1 OV LOLI VNU OLNOHOL 4O ALISHSAINN FLAS bbtpszaees ay : be i ieee Se ane Aes rs : se, : ey ark fey PLA TEO CES EY ’ Ne Y. Y - wa eee ae ‘ \ - weed ah ep al 7 iu a iat V a \ ated Py : a \ 9 IT ¢ L M : ie enh i Se tat » A pacer, | Wy l Hy) bin we re a ee n iy j ; LX Mie a ao ame) iim ate, ic Mh TRANSACTIONS OF THE CONNECTICUR ACADEMY ARTS AND SCIENCES. VOLUME NI, (CENTENNIAL VOLUME) PAA EE ee AS NEW HAVEN: PUBL IS BE DoBY/THE ACADEMY... 1901-1902. THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR COMPANY. Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1902, by AppIsON EK. VERRILL, for the Academy ; in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY, 1902-1903. President. ADDISON E. VERRILL. Vice President. RUSSELL H. CHITTENDEN. Secretary. ALEXANDER W. EVANS. Librarian. ADDISON VAN NAME. Treasurer. MORRIS EF. TYLER: Publishing Committee. GEORGE J. BRUSH. ADDISON E. VERRILL. RUSSELL H. CHITTENDEN. EDWARD 8. DANA. CHARLES S. HASTINGS. CHARLES E. BEECHER. ADDISON VAN NAME. Auditing Committee. ADDISON E. VERRILL. ADDISON VAN NAME. CO NeW Ss ARTICLE X.—THE BERMUDA ISLANDS: THEIR SCENERY, CLIMATE, PRO- DUCTIONS, PHysIoGRAPHY, NaTuRAL History, AND GEOLOGY ; WITH SKETCHES OF THEIR HKARLY HISTORY AND THE CHANGES DUE TO MAN. BxyarADDISONSH HIV ERRILG. Plates G0=104¢ 5-222. 25 a52te te ee 413 Figures in first column refer to the author’s special edition; those in the second column are the original pages. Part I. General Description of the Scenery, Climate, Harbors, Waters, Vege- tation, Birds, Roads, Historical Localities, Ruined Forts, ete. CIMT Sf BS 2a A a aS eS a 4; 416 Part II. Physiography, including Meteorology, etc. Figures___-.- 52; 464 Pe CLCORFADMICAL EF OSINON Litt 92 5- ev eal w cc mesons fom ote D2; 464 2. Form and Extent of the Islands and Reefs._----..----_.__- 53; 465 3. Hills, Valleys, Sinks, Brackish Ponds, Swamps. Figures___ 54; 466 4s Halen Caverns’ Natural-Wish Ponds: 2-2 222 52-222222-2.2- 56 ; 468 (PeeElaAnbOrs ands soundss. = Higures== 2 2-22. Settee oe See 57; 469 6. Mangrove Swamps----..---..--- EAE iS a be Oey Reh ce SNe 58 ; 47 fiegacaverns and Grottoes. “Wigures=) --2-* i252 to. 58 ; 470 8. Shore Cliffs; Natural Arches; Pinnacles. Figures_______- 60 ; 472 Wese@anhoatal socks, Wignres” 0. uo: 2220-32 se Seok le 61; 473 1OSoand, Dunesrand Drifting Sands. 2-25-8222 4. s- et 62; 474 11. Anchorages or Submerged Lagoons; Bottom Deposits__--._- 70; 482 Oeeebbotnoets andy lathe sa 5 ee) Se hoes es oa a 71; 483 ae seEpulime A toler -“botlers so: . 2-225 25 (l4 Slee 74; 486 14. Channels or Natural Cuts through the Beats ate Bales sat 74; 486 lee id escands Crrrentge: = ae so net eee IOS St Rh 77; 489 16. The Soil; its Origin and Composition __._-.-----.......-.- 78; 490 17. ‘Chemical Analyses of Bermuda Soils____-......-.-._.-_..- 80; 492 ELS Seam COs iean cubes ee tee «ee ee a ae am gem Coss oie i A nr og EL 82; 494 a. Rainfall; Hail; Thunder-storms; Fogs; Moisture ____ 83; 495 CreWinds PEiEnicanes S| Gales ss ose nen se ne se oe ae 84; 496 CeLemperakure.- Host pl C6. SOW == ease aa ene se es 86 ; 498 deevicteorolopicalw tables’. 22-22) 5.22 eee. Sek Lee wee NOs 409 CeUrodins anarlaminese == 2. s2.seece eee ee Se | 91; 503 LEM Peravueey Oboe USGA a (ese mae a See ee ee 91 ; 503 19. Remarkable instance of the Death of Fishes, etc., due to cold- TAVIS) HUT AKS ySTeR asta fl 8) OT a a yee Sele ae Ne 91; 503 19a. Comparative Tables of Temperature and Wind __.________- 96 ; 508 TEP MG TRC = GENS Sit Beet al ee i Ee ka 98 ; 510 21. Health and Diseases ; Longevity ; Historical Epidemics ; Mos- EEN nets anne eee oe toes ne yee ys WSR eM TY a oe 98 ; 510 Va Contents. 22. Principal Productions and Exports, historically treated__.._ 105; a. “Ambergris, Lamber, Wish; ete: sea eae aie 105 ; 6: Tobacco ; Salt). sc 2022. sae eS Ae een aan a wee 106 ; e: Whale-Hishery ss) Sharks: Oil eee ee eee 109 ; d. Silk, Castor Oil, Olive Oil, etc. .__.- Re eto ee 2 | «Cae is e. Sugar, Cassava or Tapioca, Wheat, etc. _...-\-....--. 112; f. Bananas, Pineapples, Oranges, Lemons, ete. --.- ....--- 113 ; g. Corn_or Maize £220 2222.) ae ee eile y h. Potatoes Onions; “omatoes 25 ee ane eee Ge i; Arrow-root! 220-220... [2 Le ee eS eee 119; js Master iliess te... °s2. 2 ae eee eee ins) Parr III. Changes in the Flora and Fauna due to Man, witha Sketch of the Discovery and Harly History____---------------- 120 ; 23. Discovery and Karly History ; Historical Shipwrecks --_---- 121 ; a. Shipwreck of the Bonaventura, 1593. Figures_______- 122 ; b. Shipwreck of the Sea Venture, 1609 _____---___.------ 125; c. Settlement of the Bermuda Islands in 1612------____-- 133 ; d. Fatal Famine in 1614-15; the ‘‘ Feagues”___.__.._--- 140 ; e. Tobacco Cultivation, as connected with the Early His- torylot the Islands si. 24 Goch enee eee ae 148 ; f. Slavery; Negroes; Indians; Whites; Abolition of Slaveryiin 1834. 022 he. 3h cee Sees Se ec g. Population at different periods: 32-- 222" 2e2see eee 156 ; 24. Character and Origin of the Original Flora _.....-.----..-. 159; a. Endemic Plants. Figures--_---- Jb25 i.e} LGU: b: Whocalized Plants... | Migures= = 222250) eee 162; 5 c: Sea-side Plants?) Biguires!:. 2235502! eee 166 ; ad. Origin of the Native Hloras222) = esse 175 ; 25. Destructive Effects of Wild Hogs (before 1612); Wood Rats ; Snails, Slugs) ete:5_ 25225-2222. Se ies a: Effects of the Wild Hogs = a2 oes eee = eee Ira ees: Effects of the Plague of Wood Rats, 1614-1618-_------ 178 ; c. Effects of Injurious Insects, Snails and Slugs ---_----- 179 ; a Destructive Effects of Drouthses sesso eee 180: 5 26:4, Eftectsiof Deforesting) 95.2005 see oe eee ee 181; 5 a. Bermuda Palmetto (Sabal Blackburniana Glaz.); its History and Uses: Wigures: 222-5. 2-2 2222 Se eee alioleemn b. Bermuda Cedar (Juniperus Bermudiana L.); its His- toryand Uses:.* Wigures= 326225. fes ee ee 187; 5 ¢. Yellow-wood Tree (Xanthoxylum Re ; its His- WOTY 22s vce) Ste see 4 oe Bee oS ee ee d. Yellow-wood Tree and the Legends of Buried Treasures 198 ; e. Other Native Trees and Shrubs partially destroyed - ___- 207 5 f. Native Wild Olive ; Olive-wood Bark ; and Button-wood Mirae is Sa) Sie 2 eel AS Se Pe) es 208 gMangrove, ) Wigure ; 2 sitelogo ee ea er ee 209 ; h. Black Mangrove or Black Jack. Figure .---_.._.--..- 210 ; Contents. vil 27. Introduction of Useful Plants and of Injurious Weeds_____ 210; 622 a. Introduction of Useful Plants from England, 1610-1625, bynscedsiand: Cuttings ae ea eee eee eee 210 ; 622 b. Useful Plants brought from the Bahamas, 1616-25 __._ 212; 624 c. Later Introductions from England, ete.____---.-..--.- 213; 625 d, Accidental Introduction of Injurious Weeds -_.._...-- 214; 626 e. List of Principal Introduced Fruit Trees and Fruits... 215; 627 28. Principal Introduced Shade Trees and Ornamental Shrubs__ 231; 643 a. Shade Trees and Ornamental Trees_...........__-.__- 231; 643 b, Principal Introduced Ornamental Shrubs ; Hedge Plants 240; 652 c. Prominent Climbing Plants or Vines._------... _....- 246 ; 658 29. Extermination or Partial Extermination of Native Birds._.. 249; 661 a, Character of the Original Native Avifauna_______.___. 249; 661 b. Egg-birds or Terns (Sterna, sev. sp.) ; early extermina- ELON Dye a Teen stern ee ele ee SL ee 254 ; 666 c, Cahow; its History ; Oneinal Abundance and rapid OREM INUE TIL O Eppa ye eee ese PR Fo es aS at es ae 1) a 256 ; 668 d. Known Characteristics of the Cahow (now extinct).__. 264; 676 e. Pimlico or Audubon’s Shearwater (Puffinus Auduboni eer eee eet ee erent hoe Bea ere OGD OU f. Tropic Bird; Long-tail; Boatswain Bird ; (Phaéton fla- EUROS UUS We. tae ean ae ace. Spe eee ee ee Reha OL Ih 267 ; 679 Ge lerons and Meretsy= a= er 2 ae = Pee See eat oct 268 ; 680 h, American Crow (Corvus Amer jeanne eS ee ae ee 269 ; 681 30. Partial Extermination of the Whales.--.....-.-----..-.--. 270; 682 a. Hump-back Whale (Megaptera bodps or M. nodosa). Figure 270 ; 682 b. Fin-back Whale (Balenoptera, sp.). Figures.--._---- 276 ; 688 c. Cape Whale; Black Whale or Biscay Right Whale (BalenaolaciaiiseBon.)s es HiGure ses) See eee 276; 688 d. Sperm Whale; Spermaceti Whale; Trunk Whale, or Wachalots pe Hi oUno gee risen: a eee pate reine Peet ey, gee 277; 689 31. Extermination of Breeding Sea Turtles; the Lizard ________ 278 ; 690 a. Former Abundance of Sea Turtles._..-.-_-..________-- 278 ; 690 b. Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas). Figure__._._._------- 280 ; 692 c. Hawksbill; Caret ; Tortoise-shell Turtle (Caretta imbri- COLO) se MO UEC See pies seer es eee et eye pe Le 2 280) = BOF. d. Loggerhead (Thalassochelys caretta), Figure___------ 285 ; 695 e. Leather-back ; Trunk Turtle; Leather Turtle (Sphargis COPTCCE) cues UI OULE Os Sine ate een oe a ee Alene et ep eo A 285 ; 697 f. Bermuda Lizard (Humeces longirostris Cope). Figure.- 285 ; 697 32. Decrease of certain Fishes and Shellfish...._...___..__.-.- 266 ; 698 a. Former Abundance of Fishes. Figures_-----___----- 286 ; 698 b. Rockfishes, Groupers, Hogfish, ete. Figures___.--.--- 289; 701 ec. Bermuda Lobster (Panulirus argus). Figure..--.--.-- 298; 705 d. Land Crabs (Gecarcinus lateralis Frem., etc.). Figure. 294; 706 e. Devil Fish ; Octopus; Scuttle (Octopus rugosus Bosc.) ._ 295; 707 f-1Gastropods:) Whelks; Conchs; ete. .----.22--52.--.-2 2965 708 g. Bivalves: Scallops ; Oysters; Mussels, etc, ---.---..-- 297; 709 Vili Contents. 30. “Introduction of Domestic Animals= 2222222 222-225 eee 298 ; 710 a. Wild Hogs; their extermination...._...........----- 298 ; 710 b. Plague of Wood Rats, 1614-1618; cause of its disap- pearance - 24 scsi cscs ees Se ee 300 ; 712 c¢, Common RatsiandaMice. bats. = ae ee ee 305 ; 717 a. Wild ‘or Half-wildn@ats 2. 45-2. eae eneee ns ae ee ee 306 ; 718 > Cattle and other Animals «...: [22 2g522 22 Sake ae SSP SO ae a Horses ‘sh 3 Sa eee Os 2 oc Re eee ee 307; 719 34.) ‘Introduction of Birds e222. x22 eee 308 ; 720 a: Poultry (2.2222. 8v 2. 2 22S eee ee 308 ; 720 b. Game Birds: American Guia or Bobwhite, figure ; Ground: Dove; \ete. .222 =<) 4 Se eee eee 309; 721 c. Singing Birds: Tree Sparrow ; Goldfinch, figure ; Wheat- ar; Starling, figure ; Mocking Bird, figure ; American Goldfineh:Sfigure’s etc. = 23552 sete 310 ; 722 35. Introduction of Reptiles and Amphibians------------------ 313 ; 725 a. Reptiles: the American Blue-tailed Lizard; (Anolis principalis) Is.) (Figure 522 = eee ee d15 ; 725 b. Amphibians: Great Surinam Toad; Agua Toad (Bufo agua «Daud.), “Rigurest] 39-35. = ee ee 314 ; 726 36. Introduction of Land Mollusca ; Snails and Slugs .-:.-2 22 @Slowien , Native Species. « Figures. is-35 = =e see ee ee $15 ; 727 Hf Introduced Snails ; some Injurious Species. Figures __ 318 ; 730 ec. Slugs. Figures 2.5.1. 25.) oe 31.) Introduction of: Insects 22 fs oe2e2 {25ers 323 3 735 a. Native Species mentioned by Early Writers .-.-------- 323 ; 735 b. Modes of Introduction ____ .------ Seon Glels 2h eee 325 ; 737 c. Diptera (Flies ; Mosquitoes, etc.). Figures ..-------_- 328 ; 740 d. Aphaniptera (Fleas; Jigger). Figures-.-_=-__- 22222222 337 ; 749 e. Hymenoptera (Bees; Wasps; Ichneumon Flies; Ants, etc.)., Figures 24.25. 2224202 eee ee . 338 ; 750 f. Lepidoptera (Butterflies ; Moths). Figures____-----.-- B44 ; 756 g.) Trichoptera (Caddis-fiies))22= 2-25 esse eee ee eee 370 ; 782 h. Neuroptera (Lace-wings; Ant-lions). Figures ___-___-- 370 ; 782 i. Coleoptera (Beetles; Weevils). Figures______-.--.---- 372 ; 784 j. Hemiptera (Bugs; Cicada; Plant-lice; Scale-insects; Thrips; etc.) Figures, 7223 - > ie eee 386 ; 798 k. Pseudoneuroptera (Dragon-fiies, etc.). Figures ___---- 400 ; 812 l. “Matlophaga (Bird-lice):~ (Higures©2 22225 5052s 407 ; 819 m. Orthoptera (Grasshoppers ; Cockroaches, ete.). Figures 409 ; 821 n. Dermaptera (Earwigs)). Figures...-.-__----.--.22- - 415 ; 827 o. Thysanura (Lepisma; Silver-witch). Figures_-_----_- 416 ; 828 38. Introduction of Arachnids and Myriapods_-.-.-.-..-------- 417 ; 829 a.-Araneina (Spiders). \ Bigaress2 === ae 417 ; 829 b;) Acarina (Mites: Ticks): Higureso 2: S52 eee oes 428 ; 840 c. Myriapoda (Centipedes ; Galley-worms, etc.). Figures. 430 ; 842 39. Introduction of Terrestrial Isopods (Pill-bugs, etc.). Figures 482 ; 844 Contents. ix 40. Introduction of Earthworms; Land Nemerteans, etc.---.--. 482 ; 844 a. Oligocheta (Earth-worms). Figures_----------------- 432 ; 844 Bewangd Nemerteans..) Higure 2s sees ae an 435 ; 847 @aluandeblangrians. Higutes 12 ease eee sesso. 436 ; 848 41. Introduction of Marine Species; Feasibility of the Introduc- tonvof Useful Speciesu sane 205 22 oe en eee 450) 3848 Bibliography ; Principal Works referred to -._-.----------- 437 ; 849 PNG ETIG Riper eo ae. At pe Ne eee! ce ee | 453 ; 865 Former Yellow Fever Epidemics._---......----------=--- 453 : 865 Giouamirace Of (Ol — 2) = seem een bono. 2 Lo en 454 ; 866 Remarkaplonkamtal |: lootm= mee sneer c= |S eee 454 ; 866 LU erence ne ies eee eee 8 a a Se 455 ; 867 Acoloay of Godens.bO0k=s aaawemnae. - 255. 59. a eee 456 ; 868 Guphureots Gunpowder Wiiane ese... = 2225 S52 oe 460 ; 872 etter or Admiral Somers, VGlQpese ss. 3 = hes 2 pce ee 461 ; 873 Banishmientiok Crim Sis sabes sees oe Sa ae EO Eee 462 ; 874 WC I@ ratiy bina Stages & Sree aera het ee ee VMs Be 466 ; 878 Baber Gard once art) seh eae ee Se ae rap we eed SE 2 A474; 886 WaldeBinds Protection A Cte 22 on sane Se ree Las te 474 ; 886 MonOs OE EermnuGa Mizar Oe 22 ae wee wee we eee oe A477; 889 RCLOUULO NEC MNSCCUS a= ate ee See een eee et = SAIS 880 SSTE(OR 2] CHIOV} SMart elle EO A etna tae a en ee ae aR 482 ; 894 Gov. Wm. Reid: his unpublished letters to W. C. Redfield 483 ; 895 BYR oe epee Sine svnne coke Su, Sy ME een Sie dP) a ae 484 ; 896 NGIGGO SLI Utes INuNG LExtS A= oe yew ee eS 485 ; 897 ienlanaionrOfaelatese:- Sao as eee Se eee tenes ent oie 495 ; 907 Titid Keyes 5 ity See ood eter om Cg cee, en gee ae Peay h arate soe 501 ; 913 Pb Suc SONLeMtG TebG: = 2202 waa. ol esta te as se ek Pe oes VX Note: Part IV, Geology; and Part V, Marine Zoélogy, are to appear in another volume. Figure 245.—Bermuda Flying Fish. x Spanish Roek. Figure 244.—Ancient inscription on ‘‘Spanish Rock,” after Lefroy, 1879. It has been attributed by most writers to Ferdinando Camelo, a native of Por- tugal, who received an abortive charter for the settlement of Bermuda from the King of Spain, about 1527. But there is no evidence that he ever visited the islands. If the monogram ever stood for his name the C has now dis- appeared by weathering. Quite possibly this has happened. At present, the monogram more resembles TK or FK. It is more probable that it is the only known record of the survivors of some disastrous shipwreck in 1543, who may have lived for some time on these islands, and perhaps died here. Possibly only a single individual survived, and he may have lived alone for years, like ‘‘ Robinson Crusoe.” The presence of a cross would rather exclude the theory that it was left by pirates or buccaneers. This is probably one of the mementoes of the supposed visits of the Spanish before the English settlement, mentioned by Goy. Butler, in 1619: ‘* Witnesse certaine crosses left erected upon rocks and promontories.” He also refers to old Spanish coins that had been found here by the early settlers. The inscription, which was originally deeply cut in the limestone ledge, is gradually becoming less distinct, due partly to weathering and partly to vandal- ism of visitors. A cast of it is preserved in the Public Library, at Hamilton. X.—Tue Bermupa Istanps: THEIR SCENERY, CLIMATE, Propuc- TIONS, PuysioGRAPHy, NaTuRAL History, AND GEOLOGY ; WITH SKETCHES OF THEIR EAr.Ly History AND THE CHANGES DUE Tro Man.* By Appison E. VERRILL. In the preparation of the following descriptive account of the Ber- muda Islands, I have aimed to provide a work that may meet most of the needs of large numbers of persons who go to the islands annually for health, pleasure, or study, and who may wish to learn as much as possible about the islands and their principal productions, without being obliged to consult a library, or burden themselves with many books.t At the same time I have tried to make it so comprehensive and accurate, both as to text and illustrations, that it may serve as a standard reference book for students and libraries generally, in respect to the various subjects treated, though many of them are here necessarily treated rather briefly. In regard to the Marine Zodlogy, which is a very extensive subject, requiring hundreds of additional illustrations, the rather brief and general accounts here included are intended to be in a popular form, and to illustrate the more conspicuous and important species, such as visitors are likely to meet with and wish to know about. But I do not intend to give here complete lists of the species in any of the larger groups, for that would require a large volume.{ Much fuller accounts of the Marine Zoélogy will be provided ina series of monographs now being prepared by the author and others. Some of these *have already been published, and others are nearly ready for the press.§ The observations and collections on which this work is based were chiefly made during two expeditions to the Bermudas: one made in the spring of 1898, when I was accompanied by three students from * Copyright 1902, by A. E. Verrill. + It should be understood that most of the fishes and other marine animals and much of the vegetation are identical with those of the Bahamas, Porto Rico, and other West Indian Islands, so that this work will also be useful in any of these islands. ¢{ The total number of marine species now known is over 1000. Of fishes there are about 200 species. § See the Bibliography at the end of this work. . 414 A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University, viz. Messrs. C. M. Cook, Jr., Clarence 8. Verrill, and Wm. E. Porter, who did most excel- lent and valuable work in helping me to gather very large collections; and another expedition, made in the spring of 1901, with my son, A. Hyatt Verrill, who not only made large collections, but also made numerous colored drawings of the soft-bodied marine forms, and about 200 excellent photographs, both geological and zodlogical, including numerous photographs of living animals beneath the water, and of living birds in their natural haunts. For a short time we were joined by Dr. W. G. Van Name, who devoted himself mainly to the Tunicata, and has since published a monograph of them. Besides the two large collections, made by myself and parties, I have had for study, during many years, collections made by Messrs. J. Matthew Jones, G. Brown Goode, and others. For historical subjects, I have consulted numerous works,* and have quoted verbatim from some of them, when it seemed desirable to preserve the exact wording and quaint spelling of the early writers. The Memorials of Bermuda, by Governor Lefroy, 2 volumes, 1877, is by far the most important work for the early history of the islands, and I have quoted from it freely. In some respects the Bermuda Islands are almost unique. Very few other islands, of similar size and situated in a favorable climate, were destitute of aborigines when discovered by Europeans. Appar- ently man had never set foot on the Bermudas until they were discovered by the Spaniards, about 1510. The number of species of land animals and plants peculiar to the Bermudas is unusually small for islands of this character. No other islands situated so far from the equator are surrounded by living coral-reefs, and the hills of drifted and hardened shell-sand are unusually high for such a formation. s The outer reefs, with their enclosed lagoons, resemble the coral islands or atolls of the Pacific, but they are not of the same nature. They are the eroded remains of limestone islands, once of large size and considerable height, like those still left, but much larger. They may, therefore, be called pseudatolls. During recent years these islands have been much visited by Americans, during the winter and spring months, either for health or pleasure, or both. This is partly due to the fact that they have become much better known than formerly, and perhaps still more to * For the titles of the more important historical works, see the Bibliography, at the end of this work. A, EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 415 the greater facilities for reaching the islands and the excellent hotels now established there.* At present about three thousand Americans visit the islands every winter, and the number is rapidly increasing. The smooth and romantic roads are ideal places for driving and eycling. The transparent waters of the nearly enclosed harbors and bays afford excellent places for boating, yachting, and fishing. The beautiful views available for artists are endless, but the glorious colors of the waters and sky are beyond the dreams of art. Many visitors to the islands are naturally more or less interested in the unfamiliar or novel character of the subtropical vegetation ; in the unusual forms of animal life abounding in the sea, or on the coral reefs ; and in the strange geological phenomena, as displayed in the curiously eroded cliffs and pinnacles of the shores; in the grottoes and caverns hung with huge stalactites, and with clear blue sea-water beneath ; in the curious limestone formations, seen even in the deep cuts made for the highways ; and in the ever moving sand- dunes, composed of wind-drifted white shell-sand. Many other unusual effects are due to the peculiar structure of the islands, where the only rock is limestone, made from corals and shells, and the only soil is an insoluble residue left after the decomposition of this lime- stone, but yet sufticiently abundant and fertile to support luxuriant vegetation. The association of some of the localities with the poems of Thomas Moore, who resided here four months in 1804, is a source of interest to many visitors. Those who are historically inclined can also find much of interest in connection with the ruined forts on the distant uninhabited islands and in the antiquated buildings at St. George’s and elsewhere, as well as in the ancient records of the colony. Many professional naturalists and scientific students visit the islands, because they are so favorably situated for the study of trop- ical and subtropical life, and especially because the facilities for studying living reef-corals and the various forms of life associated with them on the coral reefs are here exceptionally favorable, and the climate is agreeable and more healthy than on most tropical and sub- tropical islands. The people are also very hospitable and kindly disposed toward scientific visitors. Bright colored tropical fishes can also be easily procured here, and many have been taken hence to New York, to stock the public aquarium in the old Castle Garden. * The distance from New York is 675 nautical miles, and the passenger steamers of the Quebec Line usually make the trip in fifty to sixty hours. 416 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. Many of these fishes take the hook readily, and afford excellent sport for those who are fond of sea-fishing. Among those that are most esteemed for the table are the Green Angel-fishes, Rockfishes, sometimes of great size, Groupers, Grunts of several kinds, Snappers, Bonito, Guelly, Hogfish, Amberfish, Gogglers, and many other. Part I.—General Descriptions of the Scenery, Climate, Harbors, Waters, Vegetation, Birds, Roads, Historical Localities, Ruined Forts, ete. These islands are situated east of the main current of the Gulf Stream, but yet so near it that their shores are always bathed in the pure blue, warm Gulf Stream water, and for this reason the climate is remarkably equable for this latitude. Frost is practically unknown, though light frosts have occurred a very few times, at long intervals. Temperatures slightly below 50° F. are not infre- quent in winter. The winter months and March are cool, the average temperature being from 59.5° to 60.5° F. and there are many chilly, windy, and rainy days, especially with northerly winds, when one needs thick clothing out of doors, and artificial heat within. Indeed, many vis- itors from the north find it much cooler than they had expected, and are disappointed in not being able to wear thin clothes all the time. It is not well to trust in this case too much to the poetic descriptions of enthusiasts. Persons in feeble health should always secure rooms that can be heated when necessary and should have woolen clothing. April and May, and the first half of June, are the most delightful months. In midsummer the air becomes very moist and sultry, but not very hot, seldom exceeding 87° F. The climate will be more fully discussed in a later chapter.* The Bermudas are nearly due east of Charleston, 8. C., and 575 nautical miles from Cape Hatteras, which is the nearest land. From * The following lines, from a beautiful poem of Thomas Moore, would indi- cate a warmer climate than actually exists there, especially at the season when he wrote, for he was in Bermuda only from January to the 5th of May :— “*No, ne’er did the wave in its element steep An island of lovelier charms ; It blooms in the giant embrace of the deep, Like Hebe in Hercules’ arms. The blush of your bowers is light to the eye, And their melody balm to the ear ; But the fiery planet of day is too high, And the Snow Spirit never comes here.” A, FE. Verrili—The Bermuda Islands. 417 Cape Sable, Nova Scotia, they are distant 675 nautical miles, south; and 830 miles north from Porto Rico, so that they offer a nearly midway resting place for many flocks of migratory birds that ordi- narily fly directly from Nova Scotia to the West Indies. These migratory birds have doubtless brought the seeds of many plants to the islands. The visible islands form a somewhat hook-shaped group with the concavity on the northern side, facing the great lagoon, and with the main axis running nearly northeast and southwest. The form of the dry land may be more accurately compared to a partially closed Figure 1.—A Bermuda Residence in winter; at Hamilton. hand, seen in profile, and with the thumb and nearly approximated finger-tips guarding the entrance to Great Sound and Hamilton Harbor, the latter lying in the axil of the thumb; and the Navy Yard at Ireland Island,* on the tip of the index finger, while the wrist is represented by the eastern part of the group. (See map, fig. 26.) The dry land of the islands amounts to only about 19% square miles, or about 12,373 acres. But the extensive submerged reefs and the enclosed lagoons and shoals cover an elliptical area of about 230 square miles, all of which was once dry land. Most *Treland Island can best be reached by a small ferry boat that runs across from Hamilton. wo ~ Trans. Conn. Acap., Vou. XI. APRIL, 1902. 418 A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. of the larger islands are connected by bridges and the great cause- way, so that one can drive the entire length of the group, which is about 22 miles, following the road. There is only one ship-channel by which vessels of any considera- ble size can pass through the reefs and enter the anchorages of the north side, or the harbor of Hamilton. The harbor of St. George’s and Castle Harbor are entered from the south side, but the channels are not deep enough for very large vessels, although the principal one was blasted out, over the bar, to the depth of 16 feet, about 45. years ago, and efforts have recently been made to deepen it to 22 or 24 feet. The main ship-channel through the reefs to the Navy Yard and to Hamilton Harbor is deep enough for the largest naval vessels, but it is narrow and crooked, and although well buoyed, local pilots are required by the passenger steamers, and the passage is not made at night. There are two good lighthouses. The largest is the Gibb’s Hill Light, near the western end of the main island. It is an iron tower, about 117 feet high, situated on top of a hill 245 feet high, so that the total height is 362 feet. (See figure 2.) The powerful light can Figure 2.— Gibb’s Hill Lighthouse, as seen from the sea, bearing N.E. by North. be seen at a distance of about 25 miles, from an elevation of 10 feet, or 30 miles from an elevation of 40 feet. (Plate lxv, fig. 2.) This was required on account of the extremely dangerous outer reefs, that often he from 8 to 10 miles from the land, to the north and west. The other lighthouse is on St. David’s Island, at the eastern end of the group, and near the main ship-channel. It is well known that these islands, which were discovered about 1510, by Juan de Bermudez, were greatly dreaded by the early navigators, and were regarded by some of them as the abode of A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 419 demons, on account of the hidden reefs, which made it very danger- ous to approach them, even at a great distance. The early writers called them ‘“ Devills Ilands;” ‘“Jlands of Devills,”’ and other similar names.* Sir Walter Raleigh, in 1595, referred to the Bermudas in this way: “The rest of the Indies for calmes and diseases very trouble- some, and the Bermudas a hellish sea for thunder and lightning and stormes.” This idea prevailed up to about 1600, when two successive ship- wrecks and the escape of the survivors led to more accurate descrip- tions of the islands and reefs, and almost immediately to their settle- ment by the English. But it was many years after they were settled before a survey of the main ship-channel was made with sufticient accuracy to allow large vessels to enter with safety. Governor Murray, in 1798, made the first reliable survey and located the ship- channel, and the anchorage inside, which still bears his name. For about two hundred years, or up to 1815, St. George’s was the capital, and its harbor was the principal one in use. There are several other smaller and shallower passages or “cuts” through the outer reefs, some of which are sometimes used by the smaller local vessels, but they are mostly crooked, and dangerous, except in pleas- ant weather. (See Part II, ch. 14, and map, fig. 26.) Elies Bay, at the western side of Somerset Island, was used as a harbor, to a considerable extent, in former times, the entrance being through Hogeut Channel at the southwestern end of the Main Island. The water is usually so transparent that the reefs can easily be seen ata distance, even when covered by a considerable depth of water, for they appear like dark masses, against the white shell-sand bottom of the surrounding deeper water. Their dark color is due to the luxuriant growth of brown sea-weeds (mostly Sargassum), corals, etc., with which their tops are always covered. Thus the navigation of the inner waters is rendered comparatively easy and safe for small vessels, even where reefs abound. But there are large * Silvanus Jourdan, one of the party shipwrecked here with Sir George Somers, in 1609, alluded to this superstition as follows :— “And hereby also, I hope to deliver the world from a foule and generall errour: it being counted of most, that they can be no habitation for Men, but rather given over to Devils and wicked Spirits; whereas indeed wee find them now by experience, to bee as habitable and commodious as most Countries of the same climate and situation: insomuch as if the entrance into them were as easie as the place it selfe is contenting, it had long ere this beene inhabited as well as other Iands.” 420 A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. areas of the lagoons that are entirely free of reefs. (See map, fig. 26.) These clear, sheltered waters are ideal places for yachting. Witha small launch and a native pilot one could spend many delightful days cruising among the innumerable small and picturesque islands, and studying the structure and varied life of the curious reefs and “boilers”; but nearly all of our work was done with row-boats. The outer reefs, five to eight miles off the northern and western shores, present an almost unbroken barrier to the great seas. They are laid bare in many places at low tide, and other larger areas are then only covered by two or three feet of water, so that the seas break heavily upon them. After entering the great lagoon, through the main ship-channel, the steamers have to go nearly the whole length of the islands, along the north shore, not far from the land, and then make abrupt turns beyond Spanish Point and through narrow and crooked passages between the numerous small islands, to enter Hamilton Harbor, which is thus admirably protected by nature. Bermuda is an important British naval and military station, and many of the hills and small islands are surmounted by forts, new or old. Some of the early ones were built before 1622. These are now useless and in ruins, but some of the ruins are very picturesque and curious. On Ireland Island, nearly opposite Hamilton Harbor, is the navy yard, with the famous great floating dry-dock,* the marine hospital, and other public buildings. More or less of the English naval vessels can always be seen anchored near there, as well as war vessels of other countries. The appearance of the landscape, along the eastern and northern parts of the islands, as one sees it from the steamer, is far from promising, and is, indeed, apt to be rather disappointing to stran- gers. For much of the land lying near the north shore was long ago entirely stripped of its originally dense forests of cedar and palmetto, and has become so dry and barren, by the washing away of most of the soil, that nothing will grow there, except scattered * A much larger new floating dry-dock has been recently built in England to take the place of the old one. It was launched on the Tyne, Feb. 8, 1902. The new one is 545 feet long; 5314 feet high; 100 feet wide inside, or 126 feet over all, and it can lift a vessel weighing 15,500 tons, or if necessary, 17,500 tons; walls 13 feet thick. It has about twice the capacity of the old one, which was built in 1869. The latter is 381 feet long and 84 feet wide inside, with a lifting power of 8,000 tons. A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 42] and stunted cedars, with a few hardy shrubs and wiry grasses. Ledges of gray limestone project through the thin soil, and most of this region looks desolate and barren, as seen from the steamer. Indeed, the northern hillsides of St. George’s and the eastern end of the Main Island look as bleak and sterile as the poorest and most barren of the rocky sheep-pastures of New England. The dwarfed Bermuda cedars look much like the red cedars of southern New England in barren situations. But the early writers all agree that St. George’s was at first heavily wooded with cedars and palmettoes, like nearly all the other islands having soil, including even the the small islets of much less elevation, many of which are still thickly covered with cedars. Probably the lack of cedars to stop the salt spray was the most important factor in causing this barrenness. For that purpose the cedar is well adapted, because its dense foliage is not very sensitive to the poison- ous action of the salt spray and therefore it makes good windbreaks there. In this respect it is much like our red cedar and pitch-pine, which are often found on small islands and very near the shores. Indeed, many of the smaller Bermuda islets, of which there are more than a hundred, when covered with cedars closely resemble the small wooded islands along the shores of Long Island Sound, as seen in passing. Some of the early settlers mentioned that ships could lie in Castle Harbor moored to the cedar trees on the islands. Governor Roger Wood, in a letter written in 1633, speaks of send- ing cedar planks as presents to his friends in England, and mentions that some were 30 and 32 inches wide and 12 to 13 feet long. ‘They were sawed out by hand. No cedar trees now existing there could furnish planks approaching such sizes. At that period the cedar wood was highly valued in England for choice furniture, on account of its fragrance, hardness, and rich colors, for mahogany was not yet in use. Legal restrictions were very early imposed (before 1622) against the reckless cutting of the cedars and palmettoes, on the ground that even at that time the land was becoming unproductive, for lack of the shelter given by the trees against the high winds. The poisonous quality of the salt spray and sea-foam that is often driven by the winds far inland over the hillsides, has great effect in keeping more luxuriant vegetation in check, for it kills the foliage of most plants on which it lodges, unless at once washed off by rain. As the steamer proceeds northwestward towards Hamilton, the hillsides and lowlands become more and more covered with small 429 A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. forests of dark cedar, with scattered palmettoes intermixed, and with tracts of cultivated land. Many white stone residences can be seen, often partially hidden by the dark cedars, but made conspicuous not only by the natural whiteness of the native limestone, of which they are nearly always built, but also by frequent coatings of whitewash. The roofs are also generally covered with large, thin, overlapping slabs of limestone, coated with cement, so as to shed the rain-water, which is the sole reliance for domestic purposes. All the houses have large water-cisterns. Springs, and streams of fresh water, do not exist there, nor real wells, though in some low places shallow pools or pits are often exca- vated in which rain water collects, suitable for cattle, and sometimes for domestic uses, though it generally rests on an understratum of Figure 3.—Roadside at Fairy Lands near Hamilton, in March, 1901; young Cocoanut Palms and Hibiscus Hedge. sea-water, a foot or two below, and can be used only when the tide is but partly out, and even then it is slightly brackish in most cases. The water in such “wells” rises and falls with the tide, and if the wells be dug at all below the sea-level, salt water is always reached. Hamilton, the capital, is a small but interesting town, situated on a high slope facing the harbor. It contains some fine residences and public buildings, and many beautiful gardens filled with tropical trees, shrubs, and flowers, in great variety. The public garden is A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 493 very attractive and there are many fine shade trees. Two large modern hotels and several smaller ones, with various boarding houses, accommodate the numerous visitors who remain in Hamilton. There is here a street, Cedar Avenue, with a fine row of the native cedars on each side. The grounds at Mt. Langton, the residence of the governor, are very beautiful and contain many rare trees and flowers. In the immediate vicinity of Hamilton there are many interesting places to visit, including numerous fine private residences and beau- tiful gardens and parks. Prospect Hill, the headquarters of the military organization of the islands, is not far away to the eastward. Spanish Point, Clarence Cove, and Fairy Lands are noted places, a short distance northward. Figure 4.—The native Palmetto. The native Palmetto is still common, both wild and in cultivation, but is not nearly so abundant as it was originally, nor so large. This tree is peculiar to the Bermudas, though it is very similar to our southern Palmetto in appearance, but it bears sweet, edible berries in large clusters. (See Part III, ch. 86, and figures 39, 40.) In favor- able places, in rich, moist soil it grows forty to fifty feet high, but it is more frequently only from ten to fifteen feet. (Figure 4.) It seems to grow rather slowly. 424 A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. The early settlers depended very largely upon this tree for food, drink, and shelter. Its leaves were used for thatching most of the houses for at least 60 years; its berries were eaten as fruit ; its soft growing top was boiled for a vegetable, like cabbage ; and its juice and pulp were used to make a fermented intoxicating drink called “bibey ” or bibie. Several foreign palms, including the Date Palm, Cocoanut Palm, and the Royal Palm, are cultivated for ornament, but seldom ripen their fruit. Five tall, straight Royal Palms, standing in a row by the roadside, near Hamilton, and close to the harbor, west of the town, are famous for their graceful forms. (Figure 5, and plate Ixvi, Figure 5.—The Royal Palms near Hamilton. fig. 2.) The Pride-of-India is one of the most common shade trees. It puts out a profusion of clusters of pink flowers, like small pea- blossoms, in early spring, before the leaves appear. (Fig. 17.) Both eastward and westward from Hamilton there are three main highways, running lengthwise of the Main Island, which is about 14 miles long, but less than 2 miles wide, in most places. One road is near the middle line of the island ; another, which runs along near the northern shore, is called the north road ; one, which runs near the south side, is called the south road. These highways generally have very excellent road-beds, with easy grades and a hard, dry sur- face, composed of the native crushed, soft limestone, which is well A. FE. Verrili—The Bermuda Islands. 49} Or adapted to the making of roads. It is so porous that the heaviest rains very quickly soak into it, and it is seldom dusty. But at the time of my last visit, April, 1901, these roads were considerably out of repair, especially the south road, owing to some very severe storms during the preceding winter. A drive along either of the three principal roads, on the Main Island, eastward or westward, will at once relieve the visitor of all his impressions of barrenness, derived from the appearance as seen from the steamer, for cultivated land and luxuriant vegetation are seen on all sides. Great numbers and many varieties of foreign tropical trees, shrubs, and flowering plants are abundant along the roadsides and in the gardens. Wherever there is sufficient soil, and Figure 6.—Banana Patch; a Pawpaw with fruit is near the right side. especially in the valleys or “sinks,” it is highly cultivated. The principal crops are Bermuda onions, early potatoes, and Bermuda lilies, but patches of sweet potatoes, bananas, and various garden vegetables are common. Many unusual fruit trees may also be seen, such as the Orange, Avocado Pear, and most curious of all, the Paw- paw, with its columnar trunk, surmounted by a terminal cluster of large leaves, and sometimes with a cluster of large fruits just below them. It is remarkable for containing a vegetable digestive ferment called papain, capable of digesting meat, etc. (Fig. 6.) 426 A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. The white Japan or Easter Lily was very extensively cultivated here, a few years ago, for the sake of the bulbs, which were shipped to New York for forcing. It was then not uncommon to see beauti- ful fields of five to ten acres of fine plants, which were in full bloom in April and May. Sometimes over 100 flowers were formerly pro- duced on one stem. But within a few years the bulbs have been attacked by a fungous disease, which turns the leaves yellow, and dwarfs and spoils the plants, so that the cultivation of this lily for commercial purposes has now been largely abandoned, though some pretty good fields were still to be seen west of Hamilton in 1901. It is to be hoped that some effectual remedy for this disease may yet be found. Roses of many varieties, and various other flowers, are abundant, and bloom nearly all winter. In many places throughout the islands, tall hedges of Oleanders, both red and white, border the roads on both sides for long distances, and when in. flower, in the spring and early summer, they are very beautiful and fragrant. There is an excellent road for driving, or cycling, running through the central part of the Main Island and Somerset Island, and from this a short cross road leads to the famous Gibb’s Hill Lighthouse, from which a very extensive bird’s-eye view of the whole group < islands can be obtained. (Plate Ixvi, fig. 1.) That portion of the Main Island that lies west of Hamilton con- tains, apparently, the most fertile and productive lands on the islands, and owing to the considerable breadth of land in most places and its sheltered position, by which it is partly protected from the cold winds, the climate seems to be warmer here than on the eastern and more exposed parts of the islands. This may also be due largely to the greater number of cedars and other trees left growing as wind- breaks. Owing to these several causes the vegetation in this region is particularly luxuriant and pleasing, especially in Paget and War- wick parishes.* Somerset Island is also fertile and well cultivated. The best lily fields were seen here in 1901. * There are many places in these western parts of the islands to which some of Thomas Moore’s graceful poetical descriptions would now apply, even better than to St. George’s, where they were written :— ** Could you but view the scenery fair, That now beneath my window lies, You'd think, that nature lavished there Her purest wave, her softest skies, To make a heaven for love to sigh in, For bards to live and saints to die in.” A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 427 ’ In several places there are thick clusters of tall, graceful bamboos, which sometimes cverarch the roads. One of the finest of these groups is situated close by the house occupied by the Empress Eugenie, while she was living here several years ago. This is on a cross road a short distance west of Hamilton. (See plate Ixvii.) Near Elbow Bay, on the south shore, there are extensive modern sand-dunes, only very recently stopped in their destructive advance over the fertile soil, which they had kept up for more than a century. These are of special interest to many persons, but they are still very barren, and are only occupied by sage-bush and other sand-loving plants. Intheir progress they buried groves of cedars and one dwell- ing house. (See under Geology.) Hungry Bay, also on the south shore, with its dense mangrove swamp, is a weird and solitary place, but very interesting to the naturalist. Figure 7.—Cathedral Rocks on Somerset Island. This appears to be the ruins of an ancient cavern, partly broken down and dissected by the sea; the roof has partly fallen down. The cclumus are hardened by infiltration of calcite and roughly pitted. Elies Harbor, or Bay, on the west side of Somerset Island, is a beautiful body of clear, brightly tinted water, with a white sand bottom. Formerly it was a port of some importance. On the point of land separating Elies Bay from “The Scaur,” which is a smaller and shallower bay to the south, are situated the 428 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. remarkable “‘ Cathedral Rocks” or “Old Church Rocks,” which have been carved and worn by the sea into the forms of curious columns and arches, resembling some ancient ruined temple. But the columns are not so high as they seem to be in the photographs. (See fig. 7, and plates Ixxxvili, Ixxxix, and Geology.) Owing to abundant moisture in the atmosphere, and frequent clouds, the sunsets are often exceedingly brilliant, and the sunset colors of the sky, reflected from the bright waves, add greatly to the brilliancy of the color effects. Figure 8.—The Bermuda Cardinal Bird, from life. Another curious phenomenon may often be seen in spring and summer, when the white Tropic-birds can be almost constantly seen in many parts of the islands, flying over the water and uttering their loud cries. Their two long central tail feathers stream grace- fully out behind them as they fly. On bright days the white under surfaces of their wings and bodies appear to have a clear, pale green color, due to the light reflected upward from the white sand of the A. E. Verritil— The Bermuda Islands. 429 bottom through the green sea-water. These birds nest in holes in the cliffs and are protected by law. They migrate to the south for the winter, and return in March. (See plate ]xxii.) Many small birds, which are numerous and tame, may be seen along the roadsides. Although there are only about twelve species of birds native to the islands, or which breed there, the numbers of individuals of several of them are large. The best singers of the native resident species are the Cardinal Bird (fig. 8), the Bluebird and the White-eyed Vireo (Part VI); but the Mocking Bird, English Goldfinch, American Goldfinch, the Wheatear, and other foreign birds have recently been introduced and are now naturalized there. (See Part III, ch. 34.) The Catbird is resident and abundant. It is as tame and auda- cious as with us (see Part VI). The English sparrow was introduced some years ago and is very abundant. The Bluebird is a larger and brighter variety than our northern one. (Fig. 9.) The same is true SAE STRAIT AO pe a in PSF Perea emien WF ae Se a ate aan ¥ = Sip Fs Figure 9.—The Bermuda Bluebird, from life. of the Cardinal Bird, of which the male is redder than the common American variety, and has a brighter red crest. (See Part VI.) The song of the Cardinal Bird is varied and agreeable, and it is said to change according to the season. The little Ground Dove is very tame and is often seen along the roadsides, or feeding in the roads. (Fig. 10.) The American Quail or Bobwhite is also now common, but the present race was introduced in recent times, about 1859, it 430 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. is said, by Mr. R. Darrell, the original ones having been extermi- nated about 1840. Possibly the original ones had been introduced at an earlier period, by the settlers. In the spring and fall a large number of other American birds come to the islands to rest for a Figure 10.—The Ground Dove, from life. short time during their migrations, and some may remain through the winter. Some of these come regularly, every season ; others only occasionally or accidentally. Among them are various ducks and shore birds, but they are not usually numerous. Going eastward from Hamilton, in pleasant weather, the north road is most delightful, for it affords numerous fine views of the adjacent waters, which here are clear and sparkling, and have most surprising tints of sapphire-blue and bright turquoise-blue, chang- ing in the distance to deep indigo-blue or ultramarine, while in shallow water, nearer the shore, the color is commonly emerald-green or beryl-green, constantly varying in tints according to the nature of the bottom, the state of the sky, and the agitation of the surface. On occasions when a strong northerly or easterly wind is blowing, the north road, eastward of Hamilton, is to be avoided, because it is much exposed to the wind, and in many places the salt spray is apt to be blown across it at such times. The two other roads are much more sheltered from the wind, and have special attractions of their own. The hard, smooth road-beds, composed of the crushed porous limestone, are all well adapted to the cyclists, and many of these are constantly met on the roads, and especially on the north road. ee tl ee ee ot i ee ee ee ee A, E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 431 A short distance north of Hamilton, on the shore, near the north road, there is a place still called the “ Ducking-stool.” It is said to have been the site of that ancient and peculiar mstrument for the punishment of gossiping or scolding women, who led “scandalous lives.” It was also used in England and America, at that time.* Owing to the softness of the limestone, many deep cuts have been made through this stone, which forms all the hills. The rock is divided vertically into blocks by deep, narrow channels, cut by means of heavy steel chisels, abont two inches wide, mounted on long handles. These great blocks are then dislodged, and if sound enough are cut up into regular rectangular blocks, suitable for the walls of houses or other masonry, by means of ordinary cross-cut wood saws. It is said to saw about as readily as soft wood, when first quarried, but it rapidly hardens at the surface when exposed to the weather for a few months. (Fig. 11.) As a result of this mode of quarrying out a road-cutting, the sides of the cuts are always steep, often nearly perpendicular, and they afford excellent sections for the geologist. Everywhere they show the irregular, abruptly shifting stratification, often with the layers inclined at high angles, characteristic of wind-drifted or sand-dune formations. This plainly proves that all these hills are only consol- idated sand-dunes, made of shell-sand blown from the ancient sea- beaches. Several of the deepest cuts are near Hamilton, which is a hilly region. (Fig. 12.) Various vines and herbaceous plants have taken root in the crevices of the older cuttings and help to conceal their angular and artificial *Tt seems, from the following record, that a ‘‘ stool” was not found necessary for administering the punishment in the early years of the settlement. ‘* At the Assizes, 18th June, 1667.” ‘‘Susana Bayley, wife of John Bayley of Deven: Tribe, presented for that shee the said Susana is a person of scandalous life, and found by her conversation to promote dissention in the neighbourhood. Whereuppon the said Susana was found guilty by a Jury of 12 sworne men, uppon the 27th day of June ’67. And was censured by the unanimous Vote of the Court, to be forthwith ducked with three ducks. Which said Censure was accordingly performed from aboard a vessells yards arme lying at the Bridge, the sayd day.” Five ducks were often given to women. How many ducking stools were subsequently erected does not appear, but there is recorded an order of the Council of Sandys Tribe for the erection of a “ duckingstoole” March 25, 1672. It was also ordered that Miles Rivers should either pay for that ducking stool, or else his wife Mary should be ducked ‘‘ when the stoole is erected.” The Sheriff had complained ‘‘that she did abuse him with her tongue in ye execution of his office.” The records do not show which horn of the dilemma was chosen. 432 A, E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. appearance. Among these, the native Maiden-hair Fern, peculiar to the Bermudas, is the most delicate and graceful. (Fig. 33.) Several species of Cactus or “prickly pear” (Opuntia) grow commonly on the walls and rocks by the roadsides. They bear large yellow flowers, in their season, and dark red edible fruits. The singular Life Plant (Lryophyllum) covers the barren places, rocks, and walls along the roads with its large fleshy leaves, and in the spring it sends up tall spikes of pink bell-shaped flowers. ‘This is the same plant that is cultivated with us as a house-plant, partly Figure 11.—Quarrying Limestone with chisels and saws. on account of its singular power of putting forth several complete young plants from the edges of a cut leaf, when laid on the surface of the earth. It is very much at home in Bermuda and spreads rapidly. It serves well to cover unsightly or barren places, for it appears to be able to grow on almost bare rocks. (Plate Ixxiv, fig. 2.) The underbrush along the roads is composed largely of the naturalized shrubby Lantanas, which bear a profusion of bright orange or red flowers. It is here called “Sage Bush,” and in some places it has become a troublesome weed, as in many tropical coun- tries, but it is very useful in binding the drifting sands. A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 4: ww Along the north road, in many places where it approaches closely to the shore and is exposed to violent winds and salt spray, tall hedges of Tamarisk, called “Spruce” by the Bermudians, have been planted. This shrub grows here to large size. Many of the older ones, having been many times broken and bent by the storms, have acquired a weather-beaten and picturesque appearance. Its delicate, heath-like foliage stands the poisonous action of salt-water spray very well. In May and June it puts out large clusters of small, pink, bell-shaped flowers, much like those of a heath. It is a native of southern Europe. Figure 12.—Road Cutting near Hamilton. In other places can be seen hedges of Century-plants, or Agave, of several kinds. Some of these flower freely here in early spring, sending up tall branching stalks, sometimes 10 to 15 feet high, covered with a profusion of yellow flowers. In many places there are hedges of the scarlet-flowered Hibiscus, which is very showy when in flower. Hedges of the Pomegranate; Spanish Bayonets ( Yucca) ; Cycads; Pepper-bushes; Snuff-bushes ; Galba, with its glossy leaves, and other unusual hedge-plants form hedges in certain places. Trans. Conn. Acap., Vou. XI. 28 ApRIL, 1902. 434 A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. Traveling eastward by the north road, one passes through Flatts Village, where the road crosses the inlet to Harrington Sound. This sound is a considerable body of sea-water, completely land-locked, except for this small channel, but the sound itself can best be seen from the middle and south roads. From the bridge across the shallow but rapid tidal stream, one can see, beneath the clear water, a great variety of living sea-weeds, sponges, and other organisms, of various bright colors. Among these the most conspicuous are large masses of a bright red, orange, or scarlet sponge, which grows in many different shapes, and varies much in color. Several fine residences and beautiful grounds are situated in the village and near it. Many visitors, including several scientific parties, have made it their headquarters.* There are here, and near- by, several good boarding houses, but no large hotel. In the interesting grounds at “‘ Wistowe,” the residence of the late Hon. C. M. Allen, formerly United States Consul, there is a stone basin for fishes. It is fed by a tidal current of water flowing through a trench cut from the inlet to Harrington Sound. A fine collection of bright-colored fishes can usually be seen here. Among those noticed in 1901 were some large green and yellow Angel- fishes ; the brilliant Doncella; a large Blue Parrot-fish ; the Blue Oldwife or “ Turbot,” and others of interest. By the roadside, at this village, there is a very large Mahogany tree, which is the only large one on the islands. Not far away there is also a very large India-rubber tree, and in several of the grounds are numerous good specimens of Palms and the native Palmetto, with the Pawpaw and many other interesting trees and shrubs. The mouth of the inlet here was at one time, many years ago, a harbor of some importance, with docks and warehouses, but it is now so silted up that it is only deep enough for boats. Indeed, it has always been liable to become obstructed by sand bars, on account of its strong tidal currents and the bottom of shifting sands. * Platts Village is advantageously situated in many respects for this purpose, as well as for the pleasure seekers. Among other naturalists, Prof. Wm. North Rice and the late Mr. G. Brown Goode, who subsequently was at the head of the U. S. National Museum, and also fora short time was U. S. Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries, made extensive collections here in 1876-7. Mr. Goode published several papers on the Fishes of Bermuda. Professor Heilprin, of Philadelphia, with one of his parties, also chose this place in 1888. The best localities for obtaining the very singular fish-like creature called the Lancelet or Amphioxus are on the shallow sand-bars of this inlet. wr a A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 435 As far back as 1629, thereis a record of one Thomas Emmet having been paid 50 lbs. of tobacco for digging out the mouth of the chan- nel. At that time, and long after, tobacco was the regular currency of the colonists. Not far beyond Flatts Village the road passes Shelly Bay, named for Mr. Henry Shelly, one of the party shipwrecked on the islands with Sir George Somers, in 1609, by whom it was discovered. It abounded with fish at that time. It has a broad crescent-shaped beach of white sand, but the bay itself is very shallow and full of rocky reefs. In bright weather its waters are beautifully tinted with emerald green. It has considerable scientific interest, because long after its discovery it became obstructed with sand-dunes which were eventually covered with vegetation. But about 1807, these sand-dunes were rapidly swept away again by the wind and sea, thus quite changing its form and size (see Physiography and plate Ixviii). Going farther eastward, the north road passes through Bailey’s Bay Village, which has been a favorite place for several scientific parties and many other visitors.* At this place there is a very large and handsome Tamarind tree, about six feet in diameter, by the residence of Doctor T. A. Outer- bridge. Inthe yard of Mr. J. D. Seon, there is a Cycad of unusu- ally large size, said to be over 60 years old. This village has two small bathing beaches of white shell-sand. Such beaches are but few on the north side of the islands. In the shore cliffs, a little east of Bailey’s Bay, there are two grot- toes of considerable size, side by side, which can only be entered at low tide, and by the aid of a boat. Several roads diverge from Bailey’s Bay, and connect around Harrington Sound with all the roads to Hamilton. Another goes east to the long causeway and St. George’s. Traveling eastward from Hamilton, the middle and south roads unite at the western end of Harrington Sound into a road that skirts its entire southern and eastern shores. This road has many attractive features, but is somewhat hilly. It affords many beautiful views of Harrington Sound, with its islets and headlands. This sound is a fine expanse of pure transparent water, and is as completely land- locked and surrounded by hills as a lake. It has but very little * My party of 1898 had its headquarters here at ‘‘Seaward,” the home of Mr. J.D. Seon. We found the situation, owing to its central position, a very favor- able one for visiting the islands and reefs of Bailey’s Bay, Castle Harbor, and Harrington Sound. 436 , A. E. Verrilli— The Bermuda Islands. tide, usually 6 to 8 inches, and contains several small islets, some of which are inhabited ; others are wooded and unoccupied. Trunk Island has a stone residence and pleasant grounds with palmettoes and other shade trees upon it. Its clear waters abound in marine Figure 13,—Harrington Sound and small Islets. life and its cavernous cliffs and shell-sand beaches afford some excel- lent places for zoblogical collecting, especially since collecting can be done here with a boat when it is too windy to do anything of the kind on the other shores. (Plate Ixxi.) Near the western end of this sound, and close by the roadside, is “Devils Hole,” which is a natural fish-pond connected by subterra- nean crevices with the sea. It was formed by the falling in of the roof of a cavern. It has been enclosed by a wall and stocked with hundreds of fishes, mostly large “Hamlets” or Hamlet Groupers. With these are some Green Angel-fishes, Oldwives or “ Turbots” ; and a few other kinds. When we visited the place, it also contained several green Sea-turtles. It is a sort of gigantic natural aquarium, and is well worth a visit. The fishes are fed so often by visitors that even the large Groupers, some of them a yard long, will take bread and other food from one’s hands, but caution is necessary lest they take the fingers also. When food is thrown into the water there is a wonderful scene of wild commotion, and a great display of wide-open red mouths. On the south side of the island, not far from here, there is an exten- sive beach of white shell-sand, on which the breakers, in southerly winds, beat with great force. The loose sand from the beach, which A, FE. Verrili— The Bermuda Islands. 437 has been drifted from the shore by high winds, has formed hills or dunes of white sand that extend a considerable distance from the shore, at Tucker’s Town, burying the once fertile soil. This has been going on here for about a hundred and twenty-five years. The loose sand of the dunes has not yet been stayed in its destructive progress by the binding roots of various shrubs and grasses that will grow in such soil, though the area of loose sand has already been much diminished by them. (Plates Ixxv, Ixxvi, and see Physiography, ch. 10.) These are now the only important active, or moving, sand-dunes on the islands, though there were other even more extensive ones a few years ago, especially near Elbow Bay, all of which have now been stayed by the vegetation, At the latter place they formerly buried, in their irresistible progress, a dwelling, all except the chim- ney, and also groves of cedars. Figure 14.—Lion Rock and Harrington Sound. At arocky promontory, interrupting the beach, there is a very interesting rock-sculpture, consisting of two large, well formed arches, side by side, and separated by a massive central pillar of limestone. (Plate Ixxxvii.) The south road also passes close by “ Lion Rock,” a curious rock- sculpture, carved by the waves, and so named from its form. (Figure 14.) 438 A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. Shark’s Hole, nearby, is a large natural archway or tunnel, leading far under the cliff, with water in it deep enough for a large boat to enter for a considerable distance. Corals, sponges, and seaweeds may be seen growing on the bottom in the clear water, and schools of large Sea Lawyers or Gray Snappers and other fishes are often to be seen swimming among the broken rocks in plain view, but these lawyers are too sly and intelligent to be taken with a hook. (Plate lxxiil.) . Near Shark’s Hole the road passes Paynter’s Vale, a very old estate, once highly cultivated, but now much neglected. Many unusual shrubs and trees grow half wild upon it, including wild coffee-trees, citrons, lemons, and many others. In front of the house is the first Fiddle-wood tree planted in Bermuda, and it is said to be the parent of all the trees of that kind on the islands. It was set out about 73 years ago, and is now about 5 feet in diameter. It lost some of its larger branchesin the hurricane of September, 1899, but is still a large tree. This species spreads rapidly, both by its seeds and roots, and is now probably the most abundant deciduous tree on the island. Its bright green foliage contrasts finely with the dark green of the cedar. (Plate 1xx.) Not far away, the road passes near the Peniston Cave (plate xciii), which has not yet been opened to the public, and is rather difficult to explore. It is, perhaps, the most beautiful cave now known on the islands, on account of the great number of stalactites and the variety of forms that they have taken, and also because of their nearly pure white color. This is due to the fact that in this cave torches and bonfires have not been allowed to coat over the sur- faces with soot, which has been done to a deplorable extent in many of the other caves. This should have been prohibited long ago. (See Geology.) It belongs to Mr. W. S. O. Peniston, the proprietor of the Harring- ton House,* close by. It is to be hoped that he will soon improve the entrance and make it readily accessible to visitors. A short distance farther north the road passes near the famous Walsingham place, which has some interesting historic associations, and it is also an interesting locality for the geologist and naturalist. The picturesque old stone house, not now occupied, is situated * This boarding house was our headquarters in 1901. We found this place an excellent one for our purposes. It is very near Harrington Sound on one side and Castle Harbor on the other. A. EF. Verrili— The Bermuda Islands. 439 close to the shore of Walsingham Bay.* (Fig. 15.) It is consider- ably out of repair and some of the outbuildings are in ruins. It is one of the oldest houses on the islands, for it is said to have been built about 1670-80, butit has been considerably altered and repaired within 50 years. It is pointed out to visitors as the house of the poet, Thomas Moore, who really resided at St. George’s for about four months, from January to May, 1804. He had been appointed Figure 15.