and temperament, the Eastern horses being ardent, quick, susceptible, courageous, sometimes restive ; while those of the West are calm, ecjuable, slow, and docile. Russia, with her vast plains, is the land par excellence of horses. In 1 886 the number of Kirghiz families in- habiting the steppes of Siberia north of Turkestan was, in round numbers, three hundred thousand, the poorest of whom owned from fifteen to twentv horses. while the rich owned many thousands. The Russian horses may be divided into three groups, — those of the steppes, those of the peasants, and those of the stud. The first two form the transition from the wild horse to the civilized horse. All Russian horses of the first two groups are horses of the steppes, or descended from them, and in their e.xterior they nearly always present the Oriental type. The horses of the steppes are born there, and live a free life in large herds, or else in small groups of five or six. They feed during most of the year on the grass of the steppes. To these belong the wild horse of the region and the semiwild ones belonging to the Kirghiz an' r- f ■'^ JHlfl^<) ■ "^^4 \ Jjfc ^^^ j^MRoi r^fkm^j Vr^k ?^5fa r Hl^g m^ \ .wl ^ > Vi&^ ^ ii^^B »' fi -^N W e ill ¥1 /';! T^^ Oui; l.MTiUL'i. Friends Head of Horse f.orn- White (Albino) the Kalmucks ; also those of the Don and the Caucasus. The peasant horses of Russia are no longer reckoned among the horses of the steppes, although they are descended from them. All the horses that we have men- tioned so far are of pure blood ; but in the third grou]), those of the stud and of civil- ized Europe and America, we find new breeds produced under the influence of man, either by crossbreeding with foreign races or by modifications of life and habit. The horses of the Kirghiz, which are those of Asia to the northeast of the THE HORSE 99 Caspian Sea, are frequently exported to Russian cream, white spotted with red, or sorrel. This Europe, especially for military service. Droves horse, like the wild one in the mountains and of these dirt}-, half-wild, but extremely hardy river bottoms of the western part of the United animals can be seen at the fairs in the southwest States, excels in vigor, speed, and e.xtraordinary On TiiK Ro.M) IN Ohio of Europe. Their height is not more than fourteen hands ; their heads are well formed, with eyes full of expression, and quick, alert ears ; the neck is short and rounded in front, the withers high, and the back straight or slightly curved ; the haunches are broad and hiL;h, the nnnp rather slc)|)ini;', the lc;;s slmrt hut power of endurance under fatigue and hunger. He will go for several consecutive days with- out food, and can easily do from forty to sixty miles a day, covering from five to ten miles an hour, and even more. He can bear all weathers, and may be used either for riding (J)- as a draft burse. Spotted Horses of the Steppes well developed, and the hoofs small and firm. The hair is short and fine in summer, and coarse and long in winter ; that of the tail and mane is thick. Their color is usually light-bay, The horses of the Calmucks, like those pre- ceding, are horses of the steppes, belonging to these nomad tribes. We meet them between the Ural Mountains and the Volga. They are lOO OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS rather taller than the Kirghiz horses, but have nearly the same characteristics. The Calmucks are excellent horsemen, and long-distance races CubSACKS Ol THE GUARD (RUSSIA) are much in favor with them, as they are also among the Kirghiz. The riders take with them neither food nor drink, and make no stop for rest. The competitors are drawn up in a straight line, and at a signal rush away with the greatest speed. The first to arrive at the terminus receives a prize, which is often very large, sometimes a hundred horses, from one to two hundred sheep, a number of camels, valuable weapons, etc. The second prize, on the contrary, is very small, often only one sheep. As it is thought shameful not to reach the goal, the horses which are e.xhausted by the run are sometimes dragged by ropes across the wanning line. These Mongol nomads are far from kind to their beasts; they guide them with a rough hand, and give them no food but what the steppe affords. The manner in which they protect them from cold is both cruel and unique. When the ani- mals come back from a long run, in a temperature of from twenty to thirty degrees below zero, there are no stables to shelter them and blankets are unknown. The Mongols simply pour water over their backs, which freezes instantly and prevents the heat of then- bodies from escaping. The horses of the Cossacks of the Don are found on the prairies that border that river and its affluents. They are not handsome, but they are robust and swift. Their muscles are well developed in every part of their body ; the eyes are small, the ears alert, the withers long and high, the back short and straight, the loins robust, the croup broad, the chest not broad, but deep and well formed ; the flanks are round, the belly sometimes rather in- drawn, the legs long and power- ful, the tail thick and long, and the mane short and full. Their color is usually chestnut, dark brown, or white. The whole animal is built to travel long distances without fatigue. His gait is free and firm, but a steady trot is the one that suits him least. It is at a gallop and when he has to clear obstacles in his way that he shows to most advantage. Though quite ignorant of fear, he is touchy and skittish. Ready for Transport (Libou, Russia) In the present day the old breed of the Don horses is being improved and ennobled by cross- ing them with thoroughbred stallions. In 1882 I02 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS BiTjdUG Stallion (Russian) more than four hundred thousand of these horses were counted on the territory of the Cossacks of the Don. They are so well known for their fine qualities as riding horses that they are exported in great numbers not only to other parts of Russia but also to Austria, Hungary, Prussia, and the Balkans. The horses of the Balkans are especially mountain horses, but in their habits of life they bear some relation to those of the steppes. The best of the race show a close re- lationship with Persian and Arabian horses ; like them, their bones are delicate though strong, their muscles well developed, and their coats soft and glossy. Their color is very beau- tiful, often a golden-red, with mane and tail of the darkest brown. Special breeds among them are known by the general name of Circassian horses. The horses of the Russian peas- ants, used for agricultural labor, dif- fer radically from the light, fleet riding horses we have just described. They bear the general name of peas- ant or cool-blooded horses, and pre- dominate in numbers, there being about seventeen million of them, as many of this class in Russia as of all kinds in the United States. The Bitjougs belong to this family. They take their name from an affluent of the Don, and are chiefly found on the plains between the Volga and that river, to the north of the Cossacks of the Don. They are descended in part from males brought from the Low Countries by Peter the Great ; later still the race has had some mingling of Oriental blood. The Bit- i(_)Ugs are tall and vigorously built. Their broad chest, their stout body and solid back, their neck heavily muscled, their strong sinewy legs, short pasterns, and solid hoofs mark them for draft animals. They are not only strong, but are also ener- getic, willing, and obedient. Thanks to their steady, even trot, they are often used for riding as well as for draft. These and other of the Russian peasant horses came originally from the steppes. In times of famine, when thousands of horses perish, great droves of steppe horses are im- ported into European Russia, where they are used for field labor, but their fate is none the better for it. The prairies of Russia in Europe often afford less food than the steppes of Asia ; Orloff Mare (Russian Trotter) THE HORSE 103 and though the animals may not be forced to scratch up the snow in winter to get at the grass, the straw, often rotten, on which the peasants feed them is certainly no better. The poor animals share the pitiful fate of the Rus- sian peasants, — hunger, thirst, and misery. The racers, next in rank after the American trotting horse, are the creation of Count Orloff, Oldenburg Coach Horse (M.^re) Two and a half years old and they are named Orloffs after him. In con- sequence of continual admixture of Oriental, English, and Dutch blood the Orloff stock has become what it is to-day, — a beautiful and noble animal, sometimes a little narrow and leggy, not deep enough in the chest, the croup dome shaped, sloping down on all sides, but revealing his East- ern origin by the shape of his head, the expression of his eyes, the fine form of the neck and shoulders, the strength of his sinewy legs, and by other qualities. Though there may be in their exterior something not wholly satisfactory to the eye of a connoisseur, these horses should be judged when at work. The equable cadence of their movements, their incredible swiftness, their carriage, their endurance, have passed into a proverb. The principal colors are gray and black, in which the Orloffs themselves have remained faithful to their Frisian ancestors. In the Old World, after Russia, Germany has the largest number of horses ; they are particularly numer- ous on the plains in the northern part of the country. Yet that country is not rich in original races. On the contrary, its famous black horse of the days of chivalry, when brute force was the one thing neces- sary, has been super- seded by crossbred animals employed for nobler purposes. In general, the Germans of the Middle Ages used heavy horses, whereas small horses or ponies abounded along the coasts of the Baltic and in Prussia. But all these have long since given way to half-blooded ani- mals raised all over the country with various modifications, but coming chiefly from a mixture of pure-blooded Oriental and English horses, and also from importations of cool-blooded ani- mals from Belgium and England. It may be said, in general, that in northern Germany we S.AME House Trotting 104 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS mostly find light horses for saddle and harness, and in the southern part of the country the heavier draft horses. Hanover devotes itself especially to the pro- duction of solid, weighty animals of noble ■ P i 1 1 R ■Rb 1 A '■^i «3 |pv ^^M 1 <* ^1 ^^^^pH \-^*Sfll;i>.^.^^ri. ■\ f^ 1 ■■ ^ " '""^ -'i^ . ' ' '1 Buje-Whitf, Mare (German Coach Horse Two years old form for the saddle and harness ; they have great endurance and a fiery temperament. From the days of George I of England, the first of the Hanoverian kings, eight of these horses have drawn the royal coach on all state occasions, their last appearance being at Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee in 1897. Oldenburg and Friesland stand quite apart from the rest of Germany in their production of horses. The Oldenburgs are especially known as fine, large, heavy carriage horses ; the head is well formed, the neck and shoulders handsome, the withers high, and the legs strongly muscled but often thick and coarse about the knees. They are not as noble in their conformation as the Hanove- rians, but they e.xcel them in their docility and fine action. In the Rhenish provinces and throughout all southern Germany the heavy cart or work horse takes the first rank. He is usually of Belgian origin, though in some places we find the heavy English animal. The race of the Pinzgau, originally the wild horse of the Noric Alps of Austria, is still found in southern Bavaria, and is much em- ployed in Munich to draw the trucks of the breweries. It takes its name from the valley of Pinzgau near Salzburg. This race is considered as descending, without admixture of any kind, from the ancient wild horse of the Alps, which, in the days of the Romans, lived in a savage state among the mountains. In the neighborhood of Munich there is also a light-weight, primitive horse, called the Feldmoching (from the village of that name), the skeleton of which corresponds precisely to ihat of the fossil horses found in the lake of Sternberg. Austria-Hungary comes next after Germany in the number of its horses, although it has no race types. In the German-speaking Austrian prov- inces the animals are heavier than those found among the peoples of Slavic and Romanic origin. In the eastern districts, Galicia and Transylvania, the influence of Oriental blood is plainl)' felt. In these provinces we find Light Bav Oldexhurg Mare many ponies, angular in shape and thin, but fiery and showing ciualities of endurance all the more remarkable because their lives are cruelly hard. On the plains of Hungary, with THE HORSE 105 their vast fields, the breeding of horses is much developed. The Oriental type predom- inates ; hence it is supposed that the Hunga- rian horse came originally from Asia with his master, the Magyar. These ponies are now disappearing and giving place to better culti- vated breeds. The Jucker horse, which may be regarded as the native Hungarian horse ennobled, is at present the model type. Agile ninth century under the rule of the Normans, who established breeding farms in the neigh- borhood of Rouen, Caen, and Bayeux. During the succeeding centuries these heavy Norman horses were crossed with English blood, producing one of the most remarkable breeds in France, — the French Coach, which as a carriage horse enjoys great popularity both in France and in our own country, the PiNKG.-\i' Horses ((jKkm.ax H.alf-Blood) and very enduring, he can cover extraordinary distances at great speed. The Hungarians are passionate horsemen and lovers of their steeds, in which they are encouraged by the fine qual- ities of those animals. France still possesses several types of primi- tive horses, very distinct from one another. In the South we find the descendants of Ori- ental horses introduced by the Moors in the seventh and eighth centuries, while in the northern departments we still see the ancient hot-blooded animals which flourished in the rival of both German and English horses of that class He possesses all the necessary external qualities, — height, massiveness, and nobility of shape. Smaller and lighter than the Oldenburg horse, he is quite as noble, and he excels him in motion with a high-stepping action of the knee. He is generally brown in color. On the northwest plains of France we still find an ancient heavy horse, which we also encounter everywhere along the shores of the North Sea, not only in France but also in Bel- gium, Holland, and Denmark. All this group io6 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Half-Blood Huncarian (111 KRK) of cool-blooded horses take the general name of Armorican, from the peninsula of Armorica in Brittany. The French Draft, as we k n o \v him, b e 1 1) n g s t o this group, and is found throughout the northern districts of France. He has a broad, coarse head, a short and thick neck with a heavy double mane, the withers low, the chest broad, cleft, and pendent, the legs short and strong. He is usually gray. The Flemish horses are the heaviest, and are fit to go at a foot pace only. The Bou- lognese, being rather lighter, can go, if necessary, at a trot. The Percheron horse, belonging to the same group, takes his name from the Perche region between Nor- mandy and the river Maine. He differs little from the foregoing breeds, but is especially suited to draw, at a rather quick pace, moderately heavy loads, such as omnibuses, street cars, and farm tools and implements. The Percheron is the most popular draft horse that we have obtained from across the sea. The Breton horse is another representative of the same group, but smaller and lighter in every way ; in fact, strictly speaking, he is a pony and is much used for breeding on account of his vigor and hardiness. The horses of Brittany are robust animals, able to carry to Half-Blood Huxgarian (Jucker) Fke.nch Ci)A( h Horse market a peasant, his whole family, and all the produce they have to sell. During Napoleon's campaign in Russia they acquired the name of " P'rench Cossacks." England, the land where horses are bred for special purposes, has become indispensable to the civilized world on account of the demand for English blood. Her breeding of the Thoroughbred has been for centuries the source to which the whole world (China e.xcepted) goes when a noble animal of rapid gait is wanted. The Thoroughbred in its present form dates from the second half of THE HORSE 107 the seventeenth century. As early as the days of the Crusades Arabian horses had been brought to England, and by the close of the Middle Ages much Spanish and Italian blood had been added to theirs ; but the history of pure blood, properly so called, does not begin until the reign of Charles II. Produced by the crossing of several races, the English Thoroughbred has the blood of several original races, especially the Oriental, but since the establishment of the genealogical record the breed has been kept pure. The best known ancestors of this breed are Byerly Turk, Derby Arabian, and Godolphin Arabian, who lived in the last half of the sex'enteenth century and the first half of the eighteenth. The Thor- oughbred is especially famous as a racer or running horse. Rapid gait and stay- ing power are the chief qualities of these animals whose form and every action re- veal a noble origin. The small, refined head, the delicate, long neck, the keen, intelligent eyes, the skin and hair so fine that the veins show through them, the broad chest, the long but robust back, the straight croup. can mold his action on the animal kingdom by judicious breeding, selection, training, and watchful care. Throughout Europe, whenever 1-Ki.NCM 1)KAIT Horse the long, lean, delicate legs with hard tendons and solid hoofs, all prove to what result man Fren'ch S.AnDLE Horse the improvement of a breed of horses is in ques- tion, it is generally a crossing with pure English blood that is desired ; it is seldom that the old Arabian blood is sought. The Yorkshire carriage horses and the Cleveland Bays form a group apart in England, where the former in times past were much used as carriage horses. The Cleveland Bay is a very old race, derived, probably, from an ancient mi.xture of the English horse with Oriental blood. Animals of this race are well built, lively, and vigorous, with strong, lean legs. They are much in demand for carriage and also for work horses. Of late, their good qualities be- coming more widely known, they have been imported to America, where they receive the name of "general purpose horses." io8 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS In England the Norfolk trotter is the light- weight carriage and harness horse par excel- lence. He conies from crossing the original English blood with the Thoroughbred, adding a slight mixture of Dutch blood. His trot is noble and high stepping; he is well built, though his back is sometimes a little hollow. The Hunter is also a half-breed ; but what the Norfolk horse does in harness he does of the hunt, and power f)f endurance, while their riders naturally require them to have a pleasant, elastic motion. The half-bred Irish horse is much in demand for military service. The Hackney, which has many of the qualities of the Hunter, is also used as a saddle horse, but on level roads, however, because he is more fitted for quiet riding than for jumping. Consequently the I'l.Ki 111 Ki iN under the saddle, as his name implies. Thor- oughbreds are also used for hunting, but for heavy-weight riders the half-bred hunter is preferable. He is a descendant of heavy sires and light-weight dams, especially Irish mares. It often happens that a mare producing a Hunter is partly Thoroughbred herself. The principal qualities of these animals are strength that enables them to carry heavy weights over obstacles, speed to follow the pace, oj'ten rapid. chief qualities required of him are a fine gait, elegance of shape, and docilit)-. The Cob is a small but sturdy horse, em- ployed to draw light phaetons ; he is some- times used as a riding horse for old gentlemen, on account of his quiet and easy gait. He is fiery, however, and a pail of water is often given him, just before his master mounts, to make him quieter. It was said that Sir Robert Peel lost his life by being thrown from a Cob, THE HORSE 109 which a groom had neglected to water. Ponies are found in great numbers in the mountainous parts of Great Britain. The Shetland ponies, coming from the islands of that name, are the most characteristic because they are the smallest. These little animals, sometimes less than three feet high, are much used in circuses and are ridden by children ; but their chief employment across the seas is in coal mines, where they draw the tram carts. Once taken down into a mine they never again see the light of day ; some have lived fifteen years, stabled and fed underground. There are several other tribes of ponies named for the local- ities where they originate, such as the E.xmoor, the New Forest, the Welsh, and the Scotch mountain pony. The English Thouocchhrki) Kunninc Horse Breton Pony Four years old The polo pony is of another race altogether. He is exter-, nally a Thoroughbred and descends from one, but by birth he is a half-breed. His sire is usually a Thoroughbred and his mother a Welsh or Irish pony. A genealogical tree has been drawn up for him. On the plains and in the fer- tile valleys of England and Scotland there are and have been from time immemorial solid, heavy, cool-blooded ani- mals. The Shire horse is an ancient, indigenous animal whose own cool blood has been mixed in the course of cen- turies with Dutch or Flemish blood. His true cradle is the center of England, — Notting- hamshire, Leicestershire, I lO OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS HuxTER " Tom Brown " Has taken many prizes Photo J. T. Newman. Berkhampstead Derbyshire, Staffordshire, — hence his name. The race is distinguished by its ponderous conformation, its fine shape, and especially by the thick hair at the back of the leg, descending in long locks about the fetlock. By his extraordinary strength, his gigantic height, and his excellent qualities as a draft animal, the Shire horse has given birth to several celebrated strains of brewery, truck, and cart horses in England and America. They are usually black, gray, or bay in color. The Suffolk horse, commonly known as the Suffolk Punch, is indigenous from ancient times in the county of that name. He is equally heavy and stout, and excels as much by his ex- traordinary strength as by the docility with which he lends himself to toilsome work, espe- cially that of agriculture. The Clydesdale horses are Stallion cool-blooded, and take their Took name from the valley of the Clyde in Scotland. They come from Scotch mares crossed with Flemish sires. This breed produces excellent work horses, and is cliaracterized, like the Shire horse, by the long, thick hair on the leg, which the Suffolk Pimch has not. They are usually brown or black in color, with a star, blaze, or other mark on the forehead, and they frequently have white feet. This is a popular breed in America. Belgium is the country of heavy, cool-blooded horses. It is, above all, on the plains of Flanders, lirabant, and Hainaut that we find stout, strong, lieavy draft horses. These horses are renowned for developed muscles, fine shape, and vast strength. The rump is generally sloping and so powerfully muscled that it forms a hollow in the center of the back, but in spite of this heavy conformation these animals trot with ease. The breed is fast find- ing friends on this side of the water, and many fine specimens have been brought to this country. H-VCKNEVS The horse of the Ardennes is a lighter animal of the same species, raised on the moun- tains and plateaus of the Ardennes. It is put to the same uses as the Percheron, while the Belgian horses are employed chiefly in drawing heavy loads. The Zealand horse has Polo Pony "Mootrub" much in common with the first prize in New York Belgian horse in shape and THE HORSE III characteristics, especially in its heav}- hind quarters. The Frisian breed, formed)' much employed in the northern parts of Europe, differs greatly from the foregoing type. It is known for its high neck and shoulders, its sloping rump, the lofty action of the fore legs, and its ability to gallop or trot rapidl\-. It was chiefly for this latter quality that foreigners formerly esteemed the Frisian horse, which is now entirely set aside. The color is uniformly black. Denmark, especially in Jutland, may be regarded as the most northern coun- try which has produced heavy cool- blooded horses. The Jutland horses have long been known to foreigners as the Danish horses ; in the days of chivalry they were much sought for their great strength. Denmark is so productive of horses that philologists assert that its name is derived from that animal, Denmark signifying the " land of horsemen." The Jutland horse is of medium height and weight, and is now used chiefly for agriculture and for omnibuses and tramways. It is robust, calm in temperament, easy to feed, with a steady gait and great endurance. It is usually brown or chestnut, seldom black or gray. which afford prizes for well-bred horses sent to exhibitions, and since 1887 assistance is given to societies for the purchase of stallions. The number of Danish or Jutland horses is reckoned at three hundred thousand, of which Welsh Pony with Fo..\l Photo J. T. Newman, Berkhampstead three fourths are found in Jutland and one fourth in the Danish islands. The annual exportation is about fifteen thousand, chiefly geldings ; in Ger- many these animals are sold at prices varying from 600 to 1200 francs, — from $125 to $250. The ancient breed of Nordland horses, so called, is still met with in Norway ; they are Shetl.^nd Ponies The Danish horses have rather long backs, light withers, the head short and broad, the neck thick, the rump sloping, but the legs strong. Since 1872 the state grants subsidies of medium height, yellow or brownish yellow in color, with the mane, tail, and lower part of the leg jet black. They have also a black stripe running the whole length of the back. I 12 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Shire Huksl Photo J. T. Newman, Berkhanipstead The Norker horse is a small pony, to be found along the fiords and coasts of Norway. It is gray or brownish gray in color, strong, with great endurance and solid hoofs, and is famous for its ability to climb mountains and to swim. Iceland ponies ha\'e much in common with the Norker horse. They have thick coats, enabling them to bear their cold climate, and they get their food by scratching away the snow with their hoofs and feed- ing on the scanty grass and mosses which grow on that rocky soil. Norway possesses another breed of these little liord ponies, called the West- land ; they are vigorous and hardy, with tufted manes and tails. The Norwegian trotting horse is chiefly found in the southeastern portion of the country, where races are in great favor. This horse resem- bles the Frisian trotter, but is smaller. He is famous for the extreme solidity of his hoofs and his strong, sinewy legs ; he is courageous, quiet, and good- tempered. To improve the type, which is rather wanting in dignity, breeders are now- importing stallions from Eng- land. Except for racing, the love of horses is not much developed in Nor- way, because the soil and climate do not lend themselves to breeding, and, besides, the farms are small, so that breeders seldom have more than three or four mares for the purpose. Sweden also produces none but small horses and ponies. It is only by the establishment of stud farms and the importation of foreign stal- lions that she has succeeded in raisins' carriage Clydesdales Photo J. T. Newman, Berkhanipstead < w 114 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS and saddle horses. The Swedish army horses are loaned during a great part of the time to the peasants, who may use them for saddle and harness, but not for heavy work. The Swedish Suffolk-Punch M.irf. "Queen of Dla.moxds" Photo J. T. Newman, Berkhampstead ponies bear a general resemblance to those of Norway, Iceland, and the Shetland and Orkney islands. They are mostly gray or mouse col- ored, with black points. The smallest are found on the island of Oland, and are called Glanders. Large heads with heavy jaws, thick, harsh coats, and tufted manes and tails characterize nearly all these northern ponies. In the southern countries of Europe we find little animals that correspond to the ponies of the north. In Greece ponies share the kingdom with don- keys and mules ; a particularly small breed, smaller than that of the Shetland Isles, is found in the Cyclades. No sign remains of the equine glory of ancient Greece and of her famous breed of Thessalian horses. The same may be said ol Italy, which is now under tli< necessity of annually importing more than thirty thousan horses. The Sardinian ponic- are strong, handsome animals ; they are generally brown. The smallest are called " achetta," and their sure, firm step on the mountains is much praised. Ponies are also bred in Sicily. Formerly Italy was celebrated for her horses. The Neapolitans, especially, enjoyed a world- wide fame at a period when breeding and ecjuitation were at their zenith in that coun- try. Pasquala Caracciolo, a professor in the Italian school for these arts, now abandoned, asserts that for traveling, trotting, galloping, and war, and also for leaping and hunting, the Italian horses were preferable to all others in the world. They were very handsome, robust, enduring, agile, courageous, and in- telligent, with finely shaped head and shoul- ders ; they were agreeable under the hand, and if ridden by a good horseman, they took a gait that was elegant and elastic, and very pleasant to the rider. Spain also was famous for her horses, espe- cially the celebrated Andalusians, which had much in common with the Neapolitan horses. The Moors imported Arabian blood into Spain, from which resulted horses of lighter weight and purer Eastern race. The Jouicts, so called. Reve d'Or," Stallion of Heavy Belgian Draft Breed His mimerous medals are round his neck THE HORSE 115 small horses indigenous in Spain, must be ranked among saddle horses. They were celebrated for their elegance, their proud bearing, their high crests, their long manes, the fine action of their fore legs, and the elasticity of their hind ones, which gave to their movements a suppleness that all the world admired. From the fifteenth to the eighteenth centuries these horses were held in high esteem among princes and nobles, and even in the beginning of the nineteenth Roumania and the other Balkan States are alike in possessing a breed of mountain ponies which have many of the characteristics of Ori- ental horses, to which, apparently, they are related. Turkey has likewise outlived her fame in the domain of horse raising, her horses of Eastern origin being highly valued in times past. The Sultan's stables cover a vast tract of ground and contain about two thousand horses of various origin, — Tartar, Arabian, Danish, AVIS Type of a T\vo-Ye..\r-Oi.u Ardennes St.ali.ion century they were much in demand as circus or riding-school horses. One or more were considered a princely gift. To-day they are never seen, but traces of them are still visible in Austria, Italy, Spain, and in some of the northern countries, such as F"riesland and Denmark. Spain formerly produced a heavier horse, which was preferred to the foregoing for war and tillage. They were called villanos. In our day the breeding of horses in Spain is insignificant and very inferior to that of asses and mules. The few horses that remain are mostly sacrificed in bullfights. English, French, Russian, and German. A few zebras and splendid African quaggas are also kept in the stables of the Sublime Porte. The United States has long been a prominent horse-producing nation, although her horses are developed entirely from the horse stock of other countries. The prominent breeds are Percheron, French Draft, English Shire, Suf- folk Punch, Clydesdale, and Belgium Draft for farm purposes and for work requiring strong, heavy animals ; and the French, German, Old- enburg, Hackney, and the Cleveland Bay for carriage purposes. These breeds, even when ii6 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS bred in a land new to them, cling with wonderful tenacity to original forms and characteristics. These imported horses are easily adaptable to our soil and climate, and to-day one can scarcely Frisian Stallion Four years old find a county in any state that does not pos- sess pure-blooded animals representing some of these breeds. The American trotter, the most remarkable of all horses, is a descendant of the English Thoroughbred, and has been improved and developed for a special purpose — speed. One hundred years ago there was no authenticated record of any horses going faster than a mile in less time than two and three-quarters minutes ; to-day we have records for one mile in two minutes, or even better, for Dan Patch, the pacing wonder, during the past summer covered the mile in 1.55-^. III. Breeding of Horses The breeding of horses has gone through many modifications in the course of time, dating back to long- past ages. We still find traces of half-savage forms in the east of Russia and its adjoining regions. According to the direction given to breeding, some races have been condemned to disappear and give place to others that answered better to the requirements of owners. Thanks to repeated crossings in a certain direction, old characteristic qualities disappear and are re- placed by other forms and qualities. By continually selecting the heaviest animals of a heavy race, and giving them such food as their needs require, our heavy breeds of draft horses have been obtained, — horses that rear themselves like giants of fairy tales to the eyes of those who see them for the first time. In using for propagation the fleet- est animal of a fleet and noble race, and giving to their product an edu- ration that develops the muscles and lendons, and by carefully repressing all obesity, breeders are obtaining more and more animals of incredible speed, which, especially on the American race track, are taking less and less time to cover a certain distance. By always using the smallest specimens of a race of small ponies breeders have succeeded in producing horses no larger than mastiffs. A dwarf horse, two years old, exhibited in New York in 1901, was onl\' twenty-three Frisian Stallion, Jet Black inches in height. Breeders also seize and repro- duce the freaks of nature, such as the albino horses (born white) of Denmark and Hanover. Among the most ancient stud farms we must rank those established by the Norman kings in THE HORSE 117 Normandy. They raised war horses, ponderous but rapid, and they even estabHshed races and formed race courses, an example followed later by monasteries and abbeys. The stud farm of the Abbey of Mont Saint Michel was long celebrated. Private studs were also set up by knights in the Middle Ages to sup- ply their own needs. These were established all along the shores of the North Sea and the Baltic, and are the places whence the cool- blooded horses of the present day originally came. In 1843 stud farms were made a part of the government administra- tion of Russia, and twenty-six such farms were established, with sixty stallions in each, which were placed gratuitously at the service of breed- ers. A very celebrated stud farm was estab- lished in 1732 in eastern Russia. At first only the Teutonic breeds were raised, but an im- portation of Neapolitan, Turkish, and English blood produced fine carriage horses, which further importations only bettered. During the Napoleonic wars this establishment suffered severely and came near to being broken up, but in 18 14 a fresh importation of English and Oriental blood revived it. Russia now possesses 6i..