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' whi Ment tee Heat ae divert dy Hoa 2 rv ab gripe usgads his Vidshiai be r ‘ 1") SA Bed Gry HAN mast HI brant y saat nak soe iplee he tnee hat ‘ i aeuoe sh Wb eM elold a » na a 1H) 45408) hy wi@ #4 bs vibe ts fepih eds ane Deven Bath ea te) amas re) " r mba andy y Ee pe. 044 poe ny od 409 198 op ey Meee ae Fs h i ard ee tyip Av atony i ; jason Fe sy ee aa : Pac oten ye) mative " ; . sft di erecinonne. ote Hoan Atlee ih . . bats Pein Nata ds REY sr sal hanes wre r a i whabig bate tates AD ee 2 HA b Ob verde Ansel biaens Wevsbes Hart eb all iy iees4 ; ‘ - pane SLUR NTT Ut ‘ red al ve Ht hited doit 14:9 eh ” ES CeAMIER UT Perr + iF Pe Lee ee ey Monae: Terai Terrie: hey ign Relrund AAT WHITNEY LIBRARY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY. TRE GIFT..OF I DOW ETN Ray Sturgis Hooper Professor IN THE MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY 23335 Li Le nee i] he (Sh 17,4 i Was) m es Oey Lae AREY Pa) ike eta en 2) PALMHONTOLOGY. Fig. 68. Foot-prints of Labyrinthodon (Cheirotherium). PAL AON 'TOLOGY OR A SYSTEMATIC SUMMARY OF EXTINCT ANIMALS AND THEIR GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS. BY RICHARD OWEN, F.RB.S. Superintendent of the Natural History Departments in the British Museum, Fullerian Professor of Physiology in the Royal Institution of Great Britain, Foreign Associate of the Institute of France, ete. EDINBURGH: ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK. ‘MDCCCLX. lotr [Lhe Right of Translation is Reserved.) PRINTED BY R. AND R. CLARK, EDINBURGH. CONTENTS, OR SYSTEMATIC INDEX. —+— Page INTRODUCTION . ‘ ‘ F ; : 1 KINGDOM PROTOZOA .- : - c A 5 Ciass AMORPHOZOA : : ; ; 5 RHIZOPODA : : F : 8 Sub-Class PoLYcysTINEA . p ‘ : 13 Cuass INFUSORIA : : : . 14 KINGDOM ANIMALIA - : 5 : 17 SUB-KINGDOM INVERTEBRATA . ; ‘ ky PROVINCE RADIATA ; é i 5 19 Ciass Hyprozoa : 3 , . 19 Family Graptolitidee : : ; 19 Crass ANTHOZOA : ; : ; 21 Bryozoa . : ; , ; 27 ECHINODERMATA F : 5 29 Order Crinoidea ; : : : 29 Cystoidea 4 : . ; 32 Blastoidea : : ‘ P ao Asteroidea ; : é ; 33 Echinoidea ; : 2 : 34 Holothurioidea ; : : 37 PROVINCE ARTICULATA : . , 38 Ciass ANNULATA ; ‘ : ; 39 CIRRIPEDIA ; ‘ , , 40 CRUSTACEA : ; , f 4] Sub-Class ENTOMOSTRACA ; é , 41 vi CONTENTS, OR SYSTEMATIC INDEX. Page Order Trilobites 44 Sub-Class MAuAcostRaca . 45 Cuiass INSECTA 47 PROVINCE MOLLUSCA 48 Crass BRACHIOPODA 49 LAMELLIBRANCHIATA ; ; : 57 GASTEROPODA 69 Order Pteropoda fp Nucleobranchiata . 72 Pectinibranchiata . 73 Family Strombidee 73 Muricide 3 Conide . : ; ‘ 76 Volutidee ; s 76 Cypreeidie 76 Order Holostomata 76 Family Naticide 76 Cerithiadee 77 Calyptreeidee 5 : 77 Neritidee ; : , 78 Patellidee 79 Order Pulmonifera 79 Tectibranchiata 80 Criass CEPHALOPODA 5 : : ; 80 Order Tetrabranchiata . : ; : 80 Family Nautilidee : : : i 82 Orthoceratide . : ‘ ; 82 Ammonitide : ' ' / 85 Order Dibranchiata 4 : ; ; 90 Sepiadee . 5 : : ’ 90 Teuthidee ; ; ‘ : 90 Belemnitidee : : : : 92 Table of Extinct Genera of Mollusca : ‘ ; 94 PROVINCE VERTEBRATA F ‘ ; 96 Ciass Pisces . ; : ; ‘ 99 Order Plagiostomi 3 ; ‘ : 99 Spines. : : i ES CONTENTS, OR SYSTEMATIC INDEX. Teeth Family Cestraciontide Hybodontidee Squalidze Raiide . Order Holocephali Genus Chimera Ischiodus Ganodus Edaphodus Elasmodus Order Ganoidei Sub-Order Placoganoidei Family Placodermata . Siluride Sturionidee Sub-Order Lepidoganoidei Family Dipteride Genus Dipterus Diplopterus Osteolepis Acanthodii Genus Diplacanthus Cheirolepis Ceelacanthi Genus Glyptolepis Phyllolepis Asterolepis Bothriolepis Glyptopomus Holoptychidee xenus Holoptychius Rhizodus Dendrodus Paleoniscidee . Genus Palzeoniscus Amblypterus Saurichthyide . s Vil Page 105 106 108 110 113 116 116 116 17 bps ly 118 118 118 126 145 129 129 129 130 130 130 131 131 131 131 132 132 132 132 132 132 132 133 136 136 137 158 V1ll CONTENTS, OR SYSTEMATIC INDEX. Genus Megalichthys Saurichthys Family Caturidee Genus Caturus Pachycormus Pycnodontes Genus Platysomus AEchmodus Pycnodus Dapedidee Genus Dapedius Amblyurus Pholidophorus Lepidotide . 5 Genus Lepidotus Nothosomus . Propterus Leptolepidee Genus Leptolepis Masropomidee Genus Macropoma Sturionide Genus Chondrosteus Order Acanthopteri Sub-Order Ctenoidei Genus Semiophorus Smerdis Sub-Order Cycloidei Genus Histiophorus . Ceelorhynchus Order Anacanthini Family Pleuronectidee Summary on Fossil Fishes Ichnology Protichnites Amphibichnites . Genus Cheirotherium Otozoum Page 138 138 139 139 140 140 140 141 141 143 143 143 143 143 143 144 144 144 144 144 144 145 145 146 146 146 147 147 148 148 148 149 150 152 158 163 163 165 CONTENTS, OR SYSTEMATIC INDEX. 1x Page Genus Batrachopus . : ; . 166 Sauropus : ‘ : a) AGT Crass REeprinia . : : : s 68 Order 1. Ganocephala_ . : ‘ - 168 Genus Archegosaurus ° : >, L68 Dendrerpeton : 5 = 282 Raniceps : : : - 183 Order 11. Labyrinthodontia : : 3s 83 Genus Baphetes : ° : . 184 Family Labyrinthodontidee 4 - 185 Genus Labyrinthodon : = 1289 Mastodonsaurus 5 A : 195 Nematosaurus . . i : 195 Metopias . : : - 196 Capitosaurus . : : ve eG Zygosaurus : ‘ » Ig6 Odontosaurus : : ~ 96 Xestorrhytias . on E - 196 Order 111. Ichthyopterygia : : © Ss Genus Ichthyosaurus ; : » 200 Order iv. Sauropterygia : : » 209 Genus Nothosaurus . : : ay BLO Pistosaurus . : . x 2 Conchiosaurus E x 214 Simosaurus . : : a 4 Placodus : ; : 2G Tanystropheus - - ™ ool Sphenosaurus ; ; = ooo Plesiosaurus - : » 223 Pliosaurus. : . . 232 Polyptychodon : : 280 Order vy. Anomodontia . : : on ooo Family Dicynodontia - : : » 236 Genus Dicynodon . : : ea 23% Ptychognathus ; : » 238 Family Cryptodontia —. - : ye 23S Genus Oudenodon . : é + 9 238 Rhynchosaurus : ce 2a CONTENTS, OR SYSTEMATIC INDEX. Order vi. Pterosauria Genus Dimorphodon Ramphorhynchus Pterodactylus . Order vu. Thecodontia Genus Thecodontosaurus Palzeosaurus Belodon Cladyodon Bathygnathus Protorosaurus Staganolepis Leptopleuron Order vu. Dinosauria Genus Scelidosaurus Megalosaurus Hyleeosaurus Tguanodon Order 1x. Crocodilia Sub-Order 1. Amphiccelia Genus Teleosaurus Suchosaurus Goniopholis Sub-Order 2. Opisthoccelia Genus Streptospondylus . Cetiosaurus Sub-Order 3. Proccelia Genus Alligator Crocodilus Gavialis Teeth of Crocodiles Order x. Lacertilia Genus Raphiosaurus . Coniasaurus Dolichosaurus Mosasaurus Leiodon Saurillus ap ot oy bo b> ob Ob bb bs lb Cb bt ~I ST mmm Mm em & WwW ©} & bb be bo b> b&b bb bb be °> | i=) bo -—~ — CONTENTS, OR SYSTEMATIC INDEX. Genus Macellodon Order x1. Ophidia Genus Palzeophis Paleryx Laophis Order xi1. Chelonia Genus Tretosternon . Pleurosternon Chelone Trionyx Emys Platemys Chelydra Testudo Colossochelys - Order Batrachia Paleeophrynos Rana Andrias Summary on Fossil Reptiles Cxiass m1. AVES Ornithichnites Brontozoum Gastornis Lithornis Halcyornis Protornis Phcenicopterus Fossil Eggs Fossil Feathers Apteryx Dinornis Palapteryx Aptornis Notornis Epiornis Didus Pezophaps bo bo Co MH OH © bo bo bo bO io4) eo ioe) eo bS bo bo bo bo bo bo io2) o2) 1s) Go [9 6) rag X11 CONTENTS, OR SYSTEMATIC INDEX. Page Cuass Iv. MAMMALIA. : : ~ 295 Composition of Bones . : 3 : - 295 Law of Correlation : : : : . 298 Genus Microlestes . : ; - 801 Dromatherium 2 : . 302 Amphitherium : : - 302 Amphilestes . : ; - 3803 Phascolotherium : ; - 304 Stereognathus f : . - 208 Spalacotherium : ; ; ones Triconodon. : : - woke Plagiaulax. . : eS Coryphodon . : E - wae Pliolophus . : é - 325 Lophiodon . : 3 . “eae Palzeotherium ; : - 330 Anoplotherium : . . 232 Dichodon : : : . ses Dichobune . ; ; - 336 Xiphodon : ; . BaF Microtherium ; ; . 338 Hyznodon . : : - Seg Amphicyon . : : . 340 Gulo : . : . 340 Didelphis : : : . 340 Balenodon . . . . 842 Ziphius “ : : . 842 Zeuglodon . ; é . 3d44 Halitherium . ; . . 346 Macrotherium ‘ . - 346 Pliopithecus . : ; - 350 Dryopithecus : . - 350 Mesopithecus : : . be Dinotherium . ; é . 8b2 Mastodon : : ; ‘ 353 Elephas : : . 360 Hippopotamus ; : . 364 Rhinoceros . ‘ P ; 366 CONTENTS, OR SYSTEMATIC INDEX. Genus Cheeropotamus Anthracotherium Hyopotamus . Sus . Order Ruminantia Family Bovide . Genus Bison ‘Bost. Bubalus | Antilope Family Cervide Genus Dorcatherium Cervus Dicranocerus Megaceros Cervus Somonensis Tarandus Martialis Americanus Strongylocerus Spelzus Elaphus Capreolus ; Order Carnivora Genus Galecynus Felis : F Law of Correlation illustrated by Feline Structures Do. do. Bovine Structures Genus Machairodus . Teeth of Carnivora Genus Ursus Hyzena ; : Order Rodentia ; : mee Family Leporidee Genus Myoxus Sciurus Lagomys Trogontherium Hystrix Lagostomus xi Page 367 367 367 368 368 370 370 370 370 375 371 371 371 372 373 374 375 375 375 375 376 376 376 376 377 380 382 383 384 384 385 385 385 385 386 386 386 386 X1V CONTENTS, OR SYSTEMATIC INDEX. Genus Echimys Ctenomys Ceelogenys Geographical Distribution of Pleistocene ante Europeo- Asiatic : Genus Merycotherium Elasmotherium Sivatherium Macacus Camelopardalis South American Mylodon Megatherium . Megalonyx Scelidotherium Giyptodon Toxodon Macrauchenia . Protopithecus . Australian . 2 Thylacinus Dasyurus Macropus Diprotodon Nototherium Phascolomys Thylacoleo Geographical Distribution modified in his time Extinction of Species Nestor productus Alca impennis Rytina . Bubalus (Cae A caihaies Antiquity of the Human Species Flint Weapons in Stratified Gravel Do. in Caves Origin of Species Hypothesis of Buffon Page 386 386 386 -Q47 387 387 387 387 387 388 389 389 390 391 391 392 393 395 393 393 393 393 394 394 5395 395 396 397 397 399 400 400 401 401 401 402 403 404 CONTENTS, OR SYSTEMATIC INDEX. . Hypothesis of Lamarck . of “ Vestiges of Creation” : : of Mr. Wallace ; - : : of Mr. Darwin : : z Summary of Succession and Geological lpebeone of Mam- malian Orders Succession of Classes Comparison of Uniformitarian and Phoptessiondl Bares Conclusion Cuts 2 to 22 inclusive are from Original Drawings by S. P. Woopwarp, F.G.S. ae Hemi a ah) eae ae ¥ * : phe MATS ea % Me Von meet apyeresst Shore awaie sexe a Co a eee we TABLE OF STRATA AND ORDER OF APPEARANCE OF ANIMAL LIFE UPON THE EARTH. MAN » & x Feet ra QUADRUMANA 2,000 = B/sSROS AND different K MAMMALIA orders e6e@o0 FISH (oft scaled ) 1,300 | ——__ 900 | » | x G MARSUPI/ALIA 2 8 .<) Ps | a MARSUP/ALIA | iS) ai =—— : ——= 6 Vv —— cS) FISH N (homocergue) 2,000 N TRACE OF MAMMAL/A | S = and poolprints of Birds | es REPTILIA BATRACAT/A ae See 4,000 | ere oS: (Znsects) Millstone Grit — 2 = SS SS ee x S 5 900 = & a 8 is) & | | S — N 10,000 Sa FISH ( helerocerque ) sy | Q 2500 Vig. 1. MOLLUSCA Cephalopoda Gasteropoda Brachiopoda INVERTEBRATA Crustacea &c., Anneltds &e. Zoophytes &c 20,000 | | PANT Creo: PALHONTOLOGY* is the science which treats of the evidences in the earth’s strata of organic beings, which mainly consist of petrified or fossil remains of plants and animals, belonging, for the most part, to species that are extinct. The endeavour to interpret such evidences has led to comparisons of the forms and structures of existing plants and animals, which have greatly and rapidly advanced the science of comparative anatomy, especially as applied to the animal kingdom, and more particularly to the hard and enduring parts of the animal frame, such as corals, shells, spines, crusts, scales, scutes, bones, and teeth. In applying the results of these comparisons to the restora- tion of extinct species, physiology has benefited by the study of the relations of structure to function requisite to obtain an idea of the food and habits of such species. It has thus been enriched by the well-defined law of “correlation of structures.” Zoology has gained an immense accession of subjects through the determination of the nature and affinities of extinct animals, and its best aims have been proportionally advanced. Much further and truer insight has been carried into the natural arrangement and subdivision of the classes of animals since paleontology expanded our survey of them. The knowledge of the type or fundamental pattern of certain systems of organs, ¢.g., the framework of the Verte- * From rarasis, ancient; dvra, beings ; Aoyos, a discourse. B 2 PALASONTOLOGY brata and the teeth of the Mammalia, has been advanced by the more frequent and closer adherence to such type dis- covered in extinct animals, and thus the highest aim of the zoologist has been greatly promoted by paleontology. But no collateral science has profited so much by pale- ontology as that which teaches the structure and mode of formation of the earth’s crust, with the relative position, time, order, and mode of formation of its constituent stratified and unstratified parts. Geology, indeed, seems to have left her old handmaiden mineralogy, to rest almost wholly upon her young and vigorous offspring, the science of organic remains. By this science the law of the geographical distribution of animals, as deduced from existing species, is shown to have been in force during periods of time long antecedent to human history, or to any evidence of human existence ; and yet, in relation to the whole known period of life-phenomena upon this planet, to have been a comparatively recent result of geological forces determining the present configuration and position of continents. Hereby paleontology throws light upon a most interesting branch of geographical science, that, viz., Which relates to former configurations of the earth’s sur- face, and to other dispositions of land and sea than prevail at the present day. Finally, paleontology has yielded the most important facts to the highest range of knowledge to which the human intel- lect aspires. It teaches that the globe allotted to man has revolved in its orbit through a period of time so vast, that the mind, in the endeavour to realize it, is strained by an effort like that by which it strives to conceive the space dividing the solar system from the most distant nebule. Paleontology has shown that, from the inconceivably remote period of the deposition of the Cambrian rocks, the earth has been viyified by the sun’s light and heat, has been PALAONTOLOGY 3 fertilized by refreshing showers, and washed by tidal waves ; that the ocean not only moved in orderly oscillations regu- lated, as now, by sun and moon, but was rippled and agitated by winds and storms; that the atmosphere, besides these movements, was healthily influenced by clouds and vapours, rising, condensing, and falling in ceaseless circulation. With these conditions of life, paleeontology demonstrates that life has been enjoyed during the same countless thousands of years; and that with life, from the beginning, there has been death. The earliest testimony of the living thing, whether coral, crust, or shell, in the oldest fossiliferous rock, is at the same time proof that it died. At no period does it appear that the gift of life has been monopolized by contemporary individuals through a stagnant sameness of untold time, but it has been handed down from generation to generation, and successively enjoyed by the countless thousands that consti- tute the species. Paleontology further teaches, that not only the individual, but the species perishes; that as death 1s balanced by generation, so extinction has been concomitant with the creative power which has continued to provide a succession of species; and furthermore, that, as regards the various forms of life which this planet has supported, there has been “an advance and progress in the main.” Thus we learn, that the creative force has not deserted the earth during any of the epochs of geological time that have succeeded to the first manifestation of such force; and that, in respect to no one class of animals, has the operation of creative force been limited to one geological epoch; and perhaps the most important and significant result of paleontological research has been the establishment of the axiom of the continuous operation of the ordained becoming of living things. The present survey of the evidences of organic beings in the earth’s crust commences with the lowest or most 4 PALZONTOLOGY simple forms, and embraces chiefly the remains of the animal kingdom. A reference to the subjoined “ Table of Strata” (fig. 1) will indicate the relative position of the geological formations cited. The numerals opposite the right hand give the approxi- mative depth or vertical thickness of the strata. Organisms, or living things, are those which possess such an internal cellular or cellulo-vascular structure as can receive fluid matter from without, alter its nature, and add it to the alterative structure. Such fluid matter is called “ nutritive,” and the actions which make it so are called “ assimilation” and “intus-susception.” These actions are classed as “ vital,” because, as long as they are continued, the “organism” is said “to live.” When the organism can also move, when it receives the nutritive matter by a mouth, inhales oxygen and exhales carbonic acid, and developes tissues the proximate principles of which are quaternary compounds of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, it is called an “animal.” When the organism is rooted, has neither mouth nor stomach, exhales oxygen, and has tissues composed of “cellulose” or of binary or ternary compounds, it is called a “plant.” But the two divisions of organisms called “plants” and “animals” are specialized members of the great natural group of living things; and there are numerous beings, mostly of minute size and retaining the form of nucleated cells, which manifest the common organic characters, but without the distinctive superadditions of true plants or animals. Such organisms are called “ Protozoa,” and include the sponges or Amorphozoa, the Foraminifera or Rhizopods, the Polycystinee, the Diatomacce, Desmidie, Gregarine, and most of the so-called Polygastria of Ehrenberg, or infusorial animalcules of older authors. Cr PALAONTOLOGY PROTOZOA. Ciass I.— AMORPHOZOA. Fossil sponges take an important place among the organic remains of the former world, not only on account of their ereat variety of form and structure, but still more because of the extraordinary abundance of individuals in certain strata. In England they specially characterize the chalk formation,— extensive beds of silicified sponges occur in the upper green- sand, and in some beds of the oolite and carboniferous lime- stone. In Germany a member of the Oxford oolite is called the “spongitenkalk,” from its numerous fossils of the present class. Existing sponges are divided into horny, flinty, and limy, or “ceratose,” “silicious,” and “calcareous,” according to the substance of their hard sustaining parts, which parts are commonly in the shape of fine needles, or spzcula, of very varied forms, but in many species of sufficient constancy to characterize such species. The soft organic substance called “sarcode” appears to be structureless, and is diffluent; it is uncontractile and impassive, but consists of an aggregate of more or less radiated corpuscles, in some of which the trace of a nucleus may be discerned. The larger orifices on the surface of a sponge are termed “oscula,” and are those out of which the currents of water flow: these enter by more nume- rous and minute “ pores.” The calcareous sponges abound in the oolitic and creta- ceous strata, attaming their maximum of development in the chalk; they are now almost extinct, or are represented by other families with calcareous spicula. The horny sponges appear to be more abundant now than in the ancient seas, but their remains are only recognisable in those instances where they were charged with silicious spicula. (or) PALMONTOLOGY M. dOrbigny enumerates 36 genera and 427 species of fossil sponges; and this is probably only a small proportion of the actual number in museums, as the difficulty of deter- mining the limits of the species is very great, and many remain undescribed. Paleospongia and Acanthospongia occur in the lower Silu- rian; and Stromatopora, with its concentrically laminated masses, attains a large size in the Wenlock limestone. Ste- ganodictyum, Sparsispongia, and species of Scyphia, are found Amorphozoa ; Rhizopoda. . Siphonia pyriformis, Goldf.; Greensand, Blackdown. . Guettardia Thiolati, D’Arch.; U. Chalk, Biarritz. . Ventriculites radiatus, Mant.; U. Chalk, Sussex. . Manon osculiferum, Phil.; U. Chalk, Yorkshire. . Fusulina cylindrica, Fisch. ;. Carboniferous, Russia. . Flabellina rugosa, D’Orb.; Chalk, Europe. . Lituola nautiloidea, Lam.; Chalk, Europe. . Nummulites nummularia, Brug.; Hocene, Old World. . Orbitoides media, D’Arch.; U. Chalk, France. Ovyulites margaritula, Lam.; Chalk, Europe. 9D oN ANEW DY wm in the Devonian; and Bothroconis, Mamillopora, and Tragos, in the Permian or magnesian limestone. Several genera are common to the trias and oolites, and several more are peculiar AMORPHOZOA i to the latter strata. The Oxfordian sponges belong chiefly to the genera Hudea, Hippalimus, Cribrispongia, Stellispongia, and Cupulispongia. Their fibrous skeleton appears to have been entirely calcareous, and often very solid; their form is cup-shaped, or mammillated, or incrusting, and many have a sieve-like appearance, from the regular distribution of the excurrent orifices (oscula) over their surface. The greensand of Faringdon in Berkshire is a stratum prolific in sponges, chiefly cup-shaped and calcareous, of the genera Scyphia and Chenendopora ; or mammillated, like Cnemidium and Verticillopora. The Kentish rag is full of sponges, which are most apparent on the water-worn sides of fissures. Some beds are so full of silicious spicula as to irritate the hands of the quarrymen working those beds. The green- sand of Blackdown is famous for the number and _ perfect preservation of its pear-shaped Siphonia (fig. 2, 1); whilst those of Warminster are ornamented with three or more lobes. The latter locality is the richest in England for large cup- shaped and branching sponges (Polypothecia), which are all silicified : the long stems of these sponges have been mistaken for bones. The sponges, chiefly Siphonie, of the upper green- sand of Farnham are infiltrated with phosphate of lime, and have been used in agriculture. The sponges of the chalk belong to several distinct families. Choanites resembles the Siphonia, but is sessile, and exhibits in section, or in weathered specimens, a spiral tube winding round the central cavity. It is the commonest sponge in the Brighton brooch-pebbles. Others are irregularly cup-shaped and calcareous; and many of the Wiltshire flints have a nucleus of branching sponge (8. clavellata). The chalk flints, arranged in regular layers, or built up in columns of “ Para- moudree,” all contain traces of sponge structure, and their origin is in some measure connected with the periodic growth fo) of large crops of sponges. Frequently the crust or outer 8 PALAONTOLOGY surface only of the sponge has been silicified, while the centre has decayed, leaving a botryoidal or stalactitic cavity. The cup-shaped sponges are almost always more or less enveloped with flint, which invests the stem and lines the interior, leaving the rim exposed. The sponges of the Yorkshire chalk are of a different character: some are elongated and radiciform, others horizontally expanded, but they contain comparatively little silica; while those belonging to the genus Manon (fig. 2, 4), having prominent “ oscula,” are superficially silici- fied, and will bear immersion and cleaning with hydrochloric acid. The largest group of chalk sponges, typified by Ventri- culites (fig. 2, 3), have the form of a cup or funnel, slender or expanded, or folded into star-like shape (Guettard ia, fig. 2, 2), with processes from the angles to give them firmer attach- ment. Some have a tortuous or labyrinthic outline, and others are branched or compound, like Brachiolites. Curious sections of these may be obtained from specimens enveloped with flint or pyrites. The burrowing-sponge, Cliona, 1s com- monly found in shells of the tertiaries and chalk. The great cretaceous Hxogyre of the United States are frequently mined by them; and flint casts of Belemnites and Inocerami are often covered by their ramifying cells and fibres. Thin sec- tions of chalk flints, when polished and examined with the microscope, sometimes exhibit minute spherical bodies (Spind- ferites) covered with radiating and multicuspid spines. From their close resemblance to the little fresh-water organism Xanthidium, they long bore that name ; but they are certainly marine bodies, and probably the spores of sponges. Cuass II.