—Walsingham ; Mangrove Trees on the left side. to an official position there, which did not prove satisfactory to him, so he delegated his duties to a deputy and returned home, after visiting the United States and Canada. He may have been an occasional or a frequent guest at the Walsingham House, for the * This Bay was so named in 1609, in honor of Mr. Walsingham, coxswain of the ‘‘Sea Venture,” who discovered it. It is related by Strachy that when the vessel, which the shipwrecked crew had built, finally set sail for Virginia, she got aground on one of the reefs at the entrance of St. George’s Harbor, causing great dismay, but Mr. Walsingham soon got her clear of the reef. ‘‘ When shee strucke upon the Rocke, the Cock-swayne, one Walsingham, beeing in the Boate, with a quicke spirit (when wee were all amazed, and our hearts failed) did give way stoutly, and so by Gods goodnesse hee led it out at three fadome, and three fadome and a half water. The wind served us easily all that day and the next (God be ever praysed for it) to the no little joy of us all, we got cleere of the Tlands.”’ 440 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. owner, at that time, was very hospitable, but there is no evidence that he ever remained there even over night. The room that is called *'Tom Moore’s room” was really the dining room, as I was assured by persons who had resided in the house before it was altered.* On this estate, farther back from the shore, in a grassy glade near the caves, is the famous old Calabash tree under which Moore is said to have composed some of his Bermuda poems, and to which he cer- tainly refers in his notes and diary. | In his notes to his poems he makes the following allusion to this tree :— “ How truly politic it is in a poet to connect his verse with well- known and interesting localities,—to wed his song to scenes already invested with fame, and thus lend it a chance of sharing a charm which encircles them,—I have myself, in more than one instance, very agreeably experienced. Among the memorials of this descrip- tion, which, as I learn with pleasure and pride, still keep me remem- bered in some of those beautiful regions of the West which I visited, I shall mention but one slight instance, as showing how potently the Genius of the Place may lend to song a life and imperishableness to which, in itself, it boasts no claim or pretension. The following lines in one of my Bermuda poems : “Twas thus by the side of the Calabash tree, With a few who could feel and remember like me’ still live in memory, I am told, on those fairy shores, connecting my name with the noble old tree, which, I believe, still adorns it. One of the few treasures (of any kind) I possess is a goblet formed of one of the fruit-shells of this remarkable tree, which was brought from Bermuda a few years since by Mr. Dudley Costello, and which that gentleman very kindly presented to me.”+ * An old lady, only recently living in Bermuda, used to say that she could well remember that when she was a young girl, living nearby, she used to see Tom Moore rowing in his skiff, and coming to Walsingham, and that he was a hand- some young fellow with curly, golden hair, ‘‘ just the color of a sovereign.” This agrees well with contemporary descriptions of him. +In his published diary the following occurs :—‘‘20th (March, 1834). has Governor Lefroy, in his edition of Butler’s “ Historye,’ reprinted this illustration. Norwood’s original maps of that period are remarkably accurate. I have here reproduced some of the illustrations of the old forts, taken from Capt. John Smith’s History. In the view of King’s Castle a vessel is represented as passing through the narrow channel, under Gurnet Head, and Southampton Fort is shown on the other side, as described by Governor Butler, who built it. But no attempt has been made by the artist to show the actual form or height of either island, or the width of the channel, as compared with the size of the ship and forts, for the channel here is perhaps a quarter of a mile wide. It is, in fact, in these respects intended to be a mere diagram, but it was probably also intended to give a fair idea of the form and character of the forts or platforms themselves, and of the redoubts or magazines, and more especially the number of mounted guns. Governor Butler states that Southampton Fort was the only one properly planned and laid out for defence, and the illustration cer- tainly shows a style of construction very different from any other, and more like the larger forts of the Old World (fig. 20). Its ruins can now be seen, having nearly the form here represented. It is enumerated as among the forts in use in 1677, in the statement made by the Company, and it was still garrisoned in 1693. I have found no mention of its having been repaired or rebuilt in later times. Governor Lefroy (about 1876) speaks of it as showing its original form, and in fair preservation, at that time. Scientifically it is, therefore, of much more interest than the works on Castle Island. The northern side of Castle Island was so high that boats could not land there except at the foot of stairs cut out of the solid rocks. These must have been used when the seas were beating on the south side. There was also a well and windlass for hoisting freight from boats on that side, where the cliff overhangs. Two large brick water-cisterns, with their stone catchment platforms, on the slopes of the hills, are still in pretty good condition, and are full of good water, but they are probably not very ancient. (See plate Ixxix, fig. 1, b, ¢.) 460 A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. Early in 1620, Governor Butler built the opposite fort on South- ampton Island, and mounted there five guns, most of which he raised from wrecks. His description of it is as follows :— “The Governour is noe sooner returned out of the maine to St. Georges, butt he setts twenty men of his owne people on worcke at Southampton Forte, the which after six weekes of hard labour is absolutely perfected, and the whole worck shutt in, and ordinance secured, by three smale bullwarcks, two curtaines, and two ravelins; the which not only (being thus putt together) maketh a very fayre shewe out to sea, but is, with all (the naturall site of rock exceed- inglie well concuringe) very strong and defensible ; being (to saye the truth) the only true peece of fortification in the whole Ilands.” Figure 21.—Castle Island ; Gurnet Head in profile, with ruins of King’s Castle on the top; Profile, (a) at base of cliff ; (6) Ruins of Southampton Fort. 1901. He also built there a cedar redoubt for a magazine. The main ship-channel lies between this fort and the “King’s Castle.” Three of the guns for this fort he raised from the wreck of the Warwick, “with infinite toyle and much danger.” If we consider the small size of the guns of that period and their short range, whether on land or ships, these works seem to have been very well planned, but their strength was never actually tested by hostile ves- A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 46] sels, though somewhat suspicious vessels were sometimes scared away, just as well as by many modern forts of greater size. (Fig. 21, and plate Ixxix, fig. 2.) Additions and repairs were made to King’s Castle at various times, and it seems to have been garrisoned almost continuously for over seventy years, though the regular garrison usually consisted of only 12 men. In consequence of the war with Spain, the Company in a letter of March, 1626, ordered Governor Woodhouse to see that the forts, especially King’s Castle, were kept in order and well guarded. As a result of this, extensive repairs were made and new works were built at the King’s Castle from May to November, 1626. A levy of men from all the tribes was made, each man to give two days labor or furnish a substitute, the men to work in gangs of 15 each. Items charged for the special or skilled labor indicate that consider- able changes were made. There isa charge of 120 pounds of tobacco for 1,000 feet of cedar planks for the platform, etc.; 400 pounds for the foundations; 394 pounds for mounting the ordinance and for the *‘palisado ;” 425 pounds for iron work of the gun carriages, etc. Altogether, 3,925 pounds of tobacco were demanded for this work. There is no special description of the work done, or needed to be done, nor any statement of the number of guns mounted. It seems strange that so many repairs were needed within four years from the time that Governor Butler had left the works in good order and the 16 guns mounted on new cedar carriages. There is no mention of new guns. A little later there were charges of dishonesty and fraud preferred against Capt. Stokes, who was then in command of the fort, and Capt. Felgate, who superintended the work, and they were both discharged from the service, in disgrace, showing that the pub- lic interests were sometimes poorly looked after there,—much as in modern times, and other countries, on a larger scale. In November, 1626, a new fort was ordered to be erected on Pen- iston’s Island (now Paget Island), about where Fort Cunningham now stands. For this work every owner or “halver renter of land,” and every servant receiving wages, was required to give 10 days of labor or its equivalent in substitutes. Wages were reckoned at 2} lbs. of tobacco per day, without board, or 2 lbs. ‘and his victuals.” The men were to work in gangs of 40 at atime, in rotation. At that time the land had to be cleared. There is record of a special charge of 120 pounds of tobacco for felling the trees on the site. 462 A. E. Verril—The Bermuda Islands. But I have found no description of the nature or amount of work actually completed there. Among the old records are numerous entries of amounts paid to the garrison and for supplies of various kinds, up to 1690 or later. Southampton Fort was also in use as late as 1693.* The usual amount of pay was 170 pounds of tobacco annually, for each man of the garrison ; for in those times tobacco was the regular currency of the islands, not only for the payment of wages and salaries, even of the governor, but also in ordinary trade and barter. In 1622 tobacco was valued there at 2 shillings 6 pence per pound, but the people claimed that this was too little. In 1629 there is a record of amounts in tobacco paid for cedar Jumber, nails, rosin, tar, etc., for a new water cistern and platform at the King’s Castle, as well as for the labor of building it. Repairs were recorded as made at King’s Castle and Southampton Fort in 1660, and a new cedar platform was made at King’s Castle. It was used as a prison in 1649, and it is recorded that it was made the place from which the pilots should go out to ships in 1656. In June, 1672, much alarm was felt on account of news of the war between England and Holland. Consequently the forts were repaired, guns were remounted, and a new fort was ordered to be built, at an unfortified place, but the locality is not recorded. Per- haps this was the very old stone redoubt at the entrance of Hungry Bay, now in ruins, but with part of the side walls standing. All the guns were ordered tested with double charges in 1674. The King’s Castle was again repaired and the guns were put in order by Governor Coney, in 1684. As the extinct “cahow” was still abundant on the adjacent islands when the earliest fortifications were built on Castle Island, and as it must, undoubtedly, have furnished part of the rations of the workmen and garrison up to 1616, it was thought possible that by a careful search in the adjacent soil, or in the kitchen-refuse of those ancient works, if any could be found, some of the bones of the cahow might be discovered. Probably most of their rubbish was thrown over the high cliff, directly into the sea. A considerable mass of debris, mixed with “kitchen middens,” was, however, overhauled close to the old fort on Gurnet Head, but no cahow bones were found, though there were bones of common birds, fishes, and domestic animals in good preservation, showing that the calcareous soil is suitable for the preservation of the bones. * One of the depositions made in 1693, in regard to buried treasures, was by Capt. Brangman, commander of Southampton Fort. (See ch. 26, c.) A. EF. Verrill— The Bermuda Tslands. 463 We also found gunflints and flint cores from which they had been made, silver and brass military buttons, broken clay pipes, etc. All these, however, probably belonged to the period of the war of 1812. Charles Island, or “Goat Island,” a little farther south, is rather smaller and still more barren, as it is covered in some places with drifting sand. It also has the ruins of a small fort on its highest point. ‘This stone redoubt was built by Governor Moore about 1614, and mounted only two guns. (Fig. 22.) Figure 22.—Charles Island and Ruins of Charles Fort, built about 1614. Norwood, the engineer, stated in 1663 that this fort was even then “fallen into decay.” In digging into a bed of loose sand, undermined by the sea, on the north side of this island, we found an abundance of large fossil snail shells, of a species not now living on these smaller islands, and nearby, two skeletons of soldiers, associated with military brass buttons, made in Dublin, and stamped with three mounted cannon, in a row, indicating an artilleryman. The most interesting finds on Castle Island were the broken pearly shells of the West Indian Whelk (Zivona pica), which had, apparently, been used as food. This mollusk, which is eaten in the West Indies and called the “‘ whelk,” has been so long extinct in the Bermudas that nothing is now known of its former presence in the living state. Its large, thick, mottled, and partly pearly shell is 464 A. FE. Verrilli— The Bermuda Islands. common as a fossil in the xolian limestone all over the islands, even on the highest hills, and is often seen loose, where the soft rock has decayed. More often it may be seen carried about on the backs of the large land hermit-crabs, whose ancestors, many thousands of years ago, carried these same shells inland from the shores to the ancient sand hills. (See chapter on Geology and figure.) But this occurrence of the broken shells in the kitchen refuse, would indicate that this West Indian ‘“ Whelk” was living in these waters in 1812. (See Part III, ch. 32, and ch. 46, Geology.) Figure 22a.—The Land Hermit-crab (Cenobita diogenes) carrying fossil marine shell (Livona) on its back. Part I1—Physiography, including Meteorology, ete. 1.— Geographical Position. The dry land of the Bermudas is mostly included between N. Lat. 32° 15’ and 32° 23’ and W. Long. 64° 39’ and 64° 53’. But the reef areas extend between 32° 12’ and 32° 30’, N. Lat. ; and between 64° 34’ and 65° 02’ W. Long. These islands are remarkable for their isolation from any, other lands, and the depth of the ocean around them. I am indebted to Professor 8. L. Penfield for the following mea- surements of distances on the maps made according to his new method of stereographic projection. They are believed to be much more accurate than those hitherto given : Bermuda to New York, 675 nautical miles. os Cape Hatteras, 575 “ 4 Martha’s Vineyard, 615 fs oe aN Cape Cod, 620 oc ue «6 Cape Sable, N. S., ae a eee « * Great Abaca Is., Bahamas, 715 st es 2 Porto Rico, 830 vs eg A. EF. Vérrilli— The Bermuda Islands: 465 2,.—Forms and Extent of the Islands and Reefs. The existing islands of Bermuda must be regarded as the remnants of the higher parts of a submerged and very much eroded, older limestone island, of much larger size, which has been well called the “ Greater Bermuda.” It might, perhaps, be as well called the Plio- cene Bermuda, from a geological point of view. The outline of the Greater Bermuda is preserved by the outlying limestone reefs that surround the present islands on all sides. These reefs have an elliptical outline, about 225 miles long and 11 wide, in the widest parts, and cover about 250 square miles. They consist of zolian or sand-dune limestone, like that of the dry land itself. . They are, in most parts, covered with coatings of living corals, corallines, and algze, that retard the erosion by the sea. In most places they rise nearly to the surface of the sea, and at extreme low tides large, flat areas of reefs rocks, called “flats,” are laid bare. Therefore they are extremely dangerous to navigators, even now, though the two excellent lighthouses and the excellent modern charts have greatly reduced the danger. The outer reefs, on the north side, enclose large areas of irregular scattered reefs of the same kind, and also several large sunken lagoons and anchorages of deeper open waters, with bottoms covered with tenacious, white, calcareous mud and shell-sand, thus affording good anchorages, large enough to accommodate the largest fleets of vessels. These are often 50 to 70 feet deep, and sometimes deeper than that in places. The entrances are narrow and few. Murray Anchorage and Great Sound are good examples of these. (See map.) The dry land of the islands consists of over 150 islands and islets, many of them very small; together they form a narrow, hook-shaped group, about 14 miles long, in a straight line, and mostly from one- half to two miles wide. The total area is about 12,400 acres, or 194 square miles, of which about 3,000 acres is said to be arable.* *Some of the other islands, of less importance, with their approximate areas, according to Norwood’s 1663 survey (fractions usually omitted), are as follows: Cooper’s Island, 77 acres. Boas Island, 4 acres. Paget or Peniston I., 31 acres. Yates Island, 31 ‘“ Long Bird Island, 46 acres. Elizabeth ‘“* 21 “* Smith’s Island, 61 acres. Tucker’s ‘“‘ 21 and 7 acres. (Now Nonesuch ‘** 15 ‘ Daniel Island and Benets Island.) Coney Selo acl” & 3) TOOUS: Brother’s Islands, 20 and 17 acres. (Now Castle es 32°) 2iroods: Tucker’s Island and Morgan Island.) Southampton Island, 1 acre 2 roods. Trunk Island, 3 acres. Charles Island, 3 acres 3 roods. Norwood stated that most of these sizes are only estimates. But they agree closely with the official estimate made in 1875. : Trans. Conn. Acap., Vou. XI. 30 APRIL, 1902. 466 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. The bulk of the land is contained in the Main Island, which is about 11 miles long, and contains about 9,725 acres. Four other islands are of considerable size. Two are at the western end: Somerset Island, with 702 acres; and Ireland Island, with 133 acres. At the eastern end are St. George’s Island, with 706 acres ; and St. David’s Island, with 527 acres. The Main Island is connected by bridges with St. George’s Island and Long Bird Island at the eastern end; and with Somerset Island, Boas Island, and Ireland Island, at the western end, so that one can drive by good roads from one end of the group to the other. But St. David’s Island and many of the smaller islands can only be reached by boats. 3.— Hills, Valleys, Sinks, Brackish Ponds, Swamps. The land of the larger islands is everywhere hilly. The hills are mostly gently rounded and are nothing but consolidated sand-dunes, consisting of shell-sand, blown from the beaches in ancient times, and hardened or cemented by the infiltration of rain-water tempo- rarily holding some of the limestone in solution, as will be more fully described in the chapter on Geology. This mode of origin, as sand-drifts, accounts for their rounded forms and irregular arrangement. Several of the higher are over 200 feet high; the highest is 268 feet. This is an unusual height for sand-dunes, but is exceeded in the Bahamas and some other countries. But before the great submergence of these islands these hills must have stood at least 100 feet higher than now. (See Geology.) The great violence of the storms that often visit these islands ; the lightness of the materials ; and the fact that the hills when once formed very soon harden at the surface, so that the sub- sequent storms cannot cut them down again, are sufficient reasons for their great elevation. Between the hills are irregular valleys of various sizes. Many of these are surrounded by hills or higher land on all sides, so that they have no outlet. (See plate Ixv, fig. 2.) They never contain water unless they are so low that they extend below the level of the sea ; in such cases they contain salt or brackish ponds, fresher at the sur- face, of which there are several of considerable size, as well as many smaller ones. A line of sinks, part of them containing brackish ponds, extends from Tucker’s Town westward for several miles to Paget Parish, nearly parallel with the south shore of the Main Island, and not far A. EF. Verrili—The Bermuda Islands. 467 from it. Some of these are connected with the sea, like Tuckers Town Bay, Trott’s Pond, and Peniston’s Pond; others are separated from it by narrow and low divides or ridges. In severe storms the sea pours in large quantities over the low divide into Peniston’s Pond, which is the largest of the ponds, so that ultimately, and at no distant time, it will doubtless form a breach and thus convert the pond into a bay or harbor, like Hungry Bay and many others. Hungry Bay was evidently at one time a pond of the same kind, which has been breached by the sea. ‘The tide now flows in and out, through a narrow channel, in a rapid current. This bay is shallow and the inner end terminates in a dense mangrove swamp of con- siderable extent. It is a favorable place for zodlogical collecting. When the interior valleys or sinks are not quite so low, but yet extend below the level of the sea, they usually form swamps, peat bogs, or marshes, with thick beds of peat or muck. Pembroke marsh and Devonshire swamp are large peat bogs of this description. Borings have shown that the peat in Pembroke marsh is about 40 feet deep, and its bottom extends many feet below the level of the sea, showing that the land has subsided considerably since the beginning of its formation, for peat does not form in the salt ponds or bogs. Peat bogs have also been dredged up during the harbor improvements, at considerable depths. (See Geology.) The vegetation in some of the swamps is very dense and luxuriant. This is the case especially in Pembroke swamp. The Palmetto grows tall and slender in such places (fig. 32). Among other plants, the ferns are very conspicuous. Some of these grow to large size, especially the two species of Osmunda, which are also found in the northern United States; the common brake or bracken (Pteris aqui- lina); and the Marsh Fern (Acrostichum aureum), a large West Indian species. (See Part II, ch. 24, Botany.) Absence of Streams and Springs. Owing to the great porosity of all the limestone rocks, surface water does not collect sufficiently at any place to form streams, springs, nor ponds. Rain-water, collected in cisterns, is the uni- versal water supply,* and owing to the abundant rains, it seldom fails, with ordinary care. The roofs of the houses are mostly covered with slabs of limestone, cemented, and arranged to catch all * There are a few exceptions to this rule, for three or four recent wells, of moderate depth on high land, have proved successful. 468 A. FE. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. the rain-water. But in many places on sloping hillsides, platforms are built of similar slabs of stone to conduct the rain-water into large cisterns at the base of the slope, as at Castle Island. (See plate Ixxix, fig. 1.) 4,—Fallen Caverns and Natural Fish Ponds. In many places small and deep valleys or abrupt depressions occur, which are called “sinks” or “plantation holes.” Most of these, if not all, have been caused by the falling in of roofs of caverns, which are of frequent occurrence here. Vegetation is often luxuriant in such places, owing to the rich soil, increased moisture and heat, and the shelter from the high winds. When these sinks are formed by the falling in of caverns that. extend below sea-level, they result in the formation of excellent natural fish-ponds, for they have subterranean connections with the sea that serve to renew the water constantly and keep it pure. Many of these exist. The one best known is the “ Devils Hole,” situated close to the west end of Harrington Sound. This is about 100 feet across, and the water is said to be about 40 feet deep. It is now enclosed and kept stocked with a large number of fishes, mostly Hamlet Groupers, for exhibition purposes. It is a place of much interest to visitors. (See p. 436.) Three ponds of the same kind are situated near the old Walsingham house, close to the shore of Castle Harbor. The largest of these contains several fine sea-turtles. The others contain many bright-colored fishes of various kinds. Another very interesting pool of this kind may be seen close by the road- side on Coney Island, just after crossing the causeway that leads to this island. It is on the right hand side of the road, and only separated from it by a rough board fence. It has perpendicular and overhanging rocky sides, but at the bottom there is a considerable depth of clean, transparent water. Ina calm day large numbers of interesting fishes, some of them of large size, can be seen leisurely hunting for food among the masses of fallen rock at the bottom. But they suddenly disappear into the cavernous places at the least alarm. The principal fishes noticed here were the “Sea Lawyers” or Gray Snappers, which took the initiative in all the evolutions, and whose movements all the others followed in case of supposed danger. There were also large blue Parrot-fishes, Pilot-fishes, and several other kinds. They are said to have entered this place through small A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 469 hidden crevices when young, but cannot now escape. It is certainly a very beautiful natural aquarium. 5.—Harbors and Sounds. In many cases the gradual erosion of the sea-cliffs by the waves and the encroachments of the sea, have connected similar sinks and natural fish ponds with the outside waters by means of narrow or wide channels, thus forming partly enclosed harbors, lagoons, or bays, as they are variously called. Every stage in this process can be seen in progress. There is a little landlocked cave on Coney Island, with a shell-sand beach, but connected with the open water only by a narrow channel, between high limestone ledges, barely wide enough for a row-boat to pass through (figure 23). A similar miniature harbor may be seen near the roadside between Bailey Bay and Shelly Bay. It is said to have become connected with the sea in quite recent times. It is easy to see that this same process, when it opens up a larger valley or sink, will give rise to larger lagoons and Figure 23.—Cove at Coney Island, with a narrow entrance. harbors. No doubt Hungry Bay, Harrington Sound, St. George’s Harbor, and other harbors have been formed partly in this way, though doubtless in combination with the effects of the great sub- sidence of all the land that took place in a late geological period. (See Geology.) 470 A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 6.—Mangrove Swamps. When small bays or lagoons are thus formed by the invasion of the sea, if they should be sheltered from violent waves, mangroves and black-jack trees take root in the sea water itself, as well as along its borders. By means of the peculiar descending shoots or aérial roots of the former and the ascending shoots from the roots of the latter, a dense thicket or mangrove swamp is soon formed, admir- ably adapted to collecting and retaining dead leaves, mud, and sedi- ment of all kinds, thus gradually increasing the area and fertility of the land. (See plates Ixviii, fig. 2, and Ixxivy, fig. 1, and Native Trees, Part III, ch. 26, e.) Such mangrove swamps, usually of small extent, exist In many places, as at Coney Island, Walsingham, Spanish Point, Tucker’s Town, ete. Larger and denser ones may be seen at Hungry Bay, Mangrove Bay, and several other places. 7,—Oaverns and Grottoes. Among the more interesting of the geological phenomena are the numerous caverns, usually hung with numerous huge stalactites, but sometimes with innumerable small and delicate ones ; and in some places decorated with the most delicate fret-work, or with thin, translucent draperies, of snow-white stalactitic material. Some of these caverns are of considerable extent, but the larger ones are generally partly submerged below the level of the sea, so that the floor may be covered with clear sea-water, 10 to 20 feet deep. 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Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. The numbered samples of soil in the accompanying table came from the following places: The samples of soil forwarded to Mr. Manning for analysis were as follows :— No. 1.—Pure white sand taken from the bottom of the hill on the Pembroke marsh side of Mount Langton. No, 2.—A chalky mud, which occurs in a vein in the same locality. No, 3.—Pure virgin red earth from the layer on the east side of Bishop street, Hamilton, about 60 feet above the sea. No. 4.—Good average agricultural red soil, taken from a field on the Devonshire College ground, which at the time was under tomatoes. No. 5.—Very red soil from Mr. Gibbons’ farm near the Causeway, under arrowroot at the time. There can scarcely be a doubt that with so good a soil as a foun- dation, and with so favorable a climate, immense crops could be grown by the modern scientific methods of intensive culture and abundant use of the proper fertilizers, adapted to any required crop. - It would seem probable that the culture of a high grade of tobacco, on modern scientific principles, and under cloth frames,* could be made very profitable. 18.—The Climate. The tables printed below will give a fairly good idea of the climate, as observed during a series of years. The principal peculi- arities are due to the insular situation and the proximity of the Gulf Stream. Both these factors tend to prevent extremes of temperature and sudden changes. But the temperature and dampness of the air vary greatly according to the direction of the wind, especially in winter. The northerly winds are usually cold and chilly, and are often accompanied by cold rains, but at other times by cool and dry weather. But southerly and southwesterly winds from over the Gulf Stream are warm and damp ; they are the prevailing winds in summer, and usually, also, in the winter and spring, but northerly winds are often nearly as frequent in winter. Fogs, however, are of very rare occurrence. The average temperature during the three winter months and March is from 63° to 66° F.; April, about 65°.5; May, 70°.5; June, * In early times the tobacco crop was often much damaged, or nearly destroyed, by blighting winds, probably due largely to the salt spray in most cases. The use of thin cloth shelters, which has been found so advantageous in this country, especially in Connecticut, would be worth trying in Bermuda. A. FE. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 495 76°; July, 80°; August, 81°.7; Sept., 80°; Oct., 73°.7; Nov.,68°. The average for the year is about 70° F., but ranges from 69°.5 to 70°.5. But temperatures as low as 50° to 53° are not uncommon in winter ; 42° is rarely reached. It is rarely as high as 87° in summer, but the mean relative humidity, during the summer months, ranges from 80 to 91. a—Rainfall ; Hail; Thunderstorms ; Fogs ; Moisture. The amount of rainfall is large, and it seems to be somewhat larger at Hamilton and Ireland Island than at St. George’s. According to Lefroy’s tables, covering eleven and sixteen years, respectively, it was 54.66 inches at Ireland Island and 48.61 inches at St. George’s. The amount near Hamilton in later years usually varied between 58 and 63 inches, but in 1898 was only 48.19, and in 1900 it was 67.05 inches. (See Tables, pp. 500-502.) The rainfall is usually pretty well distributed throughout the year, but is generally greatest in October and November and least in the summer months, when droughts are not uncommon, but seldom very prolonged. Usually more or less rain falls on from one hundred and ninety to two hundred and seven days; and on at least half of the days of all the months from November to April.* But in many cases the rains are mere showers of very brief duration. Fogs are of rare occurrence, but really dense fogs are scarcely known about the Bermudas, so that vessels rarely if ever get ashore on that account. We observed land fogs in the early morning, several times in March ; sometimes it was somewhat dense, but it soon passed away. The air is, for the greater part of the time, decidedly moist, as shown by the tables below, and in the summer time it is often nearly saturated with moisture, so that it is very oppressive to many persons. Several rather severe hailstorms have been recorded, but they are not at all common.+ Strachy records that in 1609 :—“ In the begin- ning of December wee had great store of hayle.” Lefroy says that on Feb. 20, 1872, “the ground was in some places white with hail, which did not disappear for some hours.” * Owing to the amount of rainy weather in the cooler montlis, and the mois- ture of the air generally, the climate of Bermuda is not well suited for many invalids who go there. For consumptive patients, especially, who usually need a dry climate, the conditions are not favorable. For nervous diseases it seems to be excellent. + According to the New York papers a hailstorm occurred at Bermuda, April 21, 1902. 496 A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. Thunder showers are very common, and they occur in all months of the year, but they are usually of short duration, though some- times very violent. b.— Winds ; Hurricanes ; Gales. The climate must be considered as decidedly windy, as the tables will show. Perfectly calm days are of rare occurrence, except during the summer months, when there will sometimes be several perfectly calm days in succession, but a few nearly calm days usually occur in each month. The mean annual velocity is eight to nine miles per hour. Strong gales and severe storms are not uncommon in the cooler months, from November to April, but the very destructive cyclonic hurricanes that have occasionally visited the islands, gen- erally occur in August or September, more rarely in October and November. One of the most violent hurricanes on record occurred in the night, Sept. 12, 1899. This did very great damage to the trees and to property, but no lives were lost. It carried away most of the long stone causeway from the Main Island to St. George’s, and greatly damaged the wharves and buildings at St. George’s. It also did great damage to the causeway and other works at Ireland Island, and at other places at that end of the islands. (See p. 442.) Another hurricane of nearly the same character, and perhaps of even greater violence, visited the islands just 60 years earlier, on Sept. 11 and 12, 1839. That storm also did great damage by uproot- ing large numbers of trees and unroofing and blowing down houses. Similar hurricanes are several times recorded in the early settlement of Bermuda. One in Governor Moore’s time, 1612, blew down his framed church and did other damage. A severe storm is mentioned in 1615. Captain John Smith stated that in the last of November, 1619, there was a “terrible Hericano” which “blew up great trees by the roots.” The magazine ship “ Warwick” was wrecked in the harbor,* and the “ Garland” was only saved by cutting away her masts. A little later in the same season there was another similar storm which blew down the new lookout tower and blasted the entire crop of corn. * The Rey. Mr. Hughes in 1620 referred to this wreck, as follows: ‘‘ Consider also the goodnes of God in preserving all shippes belonging to these lands so as none have beene cast away neither going nor coming: true it is that this last yeare 1619 a ship was cast away, not going nor coming, but riding at anker in the harbour.” Se 7’ al A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 497 Aug. 16, 1629, there was so great a storm that the governor and council the next year (1630) ordained a proclamation, setting aside its anniversary as a day of thanksgiving and prayer. In Governor Roger Wood’s proclamation, he said that although the Lord had seen fit to destroy their houses and crops, he had spared their lives. In the order of the governor and council it is mentioned that : “Their buildings and croppes in generall were utterly ruinated by the saide guste, without taking away the life of any man, woeman or childe, which ought never to bee forgotten.” It was also ordered that the public buildings then blown down should be repaired as soon as possible, namely :—the Courte of Guard ; the Prison ; Warwick Fort ; and Pembroke Fort. The ship “ Virginia Merchant” was cast away on the south coast, in a severe storm, March 24, 1661, and 170 lives were lost. In October, 1780, there was also one of the severest hurricanes ever recorded there. Houses were blown down and cedars were torn up by the roots. The tide rose to a great height and much damage and loss to shipping occurred. On Monday night and Tuesday morning, Feb. 16 and 17, 1784, according to the Royal Gazette, there was a heavy storm; trees were torn up ; houses damaged ; boats lost and destroyed. The Assem- bly of the Island, which was to have met at St. George’s, could not come out of the country on account of the storm. The Bermuda squalls or gales are sudden and violent tempests, occurring particularly in the winter season. Findlay described these gales as follows : “* As the day closes, the whole horizon becomes obscured by dark and heavy clouds, and the thunder and lightning, which precede the first squall, give notice of its approach. After the commencement, the wind, continually shifting, blows in tremendous gusts at inter- vals of every 20 or 30 minutes, a dead calm intervening ; and the sea, rising in confused and breaking waves, renders the situation of a vessel, particularly a small one, very dangerous. The conduct pursued by seamen, and which appears to be the most advisable under such circumstances, is to furl the ship’s sails, and endeavour to get before the wind; by which means she may ultimately run clear of these local squalls into a steady breeze.” A local tornado is recorded as having occurred at Tucker’s Town in 1875. It destroyed a small dwelling house and carried the occu- pants some distance, injuring the owner and killing his wife and children, Storms of this character appear to be rare in Bermuda. , Trans. Conn. Acap., Vou. XI. 32 May, 1902, 498 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Tslands. — Temperature ; Frost, Ice, and Snow. Frosts have been recorded only a few times during the whole period of the history of the islands, and in those cases they have been light and probably local. No great damage, even to tender plants, has ever been recorded as caused by frosts. Governor Lefroy cites two authentic cases: Dec. 24, 1840, when ice was formed in tubs, in low situations, “ to the thickness of a half- crown,” and vegetation was considerably damaged, according to some writers; and Feb. 21, 1878, when the thermometer on grass registered 28°.2 F. A few scattering flakes of snow have been seen in a few instances, but so rarely that it is regarded as aremarkable event. On March 1, 1784, at St. George’s, according to the Royal Gazette, “ A light flight of snow fell here. In a house the thermometer was as low as 48°, out of doors 44°.” One instance was in 1811 or 1812; another, March 4, 1874. There is no evidence of any definite change in the climate since the islands were first settled. Jourdan’s description, in 1610, would still apply very well :— “Tn August, September, and untill the end of October, wee had very hot and pleasant weather, onely (as I say) thunder, lightning, and many scattering showers of Raine (which would passe swiftly over, and yet fall with such force and darknesse for the time as if it would never bee cleere againe) wee wanted not any: and of raine more in Summer then in Winter, and in the beginning of December wee had great store of hayle (the sharpe windes blowing Northerly) but it continued not, and to say truth, it is wintry or summer weather there, according as those North and North-west windes blow, Much taste of this kind of Winter wee had; for those cold windes would suddenly alter the ayre: but when there was no breath of wind to bring the moyst ayre out of the Seas, from the North and North-west, wee were rather weary of the heate, then pinched with the extreamitie of cold: Yet the three Winter moneths, Decem- ber, January, and February, the winds kept in those cold corners, and indeed then it was heavy and melancholy being there, nor were the winds more rough in March, then in the aforesaid moneths, and yet even then would the Birds breed. I thinke they bredde there most monethes in the yeere, in September, and at Christmasse I saw young Birds,* and in Februarie, at which time the mornings are there (as i in May | in England) fresh and sharpe.” S The “ cahows” pred in December and January according to all the early accounts. A, EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 499 According to Governor Lefroy the lowest records of temperature are most apt to occur in March. He states that in the years 1872-77, a thermometer on grass registered below 40°, 17 times, viz.:—Dec- ember, twice ; January, four times; February, three times; March, eight times. The lowest was 34°, in January, 1874; the lowest in March was 35°, in 1877. Table of Mean Monthly Temperatures and Rainfall. The following table is copied from Governor Lefroy’s work on the Botany of Bermuda : CONDITIONS OF TEMPERATURE AND RAINFALL AFFECTING VEGETATION IN BERMUDA. * | Temperature Temperature of the air. of the soil: | _jTean, etc aie oP eis Inches. | 9a.m. | 3P.m. at 6 Ins./at12 Ins.) ° ce] te} ° In. MANUAL ese eee eet oe Ee oe | 64.0 65.5 62.0 62.5 3.8 LE ry Se ee ea aN af 65.1 61.1 61.4 4.2 IWIGR RG ota. Sv) Dasa eT ee a Ree | 63.8 65.5 61.5 61.5 3.6 fella So eee eae eae | 674 | 69.8 | 648 | 64.9 3.3 WE NGG eee ee Oi ae 72.0 73.5 69.9 69.5 4.1 JCS ae ae 2 eae ees | 76.8 78.8 74.5 73.9 3.3 sity 2.325 oe SAE Se ae eee Pea Silo S220 ee aee Gos 4.0 ue SE ee 82.5 S42. 79.1 79.2 3.9 BEMpUeMMET Se ee 80.2 81.9 ide 76.9 4.8 WRTODGRMEA aE emo ek Ise 1 aKa WOME 73.4 73.7 6.7 I \GNGH1) 0) A GORS is malen 67.2 68.1 5.7 Wecemben suse ass 2-52 eek 65.4 | 66.4 62.9 63.2 4.0 | 71.9 73.4 69.3 69.4 51.4 The mean annual temperatures of the air during 22 years was 71°.9 at 9 A. M., and 73°.4 at 3 P. M. The mean temperature of the soil at the depth of 12 inches was 69.°4, which is probably very close to the true mean annual temper- ature. He gives the average annual rainfall, for the same period, as 51.4 inches. * The mean temperatures are given by observations extending (with some lacunz) from August, 1855, to March, 1877. The temperature of the soil at 6 inches is the mean between observations at 9 a.m. and 5 p.m., apparently the hours of extreme daily range. The temperature at 12 inches is that at 9 A.M.; the daily range at this depth is under 0°.5, and is about the mean at 9 a.m. A. E. 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FE. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 503 e.—Drouths and Famines. Throughout the early history of the islands there were frequent seasons of scarcity of food, and sometimes of genuine famine during the winter, but the reasons for this are frequently not given, except as an infliction sent upon them by the Lord for their sins, as stated in the proclamations of the governors. The causes of some of these famines have been mentioned in other chapters. Not infrequently lack of food was due to the destruction of the crops by hurricanes, as in 1629, when the “great guste” of August 16 destroyed all their crops and many of their houses and forts, and was followed in the next winter by a partial famine. (See p. 497.) In 1616 to 1619 great scarcity of food was due to the plague of wood-rats that ate up all their crops, even digging up the seed as soon as planted. (See Part III, ch. 33.) But several seasons of great scarcity have certainly been due to summer drouths, though these are not often very severe. A proclamation for thanksgiving was issued by Governor Sayle, Thursday, Aug. 22, 1662, because it had pleased God “to send us a gratious rain in a plentiful manner, thorow his tender mercies and compassions.” He explained that before the rain came, he had been about to appoint a day of fasting and prayer, on account of “a great and terrible drouth upon the land, that all things were even withered and dried upp, soe that the dumb creatures began to languish.” In the summer of 1784 there was a severe drouth. It was so severe that according to an item in the Royal Gazette, “there is scarcely any grain left for the horses and cattle.” J.— Temperature of the Sea. The average surface temperature of the sea varies in different months, about as follows: LTO Te eae ee a ee O0s—Gow list |e UlyA eee wee OP oe oS 79°-83° F. Hebraanye Sane os oe eke 59 —-63 fees At omist aera se 2 — 85 LN GVW 01D as Sieh ie oe ae 62 - 66 September’ -2-! =. _ 3.5- 83 - 75 PAT Ue oem eae 92 ASS FP 66 - 71 Octobers=s-2 255 eee 75 - 69 a Se a eee 70 - 76 | Noyembortse }3 5.25.2 69 — 65 on Sa eee 75 - 80 | December..-..----.-.--- 65 — 61 19.— Remarkable Instance of the Death of Fishes, etc., due to Cold- ness of the Sea, in 1901. During the months of February and the first part of March, in 1901, the weather at Bermuda was unusually cold, stormy, and wet. The temperature fell, at one time, as low as 45 F. The continued 504 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. low temperature and the cold northwest winds, persisting for many days together, appear to have been suflicient to cool the sea-water beyond the limit of endurance for many of the tropical fishes found there, so that vast numbers died and were washed ashore, especially during the first week of March, all along the coast, but more abun- dantly around the shores of Hamilton Harbor and the adjacent islands. The stench from their decomposition became so great that the local government was obliged to aid in their removal, early in March, for sanitary reasons. The fishes that died in the largest quantities were two of the com- mon shallow water species, viz: the hamlet grouper and the red squirrel fish. Later in the season these and other fishes that had previously been common were found to be scarce and difficult to obtain. In fact, most of the ordinary market fishes were much scarcer than ever before. ; Among other interesting fishes seen dead on the shore were the green parrot-fish, large porcupine-fishes, hog fish, Spanish lady-fish, trunk-fish, angel-fish, ete. The following partial list* of species includes those that were particularly noticed among the dead fishes, March 8th to 10th :— Squlrrel-fishye a= Holocentrus Ascensionis. Hamlet Grouper------ - Ree a aod Hpinephelus striatus. IParrotsishies- ses. eee eee Pseudoscarus guacamaia. IROrcupine-fishae ses. = =e eee Diodon hystrix. Prunkefish#£ 3225. c. lee Lactophrys triqueter. Gow=tishieie e222) oo. ae eee Lactophrys tricornis. Small Rock-fishes. .--2-2_ 2.22222 Mycteroperca bonaci (young). Spanish Angel-fish; Catalineta __Holacanthus tricolor. Rainbow Hiounder!=29252s=ee== Platophrys lunatus. Guapena; Ribbon-fish .___------ Eques lanceolatus. Green) Moray... = 2-225 s eee Lycodontis funebris. Bermuda Hoe-fshie- ee eee Lachnolaimus maximus. Spanish Wady-fish =... 255 22 Harpe rufa. In this list, very incomplete as it must be, there are two species that had not been previously recorded from Bermuda waters, so * T am indebted to my son, A. Hyatt Verrill, for part of the above list, for he arrived in Bermuda March 7th, when the shores were still covered with the dead fishes, though most of them were then so badly decomposed that they could not be preserved. Had he been on the ground a week earlier, he could have made, without doubt, a very valuable collection of the fishes, including many rare species not in the above list. When I arrived at Bermuda, April 12th, the most of the dead fishes had disappeared, though skeletons of some of the more abundant species were common; but a few dead, or nearly dead, specimens of some species were still often found floating at the surface. A. HE. Verrilli— The Bermuda Islands. 505 far as I know, viz: the Guapena (gues lanceolatus), of which a single specimen, with its characteristic color markings still visible, was found dead on the shore near Hamilton ; and the Green Parrot- fish (Pseudoscarus guacamaia), which was found in considerable numbers on the shore of Long Bird Island. The latter was recogniz- able on account of its remarkable turquoise-blue teeth, some of which were preserved by Mr. A. H. Verrill. Those fishes that habitually live in deep water, among the outer reefs, such as the red snapper (Neomcius aya), large rock-fishes (Mycteroperca bonac?), amber-fishes, etc., appeared not to have been much affected. Many of the corals seemed to have been injured also, and some were killed. In Harrington Sound and Castle Harbor we noticed many recently dead specimens of Porites (P. clavaria and P. astre- oides); some of Oculina; and the “ rose-coral” (Mussa, or Isophyllia, dipsacea), and in Harrington Sound, large numbers of dead speci- mens of the “ hat-coral” or “shade-coral” (Agaricia fragilis). It was also remarkable that the very common “ rose-coral ” (Mussa, or LIsophyllia, dipsacea), even when apparently healthy, was very rarely seen expanded, in March and April, 1901. Indeed, I do not think that a single specimen, of the hundreds that were examined during the month of April, was in full expansion. Nor could we induce any of the numerous specimens, brought in for the purpose of study, to expand satisfactorily, although they were treated with the greatest care. This was in very marked contrast with its behavior in the spring of 1898, when nearly all the specimens were found fully expanded and active, and when brought into the laboratory, with no particular care, they would expand fully and freely, for days together, presenting a very beautiful effect, owing to their various bright colors, among which emerald-green tints were conspicuous. _ Last year the brighter tints were mostly lacking, and gray and lav- ender were the predominating colors, probably on account of their less healthy condition. One very large specimen of the Octopus ( Octopus rugosus) was found dead on the shore, early in March. This species, also, like many others, seemed to be far less common than in 1898. But asa rule, there did not seem to have been any noticeable change in the numbers of most of the Mollusca, Crustacea, annelids, and other invertebrates that live buried in the sand or sheltered in cavities of the reefs. Some of the crabs that live exposed on the shores appeared to have been*killed in large numbers. The very common 506 A. FE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. Cliff-crab (Grapsus grapsus) was found to be much less abundant last spring than it was in 1898, and another species of Cliff-crab, having the same habits (Plagusia depressa), which we found com- mon at Castle Island, Bailey’s Bay Island, etc., in 1898, could not be found at all, last year, though we searched for it in the same places. That the unusually low temperature of the water that prevailed in February and the first part of March was the principal cause of the death of the fishes and corals, hardly admits of doubt. Under ordinary conditions many of the tropical species, found at Bermuda, are living in winter nearly at their extreme limit, as to low temperatures, so that even a small falling off from the usual average, for any considerable length of time, would be certain to prove fatal to them. It is certain that a marked decrease below the usual winter temperature took place during a part of February, amounting to about 2° F. below the average for the corresponding periods in most other years, as shown by the meteorological records. But the same decrease in temperature has repeatedly occurred without killing the fishes. Unfortunately, I have not been able to secure careful observations on the temperature of the water, during February and March, 1901, but any marked decrease in the average temperature of the water, for a number of days, would be certain to affect the air in the same way, though to a less extent. Iam indebted to Mr. H. E. Williams, Acting Chief of the United States Weather Bureau, for the follow- ing statement of the temperature and rainfall prevailing at Bermuda, during February, 1901 : “The mean temperature at Hamilton, Bermuda, for February, 1901, was 59.5 F. The average temperature for February at Hamilton is 61.5. The rainfall for the same month was 5.56, being 1.16 inch in excess of the normal. For March, 1901, the monthly mean tempera- ture was 62.4 F., or 0.2 above the normal. The rainfall was 8.55 . inches, or 2.90 inches above the normal. The month of February was an exceedingly stormy one over almost the entire North Atlantic, there being a succession of gales from the beginning of the month to about the 26th. Many of these disturbances extended as far south- ward as Bermuda. The weather for March was decidedly more tranquil, although a greater amount of rain fell.” That the mean temperature of the air was not sufficiently low, during February and the first week of March, to have directly caused the death of the fishes, is evident, because it has often been at least two degrees lower during January and February, in other years, without producing any such effects. A, EF. Verril—The Bermuda Islands. 507 The most marked and remarkable feature in the meteorology of February was the unusual persistence of the northwest winds. According to the meteorological tables kindly furnished to me by Mr. T. G. Gosling, of Hamilton, northwest winds are recorded forty-two times in February, 1901, as contrasted with nineteen times in 1900. They were continuous for four days, from the 5th to the 9th, and again six days, from the 13th to the 19th. North and north- east winds were also frequent. These northerly winds were usually accompanied by a fall of six to nine degrees in the temperature of the air, as contrasted with southerly and southwesterly winds. That these persistent northerly winds caused currents of cold northern waters to impinge upon the shores of the Bermudas can scarcely be doubted. Moreover they might easily have caused an upward flow of the cold waters that rest against the submerged slopes of the islands at the depths of forty-five to sixty fathoms and more, for the surface currents, set in motion by the long-continued northerly winds, would inevitably also cause an upward flow of the colder waters of the submerged slopes, as I have many years ago proved to be the case on our own coast. By these combined effects, it is easy to understand how the body of shallow warm waters around the Bermudas could quickly have been cooled sufficiently to kill the more sensitive species of tropical fishes. These would naturally be those that habitually live in shallow water and among the sheltered places near the shores, where the water is usually warmest. I was told by elderly and intelligent persons, who have always lived in Bermuda, that no such instance of the death of fishes in large numbers had occurred there within fifty to sixty years, or so far back as they could recollect. Nor can I find any record of any similar event in the early annals of Bermuda. Several instances of the death of vast numbers of fishes on the Gulf Coast of the southern United States, and especially on the west coast of Florida, are on record. The actual causes of the fatal- ities in that region are not fully known. In view of the instance recorded above, and the famous case of the death of the tile-fishes, etc., beneath the inner edge of the Gulf Stream, in 1882, it is not improbable that the Florida cases were also due to periods of unusually low temperature, acting upon tropical fishes that were living at or near their extreme northern ranges. Thus a slight fall in the temperature of the water, below their critical point, might have been sufficient to kill them, as in the case at Bermuda and in that of the tile-fish. 508 A, E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. Comparative Tables of Daily Observations for February and March, 1900 and 1901. I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. T. G. Gosling, of Hamilton, for the following tables, which throw considerable light on the con- dition of the temperature and winds just before and at the time of the mortality of the fishes in 1901, as compared with similar tables in 1900. It will be seen that the averages are decidedly lower in 1901. But evidently the most significant point is the great pre- dominance of Northwest winds in 1901; for there are 42 cases, as against 19 in 1900. Such winds not only cause a fall of temperature in the air, but they bring in currents of cold water from the north- ward, and from deep water, if long continued, as they were in Feb- ruary, 1901. The observations were made at 10 a.m.; 12 M.; and 3 P.M. FEBRUARY, 1900. FesRuARY, 1901. ' Air; Wind; | Air; Wind ; Day. Temperature. | Direction. || Temperature. Direction. Hours||10|12| 8 | 10 | 12 | 8 || 10] 12/8 || 10 | t2 | 38 cae ) eee ee = 30S 1 || 67 | 67 | 67) W. | W. | W. | 66 | 66 | 64 || N.W.|N.W.| N.W. 2 || 66 | 66 | 66 | N.W. |N.W. | N.W. | 3 63 | 63 | 638 | N.W.| N.W. | N.W. 4 | | || 62 | 62 | 62 || N.W. | SOW. 1 So We 5 66 | 67 | 67 |S.W. | S.W.|S.W. || 64 | 64 | 63 || N.W. | N.W. | N.W. 6 67 | 68°) 68 | NE. | Boe} EB. |) 60) 1 6E | 61 1 NW ee 7 || 67 | 68 | 68 |N.W.| N.W.|N.W.|| 59 | 59 |.61 || N.W. |) N.W. | N.W. 8 65 | 66 | 65 | N. N. N. || 61 | 62) 62 | N.W.) NOW ee 9 || 66, 68 | 68; N N. | N. || 63 | 63 , 63 || N.E. | N.E. | Calm. 10 || 66 | 66 | 66 | N.E.| N.E. | N.E. 11 || 68 | 63 | 62 || N.W.| N.W. | N.W. 12 68) 705) 770") Ne N. | N. || 60 | 60 | 60 |)}\Calm.| W. W. 13 68 | 69 | 69 E. | S.E. | S.E. || 58 | 58 | 57 N.... | NeW. | NW 14 68 | 68 68 jS.W. | 5.W. 1S. W. || 08 | 58 | O7 | IN Wer ey es 15 67 | 67 | 67 |Calm.|Calm.| S.E. || 60 | 61 | 62 || N.W. | N.W.) N.W. 16 | 67 | 67 | 68 | S. S. | S.W. || 61 | 63 | 64 || N.W. | NW. | NW. il 69 | ‘70 | 72 |S.W.|S.W. | S.W. | 18 | || 65 | 67 | 68 || N.W. | NW. | N.W. 19 65 | 64 | 63 |N.W.!)N.W.| N.W.|| 66 | 67 | 66 N. S. | S.W. 20 62 | 62 | 61 |N.W.|N.W.|N.W.|| 65 | 65 | 65 || N.W.]S.W. | W. 21 62 | 64 | 64] E E. | S.E. || 62 | 62 | 61 || N.W.|N.W.| W. 22 64 | 64 | 64) S Sr legen Il CBs 68 3) Oe W. W. W. 23 Gr | Br.) G7 |) W W. |S.W. || 63 | 65 | 67 N iN: Ss. 24 || 66 | 66 | 67) W Wale Weal ; 25 | | 64 | 64 | 64 || N.W.| N.W.| N.W. 26 64 | 65 | 65 |N.W.| N.W.|N.W.|| 65 | 68 | 68 || S.E. | SE. | S.-W. 27 66 | 66 | 63 |N.W.| N. iN: | 66 | 66 | 66 || S.W.|S.W. | W. 28 60 | 60 | 58 | N.E.| N.E.| N.EL 64 | 65 | 64 || N.W.| N.W. | N.W. Mean | 65.7'66.1' 66.0 | | 62.5 63.2: 63.1 = Ss A. EF. Verrili— The Bermuda Islands. 509 || Marcu, 1900. Marcu, 1901. Air; | Wind ; Air; || Wind ; Day. Temperature. | Direction. Temperature. || Direction. Hours || 10 | 12 | 3 10 12 3 LO) | dees 10 12 3 1 61 | 63 | 64 | S.E. | S.E. S. 61 | 62 | 62 INE Gio: INE 2 GOvMG7 ORGS. Wier eve. W. || 63 | 63 | 68 || S.E. | S.E. | S.E. 3 66.6% | 67 | IN. Wi | NW.) NW. 4 67 | 68 | 68 || S.E. | S.E. | S.E. 5 65 | 66 | 66 | N.E.| N.E. | N.E. || 67 | 69 | 69 || S.E. | S.E. S. 6 || 64| 65/65} N. | N. | N. || 67 | 68 | 67 ||S.W.|S.W.]S.W. 7 } 66 | 67 | 67 | 5S. |S5S.W./S.W. || 63 | 63 | 63 || N.E.| N. N. SeicG7 68) | 69) Wi. W. W. || 61 | 61 | 61 N. N. INTE 9 66 | 67 | 68 | S.E. Ss. | S.W. | 61 | 62 | 65 || S.E. | S.E. Ss. 10 |) 67 | 67 | 67 | S.E. | S.E. | S.E. 1g | | 6D | 67 | 67 Ss. S. | S.W. 12 || 64) 64/64) S. |S.W.|S.W. || 66 | 68 | 69 || W. W. |N.W. 18 || 58 | 58 | 59 |N.W.| N.W.|N.W.|| 65 | 66 | 68 || N.W.|N.W.| W. 14 || 62) 63 | 64) W. W. W. || 65 | 68 | 68 || S.W.| S.W. | S.W. 15 || 64 67 | 68 | S.W. | S.W.|S.W. || 68 | 69 | 69 || S.W. | S.W. | S.wW. 16 || 67 | 68 | 68 | S.W. | S.W.|S.W. || 66 | 65 | 64 | S.W.|N.W.| W. Gesu eGOrt Gon Say | Sows. bh SoW stl 18 || | | || 62 | 62 | 62 || N.W.| N.W.| N.W. 19 66 | 67 | 67 | S.E. | S.E. | S.E. || 63 | 65 | 65 || N.W.| W. | N.W. 20 || 66 | 67 | 68) S.B. | SMe! S. ||,65 | 67.) 68 || N.E.| E. | S.E. 21 || 68 | 69 | 69 |S Ww./S.Ww.| W. |} 66 | 68} 69 || S.E. | S.E. | S.E. 22 63 | 63 | 63 | N.W.|N.W.| N.W. || 66 | 66 | 67 || _‘S. Sa Sai 23 64 | 65 | 65 | N. N. N64 166) | 67 NOW. NW.) NOE. 24 || 64 | 66 | 66/S.W. |S.W.|S.W. | 25 | | | 65 | 68 | 68 ||Calm.| S.W. | S.W. 26 67 | 68 | 68 |S.W.|S.W. | S.W. || 67 | 68 | 69 || S.W.| S.W. | S.W. 27 68 | 68 | 68 | N.W. | N.W. | N.W. || 67 | 69 | 70 | S.W. | S.W. | S.W. 28 69 | 69 | 69 |S.W.| W. | S.W. || 66 | 67 | 67 || N.W.| N.W. | N.W. Poet Go | Gd: 645) IN; | N: N. || 64 | 65 | 64 | N.W. | N.W. | N.W. 30 || 65 | 66 | 66 | S.E. | S.E. | S.E. |] 63 | 64 | 64 | N.W.|N.W.|N.W. 31 || 67 | 69 | 69 |}S.W.| W. We} | Mean | 65.3! 66.2. 66.4) 64.7! 65.8! 65.9) Comparative tables showing the number of times that the wind was observed in certain directions, in February and March, 1900 and 1901. Direction of Wind; Number of Times Observed. Month. February, 1900_-_- February, 1901_--- March, 1900 March, 1901 N. 11 ae uo NEE Shia S Bae ee S NV. Bye 6 5 Bane it Be aN 2 2 7 Se JH 4 6 3 te He 6 22 W. N.W. Calm. 8 19 2 8 42 2 12 12 ae 4 19 510 A. FE. Verrilli— The Bermuda Islands. 20.—Karthquakes. Very few instances of earthquake shocks are on record as noticed in Bermuda, and those few that have been recorded were slight and did no damage. One occurred June 25, 1664 (old style). The following is from the Records of the Port Royal Parish: “upon the 25th day of June Anno 1664 being the Sabbath day, at 9 of the Clock of the forenoon, there was a great and fearfull Earth-. quake which did shake churches and Houses, yea and the hearts of men too.” Another is recorded Feb. 19, 1801. In February, 1843, there was also a light shock of an earthquake, doing no damage. 21.—Health and Diseases; Longevity; Historical Epidemics; Mosquitoes. Aside from the several former invasions of foreign contagious dis- eases and the local epidemics of typhoid fever, the Bermudas have always been unusually healthful, and the native people have been noted for their longevity. The alleged longevity of some of the inhabitants was made a special subject of inquiry by the Royal Soci- ety of London, in the questions addressed to Richard Norwood, in 1664. Perhaps the natural stamina of many of the earliest families who settled there has had much to do with the longevity. Mr. Richard Stafford, in replying to some of these questions, wrote as follows : “As to the Age of our Inhabitants here, some do live to an hundred years and upwards; many live till they are nigh a hundred, but few above: And when they dye, ’tis age and weakness, that is the cause, and not any disease that attends them. The general dis- temper that is yearly amongst us, is a Cold ; and that is most gotten in the hottest weather. The Air here is very sweet and pleasant. Our Diet is but ordinary, and the People generally poor, and I observe, that poor People are most healthful.” (Trans. Royal Soe., ili, p. 792, Oct., 1668.) That the climate was very healthful for the English settlers, was recognized from the earliest times. Thus the Rev. Mr. Hughes, writing in 1615, says: “Young children doe thrive and grow up exceeding well: the climate is so temperate and agreeable to our English constitutions.” He also mentioned, in 1621, that not one of the original 60 colo- nists, who went there in 1612, had died of disease, though one had been accidentally killed by the bursting of a cannon. Yet there had A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 511 been, in at least three of those years, great scarcity of food and more or less famine, when large numbers of the most worthless of the vicious people sent out in 1613 had died miserably. (See ch. 23, d.) The ordinary diseases are essentially similar to those in the eastern United States. Malaria is said to be unknown in the Bermudas, and it is not yet known whether the malaria-carrying mosquito (Anopheles) occurs there or not, though certain species of Cvlex are sufficiently abundant in summer.* But typhoid fever is not uncommon. Dr. Christopher Harvey, Staff-surgeon of the Royal Navy, writing in 1890 (British Medical Journal for 1890, pt. il, p. 1172), says that “the records of the Naval Hospital indisputably prove that remit- tent fever does not occur in the islands,” and that of all cases of intermittent fever, not one was contracted on the islands, In former years there have been several very severe epidemics of yellow fever, introduced from the West Indies, and first appearing among the sailors and soldiers. It is probable, therefore, that the small mosquito that is believed to convey the yellow fever microbe is either native of the Bermudas, or else it was introduced there at each time of the epidemics, which could easily have happened. Once there, the abundant open cisterns of rain water would have afforded it ideal places for breeding and propagating the disease. It would be of great importance to the inhabitants if they could be induced to take intelligent pains to suppress the mosquito nuisance. Much could be done by more thoroughly covering the openings of their cisterns, using wire gauze over the necessary openings ; by introducing gold fishes or other small carnivorous fishes to devour the larve in cisterns or other bodies of water that cannot be drained off, or that are used for cattle ; and by the use of kerosene or other coal oils on the surface of brackish pools, not used for cattle, where it could do no harm, but would effectually destroy the mosquito larvee, if applied every fortnight, during the mosquito season. Many of the small, stagnant, and brackish pools and bogs should be filled up, for some mosquitoes prefer brackish waters for breeding purposes. In the spring months, when we were there, mosquitoes were not common, but they are said to be very troublesome in summer, which * Mr. F. V. Theobald, in his extensive Monograph of the Culicide of the World, recently published by the British Museum, records no other genus of mosquitoes from Bermuda, except Culex. He had examined a lot of 59 speci- mens sent by Governor Barker, in 1897 (coll. 21, vol. ii, p. 358). He did not determine the species ; probably the specimens were too poor. 512 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. could hardly be otherwise, while they have so many ideal places to breed in. The open rain-water cisterns alone are sufficient to supply millions. In case of new epidemics of yellow fever or other similar contagious diseases, it would be of paramount importance to reduce the numbers of both mosquitoes and flies to a minimum. An epidemic of yellow fever occurred in 1819, which is, perhaps, the first one that can be identified with certainty. The disease was doubtless brought from the West Indies on a vessel. | A terrible epidemic of yellow fever prevailed in 1843. It appeared first among the troops and convicts in the barracks and prisons at Ireland Island, where the conditions were unsanitary, but just how it first arrived there, I have not seen recorded. It soon spread to Hamilton and over the islands generally, and large numbers of per- sons died. Governor Reid was very ill, but recovered. One of the worst epidemics of yellow fever occurred in 1852 and 1853. Although it was most fatal among the sailors, soldiers, and convicts at St. George’s and Ireland Island, it spread widely among all classes of people. Two acting governors, Phillpotts and Robe, died of it, within a week. Of the 1600 convicts then employed on the public works, 152 died of the fever. Another severe epidemic, which occurred in 1864, was thought to have been brought in by some of the blockade-running vessels of that period. In the early history of the islands numerous epidemics of conta- gious diseases are referred to very briefly, or incidentally, but usually as brought in by the vessels. We know nothing about some of these except by the references to them in the proclamations for days of fasting and prayer to cure them, which are preserved. In those days such diseases were believed to be direct punishments inflicted on the people “by the hand of God,” on account of their sins of various kinds. There is mention of but one physician on the ” was sent out in 1616; the second, Wm. Plumsted, is mentioned in 1627. Most of the epidemics that are mentioned, up to 1664, were prob- ably the bubonic plague, though descriptions rarely occur. But as the vessels that brought the infection sailed from London and vari- islands for many years; Mr. Walter, a “ chirurgeon, ous European ports, where the plague then prevailed, this was the disease most likely to have been carried in them.