^NnF.R Ponies, Sweden Jutland Horse a vast number of such establishments where pure-blooded, half-blooded, and sometimes cool- blooded animals are raised. In the province of Rosen there has long been a small stud farm of Percherons. Such farms belong partly to the state and partly to private owners. Breeding establishments in the United States ha\'e been owned and managed by private parties entirel)', the government never having assisted in the work. Importing companies and private individuals have imported for the past century many animals of various breeds for breeding purposes, these animals being sold to farmers direct or kept for use by those importing them. There is scarcely an important European breed that is not represented by many superior individuals in our country, either by direct importation or by the descendants of many individuals f_i^ brought here, the French Draft, Percheron, and Clydesdale being very numerous and scattered over farms throughout the country. The Belgian, English Shire, and Suffolk Punch have also gained in friends and numbers during recent years. Of the carriage breeds, the French Coach, German Coach, Hackney, and Cleveland Bays are the most popular and are gaining in numbers and fa\or. ii8 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS IV. The Art of Equitation The custom of riding on horseback is \'ery ancient, but in the clays of the Greek and Roman civilizations it became an art in which both man and horse were specially trained by the Olympic games. A magnificent circus was established in Constantinople, where horses paraded and passaded in cadence, and even danced, and where the art of equitation as a Henry VII, king of England, sent to Italy for instructors ; and the Italian method was also taught in Germany by Engelhardt in 1588. The doctrine of the Italian school was, gen- erally speaking, as follows. The body of the rider has two movable parts, — the upper part of the body and the lower part of the legs. The part between the waist and the knees should be motionless. The seat should be Norwegian Pasture for Horses spectacle attained a high degree of de\'elop- ment. The animals employed were the ances- tors of the Neapolitan and Andalusian horses afterwards so renowned, and the performances foreshadowed the Spanish and Italian schools that came later. In the sixteenth century Pignatelli, an Italian nobleman, established the first riding schools in Naples and Pisa, although at the close of the fifteenth century equitation already followed certain fixed rules laid down by the court of France. straight, but inclining backward rather than forward, and the thighs must be firm against the saddle ; this position should be maintained even at full gallop. The rider should have recourse to none but the gentlest measures ; he should ne\'er use the spurs unless the horse refuses absolutely to obey the pressure of the knees, neither should he use the whip or the voice. But besides these general rules the Italian school had manv little fanciful tricks that were difficult both for horse and rider, among them a passading step called the " Neapolitan." THE HORSE 119 The Spanish school represented in many principles of his predecessor, although still rec- ways the Moors and the traditions they left ommended, were combined with those of the behind them ; the simple Arabian bit and stir- Duke of Newcastle. At the end of the seven- rups retained their Moorish form. But after a teenth century we find the king's equerry, PRUSSI.AN ^ 1 \I 1 11 INS while ultra-refinement and artificiality carried Gaspard Saunier, exercising the veterinary art the day, and energy, agility, and suppleness at Versailles, and combining it with the other were less valued than stateliness and show. arts of riding and horseshoeing. He also put The French school attached itself especially his knowledge to use, with more or less success, to show. Pluvinel, the first to write on in the establishment of stud farms for the king Pcre-Blckidei) Arabi.xn Stallions equitation, dedicated his book to Louis XIII, who was famous for his admirable seat on horse- back. To Pluvinel succeeded Beaurepaire, who published, in 1665, a book in which the and for private individuals. In his works on equitation and other branches he makes men- tion of the royal hunts in the forest of Fontaine- bleau, at which the e.xiled King James I of I20 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS England and his suite had difficulty in following his majesty Louis XIV. He ranked the Arabian and Barbary stallions above the Spanish for breeding purposes, and he aided in abolishing certain absurdities of the Italian school. Kr.xTitKV HoRsi'; The above schools (the Latin schools) de- manded ch-gaiiCL' in the horse, — the pointed head, the long mane, the fine swan's neck gracefully curved, the long and supple back, the slender but sinewy fore legs flung high and majestically (as in the "Spanish step" ) with an elastic, dancing motion. The Andalusian and Neapolitan horses fulfilled these require- ments better than all others. The German school, which followed the Latin school only to a certain point, held a medium place between that school and those of the Slav races, — Russian, Hungarian, and Polish. The latter governed their restive horses by vitilent means, and could never bring themselves to use the gentler methods of the Latin nations. Americans and their English cousins have always preferred the enjoyment of trotting and galloping across country to making any fine display in the riding schools. The rough, harsh way in which the Slavs ride is partly caused, no doubt, by their saddles, which project so far from the body of the horse that the rider cannot direct the animal by knee or thigh. His heels are usuall)- under the chest of the horse, and he controls him entirely by bit and spur. He will often, in the middle of a gallop, fling the horse backward or to one side b)- pulling violently on the bit, using both whip and voice at the same time. The saddle is high in front and back, and the stirrups very short ; consequently it is almost impossible for a restive horse to throw his rider. The Slavs never ride at a trot, but always at a walk or gallop. The rider often forces the animal to sit down on his haunches, and then he compels Horses in Corral, Wyoming THE HORSE 121 him with whip and spur to advance in that half-sitting posture. This violent treat- ment renders a horse obedient in a few days, and if he breaks a leg or strains a muscle in the process, what matter ? The steppes of the Ukraine, or eastern Russia, will furnish plenty more. Besides the systems of equitation prac- ticed in circuses and riding schools, there are rules for open-air exercises in which, added to equitation properly so called, there are obstacles to overcome, barriers to leap, and equestrian games to play, in which the rider can exhibit his power .Si. WISH Step over his steed, together with his method and agility. Women rode on horseback in very ancient times, as we see by the sculptures of ancient Greece. One by Phidias, preservetl in the British Museum in London, shows us a Thessalian woman sitting, man fashion, astride a horse of Thessaly, which breed was then held to be the finest of Grecian horses. This fashion of women riding astride continued in Europe until the twelfth century, when ladies' saddles were introduced, enabling them to sit sideways. Sometimes a woman rode en croupe, that is, behind her husband or another man. It is said that Queen Elizabeth of England " Interest" rode thus behind her grand equerry, the Earl of Leicester. The horse is easily trained to assist his rider in the execution of certain tricks of grace and skill. A tale is told of a Gascon horseman who rode a spirited horse hold- ing a piaster under each thigh, between each knee and the horse, and on each spur, without dropping a single one of them. I have myself seen an American cowboy cross at full gallop a field where a piece of money had been thrown upon the grass. Without slackening speed he leaned over and along the flank and belly of his horse, clinging to the animal with his legs, his head hanging low, but every Makinc; hi.m Kneel 122 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS time he succeeded in picking up the coin as he flashed past. Aeronauts have been known to ascend the skies mounted on a Pegasus, which stood on a plank suspended by ropes from a balloon ; and riders have succeeded in training horses to gallop not forward but backward. The horse rises by jumps, and the moment the fore legs in eleven hours, without stopping for food or drink. As she entered the city the brave beast fell dead, — less fortunate than the more justly famous Roland, who brought the good news from Ghent to Aix. The use of horses in harness was far from being as general in former times as it is now ; in fact, it was much despised in the The Celebrated Tr.ainer M. Oscar Carre touch the ground he lifts the hind legs and flings them backward to the ground behind him. A very famous English horse. Black Bess, a Thoroughbred mare with much Arabian blood in her veins, saved her no less famous, or rather infamous, master, Dick Turpin, the highway- man. When pursued by relays of archers, determined to capture at last so elusive a criminal, the mare carried him over rough roads and turnpike gates from London to York, a distance of one hundred and five miles, brilliant days of equestrian chivalry. When the upper classes began to use carriages and their passion for equitation lessened, the French and German kings and princes endeavored to check the innovation. Up to that time the use of a carriage had always been regarded as an effeminacy unworthy of a cavalier ; but now, by degrees, people began to find the new mode of locomotion more comfortable, and the cava- liers themselves began to take their ease in vehicles. In consequence of this, Duke Julius THE HORSE 12- of Brunswick felt compelled to issue an edict In England carriages came into use in the declaring that " the use of carriages was prej- second half of the sixteenth century, during udicial to the virile virtue, the good sense, the the reign of Queen Elizabeth. The first coach bravery, propriety, and firmness of the German was imported by the Earl of Arundel, to take nation, and was suitable only for lazy the place of the queen's sedan chair. persons." It was, in fact, injuri ous to the interests of kings and princes, because in times of war (and those were incessant) vassals were compelled to assist their sovereigns with their persons, their swords, thei r horses, and their re- tainers ; but now (as the duke's edict goes on to say), " instead o themselves mounting th horses, the knights stayi home and sent their grooms stewards, and other inexperienced rabble, not on vigorous stallions but on weak and puny beasts." Finally matters came to such a pass that the warrior OllSTACLES TO Le.AP and to spare her the annoyance ■:;, of riding pillion behind her rand equerry. In France we find mention of the first coaches for hire in 1550. Thus it ap- pears that vehicles began to take the ilace of equestrian- ism in all countries at about the same period, — a period correspond- ig to that of a reform the intellectual world. Chariots of war were known lo antiquity. When Julius Caesar conquered Britain in 55 B.C., he encountered Briton warriors seated in formidable chariots armed with scythes fixed to the wheels. Even in Rome princes found themselves forced to employ the use of vehicles was early known, but none contractors who, for stipulated sums of money, but victors, vestal virgins, and certain author- undertook to procure both men and horses, ities were allowed to use them, and they could The same condition of affairs existed in Spain at nearly the same epoch. The grandees, who formerly mounted their horses to display their prowess with the lance as they had seen it practiced by the Moors, or to fight wild bulls in the arena, now began to imitate the prelates, who were dragged about comfortably in coaches drawn by mules. A Spanish grandee complained of it thus: " Formerly there were brigands who comported themselves like knights and great matadores ; the brigands of the present day are beggars and the matadores bunglers." Philip II, king of Spain, took this matter to heart in 1562. He issued decrees against the breeding of mules and tried to encourage that of horses. Interior of a Ridixc; School 124 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Ready to Start move only by daylight. These chariots had t\v wheels ; the carpcntnin had a hood, and the pilentiun was uncovered, or, at most, had a canopy. The triumphal car of victors and the racing chariots, harnessed often with three horses, also had two wheels. The carnica, an elegant carriage for luxury, adorned with gold, silver, and ivory, had four wheels. Its name has come down to the present day in many languages: car- riiccio, Italian ; kaivs, kar, karrikel, north of Europe ; carrossc, carrousel, French ; carriage, English. In consequence of the bumps experi- enced on rough and stony roads it was thought advisable, after a time, to suspend the seat between four wheels by leather straps. In the sumptuous seventeenth century they used a sort of artistically decorated swing, slowly drawn by proud and splendid Anda- lusian horses, flanked on each side by two servants, whose business it was to hold up the machine when it threatened to fall, or to right it if it fell. The use of leather straps for the purpose of lessening rough shocks is still continued in Holland, though steel springs have long since taken their place elsewhere. There- fore the few Dutch carriages of this kind that still exist may be regarded as curiosities. In our day it has become an art, and even a science, to drive a coach or carriage. The art consists in going whereso- ever we desire, in guiding the horses by reins, whip, and voice in a way to make a good appearance, and in so manag- ing that the horses suffer as little as possible from their work, and that the equipage goes forward so regularly and tranquilly that the people .■ithin it do not perceive the pace at which it A Noble Breed 126 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS goes nor the obstacles on the road which It over- from his hand to the exterior side of each comes or avoids. The Hungarians are known horse's bit, and united by a transversal strap for their skillfulness in this art, and the Eng- between the animals. lish and Americans have also earned it far. The qualities required m a good driver are a gentle hand, skill, presence of mind, love for his horses (whom he ought to know thor- oughly), good sense, patience, courage, strength, and a cer- tain elegance ; he should be absolutely without roughness of any kind. Besides all this he should be sufficiently trained tn his business, for no one is born a driver. It is a bad driver, or rather not a driver at all, who does not know his hfirses through and through, — their charac- ter, humor, and temperament as well as their faults. He needs patience to conquer quietly the capricious humor or resistance of his animals without himself being excited by their fits of temper. Courage and strength will surely enable him to master their obstinacy, changed Inspection of a RiniNCi-ScHooi- House The method of driving horses has often been At one time each horse of a pair had a bridle and rein to himself, so that one horse could be stopped without pulling on the other. To make them turn to the right a strap was fastened to the right of the jaw of the near horse, which crossed to the left shoulder of the off horse. They were turned to the left in the same way. To-day we use cross reins, that is to say, the two reins in the hands of the driver each divide into two at the shoulder, the correspond- ing end of each going to the left side of each horse's bit, while the same is done for the right side. This arrangement, far more convenient in the mat- ter of turning, presents certain inconveniences when driving two horses of different tem- peraments. In agricultural work done with quiet horses the driver often has but the two reins going which, of course, it is absolutely essential that he should do. THE HORSE 127 skill and courage which are nothing extraordi- nary, though always dangerous. To skirt at full gallop deep gullies and ravines and the rocky slopes of mountains needs a courage and cool- ness which are not given to every one. It is a great test of strength and skill to drive a four-in-hand, sometimes a si.\ -in-hand, and In Austria and in our western mountain- ous section are the most remarkable exam- ples of intrepidity and skill in the art of driving horses. To mount and descend flights of steps, to approach a precipice with four horses at full speed and be able to stop occasif)nallv eight or nine. The more horses, the them short at the crucial moment, are acts of more reins for the driver to hold, and if he is Rkk.\k of a Horse Dealer ,■■--« ' c s. / I-,- < .1a. :■,-../»■■• 'M. ,-> ■■■■ -'xriv'-^v *?>-. ■ """^ m WmmBKk ♦ f .vv--^lH '\\ ^B^^^^^^^^^^^Ki!^i t*i ^ 1 - Mr \' iT^T^^^^^^^^ 1 r ^ i^gui^,;..::""'.,'^-^' V^^^b^uIbS^Iv^^ |nmAl HARXES.S Horse horn White (.\i-i;ix(i) I2S OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS English Hansum Cab not very experienced he is liable to mistake the pairs and thus cause accidents. It is related that an Eng- lish breeder, Mr. Emody, was drivini; along the road from Westminster to Greenwich with a carriage full of musicians, drawn by twelve pairs ot horses, which he drove himself from the box. Two outriders preceded him as heralds, and two others escorted the vehicle, to be ready in case of accident. Emody seemed to have little trouble in driving his twenty-four steeds, holding the mass of reins in one hand as easily as the driver of an omnibus holds those of his poor old horses. In spite of the long distance and the many turns of the road, not the slightest accident happened, and the trip was made in two hours and twent)-five minutes. Any one who takes a bunch of twenty-four reins in his hand will agree that there is no cjuestion f)f really guiding the horses. Hard to Imld in any case, how can the driver select the pair he may suddcnl)- need } There are some men, however, who liave luck in this world. How often we see a sleeping cartman or a A Set f)F Six A Well-Haunessed Hukm. drunken cabman arrive safe at his destination to the amazement of on-lookers ! The matter is much simpler with an equipage harnessed (I la Daniiioiit, where a postil- ion sits on the left-hand horse of each pair of four, six, or eight horses, as the case may be, and guides his own horse and the one beside him, the coachman being responsible for the wheel horses only ; in fact, it is possible to advance without any coachman at all. The harnessing of two- horses tandem was originall\' THE HORSE 129 A Famous Six-Huksk Team and for devised to assist a single horse in pulling a load and for giving proofs of skill. To prevent the too heavy for him on a road too narrow to ad- long reins from flapping, rings are attached be- mit of two horses abreast. Later it was adopted hind the head of the wheel horse, through which as a means of showing fine horses to advantage, the forward reins are passed. On a straight First Prize, Work-Horse Parade, Boston I30 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS road this system of harnessing works well with regularly in the same wheel rut that he made docile horses, which are willing to go easily and in the sand at starting. However, Plato, the steadily, but special aptitude and much practice philosopher, thought that a man who bestowed are required to make evolutions correctly. such pains upon futile things must naturally A Si;t of Nink It is thought a great test of skill to drive neglect those that are more important and a four-wheeled carriage in such a way that one more worth}- of admiration, of the wheels (selected in advance) shall crush an egg ; or to stop the vehicle at the precise • *^^ moment when the chosen wheel covers a piece In war the horse formerly had a far more of money that has been laid upon the ground. important part than he has in these days, when \\ .\Ti:i;iN(; It is related that in ancient times a Greek named Arniceris carried the noble art of driv- ing to such perfection that he made the cir- cuit of an amphitheater several times, stopping civilization has made such strides that men can perfectly well kill each other without the help of brute beasts. In ancient times warriors rode their horses bareback, as we see in the antique A i'Ki/i.-\w.\M.\i, Tkam in Chicago Tl.AiM uF Fak.M I1iiI;.^i,s, Olllu 132 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS statues, that of Emperor Marcus Aurelius, for instance. Neither bit nor bridle was used to hold or guide them ; often the rider had nothing but a species of headband that pressed upon the nose, and to which the reins were attached by a ring. The excavations at Pompeii have brought to light many fine models of these headbands. The Romans had long used sad- dles, while the Germans, regarding them as unmanly and enervating, preferred to ride did not excel either in strength or in speed, and that their riders did not train them, as did the Romans, to gallop round the enemy whom they assailed with their arrows, but made them go straight forward, or, at best, swerve a little to the right. Horace complains of the effeminacy of his times. " The young man of good family," he says, "no longer understands the art of riding a horse and of subduing the restive chargers of the Gauls." Winter bareback. Before the latter learned to use saddles they put the skins of animals on the backs of their horses, but used no stirrups. The ancient Greeks had cavalry, and we know that Sesostris, king of Egypt, led many mounted warriors into battle. These same Greeks as well as the Romans wrote books on the equine race. Hippocrates states that the Scythians were afflicted with certain maladies caused by riding without stirrups. Tacitus transmits to us details on the horses and cav- alry of the Germans. He says that these horses During the Crusades the Western knights saw and learned the manner in which the Eastern warriors, the Saracens, saddled and rode their steeds. We refer our readers to the graphic pages of Sir Walter Scott for a descrip- tion of a combat between a heavily armed Scottish knight and a Moorish emir. In our day the ponderous animals of the days of chivalry and their heavy trappings have been replaced by the much lighter horses of our cavalry, though the artillery and the transporta- tion trains still recjuire powerful draft horses. THE HORSE ^33 According to a record made in 1901, the [ number of horses employed by the great mihtarv powers is as follows : N Times of Peace In Times of War France . . 143,000 . 400,000 Russia 140,000 . . 450,000 Germany 125,000 400,000 Italy . . . So,ooo . ■ ^45.°°° Austria . 78,000 . . 250,000 England . . 19,000 70,000 United States 7.43^' . . 1,000,000 On all sides we find a tendency to stop the buying of war horses in foreign countries, each country seeking to supply its own re- mounts. One of the great cares of all military powers should be to have at their disposal, in case of war, as many horses as possible. Yet the different European states do not all remount in the same manner. Prussia, which requires annually nine thousand re- mount horses, buys them, when three or four years old, within its own borders, especially in eastern Prussia, and also a few in Han- over. They are then divided among seven- teen remount stations, each of which covers from about twenty-two hundred to four thou- sand acres of land, so that the animals never suffer from want of movement in fresh air. Saxony needs twelve hundred remounts annually, which she obtains equally from eastern Prussia and Hanover. She has five stations, three of which have existed for nearly three centuries. Wiirttemburg demands annually five hundred remounts, which are bought of two ages (four to six, and three to four) and sent to Breithtilen, Types of Cav.'Vlrv Horses The Statue of Wn.LiAM the Silent AT The Hague a remount station founded in 1S98. The other German states obtain their military horses from Prussia. Italy has an annual need of thirty-six hundred remounts for her one hundred and forty -four squadrons of cavalry and her twenty-six artillery regiments. Formerly she drew them in great part from Hungary, Ger- many, and Denmark, but since the year 18S8 she has obtained them within her own borders. They are mostly bought as foals and brought up at the remount stations. In 1897 urgent need obliged the government to im- port one thousand remount ani- mals from Hungary. 134 DOMESTIC ANIMALS Remounts and are then sent directly to the regiments. These horses are chiefly drawn from Nor- mandy. The French remount stations differ from those of nearly all other nations. Horses are there trained and delivered, properly taught, to the regiments, whereas in nearly all other countries food and proper care is all that the governments give to their remounts. In fact, in some The system f)f remount as applied in Norway countries there is a practice of allowing con- is peculiar. The necessary horses are delivered tractors to feed and care for the young horses. by the owners of certain farms, who are legally bound to supply them. This bund, or obligation, is very ancient, and dates back probabl)' to the time when the nobles were obliged in times f)f war to furnish their sovereign with a certain num- ber of horse and foot soldiers. In Sweden, where the number of military horses is about six thousand, they have an annual need of fi\c hundred and forty remounts, which are all bought in the interior of the country, at an age varying from three to si.\ years ; part of them are formed immediately into a coqjs, the rest being sent to the remount stations. France needs annually fifteen thousand young horses ; those for the cavalry are bought when three years and a half old and sent to the stations, whereas the pains to fa\'or the production of good animals, draft horses are five years old when bought, as the countr\' is lacking in good stock. It has even introduced a system of premiums for remounts, which amounted in 1899 to one hundred and twenty-five thousand francs ($25,000). These premiums are in pro- portion to the good qualities of the animals, but they can- not go beyond twenty-five hundred francs (S500) per horse. The price of a remount Raising the Leg of .a Restive Horse The French government takes the greatest l-',xi urisi- IN Dkawing THE HORSE 135 varies from twelve to eighteen hundred francs (S240 to $360), so that a single horse may possibly cost the state forty-three hundred francs ($860). Because of these measures, and of the fact that three thousand stallions are placed at the disposal of breeders and divided among all the stations, the French government succeeds in supplying itself with remounts from the home country. These stallions, however, cost the country eight million francs ($1,600,000) annually, while in other ways more than six- teen milHon ($3,200,000) are expended each year on the breeding and training of military horses. Austria-Hungary requires annuall)- eight thousand remounts, which are easy tf) find within the borders of that country. In 1890 the government began to establish remount stations, which now number five. One part of the remounts remain there a year; the other part, bought when five years of age, are sent immediately to the various regiments. Switzerland has an annual need of six hun- dred remounts, which are bought in northern Germany and Ireland. The young horses spend A Captain ok the REruuLiCAN Guard five months in getting acclimated at the re- mount station at Berne. They are then sent to a school for remounts to be trained. Formerly 136 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS every mounted Swiss soldier supplied his own horse. Nothing remains of this custom but the fact that each man in the cav- alry service may become the possessor of his horse on certain conditions and by paying a certain sum ; also he ma}' do what he likes with the animal when he is not in service. In case of a call to active service he must bring his horse (which has, meantime, been annually inspected) until the tenth year, when the animal becomes his exclu- sive property. It would be difficult to cite a better ex- ample of Swiss democracy and individualism. Spain has a cavalr)- of ten thousand horses, the artillery and the transpor- tation trains being usually served by mules. The remounts are bought in the country itself, except a few heavy draft horses which are imported from Belgium. The Repui!lic.^n Gu.\rd, Full Dress Portugal, with four thou- sand military horses, needs four hundred remounts annually, which are bought at home wherever they can be had without attaching much importance to qual- ity. They are from three to seven years old when bought, and the youngest are sent to the remount station of Villa Vi^osa. Servia, which in times of peace maintains six thou- sand cavalry, draws her remounts chiefly from Rus- sia and Austria. Turkey possesses (on paper) in times of peace a force of three thousand cavalry. The remounts are bought from Russia and Hungary, when there hap- pens to be money enough to do so. The Turks appear to attach more importance to cheapness than to quality. In Russia, according to the system of re- mounting employed until January i, 1901, the officers on remount duty bound them- selves to deliver the horses at a medium price, and in so doing played the part of horse jockeys. At pres- ent Russian remounting is done in the German manner, that is to say, by militar)' commissions for the pur- chase of animals. A certain number of horses are drawn from the stud farms of the state. Some regiments buy their own mounts, the Cossack regiments furnishing theirs and pro- viding for them in every particular. The government encourages the breeding of the Cossack horses by distributing three hundred stallions annually among the Cossack villages. Roumania in times of peace counts twelve thousand cavalry, and fifty Firm ! THE HORSE '6/ TRUiMPETERS UK THE CUIRASSIERS thousand in times of war. Her remounts come chiefly from Hungary, only a few being obtained within her own borders. Belgium has more than ten thousand horses, and her annual remount is one thousand ; the draft or transportation horses are easily derived from the Ardennes. The breeding of cavalry horses is encouraged to the utmost by the government. England has an annual need of nearly three thousand remounts, which it is easy to obtain in that country itself. The government takes no interest in breeding, except in the poorest districts of Ireland, where it has stationed a few Hackney stallions. Luxemburg, having a cavalry force of eight horses, finds little difificulty in the matter of remounts. The Netherlands has eight thousand military horses, of which all those for the cavalry and artillery come from Ireland, while about a hun- dred heavier horses are annually bought in the provinces of Groningen and Gelderland. They are bought at three and four years of age and spend one year at Millingen in large stables that communicate with vast fields, where they can run at liberty. Nourishing food, much exercise, and fresh air prepare these horses Horse of a German Artillery Officer 138 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS wonderfully well for their work. After passing another six months in training at the regimen- tal stations they are drafted into the squadrons or the batteries. VI. Hunting After war came hmiting as the next neces- sity in which men learned to use horses, as we see by the statues and engra\- ings that represent to us St. George hunting th dragon and comiiiL: victorious from , the fight. The structio of dan- gerous and Hunting has always been an English passion which, like many other sports and bodily exer- cises, has passed from Great Britain to the Continent and to America. This explains why the English have applied themselves especially to the breeding of hunting horses. The country itself, by the lay of its land, is very favorable to cynegetic exercises, having few curves and many plains with only such obstacles and barriers as a horse can jump. The annals of hunting' n England are very k interesting to ^^ those who ^^^k have a taste ^^^^ for ^^^^^ sort ^^^^^^k thing. ^^^^k It mischie vous ani- mals, whK.i at first was a ' necessity, be- came very quickly a pleasure, and has endol in becoming an art, thanks to the enjoyment derived from motion in the open air, and from the pleasure of surmounting obstacles and braving dangers. The death of the hunted animal is only an accessory; the seeking of the dogs, the joyous sound of the huntsman's horn, the pleasure of proving to others our agility, strength, courage, intrepidity, — herein lies the true joy of hunting. iclated ' that early y' m the last .f cent u r y a *^.^^.,^r deer, hunted b\- the hounds of the ,.- king of England, ran I'lr four hours and forty-five GeRM.\X BoI)V(,U.\RD minutes. Rider after ;r a:a\'e up and could ride no more. One horse fell dead, another expired before he reached the stable, and seven others died during the follow- ing week (a mortality as great as or even greater than that of a Spanish bullfight). Huntsmen never lose sight of the game, which can, there- fore, never slacken its speed or rest for a single instant. For the best horse a run of four hours 140 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS 111 IK^K^ Hi 1 111. l..\(. Ll-.il AkM-i and forty minutes at full gallop across all sorts of ground and over many obstacles is sure to result in either permanent injury or death. Here are a few instances in which the Eng- lish passion for hunting wild animals has been carried to extravagant excess. The old Duke of Richmond suffered so much from the gout Training to Hunt that he had to be lifted onto his horse, and being unable to hold the reins, they were passed round his neck. And thus he was seen to ride down the slopes of Bow Hill, near Goodwood, at full gallop after the hounds, with all the fire of youth, his arms crossed on his breast. An old general, who had had his left arm shot off near the shoulder, leaving only a little stvimp under which he could hold his whip, kept up with the boldest huntsman of the county of Kildare, the hardest hunting ground in Ireland, keeping with the hounds in places where the most experienced riders found it difficult to retain their seats. A third case is that of an old English nobleman who, on becoming blind, was un- able to relinquish his mastering passion. He persisted in following the hounds attended by a valet, who shouted to his master as each obstacle loomed in sight : " Bank ! " — " Brook ! " — " Wall ! " — " Fence ! " — " Jump and jump ! " — meaning two ditches, THE HORSE 141 requiring the horse first to jump down and then to jump up. In this way that old blind man hunted for several years. Some- times the valet, not being so good a rider as his master, "came a cropper" in a ditch, while the old man continued his way, trusting to the instinct of his horse, the horn of the hunts- man, or the cry of the dogs. The taste for hunting is so popular both in England and in Ireland that a fox chased by hounds and huntsmen puts a whole countryside in commo- tion. The plowman unhooks a horse from his plow, jumps upon his back, and follows the hunt as far be a Thoroughbred. Others ride donkeys, or as the beast has strength to go. The Irish race along on foot, or mount some vantage peasant does better still, because the first ground whence they can admire the good riders horse he can lay hands on is almost sure to and make fun of the bad ones. TRAiNiN(i TO Hunt 1 hi; .Mi-.f.t 142 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS To make it possible for people of small means to enjoy this sport, many hunting soci- eties have been organized, the members of which contribute stated sums for the main- tenance of wolves, deer, hounds, hunts- men, and horses. A red coat and a high hat are obligatory ; the owner of the dogs carries a horn, and all the other participants only a hunt ing crop. The animals chietl)' hunted are hares, stags, and foxes. The practice of hunting hares is said to be thousands of years old ; that of hunting stags is also very ancient, and is carried on with animals kept and trained for this purpose. W'l all know the Draconian laws of William the Concjueror (eleventh cen- jypg ^p tury), who ordered that all dogs in a hunting countr}- should have three of their toes cut off to keep them from following the hounds. As for fox hunting, which is really the prin- cipal sport, the foxes are cared for and pro- tected in every wav. In some districts a hunt takes place three times a week ; a good horse The Favorite can be used for two of them, though one is often quite enough for him. Fox hunting is especially hard and fatiguing for hijrses. VII. R.XCIXG Races under their present form \i I , ../ were first known in Eng- --'-'^—J!