—RHIZOPODA. The organisms of this class are small and for the most part of microscopic minuteness, of a simple gelatinous structure, commonly protected by a shell. The most simple RHIZOPODA i) rhizopods, called Ameba, present a globular form when contracted, but can extend portions of their substance (“ sar- code”) like roots, and use them to draw along the rest of the mass, like the feet or tentacles of polyps, whence the name of the class. These root-like processes can also attach themselves to foreign particles, and draw them into the “sarcode,” or substance of the body, where the soluble organic part, so “intus-suscepted,’ may be assimilated, the insoluble part being extruded. = 8 Dn 8 S wn LY x or convexity, which is always shght. The coracoids unite an- teriorly with the clavicles, as well as with the episternum ; laterally they articulate with the scapula, combining to form the glenoid cavity for the humerus. The episternum has the same general form as the median pieces of the abdominal ribs, being, like those pieces, a modified hamal spine, only more advanced in position ; the lateral wings or prolongations are broader and flatter ; the median process is short ; a longitudinal ridge pro- jects from the middle of the in- ternal surface. The humerus is a moderately thick and long bone, 228 PALAONTOLOGY with a convex head, sub-cylindrical at its proximal end, becoming flattened and gradually expanded to its distal end, where it is divided into two indistinct surfaces for the radius and ulna. The shaft in most species is shghtly curved backwards, or the hind border is concave, whilst the front one is straight. The radius and ulna are about half the length of the humerus; the former is straight, the latter curved or reniform, with the concavity towards the radius; both are flattened ; the radius is a little contracted towards its carpal end, and in some species is longer than the ulna. The carpus consists of a double row of flat rounded dises,—the largest at the radial side of the wrist ; the ulnar or hinder side appear- ing to have contained more unossified matter. The meta- carpals, five in number, are elongate, slender, slightly expanded at the two ends, flattened, and sometimes a little bent. The phalanges of the five digits have a similar form, but are smaller, and progressively decrease in size; the expansion of the two ends, which are truncate, makes the sides or margins concave. The first or radial digit has generally three phalanges, the second from five to seven, the third eight or nine, the fourth eight, the fifth five or six phalanges. All are flattened ; the terminal ones are nailless; and the whole were obviously included, like the paddle of the porpoise and turtle, im a com- mon sheath of integument. The pelvic arch consists of a short but strong and straight narrow moveable.ilium, and of a broad and flat pubis and ischium ; the former subquadrate or subcireular, the latter triangular ; the fore-and-aft expanse of both bones nearly equals that of the coracoids. All concur in the formation of the hip-joint. The ischium and pubis again unite together near their mesial borders, leaving a wide elliptic vacuity, or “foramen ovale,” between this junction and their outer acetabular one. The pelvic paddle is usually of equal length with the pectoral one, but in P. maerocephalus it is longer. The bones closely correspond, in number, arrange- SAUROPTERYGIA 229 ment, and form, with those of the fore limb. The femur has the hind margin less concave, and so appears more straight. The fibula, in its reniform shape, agrees with its homotype the ulna. The tarsal bones are also smallest on the tibial side. Of existing reptiles, the lizards, and amongst these the old world Monitors (Varanus, Fitz.), by reason of the cranial vacuities in front of the orbits, most resemble the Plesiosaur in the structure of the skull. The division of the nostrils, the vacuities in the occipital region between the exoccipitals and tympanics, the parietal foramen, the zygomatic extension of the post-frontal, the palato-maxillary, and pterygo-sphenoid vacuities in the bony palate, are all lacertian characters, as contradistinguished from crocodilian ones. But the antorbital vacuities between the nasal, pre-frontal, and maxillary bones are the sole external nostrils in the Plesiosaurs ; the zygomatic arch abuts against the fore part of the tympanic, and fixes it. A much greater extent of the roof of the mouth is ossified than in lizards, and the palato- maxillary and pterygo-sphenoid fissures are reduced to small size. The teeth, finally, are implanted in distinct sockets. That the Plesiosaur had the “head of a lizard” is an emphatic mode of expressing the amount of resemblance in their cranial conformation. The crocodilian affinities, however, are not confined to the teeth, but extend to the structure of the skull itself. In the simple mode of articulation of the ribs, the lacertian affinity is again strongly manifested; but to this vertebral character such affinity is limited; all the others exemplify the ordinal distinction of the Plesiosaurs from known existing reptiles. The shape of the joints of the centrums ; the num- ber of vertebree between the head and tail, especially of those of the neck ; the slight indication of the sacral vertebra ; the non-confluence of the caudal heemapophyses with each other, are all “ plesiosauroid.” In the size and number of abdominal 230 PALASONTOLOGY ribs and sternum may perhaps be discerned a first step in that series of development of the heemapophyses of the trunk which reaches its maximum in the plastron of the Chelonia. The connation of the clavicle with the scapula is common to the Chelonia with the Plesiosawri ; the expansion of the coracoids—extreme in Plesiosauri—is greater in Chelonia than in Crocodilia, but is still greater in some Lacertia. The form and proportions of the pubis and ischium, as compared with the ilium, in the pelvic arch of the Plesioswuri, find the nearest approach in the pelvis of marine Chelonia ; and no other existing reptile now offers so near, although it be so remote, a resemblance to the structure of the paddles of the Plesiosaur. Amongst the many figurative illustrations of the nature of the Plesiosaur in which popular writers have indulged, that which compares it to a snake threaded through the trunk of a turtle is the most striking ; but the number of vertebrae in the Plesiosaur is no true indication of affinity with the ophidian order of reptiles. The reptilian skull from formations underlying the lias, to which that of Plesiosaurus has the nearest resemblance, is the skull of the Pistosaurus; in this genus the nostrils have a similar position and diminutive size, but are somewhat more in advance of the orbits, and the premaxillaries enter imto the formation of their boundary : the premaxillary muzzle and the temporal fossze are also somewhat longer and narrower. The post-frontals and mastoids more clearly combine with malars and squamosals in forming the zygomatic arch, which is of greater depth in Pistosawrus; the parietal foramen is larger ; there is no trace of a median parietal crest. On the palate, besides the vacuities between the pterygoids and pre- sphenoids, and the small foramina between the palatines, pre- maxillaries, and maxillaries, there is in Pistosawrus a single median foramen in advance of the latter foramina, between the pointed anterior ends of the pterygoids and the premaxil- SAUROPTERYGIA 2a laries. In Nothosawrus the pterygoids extend back, under- lapping the basi-sphenoid, as far as the basi-occipital, the median suture uniting them being well marked to their ter- mination ; and there is no appearance of vacuities like the pterygo-sphenoid ones in Plesio- and Pisto-saurus. The tym- panics are relatively longer, and extend farther back in Pisto- than in Plesio-sauwrus. There is no trace of lacrymals in Pistosaurus ; and its maxillaries are relatively larger than in Plesiosaurus. In Pistosaurus there are 18 teeth on each the upper jaw, including the 5 premaxillary teeth ; in Plesiosaurus there are from 30 to 40 teeth on each side. In Pistosawrus the teeth are relatively larger, and present a more oval trans- verse section: the anterior teeth are proportionally larger than the posterior ones than they are in Plesiosaurus. The dis- proportion is still greater in Nothosaurus, in some species of which the teeth behind the premaxillary and symphysial terminal expansions of the jaws suddenly become—e.g., In Nothosaurus mirabilis (fig. 68)—very small, and form a straight, numerous, and close-set single series along the maxillary and corresponding part of the mandibular bone. Both Nothosaurus and Pistosawrus had many neck-verte- bree, and the transition from these to the dorsal series was effected, as in Plesiosaurus, by the ascent of the rib-surface from the centrum to the neurapophysis ; but the surface, when divided between the two elements, projected further outwards than in most Plestosaw7v. In both Notho- and Pisto-saurus the pelvic vertebra develops a combined process (par- and di-apophysis), but of relatively larger, vertically longer size, standing well out, and from near the fore part of the side of the vertebra. This process, with the coalesced riblet, indicates a stronger ilium, and a firmer base of attachment of the hind limb to the trunk, than in Plesiosawrus. Both this structure, and the greater length of the bones of the fore arm and leg show that the 237 PALAONTOLOGY muschelkalk predecessors of the liassic Plesiosauri were better organized for occasional progression on dry land. More than twenty species of Plesiosaurus have been de- scribed by, or are known to, the writer; their remains occur in the oolitic, Wealden, and cretaceous formations, ranging from the lias upwards to the chalk, inclusive. A comparison of remains of various Plesiosauri has led to a conviction, that specific distinctions are accompanied with well-marked dif- ferences in the structure and proportions of answerable verte- bree, but are not shown in small differences of number in the cervical, dorsal, or caudal vertebree. When any region of the vertebral column presents an unusual excess of development in a genus, such region is more liable to variation, within certain limits, than in genera where its proportions are more normal. The differences of the number of cervical and dorsal vertebrae, ranging between 29 and 31 in the Plesiosawrus Hawkinsii, e.g—as noted in the description of that species in the writer’s Report on British Fossil Reptiles, 1839 in the only species of which, at that time, the vertebral column indicate the range of variety observed of different individuals could be compared. Genus PLiosauRUS, Ow.—M. von Meyer regards the num- ber of cervical vertebree and the length of neck as characters of prime importance in the classification of Reptilia, and founds thereon his order called Macrotrachelen, in which he includes Stmosaurus, Pistosaurus, and Nothosaurus, with Plesiosaurus. No doubt the number of vertebrze in the same skeleton bears a certain relation to ordinal groups : the Ophidia find a common character therein ; yet it is not their essential character, for the snake-like form, dependent on multiplied vertebree, characterizes equally certain Batrachians (Cecilia) and fishes (Murena). Certain regions of the vertebral column are the seats of great varieties in the same natural group of Reptilia. We have long-tailed and short-tailed lizards ; but SAUROPTERYGIA 233 do not therefore separate those with numerous caudal vertebre, as “Macroura,” from those with few or more. The extinct Dolichosaurus of the Kentish chalk, with its proccelian vertebree, cannot be ordinarily separated, by reason of its more numerous cervical vertebree, from other shorter-necked proccelian lizards. As little can we separate the short-necked and big-headed amphiccelian Pliosaur from the Macrotrachelians with which it has its most intimate and true affinities. There is much reason, indeed, to suspect that some of the muschelkalk Saurians, which are as closely allied to Notho- saurus as Pliosaurus is to Plesiosawrus, may have presented analogous modifications in the number and proportions of the cervical vertebrae. It is hardly possible to contemplate the broad and short-snouted skull of the Simosaurus, with its proportionally large teeth, without inferring that such a head must have been supported by a shorter and more powerful neck than that which bore the long and slender head of the Nothosaurus or Pistosaurus. The like inference is more strongly impressed upon the mind by the skull of the Placodus, still shorter and broader than that of Simosaurus, and with vastly larger teeth, of a shape indicative of their adaptation to crushing molluscous or crustaceous shells. Neither the proportions and armature of the skull of Placodus, nor the mode of obtaining the food indicated by its cranial and dental characters, permit the supposition that the head was supported by other than a comparatively short and strong neck. Yet the composition of the skull, its proportions, cavities, and other light-giving anatomical characters, all bespeak the close essential relationship of Placodus to Stmo- saurus and other so-called “macrotrachelian” reptiles of the muschelkalk beds. I still, therefore, regard the fin-like modi- fication of the limbs as a better ordinal character than the number of vertebree in any particular region of the spine. But by those who would retain the term EHnaliosauria for the 234 PALAZONTOLOGY large extinct natatory group of saurian reptiles, the essential distinctness of the groups Sauropterygi and Ichthyopterygii, typified by the Jchthyosaurus and Plesiosaurus respectively, should be borne in mind. Sp. Pliosaurus brachydeirus, Ow.—The generic characters of Pliosaurus are given by the teeth and the cervical vertebre. As compared with those of Plesiosaurus, the teeth are thicker in proportion to their length, are subtrihedral in transverse section, with one side flattened, and bounded by lateral promi- Vig. 72. y Pliosaurus (Kimmeridgian). nent ridges from the more convex sides, which are rounded off into each other, and alone show the longitudinal ridges of the enamel ; these are there very well defined. The vertebree of the neck, presenting a flat articular surface of the shape shown in outline below the neck in fig. 72, are so compressed from before backward as to resemble the vertebra of the Ichthyo- saurus (fig. 70, C), and as many as twelve may be compressed within the short neck intervening between the skull and scapular arch, as shown in fig. 72. For the rest, save in the more massive proportions of the jaws and paddle-bones, the bony framework of Pliosawrus closely accords with that of Plesiosaurus ; and, as the vertebree of the trunk resume the plesiosaurian proportions, they give little indication of the genus of reptile to which they truly belong, when found detached and apart. Some individuals of Pliosawrus appear to have attained a length of between 30 and 40 feet. The remains of ANOMODONTIA USD this modified form of Enaliosaur are peculiar to the Oxfordian and Kimmeridgian divisions of the upper oolitic system. They have been discovered in these beds in Russia (Pliosaurus Worinskii and Spondylosaurus of Fischer), as well as in those counties of England where the Kimmeridge and Oxford clays have been deposited. Genus PoLyprycHopon.—A. genus represented by species equalling in size those of Pliosawrus. The teeth have a strong conical crown with a sub-circular transverse section, and the longitudinal ridges of the enamel are set close all round the crown, whence the name of the genus, signifying “many- ridged tooth ;” they may be distinguished from the teeth of Mosasaurus or Pliosaurus by the absence of the smooth almost flattened facet of the crown, which, in those genera, is divided by two strong ridges from the rest of the crown. The teeth are implanted in distinct sockets, as in Plesiosaurus. The vertebree found in the same strata, corresponding in size with the teeth, present the plesiosauroid type. Bones of a large paddle or natatory limb, from the chalk of Kent, may also belong to Polyptychodon. A portion of the cranium of Polyp- tychodon interruptus, from the chalk, shows the “ foramen parietale,” and a plesiosauroid type of temporal fossee. Remains of Polyptychodon have hitherto been met with only in the cretaceous formations : in the green-sand of Kent and Cambridge, also at Kursk, in Russia, and in the chalk of Kent and Sussex. Order 5.—ANOMODONTIA. Teeth wanting, or limited to a single maxillary pair, having the form or proportions of tusks : a “foramen parietale ;” two nostrils ; tympanic pedicle fixed ; vertebrae bicon- cave ; trunk-ribs long and curved, the anterior ones with a bifureate head; sacrum of more than two vertebre. Limbs ambulatory. 236 PALAONTOLOGY FamM.—DICYNODONTIA. A long ever-growing tusk in each maxillary bone ; pre-maxil- laries connate, forming with the lower jaw a beak- shaped mouth, probably sheathed with horn. Genus Dicynopon, Ow.—In 1844 Myr. Andrew G. Bain, who had been engaged in the construction of military roads in the colony of the Cape of Good Hope, discovered, in the tract of country extending northwards from the county of Albany, about 450 miles east of Cape Town, several nodules or lumps of a kind of sandstone, which, when broken, displayed in most instances evidences of fossil bones, and usually of a skull with two large projecting teeth. Accordingly these evi- dences of ancient animal life in South Africa were first notified to English geologists by Mr. Bain under the name of “ Biden- tals ;” and the specimens transmitted by him were submitted to the writer for examination. The results of the comparisons thereupon instituted went to show that there had formerly existed in South Africa, and from geological evidence, probably, in a great lake or inland sea, since converted into dry land, a race of reptilian animals presenting in the construction of their skull (fig. 73) characters of the crocodile, the tortoise, and the lizard, coupled with the presence of a pair of huge sharp-pointed tusks, growing downwards, one from each side of the upper jaw, like the tusks of the mammalian morse (Z'richecus). No other kind of teeth were developed in these singular animals : the lower jaw appears to have been armed, as in the tortoise, by a trenchant sheath of horn. The vertebree, by the hollowness of the co-adapted articular surfaces, indicate these reptiles to have been good swimmers, and probably to have habitually existed in water ; but the construction of the bony passages of the nostrils proves that they must have come to the surface to breath air. The pelvis DICYNODONTIA 237 consists of a sacrum composed of 5 confluent vertebree, with very broad iliac bones, and thick and strong ischial and pubic bones. Some extinct plants allied to the Lepidodendron, with other fossils, render it probable that the sandstones containing the dicynodont reptiles were of the same geological age as those that have revealed the remains of the Rhynchosaurs and Labyrinthodonts in Europe. The generic name Dieynodon is from the Greek words sig- nifying “two tusks or canine teeth.” Four species of this genus, having a rounded profile and less strongly ridged maxillaries, have been demonstrated from the fossils trans- mitted by Mr. Bain. Sp. Dicynodon lacerticeps, Ow.*—This species is founded on a skull six inches in length, of which a reduced figure is given in cut 73, where ¢ shows the canine tusks. Sp. Dicynodon testudiceps, Ow—In this species the skull, and the facial part more particularly, is shorter than in D. lacerticeps. Sp. Dicynodon strigiceps, Ow—The shortening of the jaws and blunting of the muzzle are carried toan extreme in this species, in which the nostrils are situated almost beneath the orbits. Sp. Dieynodon Fig. 73. tigriceps, Ow.t—In Skull and tusks of Dicynodon lacerticeps. this species the length of the skull is 20 inches, its breadth across the widest part of the zygomatic arches being 18 inches. It differs from the D. lacerticeps not only in size, but in the * Trans. Geological Society, 2d series, vol. vii. (dis, two; kwnodos, canine- tooth.) + Trans. Geol. Soc., 2d series, vol. vii., p. 233. 238 PALA ONTOLOGY relatively larger capacity of the temporal fosse, and sinaller size of the orbits. These cavities in D. lacerticeps occupy the middle third of the skull, but in D. tigriceps are wholly in the anterior half of the skull. The profile of the skull in D. lacer- ticeps begins to slope or curve down from a line parallel with the back part of the orbits, but in D. tigriceps it does not begin to bend down until in advance of the orbits. Genus PrycHoGNATHUS, Ow.—Three other species, showing a remarkable angular contour of the skull, with strongly ridged maxillary and upwardly produced mandibular bones, have been subgenerically separated under the name Ptychognathus. Their remains characterize the same formations as those of Dicynodon. No evidence of the Dicynodont family has yet been met with out of South Africa. FAM.—CRYPTODONTIA. Upper as well as lower jaws edentulous, or with inconspicuous teeth. Genus OUDENODON, Bain. Sp. Oudenodon Bainii—The fossils on which the above genus and species are founded are from a bluish argillo-ferru- ginous limestone in South Africa, and form part of a collection transmitted to the British Museum by A. G. Bain, Esq. One portion of the fossil skull includes all that part in advance of the temporal fossz ; the fore part of the temporal ridges, at the upper and back part of this fragment, curve as they diverge from each other to the back part of the orbit. The upper interorbital part of the cranium is nearly flat, with the orbital margins slightly raised, and terminating anteriorly in a low antorbital prominence ; the least breadth of the inter- orbital space is one inch. A slight depression divides the antorbital from the supranasal tuberosities. The nasal bones form an almost flat rhomboid surface, from the contracted fore part of which the broad premaxillary part of the upper jaw CRYPTODONTIA. 239 inchnes downward and forward at an open angle. This part is traversed by a low obtuse median ridge, and terminates below in a trenchant edentulous border. The nostrils are small, oval, and separated from each other by the broad junction of the ascending branch of the pre- maxillary with them. The maxillary bone presents the chief peculiarity, being traversed obliquely by a strong angular ridge, commencing a little anterior to the orbit, and terminating at the alveolar border, not far from the maxillo-premaxillary suture. The alveolar border gently curves to this termination, and shows no trace of a tooth or alveolus. The compound structure of the lower jaw is shown at the fractured back part, where an upper (surangular?) element, thick and rounded above, is received into an outer and lower element, thin above, and thick and bent below, forming a groove for the reception of the upper element. On the outer side of the jaw, about the middle of the part preserved, there is a longitudinal depression or narrow vacuity, above which there is a low ridge. The symphysis is thick, long, and bent up in the form of a beak, terminating by an edentulous sub- trenchant border; its fore and outer part is traversed by a low median ridge. The length of this portion of the skull is 6 inches ; its breadth across the maxillary ridges is 2 inches 10 lines ; the extent of the symphysis of the lower jaw is 2 inches 6 lines. Oudenodon is more closely allied to the African bidental reptiles of the following order than to the English Rhynchosaurus : so closely, in the construction of the skull, as to suggest the surmise that the absence of the two upper teeth may be a sexual character. Genus RHYNCHOSAURUS, Ow. Sp. Rhynchosaurus articeps, Ow.*—The fossils in which * Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, vol. vii., part iii., 1842, p. 355, plates 5 and 6. 