* * At that time ‘‘the plague” was very prevalent in Europe. In 1609, the second great London plague occurred, when 11,785 persons died in London alone; in 1620, it prevailed especially in Holland and Germany ; in 1625, 35,417 died in London; it continued in England till 1664, and in other parts of Europe much longer. A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 513 Capt. John Smith and Governor Butler both state that when a small vessel, the “ Garland,” of 45 tons, arrived in November, 1619, after a voyage of seventeen weeks, many passengers and sailors had died, and most of those remaining were ill. Most likely this illness was bubonic plague. Governor Butler relates that in August, 1620, the magazine ship “Joseph” arrived with a very large number of sick persons on board; many had died, and the crew were so ill and feeble that they were barely able to bring the vessel into port. Twenty to thirty of the passengers and crew had died and been thrown overboard, and others died after they were landed. No quarantine was practised in those days, and scarcely any precautions were used, though the dis- ease was known to be infectious. Governor Butler considered it the genuine plague. He gave the following account of it:— “Truly ther could be noe other judgement or censure passed upon this infectious disease than that it was the plaine plague, the purple marcks being plentifully discerned upon many of them. And with- out doubt, had it bin almost in any other place, it would have enlarged itself to a dangerous desolation ; but the exceedinge excel- lent salubritie of the ayre surmounted all thes dangers and difticul- ties, and in a fewe weekes became such a conquerour as this dreadfull infection wholy ceased, and the former wonted health of the Ilands was fully recovered.” In this connection he also mentions that “in shypeing times” dis- eases had many times been brought into the islands and “thus recouvered.””* He relates that in consequence of his boats being employed in taking the sick ones ashore, some of the crews and others took the disease, and also mentions that many of the laborers sent out by the company were of the lowest classes, ten of the men having been taken from Newgate prison and some of the women from Bridewell, and intimates that the infection was thought to be due to this class of persons. But the wonder is that every vessel was not infected in those pestilent years, for we read of no disinfecting or fumigations. The fact that the houses in Bermuda were, at that time, all made of palmetto leaves, and that the people lived largely in the open air, and very plainly, will account for the speedy arrest of the disease. In Sept., 1621, the “Joseph” again arrived with many sick * Although a pious man, there is no record that Governor Butler ever issued a proclamation for fasting and prayer against the spread of the infection. He seems to have been in advance of his time in respect to the cause and cure of infectious diseases. TRANS. Conn. Acap., Vou. XI. 38 May, 1902. 514 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. persons on board, probably with the same disease. Her captain and many passengers had died. She encountered a storm close by the islands, so that it was eight days before she entered the harbor. In this same storm a large Spanish vessel was wrecked on the western reef, but no lives were lost, though they had to abandon their ship about ten miles from land, and many of the passengers came ashore on a raft, at Mangrove Bay. This wreck and the recovering of goods and ordnance led to considerable excitement here, and subsequent investigation in London. But the officers and men. testified that they were treated with great kindness by the governor. It is recorded by Governor Butler, that the magazine ship “ James” arrived at the Bermudas the last of October, 1621, also in a very sickly condition. The master had died, as well as some of the passengers* and crew. Wecan scarcely doubt that this infection was also the bubonic plague. * Tn this vessel were sent out two Indian maidens, who were sent to Bermuda in order that they might find white husbands, as was officially stated. These maidens were two of the three companions who accompanied Pocahontas to Eng- land in 1616. They were daughters of Indian chiefs. One had died in England, of consumption, in 1620; another died on the plague-infected ship in which she sailed for Bermuda. Pocahontas herself had died in England and was buried March 21, 1617, according to the parish register at Gravesend. Governor Butler mentions this event as follows: ‘Ther wer also two Virginian virgins (one wherof died by the way at sea) shypped by the Virginia Company, and very well supplied by them, who wer by that’ Company recommended unto the Gouvernour, as being not only one of the Company, but a sworne counsellor in that plantation, that by his care and anthoritie honest English husbands might ther be provided for them (a harder task in this place than they wer aware of), who together, after some staye in the Ilands, might be transported home to their sauvage parents in Virginia (who wer ther no lesse than petie kinges), and so be happely a meanes of their conversion.” The only remaining Indian maiden, according to Governor Butler, was well married about April, 1622, at Bermuda, as had been recommended by the Gover- nor of the Virginia Company. ‘‘She being then married to as fitt and agreeable an husband as the place would afford, and the weddinge feast kept at the towne, in the Governour’s newe house, and at his charge.”” The wedding was celebrated by a great feast, and in order to further increase the friendship between her people, the Indians, and the Virginia settlers, the Governor wrote letters of advice to the Governor of Virginia and ‘‘ Caused the mayde herself likewise to do as much to her brother, who, by her father’s late death, had succeeded in all his royalties and commande.” Governor Butler did not mention the name of the maiden, nor that of her husband. Nor does he refer to her subsequent history. This marriage took place during the visit of a vessel that came from Virginia for provisions in March, 1621, and remained five weeks. ; d - { A, FE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 515 In aproclamation for a period of fasting and prayer, to be observed every Sunday during Lent, issued by Governor John Harrison, Jan. 29, 1623, he referred to the threatened war with Spain ; to a recent famine ; and to a pestilence, then prevailing, in which both the late Governor (John Bernard) and his wife had both died and been buried in one day. Governor Bernard had died only six weeks after his arrival in the islands. He stated that the only means of overcoming the disease was by fasting and prayer, which was the current belief at that time, and for long after, but although this treatment did not prove very effectual, it undoubtedly did much good indirectly, by allaying the fear and calming the minds of the afflicted people. The following proclamation was issued by Governor Fflorentius Seymer (or Seymour) and refers to an epidemic of some importance. It was probably the bubonic plague, which was very prevalent in London, in 1663 and 1664. “By the Governor, A Proclamation, May 7, 1664.” “ Whereas the afflicting hand of the Almighty hath bin justly, as well as lately, stretched out against us and most of our ffamilies by sickness and distemper of bodie, which is not yet wholie abated. And {, haveing very lately received Christian premonition from our reverend Ministers, for the averting & absolute remoeving (if the Lord shall soe please) thereof. By appointing and setting apart a daie of Humiliation (the sovaraigne remedy for cureing any Epi- demicall sicknes & distemper). These are therefore (in discharge of my dutie, and in psuance of their desires therein) to Will and require all, and all manner of Inhabitants of these Islands, to repayre to the respective Churches whereatt the severall Ministers shall think fitt to appoint ; there to meete uppon Thursday the 12th of this instant Moneth, then and there duly and humblie to attend with them the worke of that day, more especially at the Church and in the tyme of meeting aforesaid. Whereof all manner of persons are hereby in his Maiesties name charged and Comanded to take notice and to yeald a redie observation of the day and duty as aforesaid, (intended & sett apart for the glory of our Maker, and our spirituall and temporall good,) as they will answer the contrary at their perills. And wholly to refrayne from all manner of bodilie labor and superfluous acting, speaking, or doeing that whole day.” Given under my hand the 7th of May, 1664 Fflor. Seymer.” 516 A. KE. Verrilli— The Bermuda Islands. Small pox was often epidemic in the islands, before the introduc- tion of vaccination, and often proved very fatal. In the Royal Gazette for Nov. 27, 1784, (founded Jan. 17, 1784) Dr. Dalzill of Somerset advertises to vaccinate “ Whites and Blacks, to pay each $7.00, and find all necessaries.” But this was, perhaps, vaccination with small pox virus, not with kine pox. The regular vaccination with kine pox was certainly introduced in 1804; but a fatal epidemic of small pox occurred in 1829, when it became so alarming that Governor Popple dispatched two war vessels in quest of vaccine matter. One went to Halifax and one to the Bahamas. In 1818 and 1819, there was a bad epidemic, said to have been of yellow fever, that spread all over the islands. In 1779 and 1780 there was a fatal epidemic of “jail fever,” (probably typhus fever) that originated among the American pris- oners of war, who were crowded into the miserable, foul, and ill-ven- tilated prison, which was described as little better than the “ black hole of Caleutta.” It seems almost incredible, at this time, that English officers and governors could have been so brutal and desti- tute of the ordinary feelings of humanity as many of those of that comparatively modern period proved themselves to have been.* Probably that brutal “type” is not extinct, either in England or elsewhere, but only held in check by public opinion. But this pes- tilence spread beyond the prisons and over the islands generally, affecting the innocent and guilty alike. It may have been typhoid fever. An epidemic of typhoid fever among the soldiers in 1868 is recorded in the British Medical Journal, p. 474, 1868. Doctor Harvey, in the same work (1890, pt. li, pp. 1172-3), has shown that the principal endemic fever of the Bermudas, as proved by the records of the post mortem examinations in the Naval Hos- pital, continued since 1811, has been typhoid fever, and that it has prevailed more or less every summer and autumn since 1811, and doubtless at least as far back as 1780. But in former times, and up ‘to 1862, it was generally mistaken for typhus fever or remittent fever. He attributes it to the local unsanitary condition of many of the houses and out-buildings, and the use of water from polluted wells “at the grog shops and other native houses” by the sailors and soldiers, when the cisterns fail in summer. *English historians have found the official reports made at the time, regard- ing the condition of this prison, ‘‘ too disgusting for publication.” A. EF. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 51 -~IJ At present, the use of drinking water from wells is prohibited, except after official inspection. But from what is now known of the modes of diffusion of this disease, it is probable that the abun- dant house flies convey it, in many cases, directly from infected excreta to human food and drink, for which the conditions are there generally favorable. He considers that the epidemic of a fatal fever in 1849, which affected the natives in large numbers, but not the soldiers, was typhoid fever, the purer water supplied to the soldiers causing their immunity. But previous to that, nearly one-half the total deaths in the Naval Hospital, for a series of years, was due to this disease. In recent years, since the nature and sources of the disease have _ become better known, it has very much decreased. 22.— Principal Productions and Exports, historically treated. a.— Ambergris, Lumber, Fish, ete. The first article of export from the Bermudas was the large mass of ambergris found there by the three pioneers, in 1610. The amount is variously stated from 80 to 180 pounds, and its value from $14,000 to $32,000.* Governor Butler put it at nine score pounds, valued at about £5,000 sterling, which was certainly too low for that weight. He intimated that it was not all turned over to the Company, and that the captain of the ship and a Mr. Kendall, an adventurer, both of whom had been engaged with the finders ina conspiracy to retain it all, had each embezzled a portion of it.+ There * In the commission given to Governor Moore in 1612, he was instructed to pay the finder of ambergris 13: 44 per ounce. Governor Butler records the recovery of 2834 ounces in his time, for which he paid one-half the value to the finders, at the rate of £3 per troy ounce, their share amounting to £43. 6°. 3". and his own to £4. 15s, according to the rules of the Company. In the ‘‘ Orders and Constitutions,” adopted in 1622, No. 124, one-fifth of any ambergris found was reserved to the Company, the rest to be divided equally between the finder and the owner of the land where found, except 3° 4° per ounce, which the governor was to receive. At this time it was considered worth about £3 sterling per troy ounce, but the quality and prices varied somewhat. According to an attestation of Edward Walker, April, 1626, 191¢ ounces of ambergris belonging to Capt. Robert Folgate were sold by him for 50 pounds sterling. (See ch. 26, c.) + Capt. John Smith gave its weight as four-score pounds. But probably Governor Butler was a better authority, for Christopher Carter, one of the finders of it, was living at Bermuda, in his time, and probably many others who had seen it were known to him; the interval was but seven years. 518 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. is also a hint about other frauds connected with it, in speaking of Mr. Christopher Carter, the one of the finders who confessed it. (See Part III, ch. 26, ¢.) But although ambergris was repeatedly found there, it was never again found in large amounts. This first shipment, however, had much to do with the rapid settlement of the islands. Cedar lumber, in various forms, was the next article shipped. An entire cargo was shipped to London in 1616, and from that time on, for more than a hundred years, much of it was constantly exported, though during most of that time its exportation was forbidden, except in the form of chests to hold tobacco, oranges, etc., unless by a special license. The chests were made very large and of thick planks, so that the lumber could be sold in London at a good price, for the cedar wood had then a high value for ornamental furniture. It cost 2° 6° to 3° per foot to saw it into planks by hand in Bermuda, which must have made its price high in London. Had the Company allowed its shipment in logs or squared timber, no doubt the islands would soon have been entirely stripped. (See Part III, ch. 26, 4, under Bermuda Cedar.) Yellow-wood timber was also shipped, so long as it lasted, but it was probably nearly extinct as early as 1650. (See Part III, ch. 26.) Cargoes of limestone, to burn for lime, were sometimes shipped to Virginia, in early times, and bricks were received in return. From about 1622, Indian corn, potatoes, beef, pork, honey, wax, and salted fish (mostly groupers) were shipped in considerable quan- tities to the West Indies, and sometimes to the American Colonies. From 1630, oranges and lemons were also shipped to London, Vir- ginia, and New England, more or less. But most of this trade with the other colonies was forbidden by the Company and therefore it was often done secretly. Freedom to trade with other colonies in cattle, hogs, fruit, and other provisions was first allowed by the Company in 1644, probably in consequence of the Dutch war, and the danger of losing their own vessels. But trading in tobacco was again strictly forbidden, under all circumstances. b.— Tobacco ; Salt. During the first seventy years of the colony, tobacco was the principal commodity exported. At first it was very profitable, but its price, which was 2° 6" per pound in 1620-25, soon declined to such an extent, about 1627, owing partly to the better Virginia tobacco competing with it, that it was not remunerative, and often A, FE. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 519 would not bring enough to pay the freight and duties, which were very high. Freight was sometimes as high as 2¢ to 3° per pound, about 1620-25 ; in 1670, it was, on the magazine ships, three farthings per pound, or if in cedar chests or casks, it was 1° per pound, with “the weight of the chests allowed.” This was seven or eight times the modern rates by sailing vessels. The Company derived income from the freight ; from a special private impost usually of 1° to 2° per pound; from the profit on household goods and liquors sent out; from their share of tobacco raised ; from vessels seized and condemned ; and from whale-oil, ete. The tobacco was made a monopoly in 1623, and it could be imported into England only from Bermuda and Virginia, except a definite limited amount from the West Indies. At first the King received 12° duty per pound ; about 1623 it was reduced to 9°; still later, in 1628, to 6°, and still less subsequently. But the Company, after 1658, imposed an additional duty, for them- selves, of 1¢ to 2° per pound, in addition to their exorbitant freight charges and large levies made in Bermuda for public expenses. The following extract from a letter sent by Mr. Perient Trott, of London, to his agent in Bermuda, on the tobacco trade, April 15, 1663, shows the condition of the trade at that time:— “Tobacco is a miserable Comodity ‘throut the world, more Burmoo- das in England then will sell this two yeares. I pray take not a roll for me but what is gallant both for cutt & color, as before I writ you, and hope you have don soe, if noe such Tobacco be made take none for mee, let others doe what they will, pray follow my order.” The Bermuda Company was a sort of “‘ Syndicate,” as it would now be called, and did not allow the Bermudians to trade with any other ships, nor to send their tobacco to England on any other vessels, except their own, unless there should be an overplus. Dur- ing the Dutch war, in 1642-44, they sent out no ship in two years, so that the colonists suffered great losses. These restrictions natur- ally led to much illicit traffic and smuggling, in spite of the severe penalties. In such operations the Bermudians soon became very expert and venturesome. It is recorded that two vessels in November and December, 1669, took about 40,000 pounds of “ contraband tobacco” to New England, and numerous other cases are recorded, as well as records of a num- ber of vessels seized and confiscated on account of this traffic. The Bermudians often carried the tobacco far out to sea in small boats and put it aboard of vessels that had cleared. 520 A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. As much as 200,000 pounds of tobacco was shipped in some of the earlier years.’ About 1707, its culture was entirely abandoned. In some of the last years of its culture it sold in London for only about 27 and 3¢ per pound, but this may, perhaps, have been owing to its damaged condition. (See Part III, ch. 23, e, under Tobacco.) In 1623, it was ordered by the Council that the price of a bushel of salt made in the Somer Islands should not exceed one pound of tobacco.* At about that period salt was mentioned as being made at St. George’s and other places, but probably not very largely. It is recorded as made there in 1624 and 1625. It was also made at Crawl Point and other places. But salt was also imported at the same period. Subsequently the Bermudians engaged largely in the manufacture of salt at Turks Island, in the winter, and shipping it to the other colonies. This trade was an important one in the 18th century, for they supplied Virginia, New York, and New England with a large part of their salt, down to the time of the Revolution- ary War and later. During the war this traffic was still kept up secretly to a considerable extent. At that time they had no other means of obtaining necessary provision, etc., except by exchanging salt for them in these colonies. It finally led to disputes with the Bahama government, as to the ownership of the right to make salt there without interference. Eventually the British Government gave the control of Turks Island to the Bahamas, to the great disadvantage of the Bermudians, who had built the works there and enjoyed their rights for a great many years (since 1678) unchallenged, except by foreign enemies.t In the official reply of the Company to the government interroga- tions, in 1679, it was stated that no commodities were shipped to England except tobacco and some timber “than which there is nothing else growing or may be produced for shipping”; and that * Bermuda being a small colony, far away from England, and with no trade or commerce allowed elsewhere, it was easy for the grasping persons to make “Ca corner” in any useful product. So that the Governors or Council often had to interfere and regulate prices of the food and wages by law, and some- times to seize corn that was hoarded for high prices in times of famine to save the lives of those who had no food. + They were attacked and driven away by the Spaniards in 1710. They in turn soon fitted out a privateer, in Bermuda, and drove out the Spaniards. Other quarrels with the Spanish occurred there in subsequent years. The French, from St. Domingo, captured the island in 1764 and destroyed the buildings and works, and took all the people as prisoners to Cape Francois. But the British Government soon caused the French to return the people to the island and pay damages, for there was no war at that time. A, FE. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 521 the exports to the “ Neighbour-Islands are Beef, Pork, Fish, Wax, Honey, Palmetto-hats, Baskets, and Woodden ware. suppress them. (See Introduced Mammals, ch. 33, 0.) * Although Governor Butler intimated that there was some great fraud or secret scandal, known to Carter, in connection with the ambergris, it is evi- dent that Governor Moore, himself, had no benefit from it, for he lived in poverty after his return to London. The Company finally gave him six shares of land for his services. But I find no evidence that he went back there to live. + Governor Tucker returned to Bermuda and lived several years on the land conveyed to him by the Company. He died there in 1625. A. FE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. Or Or bo One of his measures was to burn over large districts, and some- times whole islands, thus destroying all the trees and other vegeta- tion, as well as the rats. (See below, ch. 26, b.) Fortunately, in the winter of 1618-19, the rats suddenly died, all within a few days, as the Rev. Mr. Hughes stated. This averted a “ general burninge ” of all the Main Island, that Governor Tucker had decided to order. In the meantime the people had become much impoverished and bread had sometimes been lacking for many months at a time. Governor Butler,* 1619 to 1622, who was an able man and also a discreet governor, tried to restrain the reckless cutting of the trees, which had even then become a great evil, and the wanton destruc- tion of the birds and sea-turtles, but with no great success. He also greatly enlarged and improved the fortifications, and built cedar bridges between the islands, which were much needed. Even in his time, most of the land on St. George’s Island had been stripped of its trees and become barren. d.—The Fatal Famine of 1614-15 ; the “ Feauges.” In the winter of 1614-1615 there was a peculiar fatal famine or disease, apparently due to the lack of bread-stuffs and other ordinary * Most that is known of the history of the islands, from 1612 to 1622, is derived from his MSS ‘‘ Historye of the Bermudaes” printed by the Hakluyt Society, London, 1882, edited by Governor Lefroy. The editor, when it was published, supposed that it was written by Capt. John Smith, but it has since been proved that it was written by Governor Butler (see ‘‘ The Academy,” Dec., 24, 1892, p. 891). The earlier part, from internal evidence, was written in 1619; the last parts, perhaps as late as 1624 or 25. Governor Butler’s accounts are confirmed by those of the Rev. Mr. Hughes (1621), who lived in Bermuda at the same period. Capt. John Smith, in his General History of Virginia, etc., 1624, made copious and often verbatim extracts from Governor Butler’s Historye, without giving any credit for this information, nor in any way referring to its source. As this was done during the life of Governor Butler, it is probable that it was with his knowledge and most likely in accordance with his wishes, for it would appear that at that time he had private reasons for not wishing to be known as the author of this work, which was left unfinished at his death. Many of the persons that he exposed and censured were still living and in influential positions. Governor Butler, like Governor Moore, never got much praise or thanks for all his good efforts in Bermuda, but was blamed for obeying his orders and doing his duty, and falsely accused of many things that he did not do. He certainly did not enrich himself, but was much in debt on his return. Governor Lefroy states that he was subsequently made Governor of [Old] Provi- dence, about 1638. 7 . A. E£. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 553 vegetable food, although animal food was abundant. This affected chiefly the ignorant, indolent, and vicious persons who had been sent there only a short time before by the Company. The Rev. Mr. Hughes, who was present as an eye-witness, described it in 1620, as follows: “ Your looking for more supplies out of Eng- land, and following Tobacco to greedily, did cause you to neglect setting of corne, whereby you were brought into great want, [1615]. Then the number of people encreasing and as they encreased, sin and disorder did also encrease, which brought the correcting hand of God upon you in many wayes, so as divers did perish miserably : but consider I pray you that most of them that so dyed, were ungodly, slothfull and heartlesse men, which sheweth plainly that God hath not reserved these Ilands from the beginning of the world, to bestowe them now upon such as shall dishonor and provoke him every day as many of them did, I cannot but wonder, when I think upon the nastinesse & loathsome lazinesse, wherein too many of them died, crying night and day for meat, notwithstanding they had meat enough, if not too much, for they did nothing night and day but .dresse, and eate, and so greedy, as they would not stay till their meate was sod ; but more like dogges than Christians did devoure it blood rawe.” * 2 hi s * = “They died miserably, some with meate in their mouthes crying for more. This surely was a great jugement of God upon those slothful and greedy Belly-gods and a manifest signe and token (as I said even now) that God hath not reserved these [lands from the beginning of the world till now to bestow them upon such as shall provoke him every day, as many of them did. The correcting hand of God, which then lay heaviest upon the lazie ones, did stretch out itselfe over all, even the most industrious, when their Lines, Hooks and Nets were worne out, so as many of them also died.” It seems, therefore, that it was a case of ‘“ Natural Selection,” or survival of the fittest, and probably was, on the whole, a blessing to the Colony, though other similar emigrants, quite as bad, were sent out subsequently, in 1619-20. (See p. 567.) In regard to the cause of the death of so many of the miserable people at that time, there may be some doubt. There can be no doubt, however, that it was largely due, directly or indirectly, to the lack of suitable vegetable food, for of bread there was none. But there seems to have been an abundance of animal food, for the cahows and their eggs were still abundant, and there were plenty of fish to be had, with little trouble, as well as shell-fish on the rocks. 554 A, EF. Verril—The Bermuda Tslands. Hughes and Butler, as weil as Captain Smith, all speak of the gluttony and laziness of these emigrants, and affirm that large num- bers died of surfeit, rather than from hunger, for the cahow was a very fat bird. Governor Moore was compelled to remove the crowd of 150 from Cooper’s Island, where they were killing them- selves by gormandizing the birds and eggs, to Port Royal, where they could get fish. But they were too indolent to do that, and secretly killed and ate the few cattle that had just before been sent there. He eventually had to gather them all at St. George’s, and fish for them himself, to save their miserable lives, and that of others more deserving. They seem to have been affected with some sort of a disease, which Capt. John Smith called the “ Feauges.” But this may have been induced by the exclusively animal diet and their gluttony. Possibly it was akin to scurvy. Hughes stated that none of the sixty original colonists died at that time. This may have been due to their having laid up some supplies of vegetable food, like dried or preserved palmetto fruits, pumpkins, etc., or they may have learned by experience to eat the Palmetto-heads and other native vegetable food, to a great extent. That these native vegetable foods could take the place of cereals and other ordinary crops, without loss of health, was proved a little later, 1616-17, when it is stated that the colonists had no bread for about two years, on account of the ravages of the wood-rats. Capt. Smith described the “ Feauges” as follows: ‘ He [Goy. Moore] followed the building of these Forts so earnestly, neglecting planting of Corne, till their store was neere all consumed, whereby they became so feeble and weake, some would not, others could not goe abroad to seeke releefe, but starved in their houses ; and many that were abroad, through weaknesse were subject to be suddenly surprised with a disease called the Feauges, which was neither paine nor sicknesse, but as it were the highest degree of weaknesse, depriving them of power and ability from the execution of any bodily exercises, whether it were working, walking, or what else ; being thus taken, if any presently gave them food, many times they straight recovered, yet some after a little rest would be able to walke, but if they found not present succour, died.” Various other details of the early history, from 1612 to 1625, have already been given in connection with descriptions of the ancient fortifications in Part I, and productions in Part II, ch. 22, Many other historical matters will be given in connection with the dis- A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 555 cussion of the Cultivation of Tobacco, and changes in the vege- tation and animal life, contained in the following five chapters, and more especially in connection with Deforesting and the Extermination of the Cahow, ete. So much of the early history of the colony was directly dependent on the production of tobacco, which was the principal article of export for over seventy years, that it seems most desirable to describe the Tobacco Cultivation historically, in the next chapter. (See also p. 518.) e.— Tobacco Cultivation, as connected with the Early History of the Islands. It has been doubted whether the Tobacco plant was growing upon the islands before it was planted by the English, but Silas Jourdan, one of Admiral Somers’ shipwrecked party, distinctly stated, in 1610, that they found there “very good tobacco.” If so, it was probably introduced, like the wild olives and the hogs, by some unknown earlier visitors. The first that was cultivated was planted in 1610, by the three men left on the islands from 1610 to 1612, for in his report of 1612, Gov- ernor Moore stated that those men had “‘ made a great deale tobacco,” among other useful products. Planting it on a larger scale began in 1613. From that time until about 1690 it was the principal commodity exported, but its culture entirely ceased about 1707. During more than sixty years it was also used as the regular currency, in barter, and for paying the wages* and salaries, from that of the government officials down to the cheap- est laborers. Fines and taxes were also paid in tobacco. The value varied, but 2° and 6° was commonly the value per pound, up to about 1627. * An act was passed by the Assembly in 1623 regulating the prices of labor. The wages of a laborer or toiler was to be no more than 1 Ib. of tobacco per day ; of a mason or carpenter 2 Ibs.; for sawing lumber the price was to be 3 lbs. of tobacco per 100 feet. If any craftsman should refuse to work when called upon to do so, and when not already employed, or if he should leave a job before it was properly completed, he was to be put in the stocks, or else caged. This law was reénacted in 1627. It was found necessary because these crafts- men had refused to do their work unless paid exorbitant prices, thus making a corner in the labor market of the islands. Or it might be compared to a ‘* strike” where substitutes could not be found in trades absolutely essential to the welfare of the public. In 1630, it was ordained that 12 lbs. of tobacco should be equal in value to 1,000 ears of corn. A. FE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. on Or on] Wages at the islands were paid in tobacco at the rate of 3° per pound in 1670, which was probably more than its net value, after the imposts were paid in London. The revenue from the tobacco was the main source of profit to the Bermuda Company, and they jealously guarded the monopoly of the trade in it during the entire period that they controlled the islands, or up to 1684.* The quantity and quality varied exceedingly in different years, from a variety of causes, but the Company annually and continually complained of its bad quality. Stringent laws were in force for many years requiring careful inspection of all the tobacco by official inspectors before it was shipped, and the bad tobacco was to be immediately burned. Apparently the dampness of the climate was unfavorable for the proper curing of the tobacco, and in wet seasons much of it rotted. In some years the growing tobacco was badly damaged or destroyed by violent storms. This is recorded as occur- ring in August, 1629, 1651, 1668, and in other years. Probably all the autumnal hurricanes had this effect. Doubtless many of the growers were neither skillful nor careful in the art of curing, but the storms and other natural causes were important factors. On the other hand, in some seasons the crop was large and the quality good. I have been unable to find any record of fertilizers of any kind being imported or used during all these years. Probably nothing was used except a small amount of barnyard manure, and perhaps in some cases, seaweed and dead fishes. The domestic animals were few, and the cattle do not require housing in winter, so that such manure must have been scarce and little used. * A law making the stealing of tobacco plants a felony, punishable with death, was passed in 1623 :-— ‘“ And be yt ennacted by the same, that if any p.son or p.sons shall at any tyme or tymes hereafter enter into or upon the lands or grounds of any other person or p.sons w*" in the Island, aforesaid where any Tobacco or plants thereof shal be planted or growinge and shali there steale, drawe, plucke up, gather or carrye away any Tobacco or Tobacco plants against the good will or without the special lycense and consent of the owner of the same land, and be thereof law- fully convicted, that then every p.son soe offending shal be held and reputed a fellon and shall suffer death for the same, as for any other fellonious deed, Any Act, law, usage or Custom to the contrary thereof in any wise notwithstanding.” This law was so modified, in 1627, that the thief was to be fined 200 pounds of tobacco, or if an apprentice, he was to be whipped ; and in addition, in either case, he was to stand at the church door, during services, with a bunch of tobacco plants hanging from his neck, on three successive Sabbath days. —_ ss” - A. FE. Vervill—The Bermuda Islands. 5} or ~J Therefore, it is remarkable that any respectable crops of such an exhaustive plant as tobacco could have been raised on the same land for so long a time, It is certain, however, that the fertility of the soil had very much decreased before tobacco culture was abandoned (about 1707). But in the meantime Virginia and other American colonies had become great tobacco-growing countries (about 1626) and produced a better quality, so that the prices of the island pro- duct hadyfallen to such an extent that the Bermudians could not compete with any profit. Im 1627 it was worth about 1° 10¢ in Lon- don. It was finally sold at 3° per pound in 1670. For more than a hundred years after this culture was given up, the agriculture of the islands was very much diminished, though the raising of corn, oranges, potatoes, onions, and other products for export. still con- tinued to some extent. The early agriculture was doubtless very simple and imperfect. Scarcely any implements except the grub- bing hoes were in use. Plows were practically unknown until 1839, when their use was urged and introduced to some extent by Gover- nor Reid. In Governor Tucker’s time, about 1618, 30,000 pounds of tobacco were shipped in one year. In 1620, 70,000 pounds were shipped by the “Joseph.” In later years 200,000 pounds were often shipped. In 1671 onevwessel is said to have carried away 250,000 pounds. In 1679 the officers of the Company stated that the annual value was about £5,000 sterling, but at that time the price per pound was very low. One year it is stated that it brought only 15° per pound. Owing to the increasing production of tobacco in Virginia and the West Indies, and the excessive freight and duties levied upon the Bermuda product, the price rapidly fell from 2° 6° to about 9° or less per pound between 1626 and 1630. At first the duty was 1* per pound ; in 1623 it was 9°; in 1628 it was 6°. The duty and freight were often more than it would bring in the London market, so that the more the colonists raised the poorer they became. Although they raised an abundance of corn, potatoes, fruit, poultry, and other food, they had no commodities with which to buy goods from Eng- land, such as clothing, so that they became very destitute of clothing and many other necessities of life, though food was plenty.* * The destitution in clothing, etc., caused by the decrease in the price of tobacco and the high duty on it, is graphically described in letters from Governor Roger Wood, written in 1632. The following extract is from one of these :— ‘To Mr. Ballene I referr the reporte of his voyage, usage and affection on this very poore Island, only for lacke of Canvasse shirts and shoes and such things 558 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. At that time there were no textile materials raised there with which they could have made cloth, even if they had the skill. How- ever, they did plant hempseed and flaxseed, in 1632 and 1633, and subsequently some cotton. But later (1644) they sent a ship to Barbadoes to trade for cotton and it brought back a cargo of 11,018 pounds of cotton, which the women and girls learned to spin. The duty on tobacco was reduced to 6° a pound, in consequence of urgent petitions in 1627, but even then it was not remunerative under the conditions imposed by the Company. The colonists were forbidden to trade with the other American colonies, even for neces- sary things, nor could they trade with any ships except those sent by the Company. Yet they were compelled to do so in order to live at all, and so we find records of cargoes of potatoes, oranges, etc., sent to New England at that time. On the other hand, the Company continually complained of the poor quality of the tobacco sent to them; but those planters who occupied the public lands on half- shares complained that the Company would not pay for any part of the labor necessary to properly cure even their own share, and con- sequently much was spoiled for lack of sufficient help at the critical time. The difficulties connected with the making of tobacco, especially on the plan of half-shares, are well described in the following extract from a letter sent by the Assembly, in 1627, to the Bermuda Com- pany, in reply to a letter from the Company, dated Sept. 20th, 1626 complaining of the poor quality of the Bermuda tobacco, as con- trasted with that from Virginia and St. Christopher’s I., and also requiring them to return to the system of cultivation at one-half gross shares for the Company, as was customary for tenants in England : as will cloathe us from sunne and cold nights I thank god wee abound wth vitualls in varietye and plentie both flesh and fish, rootes and fruits, so that wee excell all the plantacons in the kings dominions, and wee desire to undertake any travell and labour if wee had a subject to worke upon to cloathe ourselves, but it is our miserie to live in these tymes that the more wee labour the more wee are undone through the extreame ympost laid upon our goods, we’h exceeds the value of the commoditie, a thing without precedent and never before heard of. I pray God amend yt and send us help from heaven for on earth I see but little hope.” He sent a present of some tobacco to which he referred as follows, in a post- seript :— ‘“T beseech you vouchsafe the tasting of our poore Burmoodian Tobaco weh is 2d worse than nothing the pound.” A, E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 559 “ But wee most humbly intreate you to conceive in this (as the schools distinguish the like Similitudo non curritt quatuor Pedibus, many things may be alike, but not alike in all things; for there is as much difference betweene a husbandman’s sowing of- wheate to halves in England, and planting Tobacco at halves in Somer Islands, as is betwixt black and white. The husbandman hath his hand ready for the plough, and his houses built ; wee noe such thing, He hath his beasts of labor to plough his land, wee none but our hands, his wheate beeing sowen his labor and charge is little or none till har- vest, ours is daylie and hourely, his crop being housed his care and charge is ended, then is our care greatest and our danger most, yea of so tickle and dangerous a nature is this Tobacco, in the house, that one houres neglect or the least want of helpe may spoyle a whole yeares cropp, neither is it in the power of man to prevent it when it is come to that passe, soe that the comparison in theise respects (and many others that might be alleadged) will never hold, besides many yong youthes are now out of their tymes, and yerely more wil be. And if they should not be hyred what should become of them. There hath been care taken to make publique tennants of them for improving the publique lands, thereby to defray the pub- lique charge we’h can now bee noe further helpe, because that the publique lands are now all disposed of to the best behoofe, Soe that they must be hyred or they will live of the spoyle.” “Our governor hath been pleased to make known unto us that it is yor wills that yo’r severall tenn’ts should be very carefull in mak- ing and curing of tobacco in the house, it is true that in that care, and the tymely and opportune making up consists the greatest diffi- culty, but if you take from us our former allowance of that charge, great inconvenience may arise mauger the endeavors of the most endustrious, for when a season of weather serves to make up tobacco, that man comonly that hath most helpe doth make the best tobacco, we’h if he pay all the making up out of his own pte. all men will strive to make it up with his owne family without hyring, and soe if the season be over before it be dispatched and that the wind come to north, west-north, north east, or at east we’h is comon, all the remaynder may be spoyled.” After the Bermuda Company ceased to exist, in 1684, the cultiva- tion of tobacco rapidly declined, and was abandoned after 1707. Agricultural pursuits of all kinds decreased, with the exception of raising oranges, which flourished for more than a century. The 560 A, EF. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. change in the laws and administration, and the loss of income from tobacco, caused a great increase in maritime pursuits, and conse- quently in shipbuilding. During the 18th century the Bermudians engaged largely in the intercolonial commerce, and in the manufac- ture and exportation of salt from Turk’s Island, and they pursued the sea-turtle fishery as far south as Ascension Island, and there traded with foreign vessels. During that period large numbers of vessels were built of Bermuda cedar, often 10 to 12 annually. This led to another period of deforesting. Probably most of the cedar used at that time was the second growth cedar that had grown up where the original growth had been cut down in the early period, to plant tobacco, for the Bermuda cedar, in good soil, grows fast enough to make good timber in thirty to forty years. J.—Slavery: Negroes; Indians; Whites. Abolition of Slavery in 1834. Slavery prevailed in the Bermudas from 1616, or earlier, up to 1834, when it was abolished. Owing to the comparatively small size of the estates, none of the planters held any considerable num- ber, and in general the slaves seem to have been well treated,* as compared with those in other colonies, though at times severe local laws were passed for their control. During most of the history they exceeded the whites in number. Their money value was not large and many bought their freedom, or were voluntarily freed by their owners, who were not always able to feed and clothe them properly. But for a long series of years, free colored persons were not allowed to remain on the islands beyond a specified timef (six months or a year). * Several instances are recorded where slaves captured on Bermuda vessels in time of war and taken to foreign countries voluntarily returned to their owners in Bermuda, when they might have had their liberty. In one such case eighty slaves taken on a Bermuda privateer, during the Revolutionary war, were taken to Boston and offered their liberty, but all except one, who died, returned to their owners. In 1828, two vessels manned by eleven slaves as sailors, arrived in Treland, and the slaves were officially offered their freedom and protection, but only three, who were mere boys, accepted freedom. + The following law was enacted by the Company in 1662: ‘“‘Ffor the preventing the mischiefe & danger which otherwise is like to happen by the multyplication of malattoes. Wee have Ordered that from henceforth if any malatto shall bee made free, such p’son doe within twelve months after depart the Islands.” In 1704, the time that free negroes could remain was made six months. A. FE. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 561 In consequence of conspiracies or fear of insurrections, many free negroes were banished after 1650. In November, 1656, all free negroes were ordered banished at once. A proclamation of Gover- nor Seymour, on July 26, 1664, ordered that all able-bodied free negroes and mulattoes should forthwith depart from the islands, with Capt. Stow, on a ship then ready to sail (destination not recorded). Those that did not do so were to become slaves to the Company, in all respects like slaves purchased. A law was enacted in 1674, that any colored persons brought to the islands and remain- ing more than 24 hours should be seized and made slaves to the Company. The first colored slaves, one negro and one Indian, were brought from the Bahamas by the “Edwin,” in 1616. Fourteen negroes were said to have been brought to Bermuda in 1616, by a pirate vessel, and sold there. From that time forward both negroes and Indian slaves were repeatedly brought from the West Indies. In March, 1660, the *‘Klisabeth and Annie” brought in 32 negroes from Barbadoes. They were sometimes captured from the Spanish or Dutch, and sometimes they were purchased. Capt. John Wentworth, a priva- teer, in 1665, captured about 90 slaves from the Dutch Governor of Tortola and took them to Bermuda. In Bermuda the climate and other conditions were favorable for their natural increase, and before 1700 they even became too numerous. Governor Butler, in 1622, referred to his “ gang” of negroes, indi- cating their rapid increase in five or six years. In January, 1623, 14 negroes were mentioned as belonging to the “ generality,” and others to individuals. By that time they had, apparently, become numer- ous, for in that year an act was passed by the Assembly to *Restrayne the insolencies of Neyroes,” by which they were for- bidden to carry weapons or to be out at night except by order ot their masters, who were to be held responsible for thefts, ete., com- mitted by their slaves. In February, 1629, it is recorded that Lieut. Buckley was allowed 32 slaves, and this was the regular number allowed the Governors for many years. The following extract from one of the letters of Governor Roger Wood to the Company, in 1632, gives some idea of their numbers, at that time, and of their relatively small value, for he intimates that he had more than he wanted, or could clothe: “ And to the extent you shall see that Iam not destitute of this Trans. Conn. AcAD., Vou. XI. 36 May, 1902. 562 A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. blacke crewe during my government, I think it fitt in this place to show you a catalogue of your negroes, men, woemen, and children, ten children and three women, lyving upon my charge, for they doe little else than to looke to theire children, for no man wil be troubled with them ; neither doe I desyre recompense for the same, neither will I, so long as you cloathe them as most nobly you have done this yeare, w’ch I will cause to be husbanded soe that you shall not be deceived herein. his clothing and linen will serve I hope for next yeare also; as for this, I have put out 3 of them to masters, and after the cloathing of these will put out some others when I can fynd such masters as will be careful for their education.” .... “ Altogether 8 men negroes, among w’ch ould Anthonio is past service, 4 woemen negroes, and 13 children.” Besides this, he pro- ceeds :—“‘I want 7 servants of my complete number, which I am not pressing to bee supplyed withall, as not beeing able to cloath these.” The following quaint record indicates the current value of negro women slaves in 1648, and the condition of the morals then prevail- ing among them. It also indicates that the Bermudians were willing to cheat the Spaniards, in a trade, if they could. But perhaps the woman was a sea-cook, at least : “Tt was consented by the Gou’r and some of the councell that Mr. Sherriffe should sell Blacke Moll* one of the Company’s negroes for their use, shee beinge a lazie servant and a lewde liver. Mr. Sherriffe accordingly did sell her to the Spaniards, for sixteene pounds sterling.” There are many records of the lack of employment for slaves, and of their idleness. At a later period more or less of them were some- times sold to American planters, because they could not be profitably employed in Bermuda. Yet many of the more intelligent of the young negroes were apprenticed to learn trades, and many became good sailors. Although the negroes were often accused of, and punished for theft and many other crimes, they seem to have rarely been guilty of murder or manslaughter. Whipping was the common punishment. Some colored men, who had been condemned to be hanged, were * Another ‘‘Black Moll,” in June, 1652, was convicted of stealing various articles (value 7*") from two dwellings, and sentenced to be hanged. But she was reprieved on condition that she would act as the executioner, to which she agreed. She commenced by hanging a man named Worth, July 14, 1652, who was, apparently, a white man, and one who deserved hanging. A, FE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 563 given their lives if they would become executioners.* Sometimes, for minor offences, free negroes were condemned to become slaves to the Company. ‘This penalty was also applied, on at least one occasion, to a white man by Goy. Tucker. By a law enacted in 1668, inter- marriage of whites with colored persons or mulattoes was punishable by banishment or penal servitude. A law was passed by the Assembly, in 1730, that an owner who happened to kill one of his own slaves, when punishing him, should not be called to account, in any way; but if any one killed a slave maliciously he should pay a fine of £10, and also the price of the slave, if it belonged to another person. On several occasions there were apprehensions of insurrections or mutinies among the free colored people and slaves against the whites. In November, 1656, such a conspiracy to kill all the whites was dis- covered, and nine negroes were tried and convicted. Two were executed and others were banished to Eleutheria. On this occasion, under Governor Forster, the following and other severe laws were enacted. “(1) It is ordered that from henceforth none of the negroes of these Islands to whomsoever they do belong, or of what sort soever they are, shall have liberty to straggle or wander from their master’s houses or lands after halfe an hour after the setting of the sunne, without a passe or tickett under their handes to whom they do belonge, w’ch is to be granted only upon some weighty occasion moveing thereunto. But such negroes being found stragglinge w’thout their leaves or their warrentall Tickett as afores’d, walking in the night as afores’d, it shall be at the power of any English man that meets such a negroe to kill him then & thiere without mercye. And if any such negroe shall refuse to be apprehended, and doth resist the Englishman, and he doth not make speedy pursuit against him, and shall not forthwith give information to the next magistrat, Then he or they for thier neglect therein shall forfeit one hundred poundes of tobacco to be expended upon generall service * Cases when the same action was taken with white man are recorded in 1628 and 1651. In some cases, and perhaps generally, colored men were made execu- tioners of colored criminals only. A negro named John, having been convicted of stealing a boat, Aug. 17, 1664, was sentenced to be hanged, but the Governor reprieved him on condition that he should act as the executioner of negroes. Five days later ‘‘ Black Mathew” having been convicted of house breaking and escaping from jail, was hanged at St. George’s, and his severed head, ‘‘ by the Governor’s order,” was impaled on a stake at Stocks Point. 564 A. E. Verrili— The Bermuda Islands. (2) It is likewise ordered that the negroes that are free men and women shal be banished from these islands, never to returne eyther by purchase of any man, or otherwise, upon payne of forfeiting their said purchase in that case.” In 1673, a “daingerous plot” was discovered among the negroes, some of whom confessed their guilt. Six were condemned to be branded or “stigmatized in ye face [forehead] with an hott iron, and their noses slitt, and whipped; and ye rest of ye negroes stigmatized and whipt.”” The hot iron bore the letter “ R.” A conspiracy which was discovered among the slaves in 1761, to rise and massacre the whites, caused great alarm, for a time, and martial law was declared by the Governor. One negro slave, sup- posed to be the leader, having been convicted was burned and hanged in Warwick Parish, but the evidence against him was not very positive. Several persons were believed to have been poisoned by the slaves at that time. During a large part of the slavery period in Bermuda, the slaves were allowed very few religious privileges and very little education, but in these respects the custom varied at different times. Many religious differences among the clergymen and sects were partly due to disagreements as to the propriety of allowing the slaves certain religious privileges, like christening, baptism,* or burial services. In the 17th century clergymen of the Established Church seem to have been generally opposed to such innovations, though there were exceptions. This reluctance to grant religious privileges continued down to the time of the abolition of slavery. One great reason for the strenuous persecution of the Quakers, in the 17th century, was because they desired to teach the negroes. In the official statement of the Company, in 1679, they mentioned that only about one-half the negro children were christened. The slaves were allowed legal marriage from the first, and when man and wife belonged to different owners, they were allowed by law or custom to be together Sundays or other specified times, and their children alternately were to become the property of each owner of the parents. In 1656, the owners of slaves were required to take them to church with themselves, wherever they went. *Tt is mentioned that when the slaves had been baptized, they believed that they had thereby acquired a right to their freedom. When any funeral ceremony was held, it usually consisted in the reading of the burial service by some aged colored man. A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 565 The Rey. Samson Bond was one of the ministers who opposed the conversion of negroes. He brought a presentment against the Governor for favoring it, “and further did alleadgue that the breed- ing up of such children in the Christian religion makes them stub- borne.” For these opinions and other reasons he was dismissed by the Company, in 1668, which, at that particular date, favored their con- version, though the colonists generally opposed it. The Rey. Samuel Smith, in 1669, brought the question before the Council, whether or not he should baptize negroes, mulattoes, and Indians, but the Council refused to decide the question. In 1686, the Assembly passed an act against baptizing negroes. The Rey. A. Richardson, of St. George’s, stated that in 1756 he baptized 147 negroes, and in 1757, 377 more. Indian Slaves. Although the slaves were mostly negroes or mulattoes, some Indian slaves were also brought from the West Indies in the earlier years, and Indians, captured in the Pequot wars and King Philip’s war, were sent from New England and sold as slaves to the Bermu- dians.* The number of Indians held as slaves does not appear to have been large at any time. There are not many records of their arrival, and ‘so far as appears from these there were more brought from the West Indies than from New England. There is a record that Capt. Wm. Jackson brought many Indians and negroes, captured from the Spaniards in 1644-5, from the West Indies. It was intimated by the Company, in 1655, that 40 or more freeborn Indians had been illegally taken from the West Indies and sold in the Bermudas as slaves, about 1644-46. The Governor was ordered to free them if they could be found. The sale of 19 Indians, mostly women, is recorded in 1646, and of others in 1645; probably these were part of those referred to by the Company as freeborn. The prices were mostly from £7 to £10 each. There is also a record * A law was passed in Massachusetts, in 1652, that those Indians who had been taken captive, or who had surrendered themselves in the Pequot or King Philip’s wars, should be sold as slaves in Bermuda and other places, or else become slaves in New England. Some of these slaves appear in the Bermuda records of 1653 and later. 566 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. of some Indians returned to the West Indies in August, 1658, probably some of the same lot. The Indians and negroes intermarried freely, but the Indians being relatively few, their descendants show but little of the Indian char- acteristics, though even to this day some of the negroes show more or less traces of Indian blood. Formerly many of them showed such characteristics much more decidedly. The negro slaves always increased more rapidly than the whites and they became too numer- ous at times, so that employment could not be found for them, while their masters found it hard to clothe and feed them. as abundant but they can be propagated very rapidly. They have been largely cultivated ever since their first introduction. Various more choice 628 A. EH. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. varieties of bananas have, however, been introduced in modern times, so that the original large and coarse plantains are now little cultivated. Governor Lefroy enumerated four principal varieties of true bananas as cultivated twenty-eight years ago, which appear to be the same that are still preferred. 1. Dwarf Banana (var. Cavendishii). This is by far the most common variety. It is very productive and produces fruit at nearly all seasons of the year. When well cultivated in good soil, the bunches sometimes weigh over 70 pounds. The summer fruit ripens in 90 to 100 days ; but the winter crop requires 140 to 160 days. 2. Thumb Banana. A small but very delicately flavored variety, considered to be the most choice of all, but not very productive and therefore less cultivated. Its flavor is subacid. 3. Red Banana (var. rosacea). Not much cultivated at present. Its fruit requires nearly twice as long to mature as that of the dwarf variety, and its broader foliage requires more shelter from the winds. 4. Old Bermuda Banana. A tall variety that has been cultivated for along period, but is now rare; perhaps it was one of those introduced in 1616. The fruit is of good quality, but requires longer to mature than the dwarf varieties. Pine Apple. (Ananassu sativa Moll.) Pine Apples were introduced into the islands from the West Indies, in 1616, when the “Edwin” returned from her voyage there to obtain plants of various kinds. They evidently flourished well at that time, and for long after. Governor Butler enumerated them among the common produc- tions, in 1619. Capt. John Smith spoke of them as abundant, in 1624. They are also mentioned, as if common, in various laws and proclamations, in 1623 and later dates. Governor Roger Wood, in 1633, wrote as follows: “I wish I could send 1000 in their season to the Queene, and 500 more to such as desire them, for I can well spare them and eat enough myselfe. I sent four boats lading this year into the mayne, to give them to those good dames that love to eat them better than to plant them, and I assure you I love to plant and preserve them, and behold them in their beauty, more than to munch them alone without the com- panie of my friends.” John Hardy mentions the Pine Apple as the most choice fruit, in 1670. It is not now cultivated for the fruit, unless experimentally. A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 629 Pomegranate. (Punica granatum L.) The Pomegranate was enumerated among the plants brought from the Bahamas, in 1616, by the “Edwin.” It increased very rapidly and was commonly used, with the Fig-trees, for making hedges a few years later.* The variety first introduced was valued for its fruit, but in later times other varieties with beautiful double flowers have been cultivated for ornament. Both are now very com- mon and frequently used for ornamental hedges. The following law was enacted by the Assembly, August, 1620:— “And further it is enacted and concluded by the power and authoritie aforesaid that in regard divers and many negligencies have of late been committed and suffered both in the over felling of fences in generall and the ill keepinge and lookinge unto them, that every man be enioyned to leave and mayntayne a verye sufficient fence both upon his owne ground and aginst other mens that he is to fence upon and where the natural Palmetoe fence is failed and is found to be wantinge, that instead thereof there be planted a sufficiencye of Pomgranate and figg trees for a supplie thereof, and this to be done upon the penaltye of the losse of tenne pounds of tobacco for every such breach contempte or negligence.” The Assembly in March, 1627, passed an act ordering every tenant and owner of land to plant 50 Pomegranates and 50 Mulberries on every share of land for three years, next ensuing. In modern times, although common enough, it seldom produces much fruit. Pawpaw. (Carica papaya L.) PuatE LXXIV. Ficure 2. This singular fruit tree, which belongs to the passion-flower family (Passiflore), was brought from the Bahamas by the “ Edwin,” in 1616. It increased rapidly and soon became common, bearing fruit freely. It is now generally diffused, but there are seldom more than two or three trees together; more often they stand singly. There are two varieties cultivated in Bermuda. This tree was originally from South America, but has long been cultivated in the West Indies. It is easily recognized by its naked, columnar trunk, occasionally forked, with a relatively small tuft of large palmate leaves at the summit. The fruit, which is about the size of an orange, forms large * There is no evidence that it was native, in 1612, as Lefroy supposed it might have been, for none of the earlier writers mentioned it among the native fruits. 630 A. EF. Verrilli— The Bermuda Islands. clusters around the trunk just below the leaves ; it is not very highly prized, but is sometimes cooked as a vegetable. The sap of this tree contains a vegetable ferment, called papain, which has the power of digesting meat.