-- 1 land, where we find them in the Middle Ages ; these were frequently like the steeplechases of our day. Such games were called "clock races," and the prizes were enerally little wooden clocks, or clock towers, decorated with flowers ; later these prizes were made m silver. From them comes our term " steeplechase." Race courses were legally organized Hunter ^^ ^^^ reign of James I, who is regarded as the creator of this sport. Charles I organized race courses in H\de Park and at Newmarket, and Cromwell's equerry, Place, is mentioned in the stud book (the register for Thoroughbreds) and in the racing calendar (record book of races) as being the owner of very beautiful Eastern stallions which " shone upon the ground." Races, however, did not acquire their full development until the reign of Charles II, who imported Arabian mares, called royal mares. About the year 1700 Eastern stallions were imported, with which the true history' of racing begins. One of the most celebrated race horses was Eclipse, descended in direct male line from the Arabian stallion bought near Aleppo by the merchant Bar- ley ; through his mother Eclipse he also had Oriental blood in his veins. Born in 1764, he was gray in color, tall, and long in body. History tells that he was THE HORSE H3 never distanced, and never needed either whip or spur. Flying Dutchman, born in 1S46, had already run five races when he was two and a half years old, winning two prizes (;£iioo and £^00} at Newmarket, one (;£i200) at Liverpool, and two (£82^ and £soo) at Doncaster. When three years old he won the Derby (^£63 20), and when four years old he won the cup given by the czar of Russia at Ascot. Besides these prizes he won ^£^60,000 at other races for his owner. Lord Eglinton. When five years old he won a match for j^iooo against Voltigeur, a worth)- rival. At the start Voltigeur got a lead of three lengths, which he kept nearly all the way. Towards the close, however, Flying Dutchman, urged by his jockey, put forth his full strength and easily beat his competitor. The dis- tance done was two English miles, and the time was three minutes and thirty-three seconds. Several sorts of races exist for each of which there are distinct and fixed rules and Rf,.\I)V I-nH THE R.\CE regulations. Of these different races, the i)rin- cipal are the following. A "match" is a simple race between two: horses, in which much money is often staked.' Before the Race 144 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS In 1/99 Hambletonian and Diamond ran for a sum of three thousand guineas at Newmarket. A "sweepstakes" is a race in which several horses may take part, the winner taking the total of the stakes. The " king's or queen's plate" is a prize given by the sovereign ; formerly it consisted of some object of art, but of late it has taken the form of a purse containing one hundred guineas. chances are that all the horses will be equal. When the weighting is made known on the morning of the race any owner who is dissat- isfied may withdraw his horse without paying a forfeit. Newmarket is a little town where the most numerous and most important races are held. The land is perfectly smooth and even, and very faxorable for what are called flat races Quo V.\DIS The " Derby " is a race run at Epsom b\' three-year-old stallions. The " Oaks stake " is also run at Epsom by three-year-old fillies, while the St. Leger is run at Doncaster by three-year-old horses of all kinds. A "handicap" is run by different partici- pants, but the weight they carry varies accord- ing to the way they have run in previous races. If the handicapper, that is the man who dis- tributes the weights, knows his business, the in CDntradistinction to steeplechases, or races over barriers and obstacles. The Newmarket races often last a week, e.xcluding Sunday. There are twenty different tracks and several trainers' stables. The king of England, who has a large stud of racers and is an ardent sports- man, has an establishment at Newmarket in charge of the trainer Richard Marsh. One can often see the king himself, mounted on a stout pony, superintending the training of his horses. THE HORSE 145 'Derby Day" in oihek Days Every day on the j^lain around Newmarket body by sweating and laxative dosing. Sweat- over one hundred of the most celebrated horses ing is induced by galloping the animal under in England can be seen. woolen blankets ; he is physicked by pills corn- Training, professionally so called, has for its posed chiefly of aloes. Thus the body is kept object to develop and strengthen by exercise, slim, especially the stomach, which sometimes and to bring a variety of humors out of the appears drawn in like that of a greyhound, 'Derby Day" in our Day 146 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Scene at Newmarket while the formation of fat and of ligaments betw'een the muscles and the tendons is checked as much as possible. For the same reasons the horse receives but a moderate though substan- tial amount of food. This regimen is naturally a test of the animal's strength ; many of them succumb under it. The jockeys train themselves in very much the same way. They present, like their horses, a spare appearance, lean and skinny, but agile and vigorous, — an appearance not seen out- side racing stables. On the other hand, good jockeys can feather their nests so well that they soon bid adieu to saddles and starvation, and pass the rest of their lives in pretty villas, where they at once recover their plumpness. Betting is inse]3arable from a race course, and is often the cause of swindling. It frequently The Race Won THE HORSE 147 were the victims of their own cheating. Enormous sums are often paid for good race horses, which is not surprising inas- much as enormous sums may be won with them. In March, 1900, at a pubhc sale of the horses of the Dutie of West- minster, the celebrated racer Hying Fox, which had won the Derby the preceding year, was bought for $200,000, by the celebrated French breeder of Thoroughbreds, M. Edmond Blanc. Up to that time this was the highest sum ever given for a horse. At two years of age this stallion had happens that those who have bet on a horse raced three times and carried off two prizes ; at emplov all means to render a dangerous rival three years he raced six times and was victor harmless. Here is an illustration. in all. By eleven races, won by him before he Flying t ox The Duke of Queensberry, an excellent horseman him- self, received notice from his jockey, who was to ride for him the next day, that he had been offered a considerable sum of money from persons who had backed another horse, if he would restrain the duke's horse and let himself be beaten. "Accept the monev," said the duke, "and come upon the course to- morrow with the horse as if nothing had happened." The jockey did so, but just before the start was made the duke said suddenly, " The weather is so fine I think I will ride my own horse." So saying, he threw off his cloak and ap- peared in jockey dress. He won the race and caused the loss of many bets that were dependent upon the bribe, so that the swindlers themselves was four years old, he earned for his master $200,441. For his half- brother Frontier the French government paid 150,000 francs ($30,000). When Flying Fox reached France he was put at the service of breeders for two thousand dollars per mare. The Duke of Westmin- ster had sold in 1 889, at the reduced and trifling price A Superb Jump i4'S OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS of $24,000, the stallion Ormond, grandsire of in studying the subject of breeding horses, Flying Fox, who had a defect in breathing. Bought b\- the Argentine Republic, this horse was afterward sold in tills coimtry for the sum of $105,000. All this proves that other countries besides the United States value pure blood and are taking interest in races and the breeding of racing horses. VIII. Trottixo R.vces The trot is a method of progression that is more or less artificial and acquired ; it is unknown, one might say, to horses in their natural state, their primitive gait being either a walk or a gallop. Certain horses and certain breeds have shown more disposition than others to acquire the trot, and as a result of breed- ing with that end constantly in view, races of trotters have been formed of which the Dutch, or Frisian, is the most ancient. Others came later, like the Norfolk trotter of Eng- land, the Russian Orloff, the English Hackney, and the American trotter, but in e\'erv case the Frisian trotter contributed to produce them. whose value depends on speed at a certain gait. The order or movement in the trot is left fore foot, right hind foot, right fore foot. Trixqueur, Frenxii Trotter To persons accustomed to horses the differ- ences of the various gaits are familiar, but to fix them thoroughly in mind is a first necessity Cresceus 2.02 j^ left hind foot. Thus the left fore foot and right hind foot move in unison, striking the ground together; then in turn the right fore foot and left hind foot complete the revolution, making the tr(.)t a diagonal gait. The pace or amble is an entirely different gait, the feet of each side moving in unison, making a lateral order of progression instead of the diagonal as in the trot. Sport with trotting horses is quite ancient in the Low Countries of Europe ; it is one of the oldest amusements there, together with skating, tennis, and partridge shoot- ing. It has certainly con- tributed to form a race of trotters which now enjoys a European reputation. The best horses of the Dutch breed were bought by other countries, and by coupling them with the supple and more fiery Eastern breeds a race of trotters surpassing their Frisian ancestors has been obtained. The French trotter distinguished himself chiefly on a short-distance track, say of three THE HORSE 149 or four hundred yards. It often happened that these races were started by some tavern keeper, who offered one or more prizes to the victor ; "but," says "CviS. Ecuycr Neerlandais, "the trot- ters most be lodged in the tavern keeper's stable, and whoso obtains the prize is expected to feast his rivals and supply them with a cer- tain number of bottles of wine." In former times the Frisian races were trotted on horseback on short-distance tracks. These have now given way to races in sulkies (light, single-seated vehicles) on tracks ranging that does not include horse racing among its many attractions. Many of the large cities also have race tracks, controlled by driving or racing associations, where annual meets are held, rival horses being sent from long dis- tances to compete for the money prizes and to contest for the favors of the large numbers of people who gather daily to enjoy this royal sport. The gray race horse Messenger has played the most important part in founding the trot- ting breed in the United States. Our many Russian Trotter in length from one-half mile to a mile, on which the Russian Orloff and the American trotter particularly distinguish themselves in the north of Europe and in the United States. This old popular amusement has become a science and an art, in which, however, the practical and profitable object is not lost sight of. Every effort is made to keep the trotting horse well balanced, that is to say, to keep him to his trot with the utmost possible rapidity without degen- erating into a gallop. The speed displayed in these races is something extraordinary. American people especially have always been enthusiastic supporters of trotting races, and to-day there is scarcely a county or state fair famous families of trotting horses have been built upon Messenger, who was imported to this country during the latter part of the eighteenth century. This famous horse was foaled in 1780 in England. He was sired by Mambrino out of a daughter of Turf. Mam- brino was by Engineer, son of Sampson, by Blaze, by Flying Childers, son of the Darley Arabian, a horse imported to England from the Orient in the reign of Queen Anne. Turf, the reputed sire of the dam of Messenger, was by Matchem, son of Cade, by the Godolphin Arabian. The four chief families of the Ameri- can trotting horse are Hambletonian, the Mam- brino Chief, the Clays, and the Black Hawks. i^o OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Just when racing at either the trotting, run- ning, or pacing gait began in America it is diffi- cult to determine ; but there is a record of a W If bI ,. ^:- " f ^ r - Jl ■ Average Extreme Speed 1S20 to 1S30 2.42 1.S30 to 1S40 2.2,S'4 1S40 to 1S50 2.28^^ I.S50 to i860 2J25 i860 to 1870 2.1834: 1S70 to 18S0 2.14 iSSoto 1890 a.iojij' iSgoto 1900 ~-°3/i 1901 to 1907 1-58^ This evolution of speed is due to skill in breeding and training and to improved tracks, appliances, and methods. Just what rate of speed the trotter will ulti- mately attain is a question much discussed, and any attemj^t to answer is the merest speculation. In \iew of the fact that the trotting breed is still in its infancy, and that the average of Hamkletom-AN Stallion running race on Hempstead Heath, Long Island, in 1665. There is a recorded trotting performance at Harlem, New York, July 6, 1S06, at which time Yankee trotted a mile in 2.50. At Philadelphia, in August, 1810, a Bos- ton horse trotted a mile in 2.48^^. Perhaps these records fairly represent the speed limit in America a century ago. If we take it for granted that Yankee could trot a mile in 2.50 Dan Patch i.ssH extreme trotting speed is still advancing, it would be absurd to fi.x a limit and a time when progress will suddenly cease. Of course im- provement in speed becomes more difficult as the rate increases, but we may yet see many old records broken and many new champions come into favor and fame. If in one century of time more than fifty seconds were clipped from the record, surely in another century may we not expect a quarter or even half as much ? IX. The Tre.\tment of Horses The services that the horse renders to man, in 1S06 in contrast with the i-S^H of Lou and the pleasures he procures for him, give Dillon in 1904, we have a difference of .51/4 in him a right to conscientious care, good food, a centin-y. and charitable treatment. Yet how often these DnuxTU.M 2.05'4: THE HORSE lii duties to the animal are unfulfilled ! Chicago is said to be the hell of horses, but ocular wit- nesses say that compared with St. Petersburg it is their paradise. The Russian peasant gives soft names to his horses, but often denies them food — per- haps because he has so little for himself. In the days of serfdom the peasants (with permission of their masters) came in crowds to the capital with their skeletons of horses, to let them for saddle or har- ness, and thus prolong their own miserable lives and those of their beasts. English grooms hold the first rank for the care they give to their animals. The bandaging of the legs, the rubbing of the muscles and tendons with stimulants and tonics, the partic- ular method of cleaning (during which the groom makes a curious hissing noise with his teeth and lips), the sponging of the backs, — all this is of English origin and has been adopted by the other nations of Europe and by treatment of the animal by the Anglo-Sa.xon races has done much to ameliorate his condi- tion all over the civilized world. i. k. ▲< 1^ 1 IMM ^^_^_^_ hW^ ^ mmm ^W^ ^arf Ml Irvl -? mr "^ Vi ^ B'.'k^ f '^1 ' MB i ll £ ji^^^^H 4 ^1^^ > ji m ^ ^ ■^ ) «j^ Brushing Him America. In England the horse, especially the Thoroughbred, is idolized by young and old, by great and small ; this careful and intelligent Champion Double Team, " So.mktimes"' and "Always" Our readers have probably heard of V. S. Rarey, a native of Ohio, who became celebrated about the year i860 by the gentleness with which he conquered restive and vicious horses. He went to England and made his first attempts at Tattersall's, the well-known establishment where the most important sales of horses and carriages were made. In a single day he was able to render tractable the most \icious and uncontrollable animals. He began with one which was terrible for its ferocity. In less than one day the animal followed him round the arena like a dog and did everything that he ordered. Lord Derby gave him a little Thoroughbred mare so savage as to be useless, and the same result was obtained. A white horse from the royal stables, which no one had been able to master, became soft as wax in Rarey's hands. Rarey's fame being spread abroad, he was called on to give representa- tions of his method in the presence of the queen and other dignitaries. Two duchesses took lessons from him, for which instruction he asked ;£20 each. Afterwards he went to France, where he displayed his art before the Emperor. 1^2 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Lord Dorchester brought him a horse named Crusader, unrul)- from his birth and showing his viciousness every day and every moment. The animal seemed almost insane. He would fall upon his knees in a fit of fury and dig up the earth with his teeth, or he would fling him- self against the sides of the stall, kicking and screaming for a quarter of an hour at a time. Often he would let no one enter his stall ; his strength was so great that once he broke an Derby begged Rarey not to e.xpose his life any longer ; but the American persisted and ob- tained the success we have stated. Rarey possessed, moreover, the necessary gifts of patience, calmness, courage, and self- possession, and his method was adapted, above all, to the animal's intelligence. He explained his principles in a little treatise written by him- self and published first in America and then in England, where three hundred thousand copies Horses Ready for Tr.^nsport iron bar in two. In three hours Rarey calmed the animal so that he allowed him, and also the owner, to ride him, although no one until then had been able to mount him. During the three hours' training the vicious brute, with open mouth and savage cries, had twice flung him- self upon Rarey, who escaped by slipping through a half -opened door. Little by little the horse grew calmer and allowed himself to be fastened to a transversal log. This restraint, hitherto unknown to him, maddened him at first, and his fury was so violent that Lord were sold in three weeks. In it we see (as was evident at his exhibitions) that he employed no trick or artifice, but treated the horses naturally, being very careful never to startle or frighten or hurt them. Another horse breaker and trainer more or less famous was Baucher. He used various secret means ; he put into the horse's nostrils oil, which gave out a strong smell of burnt horn ; he made the animal inhale the sweat under his arms, and he blew into his nose. Possibly Baucher had faith in these means, but THE HORSE 153 it is also very likely that he employed them to throw dust into the eyes of the spectators. For the rest, his treat- ment was very violent and aimed at breaking the animal's will and de- stroying all power of resistance. To subdue an unruly horse (which has often been made unruly b_\' ill usage), as well as to train them at all times, inexhaustible patience and an immovable will are absolutely necessary, and they never fail to make the animal do what is desired. Unfortunately not every man who has the care of horses will see or learn this truth. The horse, it should be re- membered, has certain distinguishing qualities Coming In Having been under the hand and guidance of man from generation to generation (far more than any other animal), he is by nature docile ; he also has a strong memory and is very sub- missive to the power of habit. X. Shoeing One of the most important points in the care of horses is their shoeing. Wild horses, it is true, can go with- out irons on their feet ; but it is not so with our domestic animals, be- cause, in the first place, their hoofs are not so hard, and in the second place, because our stony roads are Cleaning Him evidently not so favorable to them as the grassy ground of the steppes and prairies. Shoeing must therefore be regarded as a necessary evil, for evil it is. By driving nails into the hoof holes are made through which dirt and disease may enter, while the hoof, which has a natural tendency to disintegrate, becomes weaker and less resistant. In order to avoid this injury many methods have been invented to apply the iron shoes without having recourse to nails, but no satisfactory result has yet been attained, and we are still constrained to keep to the old system. To lessen the shock of the hoof on a hard road and to protect the frog, various soft cov- erings have been used, the best known of which are India rubber, felt, tow, and cork. Before CRrncs 154 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS The tow pad is much used in the German cities. that can be screwed on and off, the latter being It consists of an iron shoe with a hollow on the in the shape of the letter H, which prevents inside in which the tow is fixed, coming out them from being too rapidly blunted. At xnE Ul.xi ks.mii ii's a little beyond the level of the shoe. It thus forms a soft layer, which lessens the shock and also prevents the horse from slipping on the asphalt pavements. One of the most important problems is the shoeing of horses in winter, when a shoe is Shoes have also been invented for special purposes, more particularly for race horses. To increase their speed more w-eight is put in various ways into certain parts of the shoe ; and in order to oblige the hind feet to be placed outwardly on the ground and thus be thrown beyond the fore feet, more weight is given to the external edge of the shoe. Special shoes have also been invented for all sorts of diseases of the legs and hoofs. To correct hoofs that grow too narrow at the back (feet with pinched heels), there are many kinds of shoeing ; one, for instance, makes the shoe in the shape of a half- moon, leaving the rear half of the hoof unshod. S 1 1 1 1 1 I \ I Mules XI. The Usefulness of Horses needed that shall not slip on ice or snow. Before taking leave of this noble quadruped Nails with pointed heads may be employed, or we ought to mention the practical utility of shoes sharpened at the points, or pointed bars his body to man. Mare's milk, in the first Shoes with Soft Cushions fiK Tow, Cork, Felt, and Gutta-percha Stables of a Riding School 156 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS garments, tents, and straps. In southern Russia the shep- herds clothe themselves with the skins of wild ponies. Cer- tain of the Tartar tribes wear nothing but horse skins so put on that the mane floats grace- tuily down their backs. But we need not look so far away. Many of our own gloves and shoes of "Russia leather," with their brilliancy and their perfume, were cut out of horses' hides. Horse grease, or rather tal- low, is used in great quantities for lighting purposes in Uru- guay, where thirty thousand place, has long been, and is still, a favorite horses are killed )-early to furnish the suppl}-. drink, and from it several preparations, such Chinese ladies always keep a box of horse as koumiss, are made, which are noted for their grease on their toilet tables, to use for their hair in place of bear's grease. The bones of horses serve, like those of many other animals, to make soap. Thus the horse, so useful during his lifetime, does not cease to be so, in other ways, after death. The noble animal, favorite and companion of our great historic heroes, the helper and support of the laborer, A .Stk.wv B.\rH the link of so manv of our Interior of .a Ridinc; School St.akle tonic properties. If we take a map and mark the fron- tiers within which mare's milk, goat's milk, camel's milk, and cow's milk are drunk, we shall find that the territory of the con- sumers of mare's milk is much the largest. To peoples living in a state of nature the horse's skin has always been very useful for the making of Cow Ponies on a Nebr.\sk.\ R.anch THE HORSE 157 social relations, is, it is true, esteemed almost everywhere at his true worth as a domestic animal ; and yet he still comes too often in contact with that instrument of temper and tyranny, the i^'hip. It is remarkable that in lands where the horse lives nearest to his master, in close companionship and hourly service, the use of whip and spur, sometimes of bit and saddle, is unknown. The nearer we come to civilized nations the more we find a change. It is in the centers of civilization, in the great cities of Europe and America, that we see drivers of drays and cabs lashing their weary, worn-out, or overloaded horses. Tliis domestic animal, at least, deserves better treatment. IV THE ASS AND THE MULE The ass is closely related to the horse, as it is easy to see by comparing their skeletons, between which there is no essential difference. Their dental system is also precisely the same. Between the living animals, as they appear to our eves, the differences are very perceptible, Thk Wild Ass although they can scarcely be very deep in view of the fact that fruitful mating is possible between horse and ass. The most salient differences are in the size of the body, the length of the ears, the hairs of the tail and mane, the situation of the horny excrescences on the fore and hind legs (probably the rudimentary remains of sabots, with which they may have some relation, the ancestors of the equine race not having always been solipedous), and finally the voice. Asses are generally much smaller than horses. The head is heavy, the lips thick, the ears long, the tail, which is usually not covered with long hair, has a tuft at the end like that of cattle ; the hair of the body has a more or less marked tendency to be striped, and the bray is easily distinguished from the neigh of the horse. I. The Wild Ass The wild ass must be re- garded as the ancestor of the domestic ass of Europe. He inhabits, in great droves, cen- tral Asia, Tartary, Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Bokhara, Persia, Arabia, Syria, Phrygia, and the deserts of northern Africa and l^arbary. These animals live in herds, each under the lead of a male ass, which migrate north and east of Lake Aral in sum- mer, but never beyond 48° north latitude, while in winter they come down by hundreds and thousands into Persia and sometimes as far as the East Indies. The ass is recorded as being in those countries in very ancient times, as we learn from the oldest books in the Bible. He is cited by Job for his love of freedom : " Who hath sent out the wild ass free ^ or who hath loosed the bands of the wild ass .? Whose house I have made the wilderness, and the barren land his dwellings. He scorneth the multitude of the city, neither regardeth he the crying of the driver. The range of the mountains is his pas- ture, and he searcheth after every green thing." That description exactly characterizes the wild ass. He inhabits by preference regions 158 FiL.ni a watei color by II. J. van der Wcele THE ASS AND THE MULE 159 where certain bitter herbs grow, — the moun- tain spinach, the goosefoot, the plantain, the dandelion, the thistle, and the witch grass. He drinks salt water as well as fresh, and will drink that of the Caspian Sea, but he will not drink muddy water. This proud inhabitant of the steppes is taller than his domestic descend- ant ; he is active, solidly built, and fears no fatigue. His color is silvery gray, or yellowish gray, with a coffee-colored line down his back edged with white, often crossed on the croup by one and sometimes two transversal lines. The young asses, which are fed on rice, oats, and bread, become very strong and beautiful animals, and are sold to the Persian merchants at high prices. It is very difficult to get a shot at these asses ; they are gifted with keen eyes and ver)- cjuick ears. The Mongol ass is another type of the wild ass, differing little from the preceding animal. The Tartars and Mongols call him Long Ears in their language, and on account of his great swiftness the Tibetans dedicate him solemnly as a riding steed to their gods of war and fire. ■■ ■1 Mm ^^BSi'^^^^^^Jr Qlk jk mf'^lofi jH SS^^a SiciLi.\N Donkeys His mane, several inches long, is dark brown, soft, and woolly, like that of young colts, but his tail has only a tuft. His winter coat is long and fleecy, like that of a camel ; in summer it is soft and silky, being silvery white on the belly. The legs are sometimes marked with transversal brown lines. The Kirghiz, Tartars, and Persians hunt this animal and eat his flesh. Taken young, he is easily and frequently tamed. They are taken alive in ditches lined with grass and care- fully covered, into which horsemen drive them. H. The Zebr.a In shape the zebra resembles the wild ass, except that his rounded hind quarters seem to indicate a relationship with the horse. The fundamental color of his coat is white, the head is almost wholly white, also the lining of the ears, but the nose is a fine brown, and the tip of the tail black. Elsewhere the body of this beautiful animal is striped with dark bands. He lives in herds in the mountainous and sandy regions of South Africa and southern Abyssinia. He is never found above 10° north latitude. i6o OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Though he cannot deny his asinine nature, thanks to his obstinacy, tenacity, and occasional malignity, kind treatment has succeeded more than once in subduing him, and also in training "Orphan l;ii\, (;kami Chamimon Jack, World's Fair him both for riding and for harness. But this wild and self-willed mountaineer will always show temper if teased, a thing he cannot pos- sibly endure. The quagga is another species of striped ass, which bears still more resemblance to the horse. Its fundamental color is yellowish brown striped with fewer bands than the zebra, and these disappear on the back and on the croup. The stomach and inside of the legs are chiefly white. These animals formerly lived in herds, in com- pany with ostriches, who were quicker than they in finding food and perceiving danger. At the present time the quagga may be said to have disappeared, — to have succumbed in the struggle for existence against the growing population of South Africa and the mania of the Englishman for hunting " big game." The Hottentots gave him the name of quagga on account of his cry (quag-ga, quag-ga), which differs as much from the neighing of a horse as it does from the braying of an ass. III. The Domestic Ass The degenerate descendant of the proud denizens of the steppes, the mountains, and the deserts is the tame donkey of the north and center of Europe, the drudge among domestic animals, at whom every one thinks he has a right to jibe, granting him in return a few thistles and food that all other animals would disdain. One reason why he is so obstinate, provoking, and phlegmatic in this part of the world, and consecjuently so despised, is that he suffers from our ccjld, damp climate. He is more at his ease and therefore less aggravating and less despised in warm, dry regions. He is indispensable and is therefore valued through- out the south of Europe, northern Africa, Egypt especially, and Asia Minor. In all the countries clustering round the Mediterranean he shows his good qualities and men make much of him. In China and Persia a fine race of asses is raised e.xclusively for riding. They are ridden by the rich magnates on saddles embossed with silver ; priests have the dignity and privi- lege of riding white asses. The saddle is put very far back, nearer to the croup than to the withers. Bokhara is so rich in df)nkeys that the streets are sometimes blocked by them. A Trained Zebra They are of all colors, — white, black, brown, tawny, blue-gray, etc. In northern Africa the tamed ass is in gen- eral use as far down as the frontiers of the Soudan. Eg)'pt, especially, has robust, hand- some, well-made animals, with keen eyes and THE ASS AND THE MULE l6i an easy gait, the latter trait making them much in demand for riding, particularly for ladies. They are also very suitable for pilgrimages through the desert, such as the Mohammedan pilgrims make to Mecca. The handsomest ani- mals are found chiefly in Upper Egypt and in Nubia, where they cost more than horses. Formerly there were such hordes of wild asses in the Cape Verde and Canary Islands that they had to be exterminated by hunting. In South America they are equally numerous, especially in Patagonia. Sardinia has an im- mense number of very small donkeys, employed chiefly in grinding corn and in drawing water. The "asses mill," mola asinaria, was in use in for consumptives. It contains a great quan- tity of sugar. Parmesan cheese is made of it. The flesh of very young asses is eaten in Italy and in Spain, where it is thought tender and delicious ; that of the older animals is tough. The skin of an ass is made into parchment, vellum, and shagreen, and is thus very valuable. IV. The Mule The breeding of these animals is carried on to a great extent in the south of Europe, in America, and in Asia. The custom was early known ; it was forbidden among the Israelites bv the laws of Moses, but in David's time they were certainly employing mules, probably On the Beach southern Italy in very ancient times. In Sicily asses are very numerous ; they are generally small in size and blue-gray in color, with longi- tudinal and transversal stripes on the back. Asses were first introduced into England in the days of Ethelred, the Saxon king, and again under the reign of Henry III. The English adopted the barbarous custom of cropping their ears, with the idea that it made them more good-natured, more wide-awake, and more obedient, the popular notion being that the animals were stupefied by receiving too much sound. Asses have other uses than for riding or for draft purposes. Ass's milk has always been considered extremely wholesome and beneficial (though formerly more so than to-day), especially imported. The Greeks and Romans raised them, and they were even used in the Olympic games. This mongrel product is a tall, strong animal corresponding to the horse in height and in the shape of the neck, shoulders, and body, while the form of his head, his long ears, his tufted tail, and his thin, wiry legs and narrow hoofs are an inheritance from his father, the ass. His voice also has something of the paternal bray, but his coat resembles that of the horse. In common with the ass he has vigor and little tendency to disease ; even when thirty years old he often shows no signs of age. He is trained when about two and a half or three years old, and at five he can be used for the heaviest labor. These useful A Pair of Young Mules \\ iini: UdXKicvs THE ASS AND THE MULE 163 animals are indispensable in mountainous coun- tries for the transportation of merchandise. Their footing is firm and sure, and they can carry a load of five hundred pounds for weeks over trackless regions. They are also excel- lent riding animals and are still much used for private carriages in many of the southern coun- tries of Europe ; they are also used for artillery wagons. In America the mule is indispensable in the sugar and cotton fields of the South. The production of mules is constant in Spain. The government has endeavored to put a stop to it, in favor of raising horses, but without or zebroids. Later several mares were mated with the same zebra stallion and many foals were obtained, the chief among them being A Zl-.HKULE appreciable results. Ciudad Real was formerly the great market place for mules, ten thousand being often for sale there, bringing high prices. At three years of age they are usually worth from eight hundred to nine hundred francs ($160 to $180). The finest and handsomest bring from twelve hundred to eighteen hundred francs ($240 to $360). Mules are usually sterile, though they ha\-e been known to have offspring, but the latter have no vitality and die young. V. The Zebrule, or Zebroid Lately a Scotch naturalist, J. C. Ewarts, who has made himself a name in this domain, mated a zebra stallion, named Matopes, with a mare from one of the Scotch islands. The product was a foal which received the name of Romulus, the new race being called zebrules. A I)11XK1.\ Sir John, a colt, and the fillies Bunda and Black Agnes, which were both sold to Ham- burg ; the English government then bought them and sent them to India, where they were trained for service in a moimtain battery. In shape the zebroids are a cross between the " Kii.MlI.l : A C Ll,i.l-.ic.\ 1 M> /.i-i;iu l-l'. horse and the zebra. Romulus, born in i8g6, derived from his father only very indistinct stripes, while Sir John has them more clearly defined. These zebroids are strong, manage- able, and easy to train both for saddle and harness ; it is hoped that they have inherited the zebra's immunity from equine diseases. V THE SHEEP I. General Considerations and Qualities Common to the Species One of the most ancient, if not the most ancient, of domestic animals is the sheep. It is the first mentioned in the Bible. Abel was a shepherd, which proves that the earliest known men followed that calling side by side master bade him, and been protected as much as possible against all dangers, he has become stupid and dreamy ; his senses have lost their acuteness. The vigilance and perspicacity shown by certain wild sheep still existing have given place, in the domestic animal, to a meek- ness and docility that are now proverbial. A Dutch -Shmep FarjM with tillage of the soil. In the beginning this animal certainly could not have been found in a tame state ; consecjuently our present wool and mutton sheep must have come from a wild ancestry. But all that is lost in the night of time. He has now become, in his domestic state, so entirely dependent on man that he could not exist without him. Having always yielded to his master's will, gone where that Sheep are very easily acclimated, so that we find them in the coldest climates, and also in the hottest. They bear the cold of Siberia, Kamchatka, and our western plains as well as the heat of Senegal, the Indies, and Australia, which, however, does not prevent them from preferring a temperate climate and thriving in it. They can bear a dry cold better than much humidity. 