240 PALASONTOLOGY the above order, genus, and species of reptile have been based are from the new red sandstone (trias) of Shropshire. They occur at the Grinsill quarries, near Shrewsbury, in a fine- grained sandstone, and also in a coarse burr-sandstone ; in the latter the writer found imbedded some vertebra, portions of the lower jaw, a nearly entire skull, fragments of the pelvis and of two femora: in the fine-grained sandstone, vertebra, ribs, and some bones of the scapular and pelvic arches are imbedded. The bones present a very brittle and compact texture ; the exposed surface is usually smooth, or very finely striated, and of a light blue colour. The sandstones containing these bones occasionally exhibit impressions of footsteps which resemble those figured in the Memoir by Murchison and Strickland (Geol. Trans., 2d series, vol. v., pl. xxvii. fig. 1); but they differ in the more distinct marks of the claws, the less distinct impression of a web, the more diminutive size of the innermost toe, and an impression corresponding with the hinder part of the foot, which reminds one of a hind toe point- ing backwards, and which, like the hind toe of some birds, only touched the ground with its point. The footprints are likewise more equal in size, and likewise in their intervals, than those figured in the above-cited Memoir: they measure from the extremity of the outermost or fifth toe to that of the innermost or first rudimental toe, about one inch and a half. They are the only footprints that have as yet been detected in the new red sandstone quarries at Grinsill. As the fossil bones have always been found nearly in the same bed as that impressed by the footsteps above described, they probably belong to the same animal. In the vertebrae both articular surfaces of the centrum are concave, and are deeper than in the biconcave vertebra of the extinct Croco- dilians ; the texture of the centrum is compact throughout. The neural arch is anchylosed with the centrum, without trace of suture, as in most lizards; it immediately expands CRYPTODONTIA 241 and sends outwards from each angle of its base a broad tri- angular process with a flat articular surface ; the two anterior surfaces look directly upwards, the posterior ones downwards ; the latter are continued backwards beyond the posterior ex- tremity of the centrum ; the tubercle for the simple articula- tion of the rib is situated immediately beneath the anterior oblique process. So far the vertebre of the Rhynchosaurus, always excepting their biconcave structure, resemble the vertebrae of most recent lizards. In the modification next to be noticed, they show one of the vertebral characters of the Dinosauria. A broad obtuse ridge rises from the upper convex surface of the posterior articular process and arches forwards alone the neural arch above the anterior articular process, and gradually subsides anterior to its base: the upper part of this arched angular ridge forms, with that of the opposite side, a platform, from the middle line of which the spinous process is developed. Nothing of this kind is present in existing lizards ; the sides of the neural arch immediately converge from the articular processes to the base of the spine, without the inter- vention of an angular ridge formed by the sides of a raised platform. The base of the spinous process is. broadest behind, and commences there by two roots or ridges, one from the upper and back part of each posterior articular process. The anterior margin of the spinous process is thin and trenchant ; the height of the spine does not exceed the antero-posterior diameter of its base; it is obliquely rounded off. The spinal canal sinks into the middle part of the centrum and rises to the base of the spine, so that its vertical diameter is twice as ereat at the middle as at the two extremities: this modification resembles in a certain degree that of the vertebree of the Paleosaurus from the Bristol conglomerate. The skull presents the form of a four-sided pyramid, com- pressed laterally, and with the upper facet arching down in a graceful curve to the apex, which is formed by the termination R 242 PALEONTOLOGY of the muzzle. The very narrow cranium, wide temporal fossee on each side, bounded posteriorly by the parietal and the mastoid bones, and laterally by strong compressed zygomata ; the long tympanic pedicle, descending freely and vertically from the point of union of the posterior transverse and zygo- matic arches, and terminating in a convex pulley for the articular concavity of the lower jaw; the large and complete orbits, and the short, compressed, and bent down maxille, all combine to prove the fossil to belong to the lacertian division of the saurian order. The mode of articulation of the skull with the spine cannot be determined in the present specimen, but the lateral compression and the depth of the skull, the great vertical breadth of the superior maxillary bone, the small relative size of the temporal spaces, the vertical breadth of the lower jaw, prove that it does not belong to a reptile of the batrachian order. The shortness of the muzzle, and its compressed form, equally remove it from the Crocodilians. No Chelonian has the tympanic pedicle so long, so narrow, or so freely suspended to the posterior and lateral angles of the cranium. The general aspect of the skull differs, however, from that of existing Lacertians, and resembles that of a bird or turtle, which resemblance is increased by the apparent absence of teeth. The dense structure of the produced ends of the pre- maxillaries indicates an analogy of function to the tusks of Dicynodon ; the premaxillaries are double, as in crocodiles and Chelonians ; but most of the essential characters of the skull are those of the lizard. The rami of the lower jaw are remark- able, as in Bathygnathus, for their great depth, but not the least trace of a tooth is discernible in the alveolar border of the dentary element. The cranium, in my first described Rhynchosaur, was pre- served with the mouth in the naturally closed state, and the upper and lower jaws in close contact. In this state we must CRYPTODONTIA 243 suppose that they were originally buried in the sandy matrix which afterwards hardened around them; and since lizards, owing to the unlimited reproduction of their teeth, do not become edentulous by age, we must conclude that the state in which the Rhynchosaurus was buried, with its lower jaw in un- disturbed articulation with the head, accorded with its natural condition, while living, so far as the less perishable hard parts of its masticatory organs were concerned. Nevertheless, since a view of the inner side of the alveolar border of the jaws has not been obtained, we cannot be quite assured of the actual edentulous character of this very singular Saurian. The indica- tions of a dental system are much more obscure in the Rhyn- chosaurus than in any existing Lacertian ; the dentations of the upper jaw are absolutely feebler than in the chameleon, and no trace of them can be detected in the lower jaw, where they are strongest in the chameleon. The absence of the coronoid process in the Rhynchosaurus, which is conspicuously developed in all existing lizards, corresponds with the unarmed condition of the jaw, and the resemblance of the Rhynchosaurus in this respect to the Chelys ferox, would seem to indicate that the correspondence extended to the toothless condition of the jaws. The resemblance of the mouth to the compressed beak of certain sea-birds, the bending down of the curved and elon- gated premaxillaries, so as to be opposed to the deep symphysial extremity of the lower jaw, are further indications that the ancient Rhynchosaur may have had its jaws encased by a bony sheath, as in birds and turtles, the dentinal ends of the pre- maxillaries projecting from, or forming, the deflected end of the upper mandible. There are few genera of extinct reptiles of which it is more desirable to obtain the means of determining the precise modifications of the locomotive extremities than the Rhyncho- saurus. The fortunate preservation of the skull has brought to light modifications of the lacertine structure leading towards 244 PALZONTOLOGY Chelonia and birds which before were unknown ; the vertebree likewise exhibit very interesting deviations from the lacertian type. The entire reconstruction of the skeleton of the Rhyncho- saurus Inay be ultimately accomplished, if due interest be taken in the collection and preservation of the fossils of the Grinsill quarries. The cranium of a Rhynchosaurian reptile with small palatal teeth and obscure maxillary dentations, has been discovered in the problematical sandstones, containing the Leptoplewron, near Elgin ; and adds to the probability of their triassic age. Order VI.—PTEROSAURIA. Char.—Pectoral members, by the elongation of the anti- brachium and fifth digit, adapted for flight. Vertebree proceelian ; those of the neck very large, not exceeding eight in number; those of the pelvis few and small. Most of the bones pneumatic. Head large ; jaws long, and armed with teeth. The species of this order of reptiles are extinct, and peculiar to the mezozoic period. Although some members of the pre- ceding order resembled birds in the shape or the edentulous state of the mouth, those of the present order make a closer approach to the feathered class in the texture and pneumatic character of most of the bones, and in the development of the pectoral limbs into organs of flight (fig. 74). This is due to an elongation of the antibrachial bones, and more especially to the still greater length of the metacarpal and phalangial bones of the fifth or outermost digit (fig. 74, 5)s the last phalanx of which terminates in a point. The other fingers were of more ordinary length and size, and terminated by claws. The number of phalanges is progressive from the first (fig. 74, 1) to the fourth (4), which is a reptilian character. The whole osseous system is modified in accordance with the PTEROSAURIA 245 possession of wings ; the bones are light, hollow, most of them permeated by air-cells, with thin compact outer walls. The scapula and coracoid are long and narrow, but strong. The vertebree of the neck are few, but large and strong, for the support of a large head with long jaws, armed with sharp- Fig. 74. Fossil skeleton of Pterodactylus crassirostris: A, Sketch of living Pterodactyle. pointed teeth. The skull was lightened by large vacuities, of which one (0, fig. 74) is interposed between the nostril n and the orbit 7. The vertebrae of the back are small, and grow less to the tail. Those of the sacrum are small, from three to five in number: but the weak pelvis and hind limbs bespeak a creature unable to stand and walk like a bird. The body must have been dragged along the ground like that of a bat. The Pterosauwria may have been good swimmers as well as 246 PALAEONTOLOGY flyers. The vertebral bodies unite by ball-and-socket joints, the cup being anterior, and in them we have the earliest manifestation of the “proccelian” type of vertebra. The atlas consists of a discoid centrum, and of two slender neurapo- physes ; the centrum of the axis is ten times longer than that of the atlas, with which it ultimately coalesces ; it sends off from its under and back part a pair of processes, above which is the transversely extended convexity articulating with the third cervical vertebra. In each vertebra there is a large pneumatic foramen at the middle of the side. The neural arch is confluent with the centrum. The anterior ribs have a bifurcate head. The dentition is thecodont. Genus DIMORPHODON, Ow. Sp. Dimorphodon macronyx, Bkd—The Pterodactyles are distributed into sub-genera, according to well-marked modifi- cations of the jaws and teeth. In the oldest known species, from the lias, the teeth are of two kinds; a few at the fore part of the jaws are long, large, sharp-pointed, with a full elliptical base ; behind them is a close-set row of short, com- pressed, very small lancet-shaped teeth. In a specimen of Dimorphodon macronyx, from the lower lias of Lyme Regis, the skull was 8 inches long, and the expanse of wing about 4 feet. There is no evidence of this species having had a long tail. Genus RAMPHORHYNCHUS, Von Meyer.—In this genus the fore part of each jaw is without teeth, and may have been encased by a horny beak, but behind the edentulous pro- duction there are four or five large and long teeth, fol- lowed by several smaller ones. The tail is long, stiff, and slender. The Ramphorhynchus longicaudus, R. Gemmingi, and R. Minsteri belong to this genus. All are from the lithographic (middle oolitic) slates of Bavaria. Genus PTERODACTYLUS, Cuy.—The jaws are provided with PTEROSAURIA 247 teeth to their extremities ; all the teeth are long, slende sharp-pointed, set well apart. The tail is very short. P. longirostris, Ok.— About 10 inches in length; from lithographic slate at Pappenheim. P. erassirostris, Goldf— About 1 foot long ; same locality (fig. 74). P. Kochii, Wagn. —8 inches long; from the lithographic slates of Kehlheim. P. medius, Mnst.—10 inches long; from the lithographic slates at Meulenhard. P. grandis, Cuv.—l4 inches long ; from lithographic slates of Solenhofen. Two small and probably immature Pterodactyles, showing the short jaws characteristic of such immaturity, have been entered as species under the names of P. brevirostris and P. Meyeri. The latter shows the circle of sclerotic eye-plates. The fragmentary remains of Pterodactyle from British oolite—e. 7., Stonesfield slate, usually entered as Pterodactylus Bucklandi—indicate a species about the size of a raven. The evidences of Pterodactyles from the Wealden strata indicate species about 16 inches in length of body. Those (P. Fittoni and P. Sedgwickii, Ow.) from the greensand forma- tion, near Cambridge, with neck-vertebre 2 inches long, and humeri measuring 3 inches across the proximal joint, had a probable expanse of wing of from 18 to 20 feet. The P. Cuvieri, Ow., and P. compressirostris, Ow., from the chalk of Kent, attained dimensions very little inferior to those of the greensand Pterodactyles. More evidence is yet needed for the establishment of the pterosaurian genus, on the alleged character of but two phalanges in the wing-finger, and for which the term “ Orni- thopterus” has been proposed by Von Meyer. With regard to the range of this remarkable order of flying reptiles in geological time, the present evidence is as follows : The oldest well-known Pterodactyle is the Dimorphodon macro- nyz, of the lower lias; but bones of Pterodactyle have been discovered in the coeval lias of Wirtemberg. The next in point 248 PAL-EONTOLOGY of age is the Dimorphodon Banthensis, from the “ Posidonomyen- schiefer” of Banz in Bavaria, answering to the alum shale of the Whitby lias; then follows the P. Bucklandi from the Stonesfield oolite. Above this come the first-defined and numerous species of Pterodactyle from the lithographic slates of the middle oolitic system in Germany, and from Cirin, on the Rhone. The Pterodactyles of the Wealden are as yet known to us by only a few bones and bone fragments. The largest known species are those from the upper greensand of Cambridgeshire. Finally, the Pterodactyles of the middle chalk of Kent, almost as remarkable for their great size, con- stitute the last forms of flying reptile known in the history of the crust of this earth. Order VII.—THECODONTIA. Char.—Vertebral bodies biconcave: ribs of the trunk long and bent, the anterior ones with a bifureate head: sacrum of three vertebre: limbs ambulatory, femur with a third trochanter. Teeth with the crown more or less compressed, pointed, with trenchant and finely serrate margins: lmplanted in distinct sockets. Genus THECODONTOSAURUS. Sp. Lhecodontosaurus antiquus—In 1836 certain reptilian remains from the “dolomitic conglomerate” at Redland, near Bristol, were described by Messrs. Riley and Stutchbury.* The matrix has been referred to the Permian period ; it is now thought by some good observers to be not older than the triassic. The teeth in these reptilian fossils are lodged in distinct sockets ; they are arranged in a close-set series, slightly de- creasing in size towards the posterior part of the jaw; each ramus of the lower jaw contained twenty-one teeth. These * Geological Transactions, 2d series, vol. v., p. 344. THECODONTIA 249 are conical, rather slender, compressed and acutely pointed, with an anterior and posterior finely-serrated edge, the serra- tures being directed towards the apex of the tooth ; the outer surface is more convex than the inner one; the apex is slightly recurved ; the base of the crown contracts a little to form the fang, which is subeylindrical. Genus PALZOSAURUS, Riley and Stutchbury. In the same formation as contained the jaw and teeth of the Thecodontosau- rus two other teeth were separately discovered, differing from the preceding and from each other ; the crown of one of these teeth measuring nine lines in length and five lines in breadth. It is compressed, pointed with opposite trenchant and serrated margins, but its breadth as compared with its length is so much greater than in the Thecodontosaurus, that upon it has been founded the genus Palwosaurus, and it is distinguished by the specific name of platyodon, from the second tooth, which is referred to the same genus under the name of Palwosaurus cylindrodon. The portion of the tooth of the Palwosaurus cylindrodon which has been preserved, shows that the crown is subcompressed and traversed by two opposite finely-serrated ridges, as in the Thecodontosaurus ; its length is five lines, its breadth at the base two lines. The vertebre associated with the two kinds of teeth above described are sub-biconcave, with the middle of the body more constricted, and terminal articular cavities rather deeper than in Teleosaurus ; but they are chiefly remarkable for the depth of the spinal canal at the middle of each vertebra, where it sinks into the substance of the centrum; thus the canal is wider, vertically, at the middle than at the two ends of the vertebra : an analogous structure, but less marked, obtains in the dorsal vertebrae of the Rhynchosaurus from the new red sandstone of Shropshire. Besides deviating from existing lizards in the thecodont dentition and biconcave vertebree, the Saurians of the dolomitic 250 PALZONTOLOGY conglomerate also differ in having some of their ribs articulated by a head and tubercle to two surfaces of the vertebra, as at the anterior part of the chest in crocodiles and Dinosaurs. The shaft of the rib was traversed, as in the Protorosaur and Rhynchosaur, by a deep longitudinal groove. Some fragmen- tary bones indicate obscurely that the pectoral arch deviated from the crocodilian, and approached the lacertian or enalio- saurian type, in the presence of a clavicle, and in the breadth and complicated form of the coracoid. The sacrum includes at least three vertebree. The humerus appears to have been little more than half the length of the femur, and to have been, like that of the Rhynchosaurus, unusually expanded at the two extremities. The femur is chiefly remarkable for a third process or trochanter, just above the middle of the shaft, which shows a medullary cavity. The distal condyles are flattened, the outer one being the larger; there is a deep depression between them posteriorly, and a very light one anteriorly. The tibia, fibula, and metatarsal bones manifest, like the femur, the fitness of the Saurians for progression on land. The ungual phalanges are sub-compressed, curved downwards, pointed, and impressed on each side with the usual curved canal. The following conclusions may be drawn from the know- ledge at present possessed of the osteology of the Thecodonto- saurus and Paleosaurus: in their thecodont type of dentition, biconcave vertebrae, double-jointed ribs, and proportionate size of the bones of the extremities, they agree with the amphui- ceelian crocodiles ; but they combine a dinosaurian femur, a lacertian form of tooth, and a lacertian structure of the pec- toral and probably pelvic arch with these crocodilian charac- ters; and they have distinctive modifications, such as the moniliform spinal canal, in which, however, the almost con- temporary Rhynchosaur participates. It would be interesting THECODONTIA 5 | to ascertain whether the caudal vertebre are characterized, as in the Thuringian Protorosaur, by double diverging spinous processes. Genus BELODON, Von Meyer. Sp. Belodon Plieningert.—The reptile from the upper white keuper sandstone of Wirtemberg, described by Plieninger,* agrees in its essential characters so closely with the thecodont Saurians of the Bristol conglomerate as to add to the proba- bility of both belonging to the same lower mezozoie period. Three vertebrae are modified to afford adequate attachment to the ilae bones in Belodon, and this additional evidence of affinity to Dinosauria may have characterized also the English Thecodonts. Genus CLADYODON, Ow. Sp. Cladyodon Lloydit—tn the Memoir on the Triassic Red Sandstones of Warwick, by Murchison and Strickland, published in 1840, in the 2d series of the Geological Transac- tions, vol. v., a tooth, which is an extremely rare fossil in those English formations, was figured in pl. xxviii. fig. 6. Having had the opportunity of studying the original speci- men and fragments of some others of seemingly the same species from the new red sandstones of Warwick and Leaming- ton, the writer recognized the affinity of the reptile possessing those teeth to the thecodont reptiles of the Bristol conglomerate, and indicated what appeared to be a generic modification of dental form by the term Cladyodon.t He subsequently received other specimens of the teeth characterizing this genus, which may be described as being two-edged, sub-compressed ; the sides more or less convex ; the edges more or less sharp, and * Wurtemb. naturf. Jahreshefte, viii, Jahrg. 1857, p. 389. Jaeger’s Phytosaurus appears to have been founded on casts of the sockets of the teeth of Belodon. + Reports of the British Association, “ Brit. Fossil Reptiles,’ 1841, p. 155. (See fuller descriptions, with figures, in Odontography, pl. 62, A, fig. 4, a, b.) 252 PALASONTOLOGY frequently finely serrate ; the crown slightly bent sideways, the inner side towards the mouth-cavity. The teeth are sometimes lancet-shaped, through convergence of the edges towards point ; sometimes through one edge being convex and the other concave, the crown is slightly curved or sickle- shaped ; sometimes through use, the point is blunted. The enamel is very thin, smooth, showing under the lens a shght longitudinal striation, forming wrinkles. The dentine is dis- posed in concentric layers ; it is not labyrinthic ; the base of the tooth shows a conical pulp-cavity. These teeth indicate a Saurian about ten feet in length. The writer cannot discern any generic, or even good specific distinctions, between the teeth from the Warwickshire keuper, on which in 1840 he founded the genus Cladyodon, and those from the Wirtemberg keuper, on which M. Von Meyer in 1844 founded the genus Belodon. Both are nearly allied to Paleosaurus. The two following genera are referred provisionally and with doubt to the present order :— Genus BATHYGNATHUS, Leidy. Sp. Bathygnathus borealis, Leidy.—Allied to the Cladyodon and Belodon by the shape of the teeth is the Saurian from the new red sandstone of Prince Edward’s Island, North America, the generic and specific characters of which have been deduced by Dr. Leidy* from a portion of lower jaw, containing seven teeth, but with interspaces from which others have been lost. The depth of the dentary bone is five inches; a peculiarity which suggested the generic name (bathus, deep; gnathos, jaw). The precise mode of implantation of the teeth is not described. The fossil was discovered at a depth of 21 feet from the * Journal of the Academy of Sciences, Philadelphia, vol. ii., p. 327, pl. XXXiil. THECODONTIA 253 surface, in a red sandstone supposed to be of the same age as that of Connecticut, so remarkable for the various and singular foot-marks, referable, some to reptiles, and others to large birds. Genus Prororosaurus, Von. Meyer. Sp. Protorosaurus Spenert, Von M.—The first fossil Saurian on record is that which marks the circumstance by its generic name, and honours its describer by the specific one. The slab of “ copper-slate” from the Permian beds of Eisenach in Thuringia, displaying, either in fossils or impressions, the skull, vertebral column, and bones of the fore foot of the reptile in question, was figured and described by Spener, a physician at Berlin, in 1710.* The original specimen is now in the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, London, where it forms part of the Hunterian series of fossils. It was obtained from a copper-mine near Eisenach, at a depth of 100 feet from the surface. A second specimen, showing the two fore limbs, a hind limb, and part of the trunk, was described by Link in ygis ey Cuvier gives copies of portions of two other specimens in his Ossemens Fossiles.} The healthy, honest mind of Spener is shown by the conclusions which he formed from the state of preservation of his specimen (“ omnia, enim, minutissima, etiam apophyses, spine,” ete.), and from its association with equally well- preserved remains of fishes, and even of the delicate leaves of plants, against the notions of those fossils merely simulating, and never having been, the living organisms which they represented—notions which were then advocated under the sounding phrase of “plastic force,” as they have lately been under that of “prochronism.” Spener’s only doubt was, whether the reptile had been a crocodile or a lizard ; but he * Miscellanea Berolinensia, 4to, i., p. 99, figs. 24 and 25. + Acta Eruditorum, 1718, p. 188, pl. i. t Ed. 8vo, 1836, pl. cexxxvii., figs. 1 and 2. 254 PALEONTOLOGY inclined to the former view, on account of the proportions of the head to the trunk. He then enters upon speculations as to how a crocodile could have come into Germany ; and shows the usual effect of a mind biassed by a hypothetical diluvial catastrophe not demonstrated by observation and inductive research, and to the extent of such bias benumbed in the exercise of the faculty for the acquisition of natural truth. The seven cervical vertebre are proportionally larger than in any known recent or fossil terrestrial or aquatic Saurian ; they resemble in this respect the cervical vertebree of Ptero- dactyles ; the tail is long, and its vertebra differ from those of all other known reptiles, recent or fossil, in having the spinous processes bifurcate, diverging in the direction of the axis of the body.