* This has recently become an article of commerce. It has long been known to the natives of the West Indies that meat wrapped up in its leaves, or treated with the juice of the fruit, would soon become tender. The leaves are also popularly considered an excellent remedy for the rheumatism, applied externally. The Fig Tree. (Ficus carica L.) The earliest accounts (1612) do not mention the fig as growing wild on the islands, though wild figs are recorded a little later. The fig tree grew so rapidly there that the wild figs referred to by Governor Butler may well have been derived from seeds planted there in 1609 or 1610, by Somers’ men, or even from those planted in 1616, by Governor Tucker. It was stated that the fig trees would bear fruit the second year from planting. But it is not improbable that the wild figs first noticed may have been introduced, like the olive, previous to 1609, by the Spanish shipwrecks or by the pirate crews. (See p. 633.) The fig is not native of the West Indies, but probably was intro- duced there very soon after their discovery. If not already there, fig trees were introduced by the Edwin, very soon after the settle- ment of Bermuda. Governor Butler states that Governor Tucker, in 1616, was engaged in setting out fences of figs and pomegranates, They seem to have increased very rapidly, and the fruit was men- tioned as abundant in 1620. The drying of figs for food is recorded in 1623, In 1618 a public order was passed, requiring Capt. Thos. Stokes, commander of King’s Castle, to lay out a highway, twelve feet wide, from Tucker’s Town to the landing at the eastern end of the Island, at Castle Point, for military purposes, in reaching the fort.t He * See Trans. Conn. Acad., vol. xi, pp. 1-14. Observations on the Digestion of Proteids with Papain, by G. B. Mendel and F. P. Underhill. + Governor Lefroy thought that this order indicated that there was then land connection from the point to the island, which has been since worn away by the sea. But this was not the case, for Captain Stokes was also paid for the use of his boat in crossing from the point to the Castle Island, which is only a short distance. Moreover, Norwood’s map of 1626 shows the channel as it still exists. A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 631 was required to plant it on each side with figs and pomegranates. The path seems to have been made in some sort of a way, but he obtained other grants for clearing it out in 1625 and 1626, but was accused of not having done his work as agreed. Whether he planted the figs and pomegranates is not stated,* but no trace of them can now be found there. That whole narrow strip of land is now barren and too much exposed to the salt winds on both sides, for the growth of such plants. But the order indicates that the practice had then become common. A law was enacted by the Assembly, in 1620, requiring figs and pomegranates to be planted in the hedges or fences wherever the native palmettoes, formerly used for that purpose, had died out. (See p. 629.) In a proclamation by Governor Bell, in 1627, he complained that persons unlawfully robbed his “vineyard” of “figgs,”’ ‘ pown- granates ” (pomegranates), lemons, and oranges, though he intimated that he had but few lemons and oranges. A law was passed in (1630) forbidding all persons from picking figs from the land of another, or from the public lands in “ baskets and tubs,” though they might pick them for their own eating: . Capt. John Smith (1629) stated that figs were then very abundant. An intoxicating fermented liquor was soon made from the figs and called ‘“ Figg-drink.” The sale of it to apprentices was pro- hibited in 1627. Prosecutions for the unlawful use of it are recorded in 1630. In March, 1631, John Bunnion was indicted for stealing “a caske of figge drink,” and there are several indictments for drunkenness and riotous conduct (stabbing in one case), as a result of using this drink. An order was also promulgated by Governor Heydon, in 1669, requiring figs and cedars to be planted along all the highways, which were to be 12 feet wide. This indicates that horses and carts were not then in use. Figs had become so abundant on the common lands of St. George’s, in 1642, that a special code of rules or laws was enacted to regulate the number of hogs or “ shoates” those persons having a share in * It is doubtful if this was ever done as ordered, for Captain Stokes was sub- sequently charged with fraud and neglect of duty in connection with this path, etc. He was tried and convicted of evil practices in 1627, and dismissed from the service. He was then an old man, addicted to drinking and riotous living, and was thought guilty of selling the public store of powder to obtain liquors. He had been for many years in command of the ‘‘ King’s Castle.” 632 A. E. Verrili—The Bermuda Islands. the lands might allow to run loose and feed on the fallen figs, but beating off the figs with sticks, and cutting and pruning the trees, were forbidden. This indicates that figs were one of the principal sources of food to fatten the hogs at that time. At present figs are by no means abundant, though wild trees are often seen in waste places and in the woods, where they look as if they had grown spontaneously. These figs must have belonged to a variety that is capable of self- fertilization, like those now grown in the West Indies, and not to the choice Smyrna variety, which requires caprification. There is no evidence that the practice of caprification has ever been tried in the Bermudas. But there seems to be no reason why Smyrna figs should not be introduced, and also the caprifying insects, for they have succeeded in doing so in California. Olive Tree. (Olea Europea Linné.) PLATE LX1X. Wild Olives were not mentioned by members of Sir George Somers’ party, in 1610, as growing on the islands. But in Governor Moore’s report or letter of 1612, he says: “ Alsoe we have olives grow with us, but no great store.” Governor Butler, in the early part of his ‘“ Historye” (1619), dis- tinctly stated that there were wild olive trees when the islands were first inhabited. He had with him there, when he wrote his work, some of Somers’ shipwrecked party, including Christopher Carter, who had remained on the islands for the three years subsequent to the wreck (1609-1612), and before the settlement, so that he had opportunities to know the original productions of the islands better than any one else, except his two companions. But it has been doubted whether these accounts refer to the true Old World olive, for there is a native shrub of the same family (/orestiera porulosa) which slightly resembles the real olive, but produces a very inferior fruit. (See p. 620.) It seems to me probable that men as well informed as Governor Butler and his companions, and as well acquainted with olives as they must have been, would not have made such a mistake. It is more likely that the olive trees, like the wild hogs, had been introduced there in small numbers, some years previously, by the Spanish pirates or buccaneers, either accidentally or intentionally, by planting seeds. It is even possible that the Spanish crew wrecked there with Henry May, in 1593, may have saved olives from the wreck with their other A, KE. Verrill—- The Bermuda Islands. 633 provisions, and if so, they may have planted the seeds. As it took about 20 years for the olives planted later to commence bearing, these wild olives, if real ones, must have been introduced as early as about 1593, so that they might have been planted by May’s com- rades. Probably the Bermudas, like many other uninhabited islands, were often visited by the Spanish buccaneers and pirates of the 16th century, for wood and water and for repairs. It is well known that they were in the habit of leaving hogs and goats on uninhabited islands, in order to be able to secure fresh provisions, in such remote and secret places, when needed, or when they visited such islands to careen and repair their vessels. The Bermudas, dreaded as they were at that time, both by the commercial and naval vessels of all nations, would have afforded pirates an admirable chance to land and repair their vessels, while they could have obtained an abundance of fresh provisions from the birds and their eggs, the sea-turtles, fishes, etc. It is not unlikely that at such times they may have introduced both olives and figs. It is not unlikely that they may also have introduced many other fruits and edible vegetables, as they often did on other islands. But if so the great increase of the wild hogs would probably have soon led to the extinction of all those plants that they could eat.* (See ch. 26.) The Bermuda Company made very early efforts to have olive trees planted. They sent over seeds, with directions for planting them, at several periods, and the trees began to bear fruit about 1640, but no great use seems to have been made of them. Perhaps pickled green olives were not then in use there. Mr. Richard Norwood, the engineer, having made some olive oil in 1660, the Councell ordered that ten olive trees should be planted on every share of land in the islands. But there is no evidence that this attempt ever became of commercial importance. * Hogs and goats, which were placed on St. Helena in 1513, increased to such an extent, especially the goats, that in the course of about three centuries they utterly destroyed the thick forests of native ebony and other trees, as well as nearly all other vegetation, converting the previously well wooded high plains into a barren waste of volcanic rocks. Even in 1588, Capt. Cavendish, who visited the island at that time, said that the goats had so increased that they existed in flocks over a mile long, containing thousands. By 1810 the forests had been entirely destroyed, except on the high, central voleanice peaks, and many of the remarkable endemic species, including the once abundant ebony, had become nearly or quite extinct. At present the vegetation of the plains has been only partially replaced by plants of foreign origin. 634 A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. jee Governor Lefroy (1877) stated that there was a venerable olive tree still standing on Norwood’s ancient property, close to the house where he resided, but that the olive trees were then rather scarce, and no use was made of the scanty fruit. Governor Sayle, in his proclamation of May, 1662, says in regard to the planting of olive trees :—‘‘wee haveing had experience thereof these 40 yeares, twenty yeares whereof they have boorne olives, but have not produced any profitt. Wee together with the Assembly have returned our answer to the Honorable Company accordingly.” But yet, in accordance with the orders of the Company, he required that two clive trees should be planted at once on each share. Some fine old trees, that may have been planted at that time, still exist. Young ones are common, growing wild. ‘The largest one that we saw was near the southeast shore of Somerset Island. Of this a photograph was made in 1901. (Plate lxix.) Its trunk is entirely concealed by an immense number of tall sprouts. This tree, which has evidently had no care for very many years, and does not look as if it had ever been pruned, is perhaps two and a half feet in diameter at base. It must be very ancient, for olive-trees grow slowly. Possibly it was planted in 1662. On the Walsingham place there are also many olive trees, some of them of good size. Sweet Orange, (Citrus aurantium L.). Mandarin Orange, (C. nobilis L.). Lemon, (CU. medica, var. limonum Risso.). A brief history of the cultivation and decline of the orange and lemon trees has been given in a previous chapter (p. 526). It is not probable that Bermuda can again successfully compete with Florida, California, ete., in supplying the American market with these fruits, but a sufficient quantity of choice fruit might be grown to supply the local demand, at the hotels, ete. But in order to do this improved and vigorous varieties should be introduced and kept up by grafting, and the improved modern methods for destroying the scale-insects and other injurious species must be adopted. A great quantity of literature relating to this subject, published by the U. 8. Department of Agriculture, is now easily available.* * The most effectual and cheapest remedy for destroying the scale-insects is the fumigation by means of hydrocyanic acid gas (prussic acid gas) generated under cloth tents placed over the trees. But as this gas is very poisonous to man, it should be used only by careful persons, trained for this work. A. F. Verrili— The Bermuda Islands. 635 All imported nursery stock should be at once carefully inspected, to prevent the introduction of other and perhaps still more destruc- tive scale-insects. Any infected stock should be burned or else fumigated at once, with hydrocyanic acid gas.* I could find no evidence in Bermuda of the presence of many of the most pernicious scale-insects that infest the Florida and California citrus trees. Therefore, there are good reasons for special laws to keep out these dangerous species, some of which attack various other fruit trees as well. So little careful attention has been paid to the study of these small but pernicious insects in Bermuda, that little can now be learned of the species that caused the former destruction of the trees. It is natural to infer that those still found on the surviving trees are the same, but this is not certain. It is recorded that Governor Reid, about 1844-48, introduced new and choice varieties of oranges, which flourished for atime. Possibly he introduced the destructive scale-insects on those plants, for they became abundant and destructive soon after that date. Had effective measures. been promptly taken, the pest might have been easily stayed at first. But the modern methods of destroying scale-insects by kerosene emulsions ; or better, by fumigating the trees with hydrocyanic acid gas under tent cloths, were of course then unknown.t However, it is certain that oranges had become scarce before Governor Reid’s time. Bishop Berkeley, in 1837, spoke of their decline and scarcity at that time, and attributed it to the cutting of the cedars, which exposed the orange trees to the blighting winds. But perhaps he and others overlooked the scale-insects that may have been at work even then. Mr. Williams, writing in 1847-48, also speaks of the oranges being then scarce. * Some American dealers in nursery stock now fumigate their plants before sending them out. It would be well if all were required by law to do this. Sooner or later those dealers who can furnish disinfected and guaranteed stock will gain most of the trade. Buyers should demand such stock. + It is doubtful if sufficient energy or interest in the matter could then have been aroused in the Bermudian planters, generally, to have induced them to apply such remedies extensively, even if they had been known, for most of the smaller cultivators are inclined to ‘‘ take things easy” and trust to ‘* Providence” in such cases. Trusting to prayers and Providence against infectious diseases and insect pests is, at the present day, only an excuse for laziness or ignorance, or both. p 636 A. E. Verrill—-The Bermuda Islands. The Citron, (Citrus medica L.). The Shaddock, (C. deeumana 1..). The Forbidden Fruit, (C. dec., var. buxifolia Poin.). The Grape Fruit, (C. dec., var. racemosa R. & P.). The Lime, (C. aurantium, var. spinosissima Mey.). These are all cultivated, more or less, but are not abundant. They suffered from the same scale-insects that destroyed the orange trees. Bitter Orange. (Citrus aurantium, var. bigaradia Duh.) This is a very handsome tree when full of its large and handsome, but inedible, fruit or decked with its large and fragrant flowers. Its leaves are large, glossy, dark green. Grape Vines ( Vitis vinifera L.), and other species. Numerous efforts were made to cultivate the vine on a commercial scale in the early years of the colony, but never with success, though more or less grapes have always been raised for domestic use. The cuttings sent out from London by the Company in early times were varieties of the true wine grape of Europe. Among the plants mentioned as sent out with Governor Tucker, in May, 1616, were “vynes and vyne cuttinges.” Cuttings of “ white vines” are mentioned in a letter from the Company to Governor Tucker without date, but apparently late in 1616. They grew well but did not pro- duce much fruit. In a letter to Governor Butler, in 1620, the Company required that he should see that every owner or sharer of land should plant at least one acre of each share to vines and one acre to sugar canes, “of such ground as is fittinge.” But the Governor, in reply to this part of the letter, said that he could ‘find not the grounds therof answerable to your hopes,” and added the following remarks, accord- ing to his “ Historye”: “ Concerneinge vines here, I confesse they conserned me much this Springe, for so admirably wer they taken and sett at the first, that I verily thought to have presented you with a vessell of Sommers-Ilands wine, and to that end had them diligently tended and fenced, but when I expected their matureing, not one cluster of five hundred came to perfection, but groweinge into a kind of hardnesse and shyneinge like a horne, they still proved rotten instead of being ripe. Whence this cause of miscarriage and sick- nesse proceedes some vigneron must tell you.” This description indicates that’ they were affected with some fun- gous disease. Probably the climate is too moist for this variety of A. FE. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 637 grape. Some more resistant varieties or species might be more successful. Grapes were mentioned in a law of 1627, against stealing fruit, and at other dates, showing that they produced some fruit, as they do now. Large and ancient white-grape vines, like those of Spain, still exist, and are doubtless the direct descendants of those planted in 1616. The vine here loses its leaves in November and begins to put out new ones in February, the bare period being about 120 days. Governor Lefroy imported and distributed many of the best English green-house varieties, some of which, in wet soil, bore large and fine fruit, within three years. He also mentions that white Lisbon grapes, washed ashore from a wreck, in January, 1873, germinated on the beach ; some were successfully transplanted and bore fruit in 1876. Probably it may be found that certain American hybrid grapes of the south would be more suitable for the moist climate than the white grapes of Southern Europe, but I do not know to what extent they have been tried. (For the amount of grapes now raised, see p- 532.) The grape vines, like the orange trees and figs, have probably suffered much from the unrecorded attacks of various insects and parasitic fungi. Avocada Pear; Alligator Pear. (Persea gratissima Gert.) This fine fruit tree appears to have been introduced about seventy years ago. It is now common in the larger grounds and gardens. Governor Lefroy stated that the finest tree on the islands (in 1876) was one in the grounds at Mt. Langton, planted about 1835. It flowers in March and the fruit is in season from August to October, or sometimes to November. Large fruits sometimes weigh nearly two pounds. According to Governor Lefroy, it is more highly prized in Bermuda than any other fruit. He also stated that the trees are badly infested by a white coccus. This tree is native of tropical America. Akee. (Blighia sapida Keen.) This sapindaceous tree is native of West Africa, but is cultivated in the West Indies, whence it was brought to the Bermudas, but is still rare. It flowers in July and ripens its fruits in November, The fruit is red, three-sided, and about four inches long ; the black seeds have a large, white, fleshy arillus, which is edible. 638 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. Lee-chee or Litchi. (Nephelium litchi Lour.) A tree at Mt. Langton bore abundantly in 1871, according to Governor Lefroy. It flowers about February and the nut-like fruit, with aromatic pulp, is ripe in August. It was introduced about 1853, by Governor Elliott (Lefroy). The Mango. (Mangifera Indica 1.) This is not very common. It flowers in February, March, and April; the fruit ripens in August and September. and a loud eall, and made a “strange hollow and harsh howling’ from which its name (cahow) was given. It came readily to persons imitating its note, and could then be easily taken by the hand, in the night. 4. It had good powers of flight, but could also run about on the ground without difficulty. It was very tame and unsuspicious. 5. It nested generally, if not always, in burrows in the soil, and laid a single, large, white egg, of good flavor, like a hen’s egg in size and taste. 6. It arrived at the Bermudas in October or November (old style) and remained till about the first of June (Hughes). 7. It laid its eggs in December and January, “in the coldest » In this respect it differed from all other sea- months of the year. birds of the northern hemisphere. Therefore it probably spent its summer south of the equator, or else it was a local pelagic species that remained constantly at sea in summer, perhaps not far away. 8. In size it was compared to a “pigeon,” to a “green plover,” and to a “partridge.” Therefore its egg must have been very large in comparison with the size of the body of the bird. The large number of birds said to have been eaten at a meal also indicates a rather small bird. 9. It had a strong hooked bill and could bite viciously. No men- tion was made of its ejecting oily or other matter from its bill for defence, as do the petrels. 10. Its color was “russet-brown” on the back; its quill-feathers were russet-brown and white ; its belly was white (Strachy). In this combination of characters it differed from all known birds.* d.—The Pimlico or Audubon’s Shearwater. (Puffinus Auduboni Finsch, 1872 = P. obscurus of Hurdis and Reid.) The early writers refer to a nocturnal bird that they called the “Pimlico” (spelled pimplicoe by Butler, and pemblyco by Capt. Smith) from its peculiar note, helped out, as Governor Butler sug- * These views have also been maintained by the writer in an article on the Cahow in Popular Science Monthly, vol. lx, p. 22, Nov., 1901, and in Annals and Mag. Nat. History, vol. ix, p. 26, Jan., 1902. 678 A. FE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. gested, by considerable imagination and some fond recollections of a favorite locality in England.* However, it is peculiar that the same name is not only used for the same bird, to this day, by the fishermen in Bermuda, but it is also still used for the same bird by the natives in the Bahamas, where it breeds.t Governor Butler’s account, 1619, is as follows: “Another smale birde ther is, the which, by some ale-hanters of London sent over hether, hath bin termed the pimplicoe, for so they imagine (and a little resemblance putts them in mind of a place so dearely beloved), her note articulates ; and this also, for the most part, is a bird of the night, and whensoever she sings is too true a prophett of black and foule weather.{ The superstition that this bird is a sign of bad weather still pre- vails among the fishermen and sailors. This bird was found by Mr. Bartram breeding as late as about 1874, in the holes and crevices of the rocks on several of the small, barren islands about Castle Harbor.§ Capt. Reid says that he found two nests with young birds in 1874, and kept one alive for some time. It always lays its eggs in crevices of the rocks, without any definite nest. Mr. Wedderburn, Capt. Drummond, and Mr. Ord visited Gurnet Head Rock, May 20th, 1850, and found two nests with a young one in each, and also secured one egg at that date, but did not see the * According to Governor Lefroy, the original Pimlico was a well-known ale house and place of resort near Hogsden. It was referred to in ‘‘The Alchemist,” act V, sc. i., 1610, and in other works of that period, e. g.: “Sir Lionel. ‘I have sent my daughter this morning as far As Pimlico, to fetch a draught of Derby ale, that it May fetch a colour in her cheeks.’ Tu Quoque, 1614.” The name was subsequently adopted for a similar place near Chelsea, and so eventually extended to the whole of that district. + In Australia this name is given by the natives to the Friar Bird, on account of its peculiar notes, although there is no other resemblance between that bird and the shearwater. ¢The accounts of this and the other birds given by Capt. John Smith were evidently borrowed, with small verbal changes that did not improve them, directly from Butler's Historye, but he seems to credit them to Norwood. He added some observations taken from Strachy and Hughes, and made some mistakes in his compilations, as when he said the eggs of the Cahow were “‘speckled, the others [egg-birds] white,” just reversing the facts. § Mr. Bartram also found a nest of a larger shearwater (P. Anglorum ?), April, 1864, and May 1, 1877, on one of these islets. ch teil A. KE. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 679 old birds. This date is quite contrary to the time of breeding of the cahow, but agrees well with the time of breeding of this shear- water in the Bahamas. Whether the pimlico still breeds here in small numbers, on the small uninhabited islands, is uncertain. We did not see it in 1898, nor in 1901. Dr. Henry Bryant* gave a good account of the breeding habits of this bird on the Bahamas, in 1859. The following is his description of a freshly taken adult bird : | ‘‘ All the upper parts, wings, and tail, sooty brown; below, white; the boundaries of the colors not abruptly marked ; bill bluish, with the tips of the mandibles black; this latter color running up the culmen to the forehead. Tarsi and feet pale flesh-color, with the posterior edge of the tarsus, the whole sole, and the upper and outer surface of the outer toe, running obliquely back- ward at the tarsal extremity to the hind part of the tarsus, black.” é g Menthe eee eee anne Sele este So Ss beet c: 44 40 igen othetolend OL claws) 2252555525252 52.5-0554 5 800) 040 Length to end of wings ------- - Be Stn Liste 497 480 IDENT 15-3 ae Oe Re Crs tS Oe .690 .666 \alrayes en OMe a (vs) pe mili 205 ANT ESUISY «24,2 SHS ESS Eee ae ee eee 037 .056 Middlestoes-snce se eee eee ee Benes Sere eee 041 038 pulitalon ced oe). Seeee re tenes ee Pe Lose! 035 086 Cpe 225258 os aes Sa ee ee ea eee 0445 044 He found them nesting there March 24th ; both sexes incubating in turn. He states that the eggs do not much resemble a hen’s egg, for they are highly polished and much more fragile, and vary a good deal, both in size and form. The old birds are never seen to enter their holes in the daytime, but may be seen feeding in flocks at sea. e.—The Tropic Bird. Tropic Bird ; Long-tail ; Boatswain Bird. (Phaéton flavirostris Br.) See p. 428. PuateE LXXII; Ficure 1. This graceful bird was mentioned by some of the early writers, particularly by Governor Butler, in 1619, whose account was copied nearly verbatim by Capt. John Smith, and published by him in 1624. Gov. Butler’s account is as follows : “Some few other kindes of foule ther are also, which are unknowen in our partes ; as the tropick birde, which is as large as a pullett, in coulour white, with one only very long feather in the tayle, and hath * Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. History, vii, p. 182. 680 A, E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. its name (as I think) by reason it is never seene, either to the north- ward or southward, far distant from one of the two tropicks.” That it was called “ Boatswain Bird” by the early settlers is evident, for it gave that name* to a small island near Spanish Point where it nested, This name appears on various maps, including the Admir- alty chart of 1874. As the flesh and eggs of the Tropic Bird are scarcely edible, it never was destroyed to any great extent for food. At one time, some twenty years ago, it was in some danger of extermination for millinery purposes. But it has been pretty well protected by the laws in recent years.+ Still it is probably far less abundant than in the early times of the colony. Mr. A. H. Verrill found, in 1901, large numbers of the very injurious ‘Spiral Snail” ( Rumina decollata) in the stomachs of some specimens, in April, together with broken sea-urchins and the remains of fishes: If it has acquired a decided taste for this snail, as indi- cated by these instances, it will prove a great blessing to the farmers, for the snail is very prolific and has few natural enemies, so that it has already rapidly spread over all the Main Island. On some occa- sions it was seen in the act of eating the snails. Contrary to the statements of several writers, we often saw these birds swimming on the surface of the water. We estimated that there may have been 2,000 pairs breeding about the islands in 1901. J.—The Herons and Egrets. The early writers speak of herons as abundant and breeding — especially the White Herons. Probably both the White Egret (Ardea egretta) and the Snowy Heron (Ardea candidissima) were breeding there at first, as well as the Great Blue Heron (Ardea herodias), which has been found breeding occasionally in modern times. The white herons still occur, but probably rarely breed. Strachy’s account is as follows: “There are also great store and plenty of Herons and those are so familiar and tame, that we beate them downe from the trees with stones and staves: but, such were * On some modern maps the name of this island has been corrupted to ‘* Boasting Bird Island.” {+ A law passed in 1881 imposes a fine of £5 and costs for killing any one of the various singing birds (enumerated), resident game birds, long-tail, crane or heron, woodpecker, kingfisher, etc.; and a fine of 58" and cost for every egg taken or destroyed. The same law offers a premium of 48" for every crow destroyed, and 1°" for every crow egg destroyed. A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 681 young Herons: besides many white Herons, without so much as a blacke or grey feather on them : with other birds so tame and gentle that a man walking in the woods with a sticke and whistling to them, they will come and gaze on you so neare that you may strike and kill many of them with your sticke.” Hearn Bay or “ White Hearn Bay,” as it was called on Norwood’s map of 1626, was one of the principal breeding places, but probably there were others in the mangrove swamps. The wanton destruction of the White Herons or Egrets and their nests, in early times, very soon attracted the attention of the Gov- ernor and Council, for the following law was made in 1621, accord- ing to Governor Butler : *“ A proclamation came then abroad also for the preservation of wilde foule, and in particular for the white hearnes, for their breed- inge time draweinge nere, it was doubted that, by the encrease of newe commers, and especially boyes, a great waste might be prac- tised upon them by the takeing away of their eggs and spoyleing of their nests.” In spite of this law which, like many others, was probably never enforced, the White Herons were soon nearly or quite exterminated or driven away. ‘There is no evidence that they bred regularly or ordinarily on the islands for over 230 years, from 1650 to 1880. Hurdis, during his residence of 14 years, recorded both species of white herons, but only as rather rare migrants. Since they and their nests have been protected by the bird law ot 1881, and still more, perhaps, by public sentiment, one or two pairs have occasionally returned to breed. Perhaps, with strict protection, more may eventually come back. Apparently one pair of egrets had bred in 1890. g.—The American Crow. (Corvus Americanus Aud.) The crows were abundant and very tame when the islands were first settled, according to Governor Butler and other early writers ; but by constant persecution they were soon mostly driven away or killed. Probably a few pairs have always remained as residents of the islands, nesting in the remoter parts in thick cedars. Possibly the Fish Crow may also have been native here at first. For Gov- ernor Butler’s statement, see p. 665. Mr. Hurdis, about 1849-54, found it breeding in small numbers, and estimated that there were about 12 to 15 pairs living on the 682 A. E. Verrilli—The Bermuda Tslands. islands at that time. Capt. Reid noticed a few pairs breeding, and found one or two nests in April, 1875. He mentions seeing as many as 16 in a flock. It has been stated, but without good evidence, that it was introduced from Nova Scotia about 1846, but it certainly existed here long before. Whether the species had been entirely exterminated here before that date is not known. It is more likely that the few individuals left were so wary and shy that they were seldom seen, In 1881 the legislature offered a bounty for their destruction (see p-. 680), which seems to us a very mistaken policy, for they destroy large numbers of noxious insects and insect larvee, thus doing much more good than harm. In 1901 we saw very few crows, and the species is evidently rapidly disappearing from the islands. 30.—Partial Extermination of the Whales. a.—The Hump-back Whale (Megaptera boéps (L.) or M. nodosa Bonnat.) Ficure 44. According to the early writers whales were at first very abundant and tame about the Bermudas. The common species was the Hump- back Whale, which arrived here about the last of February or first of March, during its northward migrations, and remained till about the Ist of June. Most of these were females, accompanied by a suckling “cub,” 15 to 30 feet long. Figure 44.—Hump-back Whale (Megaptera boéps L. or M. nodosa Bonnat.). After G. O. Sars. But the Biscay Right Whale was also sometimes seen here, and occasionally a ‘ Fin-back,” but the latter was seldom if ever taken, on account of its pugnacity. The Sperm Whale was also common, though never abundant. In the 17th century it was rarely taken, but in the 18th century many were killed. At the present time all A. FE. Verrili—The Bermuda Islands. 683 these whales have become rare. The Hump-back and the Biscay Right Whale are practically extinct in these waters. The Sperm Whale is still taken occasionally, but must be considered uncommon. The following is the statement of Silvanus Jourdan, 1610: “There hath beene likewise found some good quantitie of Amber- greece, and that of the best sort. There are also great plentie whales which I conceive are very easie to bee killed, for they come so usually and ordinarilie to the shore, that wee heard them often- times in the night abed ; and have seene many of them neare the shoare, in the day time.” The following is an extract from the letter of Richard Stafford (see p. 510) to the Royal Society of London, in 1668, (Trans., iii, p. 792). The first part evidently refers to the common Hump-back Whale : “We have hereabout very many sorts of Fishes. There is amongst them great store of Whales, which in March, April and May use our Coast. I have my self killed many of them. Their Females have abundance of Milk, which their young ones suck out of the Teats, that grow by their Navell. They have no Teeth, but feed on Mosse,* growing on the Rocks at the bottom, during these three Moneths, and at no other season of the year. When that is consumed and gone, the Whales go away also. These we kill for their Oyl. But here have been Sperma-Ceti-Whales [Sperm Whales | driven upon the shore, which Sperma (as they call it) lies all over the Body of those Whales. These have divers Teeth, which may be about as big as a Mans wrist ; and I hope by the next opportunity to send you one of them. My self with about 20 more have agreed to try whether we can master and kill them, for I could never hear of any of that sort that were killed by any man; such is their fierceness and swiftness. One such Whale would be worth many hundred pounds. They are very strong, and inlayed with sinews all over their Body, which may be drawn out thirty fathom long.” The identity of the commonest Bermuda whale has always remained in doubt. No specimens of the skull or skeleton have ever * This was a common notion at that period, apparently due to the appearance of the contents of the stomach, simulating moss or sea-weeds. Probably the tentacles of jelly-fishes and the remains of various other small surface animals gave this appearance, but more or less of the abundant floating sea-weeds (Sargassum, etc.) would naturally be swallowed with the animal food which they captured at the surface of the sea, for they take in everything within range of the open mouth, as they swim along. Mr. Hayward of St. David’s Island states that they fed on jelly fishes. 684 A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. been studied by any zodlogist, so far as I can learn. Nor are there any complete descriptions of its external characters. There were doubtless two or three distinct species of whalebone whales taken or seen in former times. Of these the one called the Cape Whale by the fishermen was, without doubt, the Biscay Right Whale. It certainly was not the Greenland Right Whale, as Matthew Jones supposed. The Biscay Whale was formerly common off the eastern coast of the United States, and is still occasionally seen there. Therefore it naturally would sometimes have visited the waters of Bermuda. The best local description of the common Bermuda Whale that I have seen was written by an anonymous writer to the Royal Society of London, and published in vol. i, p. 11, of their Transactions, in 1665. This writer stated that several unsuccessful attempts had been made to take them that year, but without much success. Yet two adult females and three “cubs,” 25 to 30 feet long, were killed. One female was 60 feet long. The other was 88 feet long ;* tail 23 feet ; swimming fin [flipper] 26 feet ; “gills” [baleen] 3 feet long. It had a dorsal fin on the hinder part of the back. The color was black above ; white beneath. The head was somewhat bluff. The presence of a dorsal fin, the blunt head, and the very long flippers show that this must have been the true Hump-back Whalet (Megaptera nodosa Bonnat.) of Europe and America. In a later letter, the same writer states (op. cit., ii, p. 132) that in 1666 sixteen whales had been taken, yielding 50 to 60 tuns of oil. He does not mention any difference. The small amount and short- ness of the baleen was quite unlike that of the Biscay Whale. We can only judge of its abundance by the records of the amount of oil shipped, after the whale fishery was organized in 1665. Some data in regard to this early fishery have been given on a previous page (p. 521). Therefore it will be sufficient to add, in this place, the following records, which evidently refer mainly or entirely to the Hump-back, and supplement those given previously. * This is an unusually large size for a specimen of this whale, but the other measurements are in good proportions to the length. In more modern times, specimens of 50 feet in length were considered large. Mayor Hayward says he never knew of one over 60 feet. Mr. Hayward of St. David’s says 50 feet was the largest size, and that the average yield was 30 to 33 barrels of oil, very rarely 70 barrels. This whale of 1665 must have been a giant specimen of its race. + It has, however, received a special name (M. Americana Gray), based entirely on the above description. It is also identical with M. longimana, and with M. bellicosa Cope, of the West Indies, according to the determinations made by Dr. F. W. True. (See Science for May 2, 1902, p. 690.) A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 685 Governor Heydon and Council reported to the Bermuda Company, June 22, 1669, that according to the husband’s account, in 1664, 44 hogsheads of “whale oyl with blubber” and “400 weight of ffins ” [bone] were sent to London in the “ Elias”; in 1666, 117 hhds. of oil ; in 1667, 474 tuns of oil. Im all, 131 tuns of oil had been sent in four years. Governor Coney, in 1685, reported to the Royal Committee that about fourteen whales had been killed that year, but no account of the oil had been made to him, for the people claimed it as their own property. He stated that a large whale was then worth £80, After the Bermudas became a crown colony, in 1685, the whale fishery was carried on with greater activity than before, especially as the cultivation'of tobacco had become unprofitable and was rap- idly abandoned, about 1700. But during most of the 18th century a special license to carry on this fishery was required, for which a considerable fee was charged by the governor. The fishery did not become free till the time of Governor Brown, 1782, or about the close of the Revolutionary War. Perhaps this measure was due partly to the poverty of the people and the lack of other commer- cial resources, at that time, for the war caused very hard times in Bermuda, as did the subsequent war with France. However, the continuous killing of the whales, during the 18th century and later, gradually reduced their numbers, so that for the past fifty years they have been rarely captured. In fact, for forty or fifty years, the Sperm Whale has apparently been much more frequently taken than the Hump-back. As the Hump-back is a migratory whale, visiting the West Indies in winter and the New England coast in summer, the fishery at Ber- muda was not the only cause of its decrease in numbers. Probably the New England whale fishermen killed as many, and perhaps many more, than the Bermudians.* This was certainly the case with the Biscay Whales, which were formerly taken in large numbers off the New England coast, but apparently only in small numbers at Bermuda. * From 1765 to 1770, there were from 100 to 125 American vessels engaged in whaling, taking from 11,000 to 19,000 bbls. of oil annually. From 1771 to 1775 the average annual number was 304 vessels, tonnage 27,840, sperm oil taken 39,390 bbls.; other whale oil 8,650 bbls. In 1839, 557 American vessels, mostly from New England, were engaged in this fishery ; in 1842 the number was 652; in 1846, 678 ships, 35 brigs, and 22 schooners, with a total tonnage of 233,189 tons. 686 A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. From what is known of the migratory habits of the Hump-backs, on the American coasts, they probably go south in the autumn, as far at least as the West Indies, or even South America, to spend the winter, and while there bring forth their young. In the last of the winter or early spring they start northward, probably following, for the most part, the course of the Gulf Stream. But groups of them, mostly females with their young, were in the habit of tarrying, dur- ing the spring months, about the Bermudas, leaving for the northern waters about the last of May or first half of June, and sometimes not till July. Perhaps the same individuals did not remain there all that time, but those that left early may have been replaced by later arrivals from the south. Whether any of the young ones were ordinarily born in Bermuda waters is uncertain.* From the small size of some of the ‘ cubs” taken with their mothers (15 feet long) it is not improbable that some were born there ; but most of the cubs were 20 to 30 feet long, and those must have been born in more southern seas. We do not have many facts as to the rate of growth of these young whales, but probably it takes several months for them to become 25 feet long. It appears, from the early accounts, that the females with their cubs used to come into shallow water, near the shores and reefs ; sometimes, though rarely, they penetrated through the reefs by the channels and entered the lagoon, as far as Murray anchorage, at least. An instance of this kind is recorded in 1803, by an officer of H. M. 8S. “Leander,” who stated that a whale, probably of this species, in Murray anchorage, while he was near it in a cutter, leaped like a salmon, with a sudden spring, entirely out of the sea, so that its body was horizontal in the air and half its breadth above the water. It caused a great commotion when it fell heavily back into the sea, ‘“ with a thundering crash.” Early writers speak of its playing with its young, often tossing them quite out of the water with its snout, when so near the south shore that they could be easily observed. This was done particularly in pleasant moonlight nights. But no such sight has been seen during the past sixty years, so far as I can learn. Bermuda newspapers have records of the capture of single speci- mens, mostly young, showing quite conclusively that they have been comparatively rare for sixty years or more. * The whale fishermen at Bermuda do not think that the whales were in the habit of breeding there. A, EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 687 One instance, April, 1866, is given, when a small Hump-back, “a maiden cub of last year,” 33 feet long, was taken, yielding 40 barrels of oil. At the same time it was stated that it was the first one that had been taken “for some years.” Another is mentioned April 26, 1871, a “cub” 22 feet long, yielding 53 barrels of oil. It was accompanied by its mother, which followed the cub and “struck the boat with its tail,” but she was not captured. The flesh of these young whales is eaten by many of the natives of Bermuda, and is considered very good meat, though it always has a flavor of whale oil, more or less evident. The Royal Gazette, Dec. 23d, 1879, records a large school of whales observed off Bermuda. ‘The barque Elsinore, which arrived at New York on the 23d of October, from Rio Janeiro, reports that six days before, when abreast of Bermuda, she passed through an immense shoal of whales. . . . The procession must have been at least two miles long.” These were probably Hump-backs migrat- ing southward. Apparently they do not visit Bermuda during their autumnal migrations. Since this date large numbers of Hump-backs, Fin-backs, and other whales have been killed in Massachusetts Bay and northward, by means of bomb-lances, so that their numbers on the New Eng- land coast are now greatly diminished.* * In 1859, I personally observed large schools of Hump-backs, with some Fin- backs, in the Bay of Fundy. They were especially numerous at the seining grounds known as the ** Ripplings,” east of Grand Menan Island, towards the center of the Bay, where the strong opposed tidal currents make a large area of very rough water during flood tide, in which a vast school of large herrings >P) were feeding upon an abundant surface shrimp (Thysanopoda norvegica). The whales were feeding both on the herring and shrimp, and were so tame and so intent on their feeding that they often came within an oar-length of the numer- ous boats and vessels engaged in seining the herring, often, indeed, passing under the bowsprits of the vessels. At that time they were never disturbed by the fishermen, and they rarely came in contact with the nets and boats, which they carefully avoided by turning aside or diving under them. There were dozens of them in sight at once. Many that I saw were 60 to 75 feet long, often exceeding the length of the schooners, alongside of which they often passed near enough to be touched with an oar. It was a rare and imposing sight, never to be forgotten, to see these leviathans so tame and fearless of man. One large hump-back whale, which was easily recognized by means of a large barnacle attached by the side of the blow-hole, so as to cause an abnormal noise in blow- ing, had frequented these waters every summer, for more than twenty years, according to the fishermen. At that time there were more than 50 vessels fish- ing at this place, each with 4 to 6 boats and seines in use. 688 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Tslands. b6.—The Fin-back Whale. (Balenoptera, sp.) It is asserted by those formerly conversant with the whale fishery, that a true Fin-back was sometimes seen, but that it was danger- ously pugnacious, and therefore was not attacked. Which species this may have been is quite uncertain, but it may well have been B. physalus L. (See fig. 44a.) c.—The Cape Whale ; Black Whale; Biscay Right Whale. (Balena glacialis Bonnaterre= B. cisarctica.) FIGURE 45. This whale, which rather closely resembles the true Right Whale or Bow-head of the Arctic Ocean, and has often been mistaken for it, is found on both sides of the Atlantic, in temperate latitudes, entirely south of the range of the Bow-head, which is strictly con- fined to the arctic seas. It has, apparently, never been common at the Bermudas, occurring there at long intervals, irregularly and in small numbers, though it was doubtless more common in early times than now, but the early records are usually, not explicit enough to distinguish it from the Hump-back. It isa shorter and thicker species, with a stout, bluff head, and no dorsal fin. The slabs of whalebone are much more valuable, and are often 6 to 8 feet long. Figure 45.—The Biscay Right Whale Figure 44a.—Fin-back (B. physalus). or Cape Whale. I have learned from Mr. Hayward of St. David’s Island, who for- merly engaged in the whale fishery, that these whales were occasion- ally taken, but were always comparatively rare. He also states that one was taken in Castle Harbor, in 1792, which is the only known instance of a whale being taken in the enclosed bays of the islands. Mayor J. M. Hayward, of St. George’s, tells me that a pair of them were taken about 1840. But I have not been able to find positive records of any more recent captures of this kind, though Mayor Hayward thinks that two or three of them may have been taken since that date. A, E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 689 d.—The Sperm Whale ; Spermaceti Whale ; Trompe Whale; Trunk: Whale ; Cachelot. (Physeter macrocephalus 1.) FIGuRE 46. The Sperm Whale has always been found in Bermuda waters, but it has never been abundant there, nor does it often come into shallow water. Its habits are more erratic and it does not migrate regularly, like the Hump-back. It is found in all tropical and sub- tropical seas, and seems to be particularly fond of the Gulf Stream, probably because it finds there an abundance of squids and other cephalopods, which are its favorite food. Probably its migrations are largely dependent on the supply of such food. However, it was certainly much more abundant off Bermuda in the 17th and 18th centuries than it has been in this century. Its decrease cannot be attributed, in any great measure, to the Bermuda whalers, but rather to the American whalers, whose vessels have hunted it up and down the Gulf Stream for two centuries, killing large numbers every year. Formerly it was very numerous in the Gulf Stream, between the Carolina Coasts and Bermuda. There are records of schools contain- ing several hundreds, or even a thousand, having been seen in that region. The number that strayed eastward, within sight of Ber- muda, was comparatively small, but yet the early records often refer to their frequent occurrence, though they were rarely attacked by the local fishermen in the 17th century, for owing to their lack of knowledge and experience the few attempts that were made proved abortive and discouraging. —S— Figure 456.—Fin-back or Rorqual (B. physalus.) Figure 46.—Sperm Whale. But during the 18th century and more recently they have been frequently captured. In fact, it would appear that since 1800 sperm whales have been more often taken than any other kind. During the past thirty or forty years they have been almost the only whales taken. Formerly they seem to have been much larger than those Trans. Conn. Acap., Vou. XI. A Jury, 1902. 690 A. EF. Verrili— The Bermuda Islands. taken recently, though that may be because only the particularly large ones were then thought worthy of record. Mayor Hayward, of St. George’s, tells me that he remembers that when a child he was permitted to stand on the back of one that had been captured and brought inshore, which was 80 feet long and was said to have been the largest ever taken here. Mr. Hayward, of St. David’s Island, probably refers to the same one, in the notes sent to me by his daughter, for he says that in 1839 they took a sperm whale yielding 84 barrels of oil, which was regarded as the largest one ever taken here. It was struck by Josiah Smith. At that period Hayward’s whale oil establishment at St. David’s Island was one of the largest. A local paper, in 1832, in noticing the capture of a sperm whale, mentions that it was the seventh whale taken that season for the Hayward’s. At that time about twelve boats were engaged in the pursuit of whales,—chiefly sperm whales, it appears. Mr. Hurdis, in recording the capture of a half-grown sperm whale in 1840, remarks that it was the first one of the kind that had been captured in nine years. This is inconsistent with Mr. Hay ward’s statement of the capture of the large one in 1839, and of the record of seven in 1832. But at that time the communication between St. David’s and Hamilton was not very easy nor rapid, so that Mr. Hurdis may have known very little about the captures of these whales. He records another, in July, 1851, as a rare capture. Matthew Jones records the capture of one 47 feet long, in May, 1863 ; and of another 40 feet long, taken 14 miles south of David’s Head, June 19, 1869. Very few have been taken in recent years, the fishery having been nearly abandoned. I saw a small one, about 30 feet long, captured in April, 1901. It was regarded as a curiosity, even by the natives, and was kept several days for exhibition, under a tent, where it attracted crowds of visitors. This whale has certainly become comparatively rare in the Atlantic Ocean, as well as in all other regions, during the past sixty years. 31.—The Extermination of Breeding Sea Turtles ; the Lizard. a.—Former Abundance of Sea Turtles. Mr. Henry May and his company, 1593, and the companions of Sir George Somers, in 1609, found the sea-turtles breeding in large numbers on the sandy shores of the Bermudas, and those ship- A. FE. Verrili—The Bermuda Islands. 691 wrecked people, as well as the early settlers in 1612, depended very largely on their eggs and flesh for their food. At that time the turtles attained very large sizes, far beyond any found there in modern times, for being undisturbed by any enemies, they lived to a great age. Probably most of the breeding turtles were Green Turtles, but it is likely that the Hawksbill and Loggerhead were also found here at that period. Silvanus Jourdan gives the following account of them : “There are also great store of Tortoises (which some call turtles), and those are so great, that I have seene a bushell of egges in one of their bellies, which are sweeter than any Henne egge: and the Tor- toise itselfe is all very good meate, and yieldeth great store of oyle which is as sweete as any butter: and one of them will suffice fifty . men at a meale at least : and of these hath beene taken great store, with two boates at the least forty in one day.” The following account was given by William Strachy, in 1610: “But even then the Tortoyses came in againe, of which wee daily both turned up great store, finding them on land, as also sculling after them in our Boate strooke them with an Iron goad, and sod, baked, and roasted them. The Tortoyse is reasonable toothsom (some say) wholsome meate. I am sure our Company liked the meate of them verie well, and one Tortoyse would goe further amongst them than three Hogs. One Turtle (for so we called them) feasted well a dozen Messes, appointing sixe to every Messe. It is such a kind of meat as a man can neither absolutely call Fish nor Flesh, keeping most what in the water, and feeding upon Sea-grasse like a Heifer, in the bottome of the Coves and Bayes, and laying their Egges (of which wee should find five hundred at a time in the opening of a shee Turtle) in the Sand by the shoare side, and so covering them close leave them to the hatching of the Sunne.” Governor Moore, in 1612, referred to the Sea-turtles as follows : “ Turkles thare bee of a mightie bignesse : one Turkle will serve or suffice three or four score at a meale, especially if it be a shee Turkle, for she will have as many Egges as will suffice fiftie or three- score at a meale ; this I can assure you, for thay are very good and wholesome meate, none of it bad, no, not so much as the very guts and maw of it, for they are exceeding fat, and make as good tripes as your beastes bellies in England.” The great number of turtles destroyed in those early years caused their rapid decrease, even before 1620. In August of that year was passed “ An act agaynst the killing of over young Tortoyses.” 692 A. FE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. “In regard that much waste and abuse hath been offered and yet is by sundrye lewd and imp’vident p’sons inhabitinge wthin these Islands, who in there continuall goinges out to sea for fish doe upon all occasions, and at all tymes as they can meete with them, snatch & catch up indifferentlye all kinds of Tortoyses, both yonge & old, little and greate, and soe kill, carrye awaye and devoure them to the much decay of the breed of so excellent a fishe, the daylye skarringe of them from of our shores and the danger of an utter distroyinge and losse of them. It is therefore enacted by the Authoritie of this present Assembly That from hence forward noe manner of pson or psons of what degree or condition soever he be, inhabitinge or remayning at any time within these Islands, shall p’esame to kill or cause to be killed in any Bay, Sound, Harbor or any other place out to Sea: being within five leagues round about of those Islands, any young Tortoyses that are or shall not be found to be Eighteen inches in the Breadth or Dyameter, and that upon the penaltye for everye such offence of the fforfeyture of fifteen pounds of Tobacco, whereof the one half is to be bestowed in publique uses the other upon the Informer.” b.—The Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas (L.) Sch.= C. viridis 'T. and S8.). See p. 448.* FIGURE 47. At the present time this is much more common than either of the other species and is still taken in small numbers, for the market, by the turtle fishers of St. David’s Island, as described in a former chapter (p. 448). Those taken in recent years are nearly all young or half-grown specimens, seldom weighing more than 70 or 80 pounds, though sometimes 150 pounds or more. They have not been known to breed on the Bermuda shores for more than two hundred years, so far as I can learn. Therefore all that are captured here come northward from the West Indies in the Gulf Stream. In the West Indies they are believed to reach the weight of 15 to 20 pounds the first year; those weighing 80 to 100 pounds are thought to be three or four years old (Garman). In the West Indies green turtles have been taken weighing 850 pounds and even 1000 pounds, but such giants are now very rare, a Good accounts of he sea-turtles are given by Holbrook, North American Herpetology, ii, 1849: L. Agassiz, Contributions to the Nat. Hist. of the United States, ii, 1857; S. Garman, Bull. U. S. Nat. Museum, No. 25, pp. 287-8038, 1884 (with detailed synonymy); F. W. True, The Fisheries and Fishery Indus- tries of the United States, sec. ii, p. 147, 1884. A, EH. Verrili— The Bermuda Islands. 693 though it seems that formerly they were not uncommonly found of similar sizes. Therefore, it is not improbable that the huge turtles mentioned as found breeding at the Bermudas by the early writers, quoted above, were really green turtles that had lived here unmo- lested to a great age and large size. In proof of this, Lieut. Nelson records the finding of huge skeletons of sea turtles, nine feet long and seven feet broad, in the sand dunes. (See under Geology, Part IV.) ‘These may well have been the bones of large green turtles, killed by the early settlers for food. Figure 47.—Green Turtle. Figure 48.—Hawksbill. In the West Indies adult turtles, not of the largest size, will lay three or four lots of eggs, or sometimes five, at intervals of 14 or 15 days, with about 75 to 200 eggs in each lot, making a new nest each time. The total number might, therefore, be 500 to 1000. Thus the number of eggs, mentioned by Strachy as contained in those large turtles, may not have been exaggerated. The eggs hatch in six to eight weeks, according to the temperature, and the young take to the water at once.* The Green Turtle is peculiar in feeding chiefly on a vegetable diet, while the others are partly or mainly carnivorous. This species is particularly fond of the roots and crown or base of the “turtle grass” or eel-grass (Zostera marina), which grows in shallow water; but it will also eat various succulent sea-weeds,t and does not object to a certain amount of animal food. In confinement they will eat fish of any kind. They have now become rather shy and wary, so that their cap- ture, even in large seines, requires considerable skill and patience. * The very young turtles are devoured in large numbers by various birds and fishes, and doubtless also by the hawksbill and other sea-turtles. Sharks are fond of them, even when eight to twelve inches in diameter. + Mr. True mentions that the stomach of one taken at Noank, Conn., in 1874 was full of Irish Moss (Chondrus crispus), a very succulent and nutritious sea- weed, abundant on the rocks of the New England coast, just below ordinary low tides. This would make an excellent food for fattening these turtles in confinement. 694 A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. There is every reason to believe that the Green Turtle could be raised artificially with much profit, at the Bermudas, in suitable localities, where they could be easily confined and fed on their natural food, or on some cheap substitutes.* The Green Turtle has a wide range, being found as far south as southern Brazil, and north to Cape Hatteras; rarely on the New England coast. Their numbers are rapidly decreasing, even in the West Indies, and if not protected they will become practically extinct in a few years. Their nests and eggs should be thoroughly protected, wherever possible, and the taking of female turtles on the beaches, while depositing their eggs, should be utterly prohibited, and a close period during their breeding season, from March to July, should be provided.t A similar species (C. virgata) occurs in the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and is found on the California coast. (o The Hawksbill; Caret; Tortoise-shell Turtle. (Caretta imbri- cata (L.) Merr., 1820{= Eretmochelys imbricata Fitz., Agassiz). Ficure 48. This species, though less common than the Green Turtle, is still frequently taken about the Bermudas, and is sold for food, though * Whether they would breed in confinement is doubtful, but very young ones could be secured in the West Indies in large numbers, and brought to Bermuda in vessels provided with wells. They are believed to grow rapidly, but I have seen no record as to the amount of increase of those that are freauently kept in the natural fish ponds, as at Walsingham ; nor do I know whether they receive an abundance of suitable food in those places. They will eat purslane (Portu- lacca oleracea) and grow fat on it (Holbrook and others). This weed is still used to feed them in the turtle ponds at Bermuda. Probably they would also eat many other land plants, such as pumpkins and cabbages. + At present it would probably be impossible to get the various governments, owning the islands on which the turtles breed, to codperate, to any great extent, in any such measures. They are more likely, as in the case of the fur seals, to wait until the species are exterminated before making laws to preserve them. Much might be done, however, by private owners taking up lands along the shores where they breed and protecting their nests and young, and raising the young for the nort hern markets. { The generic name Caretta Merr., 1820, has clear priority over Hretmochelys Fitz., 1845 (as a subgenus), adopted by Agassiz, as a genus, in 1857. As used in 1820, it included also Thalassochelys Fitz., 1841, but the elimination of the latter restricted the name to the type, C. imbricata, for which it shouid be used. Another allied species (C. sguamata Ag., Kr.) is found in the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and also occurs on the California coast. A, FE. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 695 at a smaller price. It is taken in seines, in the same manner. When confined in the turtle ponds it is apt to bite the Green Turtles, being more pugnacious. It is carnivorous in its diet, feeding upon fishes, mollusks, crustacea, small sea-turtles, etc. These and all the other sea-turtles are said to be very fond of the Portuguese man-of-war (Physalia), which they eagerly devour, shutting their eyes to avoid the stings of its tentacles, which they continually brush away with their flippers, and when thus feeding they are so preoccupied that they can easily be approached by a boat and captured by hand.* In confinement they will eat meat and fish of all kinds, as well as turtle grass and purslane. This turtle never becomes so large as the Green Turtle, seldom exceeding 150 pounds in weight, even in the West Indies, though specimens much larger are sometimes taken. Those caught about the Bermudas are generally much smaller.t In the West Indies and on the Florida Keys they breed at the same season as the Green Turtle, and lay their eggs in the same way. The eggs are well flavored and much sought after as food by the natives, like those of the Green Turtle. The flesh of the young Hawksbill is considered palatable, and is often sold in our markets, but that of the old ones becomes tough and oily, so that it is not valued as food. In fact, it is said to be often very unwholesome in the West Indies, having purgative properties, perhaps due to the food that it eats there. The shells or dermal plates of this and the similar Pacific species, known as tortoise-shell in commerce, is of considerable value, when taken from large adult specimens. and thus relieved She arrived two months before the “ Blessinge,’ the famine which then prevailed. This was largely due to the fact that the earlier visitors did not notice any rats. Thus Silvanus Jourdan, 1610, says: ‘The countrey (foreasmuch as I could finde myself, or heare by others) affords no venimous creature or so much as a Rat or a mouse, or any other thing unwholesome.” But such writers were not likely to have noticed a strictly noctur- nal species like this, which at that time was confined to the cedar forests. Governor Butler, in speaking of this arrival, wrote as follows: “But howsoever this runne away frigate brought with her a timely and acceptable sacrifice of her meale; yet the companions of A, E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. W15 Qo her meale, numbers of ratts (which wer the first that the ilands ever sawe), being received with-all and on a soudaine multiplyinge them- selves by an infinite increase (for ther is noe place in the world so proper for them), within the space of one only yeare they became so terrible to the poore inhabitants, as that (like one of Pharaoths plagues) the whole plantation was almost utterly subverted therby ; and so farr gone it was at last, that it proved Captaine Tucker’s masterpiece all his time (which was not long after) to devise trapps and stratagems to conquer and destroye them, though indeed all of them proved to noe purpose (as you shall see hereafter) untill after- wards, one moneth of cold and wett weather [probably March, 1618] did the deed.” In a later chapter he ‘gave many additional details. He, like Hughes, attributed the death of the rats mainly to a spell of cold rainy weather, but this was, of course, derived from the statements of others, for it happened before his arrival there. Other writers denied that the weather had been any colder than on various other oceasions. His fuller account is as follows : “Sone after the conclusion of this assize [March, 1618] came a hotte alarme from Sands his tribe, of a fierce assault made by the ratts upon their new sette corne, who scratched it out of the ground in the night as fast as they put it in in the day; thes race of ratts being (as you have heard) first brought in by the runne away frigate from the West Indies, in Mr. Moores time, began presently so sylently and sodainely to encrease (ther being noe place of the world more apt to nourish them, partly by reason of the sweet temper of the aire, but especially through the general shelter and covert that it affords them) that they then became felt before they wer feared, and yet not so duely feared as befitted; so that little or noethinge being done against them at that time, and lesse in the lazie dayes of the six Governours [1615-16], they wer by this time gotten to so ranck a head that swimeinge in huge troupes from iland to iland (for fishes have bin taken three leagues of at sea with whole ratts in their bellyes), they eate up the whole country before them, wheresoever they went, utterly devoureinge all the corne they mett with all in an instant ; so that, in despight of all the catts sent from out of England, and the layeinges of poyson, the Governours often fireinge of the whole ilands, to the huge waste and spoyle of much excellent cedar timber, or whatsoever els could be devised against them, they every day more and more so multiplied and grew upon the poore amazed people, as that it very little wanted that the 714 A. FE. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. whole place had once againe bin utterly and quite left voide of her reasonable inhabitants: and with out all question, this ill had not fayled to have befallen, had not God (who noe doubt hath an especiall worck in the peopling of thes partes with Christians), by his owne hand, in great mercy, swept them all away in an instant, when it was least expected ; for not long after that the Governour (having thus received this loathed report of this ratt-warre in Somersett, and being at his non-plus of newe devises to helpe him- selfe), had determined once againe to fall upon another generall burneinge of the whole ilands, to the extreame discontent of all men, and especially of Mr. Lewes [Hughes] the minister, who openly preached against it, so that the Governour could never endure him afterwards ; behold by a soudaine fall of a great store of raine, and some cold northerly windes bloweinge with all, in a moment, and when noe man durst so much as hope for so happy a turne, thes mightie armies of ravenous ratts are clean taken awaye, vanish, and are scarce one to be found in a share; but in steed of them, shortly after, come in marchinge towards the houses, whole troupes of great and fatte wild catts, who havienge formerly found foode ynough upon these vermin abroad, and so become wild and savage, are now againe in this their necessitie, and by want of wonted reliefe, forced to returne to their first tamenesse.” The Rev. Mr. Hughes, who was present during part of the time, gave the following account: “Let not the hand of God, which lay heavy upon you in Captain Tucker’s time [1616-18], be forgotten, when the rats did abound, and goe by sea from Iland to Iland, so as no [land was free, but all were like so many Coney-warrens: I say they went by sea from Iland to Iland, because fishes have at divers times been taken three leagues off at sea, with Rats in their mawes, which sheweth plainly that the Rats did swim, and were snapt up of the Fishes. Consider what a plague of God they were unto you beth within dores and without : within they devoured your Corne and other provision of foode, and your cloathes and shooes (as myselfe has good cause to remember :) without, they devoured your corne by scraping it out of the ground, when it was new set, the grains which were thrust in so deepe as they could not scrape [rotted], untill God in mercy hear- ing our poore prayers, tooke them away, on the sodaine in three or foure dayes. I mention the time, because I took good notice of it. As soon as the Rats were destroyed wild Cats, that were neither seene nor knowne to be in any such abundance, came marching out A, EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 715 of the woods, to your houses, six, seven, or eight in a company : then It was in every bodie’s mouth, that the Cats had destroyed the Rats, and some said that the coldnesse of Winter killed them. I remember indeede that we had a very colde time a little before they were destroyed, which, (I am persuaded) God in mercy did send for the killing of them, nor (as some doe) to the Traps, nor to the ruinat- ing of the Islands with fire ; and take heede that your unthankful- ness bring them not againe, or some other plague as bad.” Capt. John Smith, in his General History, 1624, gave a detailed account of these rats, compiled chiefly from the works of Butler and Hughes, but with a few additions from other sources.* Among other items he stated that every man was enjoyned to set twelve traps and some set nearly a hundred, which they visited twice each night, and that they used ratsbane, and both cats and dogs in large numbers, setting fire, and various other devices, ‘but, could not prevaile, finding them still increasing against them; nay they so devoured the fruits of the earth that they were destitute of bread for a year or two.” He also discussed the various supposed causes of their sudden death, and objected to the theory that it was due to cold, for he said that “they wanted not the feathers of young birds and chickens which they daily killed, and Palmetto mosse to builde themselves warm nests out of the wind; as usually they did;t neither doth it appeare that the cold was so mortal to them, seeing they would ordinarily swimme from place to place, and bee very fat even in the midst of winter.” He concluded, therefore, that “there was joyned with and besides the ordinary and manifest meanes, a more mediate and secret work of God.” The real cause of their sudden disappearance, as mentioned above (p. 590) was, in all probability, starvation, after they had destroyed all available sources of food, in consequence of their vast increase. This disappearance of food, in the winter, would necessarily cause their sudden death, “all in three or four days,” as Mr. Hughes stated. A very few, however, seem to have survived, for they have * His account has been copied entire in Lefroy’s Memorials, I, and by J. M. Jones, in Bull. 25, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 158. Therefore I have not repeated it here, but only give the facts supplementary to the others. + In another place he says the nests were built in trees, thus proving that it was the wood-rat. ¢ It is curious that their starvation wasnot thought of as the actual cause of their death, neither by the early writers nor by Jones and others who have dis- cussed this subject in modern times, especially as Hughes and others recog- nized the potency of starvation in the case of the cats and hogs. 716 A. EF. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. been found there in recent times, in small numbers.* They are now probably kept down to small numbers by the gray rats, which are now common, even in the woods and fields, as we learned by trap- ping them in 1901. We did not succeed in taking wood-rats, but that may have been because we did not have an opportunity to set traps in the thick swamps, to which they are mainly confined, it is said. But most of the planters, who were questioned, claimed that they had never seen such a rat. Therefore it is probably local and not in any large numbers. Matthew Jones, 1884, fully describes the nests found in cedar trees, and sometimes in low bushes in the swamps. He states that they are spherical and about a foot in diameter, lined with soft materials. Mr. Hurdis also mentions find- ing this species in 1850, but says he met with it only once in four- teen years, and never saw the nest. Jones says that they did much damage to the oranges. In 1898, I saw bananas damaged on the trees by rats, as the owners said; and very likely by this species, though the more common brown rat might also ascend the banana stalks. As for the time and mode of introduction of this species, it seems to me impossible to believe that it was first taken there by the frigate, in 1614. This frigate might have had some of these rats on board, but she was more likely to have had the common domestic rats, which may have escaped to the shores and thus gave rise to the notion that the subsequent rat plague was due to them. But the vast numbers in which the wood-rat appeared a year or two later (one year according to Butler) cannot by any possibility be explained by the natural increase from any number likely to have been contained in any one ship ; for there must have been tens of thousands of them, and that in spite of the numerous wild and half- wild cats then on the islands. Probably these rats had found their way to the islands at a much earlier period, either by shipwrecked vessels from the West Indies, or by the buccaneers landing there. They may have been introduced at the same time as the wild hogs. It is also possible that they might have been introduced by the ship- wreck of the Bonaventura, in 1593, for they are such good swimmers that they could easily have reached the land from the wreck at North Rocks. Even in the latter case they would have had 21 years to increase before they attracted attention by their numbers. I am more inclined to believe that they were introduced even earlier than that. * Butler stated that a very few were left in his time, 1621. A. KE. Verrilli— The Bermuda Islands. 71 -~T As they are very nocturnal in their habits and inhabit by prefer- ence the thick woods and swamps, it is not strange that the early writers did not observe them, even if common. But after the settlers began to plant corn and other crops and fruits attractive to these rats, they naturally began to collect around the plantations and storehouses in large numbers, especially in winter and spring, when their natural food was scarce, and thus forced themselves into notice at once. At the same time this new source of supply of food in the winter would have prevented the death of large numbers by starvation, as may have occurred previously on many occasions, for their sources of food supply, like those of the hogs, were very limited at that season, for lack of native edible plants and seeds. (See pp. 589, 590.) The Wood-rat can easily be distinguished from the other rats by having a more hairy and less scaly tail, and especially by the pure white, or nearly white, color of its under parts, while its back is light chestnut-brown. It is smaller than the brown rat, and not so stout. It is a native of the warmer parts of the Old World, but was early introduced into the West Indies, Central America, and the southern United States. e.—Common Rats and Mice; Bats. The Brown or Gray Rat (Mus decumanus Pallas) and the mouse (MZ. musculus L.) are very common in Bermuda, both in and about the buildings and in the woods and fields, far away from houses. We have no positive data as to when they were introduced, but the mouse was probably there in the early years of the settlement. The Gray Rat probably did not arrive till the middle of the 18th cen- tury or later. The Black Rat (Mus rattus L.) was formerly very common, but has been largely exterminated by the brown rat, which arrived later, as in most other places in America. Hurdis states that it was common about 1850. Jones, 1884, states that it was rare. This rat, like the mouse, was probably introduced from Europe with the early settlers, or from the West Indies on the “runaway frigate,” in 1614, There are no native land mammals* in Bermuda, except a few migrating North American bats. * J. M. Jones thought that he had seen a shrew, 1876, but it has not been seen by others. A single specimen of a seal, supposed to be Phoca vitulina, was taken in April, 1887. Its skin was preserved by Bartram, and is still extant, but I did not see it. Bartram recorded its capture in the Royal Gazette, at the time. \ It was also noticed by Hurdis (Rough Notes, p. 340). No other instance is known, It might be the young of the West Indian Seal. 718 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. Two species of bats are known to occur here apparently during their autumnal migrations, but yet they may have been brought in the holds of vessels. Others may hereafter be observed. The most common is the Hoary or Gray Bat (Atalapha cinerea (Beauy.) Peters ; Allen,* p. 155, pl. xxix-xxxi = Vespertilio pruinosus Say, and in Jones, 1876, and Hurdis= Lasiurus cinereus in Jones, 1884). Several instances of the occurrence of this species are given by Hurdis and others, but only in autumn. The other, which is much more rare, is the Silver-haired Bat (Lasionyteris noctivagans (Lec.) Peters; Allen, 1893, p. 105, pl. xii; xiv=Scotophilus noctivagans m Jones, 1884). This was recorded as taken alive by Hurdis, Oct. 8, 1850. It is singular that there are no native bats known here, for the numerous caves would seem to afford excellent homes for them. Some of the earliest writers mention the occurrence of bats, but they were probably only the migratory species named above, though the season of the year was not given. Possibly there were resident species at that time. d.—The Wild or Half-wild Cats. In the accounts quoted above, Strachy, Hughes, and Governor Butler (pp. 712-715) describe the great abundance of feral cats that came out of the wood to the settlements, when the rats died out, as an unexpected and surprising event. They evidently believed that the cats had been on the islands before the settlement in 1612, and that they had been living there in the feral condition, feeding on the rats. This may have been correct, and if so it would go to prove that the rats had also been there longer than was then supposed. It is mentioned that the party shipwrecked there in 1609 saved their ship dog and also some live hogs. (See Strachy’s account, quoted above.) Therefore they probably also saved their cats, if they had any, which is almost certain to have been the case. These cats escaping into the woods and increasing as they do there, might have given rise, in the nine years, to the large number observed in 1618. Possibly cats may have been introduced still earlier, like the hogs, but we have no record of any being there in 1609, Doubtless the settlers carried cats there in 1612, and perhaps every year after- wards, so that their numbers need not have been surprising. | * Harrison Allen, M.D., Monograph of the Bats of North America, Bulletin U.S. National Museum, No. 43, 1893. A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 719 e.— Cattle and other Domestic Animals. A few cattle, goats, sheep, and English rabbits or coneys were sent over very soon after the settlement, in 1612, but these first importations were probably mostly, if not all, destroyed during the famine of 1615. Governor Butler, as mentioned above, stated that the lazy people then colonized at Port Royal, rather than to fish, killed for food the few cattle then existing and pretended to the Governor that they ran into the sea and were drowned. But prob- ably other cattle were sent out by nearly every magazine ship, for several years, till they increased naturally and became common. Governor Butler mentioned that Governor Tucker, in 1616, was engaged in building fences, to protect his introduced plants against domestic animals, and stated that the cattle had been sent partly by the general Company, but mostly by the Earl of Warwick. Governor Butler, in 1619, also wrote as follows: “As for the beasts of the field,—cowes and bulls ther are which prosper exceedingly ; hogges (wherof some fewe wilde) in great numbers; Indian and English goates likewise, but of noe great hope, for (like the pigeons) they are also found dead and dieinge in every corner;* and lastly, there are a late great increase of tame conyes, the which, being reserved in certaine empaled places about the houses, are ther fedd with the potatoe slipps and other simples native of the place, the which they eate very greedely ; they fare well withall.” Sheep do not appear to have been kept in large numbers, at any time. Probably they did not thrive very well, as in most hot climates. But Hughes, in 1615, says: “The Calves and Lambes that we brought out of England, did prosper exceedingly, till the hunters met with them.” J.—Horses. I can tind no record of the arrival of horses, mules, or asses in the early years, nor any mention of their presence there for many years later. The narrowness of the highways and of the early streets in St. George’s indicates that horses and carriages were not commonly used there till long after the settlement. Probably the earliest horses were only used for horseback riding, by the more wealthy * Doubtless due to poisonous plants that they ate, including tobacco, (See p. 592.) At the present time goats are common enough. 720 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. people. The general use of boats for the transportation of goods and persons rendered horses of less importance than in most places. Horses, however, must have become somewhat common by 1672, for some of the militia men were mounted, and orders were given to have the horses trained so that they would stand the noise of drums and the discharge of firearms. 34.—Introduction of Birds. a.—Poultry. Domestic poultry, including turkeys, were probably introduced by the earliest settlers, in 1612, and became abundant in a few years, though Governor Butler stated that the geese and pigeons, like goats, did not succeed very well at first. But probably this was only a temporary drawback, due to unaccustomed food. Governor Butler, 1619, mentions the poultry, as follows : “And thes are the natives of the ayre ; to which have bin added, by the late inhabitants, great store of turkeys and abundance of cocks and hens, which every daye growe wilde ; numbers of tame chicks, and some fewe geese and house pigeons; but thes last two like not so well, for by some disagreeinge foode they kill them- selves.” Probably some of the native fruits and seeds, which they had not then learned to avoid, were poisonous to these fowls.* The Rev. Mr. Hughes, 1614, says : “The cocks and hennes wee brought with us doe prosper and increase much, and are a great comfort unto us.”’ Ducks and the Guinea Fowl or Pintado were introduced later, as also the Peacock, ete. Mr. Hurdis (p. 407) also mentions the South American Powee or Crested Curassow, as not uncommon in his time, kept with other poultry as an ornamental bird. Domestic Pigeons at certain periods appear to have become half wild, and are said to have nested in holes and caverns of the cliffs. One locality is still called Pigeon Cave. At present they are not abundant, so far as we observed. * Mr. Hurdis, Rough Notes, p. 303, states that he repeatedly tried, without success, to keep imported fowls bought from vessels, but they invariably died very soon, though the native ones were perfectly healthy. Some of the people complained to tis that the Octopus often seized and killed their ducks and geese. A. #. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 721 b.—Game Birds, ete. The American Quail or Bobwhite. (Colinus Virginianus (1.) Les.) FicureE 58. The early writers do not mention any bird of this sort, therefore it is altogether probable that the Quails said to have been found here in the wild state more than sixty years ago were introduced by some enterprising person at an earlier period, but of this no record is known tome. Possibly some governor or army officer fond of shoot- ing game may have done this.* But it seems to have become extinct = Figure 59.—Mocking Bird (Mimus poly- Figure 58.—American Quail or Bob- glottos (.) Brewer= M. Carolinensis white (Colinus Virginianus (L.) Cab.) Both from Webster’s Inter- Les.) national Dictionary. here before 1840. Mr. Hurdis, during his entire residence, 1840 to 1855, did not meet with it. It was subsequently introduced again, by Mr. Richard Darrell, about 1858 or 59, according to Capt. Reid, and having been better protected by the modern game laws it has become common for the past twenty-five years or more. It not infrequently comes into the poultry yards and feeds with the chickens, as I have personally observed. The English Pheasant and Partridge were introduced in 1877 by Governor Robert M. Laffan, according to Hurdis (p. 407), but whether either of them long survived I do not know ; they certainly had not become common in 1901, if present at all, which I doubt. * References to the birds of Bermuda are practically wholly lacking in the literature from 1650 to 1850. Trans, Conn. Acap., Vou. XI. 46 Sepr., 1902. 422 A. E. Verrilli— The Bermuda Islands. Bahama Ground-dove. (Columbigallina passerina (L.) Bry., Baha- mensis Mayard).* Ficure 10. Pace 430. The early writers mention no bird corresponding to this, which, owing to its very familiar habits, would surely have been noticed had it been present in any numbers. Therefore it seems altogether probable that it was introduced from the Bahamas like large num- bers of the plants, but we have no record of the time or manner of its introduction. It is mentioned as very common in the earliest of the modern lists of birds (1850, 1851). For about 200 years previ- ously, however, there is’ scarcely anything recorded concerning the birds of Bermuda. It may have been introduced in the 18th cen- tury, which would account for its present abundance. It does not appear to differ from the Bahama form, even as a variety. e.—Singing Birds. Mocking Bird. (Mimus polyglottos (l.) Brewer=M. Carolinensis Cab.) FiIGurRE 59. A few individuals of this species seem to have been introduced at several dates. One instance was at Bailey Bay, in 1892. Six pairs are said to have been liberated at St. George’s, in 1893, by Capt. Myers, but I have seen no record of the locality from whence they came. It has increased very slowly and is still far from common, though often seen in a few localities. It seems to be more fond of the Walsingham region than any other. It seems strange that it has not increased more rapidly, as it has few enemies, unless the English Sparrows or Catbirds destroy its eggs. Some of the West Indian Mocking Birds, as MW. orpheus, ete. might be better adapted for the locality. English Sparrow. (Passer domesticus (L.) Koch.) The European sparrow was introduced here in 1875, as previously into the United States, under the impression that it would prove very beneficial by destroying insects, which it has not done to any *Tt was first identified as the Bahama subspecies by Mr. A. Hyatt Verrill (Amer. Journ. Science, xii, pp. 64-90, and The Osprey, v, June, 1901, p. 83). Mr. Bangs described it, about the same time, but apparently a few days later, as a new species (C. Bermudiana) in the Auk, July, 1901. See also this vol., p. 58, for discussion of dates, A, E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 723 appreciable extent. It has, however, become very abundant and familiar in all parts of the islands and does considerable damage to fruits and in other ways, so that it is generally considered a nuisance. It does not confine itself so much to the settlements and highways as in the United States, but is seen everywhere in the fields and woods. It is accused of destroying the eggs of other more useful birds, as with us. The Bluebird, especially, is said to suffer thus from its depredations. In 1883, an act was passed “To encourage the destruction of Sparrows.” But this did not seem to cause any apparent decrease in its numbers, though the amount paid in boun- ties is said to have been £800 in one year. It was introduced into Bermuda from the United States in 1875. European Tree-Sparrow. (Passer nontanus (L.) Koch.) This bird is apparently not uncommon. It was probably intro- duced accidentally with the English Sparrow and has similar habits, but it is less familiar. It was first recorded by A. H. Verrill, who found it common in Paget Parish, March, 1901.* Figure 60.—European Goldfinch (Carduelis carduelis (L.) Schiif.) Phot. from life by A. H. Verrill. European Goldfinch. (Carduelis carduelis (L.) Schiif.) Ficure 60. This elegant little bird is becoming quite common in certain locali- ties and seems to be fully naturalized. Numerous specimens were seen in 1901, especially about Hungry Bay. * Amer. Jour. Science, xii, p. 64, July, 1901 ; and The Osprey, July, 1901. 724 A. #. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. It was recorded by Capt. Reid (1884), as seen in a single instance in 1875. He thought that it might have been an escaped cage-bird, but it is not improbable that efforts had been made before that to introduce it here. A considerable number of cage-birds of this and other species are said to have escaped from a wrecked vessel, near St. George’s, about 1885, and the recent increase is supposed to be due largely to that event. American Goldfinch. (Astragalinus tristis (L.) Cab.=Spinus tris- tis Boie.) FIGURE 61. This was also seen, in March, 1901, and is said to have been intro- duced intentionally, in 1896, although it may have come here previ- ously, from time to time, as a migrant. Hurdis mentions a small flock of yellow birds, supposed to have been of this species, seen in March, 1850, but not shot. European Wheat-ear. (Saxicola enanthe Bech.) This bird is now common in some places and seems to be fully naturalized. It was seen in flocks, especially at Coney Island and near St. George’s. It is said to have escaped from the wrecked vessel, about 1885, like the Goldfinch. European Starling. (Sturnus vulgaris 1.) FIGURE 62. Several wild specimens of starlings have been observed at different times, and it may now be sparingly naturalized. Perhaps it escaped from the wrecked vessel, about 1885, with the Goldfinch and other cage-birds. Figure 61.—American Goldfinch (Astragalinus tristis Cab.) (Sturnus vulgaris L.) European Skylark, (Alauda arvensis L.) Hurdis recorded the occurrence of the Skylark, June 12, 1850. He shot one male specimen which had the song, habits, and appear- ance of a wild bird. It has not been recorded by recent collectors, A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. | bo or Note.—The following are the principal works on the birds of Bermuda : William Jardine.—Contributions to Ornithology. Ornithology of the Ber- mudas. Vol. for 1849, pp. 76-87; vol. for 1850, pp. 5-14, 35-38, 67. Gives lists of birds furnished by Lieut-Col. J. W. Wedderburn and Rev. H. B. Tristram, supplemented by the observations of Col. H. M. Drummond-Hay and Mr. J. L. Hurdis. ‘‘ Mr. Tristram, (who lived in Bermuda three years,) printed a list in the islands, of all the birds that had occurred to his notice in 1847,” p. 77. In 1849 twenty species were added, and one in 1850. John L. Hurdis.—Birds of Bermuda, in the Bermuda Pocket Almanac for. 1851, pp. 65-68. A list of 124 species, with 11 others regarded as doubtful. (Published without the name of the author, but as it agrees closely with the list in ‘‘ Rough Notes,” p. 303, it was doubtless by Hurdis.) John L. Hurdis.—Rough Notes and Memoranda relating to the Natural His- tory of the Bermudas. London, 1897. Edited by H. J. Hurdis from MSS. notes mostly made from 1847-55, relating chiefly to birds, but including some on mammals, fishes, insects, botany, etc. J. M. Jones.—The Visitor’s Guide to Bermuda. Halifax, 1876. Contains a list of birds, pp. 123-180, including those contributed by Hurdis, Reid, and others. G. Saville Reid.—The Birds of the Bermudas. Printed in The Zodlogist for October and November, i877. (Revised and corrected with additions by Lieut. H. Denison.) Reprinted, with an Appendix (pamphlet 45 pages). Royal Gazette Office. Hamilton, 1883. Originally published in ‘‘The Field,” 10 numbers, July to September, 1875. This paper contains much information concerning the habits of the birds observed. especially of the game birds. G. Saville Reid. —The Birds of Bermuda. Bulletin U.S. Nat. Museum. No. 25, 1884. In this paper the previous lists are revised and some additions are made, while many references to the literature are included. The observations of Hurdis are also mostly included in this paper, for the author had the use of his original MSS. notes. Lieut. (later Capt.) Reid was stationed at Bermuda, from March 30, 1874 to June 3, i875. D. Webster Prentiss.—Notes on the Birds of Bermuda. The Auk, vol. xiii, p. 237, 1896. A. H. Verrill.—Amer. Journ. Science, xii, pp. 64-90, for July, 1901 (issued June 26); also The Osprey, v, for June, 1901, p. 83-85, with figures. Outram Bangs and Thos. S. Bradlee.—The Auk, for July, 1901, pp. 249-57. A. K. Fisher.—Bird Lore, Oct., 1901, p. 178. A. E. Verrill.—Note on the Nomenclature of Bermuda Birds, Amer. Jour. Science, p. 470, 1901; Trans. Conn. Acad., xi, p. 58, 1901. 35.—Introduction of Reptiles and Amphibians. a.—American Blue-tailed Lizard. (Anolis principalis L.) FIGURE 63. An account of the discovery of a single specimen of this species in the Bermuda collection of the late G. Brown Goode (1876) has already been given by me in another place.* * Trans. Conn. Acad., vol. xi, p. 57, 1901. 726 A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. It was probably either an accidental introduction or else an escaped pet lizard, no other specimen having been seen. But it would probably be easy to introduce the species. It is common in the West Indies and the southern United States. Figure 63.—Blue-tailed Lizard (Anolis principalis); Bermuda specimen, enlarged. Photog. from nature by A. H. Verrill. 6.— Great Surinam Toad ; Agua Toad. (Bufo agua Daud.) Ficures 64, 65. This species, which is considered the largest existing toad, is now common in many parts of the Main Island, especially in the marshes.* It was also seen by us on Castle Island, in an old drain, * A good account of this toad was published in Science, xiii, p. 342, March, 1901, by F. C. Waite, Univ. of New York. A, FE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. Tag in 1898. During the breeding season, in early spring, they often get into water tanks, and being unable to escape, die there and spoil the water. The eggs are also laid in the brackish water of the marshes and will develop in such places, though the species seems to prefer fresh water for its eggs, when available. A large female will lay an enormous number of eggs. This toad has long ago been introduced into many of the West Indies from South America. It has a wide range, from southern Mexico to Brazil and Argentine. In Barbadoes and Jamaica it is valued because of its habit of catching field-rats and insects. In the stomachs of those that I dissected were only wings and other frag- ments of cockroaches and ground beetles, with some fragments of dry twigs probably swallowed accidentally. Young ones, about half an inch in length, are often abundant in Bermuda, after showers in July. It was introduced into Bermuda directly from British Guiana, by Capt. Nathaniel Vesey, about 1875. About two dozen were taken to Hamilton and mostly liberated in Devonshire Parish, from whence they have dispersed themselves considerably. But it is possible that they had long before been introduced by others, in small numbers, for otherwise it seems strange that they should have reached Castle Island, which has been long uninhabited. Possibly the ancestors of those seen there and in some other parts may have been introduced from the West Indies by soldiers, as early as 1812, but it was not noticed by Hurdis, 1847-55. This toad is believed in South America and the West Indies, as well as in Bermuda, to have a very poisonous secretion from its parotid and dorsal glands. It is said that dogs that mouth them invariably die within a few hours. The secretion of the glands, when injected into the circulation of dogs, birds, and other animals, causes convulsions and death, even when in small doses. Mr. A. H. Verrill, of my party, on one occasion saw the venom ejected as a fine spray, from the parotid glands of a large toad, when it was much irritated. 36.—Introduction of Land Snails and Slugs. a.— Native Species. As compared with the smaller West Indian Islands, the Pulmonata are here very few. The total number recorded from the Bermudas is but 42, including 15 semiaquatic species found only on the sea 728 A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. shores or around the borders of brackish swamps, belonging to Alexia; Pedipes, 2 sp., fig. 66; Plecotrema,; Melampus, 5 sp.; Trunca- tella, 3 sp.; Onchidinm. These last were probably introduced by natural means. Of the truly terrestrial species there are 4 slugs and 23 snails. Among the snails there is a single endemic genus (Pci- lozonites*), with three living and four fossil species, of which three A2o f ‘e = Gy, Mi i ws, : Figures 67a, 67b.—Pecilozonites circumfirmatus; x 21g. Figures 68, a, b.—Thy- sanophora hypolepta ; x10. Figure 69.—Helicina convexa; x2. 67, 69, by A. H. V.; 68, by Pilsbry. are extinct. (See Part IV.) Two other species of snails are also supposed to be endemic, viz., Thysanophora hypolepta Pilsb. (fig. 68), and Helicina convexa Ptr. (fig. 69), but these are closely allied to West Indian forms. The large slug ( Veronicella Schivelye Pilsb., fig. 84), known only from Bermuda, in its habits and local- ized distribution appears like an introduced species, but if so its origin is still unknown. The following native species of West Indian origin are supposed to have been introduced independently of human agency : Thysanophora vortex (Pfr.); Greater Antilles; Bahamas; South- ern Florida. Figs. 70, a, 6. * This genus is the most interesting one. Its largest species (P. Nelsoni) is extinct, but it occurs abundantly in the older cave-conglomerates and zolian limestones, sometimes in strata exposed only at low tide, thus showing that it lived on the islands before their partial submergence, and indicating the com- paratively great antiquity of the genus. Its nearest allies are now found in the eastern United States. The three living species are P. Bermudensis ; P. Reinia- nus; P. circumfirmatus (fig. 67a, 67b). A variety of the first is abundant as a fossil in the later and softer limestones, often retaining very distinct bands of brown color. The fossil variety (zonata V., noy.) is rather larger with a thicker and firmer shell, larger umbilicus, and thicker callus than the living form. Both varieties vary considerably in height of spire, size of umbilicus, and color. For two series of comparative figures, see Part IV, Geology. A. EF. Verrili— The Bermuda Islands. ~J bo Oo Polygyra microdonta (Desh.) ; Bahamas. Fig. 72. Zonitoides minusculus Bin.; Greater Antilles; whole United States. Fig. 71. Pupa (Bifidaria) servilis Gld.= pellucida Prime; Cuba; Bahamas. Fig. 74a. ee Figure 66.—Pedipes tridens; x15. Figures 70, a, b.—Thysanophora vortex ; x3. Figure 71.—Zonitoides ninusculus; x4. Figure 72.—Polygyra micro- donta ; x3. 66, 70, 72, by A. H. V.; 71, by E. S. Morse. Pupa (Bifidaria) Jamaicensis Adams ; Jamaica. Fig. 746. Pupa (Bifidaria) rupicola Say ; Cuba; Florida. Fig. 74e. Pupoides marginatus (Say) ; Greater Antilles ; United States. Fig. 73. Perhaps some of the other common species, as Helicella ventricosa and the Suecinea, should be added to this list. Figure 73.—Pupoides marginatus; x 61. Figure 74a.—Pupa servilis; x 9. Figure 74b.—Pupa jamaicensis; x 9. Figure 74¢.—Pupa rupicola; x 9. Figures 80, a, b.—Sueccinea Barbadensis; x 3. But much the larger numbers of slugs and snails are believed to have been introduced in rather modern times by means of commerce, and more especially in connection with the introduction of growing plants, for the eggs and young might easily be introduced in large numbers in the earth with potted plants, or in that adherent to the roots of trees and shrubs. The dates of introduction of some of these are pretty accurately known, and in some cases they are quite modern ; others are very uncertain. 730 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. b.—Introduced Snails. Figures 75, a, b, c; 76, a, 6; 79e. The “ Spiral Snail.” (Rumina decollata (1.). On account of its great abundance and the damage that it does to the crops, the ‘spiral snail” is the most important species. This appears to have been accidentally introduced by Governor Lefroy, Figures 75, a, 6, c.—Spiral Snail (Rumina decollata); x14; a, adult, ordinary form ; 6, adult example, still retaining most of the apical whorls; c, a young shell with perfect apex. Figures 75, d, e, f.—Polygyra appressa, showing variations; x 14. with growing plants from Teneriffe, in 1876. A single specimen was found in that year by J. M. Jones, in the garden at Mt. Lang- ton.* A few other specimens were found, from time to time, in and about Hamilton and in Paget Parish from 1877 to 1881, when it was still rare and local ; in 1882 it was common in some localities. Soon after this it began to spread rapidly over the Main Island in all directions, but most rapidly along the principal highways. By 1890 * The Yale University Library now owns the copy of the Memorials of Ber- muda presented to J. M. Jones by Governor Lefroy. Inserted on the fly leaves is an autograph letter from Lefroy to Jones, dated October 18, 1877, after leav- ing Bermuda, in which he mentions finding a second specimen of this snail in the garden at Mt. Langton, in 1877. In this letter he also refers to the ‘‘ large slugs” (probably Veronicella Schivelye), as abundant in the garden of Mr. French. The first specimen of Rumina, found by Jones in 1876, is recorded in the Essay, No. 3, by Mr. Morris A. M. Frith, who quotes a letter from Mr. Jones in regard to it. But the earliest printed record of the species is by J. T. Bar- tram, in his List of Bermuda Shells, printed in the Bermuda Almanac for 1878. It is not in his list for 1877. A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. ie QO —_ it had become abundant and injurious over a large part of the Main Island. Its ravages soon attracted the attention of the Board of Agriculture. Finally a prize was offered by them for the best essay on this snail. Five of the resulting essays were published together in pamphlet form.* At the present time this snail is exceedingly abundant over all of the Main Island and the other islands connected directly with it, being carried about by carts and in various other ways, and with merchandise of many kinds. It is very prolific and has very few natural enemies. It feeds on a great variety of plants, including 76 Figure 76.—Spiral Snail (Rumina decollata) ; a, animal expanded ; 6, shell; both natural size. Figure 77.—Subulina octona; x2. Figure 78.—Opeas Swif- tianum,; x21l4. Figure 78a.—Cecilioides acicula ; after Binney. , v4 5 A nearly all cultivated crops. Hand picking is practised to a large extent and great quantities are destroyed, but the total number seems to be constantly increasing. The Tropic Bird has learned to eat it at certain times, but whether to any great extent is not known. (See p. 680.) Probably the great * «Rive Essays as furnished to the Board of Agriculture in response to an advertisement offering prizes for the descriptions of and the History of the Spiral Snails, and the most efficacious, expeditious, and economical methods to effect their extermination.” Printed by Gregory V. Lee, Queen’s Printer, Ham- ilton, Bermuda. (No date.) The Essays are by the following authors: 1, by the Rev. W. G. Lane. 2, by Theophilus Roach. 3, by Morris A. M. Frith; appended to this are copies of letters from J. M. Jones and John T. Bartram, giving facts as to the earliest date, 1876, of the introduction of R. decollata, as indicated by finding a single specimen. 4, by O. T. Middleton. 5, by Miss Annie Peniston, contains many facts as to the date of introduction and rate of diffusion. 732 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. Agua Toad may also eat it. The use of poisons, like lead cyanide, on the leaves of succulent plants of which it is fond, might be useful, Slender Snails. (Subulina octona (Ch.); Opeas octonoides (Ad.); O. Swiftianum (Pfr.). Ficures 77, 78. These three species of West Indian Achatinide are usually found, in the daytime, under stones and old logs. They have translucent, whitish, elongated shells, and are sluggish in their habits. The first named, which is the most common, was first recorded by T. Bland, in 1881; the second and third were recorded in 1888, but both are still rare. A fourth and very small species of this group ( Ceecilioides acicula), from Europe, was recorded by T. Bland in 1861, but has not been observed recently and may have died out. Fig. 78a. The Ennea bicolor, a small, widely distributed East Indian species, of which a single example was collected by Heilprin in 1888, and recorded by Pilsbry in 1900, was not found by our parties. American Toothed Snail. (Polygyra appressa (Say). FiGuRES 75, d, e, f. This North American species, which is now very common, at least in Hamilton Parish and Smith Parish, was recorded by Mr. J. T. Bartram and J. M. Jones, in 1876, as found only in a single locality near St. George’s. It was first recorded by Temple Prime, in 1853, (Bermuda Almanac) under the name of Helix Sancta- Georgiensis, n. sp. It is nocturnal in its habits and may be found during the day con- cealed under stones in the borders of gardens and fields, associated with several other species, especially with Helicina convexa, Poecillo- zonites Bermudensis, P. circumfirmatus, Kulota similaris, Opeas Swiftianus, etc. It is common in the middle and southern United States. The Bermuda form is the southern variety. Tree Snails; Bark Snails. (Helicella ventricosa (Drap.); Vallonia pulchella (Mill.); Suceinea Barbadensis Guild.) Figures 79, a, 6, c, d. The first named of these is the most abundant. It is found in the crevices of the bark or in other sheltered spots both on standing and fallen trees of various kinds, including cedars and cycads, sometimes A. EF. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 73 co in great numbers; the old and young are associated together in clusters. It is often prettily variegated or mottled with dark brown, light brown, and yellowish tints. Owing to its small size it probably does but little damage. It may have been an indigenous species of West Indian origin. The Suecinea (figures 80, a, 6, p. 729) occurs in similar situations, though less common, but it is sometimes found on particular trees in large numbers. It was first recorded by Temple Prime in 1853, in the Bermuda Almanac, but it may have been indigenous. Figures 79, a, b, c, d.—Helicella ventricosa ; x 124; e, Rumina decollata, young; x13{. Figures 81, a, 6.—Hyalina lucida; x14g. Phot. by A. lel, Wie Vallonia pulchella was recorded by J. M. Jones, in 1876. It has not been observed by recent collectors, but this may be because it has not been looked for with sufficient care. It is a native of Europe and is also common in North America. It prefers the crevices of the rough bark near the base of hardwood trees. It may easily be distinguished from the other very small species by the reflexed lip. European Snail. (Hyalina lucida (Drap.). Fieures 81, a, 0. The fresh shells of this species were found in large numbers by A. H. Verrill, in March, 1901, in a garden at Hamilton* but none were living. The Jast whorl of many of the shells was distorted and rough, as if the conditions had been unfavorable for some time before death. Perhaps the weather was too dry. It is doubtful, therefore, whether it has succeeded in establishing itself permanently in the islands. It is a native of southern Europe. (See also this vol., pp. 35, 62, 1901.) * The garden of Mr, Bell, at ‘‘ Llandwithe.” 134 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. The European Garden Snail (Helix nemoralis) was reported by W. G. Lane (Essay on Spiral Snails, No. 1), but has not been observed by others. It was, perhaps, an erroneous identification of P. Bermudensis. White Snail; Clear Snail. (Hulota similaris (Fer.). FIGURES 82, a, b, c. This shell, which is translucent and pale yellowish in color, though of Old World origin, is now widely distributed in the warmer parts of both hemispheres. It was probably introduced into Bermuda Figures 82, a, b, c.—White Snail (Eulota similaris); different views ; x 11¢. from the West Indies, where it is common in Barbadoes, Cuba, ete. It was first recorded from the Bermudas by Mr. T. H. Aldrich, in 1889. We found it common in 1898. ce.— Slugs. European Garden Slugs. (Limax flavus L.; Agriolimax levis (Mill.); Amalia gagates (Drap.). FIGURE 83. These European species are sufficiently common, but were not found in such numbers as to indicate that they are notably injurious. They were rarely seen in the daytime, except under stones and logs, Figure 83.—Garden Slug (Limax flavus); natural size. but were taken at night by lantern light. Probably the occasional drouths are unfavorable for their great increase. The L. flavus, though common, was not recorded until 1900 ; the others were first recorded from the Challenger Exped. (1873). A, E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 735 Great Slug. ( Veronicella Schivelye Pilsb.) Figures 84, la, 1b, le. Although this is not known to occur elsewhere, it seems desirable to mention it here, because it may, perhaps, be found to have been introduced from the West Indies. Figures 84, 1a, 1b, 1e.—Great Slug (Veronicella Schivelye) ; 1a, general view, 1g natural size; 1b, under side of head, enlarged ; 1c, side of head. It is very nocturnal in its habits ; most of those taken were cap- tured at night by the use of a lantern. They were mostly found crawling on limestone fences and on the sides of stone buildings. Some were 12 to 15 inches long and over an inch wide in extension. The color is dark slate-gray, almost black, or more or less mottled. It secretes a large amount of very sticky slime, when irritated, but does not ordinarily leave a trail of slime behind it, when it crawls naturally. It is said to be common in some of the graveyards. 37.—Introduction of Injurious and Useful Insects. a.—Insects mentioned by the Early Writers. The early writers refer to a few insects that attracted their atten- tion, either because they were particularly injurious or because of 736 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Tslands. some other notable habits. Among those that they particularly men- tioned was a large Cicada,* which had a peculiar musical note, sound- ing to them like the whirring of a spinning-wheel, hence the name “ Good Housewife” was given to it, according to Butler. Although it resembles the common North American species (C. tibicen), to which it has been referred by authors, its musical note is quite dis- tinct. It lives in the cedars, and at present is usually called “Scissors Grinder,” from its note. A grasshopper is also mentioned as common. This was probably the common green Conocephalus dissimilis Serv. (fig. 191). Cock- roaches, ants, flies, caterpillars, grubs, and beetles, were mentioned, but they cannot be identified with certainty. The Corn Weevil (fig. 152), which soon became very injurious to their stored corn, was doubtless introduced from Europe by the earliest settlers. * Cicada Bermudiana, sp. noy. Plate lxxxiii, Figures 1,2. In size and form similar to C. tibicen. Body and head mostly black above ; dark yellowish brown and smoky brown beneath, with a pale bluish-gray bloom on the thorax ; abdo- men nearly black posteriorly. Thorax strongly sculptured above; lateral margins of thorax, in front of wings, yellowish, with a black spot on the edge ; on middle of anterior part, a J-shaped or anchor-shaped mark of dull yellowish ; metathorax marked with a raised X-shaped figure, the central part forming a strong, short, transverse ridge, with a deep pit before and behind it; anterior arms of X are incurved and connect with a slightly H-shaped yellow figure, its anterior end enclosing a black, slightly bilobed area, the W-shaped yellow figure much less distinct than in C. tibicen. Legs and operculum of musical organ yellowish brown; proboscis paler, blackish at tip, reaching to between the hind legs. Nervures of wings orange-brown, or dark brown, the color con- spicuous on the front margin, blackish near base. Sexes scarcely differ in color ; size varies considerably. Length. Alar expanse, Breadth of head. Largest male___..-.- 3amm Soa ems Smallest male_______ 31 80 12 Hemiale:332 fee 29 82 12.5 Described from specimens collected by T. G. Gosling in summer and pre- served for a short time in formalin. This is much darker than C. tibicen (pl. 1xxxiii, fig. 3) and the yellow markings on the thorax are much less distinct and somewhat different in form. The W-shaped or M-shaped mark is differently shaped, smaller, and not so well defined ; the anterior margin and nervures of the wings are much more strongly colored. Its musical note is quite different and less musical, sounding much like that made by a dry grindstone, hence its name of ‘“‘ scissors grinder.” Its larva is said to feed on the roots of cedar, but this needs confirmation. A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 737 A law was passed in Aug., 1620, requiring that turkeys should be kept confined during the time of planting corn, because of the damage that they did by scratching it up, and “untill the said corne shall be found to be half legge high above ground.” But in August, 1623, this act was repealed because it was found that the cut-worms and caterpillars were increasing very rapidly and devastating the corn. But it is now impossible to identify the species referred to. Governor Butler’s account, 1619, of the insects is as follows: “The moscitoes [ Culex] and flies | House-fly ?] also are somewhat over busie, with a certain Indian bugge called, by a Spanish appella- tion, a caca-roche,* the which, creepeinge into chestes and boxes, eate and defile with their dung (and thence their Spanish name) all they meet with ; as doe likewise the little aunt [house ant], which are in the summer time in infinite numbers ; wormes [grubs or cut worms] in the earth and mould also, ther are but too many (but of them we shall saye somewhat more by and by), as likewise the grass-hopper,t and a certaine sommer-singinge great flie, | Cicada Bermudiana| the sure token of the established springe (and in that respect as the English nightingale and cukoe), whose loud note very much resem- blinge the whirle of a spindle, hath caused herselfe thereby to be called the good-huswife.” b.— Modes of Introduction. The Rice Weevil (fig. 153), Bean Weevil, Larder Beetle (fig. 171), Meal Beetles, and various other household insects, such as the Clothes Moths (figs. 146, 147), Fleas, Bedbug, House-fly, Meat-flies, ete., were doubtless introduced from England by the early settlers, as well as the parasites of domestic animals and poultry.{ But other more tropical species, such as the Jigger, larger Cockroaches, etc., were brought from the West Indies. Insects whose larve live in fruit or seeds are easily introduced. * Cockroaches of several species are now abundant. The most common are “Periplaneta Americana, P. Australasie Brunn., and Panchlora Madere. Prob- ably one or more of these may have been indigenous. + Probably the green Conocephalus dissimilis. Fig. 191. ¢ The hens, especially when sitting, and their nests, are badly and injuriously infested with a small, active parasitic insect called ‘* Merrywig” or ‘‘ Merry- wing.” I did not see specimens myself, but heard complaints of their abundance, TRANS. Conn. Acap., VOL. XI. 47 Dec., 1902. 738 A. FE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. Wood-boring insects and those inhabiting bark may readily have been introduced with lumber and wood. Various insects, either as eggs, larve, or imagos, can be transported in cargoes of hay, grain, and other merchandize, or in packing materials, while the larve of aquatic insects are often transported in the water-casks or tanks of vessels.* As soon as growing plants were introduced, the eggs and young of various insects must have been introduced, both in the soil and adhering to the bark and foliage, while the earth about their roots may easily harbor their larve and pups. Probably the number of native insects was unusually small, owing to the small number of native food-plants, but with increasing introduction of fruit trees and other plants the number rapidly increased, and probably addi- tional species have been introduced nearly every year since the settlement, but some may often have died out later, owing to unfavorable weather or to the birds. The very small variety of insectivorous birds and reptiles has, how- ever, been unusually favorable for the increase of insects. Another favorable point of greater importance is the fact that the insect- parasites and other natural insect-enemies of injurious species have not been introduced with them, except occasionally and accidentally. Therefore, although the insect fauna is not abundant, certain species, especially of Scale-insects and Plant-lice, have here often proved very destructive to the fruit trees and to other vegetation, as in the case of the Peach, Orange, Lemon, etc., which have been nearly or quite ruined by insects (see pp. 526, 635, 639). Probably numerous species of American Lady-bugs, Syrphus-flies, and Lace-wings could easily be introduced, which would help to destroy the scale-insects and plant-lice. Perhaps ninety per cent. of all the insects on the islands have been introduced by man, since the settlement. The following list must be regarded as very incomplete. Doubt- less many more remain to be collected. The insect fauna of Bermuda, as now known, is remarkable for the rarity or total absence of many groups common in most coun- * Miss Victoria Hayward informs me that Mr. Bartram formerly had in his collection a tree-frog taken alive from a water-cask in Bermuda, and a turtle from a bale of hay. Certain insects are in the habit of hiding away among merchandize, furniture, draperies, etc., on board of vessels. This is notably the case with many spiders, cockroaches, certain mosquitoes, flies, ete., and probably many have been intro- duced in that way, by vessels. A. EF. Verrilli— The Bermuda Islands. 739 tries.* Among Hymenoptera, bumble-bees, saw-flies, and many other families seem to be wanting. In Lepidoptera, the fritillary butter- flies, theclas, lyceenas, skippers, sesias, and various other families have not been reported; bombycid moths are very rare. Mantispids have not been recorded. Among Coleoptera, not half the common families are yet known. Neither ephemerids, stone-flies, nor white- ants are known,t and caddis-flies are very rare. Of Hemiptera, very few families are reported. Among Orthoptera, the phasmids and mantids are each represented only by a single rare species, and the grasshoppers and crickets by very few. The great order, Diptera, has been much neglected by collectors, and very few of the numer- ous species have been studied. * During both my visits, 1898 and 1901, collections of insects were made by me and my parties, and notes on many of them were made, but as our time was mainly devoted to the marine zodlogy and geology, no special efforts could be made to make large collections of insects. As the building which we used as a laboratory in 1901 was used in part for storage of grain, meal, vegetables, etc., many domestic insects were naturally observed; others were taken around the lamps at night. Many were found under stones, while looking for land shells, ete. But no collecting was done with insect nets, nor by beating the bushes, grass, etc. If this could have been done the number of species would have been much larger. Moreover, our collections were chiefly made in March, April, and May, before most of the insects had emerged. Unfortunately, the specialists to whom part of our undetermined species were sent have not been able to report upon them in season for this paper, so that a considerable number that we obtained cannot be included. Mr. Samuel Henshaw has given me the names of a few Orthoptera and Coleoptera; to Mr. H. G. Dyar, I am indebted for the determination of several moths, and many useful notes on their synonymy, and Mr. Nathan Banks has kindly determined some of the Scale-insects, etc. Mr. O. Heidemann has determined several Hemiptera, and D. W. Coquillett a number of Diptera. Other members of the entomological staff of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture have also determined certain species, as noted in each ease. Mr. T. G. Gosling, of Hamilton, sent me, in 1901, a small but valuable collec- tion of the summer insects. During the past summer Miss Victoria Hayward has sent by mail several small lots, which contained some interesting additions to the fauna, as will be noticed in the following list. She also sent me some notes on insects made in former years from which I have quoted several observations. Recently Mr. Geo. A. Bishop, superintendent of the Public Gar- den, has sent me some valuable notes on the occurrence of a number of insects injurious to vegetation, especially Scale-insects. These I have inserted, with credit to him in each case. Mr. Louis Mowbray also sent, Oct. 31st, a small but interesting lot, adding a number of species to the fauna. + After the above had been put in type, a small, winged White Ant was sent to me by mail by Miss V. Hayward. (See pl. xeix, fig. 16.) 740 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. The native Cedar appears to be very little affected by insects. A pale green geometrid larva was observed spinning down from its branches late in April, but not in large numbers. The insects of Bermuda are still too imperfectly known to warrant a tabular statement of their origin. About 225 species are reported in this article, but many are not yet determined specifically. The Lepidoptera and Coleoptera each include about 50 species. Of those that are accurately known, more than 90 per cent. belong also to the fauna of the United States, either as natives or introduced ; a few are European; perhaps a dozen are peculiarly West Indian; only two are confined to Bermuda, so far as known. But a large number of those that belong also to the fauna of the United States are nearly cosmopolitan in warm countries, accompanying man and mostly feed- ing on his property. Such are many of the flies, cockroaches, scale- insects, clothes-moths, grain-moths, grain-weevils, flour-beetles, etc. Many of these are doubtless of Asiatic or European origin, but have been so widely disseminated by man in early times that it is now useless to try to trace their origin. The relatively small number of species hitherto obtained is very remarkable, and is good evidence of the very meager insect fauna, though many species must still remain to be discovered. c.—Diptera, (Flies, Mosquitoes, etc.) Several species of domestic flies are abundant in summer, but they were probably all introduced by the early settlers. Among those noticed were the Flesh-flies (Sarcophaga carnaria, fig. 85, and S. rabida); House-fly (Musca domestica, fig. 86) ; Musca basi- laris ; Blue-bottle (Lucilia cesar, fig. 87); Lucilia latifrons ; Lucilia sericata Meig. (t. D. W. Coquillett); Blow-fly (Calliphora vomitoria, fig. 88); Stable-fly (Stomoays calcitrans fig. 89), common. Recent investigations have demonstrated the importance of those flies which either breed in, or feed upon, dead animals or human excrement as carriers of the bacterial germs of contagious diseases, like typhoid fever, cholera, etc., especially in localities where infected material is left exposed to the air, as about army camps, and in country localities generally. No doubt they can also convey the disease germs of small pox, scarlatina, tuberculosis, bubonic plague, etc., if they have access to the bodies or infected dejecta of persons suffering from those diseases. Many of the contagious diseases of domestic animals are also diffused by the same means. A, E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 741 The common House-fly, owing to its abundance and familiarity, is one of the most dangerous species. Although it breeds chiefly in horse manure, it will also breed freely in human excrement, where exposed.* The Flesh-flies and Blow-flies feed as larvee on carrion or flesh of any kind, bones, ete., but the adult flies alight on, and doubt- less feed upon, human excreta, as well as upon cooked foods, fruit, ete. The Stable-fly breeds both in horse manure and human excreta. 87 88 Figure 85.—Flesh-fly (Sarcophaga carnaria) ; enlarged. Figure 86, a, b.—House- fly: young larve much enlarged; after Packard. Figure 87.—Blue-bottle (Lucilia cesar); x12%. Figure 88.—Blow-fly (Calliphora vomitoria) ; x 175; phot. A. H. V. Figure 89.—Stable-fly (Stomoxys calcitrans) ; a, fly; x3; b, its head, 0, eye, p, proboscis; c, larva, nat. size; c’, its head; f, pupa; enlarged ; after Howard. The adult fly, which closely resembles the House-fly, bites severely both men and horses, and is often seen in our houses and on food. Many other common flies have similar habits. Flies of all kinds should, therefore, be carefully excluded from the rooms of patients suffering from any contagious disease, and all infected material should be so disposed of that flies cannot have access to it. The disease germs or bacteria adhering to their feet *According to Howard 1200 flies may develop in one pound of manure in 10 days. 749 A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. can easily be carried to human food, to water, food receptacles, ete., or directly to the skin or to wounds. As they often fly long dis- tances in a few minutes, the danger is not merely local. A House- fly, carrying contagion on its feet, may fly in a few minutes from the worst tenement districts of any city to the largest hotels or most ele- gant houses of the wealthy, and entering their kitchens can deposit the contagion on the costliest food or dishes, if exposed. Probably this method of spreading contagious diseases, usually ignored, explains in part at least the fact that health-resorts, far from cities, often soon become the reverse of healthy, owing to the diffusion of disease germs by flies, ete. The abundance of these flies in Bermuda, in summer, will be a source of danger in case of epidemics of any contagious diseases, or even with sporadic cases, for many of the dwelling houses do not have suitable sanitary arrangements for disposing of offal, or for pre- venting the access of flies. In winter and spring, when visitors mostly go there, these flies are fortunately not very numerous. Most of the larger hotels and boarding houses are now provided with good sanitary arrangements, but to exclude all flies is very difficult in summer, as in other warm countries.* Onionfly; Onion-maggot. (Phorbia ceparum= Anthomyia cepu- rum.) Figure 90. We were told that this species occurs, but obtained no specimens of it. The larve burrow in the bulbs of young onions. Anthomyia lepida was also recorded by Jones, 1876. Grapefly ; Wine-fly; Vinegar-fly; Pomace-fly. (Drosophila ampelophila.) Figure 91. This small fruit-fly is very abundant wherever there is decaying fruit or fermenting fruit juices; it is often associated with other related species, not yet determined. It is also attracted to the dilute alcohol used in preserving specimens. The body is light orange- brown ; abdomen with lighter yellowish bands. Cheese-maggot; Cheese-skipper; Dairy-jfly. (Piophila casei.) This small, widely diffused fly is also found in Bermuda. Prob- ably it was introduced in cheese or bacon from Europe or America. It is about half as large as a House-fly, with a glossy black body. * A very liberal and frequent use of kerosene and of chloride of lime on all decaying or infected matter is very useful against flies and their larve. For further details, see L. O. Howard, Farmer’s Bulletin, No. 155, U. S. Dept. Agric., 1902 ; and Year Book, U. S. Dept. Agriculture, for 1901, pp. 177-192. A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 743 Peach-fly ; Peach-maggot. (Ceratitis capitata Wied., as Trypeta.) Figure 92. This small fly, whose larva lives in the flesh of the peach, orange, and other fruit, is very destructive. Its ravages have caused the cultivation of the peach, formerly abundant, to be almost entirely abandoned. This peach-pest was first recorded from Bermuda by Messrs. C. V. Riley and L. O. Howard* from specimens sent to them by C. W. McCallan of St. George’s, with an account of its ravages. The article cited gives a pretty full historical account of the insect and excellent figures of the fly and its larva. In the same volume, p. 120, they print another letter from Mr. McCallan, dated Aug. 6, 1890, 90 Figure 90.—Onion-fiy; a, larva, nat. size; b, the same, enlarged; c, imago, enlarged 3 times; after Packard. Figure 92.—Peach-fly (Ceratitis capi- tata); a, imago; b, larva, both x3; after Riley. From Webster’s Inter- national Dictionary. giving farther details of its habits. According to him, it was not then known to injure oranges and other citrus fruits in Bermuda, though it does so in other countries, but it was very destructive to the peaches, the larve boring in the pulp in large numbers and causing the fruit to fall. He says that the same or a similar larva attacked the loquat and Surinam cherry in the same way. He also mentioned finding the fly on the leaves and fruit of the lime, and on grape vines. He states that they had then been known in Bermuda for about 25 years. In Madeira, the Azores, Cape Verde Islands, Malta, Mauritius, etc., a fly, supposed to be the same species (described by Macleay, 1829, as C. citriperda), is very destructive to oranges, causing them to fall when about half grown. It might easily have * See Riley and Howard. A Peach Pest in Bermuda, Insect Life, iii, p. 5, figs. 1, 2, Aug., 1890 ; also, vol. iii, p. 120, 1890. 744 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. been introduced into Bermuda from Madeira, for oranges and grow- ing plants of various kinds have been brought from there to Ber- muda. Mr. J. B. Heyl, in a communication published in Insect Life (vol. iv, p. 267, 1892), states that this insect was introduced after 1859, having been previously unknown, and that the peaches were before that delicious, but the fly maggots soon ruined all the peaches and also attacked mangoes, loquats, etc. In a recent letter to the writer, Mr. Geo. A. Bishop, superinten- dent of the Public Garden, states that not only the peaches, but also oranges, figs, avocado pears, sapodillas, anonas, peppers, loquats, Surinam cherries, etc., are attacked by the pest, many of them being so filled with the maggots as to be worthless. The prompt destruction of all infested fruit, as soon as it falls, is the chief remedy now available. It passes the pupa state under the surface of the ground, transforming from larva to adult fly in about two weeks in spring—probably sooner in summer. Doubtless it has several broods and attacks other fruits, after the peaches are gone. The fly is yellowish, with dusky or blackish markings ; the male has a pair of spatula-shaped hairs on the front of the head. Figure 91.—Grape-fly; a, imago, much enlarged; 6b, larva, x about 6 times, Figure 93.—Syrphus-fly (Allograpta obliqua); x21¢; after Say. Figure 936.—Larva of a Syrphus-fly eating an aphid, enlarged about 2. Chetopsis enea Wied.; Howard, Insect Life, vii, p. 352, fig. 34, a-c, 1895 ; Insect Book, 175, fig. 100. Fyles, Canad. Ent., xxi, p. 236, habits. This small ortalid fly was recorded by Jones, 1876. In the United States its larva has been observed to injure sugar-cane, corn, oats, wheat, ete., by burrowing in the stalks, many often occurring in one stalk, causing it to wither and die. According to Fyles the larva sometimes destroys other larve. The fly is glossy greenish black; wings crossed by two wide bands and a terminal patch of blackish, the bands uniting along the posterior border. Head white; eyes dark brown; legs yellow. Expanse about 10™”. A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 745 Syrphus-fly. (Allograpta obliqua=Syrphus obliquus Say, Ent., i, pltai; df. 2s) Big: 93. This handsome golden fly was taken in great numbers in April, while hovering around flowers in the gardens. It is common in the middle and southern United States. It was recorded as common by Jones, 1876. In both sexes the fourth segment of abdomen has an oblique stripe of yellow on each side, and two dorsal stripes of the same. Eyes of male have an upper area of enlarged facets. The larva, which feeds on aphids, is pale green, with faint lighter stripes. It is a very beneficial species. See Fig. 936. A species of Forest-fly or Gad-fly (Zubanus) of rather large size and with a large green head, is also common. Ubhler, 1888, recorded a different, smaller species, allied to 7. lineola Fabr. and 7. cincta Fabr. Robber-fly. (Asilus?) A Robber-fly belonging to Asélus or some allied genus is described in Miss Hayward’s notes. Mosquitoes ( Culex, ete., sev. sp., figs. 94-100) are very abundant, especially in the lowlands and near marshes in summer, but we found them by no means common in March and April. All those collected were species of Culex. Whether the Malarial Mosquito (Anopheles) occurs here is uncertain, but it has not been recorded nor is malaria endemic. According to Hurdis, one common species of Culex has Figure 94.