164 •luiu .1 |i.iinting l)y K. I'. Ifv Mfulen THE SHEEP i6s As for food, they prefer the short, fine grasses, nourishing and aromatic, which grow on dry, calcareous moun- tain slopes and rolling hillsides, not, however, disdaining those that grow in saline places, for they love salt, like the goat, the deer, the ass, and the horse. All sheep, but especially young lambs, like to climb the accliv- ities that they see about them. Their skill in this direction they have doubt- less derived from their ancestors, the wild mountain sheep. They have never had, however, the agility of goats, which are native born to moun- tains and rocks. The sheep is so closely related to the goat that there is very little dif- ference in the skeletons of the two species, and what there is lies chiefly in the hollow profile of the face of the goat and the rounded profile of the sheep. In other respects, the sheep is unlike the goat in temperament, in character, in coat, in the shape of its horns, and in its peculiar odor, which differs in all A MorFLf)N Ram Mn,KiN(, A .Siii;i:i' animals. The docility and stupidity of the sheep are as unlike the savage temper, vivacity, and obstinacy of the goat as its crinkled wool is unlike the latter's wavine hair. II. Origin There are different opinions regarding the origin of the sheep, some naturalists giving them for ancestor the mouflon of Armenia and Persia, others the argali of Siberia and central Asia, while some again discover their forerunners in the Oural sheep of the Himalayas, in the Buhel or blue sheep of the plains of central Asia, or in the bighorns of Kamchatka and Alaska and the Rocky Mountains of America. The argalis are the largest of all wild sheep, attaining sometimes to a height of three and a half feet. They inhabit the rocky slopes of southern Siberia and north- ern Mongolia and have much in common with the bighorn. A smaller species in- habits the plateau of Tibet, descending to the plains in winter. Very large and heavy argalis are found on the plateau of Pamir, over eighteen hundred feet above sea level. The mouflon lives in the mountains of Persia and Armenia and on the islands of Cyprus, Sardinia, and Corsica ; formerly 1 66 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS he existed in Spain, and, according to Plin_\', in the vicinity of Mentone. Mouflons Hve in herds, each under the control of a ram. In the mating season fierce tiL;!ns take [ilace in which they kill A CoTswoLH Raji Photo J. T. Newman, nerkhaiiipstead each other. By nature they are timid and flee at the slightest noise, which they hear at a very great distance. They spring among the most inaccessible rocks with extraordinary lightness and agilit)-, and allow no precipice to arrest their flight until they feel themselves absolutely out of danger. The rams have huge almost cir- cular horns ; the ewes have none. Their hair is very smooth, short, and reddish brown in color, but in winter it is mixed with wool. The mating of the European mouffons with ewes presents no difficulty. Breeders have always obtained fruitful descendants, which seems to prove indubitabh' that the mouflon is the true ancestor of our domestic sheep. III. The Domestic Sheep The difference between the domestic sheep and the wild sheep is not more pronounced than that between the sheep and the goat. Many are the varieties scattered over the globe. For instance, the Somali breed of Africa is a race of white sheep with very large black heads, pendent ears, and a thick fat tail ; they give no wool fit to weave. The fat-iailcd sheep is a singular freak of nature in the enormous development of its tail. It is found in Egypt and throughout Africa, also in S)'ria and Arabia. It has hanging ears, a very stupid air, and is sometimes without horns. Its coat is halfway between fur and wool ; on the neck and breast it has long hair like the manes found on wild sheep. The color is a dirty white. Its tail reaches to the ground and is of enormous size, especially in the African breeds. The fat and also the flesh of these animals are con- sidered dainties. The fat-Iiaunclied slieep resemble the preceding with this difference, that the accumulation of fat is on the haunches and spreads only partially to the tail. This variety is met with in Persia, Tartary, and in parts of Africa. The Wallacliiaii sheep inhabits the southeast of Europe and the west of Asia. It is found especially in Wallachia, Greece, and the island of Crete. It has a fine shape, and the coat, a mixture of hair and soft down, is thick and very Persi.ax Fat-Tailed Sheet AXD Lamb Ram, Ewe, long. This animal makes a beautiful transition between goats with long hair and sheep with wool. The head and lower legs are very dark, the former being adorned with magnificent 1 68 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS spiral horns which lean to one side in the sheep the heath or moors of northern Germany, Den- of Wallachia and stand erect in those of Crete, mark, Russia, the Low Countries, and parts of These animals bear weather of all kinds, being England. It is not at all exactmg, and lives kept on the mountams m summer and brought prmcipally on the gorse and heather produced by those arid regions. The laborers raise these sheep for their coarse wool, and for manure with which to fertilize their barren and stony soil. The flesh is considered very savory and recalls the taste of \-enison ; it contains little fat and has a peculiar gamy flavor, impossible to define, which is possessed by the flesh of no other sheep. This moorland animal re- calls in his exterior the wild sheep, his ancestors. The ram's horns resemble those of the argali, but the spirals are smaller and oftener repeated, the head is finely formed, the eye alert and intelligent, the legs very slender and well made. The color of the coat, the hair CHK\-I0T 1-U i.-, i 11^-1 IJL.ALU\ Photo J. T. Newman, iierkhanipstead down to the plains in winter. Besides milk and meat, each animal can supply from four to six pounds of wool, which is much in demand for of which is short about the head and legs, is the manufacture of stockings and other coarse brownish black, brown, reddish brown, tawny, woolen articles. spotted or speckled, or white. All moorland The silvcy-haircd sliccp is found in the south sheep, however, do not correspond to the type of Africa. Blankets are made of its wool, above described. Some have no horns, and None of these sheep have been brought to our country except as curiosities for agricultural pur poses they could not compete with our present im- proved breeds. IV. M00RL.\ND Sheep The sheep of the moors of northern Europe have Ion coats of mixed wool and hair. They , ,, , A \Vallachi.\n Ram are coarser and more cowardly than those of Wallachia. Their wool is used only for the commonest stockings and other equally type the moorland sheep of the province of coarse woolen textures. This sheep inhabits Drent in the Low Countries. others have the nose strongly curved ; they are mostly small and active. The tail is usually very long. Though these sheep are by nature wild and shy and prefer a free life on the moors, they soon accustom themselves domestic surroundings and will return every evening faithfully of their own accord. It is instructive to watch the habits of these interesting animals ; let us choose as a THE SHEEP 169 In this province sheep are kept in flocks, the shepherd, who, as they reach the open varying in number from a hundred to a thou- country, points out to his dog the direction he sand. In the peat districts there are flocks of wishes taken. When the pasture is reached the sometimes not more than twenty, which are flock disperses among the gorse and heather. Wvo.MiNG Shepherd .ami his Outfit watched by a boy. The great flocks are in charge of a shepherd assisted by his dog, and by a helper if the sheep are very numerous. Usually a large flock belongs to different own- ers living in the same village and having a common right of pasture on the moorland. In the morning, when the time comes to lead the flock to the fields, the shepherd blows his and the shepherd sits down (still watching his sheep) to his daily avocation, which consists in knitting coarse woolen socks. Besides his knit- ting, the shepherd carries a long crook with a tiny scoop at the end, with which he flings little pellets of earth at the sheep that may chance to stray from the main body, in order to recall them . The shepherd has also a fine horn box adorned Sheep Ranching Scene in Albekt.\,-C.an.au.a horn, the owners open the doors of their sheep- with brass nails and filled with an ointment for cots, and the different little flocks rush out the scab, a disease that attacks the moorland and form themselves into a great flock, cross- sheep sooner than others. This box hangs at ing the village slowly under the guidance of his waist. When the shepherd knits he sticks I/O OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS VlAiV I'lSI: Cnh\luT Ka.\1 Pliotn J. T. Xewman, Berkhanipstead the ends (if his knitting needles into his waist- band, like an old Englishwoman. The shep- herd's costume admits of all imaginable variety, but is never in the latest fashion. Over his or- dinary clothes he invariably wears a cloak in case of rain, though some, more effeminate, carry an umbrella slung obliquely across their backs. Nearly all the sheep have bells or rattles fastened around their necks by a leather strap. The monotonous tinkling of these bells produces, especially at starting and in returning, a very pleasant sound, percepti- ble at great distances over the moor, so that one often hears them when no sheep are in the neighborhood. The dog may belong to all possible breeds e.xcept — I was about to say — the shepherd dog, but that may be going too far. It is usually some mongrel of medium size ; sometimes, though rarely, it has more or less the type of the shepherd dog. These animals are usually wide-awake, docile, and inde- fatigable. They understand every sign of their master, and at times they seem to know by intuition when a sheep is wandering from the right way. They can be troublesome, ho\ve\'er, by their occasional rough treatment of the ewes. Sometimes they will bite them so sharply on the legs that it causes the poor creatures to bleed, and they rush away on three feet. To avoid this some shepherds muzzle their dogs. In the evening w-hen the flock returns slowly to the vil- lage, its coming is announced not only b\' the distant tink- ling of the bells, but also by the clouds of dust seen from afar, which it scuffles up. When it reaches the village it is really amazing to see the various por- tions of the large flock detach themselves and make for their ow-n sheepcots without a word or sign from the shepherd. Every sheep knows its own home unless it is newly bought. When all are housed the shepherd's daily work is ended. Oxford Down Ram Photo J. T. N'ewni.in. r.erklian-.pste.id A .\ic JliMN(. \'\ ALK Photo G. Jockmann, Utrecht 172 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Besides watching his sheep in the open country, the shepherd has to contend con- tinually against the scab and other ailments, filling as he does the triple office of mid- wife, physician, and surgeon. The recipe of his particular ointment for the scab is often a family secret handed down from father to son. He applies it at fixed times and in a certain way. He parts the wool from the neck to the The shepherd is also the meteorologist of the village, and sometimes its seer ; in fact, he practices various sciences that border on the miraculous. For these many services he re- ceives a trifling salary, which is usually paid " in kind." For instance, he may pasture a certain number of his own sheep ; or he may keep the whole flock for a certain number of nights on his own arable land in order to A i RIO in uxiiiRO LiowN L iiA.\u'ic)NS ON hxini'.rnox Photo J. T. Newnmn, Beikhampstead tail and rubs his ointment down the narrow line of skin thus exposed. Then he makes another part across and down each shoulder, so that the ointment is applied to the skin in the form of a cross. Constant application of the remedy by this method suffices to keep the disease within certain limits. The shepherd will not listen to talk of a complete cure, simply because he does not believe it possible. This is one of the numerous examples which prove with what strength some ideas are anchored in the minds of such persons. manure it; or he may take part of his meals with the various owners of the flock in turn, those who own many sheep feeding him for a greater number of days than those who have few. His food is composed chiefly of extremely thick and very greasy pancakes. Another part of his salary comes from an obligation on the part of those peasants of the village who own horses, they agreeing to till his field and gather his fruit. Lastly, he receives a little peat, some rye, and some other comestibles, together with a very little money. THE SHEEP 173 The shearing of the sheep is done by the owners themselves assisted by their servants. That of the whole district takes place, if pos- sible, simultaneously, so that as little time as possible is taken. It is done with such awkwardness that the sheep are sometimes half skinned by inexperienced shearers. The poor creatures then have a most repulsive appearance, in consequence of the lack of cleanliness in the inhabitants of those regions, never more clearly revealed than during the shearing operation. The manipulation of the wool is also filthy. Part is sold, and another part is sent to the small spin- ning mills, whence the owner receives it back in the form of worsted for knitting, woolen aprons, or stuffs to be made into coarse woolen garments. A small part of the fleece is kept by the owners ; it is washed and hung on trees or hedges to dry and bleach. Then the mother brings out an ancient spinning wheel and spins her own yarn. This is the ordinary worsted with which the shepherd knits his socks. Before the shearing the sheep are w^ashed, the washing being done in common by the owners and their servants, assisted by all the vil- lage youth. The young men stand in the water and pass the sheep from hand to hand, which causes the animals to receive a mud bath, the benefit of which is very problematical. This SHROPSIURF. R.AMS Photo J. T. Newman, Berkhampstead H.K.Mi-siiiKi; Down R.am Photo J. T. Newman, Berkhampstead "washing day" is kept as a fete day, on which the inhabitants take baths that are not merely external. The manure of the sheep is left for a whole year to pile up in the sheepcots, where it forms the litter of the animals. It is only taken out once a year, in the spring. As the moorland sheep are especially useful for their manure, the territory they occupy is slowly but surely diminishing, since a more intelligent system of farming is developing, and artificial fertilizers are found tc) work as well as sheep manure. V. English Sheep for Butchering English sheep are in direct iip]5osition to moorland sheep in their chief qualities, 174 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS A Rare Species of the Shropshire Breed Photo J. T. Newman. Berkhampstead although, Hke them, they inhabit the plains and hillsides of a great part of Europe and America. There is a great difference, however, in the character of those plains ; the moorland sheep . live on sandy soil, while the . V ^M English-bred sheep are the ^ ^M product of a rich, loamy, ^K^^l calcareous land. England is ^^^H esjiecialh- fitted for the forma- ^^^H tion of such a race, partly by ^^^B reason of its soft and temper- ^^^H ate climate, and partly because Bum of its many beautiful and fer- tile meadows and the rolling " downs " of the south and east ; and also, and above all, b\- reason of the practical good sense that characterizes the Englishman in general and the English breeder in particular. The history of these sheep does not date back very far. It was not until the second half of the eighteenth century that their e.xcellent qualities came to be gener- ally known, thanks to a breeder named Bake- well, who died in 1799. Bakewell lived in Leicestershire, where the soil and climate had :.-^r>.v.-?.twiBii«<«aMaim<^r!:^v>-i«rts3!^ The Shower B.\th THE SHEEP 175 Sheep Baths long produced a stout sheep suitable for butcher- ing. A neighboring breed, the Herefordshire, was also stoutly and heavily made, with a large head and strong, bony structure ; but it was chiefly valued for its wool, which was of excel- lent quality. Now the stomach of London de- manded meat, more meat, always meat. The Englishman is beyond dispute the greatest meat eater in the civilized world, while at the same time he is a daint_\- goiinnct. To do him justice, he never hesitates to pay the price of his meat, which is naturally an encourage- ment to the breeder. Bakewell saw his op- portunity and was equal to the task. He created the new Leicester breed (sometimes called the Dishley) from mating the old Leicestershire race with the Herefordshire, Lincoln, and Teeswater races. The Teeswater sheep is the product of very rich pastures lying along the two banks of the river Tees. For a long time it was one of the best known species. At two years of age the animal often supplied two hundred pounds of butcher's meat. Towards Christmas of the year 1797 a ram of this race was slaugh- tered at Darlington-on-Tees, the four quarters of which weighed two hundred and forty-nine pounds, with seventeen additional pounds of fat. Ram of Old Leicester Breed 176 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS This race is also very fruitful, the ewes giving a sure and invaluable means, provided it is done birth to two and sometimes three lambs annually, with perfectly healthy animals possessing great In this, however, it yielded to Bakewell's new \-itality. This was the case with the solid and breed, which it had materially assisted to form, bony sheep that Bakewell made use of. Prop- agation between members of the same family, if pushed too far, has its evil side in too great refining, leading to deteriora- tion,— a rock on which the new Leicester breed has split, more or less, for its reputa- tion is not as widely extended now as it was a century ago. Bakewell's breed, produced as we have stated, was all pure white in body, head, and legs, and was without horns. Its head was long and slim, the neck short, enlarging conically toward the base, chest broad, shoulders and sides plump, back flat, loins broad, and the bones very small and delicate. Fattening these sheep gave them an al- The old Lincolnshire race was very coarse, most conical shape, the base of the cone being very bony, very sluggish, and was not fit to at the breast and the truncated point at the kill until it was three years old, by which time hind parts. The skin was very delicate, the tail its meat was tough and not succulent, — little small, and the wool moderately long, but always to the taste of the English gourmet. Bakewell's new Leicester breed, which is the product of very careful selection and mating, has by degrees superseded the fore- going. He and other well-known British breeders have not hesitated to propagate among animals of the same family when they thought it wise to do so. They started with the true idea that in the hands of skill- ful breeders, animals are as malleable as dough. They believed that by laying down fixed rules to a fixed end, and by regulating food and regimen efficaciously, they could transform breeds, especially those of sheep, as they pleased. To obtain rapidly a relatively large num- ber of animals having the same qualities (to serveasthebasisof greater numbers still), prop- inferior in quality to that of the old Hereford- agation between members of the same family is shire breed. But for butcher's meat this new ReAHV in .SlAUT FOU Till; P.XRIS Ex IIIUITK iN The tuft on shoulder shows length of wool Plioti) J. T. NewnKin. Berklianipstead A Leicester R,\m Photo J. T. Newman, Berkliampstead THE SHEEP 177 Leicester breed carried the day. Comparing a loin of it with that of a coarse Norfolk sheep, we found the latter nearly twice as fat and •^w> A Suffolk Ram heavy, while the former was covered with three times the amount of meat, — a matter to which the lover of mutton chops is not indifferent. Marshall, who wrote upon this subject at the close of the eighteenth century, speaks of sheep which were so fat, when two years and a half old, that they could scarcely walk. At Litchfield he saw a fore quarter with four inches of fat on the loins, and later he saw some with five and six inches of fat. This excessive fattening acts upon the flesh, which becomes impreg- nated with it, while the sinewy tis- sue diminishes. Thus a piece of the loin with the kidney, weighing, Marshall says, twenty-si.\ pounds, had only two and a half pounds of meat. One must have the English taste, or else acquire it, to think such meat good ; but it is certain that mutton cannot be too fat for an Englishman. To a man of small means mutton fat, which can take the place of lard, has its advantages. Bakewell's success soon became generally known in England, and he cleverly made the most of his fame. He had numerous applica- tions for information and assistance ; and in October of every year a general sale was held at Leicester, to which breeders came from far and near to buy rams or to hire them. The chief breeders raised annually from twenty to forty young rams, which they leased to the small breeders at a price de- termined by the genealogy and pure blood of the animals. Nothing was spared for the proper bringing up and well-being of these sheep. In winter they were well housed and plentifully supplied with oats, cabbage, and turnips, and in the spring the first clover was theirs. After a time the too great refining away of the Leicester race injured its reputation, and breeders began to cross it with the coarser and stronger Lincolnshire breed. Thence has come the present Lincoln breed, which resembles the Leicester in all its good qualities, but has a stronger bone struc- ture, is more robust, and is better able to resist the influences of weather. The race has many A Lincoln Ram Photo J. T. Newman, Berkhampstead subvarieties, which are all, in general, strong and well formed, bearing long fleeces of good quality. Sometimes a band of the fleece is left on the animal's shoulder when sheared, to show 178 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS the natural length of the wool. Rams of this Lincoln race are sometimes sold in England for as much as five thousand dollars, but never as yet have they reached that price in this country-. The Cotswold breed, originating in the moun- tainous regions of that name, resembles in man)- ways the two preceding races, but it is not so stout and its legs are longer, giving it a more active and lively appearance. It is also distin- guished by the handsome tuft on its forehead. The Long-wool Devon breed is also a part of this group ; it is hea\-y, with long legs, and Leicester, Lincoln, and Cotswold breeds have been imported to the United States for a great man\- years, and now we ha\-e many prosperous flocks scattered throughout the country. They are bred for both wool and mutton, although the latter cjuality is paramount. These breeds recjuire abundant pasture, else the best results will not be obtained, since the animals are large and heavy eaters. It is owing to this fact more than to all others that these breeds have not gained any extended popu- laril)' with us. The Merino and Down breeds, A F.A.MILV OF EXMOOR SlUlEP produces much meat and fat, besides, as its name implies, a good supply of wool. The Kent, or Romney Marsh, sheep is a product of the plains of Kent, and by its con- formation and habits shows marked traces of the region in which it lives. It likes good liv- ing, but its bald head and stupid, good-natured air convey an impression that is not altogether favorable. This breed has not been favorably received by American breeders, although at one time it was valued very highly in England. In Ireland they raise sheep of this same group, with white heads, long wool, and no horns. Those named the Roscommon breed testify to the judgment of Irish breeders. recjuiring less food and at the same time carry- ins s:ood profits, have the first hold on American breeders and feeders. The Cheviot breed, which ends the series of this group, originated in the hilly country on the frontiers of England and Scotland, and is a charming type constant!)- growing in popularity in our country. The name " Cheviot," applied to a fabric, sufficiently shows the value attached to the wool of this breed. Owing to the shape of its head, neck, and ears it forms a group apart. The head is bald and carried so low as to seem sunk below the level of its back, but its large ears stick up so drolly above its thin, pale face that it gives one the idea of a mouse. THE SHEEP 179 This breed is more useful for its supply of the quarter weighing from nineteen to twenty- wool than of meat. Professor Plumb, one of two pounds. It is readily adapted to good or our greatest sheep authorities, claims that the thin pastures, and its mutton is excellent. For Cheviot produces mutton of superior qualitw this reason it is found all over the United which stands high even in the land that pm- duces mutton as a first consideration. We now come to a group of English sheep, all popular breeds in our country, that differ from the foregoing in that the wool is medium in length, — long e r than that of the Chev- iot and much shorter than that of the Lin- ■ k^g^^H -'^^^^mB WW ife '^M Gr.and-Ch.amimon Lincoln Ewe States and Canada. In appearance it favors the Southdown, its chief progenitor. The wool covers the whole face and scarcely leaves vis- ible the eyes and the black tip of the nose. It also extends down the legs almost to the hoofs. The Hampshire Down is gaining in num- bers and popularity be- cause of its size and entered into the improvement of this breed, introducing many very popular qualities, espe- cially compactness and breadth over ribs and loin, the region where the greater part of the coin or Cotswold. They are clothed in a thick early maturing t|ualities. Southdown blood has fleece of short wool of a yellowish color, which covers nearly all the head and legs. Except for the absence of horns, their appearance re- calls that of the Merino sheep. The wool about the head and legs is black or brown. With us the Southdown is the generally accepted type of the mutton and short-wool sheep. The breed takes its name from the downs that line the southern coast of England. Its smooth, even body, its round, clean barrel, its short legs, its fine head and broad saddle, make it profitable for any American breeder or farmer. Its mutton has long been valued highly both here and abroad, always bringing the highest price. A saddle of Southdown mutton, cooked at the proper time, is perhaps A Ki the best of all meat dishes. A well-fed Southdown should weigh eighteen pounds the quarter at a year old, which is near the popular margin as to weight. The Shropshire shares the popularity of the Southdown and is slighth' larger and heavier. 1\AM, eii.A.Mi-K.N .AT Many Exhibitions Plioto J. T. Newman, Berkhanipstead marketable meat is found. No horns are found among individuals of this breed. The body is rather long in shape and not as well-proportioned as that of the Southdown ; I So OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS A SoiTHDOWN Ram it does not make an agreeable impression be- cause of its stupid, heavy, coarse liead. Tlie Oxford Down is a double cross, the blood of the Hampshire and Cotswold hav- ing been used in establishing the breed. The animals of this breed are of a very superior quality, being heavier than the other breeds in the group and possessing excellent quality for the production of meat. They rank well as farm sheep, and are commonly found on the ranges of the West. The head is in great part covered with wool. The Suffolk breed is lighter in form and color than any of the pre- ceding ; its head and feet are dark brown, and while not so compact in form as the Hampshire it somewhat resembles it. So far only a few in- dividuals have found their way across the water to us, and it is unlikely that the breed will ever become popular in this country. Sheep with short wool have, as a rule, less power of resistance and less ability to adapt themselves to differ- ences in climate, soil, nourishment, and general regimen than the various races of long-haired sheep. VI. The Mouxt.mx Sheep OF Gre.at Brit.ain Besides the foregoing, other races of sheep which have come under the ennobling hand of man are finding their way to the United States from Great Britain. The Dorset breed as we know it, with its heavy horns, its coarse and horny head, its strong legs, and the undeni- able defects of its conforma- tion, still keeps the type of other days. It is distinguished besides by its fine, short wool, and by the extraordinary fe- cundity of the ewes, which may give birth to lambs twice a year if rightly managed. Many breeders are profiting by this phenomenon and are raising winter lambs, which are fed and fattened in houses, — hothouse lambs they are called, — and in the dead of winter make their appear- ance as spring lamb on the tables of persons rich enough to pay a great price for it. For this purpose the Dorset is the sheep par excellence for winter-lamb production. This K \'euv Fine Steci-Mex oe a Dorset Ra.m breed, which is gaining favor so rapidly in this country, is confined in England to the hill country of Dorsetshire. THE SHEEP i8i TIic Exinoor s/iccp, found on the heights of Exmoor, shows more of the mountain type. Like the Dorset, this breed has horns, which appear on even the very young lambs. T/u- \Vc/s/i inoiiiitaiii s/it-c/i resem- bles the latter except that the ewe has no horns. T/ie black-fnccd sliccpoi the moun- tains resembles the moorland sheep in its long, coarse fleece and the color of the head, which is spotted with black ; the fleece is so long that it almost sweeps the ground. A Celebrated Mount.ain R.\m with Bl.ack He.ad TIic Scotcli vioufitain sliccp, called the Hard- wick breed, lives on the rocky slopes of the north of Scotland ; its wool resembles that of the preceding species, but the head and legs are white. It has terrific horns, which curl round in front of the head in great circles. This animal is hardened to the most intense- cold, to violent winds, and to deep snows, under which it seeks its food. The Shetland sheep is part moorland ar.d part mountain sheep. It has no horns, and its wool is of a peculiar soft, warm texture, and was much in vogue formerly for the manufacture of furs, and it is now knitted into shawls and other warm garments by the women of the Shetland Isles. Of these breeds the Southdown, Shropshire, Dorset, Hampshire, and Oxford Down are best known in the United States. Next to the Wi.LSH Ewes Merino they have been the most popular breeds in America ; and now since wool has become secondary, they are likely to have a clean field in the future. VII. The Merino Sheep of Spain The Merino race forms an inde- pendent type of mountain sheep of very ancient origin. The most ancient Roman writers — Pliny, Strabo, and others — have written on the ancestors of the Merinos and on the method of treating them. Virgil sings of them in his Georgics. " Shall I here describe," he says, " the shepherds and the pastures of Libya, whose few hamlets contain scarce any huts ? There the flocks browse day and night for months together, and traverse the vast deserts without shelter, so almost boundless are those plains." A Welsh Ram lS2 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Before the reign of Alexander Severus silk and cotton were unknown, and the Romans wore nothing but woolen garments; they liked them fine and were ready to pay high prices for them. In order to i prove the wool of the Taran- to sheep they imported animals from Africa, which they crosse with their own, thus obtaining a \-ery fine, soft wool. To these they added sheep from Anda- lusia and Cordova in Spain, and from Polenta in Italy, which were already famous for the fine te.xture of their black or dark brown fleec Ovid, who devotes to sheep certain verses full of gratitude, tells us how they were valued not only , ,, for their wool but also for their milk and flesh. Nevertheless the Merinos and their ancestors have always been sheep for wool rather than for butchering. Ancient breeders paid little attention to the conformation of their bodies for butcher's meat ; the production of fine wool was the rmly thing they reall\- cared about, Italy has never been a mutton- eating country ; even to this day the servants of a household object to it as food. The origin of the name " Merino " bears a re- ation to the origin of the sheep them- selves. They came by sea (iiicr) to .Spain, but nothing definite is known about their coming. . Their ancestors i' probably came, in part at least, from Africa, Spain having alwa\s held active inter- course with that continent, as is shown by the settlement of the Moors in the south of Spain, with their industries, their agriculture, and their knowledge of breeding, in which they attained great proficiency. On the other hand, there are some reasons that allow us to think that the C> SlIKHI' Siii:ii.AM) Sheep THE SHEEP I S3 ancestors of the Merinos came from England, for up to a certain point these sheep have char- acteristics that exactly correspond with the short-haired sheep of England, especially in quantity and quality. There was long a keen rivalry between the wools of Spain and Eng- land, so that Henry II, king of England, de- creed, in 1 189, that all cloth manufactured from Spanish wool should be jxiblicly burned. In ancient times it was th tom to take the sheep in great flocks to summer pastu on the mountains i northern Spain, bring- ing them back i winter to their southern homes. This practice be- came general in the fifteenth cen- tury as a conse- quence of the great wars of that period, which obliged the own- ers of vast flocks to save them from the eye of the enemy. Princes, nobles, and con- vents alone had the right to make these migrations. As many of them owned the land through which the flocks traveled they derived a rconsiderable revenue from this privilege. Stone boundaries were set up in all directions, marking the broad way through which the sheep might pass. The width was usually Merino sheep have now been largely replaced about thirty-six yards, but in some places it by others that give more meat and remain on was nearly one hundred yards. On these paths the farms. the flocks and their shepherds alone had the Italy, also, had flocks which migrated to right of way, and the latter knew well how to the Apennines and the Abruzzo from the defend that right. plains of Apulia, and still has them, but they The great flocks, counting often eighty thou- never traveled such long distances as in Spam, sand animals, were divided into bands num- The south of France also has traveling flocks bering from one thousand to fifteen hundred which journey partly to the Pyrenees, but A Mad.