* The muscular power of the neck is indicated by traces of bone-tendons. The dorsal vertebree exceed eighteen in number, and have higher spines than in the modern Monitors ; the dorsal ribs are long, and longitudinally impressed. The hind limb is much longer than the fore limb, and the leg is longer, in proportion to the thigh and foot, than in the Moni- tors. The teeth are sharp-pointed, slender; there appear to be at least twenty in both upper and lower jaws in Spener’s specimen. It may be concluded, from the length and strength of the tail and the peculiar provision for muscular attachments in that part, and from the proportions of the hind limbs, that the Protorosaurus was of aquatic habits, and that the strength of its neck and head, and the sharpness of its teeth, enabled it to seize and overcome the struggles of the active fishes of the waters which deposited the old Thuringian copper-slates. At Spynie and Cummingstorie, in the neighbourhood of Elgin, N. B., in a stratum of a fine-grained whitish sandstone, * A character first pointed out in the writer’s ‘‘Report on British Fossil Reptiles,” Trans. of Brit. Assoc., 1841, p. 155. THECODONTIA 255 cemented by carbonate of lime, situated between “Old Red” and “ Purbeck” formations, and resting conformably upon the former, evidences of Saurian (Crocodilian and Lacertian) reptiles, characteristic of triassic time, have been discovered. The remains of the large reptile, with pitted bony dermal scales, had been, on their first discovery, referred to a genus of fishes by Agassiz, under the name of Staganolepis, or “ pitted- scale,” probably from the belief that the formation belonged to the “Old Red System.” I determined the crocodilian nature of the scales, and the affinity of the reptile to the Thecodonts, in the breadth of the coracoid or pubis as shown by the cast of the bone, at the meeting of the British Associa- tion at Leeds, in September 1858. I have since been favoured by Mr. Duff with a tooth, assoicated with scales of Staganolepis, which is “thecodont” in character, and like that of Cladyodon. In the same sandstone, in the quarry at Cummingstone, near Elgin, a continuous series of thirty-four impressions have been observed. The impressions are in pairs, forming two parallel rows, the hind one being one inch in diameter. I had some years before determined the true saurian nature of the impression of the skeleton of the trunk and part of the head of a small reptile discovered by Mr. Patrick Duff of Elgin, at Spynie, and noticed by him in the “ Elgin Courant” of October 10th, 1851, as evidence of an air-breathing vertebrat in “Old Red Sandstone.” The specimen was submitted by Mr. Duff to my examination, the result of which was given, Dec. 15, 1851, in the “ Literary Gazette” of that week, as follows :— “Tt is the impression, in two pieces, of a grey variety of the old red sandstone, of a long and slender four-footed vertebrate animal, four inches and a half in length, clearly belonging, by the form, proportions, and positions of the scapular and pelvic arches, and their appended limbs, to the reptilian class. The osseous substance has disappeared ; the cavities in the sandstone which contained it remain, stained 256 PALAONTOLOGY by a deposit of an ochreous tint. The impressions are so well defined, as clearly to show that there were twenty-six vertebrae between the skull and sacrum, two sacral vertebra, and thirteen caudal vertebrée, before the tail disappears by dipping into an unexposed part of the matrix. Impressions of twenty-one pairs of ribs are preserved, all very slender, short where they commence near the head, but rapidly gaining length as they are placed further back. The cervical and anterior ribs are expanded, but not bifurcate, at their vertebral end ; all the ribs articulate close to the bodies of the vertebree. In the crocodilian reptiles the anterior ribs are bifurcate, and the posterior ones, with a simple head, articulate with long diapophyses. The distinctive characters of the batrachian skeleton are the double occipital condyle ; ribs wanting, or very short and subequal; a single sacral vertebra, and rib- shaped ilium. The first character cannot be determined, the occipital articulation not being preserved in the fossil. Instead of the second character, the fossil shows ribs of varied length, and most of them much longer than in the salamanders, newts, or any known Batrachian. With regard to the third character, the impression in the matrix clearly shows two sacral vertebrae and a short subquadrate pelvis. “Both the humerus and the femur show the lacertian sigmoid shape, and near equality of length, which distinguish them alike from the crocodilian and batrachian orders ; they are likewise, as in lizards, relatively longer than in the newts and salamanders. Near the imperfect impression of the head may be seen the hollow bases of some large, slightly-compressed, conical teeth, which also tell for the saurian and against the batrachian nature of this ancient reptile. I propose to call it Leptoplewron lacertinum.” Many particulars of minor import, bearing upon the more immediate affinities of this most rare * Aemtés, slender; mwAevpdy, rib; for this compound we have the authority of Poikilopleuron, already applied to an extinct genus of Saurians. DINOSAURIA 257 and interesting fossil, have been noted, and will be given, with the figures, in my History of British Fossil Reptiles, for which work Mr. Duff has kindly consented to place the specimen at my disposal. In the meanwhile, I beg to offer the above précis of the main characters of the fossil—RICHARD OWEN.” Other palzontologists regarded the fossil as a batrachian reptile ; but no evidence, osteological or dental, has been pointed out in support of this view.” With regard to the geological age of the calcareous sand- stone containing Staganolepis and Leptopleuron, the author has remarked, in the article “ Palzontology,’ when the belief of some eminent geologists in the Devonian age of the stratum is quoted—* As yet, however, no characteristic Devonian or ‘Old Red’ fossils of any class have been discovered associated with the foregoing evidences of reptiles, which, according to the determination of strata by characteristic fossils, would belong to the secondary or mezozoic period.”> It is, most probably, of triassic age. Order VII1.—DINOSAURIA. Char.—Cervical and anterior dorsal vertebree with par- and di-apophyses, articulating with bifurcate ribs ; dorsal vertebree with a neural platform, sacral vertebrae ex- * The following notice of this determination of the fossil will be found in the Atheneum of Dec. 13, in the title of a paper to be read at the ensuing meeting of the Geological Society :—‘‘ Notice of the occurrence of Fossil Foot- Tracks, and the Remains of a Batrachian Reptile, in the Old Red Sandstone of Morayshire, by Capt. Brickenden and Dr. Mantell.” The belief in the antiquity of the stratum showing the impression of the skeleton—remains of the skeleton there are none—appears to have weighed with these gentlemen in placing the animal at the bottom of the air-breathing series of vertebrals, as well as in pro- posing for it the name of Telerpeton, or ‘last of reptiles ;’’ (reAos, the end or issue of a thing, or TeAeios, having reached its end, and epzeror, a reptile), at least as traced backwards in time. The term Leptopleuron has, however, the priority of publication: being also the result of a truer exposition of the nature and affinities of the fossil, and free from the signification of its appearance in time, it will be, probably, preferred. + Encyclopedia Britannica, vol. xxii., p. 130. S 258 PALZONTOLOGY ceeding two in number ; body supported on four strong unguiculate limbs. The well-ossified vertebree, large and hollow lmb-bones, and tritrochanterian femora of the thecodont reptiles of the Bristol conglomerate, together with the structure of the sacral vertebree in the allied Belodon, indicate the beginning, at the triassic period, of an order of Reptilia which acquired its full development and typical characteristics in the oolitic period. Genus SCELIDOSAURUS, Ow.—By this name is indicated a Saurian with large and hollow limb-bones, with a femur, having the third imner trochanter, and with metacarpal and phalangial bones, adapted for movement on land. The fossils occur in the lias at Charmouth, Dorsetshire. Genus MEGALOSAURUS, Bkld—The true dinosaurian cha- racters of this reptile have been established by the discovery of the sacrum, which consists of five vertebra, interlocked by the alternating position of neural arch and centrum. The articular surfaces of the free vertebra are nearly flat; the neural arch develops a platform which in the anterior dorsals supports very long and strong spines. The compressed piercing and trenchant form of tooth which characterises the existing varanian lizards was manifested by the Megalosaurus. The specimen which is most illustra- tive of the dental peculiarities of this gigantic reptile is a portion of the lower jaw with a few teeth. The first cha- racter which attracts attention in this fossil is the inequality in the height of the outer and inner alveolar walls ; a similar inequality characterizes the jaws of almost all the existing lizards. But in these the oblique groove, so bounded, to which the bases of the developed teeth are anchylosed, is much more shallow, and is relatively wider ; and the teeth in all the stages of growth are completely exposed when the gum has been removed. DINOSAURIA 259 In the Megalosaurus the greater relative development of the inner alveolar wall, as compared with the dentigerous part of the jaw in existing Saurians, narrows the dental groove, and covers a greater proportion of the bases of the teeth, besides concealing more or less completely the germs of their suc- cessors. Moreover, instead of the mere shallow impressions upon the inner side of the outer alveolar plate to which the teeth are attached in modern lizards, there are distinct sockets formed by bony partitions connecting the outer with the inner alveolar wall in the jaw of the Megalosaurus. These parti- tions rise from the outer side of the inner alveolar wall in the form of triangular vertical plates of bone, and from the middle of the outer side of each plate a bony partition crosses to the outer parapet, completing the alveoli of the fully-formed or more advanced teeth ; the series of triangular plates forming a kind of zig-zag buttress along the inner side of those alveoli. The outer parapet rises an inch higher than the inner one. Fig. 75 exhibits a portion of another jaw of the Megalo- saurus, also from Stonesfield oolite, from which the inner wall has been removed to show the germ of a successional tooth ¢, about to sueceed an old tooth a, which has been broken, and near to which is a newly-formed tooth, 6, coming into place. These teeth will exemplify the shape of the crown of the-tooth, which is subcompressed, shehtly recurved, sharp edged, and sharp-pointed, the edges being minutely serrated ; the edge upon the convex or front border 6 becomes blunted as it descends about two-thirds of the way towards the base of the tooth ; that upon the concave hinder border @ is continued to the base. The lower half of the crown is thicker towards the fore margin than towards the hind one; so that a transverse section, like that above, a, in fig. 75, gives a narrow oval form pointed behind. At the upper half of the crown the sides slope more equally from the middle thickest part to both margins, and the section is a narrow pointed ellipse. The 260 PALAONTOLOGY crown is covered by a smooth and polished enamel, which Fig. 75. Section of jaw with teeth of the Megalosawrus Bucklandi, nat. size. DINOSAURIA 261 wholly forms the marginal serrations. The base of the tooth is coated with a smooth, lighter-coloured cement, forming a thin layer, and becoming a little thicker towards the implanted end of the tooth. The remains of the pulp are converted into osteo-dentine in the basal part of the completely formed tooth. Moderately magnified, the surface of the enamel pre- sents a finely wrinkled appearance. The marginal serrations show, under a somewhat higher power, that the points are directed towards the apex of the tooth—a structure well adapted for dividing the tough tissues of the saurian integument. The main body of the tooth consists of dentine, of that hard unvascular kind of which the same part of the teeth of existing crocodiles and most mammals is composed. No part of the dentine is pervaded by medullary canals, as in the Tguanodon. A series of teeth from individual Megalosaurs, of different ages, are preserved in the British Museum and in the geological museum at Oxford; although differmg in size, they preserve the characteristic form above described. In one specimen the point of the crown and the trenchant margins have been rubbed down to a smooth obtuse surface ; it seems to have come from the hinder part of the dental series, where the teeth may have been smaller and less sharp, or more able to be blunted by a greater share in the imperfect act of mastication, than the teeth in advance. Successional teeth in different stages of growth are shown in the original portion of jaw of the Megalosaur in the Oxford museum. Some, more advanced, show their crowns projecting from alveoli already formed by the plates extending across from the triangular processes before described : vacant sockets, from which fully formed teeth have escaped, occur, generally in the intervals between these more advanced teeth. The summits of less developed teeth are seen protruding at the inner side of the basal interspaces of the triangular plate, 262 PALASONTOLOGY between them and the true internal alveolar parapet. There can be no doubt that, in the course of the development of these teeth, corresponding changes take place in the jaw itself, by which new triangular plates and alveolar partitions are formed, as the old ones become absorbed, analogous to those concomi- tant changes in the growth and form of the teeth, alveoh, and jaws, which take place in so striking a degree im the elephant. The pecuharity of the Megalosaur, as compared with the crocodiles and lizards which have a like endless succession of teeth, is the deeper position of the successional tooth (fig. 75, c), in relation to the one (a) it is destined to replace, and the ereat proportion of the tooth which is formed before it is pro- truded. The anterior tooth a in this specimen shows at the inner side of its base the commencing absorption stimulated by the eneroaching capsule of the successional tooth ¢ below, the crown of which is completed externally, though not consoli- dated. On one of the fractured margins of this piece of jaw, a part of the basal shell of an absorbed and shed tooth remains, with part of the root of the successional tooth, which has risen into place, but which shows its base full of matrix, the pulp not having been calcified at that period of the tooth’s growth. In the proportion of the successional teeth which is formed in the formative cavity in the substance of the jaw, the Mega- losaur offers a closer resemblance to the mammalian class than do any of the recent or extinct crocodilian or lacertian reptiles. But the evidence of uninterrupted and frequent succession of the teeth in the Megalosaur is unequivocal ; and this part of the dental economy of the great carnivorous reptile is strictly analogous to that which governs the same system in the existing members of the class. The different forms of the teeth at different stages of protrusion did not fail to attract the attention of the gifted discoverer of the great predatory saurian, in whose words this notice of its dentition imay be fitly concluded :— DINOSAURIA 263 “Tn the structure of these teeth we find a combinacion of mechanical contrivances analogous to those which are adopted in the construction of the knife, the sabre, and the saw. When first protruded above the gum, the apex of each tooth presented a double cutting edge of serrated enamel. In this stage its position and line of action were nearly vertical ; and its form, like that of the two-edged point of a sabre, cutting equally on each side. As the tooth advanced in growth, it became curved backwards in the form of a pruning-knife, and the edge of serrated enamel was continued downwards to the base of the inner and cutting side of the tooth, whilst on the outer side a similar edge descended, but a short distance from the point ; and the convex portion of the tooth became blunt and thick, as the back of a knife is made thick for the purpose of pro- ducing strength. The strength of the tooth was further increased by the expansion of its side. Had the serrature continued along the whole of the blunt and convex portion of the tooth, it would in this position have possessed no useful cutting power ; it ceased precisely at the point beyond which it could no longer be effective. In a tooth thus formed for cutting along its concave edge, each movement of the jaw combined the power of the knife and saw; whilst the apex, in making the first incision, acted like the two-edged point of a sabre. The backward curvature of the full-grown teeth enabled them to retain, like barbs, the prey which they had penetrated. In these adaptations we see contrivances which human ingenuity has also adopted in the preparation of various instruments of art.” * The oldest known beds from which any remains of Megalo- saurus have been obtained are the lower oolites at Selsby Hill, and Chipping-Norton, Gloucestershire. Abundant and charac- teristic remains occur in the Stonesfield slate, Oxfordshire. Teeth of this genus have been found in the Cornbrash and Bath oolite ; both teeth and bones are common in the Wealden * R Juckland, ‘‘ Bridgewater Treatise,” p. 236. 264 PALZONTOLOGY strata and Purbeck limestone. Some of these fossils indicate a reptile of at least 30 feet in length. Genus HyL&osaurus, Mtll—Remains of the Dinosaurian so called have hitherto been found only in Wealden strata, as at Tilgate, Bolney, and Battle. The most instructive evidence is that which was exposed by the quarreymen of the Wealden stone at Tilgate, and was obtained and described by Mantell in 1832. It consisted of a block of stone measuring 44 feet by 23 feet (fig. 76), and included the following parts of the Vig. 76. Hyleosaurus (Wealden). skeleton in almost natural juxtaposition :—1o, auterior verte- bree, the first supporting part of the base of the skull ; several ribs, 4, 4; some enormous dermal bony spines, 5, 6, 6, which supported a strong defensive crest along the back ; two cora- coids, 7, 7; scapule, 8,3; and some detached vertebrae and fragments of bones. In 1841 the writer showed that the sacrum was dinosaurian, and included five vertebre. The teeth are relatively small, close-set, thecodont in in- plantation, with subcylindrical fang and a subcompressed shehtly expanded and incurved crown, with the borders straight and converging to the blunt apex. They indicate rather a mixed or vegetable diet than a carnivorous one. The DINOSAURIA 265 skin was defended by subcireular bony scales. The length of the Hylzosaur may have been 25 feet. Genus IauANopon, Mtll—Remains of the large herbivorous reptiles of this genus have been found in Wealden and neoco- mian (greensand) strata. Femora, four feet in length, showing the third inner trochanter, have been discovered. The sacrum included five, and in old animals six, vertebre ; the claw-bones are broad, flat, and obtuse. There were only three well- developed toes on the hind foot ; and singular large tridactyle impressions, discovered by Beccles in the Wealden at Hastings, have been conjectured to have been made by the Iguanodon. With vertebre, subconcave at both articular extremities, having, in the dorsal region, lofty and expanded neural arches, and doubly articulated ribs, and characterized in the sacral region by their unusual number and complication of structure ; with a Lacertian pectoral arch, and unusually large bones of the hind limbs, excavated by large medullary cavities, and adapted for terrestrial progression ;—the Jywanodon was distin- guished by teeth, resembling in shape those of the Iguana, but in structure differig from the teeth of that and every other known reptile, and unequivocally indicating the former exis- tence in the Dinosaurian order of a gigantic representative of the small group of living lizards which subsist on vegetable substances. The important difference which the fossil teeth presented in the form of their grinding surface was pointed out by Cuvier,* of whose description Dr. Mantell adopted a condensed view in his Illustrations of the Geology of Sussex, 4to, 1827, p- 72. The combination of this dental distinction with the vertebral and costal characters, which prove the Jguanodon not to have belonged to the same group of Saurians as that which includes the Iguana and other modern lizards, rendered it highly desirable to ascertain by the improved modes of investi- * Ossemens Fosviles, 1824, vol. v., pt. i1., p. 351. 266 PALAONTOLOGY gating dental structure, the actual amount of correspondence between the Zguanodon and Iguana in this respect. This has been done in the author’s general description of the teeth of reptiles,* from which the following notice is abridged :—The teeth of the Iguanodon (fig. 77), though resembling most closely those of the Iguana, do not present an exact magnified image of them, but differ in the greater relative thickness of the crown, its more com- plicated external surface, and, still more essentially, in a modification of the Wis 2i- Front and side views of a tooth of the lower jaw of Iternal — structure, the Iguanodon, nat. size. by which the Igua- nodon equally deviates from every other known reptile. As in the Iguana, the base of the tooth is elongated and contracted ; the crown expanded and smoothly convex on the inner side; when first formed it is acuminated, compressed, its sloping sides serrated, and one surface, external in the upper jaw, internal in the lower jaw, is traversed by a median ‘ longitudinal ridge, and coated by a layer of enamel ; but beyond this point the description of the tooth of the Jgua- nodon indicates characters peculiar to that genus. In most of the teeth that have hitherto been found, three longitudinal ridges traverse the ridged surface of the crown, one on each side of the median primitive ridge; these are separated from each other and from the serrated margins of the crown by four wide and smooth longitudinal grooves. The relative * Odontography, pt. ii., p. 249; Transactions of the British Association, 1838. DINOSAURIA 267 width of these grooves varies in different teeth ; sometimes a fourth small longitudinal ridge is developed on the ridged side of the crown. The marginal serrations which, at first sight, appear to be simple notches, as in the Iguana, present under a low magnifying power (fig. 78), the form of transverse ridges, themselves notched, so as to resemble the mammulated margins of the unworn plates of the elephant’s grinder ; slight grooves lead from the interspaces of these notches upon the sides of the marginal ridges. These ridges Fig. 78. or dentations do not extend beyond the expanded Marginal ridges on the tooth of the Iguano- continued farther down, especially the median mg”. ones, which do not subside till the fang of the tooth begins to assume its subcylindrical form. The tooth at first increases both in breadth and thickness ; then it diminishes in breadth, but its thickness goes on increasing ; in the larger and fully formed teeth, the fang decreases in every diameter, and some- times tapers almost to a point. The smooth unbroken surface of such fangs indicates that they did not adhere to the inner side of the maxille, as in the Iguana, but were placed in separate alveoli, as in the Crocodile and Megalosaur ; such support would appear, indeed, to be indispensable to teeth so worn by mastication as those of the [guanodon. The apex of the tooth soon begins to be worn away, and it would appear, by many specimens, that the teeth were retained until nearly the whole of the crown had yielded to the daily abrasion. In these teeth, however, the deep excavation of the remaining fang plainly bespeaks the progress of the successional tooth prepared to supply the place of the worn-out grinder. At the earlier stages of abrasion a sharp edge is maintained at the ridged part of the tooth by means of the enamel which covers that surface of the crown ; the prominent ridges upon that surface give a sinuous contour to the middle of the cutting part of the crown; the longitudinal ridges are 268 PALZONTOLOGY edge, whilst its sides are jagged by the lateral serrations. The adaptation of this admirable dental instrument to the cropping and comminution of such tough vegetable food as the Clathrarie and similar plants, which are found buried with the Iguanodon, is pointed out by Dr. Buckland, with his usual felicity of illustration, in his Bridgewater Treatise, vol. 1. p. 246. When the crown is worn away beyond the enamel, it pre- sents a broad and nearly horizontal grinding surface (fig. 79), and now another dental substance is brought into use, to give an inequality to that surface ; this is the ossified remnant of the pulp, which, being firmer than the surrounding dentine, forms a slight transverse ridge im the middle of the grinding surface ; the tooth in this stage has Fig. 79. A worn tooth of exchanged the functions of an incisor for that the Iguanodon. of g molar, and is prepared to give the final compression, or comminution, to the coarsely divided vege- table matters. The marginal edge of the incisive condition of the tooth and the median ridge of the molar stage are more effectually established by the introduction of a modification into the texture of the dentine, by which it is rendered softer than in the existing Iguanze and other reptiles, and more easily worn away. ‘This is effected by an arrest of the calcifying process along certain cylindrical tracts of the pulp, which is thus con- tinued, in the form of medullary canals, analogous to those in the soft dentine of the Megatherium’s grinder, from the central cavity, at pretty regular intervals, parallel with the dentinal tubes, nearly to the surface of the tooth. The medullary canals radiate from the internal (upper jaw) or external (lower jaw) sides of the pulp-cavity, and are confined to the dentine forming the corresponding walls of the tooth. Their diameter is =.,th of an inch. They are separated by pretty regular intervals, equal to from six to eight of their own