—Mosquito (Culex, sp.); A, larva; B, pupa; a, candal appendage; d, thoracic spiracles; much enlarged; after Packard. Figure 95.—a, Larva of Yellow-fever Mosquito (Stegomyia fasciata) ; b, larva of Culex fatigans ; both much enlarged ; after Theobald. the legs conspicuously banded with gray and blackish. Another, abundant in the marshes, is a rather large species, of a nearly uni- form brownish color. 746 A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. Gray Mosquito ; Culex fatigans Wied.= C. pungens Howard. Figures 95, 6; 96: 97; 98. This has been identified by Theobald (Monog. Culicide, i, p. 28, fig. 16 ; ii, p. 151, pl. xxix, figs. 114, 115) as found here, from col- lections made in July, 1899, by Dr. Eldon Harvey. Figure 96.—Culex fatigans ; wing from a Bermuda specimen; after Theobald. This very objectionable species* belongs to the section of Culex in which the proboscis is not banded; legs neither banded nor spotted; 7 98 Figure 97.—Culex fatigans; male; x 4. Figure 98.—female. Figure 99.—Yellow- fever Mosquito (Stegomyia fasciata); male; x 4. Figure 100.—The same ; female; x 4 times; after Theobald. abdomen with light bands at the bases of the segments; thorax with dark lines. Head and thorax deep brown ; thorax with two or three dusky longitudinal lines, and bearing golden brown, narrow, curved scales, * It is known that in many tropical countries this species conveys the germs of the blood-infecting nematode worm (Filaria Bancrofti), which produces the fatal disease called Filariasis of man. Whether this disease has been known in Bermuda I do not know, but it might easily be introduced there by infected sailors or soldiers from other countries by the aid of mosquitoes of this species. A similar disease in dogs, caused by Filaria immitis, is transmitted, also, from dog to dog, by species of Culex, hence it has been called the Filaria-bearing Mosquito. The C. fatigans has been found, also, to be one of the species that transmits the blood-parasite of birds, analogous to the malaria-parasite of man, but not the latter. A, E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 147 and about three rows of black bristles; yellowish on sides; abdomen, dark brown or blackish, the segments with narrow curved basal bands of whitish or pale cream-color, and with some whitish lateral spots, upper surface covered with brown or blackish scales; venter whitish. Legs mostly blackish, not banded; cox usually ochrace- ous; femora dark above, gray below, with yellow scales at tip; tibia deep brown, ochraceous at tip, bristles brown. This widely distrib- uted mosquito seems to be the most abundant species here. In the United States from New York to Gulf of Mexico ; West Indies ; South America ; and in nearly all tropical countries. Yellow-fever Mosquito; Tiger Mosquito. (Stegomyia fasciata (Fabr.) Theobald.) Figures 95, a; 99; 100. Probably the yellow-fever mosquito* (Stegomyia fasciata (Fab.), figs. 99, 100, had been introduced here from the West Indies, before the first epidemic of that disease (see p. 511), if not on many pre- * For much information regarding this subject, see the following pamphlet : Results obtained in Havana from the destruction of the Stegomyia fasciata infected by Yellow Fever; II. The Propagation of Yellow Fever ; by Major W. A. Gargas, Medical Corps, U.S. Army. Sanitary Dep., Havana, Ser. 4, 1902.—These papers are of great interest and importance as demonstrating that yellow fever in Havana is transmitted by this particular mosquito, and in no other way. The disease was fully controlled simply by destroying these mosquitoes in var- ious ways, and preventing them from gaining access to fever patients by the liberal use of screens. By these means and without special disinfection of rooms or clothing, the fever was reduced to a minimum after March, 1901, when this method was commenced. No cases whatever occurred during the four months, from October to January inclusive, which has not happened before in 150 years or more. The average number of deaths from yellow fever from April 1st to December ist, since 1889, had been 410.54, but by the anti-mosquito methods it was reduced to 5, in 1901; yet in 1900, with the most careful and elabor- ate methods of ordinary disinfection, very little impression was made on the yel- low fever, for there were 1244 cases and 310 deaths in 1900, but in 1901 there were only 18 deaths, 12 of which occurred in January and February, before the destruction of the mosquitoes was commenced. Yet the conditions were in other respects very favorable for a bad epidemic in 1901, for about 40,000 non- immune emigrants had arrived, —a larger number than ever before. In view of such results there seems to be no doubt whatever that the true source of the yellow fever infection has been demonstrated and also that the disease can be easily and surely controlled in all cases, if suitable care be used to destroy this pernicious mosquito. Moreover, the same efforts will simultaneously eradicate the malarial mosquito and other species, as well as the Horse-flies and lorest- flies (Tabanus), most of which have aquatic larve. For further details see L. O. Howard, Mosquitoes, How they Live, etc. 1901; Insect Book, p. 98; and Geo. M. Giles, Handbook of Gnats and Mosquitoes, London, 1902. 748 A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Tslands. vious occasions, but if so it may, perhaps, have died out in some years during the cool winter months, for it is a tropical species. At least the mature winged insects probably all, or nearly all, die during winter, while the larve may live through the winter in the water-tanks to give rise to anew brood in summer. This will account for the cessation of yellow fever here in winter, as in the southern United States, while it may prevail through the whole year in more tropical countries. It is largely a nocturnal species and par- ticularly fond of concealing itself among furniture, draperies, ete., but it will also bite viciously in the daytime. It is recorded by Theobald (Monog. Culicide, i, p. 288, 293, pl. xiii, figs. 49, 50), as having been collected here in July, 1899, by Dr. Eldon Harvey. It is found in nearly all tropical countries, especially _ near the coast. Its range is exactly coincident with the distribution of yellow fever. Its habit of concealing itself in close rooms and in the cabins of vessels enables it to migrate to all warm countries.* The open water-cisterns are ideal places for the breeding of these mosquitoes. In the brackish marshes the abundant minnows, gold- fishes, eels, and dragon-fly larvee tend to reduce their numbers. Crane-flies or Tipulide, which are not numerous, are yet repre- sented by several species, all undetermined except Dicranomyia dis- tans Osten Sacken,} originally described from Florida. J. M. Jones recorded in 1876 the following additional Diptera, not observed by us: Zrypeta humilis Loew (Monog. Dipt. N. Amer., i, DEATHS FROM YELLOW FEVER IN THE CIty OF HAVANA. Month. | 1892 1893 1894 1895 | 1896 1897 | 1898 1899 1900 IgOI January ...| 15 | 15 Ge etn) Ob MGS Yi bee eG February --| 10 6 4 A Mi Sok te EOE deo) 2 5 Marois en) a 2 2 St no0 2 tieska 4 ih Agoril Poe. = I a8 8 AiO 14 a el ae 0 0 1G Wy Ae ete Nee a 23 16 UO pe By 88 Blew 2 0 SUNS ae asi 69 Sta Mek 46 174 Sei, 1 8 0 Shel ho eeae 27 «| 118 Teh 88 | 116 LG Sie) raliGiees) 2 30 1 August --.. i 100 73 120 | 262 102 1G heals 49 2 September_, 7( 68 76 | 1385 | 166 56, | 34 | ST aoe 2 October...-| 54 | 46 40 102 240 42 | 26 25 74 0 November _| 52 28 23 35 | 244 20: ‘nals 18 54 0 December_.| 33 ial ote } Head broad, light yellow; prothorax punctate, dark rufous brown; scutellum varied with dark brown and chestnut; wings lustrous, dark bronzy brown, becoming orange-brown at the margins and apex ; veins black ; legs paler, chestnut-brown, with a dark line on the outer side of the femora and front side of the long posterior A. EF. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 801 tibie ; length, 9°". October, L. Mowbray. Identified by Mr. O. Heidemann. Leafhopper. (Cicudula, sp., t. O. Heidemann.) Head, body, and legs light green, darker on abdomen, which is crossed by narrow, pale yellowish green sutural bands ; wings whit- ish, faintly tinged with yellow or pale lilac ; eyes blackish. Length, 2.4™™; to tips of folded wings, 3.6™". Several sent by L. Mowbray in October. Fulgorids.—The Wantern-fly family is represented by a small species: Paeciloptera, or Ormenis, pruinosa Say, the “frosted hop- per,” recorded by Jones, 1876. The larva is white or pale green, with dark feet. It is more or less covered with a white thread-like secretion, forming a tuft at the 175 Figure 174.—Tarnished Leaf-bug, x34; after Saunders. Figure 175.—Black Ground-bug (Pangeus bilineatus); x41. Figure 176.—Ocean-bug (Halo- bates, sp.), nat. size; from Webster’s International Dictionary. end of the body and easily detached. They feed in colonies on the under side of leaves and twigs of various plants. The adults vary in color, some being whitish, others bluish gray. The general color of recent specimens is purplish brown, with more or less numerous grayish white, minute scales on the back and ante- rior part of fore wings ; prothorax black ; eyes edged with orange ; front margin of fore wings orange-brown; length, 7°". Common in August, Miss V. Hayward, who forwarded specimens for the figures. Plate xcix; figure 17, a,b,c. See Howard, Ins. Book, pl. xxvii, fig. 28. Ocean bugs. (Halobates, fig. 176.) One species (ZZ. Wiillerstorffi Frauenf.) of this remarkable family has been taken at sea, off Trans. Conn. Acap., Vou. XI. 51 Drc., 1902. 802 A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Tslands. Bermuda, and probably it will occasionally be found cast ashore in masses of gulf-weed, after storms. It lives on the surface of the sea, quickly moving about by means of its long legs, much like the “skating-bugs” on fresh water. (See White, Voy. Chall., vii, p. 40, pli a figs) Aphids ; Plant-lice. Several species of aphids were obtained, but some have not yet been determined. One, which was found common on the leaves of the lemon and orange trees, is apparently Vectophora, or Sipho- nostoma, citrifolii, fig. 177. Common on the orange in this country also, and capable of doing much injury. The body, both of the, apterous and winged forms, is black or dark brown. Figure 177.—Orange Aphis (Nectophora citrifolii), much enlarged; a, winged form ; b, wingless form ; 7, ”’, abdominal tubercles. Figure 178.—Cabbage Aphis (Aphis brassice); a, winged male; 6, oviparous female, both much enlarged; after Weed. Cabbage Plant-louse ; Cabbage Aphis. (Aphis brassice 1.) Figure 178. According to the notes of Mr. Geo. A. Bishop, this species is often injurious to the cauliflower. Doubtless it occurs also on cabbage. The winged males have a small body ; thorax brown or blackish ; abdomen pale greenish brown, with transverse rows of black spots ; legs mostly black. The oviparous females are pale green with three rows of indistinct blackish spots on the abdomen, and two rows on the thorax ; legs and antenne dull brown. Coccids ; Scale-insects ; Mealy-bugs ; Bark-lice. Numerous species of these destructive insects are particularly liable to be introduced attached to the bark and leaves of growing A. FE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 808 plants, or on fruit, or even on cuttings of vines and trees. It is well known that some of these have been particularly destructive to the orange and lemon trees in Bermuda (see pp. 526, 635), and doubtless also to other fruit trees, as the peach, fig, pomegranate, avocado pear, etc.* The vast economic importance of the Scale-insects, as affecting * The killing of these very destructive insect pests is absolutely necessary in cultivating fruit trees successfully, according to modern methods. All repu- table dealers in nursery stock in the United States now give written guarantees that all stock sold is free from such insects, or that it has been properly fumi- gated. Local laws should prohibit the importation of all nursery stock without such a certificate, or else should provide for careful inspection before entry. The use of hydrocyanic-acid gas for disinfecting nursery stock, as well as growing trees of large size, is now extensively employed in the United States, with excellent results. It is equally applicable for killing all kinds of insects in conservatories, unoccupied dwellings, storehouses, etc. The proportion of potassium cyanide required for very thorough fumigation is 1 oz. av. for every 100 cubic feet of space. For every ounce of cyanide 1 fluid oz. of sulphuric acid is required; it is to be diluted with 2 or 3 parts of water, before using. The cyanide, done up in thin paper packages, each of the proper quantity for a tent or room, is dropped into the dilute acid contained in suitable porcelain or stone-ware receptacles (earthenware wash-bowls or pitchers do very well) large enough to avoid overflow by the foaming and then the doors to rooms or tents are quickly closed, and kept closed for an hour or more, if pos- sible, though half an hour is often effectual. Rooms should be thoroughly aired for several hours before being again occupied, for the gas is very deadly. All windows and cracks should be tightly closed before fumigating. A small wire or string may be used to suspend the packages of cyanide over the acid, so that these can be dropped into it from outside the closed doors or windows, by releasing or cutting the strings, thus avoiding the fumes. The receptacles for the acid should be placed on thick papers, boards, or some other material to protect floors from the spatterings of the acid, when used in dwellings. The tents used for covering fruit trees for fumigation can be made of thin drilling rendered nearly air-tight by some suitable flexible varnish, such as boiled lin- seed oil, or by a mixture of paraftine and naphtha, used as a varnish. Small tents for young trees can be cheaply supported by a light frame made of one or more barrel hoops which can be made to fold up if desirable ; for small trees some haye used light octagonal frames covered with strong paper, and having a coni- cal hood. If enclosures are not very tight, more cyanide and acid must be used. Kerosene emulsion sprayed over the trees, or even applied to the trunk and branches with a brush, is also very effective. One pound of soap is dissolved in 1 gallon of hot water ; this after cooling to be mixed with 2 gallons of kerosene ; the whole to be churned together, by means of a syringe or force pump, till it forms a creamy emulsion. This is diluted with 8 to 10 parts of water when used for scales. This emulsion is also effectual against all other insects on trees when more diluted, even with 12 to 15 parts of water. 804 A, E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. the cultivation of fruit in every country, has recently led to very numerous scientific investigations and experiments and to an exten- sive literature, especially in the United States. Effectual methods of several kinds have thus been discovered for destroying them on infected trees and for preventing their spreading. But constant watchfulness, promptness, and perseverance will always be necessary on the part of those who have the care of fruit orchards, for these insects increase with marvelous rapidity, even in one season. A very useful report on Scale-insects, by Professor J. H. Comstock, is in the Annual Report of the Entomologist of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1880. In this report many of the species affecting fruit trees in the United States are described and figured. Numerous later reports have been published by the same department, and also by the Experiment Stations of various States. The species found in Bermuda, so far as known, are all found also in the United States, and therefore the reports referred to are equally applicable here, especially those relating to the orange-scales. We collected a number of species, but some have not yet been determined by the specialists to whom they were sent.* One of the most common, Jcerya Purchasi, is very injurious to the orange, lemon, galba, pomegranate, tamarisk, roses, hibiscus, ete. We could not learn that the very pernicious San José Scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus), fig. 1866, p. 811, has yet been found here. It would be likely to infest especially the loquat tree, if introduced, but it feeds on many kinds of trees.t+ Four or five species, at least, were found abundant on the orange and lemon trees. The most common and destructive are the Purple Seale, figs. 182-1826, and the Fluted Scale (Jcerya). In a recent letter to the writer, Mr. Geo. A. Bishop, superintendent of the Public Garden, reports several additional species, mentioned below. Cottony Cushion-scale ; Fluted Scale. (Zcerya Purchasi Maskell.) Fieure 183, p. 810. This scale, which was found by us common on the orange and several other trees in April, had already been recognized as a * We collected or observed Scale-insects on the following trees and shrubs: orange, lemon, citron, loquat, fig, avocado pear, pomegranate, oleander, olive, hibiscus, fiddle-wood, frangipani, wild jasmine, grape, galba, cycad, etc. + According to recent investigations by Mr. C. L. Marlatt, this species is native of North China. Bull. 37, new ser., Divis. Entom., U. 8. Dep. Agric., p. 65, 1902. See also Bull. No. 3. A, FE. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 805 destructive insect in Bermuda. It is easily recognized, when adult, by the peculiar form and fluting of its scale or egg-case, which is pale yellow and filled with a white cottony secretion. The body of the insect, which is nearly concealed by the egg-sac, is orange-red, its back being partly covered with a whitish powder ; antennze and legs black; eggs pale red, 200 to 400 in each egg-sac. Immature females are covered with tufts or filaments of a cottony secretion. It attacks both the leaves and branches, increasing very rapidly, and often kills the trees. This insect was introduced into California* about 1868, and into New Zealand, South Africa, and Florida soon after. Before that time it had attracted little attention. In South Africa it quickly destroyed great numbers of orange trees, even those of the largest size, and spread to a great variety of other trees and shrubs. It was formerly one of the most destructive species in California. It is not known when it first arrived in Bermuda, but probably not till after 1876. The Australian Lady-bug ( Vedalia cardinalis, see fig. 183a) was imported by experts of the 1830 U. States Agricultural Department into California to 4 destroy this scale, and has proved very beneficial there, the damage from this species being very little at pres- ent. The Vedalia has also been successfully introduced into India, Egypt, Portugal, New Zealand, Hawaiian Islands, and other countries for the same purpose. It should be introduced into Bermuda, from the United States, which could easily be done.t * Tt is said to have been brought to California from Australia, but some sup- pose that it was originally native of the Pacific Islands. That its natural enemies (like the Vedalia) live in Australia is evidence that it was native there, but not conclusive. + Several other species of Australian Coccinellids were also successfully intro- duced into California in 1892 by the entomologists of the U. States Department of Agriculture. Among the most important of these is Rhizobius ventralis DFS which feeds voraciously on Lecanium ole and other species of Lecanium and Eriococeus. It survives the winter well and increases rapidly, so that it is of great value for destroying these scales. Rhizobius debilis and R. satellus, though successfully introduced, did not increase so rapidly as the former. AR. debilis feeds on the San José Scale and related species, as well as on Lecanium. Orcus Australasice and O. chalybeus were both successfully introduced and increased rapidly in some localities. The former feeds on the San José Scale and related species; the latter on Lecanium olew, etc. Very likely some of these could easily be introduced into Bermuda. 806 A. BE. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. Mealy-bug. (?Dactylopius destructor Coms., Ann. Rep. Agric. Dep., Ent., for 1880, p. 342, pl. xi, fig. 3; pl. xxii, fig. 2; Man. Entom., p. 167, fig. 205.) Figure 179. A species of Mealy-bug, which was found on various shrubs and trees, apparently belongs to this species, but it was not carefully studied and the specimens were not preserved. Possibly it may have been the common Mealy-bug of the greenhouses (D. adonidum (L.) Sig.), in part. The former attacks various trees and shrubs in Florida and is very injurious to the orange trees. It is also very partial to the coffee-tree. Orange Mealy-bug. (Dactylopius citri Bois.) Mr. Geo. A. Bishop reports that a Mealy-bug, identified as this species, occurs on the orange and other citrus trees in Bermuda, and also on various garden vegetables, especially potatoes. Orthezia insignis Douglas, Entom. Monthly Mag., p. 169, Jan., 1888. Puate XCVIIL; Ficure 16. This elegant species was sent to me living, by Miss Hayward, early in September. With it were many minute, yellowish white, ovate mites, which seemed to be parasitic upon it. See ch. 38, 0. 180 Figure 180. — Ceroplastes Floridensis, on orange tree, nat. size; b, enlarged. Figure 181.—Olive-scale or Black-scale (Lecanium ole); a, natural size, and 6, enlarged. Figure 179.—Destructive Mealy-bug (Dactylopius destrue- tor), x9; after Comstock. The body is dark brown, strongly grooved transversely; it bears a central double row and a marginal rosette of pure white scale-like secretions; posteriorly these become much elongated in the adults A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 807 and unite with the sheath-like or tubular secretion of the under side to form a continuous egg-sac, truncate and closed posteriorly, grooved on the upper side ; legs and antennz dark brown or black- ish. Length, 3™™. It occurs in the West Indies and South America, and in green- houses in the United States and Europe, feeding on Coleus and vari- ous other herbaceous plants. Broad Scale. (Lecanium hesperidum (.) Figures 18la; 184, a. This species was taken by us in 1901 on a species of Hibiscus, used as hedges. Mr. Geo. A. Bishop states that it is not only injuri- ous to hibiscus, but infests oranges and other citrus fruits, and the galba. It is liable to attack a great variety of trees, and is very widely diffused. 18la 1816 Figure 181a.—Broad Seale (L. hesperidum), on orange tree; nat. size. Figure 181b.—Hemispherical Scale, on orange tree, nat. size, and a, enlarged. Both after Comstock. Black Scale ; Olive Seale. (Lecanium olew Bern.) Figure 181. This scale is very injurious to the olive and orange, etc. Accord- ing to the notes of Mr. Geo. A. Bishop, it also infests oleander and Hibiscus. It is liable to attack many other plants, as pear, apple, apricot, plum, pomegranate, palms, coffee, rose, jasmine, etc. Hemispherical Scale. (Lecanium hemisphericum Targ.; Comstock, Ann. Rep. Ent. for 1880, p. 334, pl. viii, figs. 3, 3a@; Man. Ent., p. 171, fig. 211=Saissetia hemisphericum.) Figure 1816. This large, smooth scale-insect was found by us on the leaves of the cycad ( Cycas revoluta), oleander, hibiscus, ete. In California it has been found to attack the orange. It is also common on various greenhouse plants. 808 A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Tslands. ? Lecanium nigrum Nieter. According to Mr. G. A. Bishop this scale has been observed in Bermuda on oleander and hibiscus. It was originally described from Ceylon on coffee trees, but has since been recorded in several other tropical countries, among them Jamaica and Porto Rico, and on various plants, as Mr. Nathan Banks informs me. ? Ceroplastes Floridensis Com. Figure 180. > A scale, which may be this species, occurs on the avocado pear, loquat, tamarisk, ete. Purple Scale. (Mytilaspis citricola Pack.; Comstock, Ann. Report Dep. of Agriculture for 1880, p. 321, pl. vil, fig. 1; xx, fig. 3; Xvill, fig. 3. FIGURES 182-1820, a, b, c; 184, b. Puate XCVI; Ficurss 4, 5, 6, a, a. This species, which has long been recognized as occurring in Bermuda,* appears to be at present the most abundant and most Figure 182.—a, 6, females of Purple Scale (Mytilaspis citricola), on twig of orange tree ; d, free young; c, white males of Chionaspis citri ; e, female of the latter; x415. Phot. by A. H. V., Aug., 1902, from life. destructive species on the orange and lemon trees, which it rapidly kills. Perhaps it was the species chiefly instrumental in the former destruction of the orange trees. See pp. 526, 635. Miss Victoria Hayward recently (Aug. 26) sent me by mail a number of branches and leaves of the orange, some of which were almost completely covered by the living adult and young scales, among and over which great numbers of the newly hatched young * Glover, Rep. Dep. Agric. for 1856, p. 119, says that it was imported into Jacksonville, Fla. in 1855 on lemons from Bermuda. Mr. Saunders (Insects Injurious to Fruit, p. 391) also states that this species is supposed to have been brought to Florida from Bermuda on lemon plants. A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Tslands. 809 were still actively creeping about. She also sent an orange fruit, which is thickly covered with the same scale and has become hard and woody, with the rind black and deeply wrinkled and pitted, but it still adheres to the twig, showing very plainly the destructive effect of this scale, both on the tree and fruit. See pl. xevi; figs. 4—6, Figure 182a.—Purple Scale; a, winged male; 6, active young, female; c¢, adult seale; all enlarged; after Glover. Figure 182b.—Purple Scale of Orange (Mytilaspis citricola) ; much enlarged; a, female scale, empty; b, the same, under side, showing eggs; c, male scale ; after Comstock. These scales are mostly long-ovate, acute at one end, variable in breadth, and frequently one-sided or curved, thus in shape not unlike an elongated American oyster-shell. The color of the adult female seales is dull reddish brown or purplish brown ; the smaller female scales and the male scales are similar in form, but are lighter brown. Orange Chionaspis. (Chionaspis citri Comst.) Figure 182, c. Puate XCVI; Ficures 5, c; 6, ¢. Associated with the preceding were considerable numbers of much smaller, white, elongated-oblong scales (fig. 182, ¢) which have a median rounded ridge or carina along their whole length. They have been determined as the males of this species by Mr. Nathan Banks. The species is widely distributed. It is said to be the most abundant and injurious species on the orange trees in Louisiana, (See Insect Life, v, p. 282.) The females are very similar to those of A. ciétricola, but are flatter and more abruptly widened posteriorly, this expanded part 810 A. FE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. often being slightly whitened, as in fig. 182, e, which is unusually broad and white posteriorly. In a letter by Mr. J. B. Heyl, published in Insect Life, vol. iv, p. 267, 1892, he states that the Scale-insects of the orange were intro- duced by a cargo of infected oranges from a ship in distress, that put into Bermuda in 1858 or 1859. The oranges having been sold at auction were disseminated over the islands. The orange trees, which before that time were “clear of insect pests,” became quickly infested. He describes this particular scale as spreading very rapidly 186 183 Figure 184.—a, Broad-scale (Lecanium hesperidum) ; 6, Purple-scale (Mytilaspis citricola) ; ce, Long-scale (M. Gloveri); d, Red-scale (Aspidiotus auwrantii) ; d', male, d’’, female; e, White-scale (A. Nerii). Figure 185.—Mealy-bug, after Harris. Figure 183.—Fluted Scale or Cottony Cushion-seale (Icerya Purchasi). Figure 186.—Mealy-bug (Pulvinaria innumerabilis), which infests grape-vines, etc. All slightly reduced; from Webster’s International Dictionary; mostly after Comstock and Saunders. and causing the trees to look as if whitewashed, and states that most of them soon died. Mr. C. V. Riley identified this scale as Chion- aspis citri, which is still common and destructive here, but probably less so now than the Purple Scale and Jcerya. However, it is a matter of history that long before the date given by Mr. Heyl the orange trees had suffered severely from disease, probably due to Scale-insects, and that their cultivation had consequently greatly diminished before 1836.* (See p. 635.) Probably the Purple Seale was introduced at an earlier date than the others and had been equally destructive. The Zcerya is a much later introduction, prob- ably subsequent to 1876. * Bishop Berkeley, 1724, and W. F. Williams, 1848, mentioned the scarcity of oranges at these dates. According to the former they had then been scarce for 40 years, or since 1684, due, as he supposed, to cutting down the cedar forests ; but Seale-insects may have been the main cause. See Errata. A. FE. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 811 ? Chaff-scale. (Parlatoria Pergandii Comstock, Annual Rep. Dep. Agric. for 1880, p. 327, pl. xi, fig. 4; pl. xx, fig. 5.) Figure 185a. Mr. C. V. Riley (Bulletin No. 15, U. S. Dep. Agric., Entomol. Div., 1887) states that this species was introduced into Florida from Bermuda about 1855, but perhaps he had in mind Mytilaspis citri- cola, concerning which the same statement had long before been made by Glover (see note, p. 808), for this species was not described until 1880. I do not know that it has been otherwise recorded, though it may well occur. Aspidiotus Maskelli Cockerell ? Mr. Geo. A. Bishop, in a recent letter, states that this species infests the orange and other citrus fruits, fig-tree, and Japanese privet (Ligustrum ovalifolium). It was first described as native ot the Hawaiian Islands, and has since been recorded from Mauritius and Brazil (t. Banks). It feeds on Malva and other plants. The Bermuda form may possibly be some other closely related species, perhaps A. awrantii Mask. See Fig. 184, d. 1854 Figure 185a.—Chaff-scale (Parlatoria Pergandii); a, female scale; 6, male scale; enlarged; after Comstock. Figure 186b.—San José Scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus); a, females; b, males; c, d, young; after Comstock. Figure 187.—Onion Thrips (Thrips tabaci); b, larva, all much enlarged. From Webster’s International Dictionary. For convenience of comparison I add cuts of several other species of Scale-insects that infest the orange trees in Florida and Califor- nia. Perhaps all or most of them occur in Bermuda. Figs. 184-186. Hitherto none of the various small Ichneumon-flies that destroy aphids and scale-insects in N. America and other countries have been found in Bermuda. Like the useful Lady-bugs, they might be introduced with great profit. 812 A.-E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. Physopoda or Thysanoptera. (Thrips.) : Onion Thrips ; Tobacco Thrips. (Thrips tabaci.) Figure 187. This very small insect is sometimes so abundant as to do consid- erable damage to the onion crop, its bites causing the leaves to turn yellow and wither, thus stopping the growth of the bulbs. — It spreads very rapidly through the onion fields. The larva is whitish, but the body of the winged imago is blackish. It is very active. Probably spraying with kerosene emulsion is the best remedy, but it should be repeated two or three times at short intervals, in order to reach all of them, for the winged insects can fly away some distance when disturbed and thus many may escape. Solutions of copperas, etc. are used as a spray both against the thrips and the fungous disease. It is considered the same as the thrips that often does much damage to tobacco. This insect was first. recorded as occurring on the onion in Ber- muda by A. G. Shipley, Bull. No. 10, p. 18, Miscell. Information, Royal Kew Gardens, 1887. For full descriptions of adult and larva, see Th. Pergande, Insect Life, vii, p. 391-3; and W. E. Hinds, Proc. U-S. Nat. Mus., xxvi, p. 179, pl. vii, figs. 69-71, 1902. It not only attacks onions and tobacco, but also many other culti- vated plants, including melons, cucumber, squash, turnip, cabbage, cauliflower, parsley, and many flowering plants. Its effect on onions is sometimes called “ white blast.” In the United States it was first recorded on onions in Massa- chusetts, and as having been known as early as about 1857. It has long been known as injurious to tobacco in Europe. k.— Pseudoneuroptera. Odonata ; Dragonflies. A considerable number of Dragon-flies, some of them large and handsomely colored, are found in summer. Their larve must be very useful in destroying the larvee of mosquitoes in the marshes and tanks. Whether part of them were introduced by man is uncer- tain, but there is no reason to doubt that the larger and stronger- winged species might fly directly from the United States, as do some of the butterflies, and thus they may have arrived indepen- dently of man. The larve or eggs of others may have been brought in the water-casks of vessels, and in other ways. A, E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. . 813 The following species are recorded, by J. M. Jones, 1876, as identified by Professor Hagen,* except the first, which is by Uhler: Lestes unguiculata Hagen, Syn., p. 70. Maine and New York to Wisconsin ; Missouri. Ischnura iners Hag.= Agrion iners Hagen, Syn., p. 75. Maine ; New York to Mexico; Florida ; Cuba. Anomalagrion hastatum Hag.= Agrion Raaaunen Say; Hagen, Syn., p. 77. Maine to Louisiana and Florida; Cuba; Venezuela. Anax junius (Drury); Hagen, p. 118. New York to Florida; Texas; Mexico; California; Cuba; Hawaiian Islands; China. (See figs. 189, 190.) schna, sp. Tramea abdominalis Hagen, p. 145. Cuba; Mexico, ete. Pachydiplax longipennis (Burm.). New York to Texas; Florida; Mexico, ete. To these should be added at least three more that are not fully determined, for lack of good specimens. According to the MSS. notes of Miss Victoria Hayward there are at least two additional large species, one of which resembles Zraimea Carolina Drury, but has a bright blue abdomen ; another called by her the ‘Crimson Dragon-fly” tra (Burm.). is probably Lepthemis hematogus- Agrionina.—This group of small Hammer-headed Dragon-flies is here the best represented. They have the eyes widely separated ; the two pairs of wings equal and all narrowed at base, usually with only two transverse antecubital veines ; antennz four-jointed. Some of those seen, which had the abdomen brilliant azure-blue and the wings smoky brown, may belong to Ca/lopteryx, but none of this genus were taken. Lestes unguiculata Hagen, p. 70. 7 b Ixwi, fig.7- Several specimens of this species were found on a Cardinal by A. H. Verrill. They agree in general with Kellogg’s figure of this species, but the thorax is rather shorter and broader, due perhaps to drying. This species has been found on many kinds of passerine birds both in Europe and America. Kellogg records it from the N. American Cardinal and many other birds. Bird-louse of Bluebird. (Docophorus incisus Kell., op. cit., p. 474, pl. lxv, fig. 3, 1897.) A few specimens probably referable to this species were found on the Bermuda Bluebird by A. H. Verrill. They were perhaps immature and are distorted by drying. Length about 1"™. They E 7 A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. S2al differ from the type in being paler, ochraceous, with no dark mark- ings except an irregular spot of dark brown on the thorax and abdomen. Clypeus strongly emarginate in front. The types were from the N. American Bluebird and Wax-wing. m.— Orthoptera. (Grasshoppers, Cockroaches, ete.) The only orthopterous insects mentioned by the early writers were cockroaches and a grasshopper. (Seep. 737.) The Grasshopper was probably the green Conocephalus dissimilis (fig. 191), which is still common in summer. Spotted-winged Grasshopper. (Stenobothrus maculipennis Scud. = Orphula maculipennis.) This small American grasshopper was recorded by Uhler, from Heilprin’s collection. S. bilineatus Scudder, a common North American species, was identified by Scudder from Jones’ collection, 1876. Carolina Grasshopper ; Quaker. (Dissosteira Carolina Scudder = (dipoda Carolina Burm.) Plate xcix; figure 18. This large species, which is abundant in all parts of eastern North America, from Canada to Texas and New Mexico, and also occurs in the West Indies, was recorded by J. M. Jones, in 1876. It is usnally found in dry or sandy places, or in roads where its dull gray-brown color imitates the color of the ground. When it flies its large yellow and black wings are conspicuous. Its name ‘ quaker” probably alludes to its loud quaking note, made during flight, as well as to its dull external colors. Green Grasshopper. (Conocephalus dissinilis Serv.) Figure 191. This species, when living, is bright light green in color and the female has a very long, flat ovipositor ; there is a fusiform, trans- verse, blackish spot across the front of the obtusely conical head. This species, which has been determined by Mr. Samuel Henshaw, is one of the very numerous species known from the West Indies and tropical America, though it probably reached Bermuda by natural agencies, before the settlement. Still it is not easy to explain how an insect of this kind could have been transported to this distance by ordinary natural causes. 822 A. EF. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. Small Green-grasshopper. (Orchelimum vulgare Harris.) Recorded by Uhler from Heilprin’s collection. A common species of the eastern United States. Figure 191.—Bermuda Green Grasshopper (Conocephalus dissimilis Serv.); x12. American Black Cricket. (@ryllus luctuosus Serv. and G@. abbre- yures 195, 196. viatus Serv.) Fig The large crickets are common, especially in muddy places near the shore. Specimens with long wings and others with short wings occur together, as in the United States, the short-winged ones being more numerous. These are G. abbreviatus, but the two kinds are considered only dimorphic forms of one species. It varies widely in Figure 195.—American Black Cricket (Gryllus abbreviatus); female; nat. size ; g . b] b>] ] after Comstock. color, from brown and mottled to black, and oveurs from Massachu- setts to Florida. It is very nearly allied to G. Pennsylvanicus Burm. = G@. neglectus Scud., which often occurs with it in the United States, and may, perhaps, also occur in Bermuda, for some of the specimens agree pretty closely with the latter. The form G. luctuosus, with long wings, was recorded by Ubler. Dr. Fr. Dahl recorded the genera Cylindrogryllus Sauss. and Orphula Stal, 1873= Stenobothrus. A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 823 Two-lined Walking-stich. (Anisomorpha buprestoides (Stoll.) Gray ; Uhler in Say, Ent., i, p. 198= Spectrum bivittatum Say, Ent., i, pp. 83, 198, pl. 38, ¢ and 9.) FIGURE 197. Mr. Samuel Henshaw informs me that this phasmid was collected in Bermuda many years ago (about 1861) by Mr. A. 8. Bickmore. Figure 197.—Anisomorpha buprestoides; male, x 113; after Say. It is native of the United States, from southern New York and Nebraska to the Gulf of Mexico. Figured also by Glover, Ill. N. Amer. Ent., Orthop., i, pl. i, fig. 8. Mantis. (Stagmomantis, sp.) A species of this genus of Mantide has also been found by Mr. Henshaw in Bickmore’s collection. It is congeneric with the com- mon mantis of the eastern United States (S. Carolina (L.). 200 196 201 Figure 196.—Black Cricket (Gryllus abbreviatus); female, 2g. Figure 198.—Amer- ican Cockroach (Periplaneta Americana); female, about 2 nat. size. Figure 200.—Oriental Cockroach (Stylopyga orientalis); male, 1g. Figure 201.— Water-bug (Hctobia Germanica), nat. size. All from Webster’s Interna- tional Dictionary ; 196 after Harris. Blattide. (Cockroaches.) Cockroaches were mentioned by the early writers (see quotation, p. 737), but whether they were native or had been introduced by the 824 A. E. Verrilli— The Bermuda Islands. early settlers is uncertain. It is quite likely, however, that like the wood-rats they may have been introduced from the West Indies by earlier visitors. Cockroaches are much less numerous here than might be expected in so warm a climate. They are undoubtedly kept in check to a great extent by the common ichneumon parasite (Lvania appendi- gaster, p. 754, fig. 109), which destroys the eggs in the egg-capsules. The Agua Toad also feeds largely on cockroaches, as shown by its stomach contents. They are also destroyed by the larger spiders and centipedes. American Cockroach. (Periplaneta Americana (.) Burm.; Sauss.) Figures 198; 199. Puate XCIX; Figure 19, a. Very common and perhaps indigenous. It is one of the most abundant species here. Supposed to be of American origin, but now found in nearly all warm countries, especially on the sea-coasts. It sometimes lives among and under the decaying debris, just above high-tide, but is mostly found in houses and stores and on ships. Figure 199.—American Cockroach; a large male; about nat. size. Length 43™™, Phot. by A. H. V. from a Bermuda specimen. It is yellowish or rusty brown, but the thorax (pronotum) is usually marked with a sub-marginal pale yellowish band, and often with a triangular median spot of the same, which may be divided. The elytra of the male reach decidedly beyond the end of the body ; in the female they are much shorter. The adult male is decidedly A. EB. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 825 larger (about 20 per cent.) than the female, and flies with great facility ; length 38-43™". i Cockroaches were mentioned as abundant, by Gov. Butler, 1619, (see p. 737). In 1676 complaints were made that the cockroaches were rapidly destroying the public records, and cedar chests were ordered made, in order to preserve them from further destruction. These early cockroaches were probably this species. Australian Cockroach. (Periplaneta Austrulasie (Fabr.) Brunn.; Sauss., Mem. Hist. Nat. Mex., iii, p. 72, 1864.) PLATE XCIX;: FicuReE 20. Similar to the preceding, but the male is rather smaller; the elytra extend a little beyond the body and are about equal in the male and female;. the prothorax is more transverse and more elliptical, or relatively shorter ; less prolonged anteriorly. The pronotum has a pale yellowish submarginal band, wider medially, and externally bordered with very dark brown ; the central spot is dark brown and usually somewhat bilobed ; the elytra have a conspicuous short scap- ular bar of yellowish white ; basal part dark rufous brown, chest- nut brown distally. Length of head and body in both sexes, 28- 307; of elytra 22-23™™. The eaudal appendages of the male reach about to end of elytra. The larva has a row of yellow spots on the sides of all the segments. Nearly cosmopolitan in warm countries : North America, from New England and Nebraska to Florida and Mexico; West Indies ; South America ; Europe; Asia; Africa ; Australasia, ete. This species was identified by Mr. Samuel Henshaw, from speci- mens in our collections, both of 1898 and 1901. It is a common species at Bermuda, both in the fields, under stones, and in buildings. Oriental Cockroach ; “ Black-beetle.” (Stylopyga orientalis (1.) Fisch.; Gerst.; Sauss.) Figure 200. This large, plain, dark brown species, which is the ‘black-beetle” of English kitchens, is mostly confined to dwellings and ships. Its wings are small, even in the adult male; nearly abortive in the female. Surinam Cockroach. (Punchlora Surinamensis (L.) Sauss.; Brann.) Puate XCIX; Fieure 19, b. This species, which is common, is about an inch long when mature, and rather broad ; the elytra are wide and longer (about 5"") than 826 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. the body, ferruginous-brown, paler at the anterior or basal margin, and with a short humeral black line ; prothorax brownish black, the anterior margin testaceous; vertex of head blackish. A variety from Bermuda, according to Saussure, has the thorax brownish black with a testaceous line on each side of the anterior margin. Widely diffused in the West Indies and East Indies; New Orleans ; Paris, France (Sauss.); 8. America; St. George’s, Nov., L. Mowbray, var. In this genus the prothorax is roundish, not truncated posteriorly> but convexly arched or angulated in the middle. Madeira Cockroach; “ Knocker.” (Panchlora Madere (Oliv.) Sauss.) This large species is very common in storehouses. When mature it is nearly 2 inches long (48™"), including the elytra, which extend about 8™™ beyond the end of the abdomen. It is fuscous or yellowish brown, the elytra paler or more yellowish than the body. The pro- notum is short and broad, ornamented with a double row of dots, which form a lyre-shaped or V-shaped figure with the angle rounded ; or sometimes it is shield-shaped. Supposed to be of African origin, but now widely diffused in the East and West Indies ; Africa ; South America ; Mexico, ete. This is probably the species called by the Bermudians “ Knocker” or “Drummer,” owing to the loud noise that it makes at night. At least it was the only large species that I found in places where the noise had been heard. This name and the noise have, however, usually been attributed to a different and larger species ( Blabera gigantea (L.) Sauss.) in the West Indies, but I am not aware that the latter has been found in Bermuda. Possibly several large species have the power of making the same noise. This was first recorded by Uhler, from Heilprin’s collection. Probably other undetermined species of cockroaches occur in Bermuda. Water Bug ; Croton Bug. (Ectobia Germanica (L.) Steph.; Scud.) FIGURE 201. We were told that this small species occurs in some dwellings, but obtained no specimens. It is widely diffused in most countries. Ceratinoptera diaphana Brunn.; Sauss., Mex. Rech. Zodl., vi, p. 20, pl. i, fig. 17, 1870. Recorded by Jones, 1876, from specimens identified by 8S. H. Seud- der. A small cockroach, native of the West Indies. A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 827 Wingless Cockroach. (Subfamily, Panestrine, t. A. N. Caudell.) Head small; body obovate, widest behind the middle, abdomen about 3 times width of head; total length, 16™™; breadth of head, 3.25™™; of abdomen, 10™™. Color, above, dark brown, smooth and lustrous as if varnished back to 4th abdominal segment, beyond which it is dull blackish brown ; integument very firm, minutely punctate ; under side and legs light chestnut-brown; head deeper chestnut ; mouth-parts, anterior border of clypeus, and base of antennze brownish yellow; vertex of head with an_ ill-defined chestnut-brown patch. The tarsi are broken, so that the species is indeterminable. St. George’s, Oct., L. Mowbray. Phyllodromia (?), sp. A nymph obtained in April is doubtfully referred to this genus by Mr. Caudell. It is chestnut-brown ; lateral marginal streak on the thorax and abdomen, sutures, and middle of prothorax paler; length, 19™™; breadth, 7.5™™. n.—Dermaptera. (Earwigs.) Great Sea-side Karwig. (Labidura riparia (Pallas) Dohrn = ZL, gigantea (Fabr.) Fisch.) Figure 202. This, which is perhaps the largest species known, is not uncom- mon here, occurring among debris along the shores, and also in store- houses. It is very widely distributed in the warmer parts of both hemispheres, including Europe and the southern United States. Black Sea-side Earwig. (Anisolabis maritima Fieb.; Scudder, 1876 =Forcinella maritima Scudder, in Jones.) Plate C ; figures 6-9. This large, widely distributed species is common under decaying debris and stones at high-tide mark. It may have been indigenous here. It is found in the same way on the American coast, as far north as the Thimble Islands, near New Haven, Conn., where I have found it abundant in recent years.* West Indies; Brazil; Japan ; Europe ; and coasts of most warm countries. * It seemed possible at first that this earwig was accidentally introduced into these islands by me, in 1898, for my dredges, nets, ropes, etc., were sent directly to Outer Island, on my return from Bermuda that year, without being unpacked in New Haven. Thad not noticed them previous to 1900; but on the other hand I had not 828 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. Both sexes are completely apterous when adult, and nearly black; the young are grayish or dusky, and very active. Anisolabis antennata Kirby, sp. nov., was described from Ber- muda, Journ. Linn. Soc , xxiii, p. 517, 1891. 0.— Thysanura. Silver-witch ; Slicker ; Shiner. (Lepisma saccharina L.) FIGURE 204. Found in houses and outbuildings, often among books and papers. Widely distributed in most countries. Probably Lepisma, or Ther- 202 Figure 202.—Great Earwig (Labidura riparia); x1%; after Claus. Figure 204.—Silver Witch (Lepisma saccharina); x 2; after Packard. mobia, domestica Pack.) would be found in bakeries and kitchens if looked for. looked for them here. They are now, July, 1902, very abundant, though the past winter has been of such unusual severity that most of the native cock- roaches, usually very abundant under the decaying debris along the beaches, were nearly all exterminated, while the earwigs, of all sizes and in great num- bers, are to be found in the same places. On recently visiting other islands of the group to look for the species, I have found it equally abundant on several of them and on the adjacent mainland, thus indicating that it was introduced at some earlier period. ——— A. FE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 82 Neo) 38.—Introduction of Arachnids and Myriapods. a.—Araneina (Spiders). The only native spider mentioned by the early writers was the great Silk-spider (Nephila clavipes Fabr.). Figures 205, a, 6. At first it was thought by the settlers that its strong silk was that of a silkworm, and later that it indicated conditions favorable for the production of commerciai silk. The following is Strachy’s account of it, 1612: “Certaine spiders, indeed, of a very large size, are found hang- inge upon the trees; but insteade of being dangerous, or any way harmefull (as in other places), they are here of a most pleasinge and beautifull aspect, all over as it were, deckt with silver, gold, and petle ;* and their webbs (woven in the sommer upon trees) are found to be perfect silck, and that as well in respect of substance as coulour, and so stronge they are generally that birds bigger and by much stronger than sparrowes, are often taken and snarled in them as in netts.” Richard Stafford, in a letter to the Royal Society of London, written July 16, 1668, and published in its Transactions, describes its habits as follows:— “ Here are Spiders, that spin their Webbs betwixt Trees standing seven or 8 fathom asunder; and they do their Work by spirting * The colors of adults, after brief preservation, as studied by me, areas follows : The color of the abdomen varies considerably; the largest ones are reddish brown, chestnut-brown to brownish yellow, often with an orange tint pos- teriorly ; a narrow, pale silvery band crosses the anterior part of the abdomen, just back of the hump; two dorsal rows of small, round, pale silvery or golden spots, four or five spots in each row; numerous other smaller silvery or golden spots, irregular in shape, are scattered over the abdomen, most numerous on the sides and posterior end; a silvery cross-band also occurs on the under side, ante- riorly ; also small blotches, which sometimes form two lateral streaks and a bracket-shaped transverse line on the middle area. Dorsal surface usually has a dark median line with irregular dark lines diverging backward from it; dark brown around the spinnerets. Thorax above dark brown, but thickly covered with silvery scales ; beneath, dark brown; Falcers and dista! joints of palpi black; legs dull orange-yellow or orange-brown, with a wide band of dark brown or black at all the joints ; plu- mose hairs black ; tarsi long, blackish, except proximally. The larger examples are 5.25 to 5.50 inches (130-140™") across the outstretched legs; length of body, 28 to 30™; of abdomen, 23™"; breadth of abdomen, 12"™, Adults, taken late in summer, were sent by Mr. T. G. Gosling. 830 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. their Webb into the Air, where the Wind carries it from Tree to Tree. This Webb, when finisht, will snare a Bird as big as a Thrush. Your self may prove it, for I have sent you some.” No representatives of the Harvest-men (Phalangide), Scorpions,* W hip-scorpions, nor Book-scorpions, are yet known in Bermuda. Large spiders of the Mygale group have not yet been reported. Of the 33 species of spiders now recorded from Bermudat only Figure 205.—Silk Spiders, both females; a, dorsal; 6b, profile view; 34 nat. size. Phot. by A. H. V. two or three are peculiar to the islands, so far as positively known. Most of the others are either widely diffused species, or else pertain to the West Indies and southern United States. Some of the latter may have been indigenous, like the Silk-spider, but most of them have undoubtedly been introduced by commerce, for spiders are admirably adapted for transportation by vessels. * After the above was in type, Mr. L. Mowbray of St. George’s informed me that he found a scorpion under a stone, several years ago, and that it is still preserved in St. George’s. The species is not known. He also says that a vessel loaded with logwood had arrived afew years previously and that scorpions were found in her cargo. Whether any other specimens have been found, I do not know. Such a species might easily become naturalized about St. George’s, where there are plenty of ancient stone walls, and long escape observation. + A nearly complete list of the known spiders of Bermuda is given by Nathan Banks, in Trans. Conn. Acad., xi, p. 267, 1901. The present list is based on the latter. oo A. EF. Verrilli—The Bermuda Islands. 831 The most prominent species, aside from the Silk-spider, is the great brown House Spider (Heteropoda venatoria), which is very common. Fig. 206. The cosmopolitan species were probably mostly introduced from Europe by the early settlers, while the tropical American forms were mostly brought from the West Indies. Probably every vessel that arrives brings numerous spiders, some of which may easily be naturalized. Doubtless there are numerous additional species, not yet recorded from the islands. The following species are generally distributed in both hemis- pheres : Tegenaria Derhami Scop. Pholeus tipuloides Koch. (Fig. 212.) Theridium tepidariorum Koch; House Spider. (Fig. 213.) Theridium rufipes Lucas; House Spider. Uloborus geniculatus Olivier. (Fig. 215.) Heteropoda venatoria (L.); Great House Spider.* (Fig. 206.) Tapinattus melanognathus Lucas; Black Jumping Spider. (Fig. 222 Plexippus Paykulli Aud. and Say.; Jumping Spider. (Fig. 223.) Figure 206.—Great House Spider (Heteropoda venatoria) ; 13 natural size. Phot. by A. H. Vi. The following are native of the West Indies and southern United States :— Loxosceles rufescens Lucas. * Very common in outbuildings ; runs and jumps with great agility. The larger ones are 4.5 to 5.25 inches across the outstretched legs. 832 A, E. Vervill—The Bermuda Tslands. Filistata hibernaltis Hentz; Large Brown Spider. (Figs. 210, 211.) A rather large brown house spider. Scytodes longipes Lucas. Scytodes fusca Walck. Lathrodectus geometricus Koch; Venomous Spider. (Figs. 214, a,b.) Abdomen light gray, with darker gray markings. Argyroepeira hortorum Hentz; Silvery Spider. (Fig. 218.) Abdo- men with silvery marks. Nephila clavipes Fabr.; Silk Spider. (Fig. 205.) Epeira labyrinthea Hentz. (Fig. 219a, 2190.) Oxyopes salticus Hentz. The following are native also of the West Indies:— Epetra gracilipes Blackw.= EF. Theisii Walck. Anyphena Verrilli Banks, op. cit., p. 270, fig. 2. Fig. 207. Kutichurus insulanus Banks, op. cit., p. 270, fig. 3. Fig. 208. Wala vernalis Peckham; Jumping Spider. Figure 207.—Anyphena Verrilli;epigynum. Figure 208.—Eutichurus insulanus; g Y2} 5 5 , epigynum. Figure 209.—Odnops Bermudensis ; a, eyes; b, epygynum ; ¢, hind leg. Drawn by Banks. The following is from Europe and North America:— Dysdera crocata Koch. Easily recognized by its orange-red or saffron-colored body. Common under stones. The following are found in the southern United States :— Theridium studiosum Hentz. Cyclosa caudata Hentz. (Fig. 216.) Argyrodes nephile Tacz. Anyphena velox Becker.* * Mr. N. Banks informs me that he has recently examined specimens of this species from St. George’s (U. S. Fish Com.). It is a pale-colored species, about 16™" long, with porrect mandibles, especially long in the male. It is known from southern Florida (t. Banks). A. E. Verrilli—The Bermuda Islands. 833 Two or three species that appear to be endemic are known only from Bermuda, but they may eventually be found in the West Indies. These are as follows:— Thomisus (Xysticus) pallens Blackwell. Oébnops Bermudensis Banks, op. cit., p. 269, fig. 1, 1902. Fig. 209. Lycosa Atlantica Marx, type from Bermuda. It may be the same as LZ. fusca Keys., from Cuba (t. Banks). Fig. 220. A dark brown or almost black Wolf-spider. Dr. Fr. Dahl (Plankton Exped., i, pt. 1, p. 110, 1892) recorded undetermined species of Clubiona and Trochosa. Notes on Colors of the Spiders. The following notes were made on the size and colors of a part of the spiders, after they had been preserved for a short time in for- malin solution ; apparently the colors had not much changed, but the size of the abdomen was often considerably diminished by hardening and shrinking. Filistata hibernalis Hentz ; Large Brown Spider. Figures 210, 211. Cephalothorax of a female, orange-brown or rufous, a black patch between the eyes; legs of the same color, with narrow bands of white at the joints beneath, and becoming blackish at tips, partly covered Figure 210.—Filistata hibernalis Hentz; male; slightly enlarged. Phot. by PAYS EL Ss Vic with scattered black hairs ; falcers small, dark brown, with black hairs, the terminal piece black ; abdomen plain pale buff with black hairs, not crowded ; palpi stout and short, deep orange-brown, like the legs, black distally. Length of body of female, about .75 inch (18 to 20™"). Trans. Conn. Acap., Vou. XI. 53 Dec., 1902. 834 A. FE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. The male (see fig. 210) has much.longer and more slender legs and palpi, and smaller body. Color lighter yellowish brown, with black hairs. Lives in outbuildings, making a large, dense web, with a deep funnel-shaped den behind timbers and in other similar places. Scytodes longipes Lucas ; Long-legged Spider. Although the body is small (about 9-10™™ long), the legs are very long, the anterior ones being about 65 to 70™", or about 2.5 inches long. Inan adult male they are orange-brown, with a conspicuous brownish black band at the knee joints, and fainter narrow dark brown bands or blotches on the femora, with a larger dark spot on the basal joint beneath ; Cephalothorax tawny brown, mottled and specked with darker brown and pale yellow, and having a rudely lyre-shaped dorsal blackish area, enclosing a light yellow area, with golden reflections when dry, from which a pale line runs on each side to the prominent, black, lateral or posterior eyes, which are situated far back, and a median pale line goes to the pair of closely conjoined anterior eyes. On the black, lyre-like patch are about six small, pale yellow, roundish spots, having a silvery or golden luster when dry, forming a somewhat circular group ; others that are less distinct are scattered on the sides; posterior area silvery, preceded by a blackish blotch. The female is similar but darker, with the dark markings more distinctly blackish, and with the legs darker and more conspicuously banded or else spotted with blackish on most of their length. It is a very active species, which lives in large loosely constructed webs, especially in the mouths of caverns. It runs over the webs with great agility by reason of its long legs. Dysdera crocata Koch ; Orange Spider. Cephalothorax and legs plain bright orange-rufous or reddish brown, above and below; eyes black; abdomen pale buff or grayish. Length 12-13"™. Common under stones. ? Hypsinotus pumilis Keys. See Banks, p. 270. Brown Spider. YP i N) »~p p A rather large orange or reddish brown spider, with stout legs. Cephalothorax plain dark reddish brown posteriorly ; blackish ante- riorly ; abdomen dark tawny brown, with a median sagittate pale streak, its shaft crossed by several recurved, narrow pale lines. A, E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 835 Tegenaria Derhami (Scop.) Emer.; Black House Spider. Cephalothorax black with a deep reddish brown or brownish red central area; abdomen nearly black, with a pale median streak and a short oblique lateral stripe on each side; legs dark rufous-brown without bands. Pholeus tipuloides Koch ; Long-legged Spider. Figures 212, a, 4, e. Cephalothorax and abdomen light yellowish brown or buff, with curiously bent or undulated blotches of blackish brown on the sides of the abdomen, which has also a median streak anteriorly and a 212 Figure 212.—Pholcus tipuloides ; a, profile view of body and bases of legs of female, x 214; b, front of head; c, epigynum ; after Marks. Figure 213.— House Spider (Theridium tepidariorum); female, slightly enlarged ; after Emerton, double dorsal row of spots farther back; cephalothorax with a median streak, two or three angular lateral spots, and a black mar- gin; legs very long and slender, brown, with a narrow band of white at the joints, preceded and often followed by an ill-defined band of brown. Theridium tepidariorum Koch ; House Spider. Figure 213. Cephalothorax in female tawny brown; abdomen light gray or yellowish gray, irregularly specked or mottled with dark brown or blackish; legs tawny brown, with dark brown bands at the joints. Theridium studiosum Hentz. House Spider. Thorax and legs pale rufous-brown, a few darker brown bands on the legs; abdomen gray, with a wide, lobulated, median, dorsal streak of blackish gray, edged with white. Lathrodectus geometricus Koch; Venomous Spider. Figure 214, @, 6. The abdomen is light grayish yellow, finely specked with brownish anteriorly; always marked with curiously arranged, narrow, blackish 836 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Tslands. or dark brown lines, often very distinct, producing a map-like effect. There are often three or four divergently transverse black lines, and a posterior median dorsal one, and usually two small rhombic or cordate median dorsal areas, enclosed by narrow dark lines, and a smaller rounded one farther forward; the sides are covered with curved or wavy lines enclosing irregular areas; three small, dark 211 214 Figure 211.—Filistata hibernalis; female; slightly enlarged. Figure 214.— Venomous Spider (Lathrodectus geometricus); a, female with cocoon; b, another female; about nat. size. Phot. by A. H. V. brown, roundish spots on each side ; legs rufous-brown, with dark brown bands at the joints; spinnerets surrounded by a black ring interrupted by five or six white spots. The eggs are large, enclosed in a tough spheroidal cocoon, to which the female clings tenaciously. Found on fences, etc. Length of body of female, 8-10"™; abdomen, 6 fO4io: Bathyphantes, sp. A small, plain, slate-colored spider. Uloborus geniculatus Oliv.; Ring-legged Spider. Figures 215, 216. Adults are conspicuously marked with black spots and rings. Cephalothorax nearly black, with a lanceolate pale spot posteriorly ; 215 216 Figure 215.—Ring-legged Spider (Uloborus geniculatus); a, dorsal view of female, x14; 216—b, palpus of male; c, epigynum; after Marx. abdomen dark gray or pale gray, thickly specked and blotched with black, the black often predominant; legs yellowish brown, or light A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 837 gray, broadly banded with black; the black often prevails, so that they appear black with narrow whitish bands. Young ones are pale with narrow black bands on the legs. One adult female is tawny brown on the thorax, with a pair of lateral crescent-shaped spots of yellowish on the sides, besides the posterior spot; abdomen grayish brown; large anterior legs tawny or rufous, with wide black bands ; others with black and white bands. Cyclosa caudata (Hentz) = C. conica Emert. Figures 217, a, 0. Color varied with gray, black, and white, with some yellow, in variable proportions, some being light and others dark gray ; cepha- lothorax often dark gray or black, legs white annulated with black at the joints and usually between them; abdomen dark below. Figure 218.—Silvery Spider (Argyroepeira hortorum); a, dorsal view of male ; b, dorsal view of female, x 2; c, male palpi; much enlarged ; after Emerton. Length 5 to 6™™, The hump on the abdomen of the female is varia- ble in size, and is scarcely noticeable in the smaller male. Its habits in Bermuda are the same as described by Emerton for it in New England : “This species seems to live all the time in the web. Across the web there is usually a line of dead insects and other rubbish fastened together with a quantity of loose web in which the cocoons are also concealed. The spider standing in the middle of this band, where it crosses the center of the web, looks like part of the rubbish.” 838 A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. Argyroepeira hortorum (Hentz) Emert.; Silvery Orb-web Spider. Figures 218, a, 6, ¢. Abdomen pale yellowish brown or buff, with large irregular patches of bright silvery white; thorax plain yellowish ; legs pale brownish yellow, becoming tawny distally ; falcers dark brown. Epeira labyrinthea Hentz; Emert., Trans. Conn. Acad., vi, pl. xxxiv, fig. 8; pl. xxxvi, fig. 11. Figures 219a, 2196. Cephalothorax dark brown, with a white patch around the eyes, and smaller ones on the sides; abdomen whitish, with a distinet lob- ulated dark brown or blackish figure on the posterior half, including some white spots anteriorly ; dark below, with a median pale line ; legs white with narrow dark brown annulations at the joints. Length of female, 5™™. Figure 217.—Cyclosa caudata; a, dorsal; b, profile view of female, enlarged about 4 times; after Emerton. Figure 219a.—Epeira labyrinthea; a, dorsal view. Figure 219b.—The same; male palpus; after Emerton. Heteropoda venatoria (L.) ; Great House-spider. Figure 206. Color dull grayish brown or yellowish brown, with scattered black- ish hairs; on the legs black specks at the base of hairs. Length of body sometimes 22-24™" ; expanse of legs may be 130™™, or about 5.25 inches. Takes its prey by chasing or jumping upon it, like the Wolf-spiders. In spite of its evil Latin name it is considered harm- less by the natives, and is also useful in killing cockroaches and other vermin. A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Tslands. 