^g.asc.vr Sheep each, in order that there might be no famine on the way. Each band, or troop, was led by fi\-e or six men with their dogs; the latter served only to keep off the wolves, always following the flock at some distance. No one had the right to protect his property from the devastation caused by the migrating sheep. If it pleased the shepherds to camp with their flock on some fertile property, the owner had to resign himself to the ruin of his crops. Agriculture was absolutely impossible in ity of these sheep ards the close of the eighteenth cen- tiuy an edict of the king of Spain gave to the owners of svich property the right to inclose their lands and thus sa\'e them from the depreda- tions of the sheep; but it was not until the nine- teenth century that a royal de- cree gave back to the proprietors, great and small, all rights to the control of their land. That was the enil, in Spain, of the raising of Merino sheep in vast num- bers. Pastures were transformed into wheat fields, vineyards, and olive orchards. The great migrations became a thing of the past, and the 184 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Sheep on the Swiss Alps chiefly to the Alps, where the sheep that spend the winters near the mouths of the Rhone and along the banks of the Crau are congregated in summer. On the plains of the Crau they are never put into sheepcots except at shearing time. At night they are kept in inclosures made with hurdles of willow branches, renewed e\ery second day. The shep- herds stay night and day with their flocks in the open air, the dogs keeping watch out- side the hurdles against wild animals. In the morning each shepherd takes out his troop and leads it to the pasturage ajipointed for it. The Merino was first brought to the United States in 1801, be- tween which date and 18 12 large numbers, probably as many as twenty thousand, were landed and scattered chiefly through New England, the Atlantic states, and Ohio. Conspicuous in these importa- tions were David Humphreys, Minister to Spain; Chancellor Livingston, Min- ister to France ; and William Jarvis, Consul to Portugal. These gentlemen, mindful of the im- portance of the sheep industry in the United States at the time, which called for wool of fine quality and fine fiber, carefully e.xamined the sheep in these countries, and, being satisfied Spanish Sheep THE SHEEP 185 of their adaptability and usefulness here, not only urged the importance of these animals but even brought many specimens with them when they returned home. For a great many years the Merino was our most popular sheep, and in the northern sec- tions of the country sheep raising was an im- portant industry even on small farms. The Spanish Merino has been greatl\- improved by American breeders ; the type has been changed, the wool made longer and finer, and the carcass improved. Changes have been suf- ficient to indicate a new breed, some breeders A GUIIIT OF OhIII K.A.MS remains a fact that the American and Spanish Merino are one and the same animal, although the American type is materially different from Sheep on the Hillside, Wyoming being inclined to call our Merino, though of Spanish inheritance, the American Merino. While the argument is clear and true, it still Ewe .\nd Lamb, Ohio its old ancestor. The Merino also went into France, w^here it is known as the Rambouillet ; and into Germany, where it is known as the Saxony Merino. Like the American Merino, many changes have been effected over the original stock, justifying the claims for new names for an old breed. The French Merinos have, perhaps, a larger carcass than the average American Merino. The French breeders were also the first to pro- duce a Merino combing wool, from which have been developed some of the most interesting and profitable branches of wool manufacturing, though they have subsequently found rivals Competition for Shepherds i\ Germany Sheep Market in Holland THE SHEEP 1 87 among the breeders of fine-wool sheep in America, Germany, and Austraha. Merino sheep were first imported into France in 1766. In 17S6 a flock of four hun- dred was imported from Old Castile and estab- lished at Rambouillet. With great difficulty these sheep were saved during the Revolution, and to-da\- the Rambouillet mutton has a to the African sheep, with its long, outwardly curved nose, its flabby, pendent ears, and its short, fat tail. The lambs of this race supply the well-known fur. While still very young they are covered with a short, fine wool, curled very tightly in small locks all over the body. Long hairs soon appear among these locks, and for that reason the lambs are killed within lis Route for tiiI': Slaughter House European reputation, and is favorably known on many American farms. The different varieties of sheep in all parts of Europe are so numerous that we can name here only a few, which serve the world at large with some special luxury. Bokhara, a district of southern Russia, that paradise of the ovine race, with its dry climate and its vast grassy steppes, has millions of sheep of all breeds, but especially the astra- k/iait. This animal bears much resemblance a very few days of their birth. These skins bear the name of " krimmer," and are sold in the Crimea for $2.50 each. The skins called "astrakhan," which come from older lambs, cost only ^1.25. To assist the curling of the hair the young lambs are sewn up, during their brief existence, in another skin or in a piece of coarse linen. Among the mountains of the south of France we find the breed that produces the famous Roquefcirt cheese. This cheese is 1 88 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS illlllli*.. .- SiiKEP Market in Paris made by mixing clotted milk with moistened bread. Between three layers of the curds are placed two layers of bread crumbs, ground to powder. This bread is made expressly of wheat, rye, barley flour, and yeast. The mixture is then pressed into porcelain molds with holes at the sides. Next it is dried and salted in a particular manner and placed to ripen, that is, to mature, in grottoes or caves in the mountains. Thirty or forty days are required to ripen these cheeses, during which time they are covered with a thick mold which has to be frequently removed. The manufacture of this cheese is now in the hands of a corporation. VIII. Wool In addition to meat and milk for the food of man, fat for soap and candles, bones to make buttons, and skin transformed into parchment, leather, kid gloves, shoes, furni- ture covering, and harness, wool is, and has been from time immemorial, the chief pro- duction of these useful animals. The most ancient biblical stories make mention of the shearing of sheep and of the custom of making the occasion a festival coincident with that of the harvest. As we have already seen in treating of the differ- ent races, there is a great difference in the quality of the wool. We may disregard the short fleeces covering head and legs. The long fleeces are divided into two qualities, — one of superior solidity and full of marrow, and the other soft, downy, and without marrow. If we exam- ine a thread of wool under the microscope, we find it com- posed of cells which overlap each other like the scales of a fish, and within is a hollow, full of marrow, forming the medullary canal. The coarser the wool the larger the canal ; in vcr)- fine wool it is wholly absent. In some races this marrow canal, which their ancestors certainly possessed and which still predominates in the wild sheep now existing, is completely replaced by a species of down without marrow, a wool which is of far greater \'erv Long Fleece THE SHEEP 189 value to man. The Merino is an example of a race which now produces this improved wool, but many other breeds of short-wool sheep have the same quality. The quality of the wool is judged by its curls (as, for instance, the number there are to the square inch) ; by the length when uncurled and stretched out ; by the weight which each thread can bear without, breaking ; by its elasticity, that is to say, its power to curl up again after being stretched out ; and finally, by its color and brilliancy. The great variety of wools now existing may- be classed in two groups, — the fine or short and carding wool, and the long, coarse, and combing wool. For the manufacture of cloth the former — such, for instance, as the Merinos supply — is used. The softer materials, such as thibet, are made with longer, less curly wool, which is carded before it is spun ; these latter fabrics bear the name of etaniinc, or tammy cloth. The manufacture of these softer fabrics, such as cashmere, homespun, serge, cheviot, zibeline, and flannel, has rather driven into the background the making of cloth, properly so called ; consequently the Merinos, which fur- nished the finest wool for the latter purpose, have been supplanted, especially in France and Germany, by breeds whose fleece is lighter and more porous. In some countries, ours especially, it is the custom to wash the sheep before shearing them ; in others they are not washed, and the fleece is sold with all the grease and sweat in it. This is certainly advantageous for the seller. In some parts of the Old World, when the shearing is on a large scale, the sheep, numbering sometimes twenty thousand, are put into huge covered sheds, whence they are driven into a sweating compartment, where they are crowded one upon another to induce perspiration. These compartments have neither doors nor windows ; the animals are exhausted intentionally, and their health is partially sacri- ficed solely to obtain a heavier fleece and to make the harsh wool of the rams softer and more supple. After the sale the fleeces are washed by the manufacturers of the cloth. At the height of the wool production in Spain, when great quantities were exported to foreign countries (in 1796 these exports amounted to twelve million pounds), the king of Spain derived vast sums from an export tax. In the year just mentioned it amounted to 51,496,000. Formerly the fleece was pulled from the body of the animal at the molting or shed- ding season. The custom still prevails in Ice- land and in some other European countries ; but the present method, especially with us, is to shear with a machine, operated either by hand or power, that cuts the wool with perfect regularity, does not wound the sheep, and reduces the time necessary to shear one ani- mal from half an hour to ten minutes and even less. VI THE GOAT I. Ix Ancient Times The goat even more than the sheep is the inhabitant of mountains. This animal, closely related to the sheep, the antelope, and the deer, likes warmth and dryness, and is most at its ease in central Asia, the Himalayas, A DuTfn Goat and other mountains of the torrid zone, where, in fact, we find its cradle, whence it has spread through Europe, and, to some extent, through America. It has prospered in the countries bordering on the Mediterranean, — in northern Africa and southern Europe, — and several islands in that sea derive their name from it. In Corsica the number of goats is estimated at ninety thousand. Malta gives its name to a special race. But Greece and her islands can boast of more than the rest of Europe, possessing r)ne hundred and twenty for every hundred of the population, while France, Germanv, and Austria have only from four to fi \' e , the United States three, and Rus- sia only two for every hundred of their inhab- itants. According to the most trustworthy calculations there are about twenty millions of goats in Europe. There are nearly two millions in the United States. The goat has been a domestic animal from time immemorial. Like the sheep, it is easy to tame. The Greeks and the Romans, as well as the Hebrews, knew the goat as a domestic ani- mal : witness the manner in which Jacob deceived his blind father. The ancients raised these an- imals for their milk, of which they also made cheese, and for their meat, which is tooth- some when the animal is young, but uneatable when old on account of its horrible odor. The skins were used to carry drinking water by the migratory tribes of the East ; the}' were also used for clothing, a practice still cnntinued bv the Kirghiz of central Asia. The skin of goats is used in our day for the manufacture of kid for gloves, morocco, shagreen, and other fine leathers, and also for 190 THE GOAT 191 parchnicMit. The United States especially uses these skins in manufactures, impf)rting annually not less than twenty-five million dol- lars' worth. The hair of goats is also very useful for the manufacture of brushes of all kinds, as well as for hats; in Eastern countries it is used in the manufacture nf shawls, and cows' milk so dangerous to children and to sick or feeble persons. Throughout Europe and America cattle are much infected with tuberculosis, which makes great ravages among men, whereas it may be said never to appear among goats. It is an established fact that while the milk of cows may convey disease -Swiss Milch Go.ats Zoological Garden of Acclimation mohair is obtained from the fleece cif the An- gora goats of Turkey. II. Go.\TS' MlI.K It is well to give a few details concerning the chief product of the goat in Europe, — its milk, which is very nourishing on account of the great quantity of fat and albumen which it con- tains, and also because it is easy to digest, and comes from an animal species little subject to disease, having especially great strength of re- sistance to tuberculosis, a disease which makes unless boiled f)r pasteurized, the milk of goats presents no such danger, and is even a passive preservative against tuberculosis through the absence of the bacillus thereof ; which does not mean, however, that it is an active pre- servative. It is much to be desired that experiments should be made in this direction. A movement has lately been started in the United States for the raising of Angora goats in the foothills of Texas, California, Arizona, and Oregon, by patients in the first stages of tuberculosis, as a promising means of cure. 19- OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS The Support of the Family A belief in the influence of the ous diseases is also very prev southern states and in Eng- land ; so much so that they are often kept in stables and cow barns to ward off disease from horses and cattle. Many persons, especially in Eurf)pe and America, have a repugnance to goats' milk on account of its bitter taste, the cause of which lies in the food and general treatment to which the animals are sub- jected. The goat is not daint\' ; it will eat with satis- faction what other animals reject, such as bark of trees, bushes, wild fruits, berries, etc. ; tobacco it considers a dainty. In short, it eats any- thing it can get ; and if all sorts of bad food are given to a goat, and if, moreover, it is shut up in a damp and dirty stable, it is no wonder if the goat on vari- alent in the milk both tastes and smells repulsive. But if , on the contrary, the ani- mal has fresh air, good food, and cleanliness, it will give good, sweet milk. In Eastern coun- tries goats' milk is pre- ferred to cows' milk, for which, indeed, the Arabs have a great aversion. About four years ago M. Joseph C repin, a member of the National Acclimation Society of France, opened at Paris a goats'-milk creamery especially for children and invalids, which has since passed into the hands of a corporation, M. Crepin having solely in view the acceptance of his idea in the sani- tary interests of the public. S.ARNEN He-Goat THE GOAT 193 III. Descent Buffon's supposition that the tame goat of Europe comes from a mixture of the camel and the wild goat has been contradicted for many good reasons, and especially because of the fact that the camel and the wild goat, far from consorting in their wild state, avoid each other's society. Buffon's idea had long existed, but it is now generally considered that the Bezoar goat of Asia made its way into Europe by the south. Several varieties of the wild goat still exist in Europe, Asia, and Africa, but in Europe they have almost disappeared. In the four- teenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries they were found in vast numbers in the Alps, from Mont Blanc to Salzburg in Styria. They were usually seen in large troops on the high- est mountains, seeking their food near the snow limit. The bucks were very tall, with large horns curving slightly backward. The females were much smaller in size, with small horns. They were and are bold leapers, and will spring without hesitation from one pointed rock to another, across giddy precipices, flee- ing over glaciers, if pursued. This interesting animal (known now as the chamois) maintained its abode for a long time Goats called '•Hertgeite" Prize winners, 1903 Fke.nck Milch Goat on the mountains of Piedmont, in the vicinity of Mont Blanc, the Matterhorn, and the Monte Rosa. The Italian govern- ment has done its best to protect the last remnants of this fine species, but the passion for hunting and its dangers exercises such irre- sistible influence on sports- men that they brook nothing that interferes with its indul- gence. When we read travel- ers' tales by personages often high in rank we are amazed to see with what delight those gentlemen (.') will fire upon a poor chamois, or other wild animal, poised on an inaccessible rock, without other object than to see it fall into a deep abyss, where it lies with broken limbs. 194 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS a prey to suffering, death, and putrefaction. We might understand such cruelt}' in some poor creature trying to earn a lix'ing, but it ought ne\'er to enter the minds of educated men, or at least those who regard themselves as such. \\'e must, however, add that tlie chamois living on the highest, wildest, and most inaccessible rocks has often sold his life dear at the cost of that of many a hunter. existing at the period of the lake villages of Switzerland were precisely the same as those of to-day, which proves that until now man has not thought it worth while to improve this animal .Species. There is little or no difference between the exteriors of the Norwegian, Swiss, Spanish, and Grecian goats. Everj'where we find them with or without horns, and with long or short hair, striped with many discordant Belgian Go..\ts with Horns The chamois mates successfully with the domestic goat, and is easily tamed; but its pas- sion for climbing never dies, and its progeny inherit it. IV. The Domestic Go.\t Up to the present time little pains have been taken to divide the tamed goats into species, but of late persons are beginning more and more to distinguish and improve the different breeds. It is a fact that the goats colors — yellow, red, white, reddish brown, gray, and black. Goats of a single color are rarely found, unless they have come through the hands of breeders who have bred them with that idea in view. The S7VISS goat of tJic Sanien is the chief species of central Europe. It comes from the valleys of the Sarnen and the Simmen, and is characterized by its color, which is wholly white, by the absence of horns, and especially by its great production of milk. THE GOAT 195 The hair is usually short and rough, the beard long and heavy. The bucks are tall — over three feet. The race has delicate heads, slen- der necks, long bodies, straight backs, slim legs, and large, tender, hairless udders in the ewes. With good food the production of milk is about si.x quarts a day, though some give seven, eight, or even twelve quarts. The annual pro- duction is from twelve to eighteen hundred quarts, though the goat Betty, belonging to the Breeding Society of Pfungstadt, gave three thousand quarts in one year. For this qualit_\- the Sarnen goat has been imported in great num- bers since 1S87 into France, Germany, Bel- gium, Holland, England, and even South Africa, and not a few ha\e been brought to the United States. The Stvart::i-Hl>o!irg-GHgg!sbi-rg goat comes also from the valley of the Sarnen, especially from the neighborhood of Stockhorn, Erlen- bach, and Schwenten. It is of various colors, horns, while others are without them; the pro- duction of milk is about three cjuarts a day. The AppcHze/ or Jlat-/icadi-d goat come.?, from the canton of that name ; it is without horns i'^^^Sr \M ^^^^SIfc?2*"^^M w 4 1 ^' ^S| tt If ^ > i ,.» mtX.M^ \ - '^^ 'i^- ■ J ^ %MU. ^m^ ' ^- %f: 5 »^ m^mmm - ■ ■■*. ..: ¥ \ 0>^ Swiss Goats called "de Sarnen" much spotted and variegated, sometimes with a black back and a white stomach, or with white stripes and other variations. Some have Belgian Goats witikh-t Horns and is generally white, though sometimes it is dark or spotted. The production of milk is about five quarts daily. The ToggciiboKig goat is from the canton of St. Gall. It is brown, with long white stripes on the head ; the legs are white, and it has no horns. It is a very handsome, well- made goat, which produces six quarts of milk daily. The Freiburg or Greyers goat and the black-necked goat of tlic Valais are found in the cantons of those names antl in the Tyrol ; the latter breed, which is strong and well made, has the front half of the body black, and the rear half white. Both species are good milkers. According to Pro- fessor Anderegg, of Berne, twenty- six different species of goats are found in Switzerland. In the Savoy Alps there are very fine goats, of which the Mauricnne is the best breed. The 196 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Three Maltemc (inATS (left), Two Native Belcian Goats (center) head, neck, and forward part of the body and the body a beautiful black mantle is spread, the legs are a fine saffron yellow, merging sometimes into gray, while over the rest of A Dangerous Situation which results in a splendid contrast of colors. If we turn southward from the Alps we come upon the Pyrenees with its particular breed called the Rucc of tlic Pyrenees ; these goats are long-haired, either white or black, and carry magnificent horns. This is the principal breed that goatherds drive in droves through towns to deliver milk for children and invalids. The Maltese goat, on the island of Malta, is narrow behind, without horns, short-haired, and somber in color, — generally brown or snuff-colored, varied with white. The hair is moderately fine, between the soft hair of the Angora and the rough hair of the Norwegian goats. Most of them have small horns, but the island also possesses a long-horned variety. Italian goats live chiefly among the Apen- nines ; in the days of the Romans they formed the chief wealth of the inhabitants of the mountain regions. In Germany there are several much-esteemed breeds, among them being the Black Forest, THE GOAT 197 a fine goat the color of a deer, and the little goat of Langcnsaha (Saxony), which is usually white, although sometimes brown with a stripe along the back. The Norivcgiaii goat resembles the black- necked goat of Switzerland, the hair being long and waving ; the horns of the buck are well developed. The common English goat is often without horns, ill-shaped, and rough-haired. The com- mon Irish goat is the true type of a milch goat. The back is often a little hollow, the horns curve backward, and the hanging ears are rather long. They, like their English sisters, can claim no beauty. The Flemish goat of Belgium is of two breeds, — the deer goat and the sheep goat. Both are closely related and are sometimes mingled. The first has a delicate head, slim neck, slender legs, short, smooth hair, and a gay and lively temperament. The sheep goat, on the contrary, is coarser in every way, with a calmer or, so to speak, more sheepish nature. The color of these Belgium goats is usually a magnificent reddish brown, or else a chamois color, which is the most desired. Among the goats outside of Europe we must here mention the principal species. First comes the Syrian goat, found chiefly in Syria to two thousand. Their color varies, being gray, yellow, brown, and black ; many have beautiful sky-blue eyes. The hair is long, espe- cially on the hind quarters, whereas on the neck it is short and very brilliant. The Arabs Norwegian He-Goat and Palestine, but also in the warm regions of Asia as far as the islands of the Indian Ocean. They live in flocks numbering from five hundred Wonderful Tolerance ! use this hair for the manufacture of stuffs and rugs, making the inferior qualities into portieres for tents, and even ropes. Even when ill-fed these goats can still give from three to six quarts of milk a day. This milk has not the bitter taste nor the offensive odor which characterize that of the European goats. Grass being rare in their pasturage, their food con- sists chiefly of acorns and of a fruit called " St. John's bread." The butter and cheese made from the milk of these goats is cele- brated for its excellence. The flocks of Palestine are sometimes decimated by a contagious disease, a species of yellow fever, which often mows down sixty per cent of them. The Arabs consider this a punishment for their own sins, and bless Allah that he does not take the whole flock. The Nubian goat lives in Upper Egypt, ■ Nubia, and the mountains of Abyssinia. In i860 the Negus of Abyssinia sent a young hippopotamus as a present to Napoleon III, and with it a number of these goats to serve as wet nurses. It is related that they each gave from fifteen to eighteen quarts of milk a day. 198 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS The Cashvicrc goat is found in Cashmere and in Tibet. It is not tall ; it has a rather large head and pendent ears. Its long, spiral horns Rf,.\i)v to take out B.aby curve obliquely backward. The outer hair is long, fine, straight, and stiff, but beneath it is the extremely fine, soft, fleecy wool which has made this species of goat so famous. The color of the outer hair is white, silvery, pale yellow, or light brown ; the wool runs from white to gray. This wool enables the animal to bear the severe cold of the mountains of Tibet. It is sheared in May or June ; the long hair is carefully separated from the brilliant and silky wool, of which each goat can suppl}' from one to one and one-half pounds. For the making of the third of a yard of a cash- mere shawl the wool of seven or eight goats is needed. Under the rule of the Great Mogul forty thousand weavers of shawls worked in Cashmere ; but after that country was made subject to the Afghans this fine industry received a blow from which it has never recovered. The Angora goat, which is growing so popu- lar with us, comes from Asia Minor, and takes its name from the ancient commercial city of Ankyra, now known as Angora. This animal is well shaped, and has long, broad, pendent ears. The bucks have long, flat, finely curved horns, while those of the ewes are smaller and simpler. The hair of this species is celebrated, and has long been an article of commerce in much demand. The wool is abundant, thick, long, fine, soft, shining, silky, and slightly curled. The color is mostly a brilliant snow-white, although some- times dark patches occur. In summer it is shed in great locks, but soon grows out again. During the hot weather the animals are washed and combed continually to increase the beaut)- of the wool. They are sheared in winter. Most of the wool is sold at Angora, whence it is sent chiefly to England, the e.xportation amounting to millions of pounds. The finest Angora wool (called mohair) comes from goats a year old; it deteriorates in the following years, until at si.x years of age it becomes useless. In other climates, especially if damp, it loses its good qualities, which explains why the importation of the animal into America for wool alone has so far not proved very satisfactory. V. Improvement Societies Influential persons are tr\ing in many coun- tries to improve the breeding of goats ; rewards Ye.\kling Angor.^ Buck THE GOAT 199 Exhibition of Goats in Harness are offered for improved animals, competitions Sometimes the societies devote their efforts have been organized, and genealogical records to the improvement of the native breeds, established. Germany has a great number of although as a general thing Swiss goats are these societies, especially in the grand duchies, imported to improve them. YeaKI.INC, and AfiED ,A.NOORA BucKS, Calh-ornia 200 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS In England the British Goat Society, capricious and inquisitive, and one might say founded in 1879, works in this direction. At crazv for every species of adventure. It posi- the head of it are persons of wealth, whose tivel\- delights in perilous ascensions. At times object is to favor the breeding and rational it will rear and threaten you with its head treatment of these animals among the poorer and horns, apparently with the worst inten- classes. The society provides instruction on tions, whereas it is usually an invitation to the goat, its milk and meat, hoping to remove the English jjrejudice against them, as well as to improve the con- formation of the animals and their production of milk. In 1902 a Belgian society for the improvement of the goat was formed in Brussels. It has the same object as all the other societies, with this difference, that it not only imports Swiss goats but en- deavors also to improve its own \'ery beautiful indigenous species of the deer goat, on the principle that before attempting to improve a breed as to conforma- tion and temperament, you should first begin by cultivating a pure race. VI. Ch.\r.\cter of the Go.\t Every one knows the gayety of young kids. play. The bucks, however, fight violently with each other ; they seem to have no consciousness of the most ter- rible blows. The ewes them- selves are not exempt from this \'ice. The goat is a sociable ani- mal ; take away her companion and she will bleat for days and refuse to eat or drink. She lox'cs to be caressed by man, and is very jealous if atten- tions are shown to a rival. The bucks when trained will draw their little masters by the hour, if kindly treated ; but if they are teased or ill-used, the\- will fre- quentU' refuse positively to do their work. Thev know very well whether or not they have deserved punishment. Drive them out of the garden, where they are forbidden to go, with a whip and they will flee without uttering a which prompts them to cut the most amusing sound ; but strike them without just cause and and burlesque capers. The goat is naturally they will send forth lamentable cries. PL.WFULN'ESS VII THE PIG All of our important breeds of hogs have descended from the wild hog (Sus apcr) that once roamed over Europe, Asia, and Africa. What people first subjugated the wild hog and brought him into a better style of living, history has not told us, nor has any one attempted to say just when this subjugation took place. The wild hog is a very active and powerful individual ; when he grows old he is extremely fierce and dangerous. Generally speaking, the color is an iron-gray or a dirty brown, spotted here and there with black. Like his descend- ants, only to a very much greater extent, the original hog was covered with coarse, long hair that showed bristles of great prominence all the time, and especially when the animal was irri- tated. The head of the wild hog is large, bony, and coarse ; the large jaw is covered with the tusks that inflict severe wounds ; the neck is long and muscular, and the loins broad and strong. The wild hog makes a foe fearful to combat when attacked by an enemy of any sort. In his wild habitat he selects places that are moist, rather well concealed by forest growth, where he may feed upon plants, fruits, and roots of vari- ous kinds, though when hunger affects him he greedily appeases his appetite on worms, snakes, and flesh of any kind. The twilight, early dawn, and nighttime seem by choice his favorite periods for seeking food, sport, adventure, and e.xercise. Sense of smell has been developed to such a marked degree in the wild hog that he is able to detect the presence of food though it be covered in the ground. Like other domes- tic animals in their wild and native state the wild hog seeks thick forests and there herds with his kind for safety and protection; when age comes on he strolls much about by himself, never seeking danger, but when it comes he avoids it not. It has been estimated that thirty or forty years is not an infrequent age for some of these wild animals to attain. When young are born they follow their mother for several months, in fact, remain with her as much as a year or more, when each individual becomes bolder and goes farther from the home land, naturally drifting apart by himself. It is surprising with what ferocity and cour- age the wild boar meets an attack, and with what ease he wards it off. Because of courage and fierceness the wild hog has from the earliest ages been the favorite sport with all classes and conditions of society. Particularly is this true with the nobility of England and Germany. When Rome was at her supreme height the wild hog entered largely into the sports and fights of the times. The wild hog of to-day, while his numbers are small and his territory very limited, remains true to his ancestry and habits. He has lost neither his strength nor his endurance, and when chased by hunters and sportsmen the most powerful horses are necessary, else they will be distanced in the chase. The domestic pig may degenerate and be- come wild and grisly, yet he never takes up to the fullest extent the habits of his ancestor, who "walks the glade in savage, solitary grandeur." Despite the fierceness of the wild hog, every people appreciates his racial worth. I. Long a Source of Food The hog has been the principal quadruped in the South Sea Islands, and more carefully cultivated there than any other animal. For a long time he was used as a most precious sacrifice to the deities. The hog is recorded as sacred on the island of Crete also. We are told that the Greeks at the beginning of harvest time sacrificed a hog to Ceres, and at the beginning of vintage a hog was sacrificed to Bacchus. As meat, hog flesh has long been esteemed ; this is plainly indicated by the many allusions of great authors. The hog entered largely into the diet of the Romans, 202 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS and all sorts of practices were employed to impart delicate flavor to the flesh. Pliny in- forms us that old, dried figs, drenched with honey and wine, were employed as a means of enlarging the liver, so choice a dish was it considered by Roman palates. It has been said also that the Romans often served hogs whole, one side being roasted and the other side boiled. Further still was this carried by stuff- ing the dressed animal with larks and nightin- gales and delicacies of all sorts, and serving with wine and rich gravies. We can imagine how delicious this dish must have been b\' com- paring it with those barbecues and Brunswick stews so well known by our country people. Germany and France have also, frf)m times immemorial, depended upon the pig for food ; while in Ireland, especially among the poorer classes, the pig is often the chief source of profit and the " gintleman that pays the rint." The early pig stock of our country and of the states to the south of us came first by the importations of the ear!