diameters. They DINOSAURIA 269 sometimes divide once in their course. Each medullary canal is surrounded by a clear space. Its cavity was occupied in the section described by a substance of a deeper yellow colour than the rest of the dentine. The dentinal tubes present a diameter of 5th of an inch, with interspaces equal to about four of their diameters. At the first part of their course, near the pulp-cavity, they are bent in strong undulations, but afterwards proceed in slight and regular primary curves, or in nearly straight lines to the periphery of the tooth. The secondary undulations of each tooth are regular, and very minute. The branches, both primary and secondary, of the dentinal tubes are sent off from the concave side of the main inflections ; the minute secondary branches are remark- able at certain parts of the tooth for their flexuous ramifica- tions, anastomoses, and dilatations into minute calcigerous cells, which take place along nearly parallel lines for a limited extent of the course of the main tubes. The appearance of interruption in the course of the dentinal tubes, occasioned by this modification of their secondary branches, is represented by the irregularly dotted tracts in the figure. This modifica- tion must contribute, with the medullary canals, though in a minor degree, in producing that inequality of texture and of density in the dentine, which renders the broad and thick tooth of the Iguanodon wore efficient as a triturating instrument. The enamel which invests the harder dentine, forming the ridged side of the tooth, presents the same peculiar dirty brown colour, when viewed by transmitted light, as im most other teeth. Very minute and scarcely perceptible undulating fibres, running vertically to the surface of the tooth, form the only discernible structure in it. The remains of the pulp in the contracted cavity of the completely formed tooth are converted into a dense but true osseous substance, characterized by minute elliptical radiated cells, whose long axis is parallel with the plane of the concen- 270 PALRONTOLOGY tric lamellae, which surround the few and contracted medullary canals in this substance. The microscopical examination of the structure of the Iguanodon’s teeth thus contributes additional evidence of the perfection of their adaptation to the offices to which their more obvious characters had indicated them to have been destined. To preserve a trenchant edge, a partial coating of enamel is applied ; and, that the thick body of the tooth might be worn away in a more regularly oblique plane, the dentine is rendered softer as it recedes from the enamelled edge, by the simple contrivance of arresting the calcifying process along certain tracts of the opposite wall of the tooth. When attrition has at length exhausted the enamel, and the tooth is limited to its function as a grinder, a third substance has been prepared in the ossified remnant of the pulp to add to the efficiency of the dental instrument in its final capacity. And if the follow- ing reflections were natural and just, after a review of the external characters of the dental organs of the [guanodon, their truth and beauty become still more manifest as our knowledge of their subject becomes more particular and exact — “In this curious piece of animal mechanism we find a varied adjustment of all parts and proportions of the tooth, to the exercise of pecuhar functions, attended by compensations adapted to shifting conditions of the instrument during different stages of its consumption. And we must estimate the works of nature by a different standard from that which we apply to the productions of human art, if we can view such examples of mechanical contrivance, united with so much economy of expenditure, and with such anticipated adaptations to vary- ing conditions in their application, without feeling a profound conviction that all this adjustment has resulted from design and high intelligence.” All trace of dinosaurian reptiles disappears in the lower eretaceous beds. CROCODILIA bo ~] id Order 1X.—CROCODILIA. Char—tTeeth in a single row, implanted in distinct sockets ; external nostril single and terminal or sub-terminal. Anterior trunk vertebree with par- and di-apophyses, and bifurcate ribs ; sacral vertebrae two, each supporting its own neural arch. Skin protected by bony, usually pitted plates. Sub- Order 1.—AMPHICGELIA.* Crocodiles closely resembling in general form the long and slender-jawed kind of the Ganges called “ gavial” or “ gharrial,” existed from the time of the deposition of the lower las. Their teeth were similarly long, slender, and sharp, adapted for the prehension of fishes, and their skeleton was modified for more efficient progress in water by the vertebral surfaces being slightly concave, by the hind limbs being relatively larger and stronger, and by the orbits forming no prominent obstruction to progress through water. From the nature of the deposits containing the remains of the so-modified croco- diles, they were marine. The fossil crocodile from the Whitby has, described and figured in the Philosophical Transactions, 1758, p. 688, is the type of these amphiccelian species. They have been grouped under the following generic heads :—Teleo- saurus, Steneosaurus, Mystriosaurus, Macrospondylus, Masso- spondylus, to which must be added Peedloplewron, Pelagosaurus, MKolodon, Suchosaurus, Goniopholis. Species of the above genera range from the lias to the chalk inclusive. Suchosaurus of the Wealden is characterized by the com- pressed crown and trenchant margins of the teeth ; Gonzopholis, of the Purbeck beds, by some of the dermal scales having the same peg-and-pit interlocking as in the scales of the ganoid fish in fig. 52. * Amphi, both; koilos, hollow; the vertebra being hollowed at both ends. bo ) penetrated the interior of the old one (fig. 80, @) than another germ ¢, begins to be developed from the angle between the base of the young tooth and the inner alveolar process ; or in the same relative position as that in which its predecessor began to rise, and the processes of succession and displacement are carried on CGROCODILIA DTG uninterruptedly throughout the long life of these cold-blooded carnivorous reptiles. From the period of exclusion from the egg, the teeth of the crocodile succeed each other in the vertical direction ; none are added from behind forwards like the true molars in Mam- malia. It follows, therefore, that the number of the teeth of the crocodile is as great when it first sees the light as when it has acquired its full size ; and, owing to the rapidity of their succession, the cavity at the base of the fully-formed tooth is never consolidated. The fossil jaws of the extinct Crocodilians demonstrate that the same law regulated the succession of the teeth at the ancient epochs when those highly-organised reptiles prevailed in greatest numbers, and under the most varied generic and specific modifications, as at the present period, when they are reduced to a single family composed of so few and slightly varied species as to have constituted in the system of Linnzeus a small fraction of the genus Lacerta. The large, thick, externally ridged or pitted scales, though common to the Crocodilian order, are not peculiar to them. The labyrinthodont Anisopus,* the thecodont Staganolepis, the lacertian Sawrillus, have left similar petrified scales. Crocodilians with cup-and-ball vertebree, like those of living species, first make their appearance in the greensand of North America (Crocodilus basisissus and C. basitruncatus). In Europe their remains are first found in the tertiary strata. Such remains from the plastic clay of Meudon have been referred to C. isorhynchus, C. celorhynchus, C. Becquereli. In the calcaire grossier of Argenton and Castelnaudry have been found the C. Rallinati and C. Dodunii. In the coeval eocene London clay at Sheppy Island the entire skull and charac- teristic parts of the skeleton of C. foliapiecus and C. Champ- * “Lubyrinthodon seutulatus,’’ Trans. Geol. Soc , 2d series, vol. vi. p. 538, pl. 46. 278 PALEONTOLOGY soides occur. In the somewhat later eocene beds at Brackles- ham occur the remains of the gavial-like C. Dixoni. In the Hordle beds have been found the C. Hastingsie, with short and broad jaws; and also a true alligator (C. Hantoniensis). It is remarkable that forms of proccelian Crocodilia, now geo- graphically restricted—the gavial to Asia, and the alligator to America—should have been associated with true crocodiles, and represented by species which lived, durimg nearly the same geological period, in rivers flowing over what now forms the south coast of England. Many species of proccelian Crocodilia have been founded on fossils from miocene and phocene tertiaries. One of these, of the gavial sub-genus (C. erassidens), from the Sewalik tertiary, was of gigantic dimensions, Order X.—LACERTILIA. (Lizards, Monitors, Iqguane.) Char.—V ertebree proccelian, with a single transverse process on each side, and with single-headed ribs ; sacral verte- bree not exceeding two : two external nostrils; a foramen parietale in most. Small vertebrze of the lacertian type have been found in the Wealden of Sussex. They are more abundant, and are associated with other characteristic parts of the species, im the cretaceous strata. On such evidence have been based the Raphiosaurus subulidens, the Coniasaurus crassidens, and the Dolichosaurus longicollis.* The last-named species is remark- able for the length and slenderness of its trunk and neck, indicative of a tendency to the ophidian form. But the most remarkable and extreme modification of the lacertian type in the cretaceous period is that manifested by the huge species, of which a cranium five feet long was discovered in the upper * Owen, “ History of British Fossil Reptiles,” 4to, pp. 173-183, pls. 2, 8, 9. OPHIDIA 279 chalk of St. Peter’s Mount, near Maestricht, in 1780. The vertebree are gently concave in front, and convex behind : there are thirty-four between the head and the base of the tail; a sacrum seems to have been wanting. The caudal vertebree have long neural and heemal spines, both of which arches coalesce with the centrum, and formed the basis of a powerful swimming tail. The teeth are anchylosed to emi- nences along the alveolar border of the jaw, according to the acrodont type. There is a row of small teeth on each pterygoid bone. For this genus of huge marine lizard the name Mosa- saurus has been proposed. Besides the M. Hofmanni of Maestricht, there is a M. Maximilliani, from the eretaceous beds of North America, and a smaller species, M. gracilis, from the chalk of Sussex.” The Ledodon anceps of the Norfolk chalk was a nearly allied marine Lacertian.t Small pleurodont lizards, known at present only by jaws and teeth, with associated pitted scutes, but which may have had proccelian vertebre, have been discovered in Purbeck beds, and have been referred to the genera Saurillus, Macel- lodus, ete. Many small terrestrial Lacertians have left their remains in European tertiary formations. Order XI.— OPHIDIA. (Slow-worms, Serpents.) Charv.—Vertebree very numerous, proccelian, with a sinele v ? oO transverse process on each side ; no sacrum ; no visible limbs. The order Ophidia, as it is characterized in the system of Cuvier, requires to be divided into two sections, according to the nature of the food, and the consequent modification of the jaws and teeth. Certain species, which subsist on worms, * Op. cit, ps 185. pls) ft, 2, 9. F Op. cit., p. 195, pl. 10. p p >] : | 1 ¢ Quart. Journ, Geol. Soc., No. 40, 1854, p. 420. 280 PALASONTOLOGY insects, and other small invertebrate animals, have the tyin- panic pedicle of the lower jaw immediately and immoveably articulated to the walls of the cranium. The lateral branches of the lower jaw are fixed together at the symphysis, and are opposed by the usual vertical movement to a similarly com- plete maxillary arch above ; these belong to the genera Am- phisbena and Anguis of Linneus, the latter represented by our common slow-worm. The rest of the Ophidians, including the ordinary serpents and eonstrictors, which form the typical members, and by far the greatest proportion, of the order, prey upon living animals of frequently much greater diameter than their own; and the maxillary apparatus is conformably and peculiarly modified to permit of the requisite distension of the soft parts surrounding the mouth, and the transmission of their prey to the digestive cavity. The earliest evidence of an ophidian reptile has been obtained from the eocene clay at Sheppy ; it consists of ver- tebree indicating a serpent of 12 feet in length, the Palwophis toliapicus. Still larger, more numerous, and better preserved vertebrae have been obtained from the eocene beds at Brackles- ham, on which the Palwophis typheus and P. porcatus have been founded.* These remains indicate a boa-constrictor-like snake, of about 20 feet in length. Ophidian vertebree of much smaller size, from the newer eocene at Hordwell, support the species called Palerya rhombifer and P. depressus.t Fossil verte- bree from a tertiary formation near Salonica have been referred to a serpent, probably poisonous, under the name of Laophis.t A species of true viper has been discovered in the miocene deposits at Sansans, South of France. Three fossil Ophidians from the Gningen slate have been referred to Coluber arenatus, C. Kargit, aud C. Owenti. * History of British Fossil Reptiles, pp. 139-149, pls. 2 and 3. + Op. cit., p. 149, pl. 2, figs. 29-32. { “Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society,” vol. xiii, p. 196, pl. iv. CHELONIA 281 Order XII.—CHELONIA. ( Tortoises and Turtles.) Char.—Trunk-ribs broad, flat, suturally united, forming with vertebree and sternum an expanded thoracie abdominal case, into which, as into a portable chamber, the head, tail, and limbs can, usually, be withdrawn. No teeth: external nostril single. reference has already been made to the impressions in sandstones of triassic age in Dumfriesshire, referred by Dr. Duncan to tortoises. These impressions have been finely illustrated in the great work by Sir William Jardine on the footprints at Corncockle Muir. ‘The earliest proof of chelonian life which the writer has obtained has been afforded by the skull of the Chelone planiceps, from the Portland stone ; and by the carapace and plastron of the extinct and singularly- modified emydian genera T'retosternon and Pleurosternon™ (fig. 82). In the first genus the plastron retains the central vacuity ; in the second genus an additional pair of bones is interposed between the hyosternals (is) and hyposternals (ps). In the specimen figured (fig. 82), the plastron, and the under surface of the marginal pieces (2 to 12) of the carapace, of Pleurosternon emarginatum are shown. This fine Chelonite is now in the British Museum. True marine turtles (Chelone Campert, C. obovata, C. pulchriceps) have left their remains in cretaceous beds.t The emydian Protemys is from the greensand near Maidstone.t} The eocene tertiary deposits of Britain yield rich evidences of marine, estuary, and fresh-water tortoises. More species of true turtle have left their remains in the London clay at the mouth of the Thames than are now known to exist in the * Monograph of the Fossil Chelonian Reptiles of the Wealden and Purbeck Limestones, 4to, 1853, Paleeontographical Society. + Owen, “Hist. Brit. Fossil Reptiles,” pp. 155-168, pls. 41-46. t Op. cit., p. 169, pl. 47. 282 PALRONTOLOGY whole world; and all the eocene Chelones are extinct. One of them (C. gigas, Ow.) attained unusual dimensions ; the skull, now in the British Museum, measures upwards of a foot across its back part.* The estuary genus Jrionyr (soft Fig. 82. Pleurosternon emarginatum (Purbeck). turtle) is represented by many beautiful species in the upper eocene at Hordwell ;} the fresh-water genera Hmys and Platemys by as many species, both at Sheppy and Hordwell. In the pliocene of Giningen remains of a species of Chelydra have been discovered ; this generic form is now confined to America. * The upper end of the femur from Sheppy, in t. xxix. of Monograph of Fossil Reptilia of the London Clay, Paleontographical Society, 1850, belongs to this species. See also “ Hist. of Brit. Foss. Reptiles,” pp. 10-40, pls. 1-22. + Op. cit., pp. 50-60, pls. 26-33. REPTILIA 283 Remains of land-tortoises (Testudo, Brong.) indicate several extinct species in the miocene and pliocene formations of continental Europe. Strata of like age in the Sewalik Hills have revealed the carapace of a tortoise 20 feet in length ; it is called by its discoverers, Cautley and Falconer, Colossochelys atlas. The same locality has also afforded the interesting evidence of a species of Emys (E. tectum, Gray) having con- tinued to exist from the (probably miocene) period of the Sivatherium to the present day. Order X1II.—BATRACHIA. (Toads, Frogs, Newts.) Char.—Vertebre biconcave (Siren), proceelian (Rana), or opisthoceelian (Pipa): pleurapophyses short, straight. Two occipital condyles ; two vomerine bones, in most dentigerous : no scales or scutes. Larvee with gills, in most deciduous. It is only in tertiary and post-tertiary strata that extinct species, referable to still existing genera or families of this order, have been found. The reptiles with amphibian or batrachian characters, of the carboniferous and triassic periods, combined those characters with others which gave them dis- tinctions of ordinal value; they illustrated, indeed, rather a retention of the more general cold-blooded vertebrate type, with concomitant piscine and saurian features, than any near affinity with the more specially modified naked or soft-skinned reptiles to which the name Batrachia is given in zoological catalogues of existing species. Of the tailless or “anourous” Batrachia, toads of extinct species (Palewophrynos Gessneri and P. dissimilis) have been discovered in the GEningen beds ; and frogs, more abundantly, in both miocene and pliocene deposits of France and Germany. The batracholites from the tertiary lignites of the “ Siebenge- 284 PALHONTOLOGY birge,” near Bonn, show different stages of transformation of the Rana diluviana, Gdf. Tertiary shales from Bombay have made known to the author the small fossil Rana pusilla. Of the salamander family, the most noted fossil is that which was referred, when first discovered at GEningen in 1726, to the human species, as Homo diluvii testis. Cuvier demon- strated its near affinities to the water-salamander (Menopom«a) of the United States: more recently a living species of sala- mander has been discovered in Japan which equals in size the fossil in question—A ndrias Scheuchzerc. A retrospect of the foregoing outline of the paleeontology of the class of reptiles shows that, unlike that of fishes, it is now on the wane ; and that the period when Reptilia flourished under the greatest diversity of forms, with the highest grade of structure, and of the most colossal size, is the mezozoie. The progress of air-breathing vertebrates, graduating by close transitional steps from the water-breathing class, has been checked, as if it had been unequal to the exigencies and life- capacities of the present state of the planet. Reptiles have been superseded by air-breathers of higher types, which cannot be directly derived from the class of fishes. A more general- ized vertebrate structure is illustrated, in the extinct reptiles, by the affinities to ganoid fishes shown by the Ganocephala, Labyrinthodontia, and Ichthyopterygia ; by the affinities of the Pterosauria to birds, and by the approximation of the Dino- sauria to Mammals. It is manifested by the combination of modern crocodilian, chelonian, and lacertian characters in the Cryptodontia and Diecynodontia ; and by the combined croco- dilian and lacertian characters in the Thecodontia and Saurop- terygia. Even the Chelonia of the Purbeck period illustrate the same principle, by the more typical number of modified heemapophyses, or abdominal ribs, entering into the composition of their plastron. The (fig. 83) gives a concise diagram view of the geological re- lations, or distri- bution in time, of the principal groups of the class Reptilia. In the column opposite the right hand, the dark mark shows that the ganoce- phalous group re- presented by the Archegosaurus be- gan, culminated, and ended in the carboniferous period. The Laby- rinthodonts, cul- minating in the trias, disappear at of the oolitic system. Of the base the true Batra- chia, those retain- ing the tail appear to have been at their maximum during the upper tertiary period, and to have begun to decline after Table of Geological Distribution of Reptilia. BATRACHIA REPTILIA Pliocene. Miocene. Eocene, | Cretaceous. Wealden. Oolite. Permian. Devonian. P =» exceed in length the other teeth, and there are consequently m 44, The canines vacancies in the dental series for the lodgment of the crowns of the canines when the mouth is shut. Genus ANOPLOTHERIUM, Cuv.—With the same dental for- mula as in Palwotheriwm, the present genus, like Dichodon (fig. 102) has no interval in the series of teeth ; neither the canine nor any other tooth rising above the general level. The grind- ing surface of the molar teeth somewhat resembles and prefigures the ruminant type ; in the upper jaw the crown (fig. 100) is divided into a front (fe) and a back (fd) lobe by a valley (¢) extending two thirds across. A second valley (7) crosses its termination at right angles, Fig. 100. Upper molar, in the degree of the development of the talon or third lobe of the last lower molar, the Pliopithecus resembles the tailed monkeys (Semnopithecus and Innus). Genus Dryoriruecus, Lart—In the larger miocene ape (Dryopithecus Fontani, Lart.) the canine is relatively larger than in the Hylobates, and the incisors, to judge by their alveoli, are relatively narrower than in the chimpanzee and human subject. The first premolar has the outer cusp pointed, and raised to double the height of that of the second premolar, and its inner lobe is more rudimental than in the chimpanzee,* * Compare Comptes Rendus de |’Acad. des Sciences, tom. xliii. (July 28, 1856, plate, fig. 7), with Trans, Zool. Soc., vol. iv., plate 32, fig. 3, p. 3. MESOPITHECUS 351] and departs proportionally from the human type. The poste- rior lobe or talon of the second premolar is more developed, and the fore-and-aft extent of the tooth greater, than in the chimpanzee, thereby more resembling the second premolar of the siamang, and less resembling that of the human subject. The last (third) molar is undeveloped in the fossil jaw of the Dryopithecus, and its amount of departure from the human type, and approach to that of Jnnus, cannot be determined. The canine is more vertical in position than in T'roglodytes or Pithecus, but this character is offered by some of the small South American apes, and cannot be cited as a mark of real affinity. From the portion of humerus associated with the jaw of Dryopithecus, the arm would seem to have been pro- portionally longer and more slender than in the chimpanzee and gorilla, with a cylindrical shaft, more like that in the long-armed apes (Hylobates), and less like the arm of the human subject. The characters of the nasal bones, orbits, mastoid processes, relative length of upper limb to trunk, relative length of arm to fore arm, relative length and size of thumb, relative length of lower limb; and, above all, the size of the hallux and shape of the astragalus and calcaneum, must be known before any opinion can be trusted as to the proximity of Dryopithecus to the human subject. Genus MursopirHecus, Wagn.—In tertiary formations of Greece, at the base of Pentelicon, remains of a Quadrumane have been found, which Professor Wagner™ regards as_transi- tional between Hylobates and Semnopithecus : the third lobe of the last molar is, however, as well developed as in the latter genus. In the plocene deposits of Montpellier remains of a monkey occur, referred by Christol to a Cercopithecus ; and in plocene brick-earth in Essex the writer has determined part of the fossil jaw and teeth of a Macacus. * Abhanglungen der k. bayer Akademie, bd. ii., 1854, Munchen. 352 PALZONTOLOGY Genus DINOTHERIUM, Cuv. and Kp.—This name was given by Kaup, after the discovery of the singular shape and arma- ture of the lower jaw, to the huge bilophodont Mammal, first made known by Cuvier under the name of “ Tapir gigantesque.” The length of the skull, from / to d, in fig. 110, is 3 feet 8 inches. Fig. 110. Skull of Dinotherium giganteum (Miocene, Eppelsheim). The teeth in this skull, in addition to the two large deflected tusks of the lower jaw, are five in number on each side of both jaws. A study of the changes of dentition in fossils of young Dinotheria show that the first two teeth answer to the third and fourth premolars, as signified by the symbols p,3 and 4; and that the rest are true molars (m, Ty 25 3)s ou Mae these, the first tooth (p, 3), is rather trenchant than triturant ; the third tooth (1) has three transverse ridges. The other grinders have two transverse ridges. This “ bilophodont” MASTODON 353 or two-ridged type is shown by the molars of the Tapzi, (fig. 111), Lophiodon, Megatherium, Diprotodon, Nototheriwm, Kangaroo, and Manatee. In the general shape of the skull and aspect of the nostrils Dino- therium most resembles Mana- Fig. 111. tus. Bones of limbs have not Molar series, lower jaw, Tapir. yet been found so associated with teeth as to determine the ordinal affinities of Dinotheriwm. Yet cranial and dental evidences of the genus have been discovered in miocene deposits of Germany, France, Switzerland, and Perim Island, Gulf of Cambay. Genus Masropon, Cuv.