839 Lycosa Atlantica Marx ; Common Wolf-spider. Figures 220, 221. The color of this species is variable. In some of our specimens preserved in formalin the cephalothorax is dusky or tawny brown, with a narrow median stripe of lighter brownish yellow, wider ante- riorly, and a curved lateral stripe of the same color on each side and of about the same width; extreme margin edged with a narrow black line; abdomen brownish black thickly covered with short black hairs, and with a faint median stripe of pale brown anteriorly, 220 Figure 220.—Wolf-spider (Lycosa Atlantica); dorsal view; x14; phot. by A.H. V. Figure 221.—The same; epigynum; after Marx. more visible while wet, and sometimes divided by a median dark stripe ; often, also, a pale lateral line on each side; sometimes the pale dorsal abdominal streak is forked anteriorly, enclosing a forked black streak, which encloses a short median yellow streak or spot. Frequently the abdomen is plain blackish or smoky brown, or dark gray. Length of body 10-13™", Lycosa, sp.; Brown Wolf-spider. A large, nearly plain, tawny-brown species with many small, indis- tinct, dark roundish spots on the abdomen ; legs plain orange-brown, with reddish joints; cephalothorax and abdomen blackish below. Length about 38-40™™. Wala vernalis Peckham ; Little Brown Jumping Spider. Cephalothorax plain tawny or rufous-brown ; abdomen plain light yellowish brown ; legs similar to abdomen in color except the stouter anterior pair, which are rufous-brown, like the cephalothorax ; no bands on the legs. Length of female about 6™™. 840 A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. Tapinattus melanognathus Lucas ; Black Jumping Spider. Figures 299) @,4050C. Cephalothorax plain black, with gray hairs ; abdomen black, with a wide, irregularly lobulated median patch, divided anteriorly by a median black streak; its lateral margins and under surface also pale; legs tawny brown, with blackish spots; falcers and under side of thorax black. Length of a female 8™™. Figure 222.—Tapinattus melanognathus ; a, dorsal view of body of male, x3%; b, c, palpi of male; after Marx. Figure 223.—Plexippus Paykulli ; a, dorsal view of female, x2; 6, male palpus; c, epigynum; after Marx. Plexippus Paykulli Aud. and Savig.= Menemerus diversus Black.; Large Jumping Spider. Figures 223, a, 6, ¢. Cephalothorax of male dark brown or blackish, with a median streak of dull reddish brown or tawny, not reaching forward to the eyes; abdomen mottled with dark brown and gray; legs dark tawny brown, covered with conspicuous black hairs, but not banded. Length 9-11™". b6.—Acarina. (Ticks and Mites.) An undetermined species of tick (Jxodes) was recorded by Hurdis (Rough Notes, p. 328) as found in large numbers on the leg of a heifer. It was white and the size of a pea. Mr. Nathan Banks,* 1901, recorded a North American mite (Actineda agilis Banks), and undetermined species of RAyncholophus and Holostaspis as found in our collection. A species known as the Eucharis-mite’ (Rhi- zoglyphus echinopus) occurs on the diseased bulbs of the Easter Lily, and is supposed to be one of the causes of the disease. A mite * Mr. Banks has determined all the mites and spiders in our collections. A, E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 841 parasitic on Orthezia insignis has been mentioned above (p. 806). Mr. Banks says it is a Zyroglyphus, but the specimens were too imperfect for specific determination. Orange Rust-mite. (Phytoptus oleivorus Ashm.) Fig. 225. This has been recorded as occurring on oranges in Bermuda, (see Riley and Howard, Insect Life, iii, p. 120, Nov., 1890.) It is a very minute species which causes the rusty patches on oranges. 224 2244 2241 226 Figure 224.—Cattle Tick (Ivodes bovis R.); after Riley. Figure 224a.—Mange- mite of cattle; after Murray. Figure 224b.—Bird-mite (Dermanyssus avium); after Murray. Figure 225.—Orange-rust Mite (Phytoptus oleivorus). Figure 226.—Cheese Mite (Tyroglyphus siro), after Howard. All much enlarged. Cheese Mite. (Tyroglyphus siro (L.) Figure 226. This occurs in old cheese, as in Europe and the United States. Tropic-bird Mite (Alloptes phaéthontis Gmel. (t. N. Banks.) Several specimens of a small, dark brown mite, from .50 to .75"™ long, were found on the Tropic-bird by A. H. Verrill. The body is rather narrow, oblong, subacute at each end. Legs about half as long as body. Four caudal bristles, about as long as body. Megninia equinoctialis Trouess. (t. N. Banks.) Associated with the above was a single specimen of this larger species, having the posterior legs much longer than the others; body ovate; abdomen tapered, subacute. Leaf-mites ; Red Spiders. (Tetranychus.) Two or more species of this genus were observed on garden plants, but were not carefully studied. The common form was, apparently, 7. bimaculatus (fig. 227), common in the United States. This species usually has a red 842 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. or yellowish red body when mature, with a dark spot on each side, but sometimes it is greenish. Length of body, .4 to .5™™. Lives under a loose fine web on the under side of leaves of various plants. Others were apparently 7. tilarius (fig. 228), a common “red spider” of conservatories in Europe and America. It doubtless occurs here in abundance, at certain times. Both are very injurious. A small, undetermined, yellowish white mite, probably of the genus Uropoda, was found strongly attached by a filament, in a cluster, on the posterior dorsal surface of the body of a Pangeus, a black cydnid bug (see fig. 175, p. 801). It has a short-elliptical body, convex above and flat below, with a chitinous integument; legs short. It is immature and probably undescribed, (t. N. Banks.) Doubtless many more Acarina are common, but the mites have been very little studied here.* 99" ww Figure 227.—Two-spotted Leaf-mite or Red-spider (Tetranychus bimaculatus Banks); a, dorsal view, x 36; b, tarsus and claw; c, palpus ; after Banks. Figure 228.—‘‘ Red Spider” (7. tilarius L.); a, dorsal view of male, x 40; 6, six-legged young of same ; ¢, tarsus and claw ; after Murray. c.—Myriapods. (Centipedes, etc.) Only about seven or eight species of myriapods are known from the Bermudas, all of which, except perhaps the Spzrobolus, have probably been introduced by man. The largest and most important is the Centipede. Centipede. (Scolopendra subspinipes Leach.) PuaTE C; Ficures 1, 2. This is common, at least in many parts of the Main Island, as at Bailey Bay and Walsingham. It is found under stones, old logs, * The Mange-mite of cattle (fig. 224a); that of the horse (Psoroptes equi); and the Chicken-mite or Bird-mite (Dermanyssus avium Dug., fig. 2246) are known to occur, A, KE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 843 ete. during the day. The larger individuals are about six inches long; color dark chestnut-brown, blending into dull verdigris-green on the sides. Although its bite is venomous and somewhat painful, as a member of my party experienced, it is scarcely more so than the sting of a large wasp or hornet. Lithobius lapidicola Mein. This European species was recorded, with some doubt, by C. H. Bollman, 1889, from Heilprin’s collection. We found the same form rather common under stones, 4 House Centipede. (Scutigera forceps Rat.= Cermatia forceps.) FIGURE 229, Not uncommon in cellars, etc. It often gets into the water tanks. This is a harmless and very useful species, for it devours large num- bers of flies, cockroaches, and other household insects. It is nocturnal in its habits, and runs with surprising agility at night. It is very =\ Figure 229.—House Centipede (Scutigera forceps); natural size; from Webster’s International Dictionary ; after Marlatt. fond of moist places, like cellars and greenhouses. It is widely dis- tributed and has become common in the seaports of southern New England during the past twenty years. I found a specimen in one of the ancient water tanks at the ruined forts on Castle Island, long uninhabited. This would indicate that it was introduced here as long ago as the war of 1812. Mecistocephalus Guildingii Newport. A West Indian species recorded by Bollman, 1889, Thousand-legs ; Galley-worm ,; Milliped. (Spirobolus Heilprini Bollman. ) Described from Heilprin’s Bermuda collection of 1888. We found it common under stones, etc. It is 2 to 2.5 inches long, round, 44 A. EH. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. and rather slender, chestnut-brown, with reddish brown legs and antenne ; segments striated, except anteriorly, subsegmented. Thousand-legs ; Milliped. (Julus Moreleti Lucas.) Recorded by Bollman, 1889. It is native of the Azores. Adults dark brown ; legs reddish brown; young lighter, with a median black dorsal line, bordered with yellow, and with a row of black spots on each side. Common. There are, apparently, other undetermined species of Julus in our collection. € Figure 229a.—Galley-worm ; Milliped. (Julus, sp.) 39.—Introduction of Terrestrial Isopod Crustacea. Eleven species of terrestrial Isopods are recorded by Miss Rich- ardson* as in our Bermuda collections of 1898 and 1901. The fol- lowing three new species are endemic, so far as known : Porcellio parvicornis Rich., fig. 230; Leptotrichus granulatus Rich., fig. 231 ; Uropodias Bermudensis Rich. (gen. and sp. nov.). Figure 2382.—a, Sow-bug or Slater (Porcellio levis); 6, b', Pill-bug (Armadilli- dium vulgare). The following are widely distributed in both hemispheres and have doubtless been introduced by commerce. Tylos Latreilli Aud. and Sav. (Sow-bug or Slater) ;_ Z! niveus B. L.; Porcellio levis Latr. (Sow-bug, Slater. Fig. 232, a); Metoponorthus * Tsopods of the Bermudas, Trans. Conn. Acad., xi, pp. 299-310, pl. xl, Jan., 1902. A, FE. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 845 sexfasciatus Budde-Lund; WW. pruinosus Br.; Armadillidium vulgare Latr. (Pill-bug. Figs. 232, 0, 0’). The Actoniscus ellipticus Harger is otherwise known only from New England. The common bluish gray Ligia Baudiniana M. Edw., which runs very rapidly over the rocks, is found on all the sea-side ledges and cliffs and hides in their crevices. It is widely distributed in the West Indies and Tropical America. Figure 233. Ligia oceanica, figure 234, probably also occurs, but we did not obtain it. Its distribution is world-wide in warm climates. 230 231 233 d ” Figure 230.—Porcellio parvicornis; Figure 251.—Leptotrichus granulatus ; enlarged ; both after Miss Richardson. Figure 233.—Ligia Baudiniana x 14; a’, uropodial spines. Figure 234.—Ligia oceanica, x 14. Figure 235.— Philoscia Bermudense Dahl; a, x 3; 6, uropodial spines; c, maxilliped ; d, mandible ; after Dahl. Dr. Fr. Dahl (Plankton Exped., i, pt. 1, p. 111, pl. imi, figs. 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 13, 1892) recorded an additional species of terrestrial isopods, ( Philoscia Bermudensis, sp. nov.) See figures 235, a—c. 40.—Introduction of Earthworms ; Land Nemerteans, ete. a.—Earthworms. ( Oligocheta.) Whether any earthworms were native to Bermuda is uncertain, though at least one species is not yet known from any other locality. The greater part of the common species have undoubtedly been introduced with the earth around growing plants. Several are well known European species, introduced also into North America. The following species have been identified, from our collections, by Dr. J. Perey Moore, who has recently published a list of the species, with descriptions. (See Proc. Philad. Acad., liv, pp. 80-84, 2 cuts, April, 1902.) 846 A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. Enchytreus marinus Moore, Proc. Phil. Acad., hv, p. 80, fig. 1, 1902. White; common at and below high-tide mark, under stones, at Coney Island. Eisenia foetida (Sav.) Mich. Figure 236. Easily recognized by its distinct bands of color. Upper side annulated with dark purplish brown or chocolate-brown, alternating with pale reddish brown or flesh-color ; below light flesh-color, or pale yellowish ; clitellus reddish or deep flesh-color, with the dark annulations less conspicuous or indistinct. Length 3-5 inches. Com- mon under stones. A cosmopolitan species. Figure 236.—Hisenia fetida; a, mature, with clitellus developed ; 6, c, imma- ture; nat. size; phot. from preserved specimens by A. H. V. Pontodrilus arence Mich. Light red or flesh-color, plain. Length, 3-4 inches. Common under stones at Elbow Bay and Hungry Bay, at and near high tide mark. Helodrilus (Allolobophora) chloroticus (Say.) Mich. High-tide mark at Hungry Bay, in March and April, under stones. Helodrilus, sp. A small immature specimen of a second species. Eudrilus Hugenice (Kinb.) Mich. = A rather large species, 4 to 7 inches long; color dark reddish brown, with a bright purplish, iridescent luster. Under stones. A. FE. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 84 ~T Pheretima Schmarde (Worst.) Mich. In formalin pale buff, with a purplish or chocolate-brown clitellus. In life, often dark brownish red or sometimes greenish or olivaceous. In formalin the segments are mostly carinate or angular, with long rows of hooks. It is a very lively species, and when disturbed wriggles about very actively, much like a salamander, and when caught often breaks itself into two or more pieces. New to Ber- muda; known from Barbadoes. Common under stones at the old Walsingham house. Pheretima Rodericensis (Grubé) Mich.= Pericheta Dyeri Bedd. A rather large species, 4-6 inches long. Color in formalin light yellowish brown ; segments anteriorly and posteriorly with a promi- nent angular median carina, bearing long rows of hooks. Widely diffused in warm climates ; West Indies. Active like the preceding. Onychocheta Windlet Bedd, = Diacheta Windlei Bedd. Under stones, not common. In addition to the above, Beddard has described, 1894, from this locality Pheretima Bermudensis Bedd., as Pericheta, which is widely diffused in the warmer parts of both hemispheres. Also, 1891, Pon- todrillus Bermudensis (?=P. arene Mich., t. Moore). b6.—Land Nemerteans. A species of terrestrial nemertean (Zetrastemma agricola W.Suhm) was discovered in Bermuda by the Challenger Expedition.* We found it common under stones and logs, near Hungry Bay, not only close to the shore, but also on the hillsides where the soil was rather dry. It is said to live also in the holes of land crabs. Full- grown individuals are sometimes six inches long, in full extension, and very slender. It has four small but very distinct black eyes in a quadrangle. The color above is dusky brown, grayish, or smoky brown, paler below. See Plate C; figure 4. Although it is known only from Bermuda, its habits and localized distribution are like those of a recently introduced species. It is associated with foreign species of earthworms and isopods ; still it may, perhaps, prove to be endemic. We brought back living speci- mens in bottles of damp earth and mould without difficulty. * See H. N. Moseley, Notes by a Naturalist on the Challenger, pp. 26, 27, and figure, 848 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. e.—Land Planarians. FIGURE 237. Mr. T. G. Gosling has sent me a brief description accompanied by a sketch of a peculiar worm that he found near Hamilton. It appears to be a land-planarian. The specimen was, unfortunately, not preserved. It was about six inches long in full extension; slen- der, its breadth about 3"; head flattened and semicircular, carried Figure 237.—Land Planarian; dorsal view; x 11; after a sketch by Mr. Gosling. somewhat raised while creeping. Body light brown, with three dark longitudinal stripes ; head dark brown. Found July, 1901, at Norwood, in garden. See figure 237. ‘ 41.—Introduction of Marine Species. We cannot doubt that many marine invertebrates have been accidentally introduced from North America and the West Indies, if not from Europe, while adhering to the bottoms of vessels, which in these waters soon become covered with firmly attached barnacles, mussels, hydroids, bryozoa, ascidians, etc.,* among which mollusks, crustaceans, annelids, etc., find congenial abodes and abundant food. Sometimes, after only a few months, the accumula- tion of such organisms may amount to many tons on a large vessel. Many of these creatures are discharging eggs or free-swimming embryos which can thus find their way to suitable localities on the shores or bottom. But we have no direct evidence as to which par- ticular species have been introduced here in this way. No doubt it would be easy, with suitable appliances and care, to introduce many useful or valuable species of fishes, shellfish, etc., from the West Indies and the southern United States. A vessel fitted with a live-well might be sufficient. Possibly the more valua- ble Florida sponges could be introduced in this way, and perhaps even the precious Red Coral of the Mediterranean. * T was shown a good specimen of coral (Oculina diffusa), eight inches high, that had grown on the bottom of a vessel. A. FE. Verrili— The Bermuda Islands. 849 But it might be necessary to have suitable large stone receiving basins, with a circulation of pure sea-water, in which such things could be kept protected for a time, till they had opportunity to discharge one or two crops of eggs for the natural establishment of the species. The purity of the water here and the porosity of the rocks are exceedingly favorable for such experiments. It seems possible, also, that the American Oyster (southern variety) could be made to thrive here in some of the brackish inlets, but it is useless to plant it in pure sea-water. The Horse-shoe crab (Limulus) could doubtless be easily intro- duced, for it is tenacious of life and ranges from New England to Brazil. The large market crab of Charleston, 8. C. (Wenippe mer- cenaria) and other useful crustacea of that region could probably be easily introduced. On a former page (p. 708) I have mentioned an attempt to intro- duce the West Indian Whelk (Livona pica). There is no reason why many other species should not be introduced, for there is plenty of food and pure water for a much richer fauna than now exists here. BIBLIOGRAPHY. As a very complete work on the Bibliography of the Bermudas is now in course of publication by Mr. George Watson Cole in the Bulletin of Bibliography,* it seems unnecessary to give in this place all the works referred to or quoted, and of which the titles have, also, in many cases, been given in foot-notes or synonymy. ‘Therefore only the more important works will be given here, or those which students might often have occasion to consult. Mr. Cole’s work has been of great value to me, in search- ing the literature of Bermuda. I am also indebted to him for the loan of several works on Bermuda, not otherwise available, and for revising the proofs of the following bibliography. * Cole, George Watson.—Bermuda in periodical literature. A Bibliography. Bulletin of Bibliography. The Boston Book Company, Boston. 8°. Vol. i (No. 4, January, 1898), p. 52-54; (No. 5; April 1898), p. 74-76. Note.—Three hundred and fifty copies separately printed. Boston, 1898. Cole, George Watson.—Bermuda in periodical literature ; with occasional refer- ences to other works. Series 2. Vol. ii, October, 1900, to vol. iii, No. 4, Jan., 1908. (Not yet completed. It will include the above, and be issued separately, with index, when finished.) Trans. Conn. Acap., Vou. XI. 54 Jan., 1903. 850 A. E. Verriill— The Bermuda Islands. The titles of various works relating specially to the Geology and Marine Zodlogy are reserved for the succeeding parts, which are to be devoted to these subjects. But it is thought desirable to include here a list of the articles relating to the Marine Zodlogy of the Bermudas, recently published by this Academy. General and Descriptive Works. Anonymous.—A True Declaration of the estate of the Colonie in Virginia, etc. London, Wm. Barret, 4to, 1610. Reprinted by Peter Force, Coll., No. I, vol. iii, 1844; and by Lefroy, Memorials, i, p. 12. Contains an account of the shipwreck of the Sea Venture and rescue of the people, pp. 18-21 of Force’s Reprint. Bermuda Pocket Almanac.—Guide and Directory. Published annually since 1844, by the Royal Gazette Office, Hamilton, Bermuda. For titles of numer- ous articles, see Cole, Bibliography, Jan., 1901. Bushell, John J.—All about Bermuda ; History, Guide, Directory, annual vols., i-vii. The Bushell Press, Hamilton and Paget, Bermuda, vol. vii, 1902. Challenger Expedition. Reports. London. Various volumes contain matter relating to Geology, Meteorology, Magnetic variations, Soundings, and Botany. See Cole, George Watson.—Bermuda Bibli- ography, 1901; see also Thomson, Sir C. W.; Murray, John; Tizard, T. H. ; Creak, E. W.; and Hemsley, Wm. B., below. Many of the volumes contain more or less matter relating to the marine zoology of the Bermudas. See Cole, George Watson, Bibliography, 1901 (this part also issued as author’s separata), for full lists of such matter. Godet, Theodore L., M.D.—Bermuda, its history, geology, climate, products, agri- culture, commerce, and government. London. Smith, Elder & Co. 1860. Note.—Those parts relating to Natural History are very inaccurate. Chapter xiv, ‘‘ Shells,” includes many East Indian species, and also Crustacea. See Ad- denda. But it contains much information on the government, agriculture, education, people, climate, etc., and especially in regard to the bad epidemic of yellow fever in 1856, during which Dr. Godet had medical charge of the “Thames,” one of the infected hulks on which large numbers of convicts were confined. See pp. 24-32 of the book. Dr. Godet was a native of Bermuda. Heilprin, Angelo.—The Bermuda Islands. 8vo, pp. 231, with 17 plates. Pub- lished by the author. Philadelphia, 1889. Hurdis, John L.—Rough Notes and Memoranda relating to the Natural History of the Bermudas. 1897. See also under Zodlogy, and above, p. 729. Jones, J. Matthew.—The Naturalist in Bermuda. London, 1859. Map. Jones, J. Matthew.—The Visitor’s Guide to Bermuda. Halifax, New York and London, 1876, 12mo, pp. 159. Note.—A large part of the descriptive matter in this work has been reprinted in Stark’s Guide to Bermuda. It contains lists of birds, fishes, insects, shells, plants, ete. Jones, J. Matthew.—U. S. National Museum, Bull. No. 25, pp. ix-xxiii, 1884. A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 851 Moseley, H. N.—Notes by a Naturalist on the Challenger. 8vo, London, 1879. Note.—A number of pages are devoted to Bermuda, including an account of the geology (pp. 18-28), etc. Ogilvy, John, M.D.—An Account of Bermuda, Past and Present. 64 pp., 8vo. Hamilton, Bermuda, S. Nelmes, 1883. Contains valuable matter relat- ing to history, religion, education, climate, diseases, etc., especially yel- low fever. Dr. Ogilvy was Surgeon-General of the post. Rich, R.—News from Virginia of the Happy Arrival of that Famous and Worthy knight, Sir Thomas Gates, etc., 1610. A poetical tract. Reprinted, in part, by Lefroy, Memorials, ii, p. 574. Stafford, Richard.—Letter of 1668. Trans. Royal Soc., iii, p. 792. 1668. See above, p. 510. Stark, J. H.—Stark’s Illustrated Bermuda Guide, pp. 157, 46 illustrations and a map. Boston, Jas. H. Stark, 1897. Note.— A large part of the descriptive and historical matter is reprinted from Jones’ Visitor’s Guide, 1876, and is, therefore, rather antiquated. Historical. Berkeley, Bishop George.—A Proposal for the better supplying of Churches in our foreign Plantations, and for converting the savage Americans to Christianity, by a College to be erected in the Summer islands, otherwise called the isles of the Bermuda. London, Ist. ed., 22 pp., 1724, Oranges, p. 12; 2d. ed., 24 pp., 1725. Reprinted by several authors. Contains statements as to the destruction of cedars and decline of orange culture. See above, pp. 625, 816, and Errata. See, Life and Works of Berkeley, by Professor A. C. Frazer, 3 vols., Oxford, Eng., 1871, and ed. of 1891, 4 vols., vol. iv, pp. 346-364, Oranges, p. 393. Ditto, edited by G. Sampson, 3 vols., London, 1897-98, vol. ii, pp. 112-114, (Oranges, p. 113). Bermuda.—Acts of Assembly made and enacted in the Bermuda or Summer Islands, from 1690 to 1713-14. (Continued to 1736.) London, 1719-87, folio. Not seen. Bermuda Recorder.—Paget. Folio. Cyclone of Tuesday night and Wednesday morning, September 12 and 13, 1899. Souvenir edition. Vol. 1 (No. 19, September 23, 1899), 4 pp., 8 illustrations, 1 map. Note.—‘‘ The total damage to the Bermudas is here estimated at £150,000 to £200,000.” (Cole.) Butler, Gov. Nathaniel.—Historye of the Bermudaes, 1609-22. See under Lefroy ; also above, p. 552, note. Written probably, in the years 1619-26, from internal evidence, but not completed at the death of the author. Brown, Alexander.—Genesis of the United States. Boston and New York, 1890. 2 vols. Contains reprints of Letter of Sir George Somers, 1610; R. Rich, News from Virginia, 1610; Voyage of Capt. Samuel Argal, ete. Churchill, Awnsham, and Churchill, John.—Collection of Voyages and Travels. London. Folio. See Herrera, and Capt. John Smith. 852 A. E. Verrilli— The Bermuda Islands. Clarke, James Stanier.—Naufragia or Historical memoirs of Shipwrecks. Lon- don. ; Voll; 180d) alae Note.—This contains reprints of the narrations of Mayand Strachy. See May, Henry, and Strachy, Wm. Companion to the British Almanac. Published under the superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. London. 12°. Note.—Statistical information about Bermuda is given as follows: 1828, Eng- lish occupation ; 1609, p. 60; 1829, Slave population, 4,608, p. 199; 1832, Popu- lation and trade statistics, p. 104-105; 1838, Rum imported from Bermuda, p. 183 ; 1834, Slaves ; Education, pp. 180-181 ; 1835, Abolishment of slavery, p. 257 ; 1839, Slaves, 4,026, Appraised value, £175,194, p. 185. (Cole.) Cotter, Richard.—Sketches of Bermuda. London. E. Wilson, 1824. Not seen. Darrell, J. H.—Acts of the Legislature of the Islands of Bermuda remaining in force at the end of the year 1860. New York, 1862, 8vo. Not seen. Darrell, Wm. H.—A Journal of ye Votes of Assembly ; (unpublished Records of the House of Assembly of Bermuda, from 1691-1785.) 3 vols. Hamilton, 1890. Extracts printed in the Bermuda Pocket Almanac, 1886, pp. 78-94; 1887, pp. 154-198. Edinburgh Review.—Edinburgh. 8°. Horrors (The) of the negro slavery existing in our West India islands. [A review.| Vol. 7 (No. 18, October, 1805), pp. 244-248. What isto be done with our criminals? Vol. 86 (No. 173, July, 1847), pp. 214-272. Transportation as it now is. [Review of several works.] Vol. 90 (No. 181, July, 1849), pp. 1-89. Note. —Gives some glimpses of the convict life in Bermuda, where there were four frigates and a hospital ship with accommodations for 1,750 men employed on the dock-yard and fortifications, and other ordnance work. An account is also given of the successful introduction of rewards for piece-work. (Cole.) Force, Peter, see Jourdan, Silvanus, below. Greene, W. Maxwell—Bermuda (alias Somers Islands). Historical Sketch, Ameri- can Geographical Society, June 1901. Also issued separately. Greenwood, Isaac J.—Bermuda during the American Revolution. New England Hist. and Geneal. Register, Boston, vol. 1, No. 4, Oct. 1896, pp. 441-445. Refers to the capture of gunpowder in 1775. Hakluyt, Richard.—Principal Navigations, Voyages, etc., ed. i, 1600; ed. ii, 1810-11, iv ; and ed. of 1890. Contains narratives of May, Henry ; and Jourdan, Silvanus. Hallock, Chas.—Bermuda and the Blockade. The Galaxy, New York, vol. iii, pp. 890-899, Apr., 1867. Also in The New England Magazine, Boston, vol. xii, p. 337-348, May, 1892. Herrera, Antonio de.—A brief description and historical account of the Carribbee Islands in North America, and their present state [being a part of], General Observations, and an account of the first discovery of America, by Christo- pher Columbus, from [his] History of the West Indies. Reprinted by Churchill, A., and John, in Collection of Voyages and Travels, London, (3 editions). See also Lefroy, Memorials, i, p. 5. Note.—Gives a description of the Bermudas and their early history, pp. 663— 664. This is evidently added to Herrera’s account by the editors. (Cole.) A. EK. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 853 Hughes (or Hughs), Rev. Lewis.—A Letter sent into England from the Summer Tlands, 1615, (See above pp. 670, 671.) Hughes (or Hughs), Rev. Lewis—Plaine and True Relation of the Goodness of God towards the Sommers Ilands, etc., 1621. See Lefroy, Memorials, ii, pp. 577-586. Jourdan, Silvanus.—A Plaine description of the Barmudas, now called Sommer lands, etc., 1613. — (Reprinted by Hakluyt, Richard, ed. ii, vol. v, p. 551, 1812 ; ed. of 1890, part 4, p. 181; and Select. Voyages, 1812, p. 763 ; by Force, Peter, Coll. Tracts and Papers; and by Lefroy, Memorials, vol. i, p. 14.) Jourdan, Silvanus.—A Discovery of the Barmudas, otherwise called the Ile of Divils, by Sir Thos. Gates, Sir George Sommers, Capt. Newport, with Divers others, etc., 4to, 1610; 1613. Reprinted by Hakluyt, R., vol. v; Peter Force, iii; and Lefroy, i, pp. 14-21. Same as last, but with some additions. Lefroy, Governor J. H.*—Memorials of the Discovery and Early Settlement of the Bermudas or Somers Islands, 1515-1685. Compiled from the Colonial Records and other original sources. London, Longmans, Green & Co., vol. i, 1877; vol. ii, 1879. Note.—This work contains reliable reprints of the early writings relating to Bermuda, by Oviedo, May, Jourdan, Strachy, Admiral Somers, Gov. Moore, Rev. Lewis Hughes, Gov. Nathaniel Butler, Norwood, Capt. John Smith, and others. Two of the early maps by Norwood are reproduced. See above, p. 535, note. Lefroy, Governor J. H. (Editor).—Historye [The] of the Bermudaes or Summer Islands, edited from a MS. in the Sloane Collection, British Museum, pp. 319, 8vo; with portrait of Capt. John Smith. Printed for the Hakluyt Society, London, 1882. Note. —The author of this very important MS. History was supposed by Lefroy to have been Capt. John Smith. Subsequent investigations have shown that it was by Goy. Nathaniel Butler (1619-1622), and that Capt. Smith copied extensively from it in compiling his works. See ‘‘The Academy,” Dec., 1892; also above, p. 552, note. Nearly all that is known about the settlement and history of the Islands, from 1613 to 1624, is derived from this work and those of Hughes, Rev. Lewis. Lefroy, Gov. John H.—Witchcraft in the Somers Islands. Archeological Journ., vol, xxxii, nos. 125, 126, pp. 89-101, 239-248, 1875. * Governor Lefroy was the only governor of Bermuda actively interested in Natural History. He aided and encouraged the investigations of Mr. J. M. Jones; Mr. G. Brown Goode ; Professor Wm. North Rice, and others. Governor Lefroy was heartily devoted to the interests of the Bermudas and promoted their prosperity in many ways. Many important public works were completed during his administration. He introduced large numbers of new, useful and ornamental trees and flowering plants, of which lists are given in his work on the Botany of the islands (Bull. U. S. National Mus., No. 25, 1884). See under Botany. He sailed from Bermuda, May 10, 1877. The farewell address by the Hon. John Harvey Darrell, and Governor Lefroy’s reply are printed in the Hamilton papers, May 15, 1877. He was the author of many works on Magnetic observations, Artillery, and other military subjects. He was born at Ashe, Hampshire, Jan. 28, 1817, and died in Cornwall, Eng., Apr. 11, 1890. See portrait, plate civ. 854 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. Lefroy, Gov. John H.—On the Constitutional History of the Bermudas, the oldest remaining British Plantation. Archzologia, vol. xlvii, Part i, pp. 65-82, 1883. Also separately, Westminster, 1881. Marsden, Joshua.—Narrative of a Mission to Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the Somers Islands, in 1808. Edition 1, Plymouth-Dock, 1816; ed. 2, Lon- don, Kershaw, 1827. May, Henry.—Abstract of a briefe note of a voyage to the East Indies, begun the 10th of April, 1591. In Hakluyt, Richard, vol. iii, p. 571, 1600; vol. iv, p. 52, 1811; vol. xv, p. 270, 1890. (See Clarke, J. S., vol. i (1805), pp. 131-140. and Goy. Lefroy, Memorials, i, pp. 7-9; alsosHakluyt Society, vol. lvi, pp. 24-34.) Contains an account of May’s shipwreck ‘‘upon the Isle of Ber- muda.”’ See above, p. 534. Moore, Governor Richard.—[First report on the Bermudas] 1612. Reprinted by Lefroy, in Memorials of Bermudas, i, pp. 65-72, 1877, without name of author. Note.—-See above, pp. 545, 547. This very important document is here attrib- uted to Gov. Moore, from satisfactory internal evidence. Murray, Hugh.—An historical and descriptive account of British America; com- prehending Canada, Upper and Lower, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, New- foundland, Prince Edward Island, the Bermudas, and the Fur Countries. (Edinburgh Cabinet Library. 16°, vols. 25-27, Edinb. and Lond., 1839.) Three vols.; a description of the Bermudas occupies pages 329-856 of vol. ii (26). Oviedo y Valdes, Gonzalo Fernandez.—The Natural History of the West Indies. First printed in 1526. Reprinted in English by Richard Eden, 1887. Sec- tion 2, pp. 205-242, and by Lefroy, Memorials, i, p. 2. Note.—At page 233 (original edition, p. 203) is found the earliest description of the discovery of Bermuda. This passage is quoted in full in Lefroy’s Memo- rials of the Bermudas, vol. i, p. 2-8. (Cole.) Ogilvy, John.—Bermuda, Past and Present. See above. Pegge, Samuel.—The question considered, whether England formerly produced any wine from grapes. Archzologia, vol. iii, pp. 53-66, 1775. Refers to the disappearance of orange trees and other fruit trees in Bermuda; attributed to the cutting of the sheltering cedars. Not seen. Purchas.—See Jourdan, S. and Strachy, Wm. Smith, Captain John.—The Generall Historie of Virginia, New-England, and | the Summer Isles, 1624. Also editions of 1626, 1627, 1632. Reprinted by Pinkerton, John, Gen. Coll. of Voyages and Travels, London, 1808-14, vol. xiii, pp. 1-253, and in part by Lefroy. See our pl. ciii for portrait, and expl. pl. for historical data. Smith, Captain John.—True Travels, Adventures, and Observations, in Europe, Asia, Affrica, and America; 1593-1629. London, 1630. Reprinted by Churchill, A. and J., Coll. of Voyages, vol. ii (1704), pp. 371-412. Note.—Chapter 22: Summer Isles; 1624-1629, pp. 401-402. Somers, Sir George, Admiral.—Letter to the Earl of Salisbury from Virginia, June 20, 1810. Reprinted by Brown, Alexander; and Lefroy, Memorials, i, p. 10. Contains a brief account of the shipwreck of 1609, rescue of the people, their voyage to Virginia, and the famine existing there. See reprint in Addenda below, p. 873. For portrait of Admiral Somers, see our plate cii; see also expl. plate for his- torical data. A. FE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 855 Strachy (or Strachey), William.—A true repertory of the wracke and redemp- tion of Sir Thomas Gates, Knight, upon and from the Islands of the Bermudas, etc., 1610. (Reprinted by Purchas, His Pilgrimes, ete., iv, 1625 ; and by Clark, J. S., vol. i (1805), p. 141-171; Gov. Lefroy, Mem- orials, i, pp. 22-54, and others.) See above, p. 588. Note.—This is by far the most complete account of the shipwreck of the Sea Venture and of the doings of its people there in 1609-10, as well as of the condition of the islands and their products, at that time. See pp. 538-544, above. Williams, Wm, Frith.—Historical (An) and Statistical account of the Bermudas, from their discovery to the present time. S8vo, pp. 346. London. Thos. C. Newby, 1848. Sparks, J.—Writings of George Washington, iii, p. 77. See above, p. 456. Winslow, Octavius.—Memoir of the Life of Mrs. Mary Winslow, n. Miss Forbes, wife of Capt. Winslow of the 47th Regiment, London and New York, 1860. Contains considerable information as to the social and religious conditions early in the last century, pp. 32-54. For a fuller Bibliography of the early Historical Writings on Bermuda, see Lefroy, Memorials, vol. ii (Introduction), pp. xi—xvi. The Ancient Archives and Records of the Colony, 1622-1685, which were restored and bound under the direction of Governor Lefroy, are also available for historical research. Physiography and Geology. Agassiz, Alecander.—Notes from the Bermudas, Amer. Journal Science, Ser. 3, xlvii, June, 1894, pp. 411-416. Agassiz, Alexander.—A Visit to the Bermudas in March, 1894, Bulletin Mus. Comp. Zo@l., xxvi, No. 2, pp. 209-281, with a map and 29 plates, 1895. Boyle, Cavendish.—Remarkable Rainfall in July, 1886. Royal Gazette, Aug. 3d and Aug. 17, 1886. Reprinted in Bermuda Pocket Almanac for 1887, p. 200. The maximum record was 19.9 inches at Boaz I. See Addenda. Bristol, Chas. L.—Notes on the Bermudas. Amer. Geographical Soc., June, 1901. Also issued separately, stitched, with Greene, W. M., Historical Sketch. Bermuda Pocket Almanac: Home, David Milne.—|Description of a large] Stalag- mite sawn from the floor of a [Walsingham] cave in the Island of Bermuda [in 1819] and sent to the Museum of Edinburgh by Admiral Alexander Milne, Contains about 44 cubic feet. Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinb., v, p. 428. Reprinted in Berm. Pocket Almanac for 1888, p. 175 ; 1889, p. 149. Note.—The estimates of the age of this stalagmite that have been made, based on the subsequent growth of the stump, are utterly unreliable, for the conditions are, and have always been, exceedingly variable and diverse. Bermuda Pocket Almanac for 1886. Rainfall on the north side of Pagets tor 10 years, 1875-1884, p. 198. Reprinted in later years. 1888-1897, vol. for 1898, p. 280. Oreak, E. W.—Report on the Magnetical Results obtained by H. M.S. Challenger during the years 1873-76. Pt. 6, vol. ii, 1889. Two Maps. ‘‘ Magnetic dis- turbance was found at three stations in the eastern parts of the islands,”— p. 4-5. 856 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. Dana, James Dwight.—Corals and Coral Islands. New York, Dodd & Mead, 1872. (2d edition, 1874; 3d ed. 1890.) 8°. 398 pp. Note.—Structure of the Bermuda Islands [with map], pp. 218-221 ; 218-226, ed. 3; former extent, p. 370; 408, ed. 3; caverns, p. 361; ed. 1, 2; p. 398, ed. 3. A list of corals, furnished by A. E. Verrill, comprising 17 species, is given on p. 114 [ed. 1, 2, 3]. Farnsworth, J. M.—Driving and Cycling Road Map of the Bermuda Islands. New York, 93 Nassau St., 2d ed., 1898. Indicates the relative grades and qualities of the highways. Fewkes, J. Walter.—On the Origin of the present form of the Bermudas. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. History, vol. xxiii, pp. 518-522, June, 1888. Findlay, A. G.—See above, pp. 485-489. 15th ed., 1895, pp. 823-841. Jones, J. Matthew.—On Ocean Drifts and Currents. Canadian Nat. and Geologist, vol. ix, no. 1, pp. 37-45. Feb., 1864. Jones, J. Matthew.—On the Geological Features of the Bermudas. Proc. and Trans. of the Nova Scotian Institute of Nat. Science, i, part iv, p. 21, 1866. See also below, under Botany, 1873. Jones, J. Matthew.—Geology of Bermuda. Bermuda Pocket Almanac, 1874, p. 58. Jones, J. Matthew.—Recent Observations in the Bermudas, Nature, vi, p. 262, Aug., 1872. Reprint in Amer. Jour. Sci., civ, pp. 414-416. Lefroy, Gov. John H.—Remarks on the Chemical Analyses of Samples of Soil from Bermuda. Addressed to the Board of Agriculture. Hamilton, Ber. 1873, pp. 1-46, with introductory remarks on climate and a meteorological table, pp. i, ii. Murray, John, and Renard, A. F.—Report on Deep-Sea Deposits based on the specimens collected during the voyage of H. M. S. Challenger, in the years 1872 to 1876. 1890-91. Stations at which dredgings were made at or near Bermuda were eighteen. The parts relating to Bermuda deposits outside and within the reefs, are on pp. 46-51, 54-55, 150-151, pl. 13; charts, 6, 8, 9. Murray, John.—Summary of Scientific Results obtained at the sounding, dredg- ing and trawling stations of H. M. 8. Challenger. Part I, 1895. The Challenger Expedition visited Bermuda twice ; first, from April 3 to April 24, 1875; second, from May 28 to June 13, 1873. During the first visit 20 soundings were made at Stations 30 to 37 inclusive. Nelson, Richard J.—On the Geology of the Bermudas. Trans. Geolog. Soc. London, 2d ser., v, pp. 103-123, with wood-cuts and map, 1837 (1840), based on observations made between 1827 and 1833. Norwood, Richard.—Maps, 1626 and 1663. Reproduced in Lefroy, Memorials, vol. i, end; ii, p. 645. See above, pp. 535, note. Norwood, Richard.—Letter, June, 1667, on tides, etc. Philosophical Trans. Royal Soc., ii, pp. 565-567, 1667. See above, p. 490. Reid, Sir William.—An Attempt to develop the Law of Storms. London, 1838, 8vo. Contains a full account of the great hurricane of 1780, on pp. 311-367. 2d edition, 1841 ; 3d ed., 1850. Reid, Sir William.—On the winds, as influencing the tracks sailed by Bermuda vessels, etc. Edinburgh New Philos. Journal, vol. xli (no. 81, July, 1846), pp. 192-194. This article is dated at ‘‘Government House, Bermuda, 21st March, 1846,” and contains observations on revolving gales and winds, with sailing directions A. E. Verrili—The Bermuda Islands. 857 for vessels bound from Bermuda to New York; from New York to Bermuda ; between Halifax and Bermuda; from Barbadoes or neighboring West India Islands to Bermuda; and from England to Bermuda. These directions were reprinted in several editions of Blunt’s American Coast Pilot. Cole. In the Library of Yale University are three volumes of unpublished corre- spondence between Gov. Reid and Mr. Wm. C, Redfield, mostly relating to meteorology. Refers to the sending of plows and many other implements, and many garden seeds, etc., in 1840-45. Rice, Wm. North.—Geology of Bermuda. Bulletin United States Nat. Museum, No. 25, part i, pp. 5-82, with illustrations and a map, 1884. Reviewed in Amer. Jour. Science, ser. 5, xxix, p. 338, 1885, by J. D. Dana. Scott, Andrew.—Notes on the Bermuda Islands. Amer. Jour. Sci., ser. 2, xxiv, p. 274, Sept., 1857. (Geological.) Stevenson, John J.—Notes on the Geology of the Bermudas. Trans. New York Acad. Sciences, xvi, pp. 96-124, with map and two plates, March, 1897. Tarr, Ralph S.—Changes of Level in the Bermuda Islands. American Geologist, xix, pp. 295-303, plates 16-18, May, 1897. Thomson, Sir C. Wyville.—Geological Peculiarities of the Bermudas. Nature, vol. viii, pp. 266, 267, 1 cut, July, 1873. Thomson, Sir C. Wyville.—Voyage of the Challenger. The Atlantic, vol. 1. Chapter IV, with map. London, 1877; N. Y., 1878. Tizard, T. H., and others.—Narrative af the cruise of H. M. 8. Challenger, with a general account of the scientific results of the expedition. 2 vols in 3. 1882-1885 [vol. 1, 1884-85, vol. 2, 1882. | Vol. i, pt. 1.—General description of the geology, flora, and fauna of the Ber- mudas; giving the movements of the members of the expedition, during their two visits, from April 3-23, and from May 28 to June 13, 1875; illustrated with 19 woodcuts, a diagram, and three charts, pp. 136-153, 160-167; other references to Bermuda, pp. 481, 483-484. See Cole, Bibliog. Chall. Exped. ; and same issued as Separata. Vol. i, pt. 2.—Revised table, showing the positions of the soundings, the tem- perature, etc., of surface and bottom water, trawlings, dredgings, etc., near Ber- muda, Appendix II., pp. 1008-1009 ; report on the chronometers and the meri- dian distances obtained, while at Bermuda, Appendix III., pp. 1017-1026. The result obtained was as follows: Bermuda Island, Dockyard clock tower, 32° 19’ 4” North Latitude, 64° 51’ 36" West Longitude on chart, but by Challenger’s observer 64° 49’ 24" West Longitude, the meridian based upon Gibraltar and Halifax. Cole. Vol. ii.—Abstract of magnetical observations taken at fifteen different points on land, at Bermuda, with descriptive references to observation spots, pp. 25, 46; pp. 56-59; Abstract of Variations, etc., pp. 76; 114-119 ; 274-276 ; 276-277 ; 278-279 ; 280-281 ; 296-297 ; 346-352; 364-869. Cole. Verrill, Addison E.—Notes on the Geology of the Bermudas, Amer. Journ. Science, ser. 4, vol. ix, pp. 313-340, with 11 cuts and a map, May, 1900. Medical. Brainerd, John B.—Letter from Bermuda. Boston Medical and Surgical Journal. Boston. 8°. Vol. 118 (No. 16, April 19, 1888), p. 411-412. Note.—Statistics of temperature for ten years give highest as 90°, lowest 42°. While it is no place for comsumptives it is just the place for overworked and jaded men. Cole. 858 A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. Donnelly, William.—Statistical and tabular returns on the diseases observed during three years [March, 1827, to July, 1830] on the coast of North America and at Bermuda in the West Indies. Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal. Edinburgh. 8°. Vol. 39 (January, 1833), p. 1-19. Note.—In addition to tabular returns of diseases, there is (p. 3) a Summary of Registers of the weather, temperature, etc., kept at Bermuda. Cole. Godet, T. L., M.D.—See above. Harvey, Christopher.—Endemic Fevers at Bermuda. British Medical Journal. London. 4°. Vol. 2 for 1890 (No. 1560, Nov. 22, 1890), p. 1172-1178. See above, p.511. Reprint in Medical Progress, Louisville, Ky., v, p. 241, 1890. Lefroy, Gov. J. H.—Sanitary Report of the Colony of Bermuda, Hamilton, 1872, folio, xx, 46 pp. Matthews, H. E.—The Climate of Bermuda [from a medical point of view]. New York Med. Journal, vol. lv, p. 12, Jan., 1892. Méricourt, A. Le Roy de.—Bermudes (en espagnol Bermudas, appelées aussi files Somers). Dictionnaire encyclopédique des sciences médicales. Paris. 8°. Tome 9 (1868), pp. 168-177. Not seen. Note.—There is also an edition bearing the date 1876. A short bibliography is appended to this article. Cole. Ogilvy, John, M.D.—See above.” Botany ; Agriculture. Berkeley, Rev. M. J.—Enumeration of the Fungi collected during the exped. of H. M.S. Challenger. Journ. Linn. Soc., London, xiv, pp. 350-354. 1878. Enumerates 13 Bermuda species. Second notice, xv, pp. 48-53, 1876. Ten species : five new. Bermuda Pocket Almanac for 1886, p. 197. Returns of Exports of the staple Productions for past 15 years. Produce shipped in 1885, pp. 146-150, with prices. Similar tables are printed in many later volumes. Bishop, Geo. A.—The Diseases of the Lily in Bermuda, their cause, treatment, and prevention. Hamilton, 1898. Cooke, M. C.—See Hemsley, below. Crombie, J. M.—See Hemsley, and Stirton, below. Darrell, R. D.; Wilkinson, W. H.; Hinson, H. J.—Onion Disease in Bermuda. Report to the Board of Agriculture, Dec., 1887. Reprinted in Bermuda Pocket Almanac for 1888, pp. 233, 234. Based on Shipley’s report, below. Dickie, George.—Marine Algz of Bermuda. Linn. Soc. Journ., Botany, xiv, 1874, pp. 313-316 (44 species, 1 new); Supplement, vol. xv, 1877, pp. 486-489. Grisebach, A. H. R.—Flora of the British West Indian Islands. London, 1864. Lovell Reeve & Co. Contains descriptions of most of the native and natural- ized plants of Bermuda. Several species are recorded from Bermuda. Hastings, General Russell.—Garden and Forest, iv, p. 511, 1891, on Potatoes ; p. 452, 1891, on Onions. Hemsley, Wm. B.—Challenger Expedition. Botany, part 1, vol. i. Report on the Botany of the Bermudas, vii+135 pp., 13 plates. Accompanied by reports on the musci and other eryptogams, contributed, in part, by differ- ent authors. (Crombie, J. M.—Lichens; Mitten, Wm.,—Musci; Cooke, M. C.,—Fungi.) A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 859 Hemsley, Wm. B.—The Bermudas. Gardener’s Chronicle, vol. xix, p. 367, March, 1883; p. 481, April, 1883; p. 656, May, 1883 (Bermuda cedar). See also articles in Journal of Botany, London, xxi, p. 104, (2 new sp.) ; xxi, p. 257 (Sloane coll.) ; xxii, p. 108. Hinson, Dr. H. J.—Catalogue of Plants growing in Bermuda, both wild and cultivated. Bermuda P. Almanac, 1878, pp. 113-26; 1879, p. 114; 1881, p. 1382. Enumerates 560 species. Howe, M. A.—Botanizing in Bermuda. The Plant World, iv, pp. 101-4, June, 1901. Algz, etc. Hunter, Robert.—Bermudian Ferns. Journ. Bot., vi, p. 367, 1877, (10 species). Hurdis, John L.—On North Atlantic Storms. Proc. Nova Scotian Inst. Nat. Sci. i, part 4, pp. 140-146, 1867. Contains an account of the great Hurricane of 1839, at Bermuda, and other storms. Jones, J. Matthew.—On the Vegetation of the Bermudas. Proc. and Trans. Nova Scotian Inst., Halifax, iii, pp. 287-280, 1873. Enumerates 612 species. Accompanied by Remarks on the Geology and Soil, which are reprinted in Bermuda Pocket Almanac, 1874, p. 58. See also Visitor’s Guide. Kean, Alexander L.—The Lily Disease in Bermuda. Botanical Gazette, xv, pp. 8-14, pl. i, 1890. Disease is attributed to a fungus (Botrytis) which is figured. Kemp, Alexander F.—Notes on the Bermudas and their natural history, with special reference to their Marine Alge. Canadian Naturalist and Geologist. Vol, 2 (No. 2, May 1857), pp. 145-156. See also, List of Marine Alge, in Jones, J. M., Visitor’s Guide, pp. 149-151. Contains a list of 103 species by Professor Kemp. Note.—Of marine alge there are here catalogued about seventy species. Cole. Lefroy, Gov. John H.—Botany of Bermuda. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 25, pp. 33-141, 1884. Includes both wild and cultivated plants, with Introduc- tion describing soil, climate, etc. Millspaugh, Chas. Fred.—Plants collected in Bermuda, Porto Rico, St. Thomas, ete. Chicago. Field Columbia Mus. Publications, No. 43, 1900. Botan. Ser., vol. ii, No. 1, pp. 110, map. Publ. No. 50, No. 2, pp. 111-135, 1900. Mitten, Wm.—The Musci and Hepatice collected by H. N. Moseley. Linn. Soc. Journ., Botany, xv, pp. 59-73, 1876. Eleven species. See Hemsley, above Onion Disease.—Report on, to Board of Agriculture, 1887. See Bermuda Pocket Almanac, 1888, p. 233. Moseley, Henry N.—On the marine Alge of St. Thomas and the Bermudas. Journ. Linn. Soe., London, xiv, pp. 311-317, 1875. See Hemsley, above. Moseley, Henry N.—Notes on the vegetation of Bermuda. Op. cit. pp. 317-321. Reade, Oswald A.—Additions to catal. of plants growing in Bermuda. Berm. P. Almanac, 1881, pp. 146-149. Adds 167 species to Hinson’s list. Rein, J. J.—Senckenberg. naturforsch. Gesellschaft Bericht, Frankfurt am Main, May, 1873, pp. 131-153. Includes a list of 109 species of marine alge. The same work, 1869-70, pp. 140-58, contains an article by Dr. Rein on the Coral Reefs, etc. Shipley, Arthur E.—Onion Disease at Bermuda. Kew Royal Gardens, Bull. Miscell. Information, No. 10, London, 1887, pp. 23, 2 plates. Onion Thrips is recorded, p. 18. The disease is attributed to a parasitic fungus ; remedies recommended. 860 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. Small, H. B.—Vegetation in the Bermudas. The Ottawa Naturalist, vol. xii, pp. 101-104 ; 109-114 ; 153-157, 1898. Stirton, Dr. J.—Enumeration of the Lichens collected by H. N. Moseley. Journ. Linn. Soc., Botany, London, xiv, pp. 366-375, 1875. Enumerates 24 Bermuda species. These are revised by Crombie, Rev. James M., in vol, xvi, pp. 211-217, 1877, who enumerates 29 Bermuda species. See Hemsley. Woods, Albert F.—The Bermuda Lily Disease. Bulletin No. 14, U.S. Depart. of Agriculture, 15 pp., 4 figures, 1897, (see also Gardener’s Chronicle, xxii, p. 368, Nov., 1897, resumé of above). Loblogy: The Land Fauna. Mammals ; Birds ; Reptiles. For additional bibliography of birds, see above, p. 720. Amer. Ornith. Union Check-list, 11th Sup]. The Auk, xix, pp. 315-42, Jl., 1902. Anonymous.—Royal Soc. Phil. Trans., London, vol. i, p. 11; i, p. 182; iii, p. 792. Whale-fishery. See pp. 683, 684, above. Cope, Edward D.—On the Reptilia of Sombrero and Bermuda. Proc. Acad. Nat. Science, Philadelphia, xiii, 1861, pp. 812-314. Contains description of the Bermuda lizard, sp. nov. Denison, Lieut. H.—Birds of Bermuda. Bermuda Pocket Almanac, 1876, p. 115. A list of 173 species, of which 117 are said to be in the collection of John T. Bartram. Reprinted 1877, p. 97; 1878, p. 108 (181 sp.) ; 1879, p. 109, 1881, p. 127; (gives 183 species). Dobson.—Catalogue of the Cheiroptera in the Coll. of the British Museum, 1878. Records specimens from Bermuda. See below, Addenda. Garman, Samuel.—The Reptiles of Bermuda. Bulletin No. 25, U. S. Nat. Museum, pp. 285-303, 1884. Note.—Contains full descriptions of the Bermuda Lizard and Sea-turtles. Heilprin, A.—Bermuda Is. See above, Notes on birds are on pp. 81-83; Bats, p. 80; Insects by Uhler, P. R., pp. 152-158; Spiders by Marx, G., pp. 159-162. Hurdis, John L.—Rough Notes and Memoranda relating to the Natural History of the Bermudas. Edited by H. J. Hurdis, from MS. notes, mostly made from 1847-1855, London, 1897. Note.—This contains numerous observations, mostly in the form of a diary, concerning especially the birds, but including notes on mammals, insects, fishes, plants, etc. Mr. Hurdis resided in Bermuda 14 years. Hurdis, John L.—Birds of Bermuda. B. Pocket Almanac, for 1851. See above, p. 725. Jones, J. Matthew.—Mammals of Bermuda, Bull. U. S. Nat. Museum, No. 25, pp. 143-161, 1884. See also Naturalist in Bermuda, and Visitor’s Guide to Bermuda, in list of General Works, above. Include lists of birds, fishes, ete. Reid, Capt. Savile G.—The Birds of Bermuda. Bull. No. 25, U. S. Nat. Museum, 1884, pp. 163-279. Note.—For other papers on birds by Reid, and also for papers on birds by Wm. Jardine; O. Bangs and T. S. Bradlee; D. W. Prentiss; A. K. Fisher; A. E. Verrill; A. H. Verrill, see above, p. 725. Stone, Witmer.—Bermuda Birds, in Heilprin, A., Bermuda Is., pp. 82-88, 1889. A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 861 Verrill, Addison E.—The Story of the Cahow, the mysterious extinct bird of the Bermudas. Popular Science Monthly, vol. 1x, pp. 22-30, Nov., 1901. Verrill, Addison E.—The Cahow of the Bermudas, an extinct bird. Ann. and Mag. Nat. History, ix, pp. 26-31, Jan., 1902. Waite, F. C.—Bufo agua in the Bermudas. Science, new ser., xiii, pp. 342-343, March, 1901. Note.—Discusses the date of its introduction and its poisonous secretions. Terrestrial Mollusks. Aldrich, T. H.—Bermuda Shells. Nautilus, iii, No. 1, p. 9, 1889. Four species of Land-shells mentioned. Bartram, John T.—Lists of Shells in the Bermuda Pocket Almanac, 1876, "78, 79. See above, p. 730, note. Bland, Thos.—Geographical Distribution of the Genera and Species of Land Shells of the West India Islands. Annals Lyceum Nat. Hist. of New York, vii, p. 301, 1867. See also Jones, Visitor’s Guide, p. 138, 139, containing the same list. Cockerell, D. T. A.—Notes on Slugs. Journ. Malac., vol. vi, pp. 3-5, 1897. Hastings, Gen, Russell_—The Broken-tail Snail in Bermuda; and Reply, by Howard, L. O, and Riley, C. V. Insect Life, iv, p. 334, 1892. Jones, J. Matthew.—Cont. to the Nat. Hist. of the Bermudas. Part I. Mollusca. Proc. and Trans. Nova Scotian Inst., Halifax, vol. i, pt. 2, pp. 14-26, 1864. Includes 10 terrestrial species. See also Visitor’s Guide, above. Kobelt, W.—Die geographische Verbreitung der Mollusken, III. Die Insel- faunen. Siebenter Jahrgang (1880), Deutschen Malakozoologischen Gesell- schaft der Jahrbicher. Frankfurt am Main, 8°, pp. 241-286. Note.—The Mollusks of Bermuda are discussed on pp. 257-258 and a list of 20 species is given on p. 286. Pilsbry, Henry A.—The Air-breathing Mollusks of the Bermudas. See below, p- 863. Includes all known up to 1900, and Bibliography. See also, Heil- prin, A., above, pp. 181-184; 191-201. Prime, Temple.—List of Land Shells and Corals; 1852. Bermuda Pocket Almanac for 1853, p. 55. Note.—Corresponds with the list in Jones’ Naturalist in Bermuda, pp. 106-7, except that the latter adds two names to the list. For Five Essays on the Spiral Snails of Bermuda, see above, p. 731, note. Insects. - No descriptive works on Bermuda Insects, nor illustrations, have been hitherto published; those cited below are mostly mere lists. Butler, Arthur G.—Lepidoptera collected during the Challenger Exped. Ann. and Magazine Nat. Hist., ser. 5, xiii, pp. 183-8, 1884. See pp. 781, 782, above ; 9 species are enumerated. Dahl, Fred.—Land-fauna of the Bermudas, Plankton Expedition, vol. i, part 1. Note.—Includes a list of a few insects, spiders, land mollusca, isopods, ete. See pp. 749, 752, 755, 797, etc., above. 862 A, E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. Geddes, G.—See above, pp. 763, 766, 782. Contains a brief list of Lepidoptera. Godet, T. L.—See above, and Addenda. Hinds, Warren E.—Cont. to a Monograph, Thysanoptera of N. Amer., Proc. U. S. Nat. Museum, xxvi, pp. 79-242, pl. i-xi, 1902. Contains detailed descrip- tion, synonymy, and figures of the Onion Thrips (pp. 179-184, pl. vii, figs. 69-71). Hurdis, J. L.—Rough Notes. See above, p. 850. Contains observations on insects, pp. 314-330, ete. See above, pp. 745, 755, 757, 764, 794. Jones, J. M.—Visitor’s Guide, 1876. See under General Works. Contains the fullest nominal list of insects hitherto published. King, George B.—Two new Coccids from Bermuda. Psyche., vol. viii, p. 350, 1899. Kirby, W. F.—See pp. 755, 828. Saunders, Wm.—Insects Injurious to Fruits, pp. 436 ; 440 cuts. Lippincott & Co. Philadelphia, 1883. See above, p. 808, note. Shipley, A. G.—Thrips on Onions. See under Botany, above. Theobald, F. V.—Monograph of the Culicide of the World. Catal. Brit. Museum, i, p. 28; ii, pp. 151, 358. See above, pp. 511, 746, 748, and Errata. Riley, C. V. and Howard, L. O., see above, pp. 742, 745. Uhler, P. R.—Observations on the Insects of the Bermudas. Heilprin’s Ber- muda Islands, pp. 152-158, 1889. Contains a list of 15 species collected by Heilprin. Verrill, Addison E.—[On Bermuda Scale-insects and remedies.] Royal Gazette, Hamilton, Dec. 16, 1902, p. 2. The Peach Flyin Bermuda. No. 1, Jan. 3, 1903, p. 2. Arachnids and Myriapods. . Banks, Nathan.—Some Spiders and Mites from the Bermuda Islands, Jan., 1902. See below, p. 864. Blackwall, John.—Notice of Several Species of Spiders. Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 4, ii, pp. 403-10, 1868. Includes 6 species from Bermuda, 3 described as new. Bollman, Chas. H.—Notes on a small Collection of Myriapods from the Bermuda Islands. Proc. Philad. Acad. Nat. Sci., xli, p. 127, 1889 ; reprinted in Heil- prin, op. cit., pp. 162-165, 1889, and in Bull. U. 8. Nat. Mus., No. 46, pp. 202-204, 1898. Contains 5 species, of which one is described as new. Marx, George.—Contribution to the Knowledge of the Spider Fauna of the Bermuda Islands. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., xli, p. 98, 1889; reprinted in Heilprin’s Bermuda Islands, pp. 159-162, plate 14, 1889. Vote. —Contains a list of 12 species collected by Heilprin, of which one (Lycosa Atlantica) is described as new. McCook, Henry C.—American Spiders and their Spinning Work. Philadelphia, 1889-94, 3 vols. Numerous cuts and colored plates. Terrestrial Isopods. Dahl, Fred.—Land Fauna of Bermuda. Plankton Exped., vol. i, part 1, p. 111, plate iii, 1892. Describes Philoscia Bermudensis, sp. new, and figures Ligia, 2 sp. See above, p. 845, A. FE. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 863 Dollfus, A.—[Isopoda of the Challenger Exped.] Bull. Soc. d’Etudes Scientif. de Paris, xii, p. 1-8, pl. i, 1890. Richardson, Harriet.—Marine and Terres. Isopods of the Bermudas. See below, p. 864. Note.—Terrestrial Isopods, on pp. 299-308, pl. xl, includes 11 species, of which one genus and three species are new. Seep. 844. Earthworms and Nemerteans. Beddard, Frank E.—Tail-bristles of a West Indian [Bermuda] Earthworm (Urocheeta ?=Onychocheta Windlei B.; later). Nature, vol. xxxix, p. 15, 1888. Beddard, Frank E.—Investigations into Structure of Oligocheta. Ann. and Mag. Nat. History, ser. 6, vii, pp. 88-96, 1891. Des. of Pontodrillus Bermudensis, sp. nov. (?=P. arene Mich., t. Moore.) Beddard, Frank E.*—The Anatomy of a Species of Diacheta. Quart. Journ. Micro. Soc., 1890, pp. 159-171. Diachceeta Windlei (= Onychocheta Windlei). Beddard, Frank E.—The Classification and Distribution of Earthworms. Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edinb., x, 285-290. Pericheta aspergillum Perrier, erro- neously referred, and Onychocheta Windlei, p. 269. Beddard, Frank E.—Ude-Beitrage zur Kenntniss auslandischer Regen-wurmer. Zeit. f. wiss. Zo6l., xliii (1892), pp. 57-75. Eudrilus erudiens (=E. Eugenie Kinberg). Beddard, Frank E.-—On the Species of the Genus Pericheta, Proc. Zoél. Soc. London, 1894, pp. 153-172. P. Bermudensis described on pp. 160-3. (=Pheretima Hawayana (Rosa) Mich.) Moore, J. Percy.—Some Bermuda Oligocheta, with a description of a new species. Proc. Philad. Acad. Science, liv, pp. 80-84, 2 cuts. April, 1902. See above. Records 9 species, of which 1 is new, from Yale Expeditions. Moseley, H. N.—Notes by a Naturalist on the Challenger, pp. 26, 27, with cut. See above, p. 847. Willemoes-Suhm, Rudolph von.—On a Land-Nemertean found in the Bermudas. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 4, xiii, pp. 409-411, 1 pl., 1874. See also Hubrecht, A. A. W., Voyage of the Challenger, Zodlogy, xix, pt. 54, pp. 23-25 and cut. Natural History of the Bermudas ; Articles in Trans. Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, vols. x, xi, 1900-1902.+ 1.—Pilsbry, Henry Augustus.—The air-breathing Mollusks of the Bermudas, vol. x (part 2, Sept., 1900), pp. 491-509. 1 plate. Note.—Also issued separately. A general revision of all the known species of Bermuda land shells, with Bibliography. papers, and for synonymical notes. + A limited number of copies of the separata of all the articles in this list can be obtained through A. E. Verrill, or the respective authors. For further information address A. E. Verrill, New Haven, Conn. 864 A. E. Verrilli— The Bermuda Islands. 2.—Garman, Samuel.—Additions to the Ichthyological fauna of the Bermudas, from the collections of the Yale Expedition of 1898, vol. x (part 2, Sept., 1900), pp. 510-512. 3.—Verrill, Addison BE. and Bush, Katherine J.— Additions to the marine Mol- lusca of the Bermudas, vol. x (part 2, Sept., 1900), p. 5138-544. 3 plates. 4.—Verrill, Addison E.—The Nudibranchs and naked Tectibranchs of the Ber- mudas, vol. x (part 2, Sept., 1900), pp. 545-550. 1 plate. Nos. 3, 4, were also issued, stitched together, as author’s separata, Sept., 1900. 5.—Verrill, Addison E.—Additions to the Anthozoa and Hydrozoa of the Ber- mudas, vol. x (part 2, Sept., 1900), pp. 551-572. 3 plates. 6.—Verrill, Addison E.—Additions to the Crustacea and Pycnogonida of the Bermudas, vol. x (part 2, Sept., 1900), pp. 578-582. 1 plate. 7.—Verrill, Addison E.—Additions to the Echinoderms of the Bermudas, vol. x, (part 2, Sept., 1900), pp. 583-587. 8.—Verrill, Addison E.— Additions to the Tunicata and Molluscoidea of the Bermudas, vol. x (part 2, Oct., 1900), pp. 588-594. 4 figs. and 1 plate. Nos. 5-8, were also issued, stitched together, as author’s separata, Oct., 1900. 9.—Verrill, Addison E.—Additions to the 'Turbellaria, Nemertina, and Annelida of the Bermudas, with Revisions of some New England genera and species, vol. x (part 2, Nov. and Dec., 1900), pp. 595-672. 2 figs. and 1 plate. 10.—Verrill, Addison H.—Additions to the Fauna of the Bermudas from the Yale Expedition of 1901, with Notes on Other Species, vol. xi, pp. 15-62 ; plates i-ix; 6 cuts in text. Oct., 1901. 11.—Verrill, Addison H.—Variations and Nomenclature of Bermudian, West Indian, and Brazilian Reef Corals, with Notes on various Indo-Pacific Corals, vol. xi, pp. 63-168; plates x-xxxv; 8 cuts in text. Oct.—Dec., 1901. 12.—Verrill, Addison E.—Comparison of the Bermudian, West Indian, and Brazilian Coral Faune, vol. xi, pp. 169-206; 7 cuts in text. Dec., 1901. Nos. 11 and 12 were issued, stitched together, as author’s separata, Dec., 1901. 13.—Banks, Nathan.—Some Spiders and Mites from the Bermuda Islands, vol. xi, pp. 267-275, 3 cuts. Jan., 1902. 14.—Richardson, Harriet.—The Marine and Terrestrial Isopods of the Bermudas, with descriptions of new Genera and Species, vol. xi, pp. 277-310, plates xxxvii-xl. Jan., 1902. Also as author’s separata. 15.—Van Nume, Willard G.—The Ascidians of the Bermuda Islands, vol. xi, pp. 325-412, plates xlvi-Ixiv. Jan. and Feb., 1902. Also issued as author’s separata, Feb., 1902. 16.—Verrill, Addison E.—The Bermuda Islands: Their Scenery, Climate, Pro- ductions, Physiography, Natural History, and Geology; with sketches of their Early History and the Changes Due to Man. Vol. xi. Part II, pp. i-viii; 413-956, including a full index of 44 pages ; 285 cuts in text; 40 plates, Ixv-civ. April, 1902—Feb., 1903. Also issued separately, with new Title-page and special pagination [i—x; 1-544], as author’s edition. Includes Bibliography, pp. 849-864. A. EF. Verrili— The Bermuda Islands. 865 ADDENDA. Age of the Royal Paims. Sce pp. 424; 651. The five Royal palms, east of Hamilton, were brought from Grenada about 70 years ago, according to Ogilvy, p. 36. It would be of much interest to know the age of other large palm and _pal- metto trees, but such information seems difficult to procure. Age of the Tamarisk or “ Spruce” Hedge, etc. See p. 433. Ogilvy, p. 36, states that the old hedge along the North Road, near Hamilton, was planted by Governor Reid. In that case it would now be about 60 years old. The large Mahogany Tree, in the grounds of Archdeacon Tucker, at Flatts Village, is said to be about 60 years old. Former Yellow Fever Epidemics. See pp. 511, 512, 516. In addition to the epidemics recorded on p. 515, Dr. Ogilvy (Ber- muda, Past and Present) records, as probably yellow fever, the epi- demics of 1699 and of 1779-80. The latter, at least, seems very doubtful, for it originated as a “jail-fever” in the horribly filthy jail where American prisoners of war were confined. He also enume- rates the epidemics of 1796, a ‘‘ malignant type ”; that of 1818 ; sus- picious cases in 1820-22 ; that of 1837; and that of 1856. Dr. Godet (Bermuda, its History, etc., 1860) gives many details of the epidemic of 1856, during which he had charge of the hulk “ Thames,” on which many convicts died. See below, p. 868. No epidemic of this terrible disease has occurred here during many years past, owing undoubtedly to improved quarantine regula- tions and the more sanitary conditions prevailing on modern vessels. But it must not be forgotton that the recent discoveries in regard to the spread of this disease only by means of the yellow fever mos- quito, also show how it is possible that infected mosquitoes might easily escape the usual vigilance of quarantine officials and thus intro- duce the disease. It has been proved that an infected mosquito incubates the disease germs about 12 days before its bite becomes dangerous to man. But in that time mosquitoes could easily travel, even on sailing vessels, in summer, from infected West Indian ports to Bermuda, and yet the vessel might have a clean bill of health. Therefore these recent discoveries indicate that even greater care should be taken to prevent the introduction of this disease than had been thought necessary previously, but in different ways. The old custom of disinfecting or destroying clothing, bedding, etc., and BR Trans. Conn. Acap., Vou. XI. 55 JAN., 1908. 866 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Tslands. allowing many infected deadly mosquitoes to fly away unharmed, was of very little direct value, except that the fumigations of vessels naturally killed any infected mosquitoes that still remained on board. The old convict hulks, with their open tanks of rain water at hand for breeding the mosquitoes, were ideal places for the propagation of yellow fever mosquitoes to distribute the disease germs.* The latest official reports from Havana claim that by following out the anti-mosquito method commenced there in 1901, not a single case of yellow fever had originated in that city during the year, from Sept., 1901, to Sept., 1902, inclusive. Conspiracy of 1761-2. See p. 564. Add: “A Valuation of certain Negro Conspirators Tryed, Convicted and Condemned by a Court holden pursuant to an Act of Assembly made by the said Court as follows :— Natt, a Negro man Slave, late the property of Mr. Thomas Cox, deceased, Valued at -....U) 222 ee £70 0 0 Juan, a Negro man Slave, late the property of Joseph Praden,; Valued ate 224 ero) ee Se ee ee 334.026 Peter, a Negro man Slave, late the property of Mr. Hdward, Parker, Valued at-2.