_\- Spanish e.xplorers. The first ships that landed on our shores brought swine ; from this early stock the pig in America has come, its habitat spreading in a short time to the whole land. Since those days of exportation and adventure improved hogs of manv breeds have been imported, especially from England, but from other countries as well. A Drove of Hoes ix Ohio and which possess rich and delicate flavors never equaled by other domestic animals. We ha\-e, on the authority of Varro, the statement that the Gauls raised the largest and finest swine flesh that was brought into Italy during those early days. This is of interest in connection with the fact that the Italians and ancient Spaniards kept large droves of swine, which formed the principal part of their lix'e stock. In those early days swine were common in Greece and in adjoining islands. While the Jews and the followers of Mohammed have always abstained from swine flesh, nearly all other peoples have found the pig of con- siderable importance in their food supplies. This is true of the ancient Britons. Good meat was supplied chiefly from the hog. II. The Pig in the Oi,d World Throughout the Old World the pig abomids, its highest development being attained by English breeders. At the present time it is almost universally raised, and with some nations is the principal meat supply. In almost all jjarts of Asia swine ma\- be found, — in Siam, Cochin China, Burma, and other southern countries. Here is found the celebrated Chinese hog that has been imported into many other countries, and which is noted for its small size, fine head and snout, compact, deep carcass, large hams and shoulders, fine bone, hair, and skin, and sweet, delicate meat. Travelers tell us that the Chinese treat their animals very kindly. It is given on the author- ity of one of our prominent men that the pig THE PIG 203 is not driven but carried from place to place in a kind of cradle, or basket hung on a pole between two men ; and as swine are often ob- stinate when about to enter these cradles, "the heathen Chinee," it is said, sometimes adopts a peculiar mode of loading. This is accomplished by placing the pig in front of the pen, when the owner vigorously pulls at the pig's tail and in the spirit of opposition the animal darts into the desired place. At the end of the journey he is driven out by spitting in his face. Turkey, Syria, Persia, and Arabia have each different varieties of pigs, iron-gray, black, or brown in color, the bodies small and round in shape and of no great size. They are not raised in any great numbers, however, because of the nature of the soil and of the prevalence of the Mohammedan reli- gion, which forbids the use of swine flesh. Swine are scarce in Africa and of little value e.xcept in the northern part, where there is bred a reddish hog of good size and of rather square form. This breed, known as "Guinea," has been imported into Brazil and into other countries. The Malta pig is black and of small stature ; the skin is smooth, the hair fine and almost wanting. The quality of the flesh is good and of delicate taste. Spain has but few varieties, and these are somewhat similar to the Chinese, from which stock they have probably sprung. Italy is noted for her pigs. The Maltese and Neapolitan are both of rather small size, but are of good quality and flavor. These breeds are small and nearly destitute of hair; they are easily fattened, and because of their quality they have been sought in other countries, where they are used in the creation of other breeds. The hog stock of France and Germany is much inferior to our own or the English breeds, the common stock being long-legged, gaunt, coarse, and uncouth, resembling the wild boar in form, but lacking the flavor and quality of the latter. Improved varieties, however, are found in both countries. England ranks first in the improvement of swine. Our best breeds have come from England, or have been built uj) from the old English stock. Foreign and native breeds entered into the formation of noted English breeds of hogs, but the improvement has been effected there by careful, painstaking breeders. Of present English breeds the Yorkshire, large and small, has many admirers and is gain- ing constantly in favor. The large breed was improved by an introduction of blood of the white Leicester, an old slab-sided but large native hog ; and further improved by the introduction of blood of the improved white hogs at "Castle Howard." The improved Esse.x is at present a popular breed both in England and America. It is the product of a FiCS .AT HoMlC cross between the old Essex and the Neapoli- tan, which was commenced by Lord Western in 1839. III. The Pig in America It naturally follows, since the hog is not a native of this continent, that the ancestors of our many families and breeds must have been imported. They found here a land of corn and clover, two foods which the hog likes and which when fed to him produce quick and profitable returns. The first pigs that influenced the earlier inferior stock in way of improvement were a pair sent by the Duke of Bedford to General Washington. This pair was never delivered, however, but kept by the English farmer who brought them over, who leased a farm and be- gan the breeding of these choice animals. De- scendants of this pair were used largely in the 204 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS improvement of the common stock, and were known as the "Woburn" or "Bedford" breed, a splendid one at the time but since absorbed in other breeds. The Berkshire enjoys the distinction of a very ancient lineage. Formerly it was reddish in color with small black spots ; this color gave way to one more becoming the breed — black. The Berkshire in its early days was greatly improved by Chinese and Siamese blood, and later by that of the Neapolitan race, receiving from this latter breed its fine hair and skin, its rich plum color, and its delicate taste. The Poland-China is one of the most popular breeds in the United States, especially through- out the Middle West, where corn and pork production go so well together. The Poland- China is strictly an American breed, per- haps the most famous of the breeds that have been established in America. This hog originated in south- western Ohio, in the comities bordering on the Miami river, the common stock of the county being its basis. Many breeds — the Big China, Russian, Be- held, Poland, Bedford, and Berkshire — contrib- uted to the perfection of this great j^ork-and-lard type of hogs. In color the Poland-China is spotted, black and white ; in size and form the breed is similar to the Berkshire, except that its frame is slightly larger and stronger ; the ear falls over the eye, while in the Berkshire it is short, pointed, and straight. Both the Poland-China and the Berkshire are c[uick-maturing and profitable pork-making machines. These two breeds are more widely diffused over the United States than any others. The Duroc -Jersey is also an American-pro- duced breed. Its breeding qualities are good, superior to those of either the Berkshire or the Poland-China. Its color is reddish or reddish and white. Duroc-Jerseys are quiet and good feeders, take well to grazing and to corn, and GR.\Mi-Cii.\>n'ioN T.^MWoRTii Roar .wn .Sow produce meat of good quality that has a fair proportion of lean meat. The Chester-White is in the same class as the preceding, and is an extensively known breed in the United States. Hardy, large, prolific, and well adapted to our systems of farming, it has become popular, and deservedly so. As a breed it was established in Chester County, Pennsylvania, from which place it gets its name. The hair is white and thin, and because of this fact it is not adapted to the hot climates of the southern states, at least that is the objection made to this and to other white hogs in the South. The Tamworth breed has become more or less known in the United States during recent years. While it is true that the breed gains favor slowly here, it is highly esteemed in Canada and across the water. The importance of these hogs for bacon gives them high rank whenever animals are wanted for this purpose. Among the smaller breeds may be men- tioned the small Yorkshire, a hog imported from England ; the Victoria and the Che- shire, two breeds established by New York farmers and held now in much favor ; and the improved Essex, black in color and high in favor because of the fine quality of its meat. IV. The Breed to Choose It is quite impossible to make a ranking list of breeds. Even in the same community, under the same conditions and environments, many breeds of hogs will be observed, show- ing that men honestly differ in opinion as to the merits and values of our different varieties of swine, as they do in other matters of life. It follows, then, that taste, fancy, and indi- vidual choice will govern in the selection of a breed of hogs or of other animals. The beginner may make many inquiries only to be thrown back on his own judgment at last ; THE PIG 205 and it is well that this is the case. No one breed is best fitted for all conditions, so long as bacon or lard or pork is sought for itself alone, or even sought in conjunction with other secondary factors. There will be need of many breeds and of many families of the same breed. After one has selected the breed that pleases him, he should take pains to secure breeding stock of good type, form, quality, and constitution. The loss by disease is enormous ; hence none but individuals of robust consti- tution should be allowed to come on the place. Once selected, keep the line pure. Much harm has been done by cross breeding and through the use of grade or cross-bred sires. It is V. Caring for Swine The old idea that hogs will shift for them- selves, while true in effect, is a poor one to adopt, since it means small profits and often loss. The pig needs care, especially since he has been removed so far from his old wild life. And he responds to civilization as will- ingly as any animal on the farm. But one cannot expect him to do his best where his only drink is the filth of the mudhole, his only nest the manure pile, and his only food the leavings that all others shun. Give him pure water to drink, a clean bed in which to sleep, and a variety of food, and he will give greater profits than any other animal on the farm or any crop you raise. Fkoi'krtv (IF 0\iui St.atic L'snicRsnv money to one if he will use only pure-bred stock from the very start. Hogs are so com- mon and herds of pure breeding so easily available in every community that no diffi- culty will be encountered in starting right and continuing right. In selecting breeding stock one must bear these points in mind: short head, dished in the forehead, and good width between the eyes ; fine muzzles, with a short snout ; strong, bright eyes ; drooping or upright ears, not thick or coarse ; soft, mellow skin, with fine, silky hair, somewhat abundant but without bristles ; short, well-knit, and straight legs, standing well on small, strong feet ; full, long body, square and broad, with a straight back and under line. If one has a mortgage on his home, seek the help of the hog and he will raise it ; if one covets legitimate things, seek first his aid and these things will soon come ; if one longs for luxuries he will bring them. Debts he will pay, lands he will improve, homes he will enlarge, children he will educate. These things the hog has clone ten thousand times, and he will do them again, even better and more quickly, if one will but gi\'e him one half of the care and attention he deserves. The hog makes good use of the pasture. Give him the run of the clover field, for he will do no harm there, even when placed among cattle, sheep, and horses. When provided with good grazing no other food is required ; he will grow rapidly and io6 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS have a good account to give of the food he has eaten. Good, thrifty growth, not fat, is wanted while he is small and vonng, for if growth has been secured he will fatten \ery Fr,i-.i>ix(i Pif.s quickly and on a small amount of food. The mistake is often made of feeding an e.xclusive ration of corn. Corn is heating and fattening in effect, and until he has left pighood days corn is an improper food to give him, espe- cially as an e.xclusive diet. In his early days protein, the muscle maker, should enter largely into his diet. When given the freedom of the pasture or clover field this important food element is supplied to his delight and advan- tage. When he has reached the age of seven or eight months he may be brought in from the pasture and inclosed in a small feeding lot where pure water, soft coal, and ashes should be furnished in connection with corn. A few weeks of feeding, small quantities at first, will bring him to the close of his days, when he should be ready for market or to be slaughtered. Hogs of good breeding will readily weigh two hundred and fifty pounds when nine months old, if they have been provided with good pasture and reasonably good care. \1. FEEDiNr, Young Pigs As soon as young pigs begin to eat provide a shallow trough and place it where it is not accessible to the mother or older pigs. Give some kind of slop — milk and shorts is best — each day. Quick growth follows this treat- ment and with paying results. The trough must be kept clean, and an occasional thorough disinfecting will be desirable, not only for the trough but for the pigs as well. Clean sleei^- ing quarters contribute their share to health, vigor, and rapid gains. If pasture is available, turn the mother and her young into it ; little of any kind of food other than gnod pasture grass will be needed. The writer has followed a plan for grazing hogs that has proved very successful. Eight one-half acre lots are provided, the lots being three rods in width and correspondingly long. In August one lot is seeded to rye, which makes good winter grazing ; in September the second lot is seeded to rye, which also makes good winter grazing ; in October the remaining lots are seeded to r\e for spring grazing. The first r\'e lot is succeeded by cowpeas, planted as soon as spring will permit, and then through the spring and early summer the other lots follow on in rapid succession with cowpeas. By this system winter, spring, and summer grazing are available, and provided with little labor, trouble, or expense. The great point in the management of \-oung pigs is to keep them growing from the da\- of birth to the dav they are slaughtered Mother Hog .and Little Ones or sold. If thrifty and active thev w'ill grow rapidly ; if strong and vigorous they will be more likely to throw off disease if it attacks them, or, what is better, never get it at all. THE PIG 20 / Our best hog raisers give their animals the full freedom of the fields as much as is pos- sible, that they may obtain the grasses they like, the exercise they need, and the cleanli- ness that means so much for health and vigor. We must remember that the prevention of disease is safer than remedies, and especially is this true of the hog. Clean pens, exercise, pasture grazing, and variety in food are all- important in successful management. The hog, if we regard the great number of people who receive food from its flesh, occu- pies, it is seen, a most important place in the domestic economy of all civilized countries. Swine flesh is wholesome and nutritive, and from its ready reception of salt it is better fitted for preservation than that of any other animal. It is fitted, therefore, for sea voyages, for use in country districts where fresh meats are not at all times available, and for all uses where meat is desired but obtainable only many seasons after being slaughtered ; for these, and many other purposes, this kind of meat is eminently adapted. It forms not only a large portion of the animal food consumed by inhabitants of other continents but also enters largely into our own dietaries ; and from the facility with which it may be raised by the humble villager or laborer as well as by the breeder on a larger scale, it has been aptly styled the poor man's stock. Beyond any other animal the hog mul- tiplies with great rapidity ; he is reared with ease, and with little expense he is brought to maturitv, so that it seems an error for any farmer to disregard this domestic animal, which is and always will be a source of household economy and comfort. VIII CATTLE I. The Bull, the Ox, and the Cow These horned beasts belong to an important group of domestic animals, if not from all points of view, at an\- rate from that of their utility to man. In fact no domestic animal contributes so much to man's welfare as the cow and her kind. She gives us milk, our most important food, to drink; she provides us with butter and cheese, both wholesome and rich in food nutriments ; her flesh enters largely into our dietaries ; the leather made of her hide covers our feet and provides us with necessities and luxuries in other directions ; and finally her bones, blood, and <.)ffal fertilize our gardens and fields. This race, together with the sheep and the goat, forms part of the great family of rumi- nants, the members of which differ very little thought to be a descendant of the iirus exist- ing in Caesar's day, and French beeves are supposed to be descended from the bison. The Podolian nr Hungarian o.\, whitish gray with long horns, and of immense height, which ....A- ^^1 ^^m ji^^ ' f" ^tk--^^*^^m ■M^ Nf k ^^^t^'"^^*'"' -■-^TT^fc'^B ^ rmmM*mm 3!^^^\-,. . M ^p^K^^lT^P^^^i^ ^ ^SBW*^,!!.! 9^ j^H^^^^^^^^ljiV^"'l ' ] tj s,2^ ^ ■^^— VtosJl Cow WITH Uneven Horns draws the heaviest loads over hundreds of miles, is related to the great white oxen of Italy, Spain, and Algeria mentioned by Varro. It is, however, difficult to determine at what period the race appeared in Europe. We find it by the side of man in all peoples and tribes as they issued from barbarism. The Egyptians utilized it thousands of years ago ; in fact they had such respect for certain bulls that they worshiped them as gods. The Chinese and from one another in the conformation of their the Japanese, civilized nations while Europe teeth and stomachs. The bovines form a sub- was still in its swaddling clothes, also used division of the class of horned beasts by reason oxen as draft animals thousands of years ago, of their horns being hollow. and do so still, just as we do. After Europe This race (bos tatinis) must have had many became civilized we find bulls or oxen serv- ancestors. For instance, the Frisian ox is ing as reproducers of their species or as 20.S Two Orph.ans CATTLE 209 beasts for agricultural labor, while cows were everywhere valued for their milk and meat. As furnishing amusement bulls are now used NoHMAX Milch C»*^ viiii^-llliiflihstlSI In Alabama and thus more inclined to be meaty. Neverthe- United States, but still well known and popular, less their production of milk is abundant, the and the Kerry of Ireland. So far but few herds meadows of Holland, both north and south, of Kerry cattle exist on this side of the water. CATTLE 215 Our magnificent breeds of Jersey an:'. Guernsey cattle are the direct descendants of cattle imported from the Channel islands or of those bred in this country. The business of importing cattle of these and other breeds has been an important one in years past, and is not incon- siderable at the present time. The Guernsey is slightly larger than the Jersey and perhaps a little more robust. Both give very rich milk, but not so much as the Holstein-F'riesian or the Ajr- s/iirc, the imported cow from Scotland. This last-named breed is hardy and robust — ideal in this respect. In size she ranks between the Jersey and the Holstein. Being red or white, or a mixture of the two, the Ayrshire is not only at- tractive and popular because of her form and color but also because of her high merits as a pro- ducer of milk and cheese. Another foreign breed that hasattracted the American farmer is the Brozoii Szviss of Switzerland. These are mouse- colored, rugged animals ; some are good milk- ers, but many are indifferent when compared Groningen Bull Cornells .\X\"I I, Celebrated Dutch Milch Cow- Goon Dutch P.astur.age with the heavy-milking Holsteins or abundant butter-making Jerseys or Guernseys. We should not be doing justice to the Devon cow were we to omit her from this list. She came early to our land from England and for a century has been a loyal helper in the building up of this country. Till recent years this breed took the place of horses on many farms : cleared the land and plowed it; hauled the trees over fields of snow and rough roads that lum- ber might be sawed ; and not content with doing this rough labor the Devon has been also an admirable milch cow. With the coming of the improved special breeds, however, the Devon has been displaced for both milk and beef, and unless her friends direct her into one of these channels, her race will soon be run ; but it will be the ending of a glorious race, worthy of the magnificent ani- mal the Devon has been. T/ic Diitch-beltcd coivs belong to the Hol- stein-Friesian class, but are inferior to the parent stock. The belt of white around her body gives an attractive appearance, but adds nothing to her ability as a milk producer. As a competitor with our special breeds the Dutch- belted will always be outclassed ; she must 2l6 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Friesland Milch Cow depend upon the fancy of the breeder for popularity and for perpetuati(.)n. The leading beef breeds, as we call them in America, are the Sliorthoni, the Hereford, the Angus, and the Galloivay. The Shortlwrn, also known as the Durliani breed, received its first improvement from England, the country that has given the world so many im- proved breeds of farm animals. Among the early improvers of this breed are the Colling Brothers of Ketton, who be- gan their work of improve- ment more than a centur}' ago ; Thomas Bates, a faithful disciple of the Colling Brothers, who founded the famous Princess, Duchess, and Oxford families ; Richard Booth, who to- gether with his sons did so much to lengthen the hind quarter, to fill up the fore flank, and to secure greater depth of flesh, thus increasing the value of the carcass ; and Amos Cruik- shank, the father of Scotch Shorthorns, who has given us a family of Shorthorns compact and blocky in build, easily fattened, and of superior meat when placed on the block. Prior to 1800 few Shorthorns were imported to this country ; since that date many thousands have been brought over from their native land. Nearly a million animals of this breed have already been registered by the American Shorthorn Association. He.ad of Hkuil.and Bull "Sir Audrey" Dutch Calves Shorthorns have been unquestionably the most popular breed of cattle during the past century in our country and in many other lands as well. They are easily at home under most conditions, are of good size, fatten reatlily, and produce meat that is tender, juicy, and nutritious. The Hereford is a descendant of one of the aboriginal breeds of Great Britain, and as a distinct breed has a long lineage. It is some- times called the "White-faced" breed because of this color characteristic. Its presence to-day is an indication of purity of blood. The most noted of the early improvers of this breed was Benjamin Franklin, who died in 1790. Like Bakewell, Tompkins improved CATTLE 217 his animals through the most careful selection of his breeding stock. The first authentic importation of Herefords into this country was made by Henry Clay in 1817. Since that time animals of this breed ha\e been distributed throughout this anil othercountries. The Hereford is a good " rustler," and has long been popular on the plains and in the Southwest. His feeding qualities are good, as is also his flesh when butchered. The Aberdeen Angus has only lately been brought from Scotland, but he has already become a rival of other beef herds, finding his greatest popularity throughout the middle western states ; at the present time the South and Southwest are developing many herds of this justly popular breed. In size average individuals follow closely the Shorthorns and Herefords ; they mature rather early also, a Granu-Cuaju'ion Hkrekoku Bull ,\nu C they are poor milkers, but as they are bred only for beef this is as it should be. The Galloway is also black and hornless and a very typical beef animal. He comes from Scotland, where he was always a good rustler and hustler for food. He is our best breed for the o pen plains and the ranges. When slaughtered his meat ranks first in competition with that of any breed, and always commands the highest price on English and American markets. V. The Beef Type The beef cow is square in shape, full and broad over the back and loins, and possesses de[3th and quality, especiall)' in these regions. The hips are evenly fleshed, the legs full and thick, the under line parallel with the straight back. The neck is full and short. The eye Shorthorn Cattle quality much desired in beef animals ; they are fair grazers, though probably not quite so good as the Hereford, and as meat pro- ducers they excel both the Shorthorn and the Hereford. All Anguses are black in color and hornless, blocky in shape, and compact with short legs ; should be bright, the face short, the bones of fine texture, the skin soft and pliable, and the flesh mellow, elastic, and rich in quality. The fact that it is not possible for every farmer to possess pure-bred cattle is no reason why he should not improve the stock he has. He can do this by securing pure-bred sires 218 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Hornless Cattle that possess the characteristics desired. Scrub dairy cows. When cows are milked the mili< stock can be quickly improved by the contin- should be weighed and a record kept of it. If uous use of good sires. It is never wise to this is done it will be found that some cows use grade or cross-bred sires, since they do produce as much as f)ne thousand gallons or not possess stable characteristics. more, while others produce not more than Moreover, it is possible for every farmer to one half or even one fourth that quantity. If determine exactly the producing power of his a farmer will kill or sell his poor cows and I.\ Ohio CATTLE 219 keep his best ones, he will in a short while have a herd of only heavy milkers. Young calves that are to be fattened should be fed only such food as will produce rapid, thrifty growth, so that they may be gotten in readiness for the market at as early an age as possible. Young dairy animals may be fed any In her lifetime she provides man with one of his chief and best articles of food, — milk ; and after her death she supplies him with more meat than any other animal. But that is not all ! The skins of cows and oxen are used for many purposes, and form a very considerable article of commerce, to which they contribute Long-Hurm:i) li.Ni,i.isii Bullocks Pln)to C. W. Reid food that insures thrifty growth, but foods of a coarse nature are particularly good, espe- cially such kinds as clover, alfalfa, and cowpea hay ; pasture grasses, corn ensilage, and roots, being succulent and juicy, are also excellent. As we have already remarked, the cow has many claims to be considered a domestic ani- mal, though from a point of view different from those of the dog, the horse, or the hen. calf-skin bindings. The intestines, blood, and fat, not being eatable, are utilized in tech- nical manufactures, and the horns, after pro- ducing trumpets for war and cups for convivial friendship, serve to make a variety of "art objects." The bones, ground and prepared, are transformed into fertilizers, and are also bought by the manufacturers of glue and frelatine. IX THE GALLINACEOUS TRIBES I. Ix An'cient Times When did poultry bect)me domestic animals ? Probably before they were brought from Asia. At all events it is from Asia, and especially from her vast plains — which still hide so many of Nature's secrets — that our gallinaceous tribes have come. The dog and the cock were, according to Zoro- aster, sacred ani- mals,— one as the guardian of the house and hearth, the other as the herald of the dawn and thus the symbol of light and the sun. Consequently we find Idomeneus and Pasiphac, descend- ants of the Sun, bearing the image of a cock upon their shields. In later times the cock has remained the symbol of vigilance and of Mr. Cock. music. In German\' the cock is actuall)- a weathercock on the steeples of Catholic churches ; whereas that on the Lutheran steeples is a swan. The cock must have appeared in Greece about the middle of the second century B.C., reaching other parts of Europe in the next century, but not be- fore. Saint Peter had good cause to know of it in the first century ..\.D. ; and in the fourth century the monas- teries began to apply themselves gener- ally to the breeding of poultry. Bishop Martin sent great numbers from Italy into France and Ger- many, where, after a while, the peasantry were allowed to pay their taxes in poul- try and eggs, a fact which greatly knowledge. How many interpretations have been given of its favored the propagation of fowls. crow ! It is said to indicate the place of buried treasure. Black cocks are in communion with the Evil Spirit ; they addle eggs, they predict ill luck, they tell people's fortunes by pecking grain, with which they form letters and words — an art that was called alectryomancy, in honor of one of the three Furies, who presided over the performance. To this day in Bohemia and Silesia the peasants tie a black cock to II. Poultry in Europe .wd in Americ.\ It was inevitable that the raising of poultry should excite the interest of farmers through- out Europe. Countries like France, Belgium, and Denmark have from this source within a few years annually increased the national wealth by several millions. Italy, Hungary, and Russia are the countries that supply Eng- a tree, round which they dance ; and if a mar- land, France, Germany, Belgium, and the riage is contracted during Lent they solemnly Netherlands with what they lack. If we read tie a cock in a chair, put a red cap on its head, statistics we are amazed at the enormous quan- decapitate it, and eat it to the strains of funereal tity of eggs sent from the East to the West ; THE GALLINACEOUS TRIBES 221 it amounts in value to many millions of dollars. Within a generation the raising of poultry in European countries has had an extraordinary impetus. Not content with the breeds they pos- sessed, energetic breeders set them- selves to improve and perfect them. A wholly new direction has been given to the science of breeding. It is not yet all it should be, but im- provements are being made daily. Each European country possesses its own species — the one most suitable to its climate and wants. Russia has the Pultava fowl ; Italy the Italian ; France the Houdans, the Favanelles, the Creve-Coeurs, etc. ; Belgium the Mechhn Coucous, the Braeckels, etc. ; Germany the Ramels bohen, the fowls of eastern F'riesland, etc. ; and the Netherlands their breed with hooded heads and white tojjknots. America, the enterprising land par ex-cclUna\ has produced something special in this domain, which e.xcites admiration for those who have advanced so far, thanks to constant perseverance. The Wyan- dottes and the Plymouth Rocks are the national fowls of America. They have been sent to Europe, where they do honor to their reputa- tion by occupying an important place among Continental poultry. What Americans ha\e The F.x.milv Comi'letk Till-: Mrs. Hen claimed for these products of their cross breed- ing has been verified. The endeavor has been to raise fowls which should not onl)- be prolific in laying eggs, but should also be excellent for eating ; and we have succeeded. Our poultry breeders may feel proud that their product has been received with open arms across the ocean, and we may doubtless regard these breeds as the races of the future. At the French and Belgian poul- try shows the native breeds still form the chief section ; but in all the great competitions Wyandottes, Plymouth Rocks, Leghorns, Minorcas, Dutch fowls, Orpingtons, and Brahmas are conspicuous for their beauty and their usefulness. Most persons who keep poultry do so for the profit to be made thereby. Nevertheless, be- sides that profit, they ought to desire also to have something hand- some. Unfortunately, we still see in 222 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Whiti-. Wvanhotte Cock farmyards and villages a mixture of all breeds and all colors. We must hope that the farmer will end by deciding to raise but one breed and one color. III. Breeding of Poultry The manner in which poultry is bred and raised in many regions leaves much to be desired. Sometimes it is undertaken after reading a book on the subject, in which marvels are promised as a result. That is not the way to succeed. Those who desire to take up this business seriously should learn practically many things that are not found in books, but a knowledge of which is absolutely essential. We shall try to show how, and in what way, this industr)' may be made profitable ; and if, on certain points, we enter upon theory, the reader should endeavor to verify for him- self the results to be obtained. The first condition for making a ])oultrv vard lucrative is to do the work yourself, and not be afraid of soiling your hands. In doing every- thing yourself you accjuire the rou- tine, and if later you take a helper, you will then know how to direct him. For if we have no idea ourselves of the true methods of breeding, what can come of it ? The raising of poultry may be profitable, even 'Ursus" Plymouth Rock Cock largely profitable, but only at the cost of our personal care and labor. The first thing to be done is to procure a good breed. Persons ignorant of the business look for advertise- ments in poultry journals, which are often THE GALLINACEOUS TRIBES 223 useless or worse than useless. Not only farms but also whole villages have been depopulated of poultry by the introduction in this way of diseased fowls. The damage thus caused in Belgium, Germany, and Holland, for instance, has amounted at times to millions of dollars, with the result that many persons, after being duped in this way, have abandoned the trade. The peasantry of Italy and Hungary are largely occupied in the raising of poultry. On the vast plains of those countries the birds grow quickly and easily, and find all their stomachs need. Merchants buy the pullets for ^■i^^^^^^^^^^^^BPk:^ « f^^^^^H ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^K:^^^^ ^-^^v^^^^^^l . *\ ^^H^\ ^ ^ ■ -^A ^Ie '^, ■^^•'y-'' ^ ^Ik ^^^^^^^^BBm^MBr .' ^^^^^^Hl ^■L/yl!2^^H ^pl ^^^ • ■- —.._-,; > f^^™ " Nero" a trifle (five cents each), a price on which the Italian peasant finds that he makes a profit. These merchants have so-called poultry yards where the little creatures are piled up pell- mell. Fresh from the heaths and plains where they enjoyed full liberty, what wonder if they contract diseases in these confined quarters, where they are fed on food to which they are unaccustomed ! Here, however, they remain till orders come from other countries, to which they are then dispatched in baskets, each basket con taining fifty birds. The journey usually lasts from three to four days, and the condition in which the poor things arrive may be imagined. can be gained from the fact that one merchant of Ai.\-la-Chapelle receives weekly, during the summer season, twenty thousand pullets thus Black Cochix-China Cock packed. There are even special trains for the transportation of poultry and eggs. A few weeks after the birds arrive at their desti- nation disease shows itself, and if haste is not made to separate the healthy from the unhealthy fowls, a whole poultry yard will be infected in a few days. Those who wish to devote themselves to poultry raising should make deliberate choice Black Minorca Cock An idea of the enormous trade that Italy as to the external appearance of the breed arries on with the northern countries of Europe they prefer. But a choice once made should 224 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS be kept to. Then the breeder must apjjly himself to improve the species, bearing in mind that all hens will nut la_\- from one hundred and fifty to two hundred and eighty eggs, as the advertisers endeavor to make us think, and also that out of every five hundred eggs half will produce cocks. On large poultry young and old. It is composed of shell, skin, white of egg, and )dlk, the latter a fatty, j'ellow substance. As human food an egg does not contain (as often stated) as much nourishment as half a pound of meat ; it would take si.x or seven eggs for that. The white contains eighty- five per cent of water, the yolk fifty-one per Plymouth Rocks farms where different breeds are kept it is usual to divide their yard with wire netting, giving to each species a run of its own. Hens are raised for their eggs. The egg that the fowl produces, from which a fowl issues in turn, is, next to milk, man's best food, the most strengthening, the purest, the most unadulterable, the most healthful for cent of water and thirt)--one per cent of fat. A hen's egg, analyzed chemically, contains in addition thirteen per cent of albumen, twelve per cent of fat, and no hydrate of carbon, which sufficiently proves that it could never serve exclusively for human food. The shell is composed of phosphoric acid, chalk, iron, sulphur, and gluten. It is proper THE GALLINACEOUS TRIBES 225 to take account of these elements in feeding Exportation from Russia is becoming very hens. If occasionally eggs are found without active of late, and this country is coming to shells, it is a proof that the food was unsuit- be a formidable rival of Denmark in the Eng- able or insufficient . The skin, which lies lish market. The Russian exportation of eggs beneath and against the shell, is composed of two extremely thin membranes, which are slightly sepa- rated from each other at the top of the egg. In the space between is air with much acid in it, for the use of the chick, as it forms. It sometimes happens that there are two )olks. The white of the egg is connected with the yolk by two threads, or con- duits, which conduct nourishment to the chick during the incubation period. A young hen will begin to lay when a year old. It is by that time provided by Nature with an ovary which contains the germs of no less than six hundred eggs. The laying diminishes after the fourth )ear. and is almost entirely finished by the sixth year ; the hen has then fulfilled her duty to Nature. But this is nut quick enough for breeders of the present day. Haste and hurry prevail even here, and artificial culture has enormously increased the number of chickens of supplanting Italy and Austria in supplying hatched daily and thus the production of eggs, the A PiiiAiiM \ 1 lr\ in igoi amounted in value to 353,920,000 rubles — in round numbers ^223,000,000, and it increases every year. Russia is already so strong in this particular that it is on the point trade in which appears to be illimitable. In reading the statistics of different countries we are astounded at the enormous demand for this product, and the supply does not keep pace with the demand. In the Netherlands, for instance, that small country which is by no means unsuited for the production of eggs, the deficit last year was seventy million. Denmark may serve as a model to the lesser countries in the raising of chickens. It exports yearly about four million dollars' worth ; and the husbandmen profit by it. other countries. IV 'RiT.A,' Lavincx and Brooding It goes without saying that many of those who keep fowls have no inten- tion of venturing upon the great markets of the world. So long as they raise eggs and chickens for their own consumption they are satisfied. Yet these small breeders and owners of poultry ought to be well informed as to the best methods of managing the inhabitants of their poultry yards. In the first place, they ought to know that hens when laying and brooding should, as far as possible. A Braekel Pullet Prize Winner 226 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS be left at liberty ; then, that thev must be fed, is well to give grain at this meal, because that in addition ti is the best known F"rench breed raised in the United States. Nothing but good can be said of it ; it has found ad- mirers the world over. These fowls come from the neighborhood of the town of Houdan. They ma\' be classed among the nesting fowls as well as among the decorative or "luxury" birds. They must be kept from dampness. When it rains, for instance, thev thp: gallinaceous tribes 235 they have two Httle horns, which give them a comical appearance. The usual color is black, although sometimes steel blue occurs, but the latter is rarely seen at shows. The hens of this breed are excellent layers. The cock Sll.XK K-l'ii.NCiLEu Wyandotte Hen should not be allowed outside the henhouse, because their enormous topknots retain so much water that diseases are sure to result. It is a very handsome fowl, with an alert air, black with white points, and its head adorned with a mag- nificent tuft, or topknot. They lay a great many large eggs, and furnish excellent roasts, which are much in demand at hotels and restaurants. The La FIccltc breed, also French, yields in a way to the Houdans. Instead of a topknot Silvek-Fenciii-ii \\\.