—The earliest appearance of this genus of proboscidian or elephantoid Mammal is in tertiary strata of miocene age, and by a species in which the fore part of the lower jaw was produced into a pair of deep sockets containing tusks; but these are only slightly deflected from the line of the grinding teeth (fig. 112, C). This species of Mastodon, discovered in the miocene of Eppelsheim, was called longirostris by Kaup ; but he afterwards recognized it as the same with a species which had been previously called Masto- don arvernensts (Croizet and Jobert).* Both belong to that section of Mastodon in which the first and second true molars have each four transverse ridges, t and for which Dr. Falconer proposes the name JT'etralophodon. In the newer tertiary deposits of North America remains of a Mastodon (M. Ohio- ticus) have been discovered, in which the transverse ridges of the grinders are in shape more like those of the Dinothere than in any other Mastodon ; the first and second, moreover, are bilophodont, the third trilophodont ; but this is followed by two three-ridged molars and a last larger molar with four * Beitrage aur Naeheren Kenntniss der Urweltlichen Saeugethiere, 4to, 1857, p. 19. The name angustidens was first applied by Cuvier to teeth of this type or species. + First demonstrated by Kaup, Ossemens Fossiles de Darmstadt, 4to, 1835. ous 304 PALAONTOLOGY or five ridges.* For the Mastodons with penultimate and antepenultimate grinders with three ridges, Dr. Falconer pro- 4 Mastodon turicencis (Pliocene): A, B—M. Ohioticus ; C_—M. longirostris. poses the name Trilophodon. In the Mastodon Ohioticus the lower jaw has two tusks in the young of both sexes ; these * Owen's ‘ Odontography,”’ 4to, 1845, p. 617, pl. 144. MASTODON 355 are soon shed in the female, but one of them is retained by the male (fig. 112, B). The upper tusks are long and retained in both sexes (fig. 112, A).* An almost entire skeleton of a Mastodon (If. turicencis) has been discovered in the pliocene deposits of Asté, Pied- mont, and has been described and figured by Professor Sis- monda,t from whose beautiful Memoir fig. 112 is taken. The total length from the tail to the end of the tusks is 17 feet. The teeth have the same narrow shape and multi-mammillate structure as in M. arvernensis, but in the numerical character of transverse divisions of the crown this species agrees with M. Ohioticus. The Mastodons were elephants with the grinding teeth less complex in structure, and adapted for bruising coarser vegetable substances. The grinding surface of the molars (fig. 113), instead of being cleft into numerous thin plates, was divided into wedge-shaped transverse ridges, and the summits of these were subdivided into smaller cones, more or less resembling the teats of a cow, whence the generic name.{ A more important modification appeared to distin- euish the extinct genus, in respect of the structure of the molar teeth; the dentine, or princi- pal substance of the crown of the tooth (fig. 113, d) is cover- ed by a thick coat of dense and brittle Upper molar of Mastodon. enamel (e); a thin coat of cement is continued from the * Owen’s “ Odontography,” p. 618. + Osteografia di un Mastodonte augustidente, 4to, 1851. t macros, a nipple; odous, a tooth. 356 PALA ONTOLOGY fangs upon the crown of the tooth, but this substance does not fill up the interspaces of the divisions of the crown, as in the elephant’s grinder (fig. 118,¢). Such at least is the character of the molar teeth of the two species of Mastodon, which Cuvier has termed Mastodon giganteus and Mastodon angustidens (fig. 113). Fossil remains of proboscidians have subsequently been found principally in the tertiary deposits of tropical Asia, in which the number and depth of the clefts of the crown of the molar teeth, and the thickness of the intervening cement, are so much increased as to establish transitional characters between the lamello-tuberculate teeth of the elephants and the mammilated molars of the typical Mastodons, showing that the characters deducible from the molar teeth are rather the distinguishing marks of species than of genera in the pre- sent family of mammalian quadrupeds. The dentition of this family may be expressed by the formula— AR dl ON) ] 0.0, ay 3.3 OV 3 Maas € aq: ae 33 O45 3.3 dm 353 p that is to say, in the Proboscidians in which the dentition most nearly approached to the typical one, thirty-four teeth were developed, as follows :—in the upper jaw, two deciduous incisors, followed by two per- manent incisors developed as tusks ; six deciduous molars (three on each side, d 2, 3, 4, fig. 114); two premolars (one on each == a Col « ~y 172 Deciduous dentition, young Mastodon side, P 3, fig. 114), and six true longirostris. molars (three on each side, m 1, 2, 3, figs. 114 and 115) ;—in the lower jaw, two incisors as tusks (uncertain whether preceded by deciduous tusks), deciduous molars, premolars, and molars, as in the upper jaw. The elephantoid animal (Mastodon longirostris, Kaup ; Mas- todon angustidens, in part, Cuvier) which exhibited the above MASTODON 357 instructive dentition of the proboscidian family, once roamed over the part of the earth now forming England, France, Italy, and Germany. The first steps in our knowledge of its dentition were made by Cuvier, who called it the narrow-toothed Masto- don “ Mastodon a dents étroites,” or Mastodon angustidens. This name was suggested by the less breadth of the grinding surface of the teeth as compared with those of a previously described species of Mastodon from North America, called the Mast, Fig. 115. Dentition of old Mastodon longirostris giganteus or M. Ohioticus, Cuvier describes and figures a last molar, upper jaw, from Trévoux, consisting, as in the specimen from Norfolk Crag (fig. 113), and as in that from Eppelsheim (fig. 115, m 3), of five transverse ridges, with a front and back talon or subsidiary ridge. The latter is the largest, and sub- divided into teat-shaped tubercles, so as almost to merit the _ name of a sixth division of the tooth. The principal ridges are divided into two chief or primary tubercles, with secondary tubercles in the interspace ; the chief tubercles are more or 398 PALZONTOLOGY less deeply grooved lengthwise, or cleft at top, so that masti-. cation wore them down to small circles of dentine surrounded by a thick border of enamel, and further attrition reduced these to a trilobed or trefoil form. The last lower molar of the Mast. angustidens from La Rochetta di Tanaro,* exhibits the same five principal trans- verse ridges and the hinder one, as in the corresponding tooth in the Eppelsheim Mastodon (fig. 115, m 3), and being the first of the series of narrow mastodontoid teeth to which Cuvier applied the name angustidens, it may be regarded as the type of that species. The characteristic premolar of the Mast. angustidens, with a quadrate crown of two ridges, each cleft into two tubercles (fig. 114, p 3), is figured by Cuvier, in Op. cit. pl. 1, fig. 3, and again, im situ, with the last deciduous molar (d 4) in a portion of the upper jaw of the Mastodon angustidens from Dax (ib. pl. ii, fig. 2). The nature of this quadrituberculate tooth as a premolar, z.e., as a tooth which displaced and succeeded an earlier or deciduous tooth in the vertical direction, was recognized by Cuvier. “Je crois encore quon peut en conclure que la dent antérieure était susceptible de remplacement de haut ou bas, comme dans l’hippopotame : ma raison est, que cette petite dent de Dax n’est pas encore usée et quwil faut qu’elle soit venue apres la grande qui Jest.”t Dr. Kaup has described and figured the same premolar in the upper jaw of a younger individual of the Mastodon angustidens (his longirostris), in which it is still concealed in its formative cavity above the three-lobed deciduous tooth which it has replaced in Cuvier’s specimen. The tooth next behind, which is the homologue of the last milk-molar (d 4, fig. 114) of the typical series, consists, in both the Dax and Eppelsheim speci- mens, of three principal ridges and a posterior bituberculate talon; this accessory portion being more developed in the * Cuvier, Op. cit. Divers Mastodontes, pl. iv., fig. 1, top view, fig. 2, side view. + Ossemens Fossiles, 4to, 1821, tom. i., p. 256. MASTODON 359 Eppelsheim specimen. Whether such difference be valid for a specific distinction may be doubted; but that Cuvier assigned the name angustidens to a Mastodon with narrower molars than the M. giganteus, which had a quadri-tuberculate premolar, a penultimate molar of four principal divisions and a talon, and a last molar with five principal divisions and a talon, is certain. To that Mastodon, therefore, which has the same shaped and sized ultimate and penultimate true molars and premolar, the same name is here assigned. The antepenultimate molar (fig. 114, m 1) consists of four ridges and a talon. Three molars are developed anterior to this tooth ; the first (fig. 114, d 2) is the smallest, with a subquadrate crown of two transverse ridges. The second molar (ib. d 3), of twice the size of the first, has three ridges. The third molar (ib., d 4), with an increase of one-third the bulk of the former, has three ridges and a bituberculate talon, which in some specimens might almost be reckoned as a fourth ridge. The two-ridged premolar (ib., p 3) above described, takes the place of the second of the above molars, after the first and second are shed. The above definition of the molar series applies to both upper and lower jaws, the cut (fig. 114), and the symbolic letters and numbers, preclude the necessity of verbal description. From the analogy of the existing elephants, it may be in- ferred that the long tusks (fig. 115, 7) supported by the pre- maxillaries, were preceded by a pair of small deciduous incisors. There is not such ground for concluding their existence in the mandible ; but this jaw, in the male Mastodon longirostris (fig. 115), supported two incisive tusks, shorter and straighter than those above. In the proboscidian quadrupeds the molar teeth, progres- sively increasing in size, and most of them in complexity, follow each other from before backwards, at longer intervals than in other quadrupeds, and are never simultaneously in 360 PALA ONTOLOGY place. Not more than three are in use at any period on one side of either jaw; all the molars, save the penultimate (fig. 115, m 2) are shed by the time the crown of the last molar has cut the gum, and the dentition is finally reduced to m 3 on each side of both jaws, with commonly the loss of the inferior tusks, as in the old Mastodon turicencis, from the tertiary deposits of the Po, described and figured by Sis- monda.* The genus was represented by species ranging, in time, from the miocene to the upper pliocene deposits, and in space, cosmopolitan with tropical and temperate latitudes. The transition from the mastodontal to the ‘elephantine type of dentition is very gradual. Genus ELEPHAS, L.—The latest form of true elephant which obtained its sustenance in temperate latitudes is that which Blumenbach called primigenius, the “Mammoth” of the Siberian collectors of its tusks (fig. 119). Its remains oceur chiefly, if not exclusively, in pleistocene deposits, and have even been found in tur- bary near Holyhead. Its grinders (fig. 116) are broader, and have { narrower and more numerous and close-set transverse plates and ridges, than in other Fig. 116. Upper grinder of the Mammoth (Hlephas primi- elephants. In the ex- genius). isting Indian species, ¢. g» (fig. 117), the molars are relatively narrower, the plates (d d) are less numerous, and their enamelled border (¢ e) is festooned. In the African elephant (fig. 118) the plates are still fewer, are relatively larger, and so expanded at the middle as to present a lozenge shape. The Elephas priscus, Gdf.,of European. * Osteografia di un Mastodonte Angustidente, 4to, Turin, 1851. ELEPHAS 361 pliocene beds, has molars most like those of the present African species. The tusks of the elephant, like those of the Mastodon, Fig. 117. Upper molar, Asiatic Elephant. consist of true ivory, which shows, in transverse fractures or sections, striz proceeding in the arc of a circle from the Fig. 118. Upper molar, African Elephant. centre to the circumference in opposite directions, and forming, by their decussations, curvilinear lozenges. This character is a valuable one in the determination of fragments of fossil tusks. The tusks of the extinet Elephas primigenius, or mam- moth, have a bolder and more extensive curvature than those of the Elephas indicus; some have been found which describe a circle, but the curve being oblique, they thus clear the head, and poimt outward, downward, and backward. The numerous fossil tusks of the Mammoth which have been dis- covered and recorded, may be ranged under two averages of size—the larger ones at nine feet and a half, the smaller at 362 PALZONTOLOGY five feet and a half in length. The writer has elsewhere assigned reasons for the probability of the latter belonging to the female Mammoth, which must accordingly have differed from the existing elephant of India, and have more resembled that of Africa, in the development of her tusks, yet mani- festing an intermediate character by their smaller size. Of the tusks which are referable to the male Mammoth, one from the newer tertiary deposits in Essex measured nine feet ten inches along the outer curve, and two feet five inches in cir- cumference at its thickest part; another from Eschscholtz Bay was nine feet two inches in length, and two feet one and a half inches in circumference, and weighed one hundred and sixty pounds. A specimen, dredged up off Dungeness, measured eleven feet in length. In several of the instances of Mammoth’s tusks from British strata, the ivory has been so little altered as to be fit for the purposes of manufacture ; and the tusks of the Mammoth, which are still better pre- served in the frozen drift of Siberia, have long been collected in great numbers as articles of commerce. In a specimen of the extinct Indian elephant (Elephas ganesa, Fr. and C.) preserved in the British Museum, the tusks are ten feet six inches in length, and in consequence of their small amount of curvature, they project eight feet five inches in front of the head. Their apparent disproportion to the size of the skull is truly extraordinary, and exemplifies the maxi- mization of dental development. The mammoth is more completely known than most other extinct animals by reason of the discovery of an entire speci- men preserved in the frozen soil of a cliff at the mouth of the river Lena in Siberia. The skin was clothed with a reddish wool, and with long black hairs. It is now preserved at St. Petersburg, together with the skeleton (fig. 119). This mea- sures, from the fore part of the skull to the end of the muti- lated tail, 16 feet 4 inches ; the height, to the top of the dorsal ELEPHAS 363 spines, is 9 feet 4 inches ; the length of the tusks, along the curve, is 9 feet 6 inches. Parts of the skin of the head, the eye-ball, and of the strong ligament of the nape which helped Fig. 119. Elephas primigenius (Pleistocene). to sustain the heavy head and teeth, together with the hoofs, remain attached to the skeleton. These huge elephants, adapted by their clothing to endure a cold climate, subsisted on the branches and foliage of the northern pines, birches, 364 PALMONTOLOGY willows, etc.; and during the short summer they probably migrated northward, like their contemporary the musk-buffalo which still lingers on, to the 70th degree of N. latitude, re- treating during the winter to more temperate quarters. The mammoth was preceded in Europe by other species of ele- phant—e.y., Elephas priscus, Goldfuss, and Hlephas meridionalis, Nesti, which, during the plocene period, seem not to have gone northward beyond temperate latitudes. Genus Hippopotamus, L.—The discovery, in lacustrine and fluviatile deposits of Europe, of the remains of an amphibious genus of Mammal now restricted to African rivers, gives scope for speculating on the nature of the land which, uniting Eng- land with the Continent, was excavated by lakes and inter- sected by rivers, with a somewhat warmer temperature than at present, to judge by a few S. European shells which occur in the fresh-water formations—e.y., at Grays, Essex, where remains of the large extinct Hippopotamus major have been found. The specimen of the lower jaw (fig. 121) was dis- covered in similar deposits on the Norfolk coasts. Other localities are specified in the writer’s “ History of British Fossil Mammals.” The first premolar has a simple subcompressed conical crown, and a single root ; it rises early, and at some distance in advance of the second premolar, and is soon shed ; the other premolars form a continuous series with the true molars in the existing species, but in the Hippopotamus major the second premolar is in advance of the third by an interval equal to its own breadth. This and the fourth premolar re- tain the simple conical form, but with increased size, and are impressed by one or two longitudinal grooves on the outer surface, which, when the crown is much worn, give a lobate character to the grinding surface. The true molars are pri- marily divided into two lobes or cones by a wide transverse valley, and each lobe is subdivided by a narrow antero-pos- RHINOCEROS 365 terior cleft into two half cones, with their flat sides next each other ; the convex side of each half cone is indented by two angular vertical notches, bounding a strong intermediate pro- minence. When their summits begin to be abraded, each lobe, or pair of demicones, presents 7 a double trefoil of enamel on the grinding surface, as shown in fig. 120; when attrition has proceeded to the base of the half cones, then the grinding surfaces of each lobe presents a quadrilobate figure. The Fig. 120. crown of the last molar tooth Molar tooth, Hippopotamus. of the lower jaw is lengthened out by a fifth cone, developed behind the two normal pairs of half cones, and smaller in all its dimensions. The hippopotamus is first met with in pliocene strata. The remains of H. major have hitherto been found only in Europe; they are common along the Mediterranean shore, and do not occur north of the temperate zone. In Asia this Hip; 121. Lower jaw of Hippopotamus major (fresh-water Pliocene, Cromer, Norfolk). form of Pachyderm was represented, perhaps at an earlier period, by the genus Hexaprotodon—essentially a hippopo- tamus, with six incisor teeth, instead of four, in each jaw. 366 PALZONTOLOGY Genus Rutoceros, L—The rhinoceros, like the elephant, was represented in pliocene and pleistocene times, in tempe- rate and northern latitudes of Asia and Europe, by extinct species. One (Rhinoceros leptorhinus) associated with the Hippopotamus major in. fresh-water plocene deposits ; another (R. tichorrhinus) with the mammoth in pleistocene beds and drift. The discovery of the carcase of the tichorrine rhino- ceros in frozen soil, recorded by Pallas in his “ Voyages dans lAsie Septentrionale,”* showed the same adaptation of this, at present tropical, form of quadruped to a cold climate, by a twofold covering of wool and hair, as was subsequently de- hk monstrated to be the case with the mam- moth. Both the above-named fossil rhinoceroses were two-horned; — but they were preceded, in the pliocene and miocene periods, by species devoid of horns, yet a rhino- ceros in all other essentials (A cero- therium, Kaup). The modifica- tions which the upper molars of the Fig. 122. Upper molar, Rhinoceros. Nat. size. rhinoceros present as compared with those of its antetype, the Paleeotherium, will be readily understood by comparing fig. 99 with fig. 122, and are as follows :—The concavities (ff) on the outer side of the crown, in fig. 99, are almost levelled, and from one of them a * Ato, 1793, pp. 130-132. SUID 367 slight convexity projects, in some species of Rhinoceros, giving a gently undulated surface to that side of the tooth. The valley (e) is more expanded at its termination (2), in the Rhinoceros ; and, in some species, it bifurcates and deepens, so that one branch may form an insulated circle of enamel when the crown is worn. The posterior valley (g) is usually deeper and more extended. The ordinary lobes (a, 6, ¢, d) are very similar, and produce, by the confluence of a with ¢, and of 6 with d, the two oblique tracts of dentine which are more decidedly esta- blished as transverse ridges in the Lophiodont or Tapiroid group. A basal ridge (r) girts more or less completely the inner and the fore and hind parts of the base of the crown. Not fewer than twenty species of extinct rhinoceroses are entered in Paleontological catalogues. The extinct Cheropotamus, Anthracotherium, Hyopotanus, and Hippohyus, had the typical dental formula, and this is preserved in the existing representative of the same section of non-ruminant Artiodactyles, the hog. The first true molar when the permanent dentition is completed, exhibits the effects of its early development in a more marked degree than in most other Mammalia, and in the Wild Boar has its tubercles worn down and a smooth field of dentine exposed by the time the last molar has come into place ; it originally bears four primary cones, with smaller sub-divisions formed by the wrinkled enamel, and an interior and posterior ridge. The four cones produced by the crucial impression, of which the transverse part is the deepest, are repeated on the second true molar with more complex shallow divisions, and a larger tuber- culate posterior ridge. The greater extent of the last molar is chiefly produced by the development of the back ridge into a cluster of tubercles ; the four primary cones being distin- guishable on the anterior main body of the tooth. The crowns of the lower molars are very similar to those above, but are 368 PALAONTOLOGY rather narrower, and the outer and inner basal tubercles are much smaller, or are wanting ; the grinding surface of the last is shown in fig. 123. Extinct species of hog have been found in miocene beds at Fig. 123. Eppelsheim (Sus paleocherus, Last lower molar, Hog. Nat. size. Kp), adenine (S. onion rensis, Lt.) ; in pliocene beds (S. arvernensis, Crt.), and in pleis- tocene and later deposits, where the species (S. scrofa fossilis) is indistinguishable from the present wild boar. Order RUMINANTIA. Of other forms of beasts subsisting on the vegetable pro- ductions of the earth, and more akin to actual European Her- bivora, there co-existed, in Europe, with the now exotic genera Klephas, Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, etc., a vast as- semblage of species, nearly all of which have passed away. The quadrupeds called “ Ruminants,” from the characteristic second mastication of the partly-digested food by the act called “rumination” or “chewing the cud,” constitute at the present period a circumscribed group of Mammalia, which Cuvier believed to be “the most natural and best-defined order of the class.”"* He characterized it as having incisive teeth only in the lower jaw (fig. 128, ¢), which were replaced in the upper jaw by a callousgum. Between the incisors and molars is a diastema, in which, in certain genera only, may be found one or two canines. The molars (fig. 128), 2, almost always six on each side of both jaws, have their crown marked by two double crescents, with the convexity turned inwards in the upper set, outwards in the lower. The four legs are termi- nated by two toes and two hoofs, flattened at the contiguous * Régne Animal, tom, i., p. 254. RUMINANTIA 369 sides, so as to look like a single hoof cloven ; whence the name “cloven-footed,” also given to these animals. The perfect cir- cumscription and definition of this order, so desirable by the systematic zoologist, is deed invaded, in the actual Rumi- nantia, by certain peculiarities of the camel tribe. In entering upon the evidences of the first appearance in this planet of the order of animals, which now are the most valuable to man, it may be well to call to mind the characters of the Anoplotherium. The upper true molars have two double crescents, convex inwards, one of the inner ones being encroached on by a large tubercle, the reduced homologue of which may be seen in the internal inner space of the crescents in the ox and some other Ruminants. The lower true molars also, at one stage of attrition, form crescentic islands of enamel, with the convexity turned outwards, as in Ruminants, the last molar having the accessory crescent behind. The functional hoofs were two in number on each foot, but must have resem- bled those of the camel tribe in shape; the scaphoid and cuboid of the tarsus were distinct also, as in the Camelida ; and the metacarpal and metatarsal bones were divided, as in the water musk-deer (Moschus aquaticus), and in the embryos of all Ruminants. The dentition of the extinct Dichodon (figs. 102, 103) made a still nearer approach to that of the Rumi- nants. The chief distinction of this and other extinct Herbi- vores with double crescentic molars is the completion of the upper series of teeth by well-developed incisors. But the pre- maxillaries in the new-born camel contain each three incisors, one of which becomes fully developed. The Camelide are horn- less, like the Anoplotherioids and Dichodonts ; and with one exception—the giraffe—all Ruminants are born without horns, Thus the Anoplotherium, in several important characters, resembled the embryo Ruminant, but retained throughout life those marks of adhesion to a more generalized mammalian type. The more modified or specialized form of hoofed animal, 2B 370 PALEONTOLOGY with cloven feet and ruminating stomach, appears at a later period in the tertiary series. The modification of the upper molars of the existing Rumi- nant aioe ase consists in the lower and less pointed lobes of the crown, the unworn summits of which are at first rather trenchant, like curved blades, than piercing. They are soon abraded by mastica- tion, and present the crescentic lobes of dentine(a,,¢,d) shown in fig. 124. The transverse double-crescentic valley (y, 7) contains a thicker layer Upper molar of Megaceros. of cement, and forms two detached crescents in worn teeth. The premolars resemble in structure one half of the true molars. FAMILY I.