--.. >: eee 91 0 O Ben, a Negro man Slave, late the property of Mr. KMhsha, Praden: WV alued ate 2 2222s ee ee AD 30s Mingo, a Negro man Slave, late the property of Richard Jennings, Esqr., Valued at -_.----.------ 40 0 0 Nancy, a Negro woman Slave, late the property of Mr. .Jonathany Pucker, Valnedi at)... 2.2 oe 22° 0 10 £299 0 4” January 20th, 1763. Resolved that the said Valuation do pass this House.” Remarkable Rainfall, in July, 1886; Variations in different localities.t See p. 495. “The rainfall last month was an extraordinary one. It was far in excess ‘of any of which we have a record. The total rainfall was 18.62 inches, and it rained on 20 days out of the 31. *It is of importance to note that Mr. L. Mowbray has sent to me a fresh specimen of the Yellow-fever Mosquito (t. Coquillett), taken at St. George’s, Jan., 1903. See below. + From the Royal Gazette, Aug. 3d and Aug. 17th, 1886, and Bermuda Pocket Almanac, 1887, p. 200. A. FE. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 867 In the rain record of 17 years the nearest approach to this quantity was in October, 1874, when the fall amounted to 16.50 inches. With that exception we have not, within the above period, ever registered as much as 12 inches in one month, except in November last, when the quantity marked was 12.48 inches. Locality of Gauge. : Total Rainfall. Hronpece Opservatory _..._..._--. +... 18.21 inches. Station Hospital, Prospect -.-.....---. Same return. ube Grounds, Hamilton... _.-_ ..-- 17.05 inches. Sen MM EOC he oo = Oe ce US.62— 4° Government House, Mount Langton ___ 18.05 “ Gipb's tall, Lighthouse _-...--.-..---. G49 Ake Weucer, Place;somerset._...... 2.2. \. 1 as {sf beam isiand. Iv.B. Office... ....-..-<- 19.90 °« ma. George's, K.HN. Office _....---.---- PORSS aac The differences in the records are very remarkable over and above the fact that the average fall shows higher than any previous regis- ter during one month. The greatest amount registered during one day (24 hours) was on the 30th of the month: and the several returns for that day give the following widely varying results :— Prospect, 4.42; Hamilton, 1.19; Mount Langton, 1.64; Clermont, 1.67; Gibbs Hill, 1.54 ; Somerset, 3.6 ; Boaz, 6.35 (?) ; St. George’s, 1.96. Between the Ist and the 15th of the month the records vary from 2 inches (Mount Langton) 1.18 (Hamilton) 1.63 (Clermont) .51 (Gibbs’ Hill) .90 (Boaz) .58 (St. Georges) to nil at Prospect and Somerset. At Clermont 3.15 was registered on the 28th against 3.02 at Hamilton and 1.90 at Mount Langton. At Prospect 2.50 was recorded on the 25th against only a very small amount in other localities. The average of the 8 registers taken shows a fall for the month of 15.60 inches.” CavenpisH Borie, Reg. Geni. Registrar General’s Office, Hamilton, Aug. 12, 1886. Bats, p. 718. Add the following : Two additional species of bats are recorded as from Bermuda, by Dobson. (Catal. of Cheir. in British Museum, 1878 ; see also Heil- prin, Bermuda Is., p. 80.) But it seems to me more probable that the locality labels were erroneous, or that these bats were brought to Bermuda from the West Indies, after preservation, for no other examples have been observed. They are as follows : Vampyre-bat (Zrachyops cirrhosus). West Indies and South America. 868 A, BE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. Molossus rufus, var. obscurus. West Indies and South America, widely distributed. Zoblogy of Godet’s Book.* Dr. Godet’s work contains much that is of interest and value con- cerning the agriculture, climate, government, education, etc. of Ber- muda. The chapter on the yellow fever epidemic of 1856, during which he had charge of the patients on the convict hulk ‘Thames ” is of particular interest, because based on personal observation and experience. Dr. Godet was evidently not a naturalist and that portion relating to zoology is very unreliable and misleading. The zodlogical matter appears to have been put together very hastily, partly from memory, and partly compiled from foreign popular books. Perhaps the worst part of it is that section relating to “ Shells,” under which he included the Crustacea, Mollusca, and Tunicata. Among these he enumerated many common European, North American, and East Indian marine species, both of Crustacea and Mollusca, which are never found in Bermuda,t so that the lists are wholly unreliable. At this time, however, it will only be necessary to discuss the terrestrial groups. As for the land Mollusca Mr. Pilsbry{ has recently remarked that “The list might have been compiled in Bedlam, and is introduced here merely as a curiosity, and for the sake of bibliographic completeness.”’§ * Godet, Theodore L., M.D.—Bermuda, its history, geology, climate, pro- ducts, agriculture, commerce and government. London. Smith, Elder & Co., 1860. + Among these falsely applied names of foreign Crustacea are Lupa forceps ; Cancer pagurus ; Gelasimus vocans ; Leucosia craniolaris ; Maia squinado, ete. Among the foreign names of shells are Buccinum undatum,; B. lunatum; B. reticulatum ; Purpura lapillus ; Cassis rufa; Strombus gallus ; Patella pellucida ; Pecten concentricus; Venus gemma; Mya arenaria,; M. truncata, and many others. Under ‘‘ Corals,” p. 244, he also enumerates various false species, such as Aleyonium digitatum ; Aleyonidium echinatum,; A. gelatinosum ; Fungia; Gor- gonia verrucosa; G. placomus; G. lepadifera, etc. { Trans. Conn, Acad. Sci., vol. ii, p. 167. § ‘Under the head Pulmonea (pp. 224-227) are enumerated Limax cinereus, Testacella haliotidea, Vitrina pellucida, Helix concava, H. hortensis, Pupa chrys- alis, Clausilia papillaris, Bulimus lubricus, Achatina columaria, Suecinea ber- mudiensis, Linnea auricularia, Physa fontinalis, Auricula mide, and Ancylus rivularis. With the exception of Succinea bermudiensis, which is proposed as a new species, there is no reason to believe that any of these identifications were based upon Bermudian specimens ” (Pilsbry). A. E. Verrilli— The Bermuda Islands. 869 However, the “ Pupa chrysalis” may be the same as the “ Pupa, an inch in length” recorded by Jones (Visitor’s Guide, p. 89, 1876), as found by Rey. J. B. Freer, in 1861, near Gibb’s Light. How so many errors could have been made it is impossible to say, but some may have been due to superficial resemblances between certain Bermuda species and those figured in foreign works. Others may have been due to the fact that foreign shells are continually brought to Bermuda by sailors and disposed of as native species, even to this day. The lists of marine shells, etc., are quite as erroneous. Godet’s list of terrestrial mammals is peculiar. He names three “indigenous species” of the rat family. Ist, the “water-rat, Mus amphibius,” ‘a little larger than the common rat.” This is, with- out doubt, the common gray rat. 2d, “ Arvicola alliarius Des.” (4 inches long, ash-colored above, white beneath, ears large, almost naked). ‘This is doubtless the common wood-rat. See above, pp. 712-717. 3d, “Arvicola socialis Des., Mus gregarius L. ;” with “fur pale gray above, white underneath ; ears short, broad, almost naked. About 23 inches long ; tail, 1 inch.” If the last were correctly described it would indicate a species not recognized by later writers. I suspect, however, that the descrip- tion was copied from some book describing the original foreign A. socialis, and that the Bermuda mouse, so-called, was only the house- mouse, which often runs wild in the woods there. At any rate, no short-tailed mouse is now known in Bermuda. The scientific names of the birds in his list (pp. 193-5) are often erroneous or badly misspelled, but the species can usually be deter- mined by their common names. Thus the Cat-bird is called ZTurdus merula ; the White-eyed Vireo, Virco [ Vireo] musicus ; the Tropic- bird, Pheton Athenus [wthereus|. No novel observations on the birds are given and his list might have been much improved had he consulted those of his colleagues who were collecting and studying the Bermuda birds at the same time, or the lists previously published.* He mentions (p. 252) two species of lizards. One of these, called “ Seincus nusciatus Holb.” | fusciatus|, is doubtless the well-known Eumeces longirostris Cope. (See above, pp. 697, 698.) The other, which he ealls “ Scincus ocellatus Da.” is entirely problematical, for * Lists of the birds had been published by Jardine, 1849, 1850; by Tristram, 1850 ; by Hurdis, in Bermuda P. Almanac, 1851. (See above, p. 725.) Hurdis and several others were collecting birds in Bermuda a number of years (1846- 1855) before Godet’s book was written. J. M. Jones collected there from 1855 to 1860, and later, and published his ‘‘ Naturalist in Bermuda” in 1859, which, in Natural History, is far better than Godet’s work. Why Godet did not utilize these available sources of information does not appear. 870 A. E. Verrili— The Bermuda Tslands. he gives no description. Perhaps it was only a color-variety of the preceding, which is variable in color. He says it buries itself in sand instantaneously, a habit that I have noticed in the common Ber- muda lizard, when rocks are not available for its escape. The chapter of 12 pages on Entomology (pp. 198-210) is mostly occupied with extracts from foreign elementary or popular books, describing the habits, structure, and classification of foreign insects. The species of real Bermuda insects, specifically named by the author, are but few, and to most of those he gave names that belong to very different foreign species, so that it is, in most cases, very uncertain to what particular insects he refers. However, in some cases, he gives a few words of description or some original notes on habits that enable us to identify a few of his species with more or less certainty. See table below. Perhaps one or two of these are not included in my synopsis (e. g., Anobium, sp.). According to his statements, insects were much more numerous, especially in mid-summer, than later collectors have recorded. But it must be remembered that, so far as known, no competent ento- mologist has ever made collections in Bermuda in mid-summer. Nearly all have collected only in winter or spring. The small summer col- lections have been made by inexperienced persons. The following extracts contain all that seems of any value on this subject : ‘“* Among the riches of the Bermudian entomology, I have noticed among the species of butterflies, the Pieris brassicw, the great gar- den butterfly, etc. The Argynnis Paphia, the Heliconia, and the Nymphalis, are common enough at all times, and in almost all situa- tions. Others are abundant at a particular season or locality ; but in general, butterflies are to be obtained only occasionally.” .. . “In the summer season, and more particularly on rainy nights, that section of nocturnal Lepidoptera, Noctualites, the Pyralis, the Phalonites, also that of the Tineztes, etc., fly in at the open windows in great numbers, and speckle the ceiling or flutter around the glass shades with which the candles are protected from the draughts. A great number of small beetles and other insects also fly in on such occasions ; and several interesting species may then be met with. But in general beetles and the other orders are extremely scarce, and especially Diptera. During the month of August the shrubs and trees that border the roads are alive with insects of all orders, but particularly Coleoptera. Many species of Longicornes, Cassidaric (or tortoise beetles), Chrysomelius, Coccinella (or lady-birds), ete., occur by hundreds on the twigs and leaves ; and the air is alive with butterflies, Hymenoptera, and Diptera.” A. FE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 871 Species definitely recorded by Dr. Godet. Godet’s names of insects, etc. Probable identity. Pieris brassicz, p. 198. Pieris rape. Argynnis paphia, p. 198.* G Heliconia, sp., p. 198. ? Nymphalis, sp., p. 198. 2 Sphinx atropos, p. 199.t Phlegothontius cingulatus. Hepialus humuli (ghost-moth), p. 200. ? Pulex penetrans (jigger), p. 206. Sarcopsylla penetrans. Anobium pertinax (death watch), p- 207.§ Anobium, sp. ? Forficula auricularia, p. 208.| ? Anisolabis maritima, Blatta orientalis, p. 208.4 ? Periplaneta Australasiz. Blatta occidentalis, p. 208.** ? P. Americana. Scorpio afer, p. 209.tt+ ry Tetragnatha extensa (silk spider), p. 209. Nephila clavipes. * No butterflies related to Argynnis, Heliconia, or Nymphalis are now known there. Probably they are only erroneous names for some of the most common species, which are not otherwise mentioned. + ‘‘ The caterpillar is of a very large size, and feeds on potatoes [?sweet], jas- mine, etc.” This remark indicates that it was the common Sweet-potato Sphinx. t ‘‘ The great swift or ghost moth (Hepialus humuli) is a common insect ; the male, with silvery white wings, and the female, buff with reddish marks.” Nothing resembling this European moth has been recorded by any other writer. § ‘‘The death-watch Anobium pertinax is of a uniform brownish black color and is very common in our houses. The two sexes, in the season of love, have the habit of calling one another by beating with the mandibles on the wood- work.” It is not stated whether this is from personal observation or not, but probably some species of Anobium does occur. || Earwig, [? European] ‘‘ ferruginous brown, shining, with a reddish head.” "| Body deep brown, of a soft texture, head small, almost triangular, elytra and wings a little longer than the body.” Wings of real orientalis are rudimen- tary. ** “A larger species of cockroach.’’ Dimensions not given. ++ ‘‘ The genus Scorpio (scorpions) furnishes a species known in these islands as the Scorpio afer. The body is blackish, with the joints of the feet and antenne white. It grows sometimes to the length of four or five inches, but when they breed in houses they do not then attain above half the size before mentioned.” The only modern record of a scorpion is mentioned above, p. 830, and below. The latter is a small, nearly plain brown species, quite different from Godet’s description. @ ~I bo A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. As Godet was a native of Bermuda, and also a physician, his observations on the “jigger” and its effects are of value. They indicate that it was formerly much more common than it is now, thus confirming the statements of Jones and of Hurdis : “ Among the Apterous insects we shall notice the jigger (Pulex penetrans). Its beak is of the length of its body ; it introduces itself under the nails of the feet and hands, and the skin of the heel par- ticularly ; other parts of the feet and hands are also attacked by this insect, but not so frequently as the before-mentioned parts. No vigilance can prevent the attacks of the jigger; even the stockings and shoes of Europeans are not proof against the insidious assaults of this tiny flea; the very cleanest persons of the highest rank in society are obliged to have their feet examined regularly. The pres- ence of a jigger beneath the skin, during the process of its gradual increase, commonly produces a titillation, rather pleasing than pain- ful; but as no pain is felt till the sore is produced, the extreme laziness of the lower order of the blacks frequently makes them neglect the precaution of extracting them, till all kinds of dirt get- ting into the wound increases the difficulty of a cure, and sometimes the consequence is lameness for life. The blacks, from mutual practice on each other, are quick at dis- covering, and skilful in extracting them. The operator begins with a short needle to open and widen the minute orifice in the cuticle, between which and the cutis vera (true skin), the swollen body of the pregnant female has taken its place; slowly and cautiously the depre- dator is exposed, until at length he removes the insect uninjured, without giving any pain, or drawing the least drop of blood.” ... “ After the operation, a little grease and the ash of tobacco is rubbed into the empty cavity. There are two species of jigger, the white, and the green or poison jigger, both of which are very numer- ous and annoying.” Of Scale-insects, p. 203 : “The bark of many of our trees appears often warty, by reason of small, oval or rounded bodies, like a shield or scale, which are fixed to them, and in which no external traces of the insect are to be observed.” Capture of Gunpowder fron Bermuda, p. 456, note. The following passages contain official references to this event, and the reciprocal action of Congress to relieve the destitution of the people of Bermuda, by sending provisions in return : A, FB. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 873 Pennsylvania—Committee [or Council] of Safety. Minutes. June 30, 1775, to November 12, 1776. Vol. x, p. 277-784. Harrisburg, 1852. 8vo. At the meeting of September 20, 1775, ‘‘ Colo. Dickinson, agreeable to a resolve of the Congress, applyed to this board for a state of the account of Powder between this board & the Congress, when he was furnished with the following account.” In the account which follows appears the following credit entry : ** Aug’t 6.—By Sundry Casks of Powder imported in the Lady, Capt. Ord, from Bermuda, 1800 [lbs.]. . . . N. B.—There was upwards of 7 ewt. of the powder imported from Bermuda that was not fit to use.””—p. 340-341. At the meeting of November 25, 1775, it was resolved to enter upon the min- utes of the Committee the Resolves of Congress of the 22d November, 1775, for the relief of the Inhabitants of Bermuda, which was done. It was ‘‘ Resolved, That this Board request the Committee of Inspection and observation to see the Resolve of Congress (inserted this day) carried into execution, granting per- mission to Edward Stiles to Load with Provisions the Sea Nymph, Samuel Stobel, Master, for Bermuda, p. 411-414.”—Cole, Bibliography. Letter of Admiral George Somers. See pp. 541, 544. The quaint letter of Admiral Somers, in regard to the wreck of the Sea Venture, the rescue of the people, and their arrival in Vir- ginia, is remarkable for its conciseness, and for the absence of any reference to his own courageous efforts and personal hardships, which the other writers of his company speak of in the strongest terms. It also gives a clear idea of the starving condition of the colonists at Jamestown, at that time, and his courageous attempt to reach Bermuda in his small pinnace to obtain provisions for them. Sir George Somers to the Earl of Salishury,* June 20, 1610. Right Honorable May yt please yo" good honor to bee advertised that sithence our dep.ture out of England in goinge to Virginia about some 200 leagues from the Bermoodas wee weare taken with a verie greate storme or hurricane which sundred all the fleete & on S' Jame’s daye beinge the 23 of Julie wee had such a leake in our ship insomuch that there was in her 9 ffoote of water before wee knewe of any such thinge wee pumped with ij pumpes and bailed in iij or iiij places with cer- taine Barrackoos & and then wee kept 100 men alwaies workinge night and daie from the 28rd vntill the 28th of the same Julie being ffridaie (at we time) wee sawe the Iland of Bermuda, wheare our ship liethe vpon the rocke, a quarter of a mile distant from the shoare wheare wee saved all our liues & afterwards saued much of our goodes, but all our bread was wet & lost. We continewed in this Iland from the 28th Julie vntill the 10 of Maie In w*" time we built ij small Barkes to carrie our people to Virginia which in number whare 140 men & woemen at the coming to the Iland Wee dep.ted from the Bermuda the 12 * MS., Colonial, 1574-1611, vol. i. 874 A, E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. of Maie & arived in Virginia the 23rd of the same monethe and cominge to Cape Henrie the Captaine theare tould vs of the ffamen that was at James Towne whereupon wee hastened vp there and found yt true ffor they had eaten all the quick thinge that weare theare & some of them had eaten snakes or adders. But by the industrie of our Governor in the Bermooda (Sir Thomas Gates) thear was saued a litell meale: ffor our allowance would not extende to aboue one pownde & a halfe ffor a man a weeke and this w* ffishe wee liued & this allowance 9 monethes our Govern" Sir Thomas Gates did allowe them as wee had with some Porke & recovered all savinge iij that did die & weare past recou'ie before our cominge* Wee consulted together what course wear best to bee taken ffor our meanes would not continue aboue 14 daies Wee thought good to take into our iiij pinaces as much of the municon as wee could & tooke in all the people & weare goinge downe the River but by the waie wee met wt? the Lorde Laware [Delaware] & Lord Governor which made our heartes verie glad & wee p.sently returned vp to James towne & theare wee found noe sal- uages for they weare affraid to come thither for they did not trade w our men these manie monethes The Trothe is they had nothing to trade withal but mul- berries Nowe wee are in a good hope to plant & abide heere ffor heere is a good course taken & a greater care than ever thear was I ame goeinge to the Bermooda for ffishe & hogges with ij small Pinaces & ame in a good opinion to bee back againe before the Indians doe gather their harvest The Bermooda is the most plentifull place that ever I came to, for ffishe Hogges and ffowle. Thus wishinge all healthe with the increase of honor doe humblie take my leave ffrom Virginia the xx‘ of June 1610 Yr honors to comand GEORGE SOMERS. ffrom James Towne in Virginia. “ How great the exertions were by which Sir George Somers was mainly instrumental in saving the lives of all his companions in ship- wreck would never have been gathered from his own report, and we must turn to their narratives to appreciate them rightly.”—Lefroy. (See extracts from Narrative of Strachy, pp. 537-545, above.) Punishment of Crimes (pp. 447, 550, 556, 560-64, 570). In order to illustrate more fully the ideas and customs of the early settlers, a few additional records of trials and sentences for crimes are here inserted. After the advent of Governor Butler, in 1619, courts and a local legislative body were regularly established. Trials by jury had com- menced at least as early as 1618, under Governor Tucker, but they were neither regular in form nor strictly legal, for the English laws should have fully applied here at that time. * A contemporary writer states that in four days more all would have died of starvation, A, FE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 875 However, it is evident that no very just trials conld have been expected, even under the subsequent English system, for the jurors and witnesses were usually very ignorant and superstitious, and easily influenced by the opinion of the governor and other officials. More- over, no counsel was employed for the defence, and rarely, if ever, was a witness called for the defendant, though the accused party could make a statement in defence or deny charges, but such denials carried very little weight. Witnesses for the prosecution were not cross-questioned and the most absurd and frivolous stories, gossip, and hearsay scandals were allowed full weight, even in capital cases, especially in the witchcraft trials. It is sufficiently evident from the records that the witnesses were often actuated by malice or revenge,—indeed in some cases this was afterwards confessed. In some cases testimony of convicted criminals seems to have been allowed as much weight as that of honest persons. A person accused of a crime, before a “ grand jury,” was almost always assumed to be guilty, and was convicted, unless he could prove his innocence,—a thing often absolutely impossible, as, for instance, in the witchcraft cases, when the presence of a wart or mole on the body was considered absolute proof of the crime. The earliest governors were about as jealous of their dignity as is the present Emperor of Germany. ‘ The earliest trial and execution under Gov. Tucker was that of a Frenchman, John Wood, in 1616, for using disrespectful language to the Governor, while drunk. Governor Butler’s account of this trial is as follows : ‘* Presently after this pinnace’s departure, began the assize at St. George’s, wher (fewe matters of note being handled besides) ther was arraigned and con- demned by a jury of twelve men (but in a disorderly form, mixt betwixt mar- tiall lawe and the lawes of England) which defaced them both, one John Wood, a poore but desperate and open-mouthed Frenchman, who, in his cupps, have- ing saucely and arrogantly spoken to the Governor, was hereupon attached ; and being endicted of mutiny and rebellion, upon his triall was cast; and so being sentenced by one deputed to that purpose (for the Governor himselfe, findinge his insufficiencyes that way, never satt judge in his owne person) was publicly hanged within two dayes after, choyce being made of the person of that pdore man to lett the rest knowe that both his authoritie extended to life, and that they should all of them take heed how they provoked him hereafter ; and indeed from that time forward it was observed that he overfast declined to such a height of severitie towards all men as wanted but very little of crueltye and tyranny; so that he hath bin seene, in one morneinge before breakefast to cudgell with his owne hands not fewer than fortie of his poore workmen, even for very smale and slight neglects.” 876 A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Tslands. The next year a woman was tried for criticising this trial and exe- cution, and was sentenced to be hanged, but was finally reprieved by the Governor “in his great mercye,” and remained a “condemned person,” and perhaps a “ slave to the company,” which was the usual mercy shown in such cases at that time. According to Goy. Lefroy : ‘« The trial of Nicholas Gabriell, labourer, of Pembroke tribe, [May, 1617] is partly legible. ‘He was seutanced to be hanged’ as Smith says, ‘ for conceal- ing some speeches Mr. Pollard and Mr. Rich should use, tending to the disrepu- tation of the Governour and his injustice and cruelities, and it appears that when he was brought unto the place of execution, the hangman not yet having done his worke, the Governor in mercy granted a reprive and did sentance him to be a slave unto the colony until by his good behaviour he should deserve a free pardon from him.’” But Goy. Butler remarks that this was an “irregular and unwar- rantable condition, contrary to the laws and customs of England.” Disrespect toward other officials was also punished : ‘* Att a Councell Table held the 6th day of September, 1627: Nicholas Jones of Hambleton Tribe (for saying he was as good a man as Mr. Devenish although hee was one of the Governers counsell) was censured to bee laid necke and heeles togeather for one hour upon the wharfe at St. Georges near the pillorie, with this inscription written over his head: FOR SLIGHTING, CONTEMNING, AND COMPARING HIMSELFE WITH THE GOVERNOURS COUNSELL.” Governor Butler, in 1622, according to his History, had a much more serious case of seditious and mutinous language, for which Thos. Harriot was tried and convicted : ‘* Hereupon, accordinge to these profes. and confessions, a censure passed upon him by the Governour and Counsell, sittinge publickly in Court, the which with a very unusuall unanimitie was as followeth :— “That he, the sayd Thomas Harriott, their prisoner at the barre, being accused and convicted of all the turbulent behavior and seditious speeches con- teyned in the articles aforesayd, should be conveyed manacled quite through the maine unto Southampton Tribe (wher he had acted the most part of his insolencyes and mutinys) ther to have one of his ears nayled to a whippinge post (which was purposely to be erected and called Harriotts Post) soe to stande the space of halfe a houre, then to be brought back to the towne of St. Georges, and in the pillory ther to lose his other eare ; to pay a fine of one thousand poundes of tobacco to the use of the Honourable Company, and to remaine a prisonnour in the gayle of St. Georges dureinge the sayd Companyes pleasure.” ‘The which sentence was shortly after executed wpon him, only in pity and commiseration the Governor spared him one of his eares, upon his future good behavior, haveing bin also very favourably used in the takeing away only of a peece of the other.” A stringent law against gambling was passed in 1623. A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. (6/6) ~T ~T At the Assizes held 17—-19th July, 1627, the following sentences were imposed for theft : ‘Richard Stroud late of Smiths Tribe, labourer, Indicted for that hee, the said Richard, about the second day of may last past, 1627, by force and arms into the House or Cabben of Richard Huet of Smiths Tribe aforesaid did enter, and then and there beeing did felloniously take, steale and carrie awaie 6 lb of corne, price 12d, of the goods and chattels of Richard Huet aforesaid, contrary to the peace of our soveraign Lord the king his crowne and dignitie. Of weh indictment The said Richard Stroud confessed himselfe guiltie, for weh he was adjudged to receive 20 lashes upon his naked backe, which was per- formed the 20 July, 1627.” ‘Jerome Edes received the like sentence and punishment for stealing three shirts price xiid, off a Pumpian vine, the goods and chattels of John Birch.” ‘* William Hingson, alias fatt, was convicted of stealing from a cabin 1 pair of shoes price five shillings, upon which he having beene so oft pardoned before, did now receive the sentance of death which was executed upon him the 21st July, 1627.” Blasphemy or swearing appears to have been very prevalent among the early settlers, and, in extreme cases, was sometimes punished, but probably only a few of the convictions are recorded : Thus in July, 1627: ** Robert Newman being complayned of and presented for an horrible swearer and curser and having no meanes to pay the fine according to the statute in that ease provided, was adjudged to receive 20 lashes upon the naked backe as pun- ishment for his said offence, which hee suffered accordingly.” ** Extract from a Presentment of the Grand Jury to a Court of Assizes held in St. Georges, November, 1659. The Grand Inquest did present John Morgan, Chirurgian, for speaking of most Blasphemous words against Almighty God as per the attestations of Eliza- beth, the wife of Josias Newman, Samuel Dunscome, Thomas Hartlan, and Louis his wife, and Francis Welch do more at large appear, for which Blasphe- mous words he was censured. By the Secretary and the major part of the Council, to lie in prison, according to the Statute, three months, or to give 10lb Sterl: for the public works. Mr Richard Norwood’s censure, that he shall stand upon the Pillory, and be bnrned through the tongue with an hot iron, and to practice no more in this Island, Capt. Tho. Richards that he shall be forthwith banished.” In many trials different persons were allowed to express their opinions as to the punishment, as in the above instance. Frequently the punishments suggested were extremely cruel and barbarous. Mr. Norwood was probably the best educated man on the islands at this time. He was the distinguised engineer or surveyor of the islands and taught the principal school for many years. But he was a very religious man and a zealous churchman, to whom blasphemy was one of the worst of crimes. A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 1) ~T io.) Perjury, which is seldom mentioned in the records, was sometimes punished : “* Assizes at St. Georges, ending 1 March, 1618.” ‘‘Robert Hall was indicted of insolent perjurye ‘for that thou has taken thie corporal othe falsely econtrarye to the lawes of Almightye God’ of which he was found guiltie. Soe sentance passed upon him to have both his eares cutt of close by his head, but the Governor in hope of his amendment of life, did miti- gate his punishment, soe the third of March, 1618, his lefte eare was cutt of.” Witcheraft Trials. In 1623, the church wardens and sidesmen were directed to pre- sent offenders for various crimes, such as heresy, going to irregular churches, absence from church, joining the Brownists, swearing, Sabbath-breaking, quarrelling, drunkenness, wife-beating, cruelty to servants, usury, etc., and. against “all Sorcerers, Inchanters, Char- mers, Witches, Figure-casters, or Fortune-tellers, Conjurers, or whosoever hath or seemeth to have any familiar consultation with the Devyill.” However, there are no trials for witchcraft recorded until after the appointment of Governor Forster, in 1652. Most of the trials of this kind, and all the recorded executions for witchcraft, took place during his term of 6 years. He seems to have been personally zeal- ous in this matter, but he was aided and abetted by the Puritan party, which had much increased about that time.* The names of promi- nent leaders of that party appear in the records of the trials, as in the witchcraft craze at Salem, Mass., about forty years later. But the clergymen of Bermuda took no active or conspicuous part in the persecutions there, nor do their names appear in any of the trials. It seems to have been regarded here as a strictly criminal matter, to be dealt with by the courts, like ordinary crimes.t The prevailing ideas and superstitions relating to witchcraft are * It will be remembered that at and before that time a vastly extended epi- demic of witchcraft persecution had spread over England and Scotland, Ger- many, and other parts of Europe. It is said that over 3,000 executions for witchcraft took place in England during the Long Parliament, besides many thousands before and subsequent to that event. Thousands were also executed, at about the same time, in Europe. It is not to be wondered at that a slight ramification of this craze reached Bermuda. No doubt the witchcraft doctrines and the modes of detecting witches, then current in England, had often been expounded in Bermuda pulpits, which would account for the marked similarity in the trials and testimony. + Many of the minor details of these trials are here omitted, only the more essential parts being given, or else those details that best illustrate the supersti- tious beliefs of the time. For fuller details and additional trials see Lefroy, Archeolog. Jour., xxiii, pp. 89, 239, 1875; and Memorials, vol. ii, pp. 601-33. A. E, Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 879 shown, to a considerable extent, by the records of the trials and of the kinds of testimony then allowed as evidence, most of which was utterly puerile and worthless. Some of the victims seem to have been searcely half-witted ; others were the victims of malice and spite, or of the secret calumnies circulated as gossip in a neighborhood, just as often happens in “society” nowadays. Some of the witnesses naively stated that after quarreling they had threatened to accuse a neighbor of witchcraft, if any illness or misfortune should later happen to them. In at least one case such a quarrel and revenge led to a conviction and execution, in spite of this admission. The ordeal by water was used in Bermuda in at least two instances, given below, and very likely in other cases not recorded, for the records of this particular period are imperfect. The crucial test, however, in all cases, was the presence or absence of moles or warts, supposed to be the “teats that the impyes do suck.”* The following is the first of the witchcraft trials : ** An assize and generall Goale deliverie held at St Georges from the nine- teenth daye of Maye to the 22nd daye of the same month, 1651. Capt. Josias Forster Governor, &c. (1) The Jury for our Soveraigne Lord the kinge Doe present Jeane Gardiner the wife of Ralph Gardiner of Hambleton tribe for that ye said on or about the 11th day of April 1651 feloneously deliberately and malliciously did saye that she would crampe Tomasin, a mulatto woman, in the same tribe, and used many other threatenninge words tending to the hurt and injurie of the said mulatto woman, and within a while after by practice and combinason with the devil, fellononsly did practice on the said mulatto the diabolicall craft of witheraft, insoemuch that the said mulatto was very much tormented, and struck blind and dumb for the space of twoe houres or thereabouts, and at divers tymes in other places did practice the said devilish craft of witchcraft on severall persons to the hurt and damage of their bodyes and goods, Contrary to the peace of our Souveraigne lord the Kinge his crowne and dignitie. To which indictment she pleaded not guilty, but beinge the grand inquest found a trewe bill and for her further triall did put herselfe uppon God and the Countrey, which beinge a jury of twelve sworne men did find her guiltie, where- upon the sentence of death was pronounced upon her, and accordingly she was executed on Monday the 26th day of this instant May, at St Georges, before many spectators.” (2) ‘‘The proceedinge against this woman was longe and teadious, by reason of many acusacons. The Governor and counsell was very carefull in findinge out the treweth. They caused a jury of woemen to search her and one Goody Bowen which was suspected: they returned as followeth. Havinge made diligent * This absurd superstition, like most of the others connected with witcheraft, was held in accordance with the prevailing theological teachings and books of that period, both Protestant and Roman Catholic. The works of Matthew Hop- kins, as is well-known, were especially prominent in spreading such fatal absurd- ities, but the same doctrines had been previously promulgated in several papal bulls, 1484 to 1522, and in various works of eminent Roman Catholic writers. 880 A, FE. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. searche accordinge to our oathes we cannot find any outwards or innwards mark soe far as wee can p.ceave whereby wee can in conscience find them or either of them guilty of witchcraft, onely in the mouth of Goody Gardiner there is a blewe spott which being prickt did not bleed and the place was insensible, but being prickt close by it, it bled the which wee leave to the judgment of Phisi- tians. Mr Hooper and’ the chirurgions being appointed to viewe that spott, the daye that she was come to her triall, and it was fallen away and flatt, and being prickt it bled and it was knowne to be there 18 yeares, and for further triall she was tried and throwne twice in the sea. She did swyme like a corke and could not sinke. These signes and other strong evidences in Court condemme her, yet neverthelesse shee would confesse noething att her death. She was demanded in Court if she could give a reason why she did not sinke. She answered that she did open her mouth and breathe but could not sinke.” 2. Trial of John Middleton, 1653. **(10) The examination of Robert Priestly, taken before Mr. Stephen Paynter and Mr. Wilkinson, Councell, April the 17, 1655.” ‘““Who saith that on Fryday last, being the 15th of this instant, he being removeing Mr Tuckev’s cattell in the evening in a peece of ground near to the house of John Midleton, he saw right oppositt agt the house, a Black creatuer lye soe upon the ground (sic) in the shape of a catt but farre Bigger, with eyes like fier, and a tayle near as long as a mans arme, And this examynate being some whitt daunted at the first sight, yet tooke courage & went upp close to yt to look on yt. he only saw it move the head, and drawne his knife with a resolu- tion to stabb yt: as he lift up his hand and knife to strike at yt with all his force, he being a strong man, he found he had no power to strike it. Att which this examinate was so amazed and affrighted that his hayre stood up right on his head, and he departeing from yt looked backe, & sawe the said creature turne the head and look wishfully after this examt, but he ran away & left yt: reporting the same to the servant in his house, with much feare.* And further saith not. (Signed), ROBERT PRIESTLY. ‘<(5) Upon these and many clear grounds of suspition of John Midleton being guilty of witchcraft, Captain Josias Fforster, Govnor, appoynted the severall men to search Midleton which follow:” (names of 6 men are partly legible). ‘‘who made reportas ff’th, And do affirm that upon the search of Midleton’s body they stretched out his body upon achest And thereupon discovered first one teate or dugge about the biggness of a catt’s or bigger, which teate or dugge was moyste & they say that Midleton confest that the moystuer yssued from that Teate. They affirm further that right over against that said Teat or dugg, they found another yet not altogether so bigg or great as the other, which had no sign of moystuer at present. They further affirm that they found on his body divers suspitious markes & spots, Blew in culler. They say further that because they desired to be better satisfied amongst themselfes they concluded to search each other, to see whether there might appear any such markes upon any of themselves, which they did accordingly, but they affirm that they found not any, nor the likelyhood of any.” * Apparitions of the devil in human form are not mentioned here, and ‘‘ spec- tral apparitions” of the ‘‘ witches,” so prominent in the Salem trials, were more seldom asserted here. But the ‘‘ black-cat” superstition was believed in. et ee TT A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 881 (8) ‘‘ Thom. Hess and Michel Burrowes, exam. before the court for the Triall of John Makaraton [Middleton], the 4th of May.” ‘*Who saith that after Midleton came out of the water and was taken backe to prison, they being there with him, asked what he could now saye for himself; seeing he had ben also tried by water, desierd him to confes the truth to them, & they doe both say that Midleton told them that he was a witch & that he knew yt not before: they affirmed also that they did ernestly perswade Midleton to discover other witches if he knew of any in these Islands. To which he answered that the wife of Thomas Stevenson was a witch, as badd a one as any in the world. And said also that Goody North was a witch he feared, but did not positively accuse her to be a witch.” ‘The Jury for the keeper of the Commonwealth of England doth present John Midleton of Sandys Tribe in the Somer $slands, Planter, for that he not having the feare of God before his eyes hath feloniously wickedly and abomin- ably consulted and consented to and with the Devill to become a witch. As doth appear by severall signes and markes upon his Body, and that diabolicall sin of witchcraft hath put in practice now lately upon the Body or person of John Makaraton, a skotsman of about the age of 50 years: and him hath vexed tormented and disquieted contrary to the peace of the Commonwealth of England and the dignity thereof. This Bill being put to the consideration of the Grand Inquest was found Billa vera and for his further triall he put himselfe upon God & the Country, whereof a jury of 12 men sworne did find him guilty, and sentance of death was pro- nounced upon him, and he was executed at Georges towne at the common place of execution the 9th of May 1603.” 3. Trial of Goody Christian Stevenson, 1652. Middleton having accused Goody Stevenson of being a witch, was required to make his accusation in her presence in open court, which he did.* She stoutly denied any knowledge whatever of anything of the kind. (13) ‘‘ Then Midleton said, I ‘ thought that a man could not do the thinges I was accused for, & prayed that God would show his judgement upon me as you do. But since I came to prison I prayed to the Lord to discover yt to me, and now he hath found me out, & made me know that I was a witch, which I knew not before: & said I bless God for yt.’ Goody Stevenson replied that she for her part was wrongfully accused for she knew nothing that did belong to any such thing. John Midleton said unto her ‘I know that you are a witch as well as I’ & said, ‘ perceiving that you are a witch I would have thee judged.’ ‘“‘The examynation of Christian Stevenson taken before Capt" Josias Fforster Goynor, Capt" Roger Wood and the Secretary the 9th of Maye, 1653. (1) Christian Stevenson having been accused in open court by John Midleton to be a witch: and she being now examined: she denyeth it & saith that she is noe witch: yt being then demanded of her how she came by the duggs & markes * Other testimonies, here omitted, indicate that this man was a half-witted ‘“ degenerate.” Trans. Conn. Acap., Vou. XI. 56 Fes., 1903, 882 A, FE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. of a witch that were found on the inside of her cheekes, she answered that those markes came by reason of an Impostume of the one side. And the other came by a Ragged tooth on the other side, and this was about 5 yeares since, and saith that Goody Todd badd her lay the curd of a lemon possett unto the said impostume (and Mrs Dunscombe was then present), which curd brake it And it hath bin ever since, and the other by the ragged tooth aforesd, which was filed by Thomas Dunscombe & further saith not. (2) Thomas Dunscombe being examyned saith that if he did file any such Tooth of Goody Stevenson it was more than he remembers. (3) The wife of Thomas Dunscombe being then examyned also sayth that she doth remember that Goody Stevenson askt her husband to file a tooth, but whether he did file it or noe, she knoweth not and further saith not.” A jury of women having been appointed to search her body, reported as follows : ‘‘That upon the search of the body of Goody Stevenson, they found in her mouth two small Teates or Duggs, the one on the one side of her mouth & the other on the other side of her mouth, which they prick’t with a needle, but there came forth noe blood at all from them and when they prickt they ask’d her if she felt when they prickt them, & she confest that she felt them not. And they say further that because they would not mistake, They did all severally search her mouth and prickt these Teates, but they affirm that there came not forth any blood when they did soe. And say also that they found a blew spott, or like wart... very suspitious & against natuer, out of which came waterish blood when they prickt it.” Her trial was a long one and contains abundance of grossly absurd testimony. She was accused of causing “ grievous and tormenting paynes” upon the bodies of several persons, and the pigs and cattle of others, so that they died. ‘The death of a child of a neigh- bor, probably from colic, was laid to her ‘ diabolicall practises,” though she appears to have been a well disposed old woman, who tried to help her neighbors in times of sickness and trouble. She was convicted and hanged May 20, 1653. 4. Trial of Alice Moore, 1653. ‘‘The attestation of John Burt taken by the grand Inquest Maye the 17, 1653. Who saith that some yeares since he hayinge a great sowe, eyther Goodman Moore or his wife, he remembereth not which of them, came to his hcuse to buy the sowe. And he sett them a price but they would not consent to yt, And a matter of six weeks after the sowe pigged & then the sowe & all her piggs died & further said not.” Various other similar absurd attestations are recorded, which are here omitted.* The following is a part of the testimony of John Waynewright, who had previously quarreled with Mr. Moore : * Among other things, she was accused of preventing the ‘*‘ coming of butter,” and the compounding of soap by her neighbors. A. EF. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 883 ‘And not long after this I had many of my creatures strangly taken & died, as my cattell dyeing Soddaynly. And shoats running loose one hour dead the next & never could discern anything they ayled, neither living nor dead, but were as fatt and as lusty as any creatures in the world, yet perished About this tyme. I had sett according to my estimation about 16 acers of corne ground, which sprouted in the ground very well, some above ground and some arrived even of the ground and turned too & agen like the worme of a pease, & soe lay fresh in the ground & never came to good, though free from clodds or other ympediment. I never saw the like before or since.” ‘* Not long after when I came out of England, I had a very fayre sowe pigging, & goodwife Moore being at my house & seeing her praysed her; not long after she pigged and all her piggs died as soon as they were pigged. At the tyme of Capt" Turner’s entrance into his Govment, or a little after, I did charg goody Moore with these and many things else. And first for that she should declare how she came to know that myselfe wth the rest of the company who were in the shipp with me were taken by the Turkes or chased by them.” A jury of twelve women appointed to search the body reported as follows: “Who doe affirm that upon the search of the body of Alice Moore, afores’d, they have found 3 markes or teates, as to biggness, on the right side of her body & another in her mouth towards the almonds of her eares, & another between her tooes upon her left foote, wh teates or duggs being prickt by them did not bleed only a little waterish blood, & they say she did not sensibly feele when they prickt them, although they asked her if she felt them, & besides they say that they found also other suspitious mkes which are declared to belong toa witch upon some partes of her body, & also some blew spotts there also.”* ‘““The Jury for the keepers of the liberties of Comonwealth of England doth present Alice Moore of Warwicke tribe of the said Islands, spinster, for that she not having the feare of God before her eyes has feloniously wickedly and abhom- inably consulted, contracted and consented to & with the Devill to become a witch as doth appeare by several signes & markes upon her body, and by her diabolicall practice in witchcraft hath destroyed the cattell & hogges of Mr John Waynewright and Thomas Gaplin, both of Warwicke Tribe, & of divers other persons contrary to the peace of the comonwealth of England and the dignity thereof.” ‘*To wh Indictment she pleadeth not guilty, but the Grand Inquest finding yt a true bill she put herself to be tried by God & the Cuntry w’h being a jury of 12 men sworne, find her guilty & for the same she was adjudged to be carried to the prison from whence she came & from thence to be conveyghed to the place of execution & ther to be hanged by the necke until she be dead, dead, w’h execution was performed accordingly the 20th of May, 1693.” The Grand Jury having thus caused the death of several harmless old women and a half-witted man, felt very proud of their work, and passed the following gratulatory resolution : * Probably the ‘‘blew spots,” often mentioned, were in most cases varicose veins. 884 A. FE. Verrilli— The Bermuda Islands. ‘¢ Wee the Grand Inquest, Taking into our consideration how it hath pleased God upon slight & slender ground being carefully followed upon one person for suspition of witchcraft, what good successe & yssues hath followed upon it, Therefore wee desire that All such persons as wee have hereunder mentioned may have some careful eyes cast upon them, soe that if it shall please our God to discover more of them they may be persued after and proceeded agaynst until, as David saith, wee have cut of wicked doers from off this Island.” May, 1655. 5. Trial of Elisabeth Page, 1654. The following persons, tried for witchcraft, were two passengers on the ‘‘ Mayflower,” whose captain stated that ‘ hee did vehemently suspect them to be witches.” They were both tried at one session of the court, Jan., 1654, but with very different results. The evi- dence was equally worthless and absurd in both cases, but the jury of women could find no moles on the body of the first one, and to that fact she undoubtedly owed her life. ‘* Charles Hancocke being sworne” ‘‘Saith that he being at the helme, Eliza- beth Page had her finger over the compas, And yt ran round from North to South, And turned backe againe, And said that any woman that was wth child may make yt doe soe, And about 5 days after she told him that she had a steele needle about her that caused yt, yet other being present she s’d, do you not see how it runs, and further saith not.” (Signed) CHARLES HANCOCKE. The jury of women appointed to search her body found no moles. Their report was as follows : ‘Who doe all affirm upon their oathes that they find not any marke or spotts or signes which may move them to judge Elizabeth Page to be a witch, only something more than ordinary (in a certain place.” ‘‘The Grand Inquest, 14 names. The Jury for life & death, 12 names. ‘Wee the grand Inquest do present Elizabeth Page, being a passenger in the good shipp called the Mayflower, for that she not having the fear of God before her eyes wickedly and felloneously consulted & covenanted with the devill con- trary to nature & to the law of God and man, And contrary to the peece of the comonwealth of England and the dignity thereof.” ‘“To which Indictment Elizabeth Page pleaded not guilty &c., and for her triall put herselfe upon God & the country weh country being 12 sworne men, found her not Guilty and was quitt by proclamation.” 6. Trial of Jane Hopkins, 1654. ‘The attestation of Jeames Man before the grand Inquest the 5rd of January, 1655.” : ““Who sworne saith that he being in the caben wth Jane Hopkins, she, said Jane, wished that God might showe some signe whether she was a witch or not, and emediately there was a thing in the likenes of a ratt appeared unto them & further saith not.” (Signed) JEAMES MAN. A, FE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 885 ‘* Before the Grant Inquest afores’d.” ‘Thomas Cobsone sworne, sayth that at the same tyme he saw a thing in the likenes of a ratt, after the said Janet Hopkins had wished that God might show some signe, and saith further that before the appearance there was a noyse which made him afearde.”’ Another female Jury of 10 women was empannelled to search Jane Hopkins. The MS. has here partly perished, but the words “search the body ” can be read. (Ten names follow.) Lefroy. ‘* Who doe all joyntly affirm that Jane Hopkins hath in her mouth a suspi- tious marke and under her arme she hath a dugge or Teat, And upon her shoulder a wart, and upon her necke another wart... And they all declare that all these were insensible when they were prickt and tried.” ‘The Jury for the Commonwealth of England doth present Jane Hopkins, one of the passengers in the Mayflower, for that she not having before her eyes (sic) hath felonously and wickedly consulted and covenanted with the Devil & him hath suckled and fedd contrary to nature & the law of God and man, as doth appeare by markes & signes upon her body and contrary to the peace of the comonwealth of England & the dignity thereof.” “To which Indictment Jane Hopkins pleaded not Guilty and for her triall &e. She was found guiltie and for her sentence was condemmed to be carried to the place of execution and there be hanged by the neck until she was dead, dead, weh was done accordingly, as appeareth by his warrant dated the 5 January 1655.” So far as the records show, this was the last execution for witch- craft in Bermuda. From 1655 to 1672, several other persons were tried for witchcraft and were mostly acquitted, in some cases merely because no moles were found on the body. On June 12, 1671, Susan Cole was tried, convicted, and sentenced to be hanged. But on June 21st she was reprieved by Gov. Sir John Heydon: “Uppon waighty considerations,” and returned to prison, “untill you shall receive further Order.” What her final fate may have been is not recorded. Two women were prosecuted for witcheraft in 1684, but the records are incomplete and the result is not stated, though their bodies were searched for “signs.” The last record of a person prosecuted for witchcraft is that of Sarah Spencer, in 1696, but there is no record of her trial or sentence. So that these trials ceased here, about the time they began at Salem. An old negro woman, called Sarah [or Sally] Bassett was con- victed, in June, 1730, of trying to poison her master’s family, and was legally sentenced to be burned at the stake. But this was not connected with the witchcraft.delusion. (See Lefroy, Memorials, ii, p- 633.) 886 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. The Public Garden. In 1896 an Act was passed to establish a Public Garden. Mr. Nathaniel Vesey, M.C.P., was largely influential in promoting this very worthy enterprise. The land purchased was to be not less than ten acres, and not to cost over £1550, A sum not exceeding £550, was provided for buildings, etc. It was to be entirely under the management and control of the Board of Agriculture. Salary of superintendent was to be £300, and the running expenses not over £150, annually. The Annual Reports to the Board of Agriculture to be published. Ten acres of land were bought in 1898, in Paget Parish, near Hamilton, and a house was built. Mr. Geo, A. Bishop was appointed superintendent, in 1898. His first report was on the “ Diseases affecting the Lily in Bermuda, their cause, treatment, and prevention.” Of this, 500 copies were printed and distributed. In 1899, additional grants were made for glass houses. The work of improving and planting the grounds has progressed very favor- ably. It will, without doubt, eventually become a very attractive place, and also of great benefit to the people, on account of the experiments and investigations that will be conducted there in agri- culture and horticulture. At present the appropriations for its expenses seem very inadequate. The Wild Birds Protection Act, 1902. [2nd September, 1902. | WHEREAS it is expedient to consolidate the Acts mentioned in the second schedule hereto : Be it therefore enacted by the Governor, Legislative Council and Assembly of the Bermudas or Somers Islands as follows :— 1. Any person who shall knowingly and wilfully shoot or attempt to shoot, or shall use any boat for the purpose of shooting or causing to be shot, any wild bird included in the first schedule to this Act, or shall use any lime, trap, snare, net or other instrument for the purpose of taking, capturing, or destroy- ing any such wild bird, or shali expose or offer for sale, or have in his control or possession, any such wild bird, shall, on conviction of any such offence before any Justice of the Peace, forfeit and pay for every such wild bird in respect of which an offence has been committed, a sum not exceeding one pound, in addition to the costs, unless such person shall satisfy the Justice hearing the complaint that such wild bird came into the possession of such per- son before the passing of this Act under circumstances which would not have rendered such person liable to any penalty or forfeiture under either of the Acts mentioned in the said second schedule, or that such wild bird was sent to these Islands by some person residing out of these Islands, or was the offspring of birds kept in captivity before the passing of this Act. A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 887 2. Any person who shall knowingly and wilfully take, remove or destroy, or shall have in his control or possession, or shall expose or offer for sale, the egg of any wild bird included in the said first schedule to this Act shall, on convic- tion of any such offence before any Justice of the Peace, forfeit and pay for every egg in respect of which an offence has been committed a sum not exceed- ing five shillings, in addition to the costs, unless such person shall satisfy the Justice hearing the complaint that such egg came into the possession of such person before the passing of this Act under circumstances which would not have rendered such person liable to any penalty or forfeiture under either of the Acts mentioned in the said second Schedule, or that such egg was sent to these Islands by some person residing out of these Islands, or was the egg of a bird kept in captivity before the passing of this Act, or of the offspring of such a bird. 3. When any person shall be found offending against this Act, or under cir- cumstances from which it may reasonably be concluded that such person has committed an offence against this Act, it shall be lawful for any other person to require such person to give his Christian name, surname and place of abode, and if such person shall, after being so required, refuse to give his real name or place of abode, or shall give an untrue name or place of abode, he shall be liable, on being convicted of any offence against this Act, to forfeit and pay in addition to any forfeiture incurred for such offence under this Act, such sum of money not exceeding ten shillings as the Justice hearing such complaint shall see fit to impose. 4. One half of every penalty or forfeiture imposed under this Act shall be paid to the informer and the residue thereof into the public treasury. 5. Any person who shall produce to any Justice of the Peace resident in the parish where such person resides, or if there be no resident Justice, to any neighbouring Justice, any crow dead or alive, or the egg of any crow, and shall satisfy such Justice that such crow or egg has been taken, killed, or destroyed in these Islands by the person producing the same, shall be entitled to receive from such Justice a certificate stating the number of crows or eggs produced to such Justice, in respect of which he shall be so satisfied as aforesaid, and on the production of such certificate to the Receiver General, or Assistant Receiver General, he shall pay out of the public treasury to the person named therein a reward of four shillings for every crow, so taken or killed, and of one shilling for every crow’s egg, so taken or destroyed ; provided that no reward shall be paid out of the public treasury unless it shall amount to four shillings at least, payable at one time to the same person; provided also that no Justice of the Peace shall grant any such certificate as aforesaid unless or until the crows and eggs produced to him shall in his presence have been so effectually destroyed and disposed of as to prevent the same being thereafter made use of for defraud- ing the public revenue. 6. This Act shall come into operation on the first day of October next, and from and after that date the Acts mentioned in the second Schedule hereto shall be repealed ; except as to any prosecution for an offence against either of the said Acts committed within three months before the commencement of this Act, which offence may be punished within three months after the commencement of this Act in like manner as if the said Acts had not been repealed. 888 A. FE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. FIRST SCHEDULE. The Red Bird, Blue Bird, Ground Dove, Chick of the Village, Quail, Partridge, Tropic Bird, Boatswain Bird or Long Tail, Humming Bird, King Fisher, Wood Pecker, Rice Bird, Crane, Heron, Gold Finch, Mocking Bird. The acts named in the Second Schedule, as repealed by the above, are the Wild Birds Protection Acts of 1881, 1892, and 1894. It will be noticed that several of the resident or breeding birds now existing here are not protected, viz :— The Cat-bird, Wheat-ear, European Starling (believed to be already naturalized in small numbers), English Sparrow, and Euro- pean Tree Sparrow. The Cat-bird is undoubtedly of great use in destroying vast num- bers of grubs and caterpillars which constitute a large part of its food, and this should more than offset the small amount of damage it does to small fruits. But it is so common and so well able to take care of itself that there seems to be no danger of its extermination, at present. The European Wheat-ear is a small insectivorous bird, and there- fore very useful. It is now quite common in some parts of the islands, especially near St. George’s, and deserves full protection. The English Sparrow is extremely abundant and needs no protec- tion, for it has “come to stay.” Formerly a bounty was paid for its destruction, but to no good purpose. It destroys great numbers of caterpillars and other insects as food for its young in the breeding season, which is here a large part of the year. Therefore it prob- ably does more good than harm, unless it destroys the eggs of other and better birds to an injurious extent. There is little if any occa- sion to protect the Humming Bird and Rice Bird, for they are only found as migrants from North America, and the former, at least, is excessively rare, and merely an accidental visitor. The other birds scheduled are in need of all the protection that they can have, though the Wood-peckers are only found as rare migrants. .S Aead. Vol. Trans. Conn. ‘NMOT, Samoa L uvan Sanaq aNvs ill Eng. Co. G Phot. , A. Hyatt Verrill Trans. Conn. Acad. A. Hyatt Verrill, Phot. Vol. XI. PEATE TeaxXoxavite Gill Eng. Co. SAND DuNES NEAR TUCKER’s Town. Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XI. PLATE LXXVII A. Hyatt Verrill, Phot. Gill Eng. Co. SERPULINE ATOLLS OR BOILERS. > x x a td fe < 3 a. Conn. Acad. Vol. XI. Trans. SuMTlog WO STTOLY ANITOdYAS Gill Eng. Co. tt Verrill, Phot A. Hya Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XI. PLATE LXXIX A. Hyatt Verrill, Phot. Gill Eng. Co. Ruins, GuRNET HEAD, CastLeE I, ; PROFILE oF GuURNET HEAD. a PEASE EX XI. Acad. Vol. Trans, Conn. ill Eng. Co. G Terrill, Phot. No. 2. A. Hyatt , Topacco Bay; Ruins, Caste I. ic Roct Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XI. Pr Agsbrs lexcexexcle A. Hyatt Verrill, Phot. Gill Eng. Co. CRESPHONTES BUTTERFLY. Ne 7 by ; : lat E l= ; ie = PLATE LXXXII. WACOM BSI le Acad. Conn. Trans. ng. Co. = u Gill E att Verrill, Phot. A. Hy MonarcH BUTTERFLY AND VICEROY. Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XI. SLY NI IES IE A. Hyatt Verrill, Phot. Gill Eng. Co. QUEEN BUTTERFLY AND MONARCH. Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XI. A, Hyatt Verrill, Phot. JEN EY NADIE | JE O>-C>: SING Gill Eng. Co. Cuirr NEAR Hunery Bay. Re PLATE LXXXV. MOL es Acad. Trans. Conn. (73 ‘SdW Ja LG OLLANTY d5, MSSOoT Gill Eng. Co. A. Hyatt Verrill, Phot. PEATE EXGXxcvil. Vol. XI. Aead., Trans. Conn, cc ‘SdWOLG OLLANTVG,, AO SLSV @) TISSO.T Gill Eng. Co. A. Hyatt Verrill, Phot. vy 1 Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XI. PE AWE Ee xoxs valle | Zi i 5 e) = ' mM z i 3) { Dp \y i= i} © a q lh S) | ia a : a 4 ee} 5 I { 4 A | | A. Hyatt Verrill, Phot. Gill Eng. Co. PEASE eee yin ire a > ’ a 1 , te 1 i i 1 i y ' : r i) ‘ { ’ i ‘ ‘ i v * 7 tba Pe 4 ” { { i ‘ , r sy ¥ ‘ * } J 5 4 fi / 4 ¢ ’ A s ; Trans. Conn. Acad. A. Hyatt Verrill, Phot. Vol. > 3) 5 PLATE XCII. Gill Eng. Co. A WALSINGHAM CAvn, “wh ie 3 ah | it t i ( i ‘ ? tae 1 a i : j : ‘ i ; ; “| Pe a, i 4 ’ a ‘ j ¥ , 7 Ya t L ’ i A i * " ‘ \ her ‘ dye Lit , ‘ Y 4 * i . ' ‘ ’ A J ‘ 4 7 t F te fi ‘ Mad & ; P. 1 t s ui ! 4 ; f Fer 4 ' yf s * ‘ t ‘ ‘ : (tae 4 j . 0 i ‘ af ' i 1 ‘ 1 , ne , ; ‘ 4 ' ' \ f , s oe i) ; ‘ ‘ /. * ’ ( 4 . ' > ( Wf ‘ 4 ' } ' ‘ i y \ e , if e ‘ ' L ‘ \ , ‘ A ay h {i i ' [‘ ' q Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XI. PEA S i rime $y ‘ ws DY 1 ; e ¥ a F eae Oe i a Ls 7 : of ¥ ’ i wth : é J ‘ 4 ; Fi i eu ; ‘ ' : ei ‘ A ’ \ fi r Py - P ' rs 1 ) i H 1 ‘=, i * * ’ » < i Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XI. PLATE] XCV. BERMUDA FISHES. Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XI. PeAda Es, S ’ ; | ’ - 5 it . : | “ Trans. Conn. Aead. Vol. XI. Notman & Fraser, phot. 1877. GOVERNOR JoHn H. Lerroy. PEAT ECL: NN ee ave a dime cat _ Pe ’ “ _ om mi i res , ore e> Y 5 pO sie yal as i mi t Th ‘ ; 5 , { ; ‘ ‘ « i } WO ad. dy DINVING SELIL UNS 1974 Q Connecticut Academy of Arts AJ and Sciences, New Haven C9 Transactiona 5 ee pt.2 Physical & Applied Sea. Serials PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY erecate® se Shap esrade fy Vee ay here 8 ‘ fete ke sirrt & See hd ee #488 t98 Feew tapsee aoe reer 12 2) bf ot A ee é rete ty siepen ek (oe pee Prat ere Soya Melee estat. 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