\m>iiite Cock weighs about eight kilograms and the hen about six or seven ; thus they may be classed among the medium-sized breeds. The tiesh is white, like that of all French fowls. The Favcrollc, also of French origin, has a topknot, and a little above the beak two small Pautridge-Colored Wvandottes 236 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS horns protrude. It is a very good breed, hardy and proof against dampness. These birds are useful as well as decorative ; the\' are hand- some, and good layers. The chicks grow rapidly and are much in favor with dealers, who buy them small to fatten. The Minorca breed, originat- ing in the south of Europe, may be considered as one of the very best of layers. The eggs are large. The flesh, bitter and rather dr\-, is not as desir- able as that of the larger breeds ; therefore they are used chiefly as layers. Their production of eggs is enor- mous, but it takes place at a time when the market is well supplied and the prices low. It usually ceases in winter, unless the hens are given a warm Plymouth Rocks, 1 hey possess the same qual- ities, and differ only in the legs, which are red, and in the flesh, which is white in the former, whereas that of the buff Pl}mouth Rocks is yellowish. Also the latter are a little taller in the legs, and slimmer, the Orpingtons being coarser in shape. The Ply- mouth Rocks may be speckled, light yellow, or white. The breeding of speckled fowls often affords surprises. Some- times they turn out all black, with legs of another color. The Rocks bear a striking resem- blance to the Wyandottes, with this difference, — that while the latter have a double crest the Rocks have but one. The Cochin China fowls can without contradiction be ranked as a giant breed. When first house where they will not suffer from cold, imported from China into England such a which they cannot endure. To prevent their reputation came with them that the "hen with enormous crests from freezing, which happens the golden eggs" was supposed to be found; quickly, they should be covered with glycerin, but it was not long before poultry raisers found The Andaliisian breed is not popular in the that they had been mistaken or deceived. Since United States. It belongs, like the Minorca, to then they have been no longer valued as layers, Cocks' Combs .are \ Dainty FOR Ericures the medium-sized races, and the hens are valued exclusively for their eggs, which are numerou and constantly laid, thouL;h in winter their crests make them bad brooders. This species has but one color, — steel blue. The Orpingtons are the last novelty. They pos- sess many fine qualities and are the product of the crossing of several good breeds. The best are the Buff Orpingtons, which lay many large eggs and have excellent flesh. They Black Minorca Cock lilt merely as ornamental birds. They look very well in the poultry \ard, where they impose re- spect by their lordly bear- \ ing. The cocks attain a weight of ten or twelve pounds. The hens are poor layers and their eggs are small. They are, however, good sit- ters, though their weight often destroys the whole brood. When they have laid about fourteen or fifteen eggs they begin to sit. The flesh of these birds is not savory. The only thintr that can be said in their favor are to England what the Houdans are to France or what the Wyandottes are to is that when their colors are fine they are America. At first sight persons ignorant of magnificent birds and excite universal admira- poultry cannot tell the Orpingtons from the tion. THE GALLINACEOUS TRIBES 237 The Bmlmias are also ponderous, but they have many good qualities. They lay a great number of large eggs, and their flesh is very good to eat. The lighter form of Brahma is undeniably one of the hand- somest breeds in America to-day. Their keep is expensive, owing to their enormous size. The eggs are yellow and much in demand. The brood is smaller than that of the Cochin Chinas. They may be recom- mended to those who wish to have some- thing both useful and beautiful. The Speckled Mechlin, but little known in the United States, is also a heavy weight, but not more so than the Brahmas. The cock weighs usually ten pounds, the hen eight or nine. They are raised in great numbers in Belgium, in the neighborhood •11^ -«^^ A Fine Specimen of the Cochin-China Breed the legs are feathered and the comb may be either single or double. The Braekch, also a Belgian breed and like- wise but little known in the United States, are noted as fine layers. Though small themselves, they lay large eggs and are very good brooders. ,\ Tvi'icAL Lk.ht Hk.xhma Hen of Mechlin, and it is this breed that produces the celebrated fat Brussels pullets. The trade in these pullets is so large that some fatteners send two thousand weekly to other countries. The soup made from this breed is universally known. The hens are good layers in winter, and good brooders. Breeding for the markets begins in the months of October and Novem- ber, and brings in great profits. Fowls of the speckled variety are most in demand, although some white are raised. They e.xcite great interest at poultry shows, and in Belgium they have the place of honor. The cock is strong and rather coarse in conformation ; Plymouth Rock Hen 238 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS to perfection and acclimated in northern countries. The\' may be classed among the ver)' best laj'ers. The eggs are large and numerous, but the flesh, dry and bitter, is less good. Dutch breeds have begun of late to make for them- selves a rei)utation. Those called the Hamburg breed are among the best species. They are good layers ; the eggs are numerous, though small, and the hen will sometimes lay two a day. They can safely be kept in any inclosure without danger to the brood. It is not surprising that a hen with such good qualities should have admirers, and her presence at all poultrv shows increases the reputation she has made for herself. She White LEcanin.x ili..\ They require but little care, and will seek a maintenance for themselves. When three or four weeks old the cock crows with all his heart at break of day. The young cocks are fattened when si.\ or eight weeks old and are sold in the markets as pullets. Italian fowls are notorious because, through the enormous e.xportaticjn made an- nually, they have spread the well-known fowl diseases in other countries. Those which can become accustomed to the climate are excellent layers. The Lcglwnis, popular in the United States, are Italian fowls brought A Brahma Cock A Pair of Mechlin Coucous is not exacting, and can easily be raised in a town or city provided she is given dry quarters. In color she is either silvery or golden or black. Her eggs weigh a little less than two ounces each. The cock weighs five or six [pounds, the hen from three to five. They are not suitable for fattening. As their comb has nothing to fear from frost, the hens will la)' in winter if they have comfortable quarters. IX. Decorative Poultry As decorative poultry we must first name fighting cocks and the small breeds. Two species of fighting cocks should be noted — the large and the small breeds. The large come THE GALLINACEOUS TRIBES 239 chiefly from France and Belgium, and are brought thence to poultry shows, where the cocks will fight with one another if they can. Though forbidden by law, these cockfights are frequent, and the authorities pretend not to see them. If by chance the police arrive, a person previously designated allows himself to be arrested. Large sums are often staked in these fights. The care bestowed by owners on the belligerents is amazing. A cock of the fighting species is generally regarded and treated as a member of the family, and if he has won several victories he becomes a source of considerable revenue. The birds are sent by railway from place to place, and arrive on the scene of combat armed with sharp- ened spurs. It often happens that they kill their adversaries at the first blow. This is actual maltreatment of animals, and may be compared with Spanish bullfights. little A Lo\-i-;r of FifiHTs larger than a pigeon, though very tall upon the legs. They are pleasant to care for, taking room and being very gentle. They are of different colors and are usually raised by amateurs, appearing often at poultry shows. Besides these smaller combatants we must name the baiitains, which are of every color imaginable . They are often used to hatch the eggs of pheasants and partridges. They are also remarkable for laying many eggs of proportionate size. One of the finest of the dwarf breeds is the Soyciisc, or Negro, fowl. In place of feathers it is covered with long white hairs. These are superb ani- mals, used frequently for incubating pheasants. The name "Negro" comes from the fact that their skin is black. One of the handsomest of the decorative birds is the hooded Padnan fowl. It is of ordinary size and its whole value lies in its hof)d, or topknot. The larger and more tufted that is, the more chance the bird has of win- ning prizes at poultry shows. In poultry, nothing can be more magnificent than a collec- tion of Paduan fowls. They may be of all colors, Sm.\li, German Cock The other qualities of the fighting breeds are not many. They produce few eggs and their flesh is not worth much. Other belligerent breeds besides those of France and Belgium exist, such as the Brussels, the German, and the Mechlin. The latter are superb creatures, seen only at poultry shows. The small fighting cocks have the same form but are greatly reduced in size. They are not A Padu.ax Cock silvery, golden, buff, white, black, etc. The finest of the race is the White-Hooded Dutch Cock. He is all black excepting the hood, which 240 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS is snow white. A few, however, are slate colored raising of these hooded fowls is almost wholly or a steel blue. The egg production, which is in the hands of sporting breeders, who have only passable, does not. recommend them for time and means to spend upon it. 'if ■ '!' ' lli'l: 1' ML id ■l fill I.JI'I III i li J jr r M ) 1 \ "Isfz^ -•.^ A Dutch C(ick with Whitk T(ii'kn(jt general use. The Paduan fowls require very special care. If they are out in the rain the hood gets wet and it takes a long time to dry, which results frequently in diseases of the eye, etc. To have them always handsome and in good health they should be kept in a covered The Dutch Biu:uij " Zu.\lkl.\ki..\ " X. Diseases It is only within a few years that the diseases of [loultry have spread so widely. No doubt a bird died now and then, but the matter rested there ; epidemics were unknown. But since henhouse. To insure a beautiful appearance so much is written in the agricultural press, A DuT( II U(M K, ( ,riui>l'i:L I5keed A Silver Bkaekel He.\ A celebrated prize winner the hoods are carefully washed when the birds are sent to shows and fairs. The chicks are magazines, and poultry journals about the breed- hard to raise ; out of fifty only a few are hand- ing of the feathered tribes, fowls are more some or fit for exhibition. Consequently the closely observed and studied. Poultry yards THE GALLINACEOUS TRIBES 241 spring from the soil like mushrooms, only to disappear almost immediately. To what must we attribute this disappearance ? To disease and the imprudence of breeders. The countries that have suffered most from these diseases are Germany, parts of Belgium, and the Neth- erlands. So far, America has felt the scourge less than other lands, for the good reason that in importing fowls from other countries she has taken precaution to secure only the best and most healthy individuals. Disease may be controlled by keeping the poultry yards and houses extremely clean and by watching them incessantly, for vermin will make their appearance. It is easy to get rid of lice, the worst enemy of fowls, by rubbing their wings and hind quarters with petroleum. The birds must also be made to take sand baths. If lice are not attacked and conquered in time, great harm may result. Hens thus affected cease to lay, and will languish and die ; while the chicks, which suffer even more from this pest, will share the same fate if prompt and efficacious measures are not taken. When lice appear breeders sometimes think that they are dealing with another disease, space to discuss here the treatment of other maladies, but much will have been done to prevent or to cure them if the advice we have now given be followed. Many of the diseases A Hen with Young Ducklings are caused, and all are aggravated, by the presence of lice, and the surest way to keep poultry in good health is to fight the disease in the germ. One has only to take a walk through the markets of any large city to have an idea of the great proportions of the American poultry trade. XI. Ducks Every country has its specialty. Thus there are some in which the raising of ducks in vast numbers is practiced, and that in a veiy lucrative manner, because the supply never equals the demand. Breeders of ducks know well how to conform to circumstances, and as it is easy to dispose of ducklings that are from eight to twelve weeks old, they never let them grow a day older, A Ladder for the H.m'.ies j^s they can get no more profit by Photo J. T. Newman, Berkhampstead j^jj^g g^ -pj^jg businCSS is especially but inspection is sufficient to undeceive them, lucrative when done systematically with a good Cleanliness alone will save the breeders much breed in the neighborhood of large cities or loss and vexation. We have not sufficient towns, provided sufficient space can be had. ?42 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS ^^,-. ,r,^: -•••<;-> IxcLosL'Ki'; lOK Ducks Photo J. T. Newman, Berkhampstead It is not possible to keep ducks in coops or inclosures like fowls ; they prefer an open field with running water in it, where they are in their element. They do not need much food because they provide in a great measure for themselves. Far from being lazy, they are always waddling about to satisfy their gluttony. They eat anything, and are capital destroyers of snails and grubs. In the neighborhood of Oudenarde (eastern Flanders) more than a hundred thousand ducklings are raised annually. Breeding begins in November and ends in April. The land on which the ducklings are raised con- sists usually of fields belong- ing to the village, ox covimuiie, which allows pasturage for the young birds from November to April, after which time the fields are reserved for cattle. All de\'ote themselves to rais- ing ducks, and as it is some- times difficult for the owners to distinguish their birds, a brush of paint is found useful. Hence ducks may be seen in the markets with blue wings, green wings, etc. After quitting the eggs (wliich are generally hatched by hens, chiefly the speckled Mecklin hen) they are shut up for a few days and fed on soft food — wheat, barley, and oats ground \.\\> and mi.xed with hard-boiled egg. After this they are let out into the field and supplied Wn.D Ducks THE GALLINACEOUS TRIBES 243 Indian Runm.k I)h k> (.\1ai,I'. ami I k-mali:) with animal food, which is essential to their growth. The breeder puts on big wooden shoes and proceeds to kick up the earth in the field in order to force out the worms whicli form the animal food of the ducklings. It is very comical to those who are present at this performance for the first time to see these men hojjping about their fields. Most of the young ducks, as we have already said, are not kept longer than twelve weeks, because after that time it is diffi- cult to sell them on account of the new feathers which then begin to grow. To have well-fertilized eggs from the old ducks not more than six or eight should be given to one drake. They must also have sufficient water within reach, either flowing naturally through the field or in artificial ponds. In America we have special establishments for the raising of ducks, many of which raise twenty thousand yearly. For this it is neces- sary to have great knowledge and experience, and also a large capital. Most duck-raising establishments are provided with a natural flow of water, and have coops or shelters accom- modating from forty to fifty birds. As these establishments are of great e.xtent many of them are furnished, for convenience, with little railways built four or five feet above the soil, which cause an enormous savintr of time and Si'ICEU trouble in the distribution of food. As yet Europe has no such establishments as ours. She will doubtless have them some day when her attention is called to them and she makes a special study of their advantages. It is easier to raise ducks than fowls, pro- vided the breeder has sufficient space at his command. They give less trouble and are al- most completely free from disease. Those most frequently met with are the Komii duck, a product of French breeders, which may, by good right, be considered one of the very best species. They are often admired in their full beauty at poultry shows, to which they are sent in large numbers. They are not only beautiful birds but also fine layers, and the same may be said of another French duck, the Toulouse. Good ducks are found in Belgium, where they are taking pains to make their national breeds famous. In England the duck par cxcclhnce is the Aylesbury, which has made itself famous for its good qualities. It is very hardy, grows very fast, and lays man\' eggs. There is no poultry show in any country where it will not l)e seen, and the impression it makes is most agreeable, with its white plumage, red beak, and yel- low legs. The Pckin duck, which the uninitiated can seldom distingLiish from the Aylesbury duck, has also made itself a reputa- tion for its excellence ; as far as popularity is concerned it untloubtedly occupies a foremost '_1-IL >i^-\!r Muscovv Ducks (Male and Female) 244 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS position. In the United States a larger num- ber of white Pekin ducks are raised for market than of any other breed. If there is a species that has rapidly made itself a world-wide reputation, it is the duck of India. Not long ago this breed was completely unknown to us, and now it is offered for sale in every poultry journal in every land. It is one of the most fertile of ducks, laying from 150 til 160 eggs a year. It is also very good XII. Geese The breeding of geese is far from being general. Like that of ducks, it is done on a large scale only in certain countries. Fanciers raise a few, but only for the purpose of send- ing them to shows. Here and there a few large farms have attempted to raise them, gi\-ing it up after a time as unproductive. Breeding on a large scale is practiced only in the south of France, near Toulouse, in the Geesi; fattening for the Market Photo J. T. Newman, Berkhampstead for the table, its flesh being extremely delicate. It is very active and can fly far. These birds have no absolute need of water ; they prefer to roam the meadows and fields in search of worms and other grubs. Various species of decorative ducks e.xist ; of these the Madeiras and the Carolinas are the most beautiful. They are usually kept in aviaries and zoological gardens. The wild ducks of the mountains and the fens are very beautiful in plumage, but they cannot be classed as domestic animals. south of Belgium, in the east of Prussia, in Italy, and in Russia, all of which supply the markets of other countries. Russia especially inundates the German markets. The business is very productive because the feeding of geese costs nothing. A goose needs no other food than grass, which it finds in sufficient quantity on the vast steppes of Russia. The goose girl goes to the fields every morning with her flock, returning at night to the village. If geese had to be fed on grain it would not pay to raise them ; the expense would THE GALLINACEOUS TRIBES 245 be greater than the price re- ceived for them. It is onl\- during the first three or four weeks that it is advisable to give the goslings a little ground grain, carefully mixed. The eggs must be hatched not by geese but by turkeys or large fowls. To have eggs well fertilized the geese must li\c near a pond or running water. The gander should not be less than two years old nor ha\c more than four geese with him. Though geese are very hardy and cold has little influ- ence up(jn them, it is well to give them a com- fortable home. A shed can be made with a few Till-: Arrival 64 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS guests put sunshine and good humor into a family; a taste for birds gives useful occupa- tion, their management a healthy habit, and though we must keep them caged, they are the liveliest and often the most welcome members The Norwich Canary of the household. The most popular among them is, of course, the canarw I. The Canary Though we keep canaries especially for their song, they are also raised for their color ; in fact, they may be called the jewels of the aviary. The ancestor of our tamed canary (Scriniis caiiariiis), which belongs to the finch family, is not handsome, neither are his de- scendants unless the wit and art of man invent improvements. The wild canary has a greenish- }ello\v body with gray tail and wings. He is still to be seen in great numbers in the Canary Islands, in Madeira, and at St. Helena, whence they are sent to England to propagate. When the Canary Islands were conquered in 1478, great numbers were carried over into Spain, and from there they spread through Europe. They became the favorite pets of women, and in many of the ancient pictures (Gian Bellini's, for example) we see them perch- ing in some corner, or perhaps on a lady's finger. Tyrol and the country about Innsbruck were especially active in the propagation of these little songsters, sending them into Germany and Austria. The Netherlands, long under the rule of Spain, had its share of this trade ; in fact, towards the end of the sixteenth century it raised a special breed of its own. Before inquiring how these little creatures content themselves with the house and food offered to them by man, let us see how they manage for them- selves in their wild state. Like so many other birds, they build their nests in hidden places, but as these nests are never very high from the ground, it is easy to discover them. They choose young, slender trees. The shape of the nest is round, very wide at the base and very nar- row at the top. Some naturalists say that canaries make these nests of vegetable down and any soft substances found here and there rather than of twigs and spears of grass. The hen bird lays an egg every day until she has five. These eggs of the wild canary are a pale sea-green with small maroon or black spots, which nearly always collect in a circle at one end. The egg of the tame canary does not differ from that of the wild bird except that it is more nearly round. After thirteen days of incubation and thirteen days more in the nest the young birds are able to fly, but their parents feed them for some time longer on seeds of grasses and the soft flesh of figs. The wild canary delights in baths, which should therefore be amply supplied to his tame descendant. THE BIRDS OF THE AVIARY 265 II. Cages Leaving aside for the time being the aviary properly so called, the advice that here follows on the lodging of birds in our houses applies as much to all small caged birds as to canaries. The cage, considered as a furnished home, is often un- suitable, and therefore injuri- ous, to its inhabitant. For a single bird it ought to be at least eighteen inches long and eighteen inches high, while the width should be fifteen inches. Round cages, though very pretty and easily suspended, are not so desirable as square or oblong ones. Birds in round cages are subject to vertigo and are not sheltered A Norwich Can.\rv with Hood Cage for Sm.\li. Birds Very practical in details from currents of air ; neither do they ever have a tranquil space before their eyes, as they might were the square cage placed against a wall. Metal cages are very good in the matter of cleanliness, but they have the great fault of getting rusty from the splash- ing of the bird in its bath. Wooden cages, varnished out- side and carefully lacquered with white enamel inside, are the best. They should be thoroughly cleaned at least once a week or lice will con- ereeate in the corners and holes and thus become a real pest. This misfortune can be prevented by an occasional coat of fresh lacquer. It is wrong to put polished bamboo perches or any round wooden perches in these cages ; they should always be semi-oval, as a mere glance at 266 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS A Norwich Canary avith Gray Hikjh a canary on a perch will show. These perches should be easily removable and should be taken out often and cleaned or seeds, husks, and all sorts of dirt will collect upon them and will therefore become wedged be- tween the toes of the bird, which finally prefers the bot- tom of the cage to the perch which his owner does not clean, and the latter then sup- poses that the bird is ill ! As to the accessories, — seedboxes, water troughs, bath tubs, nests, etc., — the)' come in great variety. The essential thing is that thev be convenient to use with safety and easily kept clean. Cages have a great influence on a fine song bird. The canaries of the Hartz Mountains will trill their highest notes in their little travel- ing cages, while the\" nften lose their charm in a more lu.xurious home. Some breeders and dealers make use of specialh- con- structed cages to induce their birds to sing; occasionally the birds are kept entirely in the shade to correct a shrill or piercing note. III. The Song of Birds This song is the subject of serious study to breeders, for the song of a young canary (if good origin can be improved and per- fected. It is interesting to see the results obtained by the Hartz breeders. There is much diversity of taste among the purchasers rif birds. Some desire a loud song, with long trills and high notes; others ]5refer soft warbling, clear crj-stalline rou- lades, and flutelike tones There are certain faults, however, that all dislike ; as, for in- stance, when the bird suddenly interrupts a beautiful roulade by uttering a short, brusque chap-chap or tsi-tsi. To correct such faults and to improve the song of the canar\-, adapting it to the taste of the day, is not an easy task for the breeder; but the breeding and training of singing canaries will always remain a source of great revenue. Thousands are exported annually from Mount Saint-Andre alone (in the Hartz Mountains), bringing in a revenue of from seventy-five to ■ ^^^1 ^^^SHN Hr^ ''-s^l^^i^HH^^Hi^B ■ ■^9^3^'^^^'^^^^^nBG^^Bi^MHi ^1 HhhHH ^"cll'^■G TnKrsHF.s THE BIRDS OF THE AVIARY 26: -"fl'j^' ?»»!v.'5»*/ ■ eighty thousand dollars. The best singers (that is to say, the best males) are carefully kept from hearing the notes of the other birds; for it often happens that very good song- sters will borrow the false or less beautiful notes of their congeners. The great breeders always keep a certain number of their finest singers as models, and from these they make cross- ings, which is an art that re- quires a special talent. The results obtained may be re- garded as among the greatest victories in the domain of the education of animals. At the end of eight or ten months the song has acquired its full power, and the forgets, and then the trainer bird is placed canary knows several airs, which he sometimes him to refresh his memory. It is on record some birds, few perhaps, have been cessfuUv taught to utter words. The Red Beno.^l Finch near that suc- An English C-asarv with Hood IV. Food .wd Care to be given TO C.ANARIES Rape seed and hemp seed, universally known, may serve as the principal food of canaries. They may, without injur)-, be made the sole food, if of good qualit)- ; but unfortunately they are apt to be adulter- ated with all sorts of impurities, among others charlock, or wild mustard, which is very injurious to birds. A little fla.xseed is excellent from time to time for all birds of the finch tribe. It fattens them, and they eat it with pleasure ; it ought to be given crushed. Millet, salad seed, and oats may also be given. The birds are not very fond of these seeds, but millet will fatten them. Besides this seed food, young canaries should have hens' eggs, boiled hard, finely puh-erized, and mi.xed with bread crumbs ; this gives excellent results. There are as many recipes for this egg food as there are breeders. It is absurd to disapprove of 268 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS one mixture and praise another, because the results depend on the birds and on circum- stances. It is the same with green food, which The Tricolok Canary some breeders think injurious and others up- hold. It is advisable, however, to give the birds, now and then, a salad leaf, provided it is not too wet and has not been in the salad bowl. A single canary in a house does not require a great deal of care. Cleanliness is the great thing ; intelligent observation of the bird will teach the rest. The cleanliness of the cage requires a layer of sand, not too fine, because it might fly up under the bird's wings and irritate him. The bath tub should be kept full of clean water, and if the bird suffers from \ermin, a bit of quassia wood put into the water will help to free him from them. As to the cleanliness of the bird itself (especially if about to be sent to an e.xhibition), it is necessary that the owner should wash it, which is by no means an easy thing to do. Here is some advice on the best manner of procedure. First, warm the room and see that it is quiet, with no danger of incursions of children or animals. Take three clean, shallow basins and fill one with warm water. Suspend an empty cage, which has been thoroughly cleansed, near a stove or fire. Lay a piece of soft flannel on the floor of it. The two other basins should be placed beside the first and filled with boiling water. After putting a trifle of soda in the first basin, take the bird quietly but quickly in the left hand. Let him be on the palm of the hand, covering him with the thumb if he attempts to beat his wings (which seldom happens). Then dip him up to the head in the first basin ; with the right hand take a soaped sponge, plunge it into the second basin of hot water, and pro- ceed to wash the bird quickly, tak- ing care to spread the wings and to touch every feather (except those of the head) in the direction in which they naturally lie. When all dirt has been removed wash the head very cautiously but without soap. Too much care cannot be taken to guard the eyes, which the bird will close instinctively. After this the third basin of hot water must be used to rinse him off. The essential thing is to hold him firmly, for if he escapes before he is perfectly The Gray Wagtail dry, the consequences may be fatal. When all the washing is well over, the bird must be prop- erly dried. It is then very difficult to hold him THE BIRDS OF THE AVIARY 269 TiiK Toilet of a Canary FOR THF ExFosrnox First he should be carefully rubbed down the is not advisable for the owner of a single canary back, breast, and head with a soft towel. Then to employ the Cayenne remedy, because in our the wings must be dried with even more caution, being carefully rubbed always in their natural direction, after which the bird must be laid safe and sound, but slil rather damp, on the flannc which has been spread on the floor of the cage Though he will seem to be half dead, he is in reality full of life, and if he is left quietly to himself in some place carefully pro tected from drafts, he will recover from his fright in a few hours and be as gay as cvei. A canary well cared for is a pleasure to the eye ; yet even those most carefully treated have to pass through a period, which they cannot evade, when they are far from being charming to be- hold. We mean, of course, the molting period. This phenomenon, which takes place every year, cannot be called a disease, though many birds die of it. As temperature has a great influence on the duration of the molt, the birds should be kept warm in some quiet, tranquil place ; the washings must cease ; and as for food, more egg should be given and more seed and bread, but no hemp. It is well to put a bit of apple or cooked carrot between the bars of the cage, but no green food should be given. For young birds this is a very try- ing period ; in fact, the influence of the molt is so great that some prom- ising young songsters never fully recover their powers. It is the cus- tom among breeders in England and the United States to give the molting birds a mixture of hard-boiled egg, biscuit, and Cayenne pepper. At first they refuse this stinging delicacy, but after a few days they become extravagantly fond of it. It day it is difficult to obtain it unadulterated, and he risks poisoning his pet with some deleterious substance masquerading as Cayenne pepper. V. Incubation l-'or the incubation of , the eggs of canaries and of other small house birds, a hatch- ing cage should be provided, — one closed on three sides, — as large as possible, and so arranged that a nest can be easily sus- pendcil in it. This nest should not be made with too much art. It should be about two and a half or three inches deep and should consist chiefly of a solid pouch suspended from the roof. If it suits the female she will know, when the pro])er time comes, how to line it with threads, moss, lint, bits of grass, etc., which must be slipped between the bars of the cage. She Dry ^VITH Care ! usually lays her eggs early in the morning, — one a day for five or perhaps six days, though it often happens that she lays only three or four. 270 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS The Arkkst hv a Fugitive The eggs of the canary are soft gray hi color, with dark red or black specks at one end. Thirteen days after the last egg is laid the young canaries may be expected. When the mother is well settled on her eggs, the male bird becomes very busv in feeding her. It is necessary to see that all dirt, impurities, and damp sand are promptly re- moved from the cage, or the feet of the mother, who some- times quits the nest for a very short time, may carry it among the fledglings and cause their death. The behavior of the female canary and of other female birds differs \'ery much. Some cannot be drixen from the nest ; others will always go off and swing upon their [lerches if an\- one goes near the cage. It is imprudent to examine the eggs continually, and jjatience cannot be too earnestly recommended to young breeders. As soon as the little ones are hatched the same caution need not be observed. Both the qualit_\- and quantity of their food must be attended to, for it is not always as good and as regularl}- pro- \ided as one would naturally expect from a well- bred mother. The food of both parents ought ,€*, The Woodpecker THE BIRDS OF THE AVLARY 271 to be very abundant during this period and color, which she endeavors to render as elegant should consist chiefly of eggs. If it is evident and peculiar as possible. As the canary readily that the little ones are not receiving enough, allows itself to be mated with other species, they must be fed with tiny crumbs of egg given a great variety of bastard breeds of many colors on a bit of blunt wood. It is very easy to see has been obtained. whether they have a good 1 — — - mother or not. If properly j \. fed, their growth will be visi- • ■" ble from day to day. Their breasts should be full, their bodies round, and they should look very lively. If their de- velopment stops, they must be fed with hens' eggs, hard boiled, which is not difficult to do, for young canaries, like all other young birds, open their mouths very wide. At the end of fifteen days the nest ought to be changed for a larger one, because the young birds are then begin- ning to beat and flutter their wings and need more room. At the end of si.x weeks they should be sepa rated from their parents OuK Friend the Sr.