—BovipD2&. Fossil molars of the ruminant type and bovine character have hitherto been found, with unequivocal evidence, to the writer’s knowledge, only in beds or breccias of pliocene and pleistocene age. At those periods in Britain there existed a very large species of bison (Bison priscus), and a larger species of ox (Bos antiquus), from pliocene fresh-water beds ; whilst a somewhat smaller but still stupendous wild ox (B. primige- mius) has left its remains in pleistocene marls of England and Scotland. With this was associated an aboriginal British ox of much smaller stature and with short horns (B. longifrons), which continued to exist until the historical period, and was probably the source of the domesticated cattle of the Celtic races before the Roman invasion. PD jp M g_-q—28,* and, as in Macropus major, the first of the grinding series (y) was soon shed; but the other four two-ridged teeth were longer retained, and the front upper incisor (7, 1) was very large and scalpriform, as in the wombat. The zygomatic arch sent down a process for augmenting the origin of the masseter muscle, as in the kangaroo. The foregoing skull, with parts of the skeleton, of the Diprotodon Australis, were discovered in a lacustrine deposit, probably pleistocene, intersected by creeks, in the plains of Darling Downs, Australia. The same formation has yielded evidence of a somewhat smaller extinct herbivorous genus (Noto- therium), combining, with essential affi- nities to Macropus, some of the characters of the Koala (Phascolarctus).t The writer has recently communicated de- Fig. 140. es ; ; : Grinding surface of molar of the Nototherium Mitchelli to the Geo- of Phascolomys gigas logical Society of London.{ The genus (nat. size), Pleistocene, Australia. scriptions and figures of the entire skull Phascolomys was at the same period represented by a wombat (P. gigas) of the magnitude of a tapir, one of the grinding teeth of which is represented, of the natural size, in fig. 140. * See that of Macropus, explained in Ency. Brit., article Odontology, p. 449. t+ “Report on the extinct Mammals of Australia,’ Trans. of Brit. Assoc., 1844. ¢ Quarterly Journal of the Geol. Soc., pt. iv., 1858. 396 PALZONTOLOGY The pleistocene marsupial Carnivora presented the usual relations of size and power to the Herbivora, whose undue in- crease they had to check. Fig. 141 represents an almost entire skull, with part of the lower jaw of an animal (Thylacoleo) Fig. 141. Skull of a large extinct Marsupial Carnivore (Zhylacoleo carnifex), Pleistocene, Australia. rivalling the lion in size, the marsupiality of which is demon- strated by the position of the lacrymal foramen (7) in front of the orbit ; by the palatal vacuity (0), by the loose tympanic bone, the development of the tympanic bulla in the alisphenoid, by the very small relative size of the brain, and other characters detailed in the “ Philosophical Transactions” * for 1859. The carnassial tooth (p) is 2 inches 3 lines in longitudinal extent, or * “On the Fossil Mammals of Australia. Part I. Description of the Thylacoleo carnifex.”’ By Prof. Owen, ete. THYLACOLEO 397 nearly double the size of that in the lion. The upper tuber- cular tooth (m, r) resembles in its smallness and position that in the placental Felines. But in the lower jaw the carnassial (p) is succeeded by two very small tubercular teeth (m, 1 and 2), as in Plagiaulaa (fig. 98, p. 320) ; and there is a socket close to the symphysis of the lower jaw of Thylacoleo which indicates that the canine may have terminated the dental series there, and have afforded an additional feature of resemblance to the Plagiaulac. The foregoing are some of the more interesting illustrations of the law, that “with extinct as with existing Mammalia, par- ticular forms were assigned to particular provinces, and that the same forms were restricted to the same provinces at a former geological period as they are at the present day.”* That period, however, was the more recent tertiary one. In carrying back the retrospective comparison of existing and extinct Mammals with those of the eocene and oolitic strata, in relation to their local distribution, we obtain indica- tions of extensive changes in the relative position of sea and land during these epochs, in the degree of incongruity between the generic forms of the Mammalia which then existed in Europe and any that actually exist on the great natural conti- nent of which Europe now forms part. It would seem, indeed, that the further we penetrate into time for the recovery of extinct Mammalia, the further we must go into space to find their existing analogues. To match the eocene Paleotheres and Lophiodons, we must bring Tapirs from Sumatra or South America, and we have to travel to the antipodes for Myrmeco- bians, the nearest living analogues to the Amphitheres of our oolitic strata. On the problem of the extinction of species, little, demon- stratively, can be said; and on the more mysterious subject * Report on the Extinct Mammals of Australia, 1844. 398 PALAONTOLOGY of their coming into being, no light has yet been thrown by experiment or observation. As a cause of extinction in times anterior to man, it is most reasonable to assign the chief weight to those gradual changes in the conditions affect- ing a due supply of sustenance to animals in a state of nature which must have accompanied the slow alternations of land and sea brought about in the eons of geological time. Yet this reasoning is applicable only to land-animals; for it is scarcely conceivable that such operations can have affected sea-fishes. There are characters in land-animals rendering them more obnoxious to extirpating influences, which may explain why so many of the larger species of par- ticular groups have become extinct, whilst smaller species of equal antiquity have survived. In proportion to its bulk is the difficulty of the contest which, as a living organism, the individual of such species has to maintain against the sur- rounding agencies that are ever tending to dissolve the vital bond, and subjugate the living matter to the ordinary chemical and physical forces. Any changes, therefore, in such external agencies as a species may have been originally adapted to exist in, will militate against that existence in a degree proportionate to the bulk of the species. Ifa dry season be gradually pro- longed, the large Mammal will suffer from the drought sooner than the small one; if such alteration of climate affect the quantity of vegetable food, the bulky Herbivore will first feel the effects of stinted nourishment; if new enemies be intro- duced, the large and conspicuous animal will fall a prey, while the smaller kinds conceal themselves and escape. Small quadrupeds are more prolific than large ones. Those of the bulk of the Mastodons, Megatheria, Glyptodons, and Diproto- dons are uniparous. The actual presence, therefore, of small species of animals in countries where larger species of the same natural families formerly existed, is not the consequence of degeneration—of any gradual diminution of the size of such EXTINCTION OF SPECIES 399 species—but is the result of circumstances which may be il- lustrated by the fable of the “oak and the reed;” the smaller and feebler animals have bent and accommodated themselves to changes to which the larger species have succumbed. That species, or forms so recognized by their distinctive characters and the power of propagating them, have ceased to exist, and have successively passed away, is a fact no longer questioned. That they have been exterminated by exceptional cataclysmal changes of the earth’s surface has not been proved. That their limitation in time, in some instances or In some measure, may be due to constitutional changes accumulating by slow degrees in the long course of generations, is possible. But all hitherto observed causes of extirpation point either to continuous slowly operating geological changes, or to no ereater sudden cause than the, so to speak, spectral appear- ance of mankind on a limited tract of land not before inhabited. It is most probable, therefore, that the extinction of species, prior to man’s presence or existence, has been due to ordinary causes—ordinary in the sense of agreement with the laws of organization and of the never-ending mutation of the geo- graphical and climatal conditions on the earth’s surface. The species, and individuals of species, least adapted to bear such influences, and incapable of modifying their organization in agreement therewith, have perished. Extinction, therefore, on this hypothesis, implies the want of self-adjusting power in the individuals of the species subject thereto. But admitting extinction as a natural law, which has operated from the beginning of life under specific forms of plants and animals, it might be expected that some evidence of it should occur in our own time, or within the historical period. Reference has been made to several instances of the extirpation of species, certainly, probably, or possibly, due to the direct agency of man. The hook-billed parrot (Nestor productus) of Philip’s Island, west of New Zealand, is, perhaps, 400 PALZONTOLOGY the latest instance of this kind. But this cause avails not in the question of the extinction of species at periods prior to any evidence of human existence; it does not help us in the explanation of the majority of extinctions, as of the races of aquatic Invertebrata and Vertebrata which have successively passed away. The Great Auk (Alea impennis, L.) seems to be rapidly verging to extinction. It has not been specially hunted down, like the dodo and dinornis, but by degrees has become more scarce. Some of the geological changes affecting circum- stances favourable to the well-being of the Alca impennis, have been matters of observation. The last great auks, known with anything like certainty to have been seen living, were two which were taken in 1844 during a visit made to the high rock, called “ Eldey,” or “ Meelsoekten,” lying off Cape Reyki- anes, the S. W. point of Iceland. This is one of three principal rocky islets formerly existing in that direction, of which the one specially named from this rare bird “ Geirfugla Sker” sank to the level of the surface of the sea during a volcanic disturb- ance in or about the year 1830. Such disappearance of the fit and favourable breeding-places of the Alcea impennis must form an important element in its decline towards extinction. The numbers of the bones of Alca impennis on the shores of Iceland, Greenland, and Denmark, attest the abundance of the bird in former times. Within the last century, academicians of Petersburg and good naturalists described and gave figures of the bony and the perishable parts, including the alimentary canal, of a large and peculiar fucivorous Sirenian—an amphibious animal like the Manatee, which Cuvier classified with his herbivorous Cetacea, and called Rytina Stelleri, after its discoverer. This animal inhabited the Siberian shores and the mouths of the great rivers there disemboguing. It is now believed to be extinct, and this extinction appears not to have been due to any special “HUMAN REMAINS 401 quest and persecution by man. We may discern in this fact the operation of changes in physical geography, which have at length so affected the conditions of existence of the Siberian manatee as to have caused its extinction. Such changes had operated, at an earlier period, to the extinction of the elephant and rhinoceros of the same region and latitudes: a future generation of zoologists may have to record the final disappear- ance of the Arctic buffalo (Ovibos moschatus). Remains of Ovibos and Rytina show that they were contemporaries of Elephas primigenius and Rhinoceros tichorrhinus. But recent discoveries indicate that, in the case of the last two extinct quadrupeds, a rude primitive human race may have finished the work of extermination, begun by ante- cedent and more general causes. Flint weapons called “ celts,” unquestionably fashioned by human hands, have been discovered in stratified gravel, containing remains of the mammoth, in the valley of the Somme near Abbeville and Amiens, at different periods, from the year 1847 (Boucher de Perthes, “ Antiquités cel- tiques et antediluviennes,” Paris, 1847) to the present time. These evidences of the human species have been extracted from the deposit in question, by Mr. Prestwich («17 feet from the surface in undisturbed ground,” “ Proceedings of the Royal Society,” May 26, 1859) ; by Mr. Flower, (« 20 feet from the surface, In a compact mass of gravel,’ “Times,” November 18, 1859) ; by M. Gaudry (“ L’Institut,” October 5, 1859) ; and by M. Geo. Pouchet, of the year 1859. Besides the Elephas primigenius, remains all with their own hands in the course of Rhinoceros tichorhinus, Cervus somonensis, Ursus speleus, and of a large extinct Bovine animal, have been found in the same bed of gravel. Mr. Prestwich, F.G.S., after a careful study of the geolo- logical relations of this bed, refers it to the post-pliocene 20D 402 PALEONTOLOGY age; and to a period “anterior to the surface assuming its present outline, so far as some of its minor features are con- cerned.” Similar flint weapons had been discovered by Mr. John Frere, F.R.S. (“ Archeologia,” vol. xiii, “ An account of flint weapons discovered at Hoxne in Suffolk,” 1800) in a bed of flint gravel, 16 feet below the surface, of the same geological age as that in the valley of the Somme. Flint weapons have been discovered mixed indiscrimi- nately with the bones of the extinct cave-bear and rhino- ceros. One in particular was met with beneath a fine antler of a rein-deer, and a bone of the cave-bear, imbedded in the superficial stalagmite in the bone-cave at Brixham, Devon- shire, during the careful exploration of that cave conducted by a committee of the Geological Society of London in 1858 and 1859. Dr. Falconer, F.G.S., has communicated (3 Proceedings of the Geological Society,” June 22, 1859) the results of his examination of ossiferous caves in Palermo; and in respect to the “Maccagnone cave,” he draws the following infer- ences :—That, “it was filled up to the roof within the human period, so that a thick layer of bone splinters, teeth, land- shells, coprolites of hyzena, and human objects, was agegluti- nated to the roof by the infiltration of water holding lime in solution ; that subsequently and within the human period, such a great amount of change took place in the physical configuration of the district as to have caused the cave to be washed out, and emptied of its contents, excepting the floor- breccia and the patches of material cemented to the roof, and since coated with additional stalagmite.” (P. 136.) Sir Charles Lyell believes “the antiquity of the Abbeville and Amiens flint instruments to be great indeed, if compared “Tt must have re- ” to the times of history or tradition. .. . quired a long period for the wearing down of the chalk which ORIGIN OF SPECIES 403 supplied the broken flints for the formation of so much gravel at various heights, sometimes 100 feet above the present level of the Somme, for the deposition of fine sediment including entire shells both terrestrial and aquatic, and also for the denudation which the entire mass of stratified drift has under- gone, portions having been swept away, so that what remains of it often terminates abruptly in old river cliffs, besides being covered by a newer unstratified drift. To explain these changes, I should infer considerable oscillations in the level of the land in that part of France; slow movements of up- heaval and subsidence, deranging but not wholly displacing the course of ancient rivers. Lastly, the disappearance of the elephant, rhinoceros, and other genera of quadrupeds, now foreign to Europe, implies in like manner a vast lapse of ages, separating the era in which the fossil implements were framed, and that of the invasion of Gaul by the Romans.’* As to the successive appearance of new species in the course of geological time, it is first requisite to avoid the common mistake of confounding the propositions, of species being the result of a continuously operating second- ary cause, and of the mode of operation of such creative cause. Biologists may entertain the first without accepting any cur- rent hypothesis as to the second. That the species of the mineralogist and the botanist should be owing to influences so different as is implied by the opera- tion of a second cause, and the direct interference of a first cause, is not probable. The nature of the forces operating in the production of a lichen may not be so clearly understood as those which arranged the atoms of the crystal on which the lichen spreads. Pouchet has contributed the most valuable evidence as to the fact and mode of the production by external * Address, on opening the Section of Geology, at the Meeting of the British Association at Aberdeen, September 15,1859. 404 PALZONTOLOGY influences of species of Protozoa.* With regard to the species of higher organisms, distinguishable as plants and animals, their origin is as yet only matter of speculation. Buffont regarded varieties as particular alterations of species, which illustrated the mutability of species themselves. The so-called varieties of a species, species of a genus, genera of an order, etc., were with him but so many evidences of the progressive degrees of change, which had been superinduced by time and successive generations, and chiefly by degrada- tion from a primordial type. Applying this principle to the species of which he had given the history in his great work, he believed himself able to reduce them to a very small number of primitive stocks, of which he enumerates “ fifteen.” Lamarck,{ adverting to observed ranges of variation in certain species, affirmed that such variations would proceed and keep pace with the continued operation of the causes pro- ducing them ; that such changes of form and structure would induce corresponding changes in actions, and that a change of actions, when habitual, became another cause of altered struc- ture ; that the more frequent employment of certain parts or organs leads to a proportional increase of development of such parts ; and that as the increased exercise of one part is usually accompanied by a corresponding disuse of another part, this very disuse, by inducing a proportional degree of atrophy, becomes another element in the progressive mutation of organic forms. A third theorist§ calls to mind the instances of sudden departure from the specific type, manifested by a malformed or monstrous offspring, and quotes the instances in which such malformations have lived and propagated the deviating structure. He notes also the extreme degrees of change and * Heterogenie, 8yo, 1859. + Histoire Naturelle, Dégénération des Animaux, tom. iv., p. 311. t Philosophie Zoologique, 8vo, 1809, tom. i., chs. 3 and 7. @ “ Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation.” ORIGIN OF SPECIES 405 of complexity of structure undergone by the germ and embryo of a highly organized animal in its progress to maturity. He speculates on the influence of premature birth, or on a some- what prolonged fcetation, in establishing the beginning of a specific form different from that of the parent. Mr. Wallace,* assuming that varieties may arise in a wild species, shows how such deviations from type may tend to adapt a variety to some changes in surrounding conditions, under which it is better calculated to exist, than the type- form from which it deviated. No doubt the type-form of any species is that which is best adapted to the conditions under which such species at the time exists; and as long as those conditions remain unchanged, so long will the type remain; all varieties departing therefrom being in the same ratio less adapted to the environing conditions of existence. But, if those con- ditions change, then the variety of the species at an antece- dent date and state of things will become the type-form of the species at a later date, and in an altered state of things. Mr. Charles Darwin had, previously to Mr. Wallace, pondered over and worked at this principle, which he illustrates by ingenious suppositions, of which I select the following :—*To give an imaginary example from changes in progress on an island :—let the organization of a canine animal which preyed chiefly on rabbits, but sometimes on hares, become slightly plastic ; let these same changes cause the number of rabbits very slowly to decrease, and the number of hares to increase ; the effect of this would be that the fox or dog would be driven to try to catch more hares ; his organization, however, being slightly plastic, those indi- viduals with the lightest forms, longest limbs, and best eye- sight, let the difference be ever so small, would be slightly favoured, and would tend to live longer, and to survive during * Proceedings of the Linnzan Society, August 1858, p. 57, 406 PALAONTOLOGY that time of the year when food was scarcest ; they would also rear more young, which would tend to inherit these shght peculiarities. The less fleet ones would be rigidly destroyed. I can see no more reason to doubt that these causes in a thousand generations would produce a marked effect, and adapt the form of the fox or dog to the catching of hares instead of rabbits, than that greyhounds can be improved by selection and careful breeding.” Observation of animals in a state of nature, however, is still required to show their degree of plasticity, or the extent to which varieties do arise ; whereby grounds may be had for judging of the probability of the elastic ligaments and joint- structures of a feline foot, for example, being superinduced upon the more simple structure of the toe with the non- retractile claw, according to the principle of a succession of varieties in time. Farther discoveries of fossil remains are also needed to make known the antetypes, in which varieties, analogous to the observed ones in existing species, might have occurred, seriatim, so as to give rise ultimately to such extreme forms as the Giraffe. This application of paleontology has always been felt by myself to be so important that I have never omitted a proper opportunity for impressing the results of observations showing the “more generalized structures” of extinct, as compared with the “more specialized forms” of recent animals. But observation of the effects of any of the above hypo- thetical transmuting influences in changing any known species into another has not yet been recorded. And past expe- rience of the chance aims of human fancy, unchecked and unguided by observed facts, shows how widely they have ever glanced away from the gold centre of truth. * Proceedings of the Linnean Society, August 1858, p. 49. The principle is more fully illustrated in the work “On the Origin of Species,” 8vo, 1859. SUCCESSION OF MAMMALIA 407 The principles, based on rigorous and extensive observa- tion of facts, which have thus been inductively established, and have tended to impress upon the minds of the closest reasoners in Biology a conviction of a continuously operative secondary creational law, are the following :—the law of irre- lative or vegetative repetition : the law of unity of plan or rela- tions to an archetype : the phenomena of parthenogenesis: the progressive departure from general type as exemplified in the series of species from their first introduction to the present time. Tae or Grotoaicat Disrrisution oF MAMMALS. IMaurs w-|Rodent-|insectt- Ch. -p,, cmon iq {Lose Lon] Pro Los— Artic- | Carn dru-b, - =pistia. aa Evora. tuna P"|Buula. \CetacealSirenial fig: "cidea. Eon dactylal- yore = fan. [Beano Modern Modern Ziocene | Pliocene Locene Miocene Eocene Creta- Crela - -ceouws Wealden, rleck. 6 t} Purbeck 0 2 2 2 Oolite scolothere ed : Lia cs Trias Bymian Fig. 142. The Table (fig. 142) expresses the sum of the observa- tions at the present date, on the succession, appearance, and geological relations of the several orders of the Mammalian class. The earliest evidences are of small species, which, when- ever they have presented grounds for ordinal determination, have proved to belong to the low organized Marsupiaha. The doubt, when it has existed, lies between this and the Insecti- vorous order, also low in the class according to cerebral characters.