-VRnow The canaries of the different countries — French, German, and English — can be dis- Of course much more work is to be done tinguished by their shape and song. The in the great establishments where the breedin and raising of canaries is made a business. So many things must be thought of and attended to that special works and manuals on the subject are issued Our a d \- i c e is in tended, as we saic in the beginning for those who wish to tend and rear these little songsters in their homes VI. V.A,RiETiES OF Birds In enumerating the principal .^.„^.^,^, ^, , „.,^„ j^, ,,.^ hkao species of the canary we ought ^^^^ g^uE ,\nu Black Belly to remark that while Germany _ _ and the other continental countries of Europe found in Holland, though varieties of it e.xist devote themselves to raising gis<:mm!i-::.:.^--.t:.:ic:mAm. < = U " PS a C 27.S OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS The Linnet flame-colored prisoner in dark green chambers, who has only to be seen or heard and Death adjusts an arrow ! . . He will sit for a long time in the heart of a cedar, as if absorbed in the tragic memories of his race. Then, softly, wearily, he will call out to you and to the whole world : Peaci' . . Peace . . . Pence . . . Peace . . . Peace . . . ! the most melodious sigh that ever issued from the clefts of a dungeon. The bnnon tltrashcr (Har- porhynchiis nifiis), called alsn brown thrush and brown mocking bird, is one of those perennial joyous singers that bring delight to every one. Who of us does not remem- ber these lines .■' There "s a merr}- brown thrush sitting up in a tree ; He is singing to me I he is sing- ing to me 1 And what does he say little girl, little boy ? " Oh, the world 's running over with joy ! " This gladsome singer is at home anywhere, either on a branch where he swings like a pendulum, or on the groimd where he is constantly twitching, wag- ging, or thrashing his tail about in the must ludicrous fashion as he feeds on the ground — dieting upon worms, insects, and fruits. The 11/ oc king bird, commonly known in this country as a cage bird, is the MivtJts polyglottus. As a cage, bird he retains his nocturnal habits, often singing and fluttering in the night. He is quite a tease also, for there is scarcely a sound, whether made by bird or beast about him, that he cannot imitate so clearly as to deceive every one but himself. There is no songster in America or in all the world that is so rich and tender in its song. The bird is an ornament to all aviaries, where his whistle and his melodious song may be heard all da}-. But some of his brightness is too apt to disappear in cajnivity, which is usually the case with captive birds of all kinds. The birds belonging to the Troglodytidac — the brown thrashers, catbirds, mocking birds — as a general thing are greedy, and scrupulous The Duti h Bui-I-FIn-ch THE BIRDS OF THE AVIARY 279 care must be given to the quantity of food that is provided for them when placed in captivity. The linnet called "Little Pope" {Fringilla linaria) is distinguishable from the one called " Little Brother" (F. viontium) by a black patch on the chin and a red skull, both birds being of a fine reddish brown. Though they do not sing, they have their place in the aviary, where their colors give infinite pleasure. In Germany it was formerly the fashion, as it still is elsewhere, to have competitions of singing birds, for which breeders were in the habit of putting out the of violet-brown specks. The bird can be taught all sorts of tunes, provided respect is paid to his caprices ; that is to say, the same gestures, the same flatteries, the same little coaxing words, must be used, and even the same coat should be worn when the lessons are given ! Well- taught bullfinches are worth their weight in gold. A great trade in them is carried on by the poorer classes of Thuringia. From the zoological point of view thejc/Zow- liannncr or biniting (Embcriza citrinclld) is a link between the finch and the lark. In its wild # ^r -s, .. 'rf B' '\^i ^>.:# n The String W.act.ail eyes of the shyest species with the false and cruel idea that blindness improved their song. The bullfinch is a queer fellow in an aviary, and full of self-importance in a cage. Still it is easy to keep him in captivity and to raise his young. He is very nervous, it is true, and he flutters about continually ; but if we once know his peculiar tastes (all finches differ materially in their choice of food), these birds with their beautiful colors are easy to raise and well worth their price. They rival many of the tropical birds in color. The bullfinch of the north of Europe (Pyirhitla vulgaris) is much larger than the bullfinch of this country. The eggs are greenish blue, with a little circle state it lives among reeds, and is more or less squat in figure. Thanks to its beautiful yellow color and its \ery soft, melodious whistle, it is very acceptable in the aviary, though in captiv- it\- it is apt to lose one or both of its gifts. The yellow^-hammcr {Colaptcs auratits) is not often caged, and belongs to the woodpecker family. The species called the %vagtails (Motacilla) are the agriculturists among smaller birds, especially across the water. They follow the plowman along the furrows, and will even jump between the legs of the horses. And yet, though very eager, they are shy and alert. They are constantly wagging their heads and tails ; hence their name. Though the \ellow 28o OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS The Lark wagtail is an ornament to the aviary, the same cannot be said of the white species, which man is not allowed to catch in most countries. The bnnvii lark [Antlius pcnnsylvauicus) is found throughout North America, but is accidental in Europe. People say that the lark is well fitted for cage life simply because they want to enjoy its ravishing song. This is not so. Of all the birds of heaven it should be free ; only then can the full beauty of its song be known. Hail to thee, blithe spirit! Bird thou never wert, That from heaven, or near it, Pourest thy full heart In profu.se strains of unpremeditated art. Teach me half the gladness That thy soul must know, Such harmonious madness From my lips would flow. The world would listen then as 1 am listening now. The spring without larks is no spring at all, and though they make their nests close to the ground they rise very high in the air to announce triumphantly the day's re- newal. But sweetest of all is it to hear them in the open country when " the pale purple evening melts around their flight." Those who choose may keep them many years in cages if fed on seeds, verdure of various kinds, and roots, with plenty of sand or turf on the floor of the cage. The songsters and whistlers that we have now mentioned will not begin to fill an aviary. But how can we describe in this limited space the numerous e.xotic birds that ought to be in it ? We cannot even enumerate them, but must pass to their larger comrades, the parrots and cockatoos. VIII. Parrots and Cockatoos The first recorded informa- tion that we have about par- rots is in a description of a festival given at Alexandria in Egypt two hun- dred and eighty-four years before Christ. In the reign of Alexander the Great they were brought from Egypt to Greece. In Rome they were articles of luxury, exchanged sometimes for a slave. The cooked heads of parrots made a feast for Heliogabalus and his lions, who re- ceived their share, as they likewise did of The GOLDFtxcH Frum A paslel by Jan van Oort THE BIRDS OF THE AVIARY 281 peacocks. In the present day parrot soup is the choice dish of Cuba. , A parrot was seen for the first time in Eng- land in 1504; and in 1704 there appeared in Amsterdam a parrot of a species still very rare, the black parrot of Neiv Guinea. Nowadays the parrot is universally known and esteemed as a house bird, because his sociable humor and his gift of speech, together with the inter- est he takes in the members of the household and their doings, make him really very amusing The \\a\ V I'.aroquet and interesting. In aviaries the various exist- ing species, of which many have a truly Oriental magnificence of color, are a joy to the eye, and form a brilliant collection that can hardly be surpassed. The innumerable species now acclimated and bred in many countries are difficult to describe with precision. We know the principal species to be the gray parrot., or jako {PsittacHS crithacns), with its astonishing facility in speech, the gray Amazon with yellow head and blue forehead, very popular in seaports, the cock- atoo with the great curved beak, the pink cockatoo of un- certain temper, but cheap, the white-tufted species, and that with a yellow tuft. M^^^^H ^M^^' u 1 Gr.AV I'.AKnOl'lCT, OR Pdl-L PaKKOT Among the smaller parrots with long tails is the A'eu' Holland{Psittacns iXovae Hollandiae), a very beautiful aviary bird which is particularly easy to feed. All the smaller parrots are espe- cially suited to aviaries, which they fill with gayety and color. The undulated parrot {Psitta- cus undulatus), so called, can be bought very cheap ; since Gould imported them into Europe ^m H ■ S!^^^^ ■ -1 ^j/ Yj 01^-^ . 5Bl w 1 ^ f V i r pi^!^""^ Li 1 * WjB The Green I'aroouet 282 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS The Stari.txg in 1840 they have spread far and near. They are generally green, but other species are raised which are very handsome, among them the whites and the blues. They are made to hatch (as do most of the parrot race) in closet nests, because in the natural state they raise their young in hollows. If persons have but one parrot, it is best not to use the traditional round cage, but a square one with a flat roof. It is not at all necessary that the perches should be of metal. It is true that the birds take delight in gnawing wooden ones, but what of that ? When the perches fly into splinters new ones can be inserted, and, in any case, parrots must be sup- plied with bits of wood. They must also have plenty of sand and rust is as bad for them as for other birds. Then why use brass cages ? The larger species should be fed with rice, Indian corn, and hemp ; the smaller ones with canary seed and oats. Parrots surely mark the limit of the various races that may still be reckoned among domes- tic animals. Other species of decorative birds A Tr.-mxed Crow are found in aviaries, where, bred and brought up in captiv- ity, they know no other home than that with man. Among them are pheasants, peacocks, and certain gallinaceous fowls that are never fully tamed. But can these be termed domestic animals .' For the pheasant of our woods, the wild bird we hunt, the answer must certainly be in the negative. Among the decorative pheasants, kept for their beauty, the best known are the ffohicii plicasant (Tliau- jiialca pitta), very difficult to raise, and the diauiond, coppci\ and silver plicasauts, and all of these are brilliant in color, quick in their movements, and very self-conscious in manner. Peacocks were once the great adornment of parks and country houses, and the cool tints of their displayed plumage had an indescrib- able charm and beauty. The common peacock (Pavo crislatiis) is either of a metallic green- ish blue or wholly white. The well-known ostentatious parading of the cock before the hen and his coquettish hops and jumps are curious to behold. Other birds are disturbed by them and will not have any- \ thing to do with these proud, self-conscious denizens of the poultry yard and shrub- beries, but will wander away i from them outside of the park, if permitted, thinking rj/ their own thoughts on the J^l subject. *: Neither the croic nor the niag- a<4l^ pie nor the starling is admitted into the aviaiy for lack of brilliant color ; \ct they are much nearer to being domestic animals than the pheas- ant or the peacock. The crow, especially, allows himself to be taught and trained, while great amusement can be got out of the starling when his true value is appreciated. He can whistle, THE BIRDS OF THE AVIARY '-83 croak, and talk for the pleasure of young and old, and he is one of the chief delights of many a cottage home. The magpie, given to scoffing, and addicted to strange, improper expressions which he picks up here and there, is not a very comfortable creature near a house ; he will even peck his master with his sharp beak, and, like the crow, steals every sparkling thing he sees, from a pair of scissors to a diamond ring. Much cau- tion must be shown in the feeding of these birds. They need raw meat, but if too much is given their naturally bad temper grows worse. From remote times the crow has pla\-ed a great part among peoples and popular beliefs. In Germany, when he flies in a circle it is thought to be a sign of war. Crows live in couples, and it sel- dom happens that they flock together, although it is said that they assemble in Iceland in the autumn to decide where each couple is to settle. The magpies were formerly thought to be birds of ill omen. They brought disaster to the houses they flew over, and if nine gathered together one of them was sure to be a witch. Peacock's feathers, but not the bird itself, are still held to bring trouble to the household. These birds are very long-lived, usually living from twenty to twenty-four years ; but crows and rooks, especially rooks, are believed to e.xist for two centuries. The Crow and thh Rook XII PIGEONS I. In Past and Present Times Though the pi^foii comes at the end of this work, and consequently after many other of our domestic animals, both quadrupeds and bipeds, it is not because it is less worthy of esteem. Unlike the gallinaceous tribes, the pigeon, by its docility and its readiness to approach man, is a better domestic animal in the literal sense of the word than most of our other feathered friends. Yet the pigeon has a quality that enables him, whenever he chooses, to break off instantly, and with far more ease than our other domestic birds, the ties of friendship that unite him to house and family. He can fly with a rapidity and to a distance unat- tainable by man — so long as the science of bal- looning is in its infancy. It is difficult to say when the pigeon was first known as a domestic animal. We know for certain that he was such in prehis- toric times, so that his taming must date back to the youth of our planet. All pigeon races descend from a wild pigeon still existing, the rock pigeon, called also the wood pigeon, or ringdove. This species is spread throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa ; but it is found especially, and in vast numbers, among the islands of the tropical seas. In view of the incredible variety of species, it is almost incom- prehensible how they could all have come from one stock ; yet the fact was proved by Darwin. The earliest mention of tamed pigeons is, according to Professor Lepsius, the famous Egyptologist, during the period of the Third Dynasty ; consequently, three thousand years before Christ. The Dr.\gox Pigeon The wild pigeon is noted for its very bad nests. Legend says that, finding it impossible to make a good one, and seeing the skill with which the magpie made hers, he asked her to be so good as to give him lessons. The mag- pie consented to this on condition that the pigeon should give her a cow. The pigeon agreed ; but after watching the magpie a few moments he said he had learned enough, and refused to keep his promise. A judge was sum- moned, and having decided that the pigeon had no right to receive further instruction, the latter has, ever since, made shock- ingly bad nests. Tame pigeons, so frequent in Greece since the end of the fifth century before Christ, were long before that held sacred in the countries of Asia. They were kept in great flocks around the temples of Aphro- dite, and in S}'ria no one dared to lay hands on them. They first came to Europe through Italy, where great numbers of white and colored doN'es were kept around the temple of Eryx in Sicily. From Italy they spread through Europe, following the power and civilization of the Romans. Christianity adopted them as its symbol, while popular belief regarded the white dove as the bearer of souls to heaven, and feared his colored brother, the rock pigeon, as a bird of ill omen. In Venice, that semi-Greek city, clouds of pigeons still inhabit the cupola of the church of San Marco and the roof of the Doges' palace, and woe to him who tries to catch or to harm them ! Nevertheless, in spite of these honors and of the affection he inspires, the pigeon has 284 o o < J o 'A w z o u o o o ?; o H U W ►J ■J O U 286 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS much esteemed as the fowl or the other denizens of the poultry yard, II. The Domestic Pigeon The domestic pigeon, as it moves about in perfect liberty, presents a slender but not thin body, with no shyness or timidity in its movements. There is, in fact, some- thing massive and assured in its approach, small as it is. Its brilliant colors — blue, gray, white, or brown — charm the e\'e ; its decided step, its solid legs (though agile and touching the earth lightly), and its sudden flights, with heavy beat of wing, distinguish it from all other birds when in the vicinity of man. Thanks to its piercing sight, it can distinguish at great distances a seed or a pea, which it picks up daintil)', never scratching the soil like hens. If we watch the pigeon in his flight we shall learn many things about the manner in which he turns in circles and cur\-es, resting on his outspread wings ; and it is not surprising that those who call them- selves the " pioneers of aeronautics " should have gone to the school of pigeons to learn how to fly quickly and gracefully. The keenness of the pigeon's eye and his rapid motions are really the only means of defense on which he can rely. His beak is not sharp enough to hght with, and his claws are of no use at all. The rapidity of his flight alone enables him to escape the enemy whom his sharp eyes ha\'e quickly discov- ered. It is remarkable that the pigeon's eggs are not of a color that protects them, being always a pure white. It is true, how- ever, that the ringdove usually deposits her eggs in such inaccessible places that wild creatures and birds of prey find it difficult to reach them. III. Abode, Food, and Treatment Like all other domestic animals bred for pleasure or utility, pigeons require cleanli- never attained in Europe or America the com- ness, and the condition of their dovecote must mercial and agricultural importance of the gal- be watched incessantly. Whether large or small, linaceous birds. Yet as food he is at least as simple or artistic, it must, in the first place, not Common Domestic Piceons PIGEONS 287 be too low; then it must have several openings to the south and east ; it should not be made wholly of wood, nor should it be difficult of access to the owner. It is of little consequence whether it be raised in a corner of the garden, or on the roof, or in some angle of the house. A cement floor, partitions also of cement, and an absolutely tight roof cannot be too urgently recommended for a dovecote of any dimensions. The floor should be covered with a layer of sand (not ton fine), and if there are man\ pigeons in the same compart- ment, partitions must be so arranged as to prevent couples from fighting before the open- ings of these compartments. The older the pigeons grow the less chance there is of such combats. As for nests, they can be made of all sorts of artificial things, and are quite cheap. In a good pigeon house it should be easy to remove nests, perches, doors, etc., in order to make a thorough cleaning every fortnight and so prevent vermin, which do so much harm. The parti- tions should be whitewashed now and then, and frequent use should be made of some insecticide powder. As for food, every breeder has his own opinion. Beans, peas, corn, a mi.xed diet of potatoes, oats, barley, and, for a dainty, hemp seed, each and all give variety to pigeon food ; but the pigeon himself will peck at many other things when he flies away, and will be the better for it. In any case it is neces- sary to be regular in the distribution of food, and to renew daily the ample supply of drinking water. Nor should baths be forgotten, without which no healthy pigeon will ever feel at home. The male bird builds the nest himself, and when the female has laid two eggs she begins to brood. The male takes her place now and then, but not for long. The first young pigeon issues from the egg from the sixteenth to the nineteenth day, completely blind and helpless. .\ I'liKM K 111- riu; (;.\rii7:n Its first food is a sort of broth secreted in the crop of its parents ; and it requires great care, as much from the male and female birds as from the owners. IV. Some Species Before naming some of the more beautiful species presented to us by the rich family of PIGEONS 289 and white have their turn. But what variety in each of them ! What bUies, for instance, from light to dark, gray blue, purple blue, silvery blue, etc. ! And yellow contributes also to stripe, spot, and ring, with a \arietv of shades tliat amaze those who .\ Loft or t am \ I'k.i ii\:- pigeons, it is well to refer to the commoner kinds, — the ringdove, wood pigeon or cushat, the turtledove, and the laughing dove. The first is found wherever fir trees grow. It is bluish gray, with two white rings around its neck. The second, the turtledove, is rather smaller, brownish gray in color, and the rings, four in number, are black with white edges. The third, or laughing dove, is a species of turtledove liv- ing in the sandy deserts of eastern Africa and taking the color of the sand. As for the color of pigeons in general, blue, black, red, gray, yellow. TlUi CXKRHIR PiGEO.V undertake to distinguish breeds and species. White also plays an important part. Some- times the head is all white, or merely the breast, wings, neck, or tail, as in the capuchin pigeon. Let us begin a very limited list with pigeons of a single color and mention, first, the beautiful m .«<£'''> 1 ..-,.., .-.-^_^.^.^=-^:ga^v^ ^^^ . . ' — *^- ^-s^ .-If..' m ^^B ^'> /i'^ .Jn..^ ■' ^^^m 1 ^r^f"^ •?:v>^ _. ..' '.. .'. - ^^ i^i "1 1 1 .Lmk Zrl-r-; ftJ_.'"' ■ ■■. WH f m * - " y 0- - > . SCOTI 11 Pl(,Kf)NS 290 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS zvJiite dragon, for instance, and the vioiidaiii angles, make a somersault, sometimes two, and pigeon, of a light blue powdered with a white soar again, describing curves and circles in the tint of marvelous beaut)-, making the tip of each air ; then suddenly they drop to earth in almost feather look as though it were touched with hoarfrost. The eyes of this breed are dark brown, the shade of which varies, as in all pigeons, according to the darker or lighter tint of the body feathers. The cream color of the spectacled pigeon is also very beautiful. This bird usually has a dark brown design on its breast resembling a pair of spectacles. A like design appears on the /(?/•/■ pigeon, called also the Cob nig pigeon. The Polish pigeon is usually black, though some are blue o speckled. The sta rling-necked pigeons are much in demand in Germany, where they have smo(jth shining heads, while English breeders prefer them with tufts or hoods. They are dark blue bordering on black, with a metal- lic luster and a white half-moon upon the breast. The capuchin pigeon has a white hood and tail, and as he is also supplied with a species of dark tuft on his forehead (some- times two) he presents a very singular appear- ance. The jiiagtiie pigeons also have white hoods and wings ; so have the swallow pigeons, which bear not the slightest resem- blance to swallows, and come in all possible colors. The masked pigeon is white with a colored face and tai likewise the Nuremberg variety. All the species we have now named are subdivided into others too numer- ous to mention here. Agreeable va- rieties are the Russian drum pigeon. which does not coo, but gives vent to humor in sounds resembling the roll of a drum, and the Dutch tumbler pigeon of the Netherlands. It is curious to see how the latter perform their aerial gymnastics. Thev fly to great heights with the rapidity of an arrow ; then thev turn at right a straight line, stop short, hover awhile on their outstretched wings, and begin the 'play again. Nothing is more diverting than to watch a covey of these tumblers in the azure air; nc\er do they weary of the game, which they often keep up for hours. As for their color, it varies so much that our limited space will not allow us to say any- thing ahdut it. The distinction between tumblers with long beaks and those with short beaks explains itself ; but these divisions are divided again, the first into wliite-winged, white-bearded, mag]iie, striped, H a n (1 V e r i a n, antl \'iennese tumblers ; the second into German, Eng- lish, almond- colored, Little Nun, and Jacobin tumblers, so that a volume would be needed for this race alone. The turbit, or frilled, pigeons, of various colors, are known by many names the world over. They are not large, but are \'ery active heads are rather angu- the breast are frizzed their name. They red at exhibitions, species, also in de- :hibitions, is the pea- ui-tailed, pigeon ; its colors are white, or black, and the lef breeds are the English, Scotch, Ger- man, and French, all of which carry their tails spread out like fans or the The M.\gpie Pigeon tails of peacocks. The Tumbler Pigeon, Old Dutch Breed nee A DOVFXOTE AT A PROPER ELEVATION 292 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS V. Pouter Pigeons All pigeons keep their food for a long time in a sack within their breast. Their organs of digestion are so made as to complete the The Dwarf Poctkk Pigeon of Amsterdam work their feeble beaks have left unfinished. They all have, more or less, a frontal protuber- ance formed by two lateral appendices to the esophagus. In addition they ha\'e an upper stomach fastened to the esophagus, which receives the food, softens, and liquefies it ; thence it passes into the masticating stomach. These internal arrangements protrude the breast, and those species which swell their chests until their heads are thrown back and nothing is seen in front but these unnatural protuberances are called, in English, pouter pigeons, from the sulky, pouting air this atti- tude conveys. They may be regarded as the product of artificial breeding much practiced in central Europe, although American breed- ers have given to these birds so monstrous a shape that the Eiiglisli pouter is an alien among the foreign birds of his own race. Nevertheless he is sometimes sold for his weight in gold. The English bird is long and lank in the legs, and is distinguished more by the shape of his feet, his attitude, and the oval of his breast than by the color of his plumage. The original Dutch pouter is not long-legged, and his protuberant breast is spherical like that of certain other German species. The head of the English bird is relatively small, and it is essential with breeders that he shall stand erect and hold his wings pressed tightly against his body. Our breeders insist that a pair of pouters must produce young with legs and feet exactly similar to the fi.xed t^-pe. Singular to sa)-, the male and female obey his behest so implicitly that their young as they develop have legs, feet, and claws of the e.xact prescribed length, while all their other points are brought to a preordained perfection that is nothing short of miraculous. The French pouter and the Brunner breed have become of late c|uite serious rivals to the other species of pouter pigeons. Of what use are these strange -looking pouters .? Solely, it appears, to furnish proof of the power of man to interfere with the nature of animals by steady and reflective application of breeding experiments. We have here a monstrous transformation, which renders the creature unfit for any natural use to which it might be put. Nevertheless, such -:Jr7r-^i»jgj The Al-mond Pigeon changes can be so confirmed as to give, in the end, hereditary qualities. Pigeons used for scientific experiments, especially the pouter PIGEONS 293 pigeons, have been of use to men like Darwin, to prove their theories on selection, descent, and the power of experiments. The em]5loynient of pigeons as messengers cumcs from their faculty of finding their homes and returning to them from very great dis- tances. Though many other domestic animals VI. Sever.\l Species. Mes.sexger Pigeons h^.-g ^^e same gift, yet their unerring choice After the pouters wc must mention the ca- of the right direction, the rapidity of their runcular pigeons, the best known of which are flight above countries completeh' unknown to Carrier Pigeons Photographed iifter a journey of 3000 miles the carriers, the Bagadas, and the dragons. All these birds have warty excrescences on their beaks and thick red rims around their eyes. The carrier pigeons have a noble bearing their legs are long and withovit feathers, and the feathers of the body are smooth and in significant. This species has every appearance of a wild bird. Its flight is superb, and surpasses that of other breeds ; but the thick circles around its eyes prevent it from seeing well, and it is therefore kept more for show than for use, and is very costly. There are many varieties of these carrier pigeons, namely those of Antwerp and Liege, some turbits, certain tumblers, etc. I' 111, t'.AKI them, and the greater safety of their missives (carried through air and not on land) give them a very special value of their own. People call this faculty instinct, but in our day that magic word does not lead far en o ugh. Many researches produce theories about this 13 rob 1cm which many experiments destroy. Some say these travel- ers are guided by the position of the sun, but pigeons let oose at night find their homes as rapidly and unerringly as by day. ( )thers believe that electric cur- rents have to do with it, but Hachet- Souplet proves that this is impossible. If, however, we consider the keen sight of the pigeon, we may accept, provisionally perhaps, z "' ° S pj o 5 ^ < o u 8 ^ d O "O <; o bo , "i^j^^B k- f P ij^j^^ E^ fiiV in^H ^ — ^i^_ c V PIGEONS 295 the explanation of a learned French naturaHst, given in the following paragraph : "The pigeon sees amazingly far. Circling round his dovecote to a great and still greater height, he obtains an ever-increasing view of his surroundings and of the horizon. It is true that this view becomes less distinct in the German Pigeons upper strata of the air, but it also becomes far wider. When, therefore, he is let loose at a distance from his home he rises in circles to a great height, trying to perceive some portion of the familiar view he has seen about his home, which then enables him to choose the direction for his flight. There are, of course, certain limits and certain obstacles, and the pigeon which can discover his route at a distance of, say, a hundred miles or more is a past master in his profession." He must have made many journeys before he attained such proficiency, a fact that should be taken account of in judging of the theory above given. A good messenger pigeon, to whatever breed he may belong, should have a solid breast, long wings, strong pinions, a slender tail of good length, and be courageous but not wild. Natur- ally pigeons with large, keen eyes and no defect or anomaly in their legs and feet should be chosen. VII. Pigeon Post. Tr.mmnt. for it From the days when the champions of the Greek games made known to distant friends by means of pigeons that they were victors down to the present day when Russian eyes have been fixed in anguish on Port Arthur, hoping for news by pigeon post, these birds have been in many ways the bearers of good and evil tidings in times both of peace and war. A caliph of Bagdad established the first regularpigeon servicein the twelfth century, and it is said that the Rothschilds have made enor- mous gains, thanks to their organized pigeon express. The press has been, and still is, often served by these messenger birds. The Gu- zctte dc Cologne especially makes frequent use of them. To-day, however, the pigeon is not so rapid as the telegraph and the telephone, and so long as the wire has not attained its perfection point, the pigeon may still keep up in times of war an otherwise hopeless commu- nication between two localities. It is well known that this was done on a vast scale during the siege of Paris in 1870, when use was made of microscopic photography to send by one bird fifty thousand copies of news in miniature. At the present time much use is still made of a maritime pigeon-post system, by which messages are sent, without signals, to specified distances from the coast. A military pigeon The Enolish Falconet Pioeon post is established in several countries, chief among them Germany. At Cologne there is a large station with five or six hundred pigeons, which is in direct communication with Berlin and various fortified places. It is calculated that one hundred miles is the normal maxi- mum which a bird can fly and perform its mis- sions well. A special detachment of cavalry is charged with the care of these pigeons. 296 OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS Peacock-Tailf.u Pigeons In Paris there are several establishments tor an extensive service of messenger pigeons for the training of military pigeons, and in times their armies. of war every private owner of such birds is While we have no intention of concerning obliged to yield them up to the government, ourselves with pigeon sport (respecting which Italy and the Netherlands have both organized there are detailed works and special journals), ^^^^ -T *- T- ;- -^^v- <^- V — -t- ' ^ -"-i . - ■> B.V.^KETb, ETC., FOR TRANSPORTING CARRIER PiGEONS PIGEONS 297 we give here some advice on the training i)f messenger birds which may be useful to the amateur. The )-oung pigeons must be taught to stay in the basket, or hamper, in which they will later be taken to the point of departure. When four months old the)- may be let loose, regularl}- and cautiously, at very short distances. During the first year this distance may be increased to about forty miles, which, however, is far from being the ma.ximum for birds of good promise. It sometimes happens that very promising young birds do not continue to fly rapidly ; and it is best, therefore, to spare all young birds and not require too much of them. Each bird should rest for some days after a flight. The second year the distance should be gradu- ally increased until journeys of about ninety miles can be made. The third year the bird, thus carefully trained, is fit to rejoice his master by some brilliant successes at exhibitions. The best time to begin exercising the birds is the end of May, when the weather is settled and likely to continue serene. Each bird should be carefully examined before its departure. Its feet and legs should be washed in tepid water, and all dust and impure substances re- moved. The food must not be too abundant, but neither should the pigeon be led to hasten its homeward flight by want of food, for weak- ness and exhaustion ma}- hinder its safe return. As a domestic animal each pigeon has ful- filled its duty when it returns, safe and sound, to our roof ; and we need not trouble ourselves as to whether or not it has broken such or such a record by a fifth of a second. The messenger pigeon, if trained for domes- tic use, brings much pleasure into the house- hold ; therefore we strongly advise that the attempt be made to raise them, and a little corner yielded to the dovecote, near the ken- nel, out of reach of cats, above the poultry yard, or beside the stable, where their pleasant cooing may mingle with the mooing of the cow, the neighing of the horse, and the soft warbling of the aviary birds in a hymn to the glory of OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS. Webster Family Library of Veterinary Medicine Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine at Tufts University 200 v\/8stboro Road Mor+t-, n.-'^Unn AAA AH COP