* One example only, from Stonesfield oolite, the Stereognathus, may prove to be a minute Ungulate, as is indi- cated by the note of interrogation under Perissodactyla. The * Owen, “On the Classification and Geographical Distribution of the Mammalia,” 8vo, 1859. 408 PALZONTOLOGY similar mark, under Cetacea, refers to the fossil, probably washed out of an Upper Oolitic bed, referred to at p. 321. The Marsupialia recur, under distinct generic forms, in the eocene strata, and, according to actual knowledge, present their fullest development in pliocene and modern times, more especially in Austraha. The orders Bruta, Perissodactyla, and Carnivora, have become reduced in numbers; the Proboscidia still more so; the representatives of the singular group Toxodontia have wholly disappeared. The sum of the evidence which has been obtained seems to prove that the successive extinction of Microlestes, Amphi- thera, Spalacotheria, Triconodons, and other mesozoic forms of mammals, has been followed by the introduction of much more numerous, varied, and higher-organized forms of the class, during the tertiary periods. It may be, however, objected that negative evidence cannot satisfactorily establish the proposition that the mammalian class is of late introduction, nor prevent the conjecture that it may have been as richly represented in primary and more ancient secondary as in tertiary times, could we but get remains of the terrestrial fauna of the continents. To this objection it may be replied: in the palsozoic strata, which, from their extent and depth, indicate, in the earth’s existence as a seat of organic life, a period as prolonged as that which has followed their deposition, no trace of mammals has been observed. Were mammals peculiar to dry land, such nega- tive evidence would weigh less in producing conviction of their non-existence during the Silurian and Devonian zons, because the explored parts of such strata have been deposited from an ocean, and the chance of finding a terrestrial and air- breathing creature’s remains in oceanic deposits is very remote. But in the present state of the warm-blooded, air-breathing, viviparous class, no genera and species are represented by such numerous and widely dispersed individuals, as those of SUCCESSION OF CLASSES 409 the order Cetacea, which, under the guise of fishes, dwell, and can only live, in the ocean. In all Cetacea the skeleton is well ossified, and the vertebree are very numerous: the smallest Cetacean would be deemed large amongst land-mammals; the largest surpass in bulk any creatures of which we have yet gained cognizance: the hugest ichthyosaur, iguanodon, megalosaur, mammoth, or megathere, is a dwarf in comparison with the modern whale of a hundred feet in length. During the period in which we have proof that Cetacea have existed, the evidence in the shape of bones and teeth, which latter enduring characteristics in most of the species are peculiar for their great number in the same individual, must have been abundantly deposited at the bottom of the sea; and as cachalots, grampuses, dolphins, and porpoises are seen gambolling in shoals in deep oceans, far from land, their remains will form the most characteristic evidences of verte- brate life in the strata now in course of formation at the bottom of such oceans. Accordingly, it consists with the known characteristics of the cetacean class to find the marine deposits which fell from seas tenanted, as now, with vertebrates of that high grade, containing the fossil evidences of the order in vast abundance. The red crag of Suffolk and Essex contains petrified frag- ments of the skeletons and teeth of various Cetacea, in such quantities as to constitute a great part of that source of phos- phate of lime for which the red crag is worked for the manu- facture of artificial manure. The scanty and dubious evidence of Cetacea in secondary beds seems to indicate a similar period for their beginning as for the soft-scaled cycloid and ctenoid fishes which have superseded the ganoid orders of mesozoic times. We cannot doubt but that had the genera [chthyosaurus, Pliosaurus, or Plesiosaurus, been represented by species in the 410 PALA ONTOLOGY same ocean that was tempested by the Baleenodons and Dio- plodons of the miocene age, the bones and teeth of those marine reptiles would have testified to their existence as abun- dantly as they do at a previous epoch in the earth’s history. But no fossil relic of an enaliosaur has been found in tertiary strata, and no living enalosaur has been detected in the present seas: and they are consequently held by competent naturalists to be extinct. In hke manner does such negative evidence testify to the non-existence of marine mammals in the liassic and _ oolitic times. In the marine deposits of those secondary or mesozoic epochs, the evidence of vertebrates governing the ocean, and preying on inferior marine vertebrates, is as abundant as that of air-breathing vertebrates in the tertiary strata ; but in the one the fossils are exclusively of the cold-blooded reptilian class, in the other, of the warm-blooded mammalian class. The Enaliosauria, Cetiosauria, and Crocodilia, played the same part and fulfilled similar offices in the seas from which the has and oolites were precipitated, as the Delphinide and Balenide did in the tertiary seas, and still do in the present ocean. The unbiassed conclusion from both negative and positive evidence in this matter is, that the Cetacea succeeded and superseded the Enaliosauria. To the mind that will not accept such conclusion, the stratified oolitic rocks must cease to be trustworthy records of the condition of life on the earth at that period. So far, however, as any general conclusion can be deduced from the large sum of evidence above referred to, and con- trasted, it is against the doctrine of the Uniformitarian. Organic remains, traced from their earliest known graves, are succeeded, one series by another, to the present period, and never re-appear when once lost sight of in the ascending search. As well might we expect a living Ichthyosaur in the Pacific, as a fossil whale in the Lias: the rule governs as SUCCESSION OF CLASSES 411 strongly in the retrospect as the prospect. And not only as respects the Vertebrata, but the sum of the animal species at each successive geological period has been distinct and pecu- liar to such period. Not that the extinction of such forms or species was sudden or simultaneous: the evidences so interpreted have been but local. Over the wider field of life at any given epoch, the change has been gradual; and, as it would seem, obedient to some general, continuously operative, but as yet, ill-compre- hended, law. In regard to animal life, and its assigned work on this planet, there has, however, plainly been “an ascent and progress in the main.” Although the mammalia, in regard to the plenary develop- ment of the characteristic orders, belong to the Tertiary division of geological time, just as “ Hchint are most common in the superior strata; Ammonites in those beneath, and Producti with numerous Enerini in the lowest”* of the secondary strata, yet the beginnings of the class manifest themselves in the formations of the earlier preceding division of geological time. We are not entitled to infer from the Lueina of the per- mian, and the Opis of the trias, that the Lamellibranchiate Mollusks existed in the same rich variety of development at those periods as during the tertiary and present times; and no prepossession can close the eyes to the fact that the Lamelli- branchiate have superseded the Palliobranchiate bivalves. On negative evidence, Orthisina, Theca, Producta, or Spirifer are believed not to exist in the present seas: on negative evi- dence the existing genera of siphonated bivalves and univalves are deemed to have been very rare in permian, triassic, or oolitic times. To suspect that they may have then abundantly existed, but have hitherto escaped observation, because certain Lamellibranchs with an open mantle, and some holostomatous * A generalization of William Smith’s. 412 PALZ ONTOLOGY and asiphonate Gastropods, have left their remains in secondary strata, is not more reasonable, as it seems to me, than to con- clude that the proportion of mammalian life may have been as great in secondary as in tertiary strata, because a few small forms of the lowest orders have made their appearance in triassic and oolitic beds. Turning from a retrospect into past time for the prospect of time to come, I may crave indulgence for a few words, of more sound, perhaps, than significance, relative to’ the amount of prophetic insight imparted by Paleeontology. But the re- flective mind cannot evade or resist the tendency to speculate on the future course and ultimate fate of vital phenomena in this planet. There seems to have been a time when life was not; there may, therefore, be a period when it will cease to be. Our most soaring speculations still show a kinship to our nature: we see the element of finality in so much that we have cognizance of, that it must needs mingle with our thoughts, and bias our conclusions on many things. The end of the world has been presented to man’s mind under divers aspects: as a general conflagration; as the same, preceded bya millennial exaltation of the world to a paradisiacal state,—the abode of a higher race of intelligences. If the guide-post of Paleontology may seem to point to a course ascending to the condition of the latter speculation, it points but a very short way, and in leaving it we find ourselves in a wilderness of conjecture, where to try to advance is to find ourselves “in wandering mazes lost.” With much more satisfaction do I return to the legitimate deductions from the phenomena which have been under review. In the survey which has been taken of the various forms of life that have passed away—of their characters, succession, geo- logical position, and geographical distribution—if I have sue- CONCLUSION 413 ceeded in demonstrating the adaptation of any structure to the exigencies, habits, and well-being of the species, I have fulfilled one object which 1 had in view, viz., to set forth the beneficence and intelligence of the Creative Power. If, in all the striking changes of form and proportion which have passed under review, we could discern only the results of minor modifications of a few essential elements, we must be the more strikingly impressed with the unity of that Cause, and with the wisdom and power, which could produce so much variety, and at the same time such perfect adaptations and en- dowments, out of means so simple. For, in what have those contrasted limbs, hoofs, paws, fins, and wings, so variously formed to obey the behests of volition in denizens of different elements, differed from the mechanical instruments which we ourselves plan with foresight and calculation for analogous uses, save in their greater complexity, in their perfection, and in the unity and simplicity of the elements which are modified to constitute these several locomotive organs ? Everywhere in organic nature we see the means not only subservient to an end, but that end accomplished by the simplest means. Hence we are compelled to regard the Great Cause of all, not like certain philosophic ancients, as a uniform and quiescent mind, as an all-pervading anima mundi, but as an active and anticipating intelligence. By applying the laws of comparative anatomy to the relics of extinct races of animals contained in and characterizing the different strata of the earth’s crust, and corresponding with as many epochs in the earth’s history, we make an important step in advance of all preceding philosophies, and are able to demonstrate that the same pervading, active, and beneficent intelligence which manifests His power in our times, has also manifested His power in times long anterior to the records of our existence. But we likewise, by these investigations, gain a still more 414 PALA ONTOLOGY important truth, viz. that the phenomena of the world do not succeed each other with the mechanical sameness attributed to them in the cycles of the epicurean philosophy; for we are able to demonstrate that the different epochs of the earth were attended with corresponding changes of organic structure; and that, in all these instances of change, the organs, still illustra- ting the unchanging fundamental types, were, as far as we could comprehend their use, exactly those best suited to the functions of the being. Hence we not only show intelligence evoking means adapted to the end; but, at successive times and periods, producing a change of mechanism adapted to a change in external conditions. Thus the highest generalizations in the science of organic bodies, like the Newtonian laws of universal matter, lead to the unequivocal conviction of a great First Cause, which is certainly not mechanical. ACALEPH, 17. Acanthias, 100. Acanthocladia, 28. Acanthodes, 131. Acanthodii, 130. Acanthopteri, 146. Acanthospongia, 6, Acanthoteuthis, 91. Acervularia, 23. Acervulina, 11. Acheta, 47. Acrodus, 109. Acrolepis, 138. Acteonella, 80. Acteonina, 74, 80. Acrocidaris, 36. Acrosalenia, 36. Actinoceras, 85. Actinocrinus, 31. Actinocyclus, 13, 14. Actinoida, 21. Actinophrys, 9. Holodon, 271. Etobates, 115. Agathistega, 11. Agnostus, 42. Alaria, 73. Alca, 400. Alecto, 28. Alligator, 273. Alveolina, 12. Amblypterus, 137. Amblyurus, 143. Ambonychia, 57. Ammonites, 86. Ameeba, 9. Amphibichnites. 163. Amphiceelia, 271. Amphicyon, 340. Amphidotus, 36. Amphilestes, 303. Amphitherium, 303, Amphiura, 33. Amplexus, 23. Anacanthini, 148. Ananchytes, 34. Anastoma, 79. Anatinide, 57. INDEX. Ancyloceras, 86. Andrias, 284. Annulata, 39. Anomia, 58. Anomodontia, 235. Anoplotherium, 332. Anthocrinus, 31. Anthozoa, 21. Anthracotherium, 367. Anthrocosia, 66. Antipathes, 21. Apateon, 168. Aphis, 47. Apioceras, 83. Apiocrinus, 30. Aporrhais, 73. Apteryx, 294. Apus, 45. Aptychus, 86. Arachnida, 48. | Arbacia, 36. Arca, 61. Arcella, 9. Archeocidaris, 35. Archeoniscus, 45. Archegosaurus, 168, 177. Archiacia, 36. Archimedipora, 20. Arthraster, 34. Asaphus, 44. Ascidia, 27. Ascoceras, 83. Asilus, 47. Aspidiscus, 25. | Aspidura, 33. Astartide, 57. Asteriade, 33. Asteropterichius, 104. Astrea, 36. Astrogonium, 34. Athyris, 50. Atlanta, 72. Atrypa, 50. Aturia, 82. Aulacanthus, 105. | Aves, 286. Aviculide, 60. | Aviculopecten, 57. Axinus, 57. BAcILLARIA, 14, 16. Bactrites, 85. Baculites, 86. Bakewellia, 60. Balenodon, 342. Balanophyliia, 26. Balanus, 40. Balistes, 100. Baphetes, 184. Bathygnathus, 252. Batrachia, 283. Batrachopus, 166. Belemnites, 92. Belemnitella, 93. Belemnoris, 90. Belemnosepia, 91. Bellerophon, 72. Bellinurus, 42. Belodon, 251. Beloptera, 90. Beloteuthis, 90. “ Berg-mehl,” 15. Berosus, 47. Beyrichia, 42. Bifrontia, 77. Bison, 370. Blastoidea, 30. Blattide, 47. Borsonia, 75. Bos, 370. Bothrioconis, 6. Bothriolepis, 132. Bourgetocrinus, 29, 54. Brachiolites, 8. Brachiopoda, 49. Brissus, 36. Brontozoum, 290. Bryozoa, 27. Bubalus, 370. Buccinum, 71, 97. Buprestis, 47. _ Byssacanthus, 103. | CALcEOLA, 53. Callorhynchus, 116. Calymene, 42. 416 Calyptreidx, 77. Camarophoria, 51. Camaroceras, 83. Camelopardalis, 388. Campanularia, 17. Campylodiscus, 15. Cancellaria, 76. Cantharidz, 47. Capitosaurus, 196. Caprina, 63. Caprinella, 64. Caprotina, 64. Carabidex, 47. Carcharodon, 111. Cardiade, 65. Cardiomorpha, 64. Cardiola, 60. Cardium, 65. Carinaria, 73. Carnivora, 376. Carolia, 58. Caryocrinus, 31. Cassidaria, 76. Cassidulida, 36. Cassis, 76. Catantostoma, 78. Catopygus, 35. Caturus, 139. Caturide, 139. Cellepora, 28. “ Celts,” 401. Centriscus, 103. Centrodus, 138. Cephalaspis, 122. Ceratiocaris, 43. Ceratites, 82. Cercomya, 68. Cercopis, 47. Ceromya, 68. Cervus, 371. Cerylon, 47. Cestracion, 106. Cetiosaurus, 272. Chama, 62. Cheiracanthus, 131. Cheirolepis, 131. Cheirotherium, 163. Chelonia, 281. Chelydra, 282. Chemnitzia, 77. Chenendopora, 7. Chimera, 116. Chiton, 77. Choanites, 7. Cheeropotamus, 367. Cheetites, 23. Chondrosteus, 145. Chonetes, 53. Chrysaora, 28. Chrysodomus, 97. Chrysomelide, 47. Cicada, 47. Cidaris, 35. Cimicide, 47. INDEX. Cirripedia, 40. Cirrus, 78. Cladacanthus, 104. Cladodus, 108. Cladyodon, 251. Clavagella, 69. Clavella, 75. Cleodora, 71. Cliona, 8. Climatius, 103. Clymenia, 83. Clypeaster, 36. Cnemidium, 7. Coccinella, 47. Coccosteus, 123. Coccoteuthis, 90. Cochliodus, 109. Ceelacanthi, 131. Ceelogenys, 386. Ccelorhynchus, 148. Ceenites, 20. Coleia, 45. Cololites, 39. Colonodus, 138. Colossochelys, 283. Coluber, 280. Columbellarina, 73. Colymbetes, 47. Comatula, 29, 34. Conchiosaurus, 214. Conchorhynchus, 86. Conocardium, 57, 65. Conoclypeus, 36. Conodonts, 97. Conorbis, 78. Conularia, 71. Copris, 47. Corallium, 21. Corax, 111. Corbicula, 66. Corbis, 65. Corbula, 68. Cordylodus, 96, Cornulites, 46. Coryphodon, 322. Corystes, 47. Coscinodiscus, 13, 16. Cosmacanthus, 103, Crania, 55. Crassatella, 66, Crenella, 62. Cribrispongia, 7. Crinoidea, 29. Crioceras, 89. Cristellaria, 12. Crocodilia, 271. Crocodilus, 273. Crossostoma, 74. Crotalocrinus, 30. Crustacea, 41. Cryptangia, 26. Cry ptoceras, 82. Cryptodon, 65. Ctenacanthus, 100. Ctenodonta, 57. Ctenognathus, 96. Ctenomys, 386, Ctenoidei, 146, Cucculea, 59. Cupularia, 28. Cupulispongia, 7. Curculionidae, 47. Cuvieria, 72. Cyathophyllum, 23. Cyathina, 26. Cyathocrinus, 31. Cyclas, 42. Cycloidei, 147. Cyclolites, 25. Cyclopthalmus, 48. Cyclostoma, 79. Cyclostrema, 77. Cymba, 76. Cyphon, 47. Cypreide, 76. Cyprida, 46. Cyprinide, 57. Cypris, 42. Cyitis, 50. Cyrtoceras, 83. Cyrtolites, 72. Cyrena, 65. Cystoidea, 30-32. Cytherea, 67. Cytheride, 42. Dareptvs, 142. Davidsonia, 53. Defrancia, 28. Dendrerpeton, 182. Dendrodus, 133. Dendrophyliia, 26. Dendropupa, 79. Dentalina, 11, 12. Dentalium, 77. Deshayesia, 75. Diastopora, 28. Diatomacex, 13, 16. Dibranchiata, 90. Diceras, 62, 64, Dichobune, 336. Dichodon, 333. Dicynodonts, 236. Didaena, 65. Didelphis, 341. Didus, 295. Didymograpsus, 20. Diftlugia, 9. Dikelocephalus, 157. Dimeracanthus, 103. Dimorphodon, 246. Dinornis, 293. Dinosauria, 257. Dinotherium, 352. Diplacanthus, 130. Diploctenium, 2. Diplodonta, 65. Diplograpsus, 20. Diplopterus, 130. Dipriacanthus, 104. Diprotodon, 394. Dipterus, 129, Disaster, 35. Discinidx, 56. Discoidea, 36. Discosorus, 84. Dithyrocaris, 42. Ditrupa, 40. Dolichosaurus, 278. Dolium, 74. Donacia, 47. Donax, 68. Dorypterus, 138. Dreissenia, 61. Dromatherium, 302. Dromilites, 46. Dryopithecus, 350. Ecurimys, 386. Echinarachnius, 36. Echinodermata, 29. Echinoidea, 34. Echinolampas, 36. Echinopsis, 35. Edaphodus, 117. Edmondia, 57. Elasmodus, 117. Elasmotherium, 387. Elater, 47. Elephas, 360. Elonichthys, 138. Emys, 282. Enallostega, alate Encrinus, 30. Entalophora, 28. Entomostega, 11. Entomostraca, 41. Entomoconchus, 42. Entosolenia, 11. Eopithecus, 341. Epiaster, 36. Epiornis, 294. Erismacanthus, 104. Eryon, 46. Eschara, 28. Estheria, 42. Etyus, 46. Eucalyptocrinus, 31. Eudea, 7. Eugeniacrinus, 31, 34. Eugnathus, 140. Eulima, 77. Euomphalus, 72. Eupatagus, 36. Eurynotus, 138. Eurypterus, 43. Exogyra, 58. FAScICULARIA, 29. Favosites, 23. Favositidex, 23. Felis, 376. INDEX. Fenestrella, 20, 28. Ferussina, 75, 79. Firolide, 72. Fistularide, 102. Flabellina, 6, 12. Flabellum, 26. Flustra, 29. Foraminifera, 9. Fungide, 25. Fusulina, 6, 12. Fusus, 76. GAILLONELLA, 14. Galecynus, 376. Galeocerdo, 111. Galerites, 34. Galeus, 111. Ganocephala, 168. Ganodus, 117. Ganoidei, 118. Gastornis, 291. Gastrochena, 68. Gavialis, 273. Geocrinus, 31. Geoteuthis, 91. Geryillia, 59. Gilbertsocrinus, 31. Gitocrangon, 45. Glandina, 79. * Glenotremites,” 32. Globiconcha, 80. Globigerina, 10. Globulus, 77. Globulodus, 138. Glyphea, 45. Glypticus, 36. Glyptocrinus, 31. Glyptolepis, 131, Glyptodon, 392. Glyptopomus, 132. Gnathodus, 96. Goniatites, 84. Goniodiscus, 34. Goniomya, 67, Goniopholis, 271. Gorgonide, 21. Grammysia, 57. Graphularia, 20. Graptolites, 19. Grateloupia, 67. Gryphea, 58. Guettardia, 6, 8. Gulo, 341. Gyracanthus, 104, Gyrinus, 47. Gyroceras, 84. Gyropristis, 104. Gyrosteus, 139. HALyYsITES, 23. Hamites, 86. Haplacanthus, 103. Harpalus, 47. Helicerus, 94. 4] Helicoceras, 89. Helicoidea, 11. Helicostega, 11. Heliolites, 23. Helix, 75, 79. Helophorus, 47. Hemerobioides, 47. Hemiaster, 86. Hemicidaris, 35. Hemipneustes, 35. Hemipristis, 111. Heterocercal fish, 119. Heteropoda, 72. Heterosteus, 119. Himantopterus, 45. Hinnites, 59. Hippalimus, 7. Hippocrena, 73. Hippohyus, 367. Hippopotamus, 364. Hippopodium, 67. Hippurites, 64. Hippuritide, 58. Histiophorus, 148. Holaster, 36. Holectypus, 36. Holocystis, 25. Holopella, 77 Holoptychius, 132. Holostomata, 76. Holothurioidea, 37. Homacanthus, 103. Homosteus, 119. Hoplopygus, 188. Hornera, 29. Human remains, 401, Huronia, 84, Hyena, 384. Hyenodon, 339. Hyalea, 71. Hyalonema, 21. Hybodus, 105, 108. Hydr ophilide, 47. Hydrozoa, 19. Hylxosaurus, 264. Hymenocaris, 43. Hyopotamus, 367. Hystrix, 386. JANIRA, 59. Janthina, 77. Ichnology, 152. Ichthyopteryzia, 198. “ Tehthyodorulites,” 104. Ichthyosaurus, 200. Idmonea, 28. Iguanodon, 265. Illenus, 42. Indusial Limestone, 48. Infusoria, 14. Inoceramus, 8, 59. Insecta, 47. Invertebrata 17, Jouannetia, 69. 418 Ischiodus, 117. Isis (Isisina), 21. Tsoarca, 59. Isodus, 138. KELLTIA, 65. LABYRINTHODONTIA,183. Lacertilia, 278. Laccophilus, 47. Lagena, 11. Lagomys, 386. Lagostomus, 386. Lamellibranchiata, 57. Lamna, 112. Leda, 61. Leiacanthus, 104. Leiodon, 279. Lepadidee, 41. Leperditia, 42. Lepidaster, 33. Lepidoganoidei, 129. Lepidosteus, 119. Lepidotus, 144. Lepracanthus, 104. Leptena, 54. Leptacanthus, 104. Leptocheles, 43. Leptolepis, 144. Leptopleuron, 255. Lenita, 36. Libellula, 47. Limanomia, 58. Limnza, 79. Limnius, 47. Limopsis, 67. Limulus, 43. Lingula, 56. Litharea, 26. Litnocardium, 65, 67. Lithodendron, 23. Lithornis, 291. Lithostrotion, 23. Litorinidse, 77. Lituites (Breynius), 84. Lituola, 6, 12. Loligosepia, 91. Lophiodon, 329. Loricula, 46. Loxonema, 71. Lucinide, 65. Lucinopsis, 67. Luidia, 33. Lunulites, 28. Lutraria, 68. Lyrodesma, 57, 62. MAcELtLopus, 279. INDEX. Macrochilus, 71. Macrodon, 61. Macropetalichthys, 160. Macropoma, 144, Macropus, 394. Macropthalma, 46. Macrospondylus, 271. Macrotherium, 346. Mactra, 67. Malacostraca, 45. Mallotus, 150. | Mammalia, 295. Geological distribu- tion of, 407. | Mammillopora, 6. Manon, 6. Marginula, 15. Marsupites, 30. Martesia, 69. Massospondylus, 271. Mastigophora, 91. Mastodon, 353. Mastodonsaurus, 195. Megaceros, 372. Megachirus, 46. Mezalodon, 63. Megalosaurus, 258. Megaspira, 79. Megatherium, 390. Melania, 77. Melanopsis, 77. Melocrinus, 31. Melolontha, 47. Menopoma, 185. Merycotherium, 387. Mesopithecus, 351. Mesostylus, 47. Metopias, 196. Meyeria, 45. Michelinia, 24. Micrabacia, 25. Micraster, 36. Microconchus, 40. Microlestes, 301. Microtherium, 338. Millericrinus, 31. Milleporide, 23. Mitra, 75. Modiola, 62. Modiolopsis, 61. Mollusea, 48. Monodaena, 65. Monopleura, 64. Monostega, 11. Monotis, 60. Montlivaltia, 25. Mosasaurus, 279. ~ Murchisonia, 71. Machairodus (Pander) | fish, 98. Machairodus (Kaup) mammal, 382. Maclurea, 71. Macrauchenia, 393. Muricide, 73. Mya, 68. Myacide, 58. Myacites, 68. Myalina, 57. Myliobates, 105. Mylodon, 389. Myopara, 62. Myophoria, 62. Myoxus, 385. Myriapoda, 48. Mystriosaurus, 271. Mytilide, 61, Narcopves, 103. Natica, 75. Naulas, 103. Nautilus, 75. Nautiloceras, 84. Navicula, 14. Neera, 68. Nebalia, 43. Neithea, 59. Nemacanthus, 104. Nepadz, 47. Neptunia, 76. * Nereites,” 39. Nerinza, 74. Nerita, 78. Neritoma, 74. Nestor, 599. | Nodosaria, 12. Notagogus, 144. Nothosaurus, 210, 231. Nothosomus, 144. Notidanus, 110. Notopocorystes, 46. Notornis, 294, Nototherium, 395. Nucleobranchiata, 72. Nucleolites, 36. Nucula, 61. Nucunella, 62. Nummulites, 6-13. Oxsotus (Ungula), 53. Oculina, 26. Odontacanthus, 103. Odontaspis, 111. Odontosaurus, 196. Oldhamia, 20, 28. Oliva, 75. Onchus, 100, 103. Onychoteuthis, 91. Operculina, 12. Ophidia, 279, Ophioderma, 33. Ophiopsis, 144. Ophiura, 34. Ophiurella, 33. Ophiuride, 33. Opis, 67. Opisthoceelia, 272. Oracanthus, 104. Orbitoides, 6, 12. Orbitolites, 12. Oreaster, 34. Ornithichnites, 288. Orodus, 108. Orognathus, 158. Orthacanthus, 104. Orthis, 53. Orthoceras, 85. Orthonotus, 61. Orthophlebia, 47. ° Osteolepis, 130. Osteoplax, 138. Ostracoda, 42. Ostracostei, 118. Ostreide, 58. Otozoum, 165. Oudenodon, 238. Ovibos, 401. Ovulites, 6, 12. Pacuycormus, 140. Pachygyra, 25. Pachyrisma, 66. Palaster, 33. Palechinus, 35. Paleocrangon, 45. Paleocyclus, 25. Palzoniscus, 137. Paleophrynos, 283. Paleophys, 280. Palopyge, 107. Paleosaurus, 249. Palzospongia, 6. Palzoteuthis, 81. Paleotherium, 330. Palapteryx, 294. Paleryx, 280. Paludina, 77. Pamphagus, 9. Pandora, 68. Panopzea, 68. Parasmilia, 25. Parexus, 103. Passalodon, 117. Patella, 79. Pecten, 58. Pectunculus, 62. Pelagosaurus, 271. Pelorosaurus, 272. Pentacrinus, 29, 30. Pentamerus, 50. Pentremites, 30. Perna, 60. Petricola, 67. Pezophaps, 295. Phacops, 42. Phascolomys, 395. Phascolotherium, 304. Pheenicopterus, 292. Pholadomya, 68. Pholas, 69. Pholidophorus, 143. Phragmoceras, 83. Phryganea, 47. Phyllodus, 149. Phyllolepis, 132. Phyllopora, 28. ; Physa, 79. Physonemus, 104. | INDEX. Pileolus, 74. Pisces, 99. Pisodus, 149. Pistosaurus, 214, 230. Placodermata, 118. Placodus, 216. Placoganoidei, 118. Placoidei, 118. Placuna, 58, Placunopsis, 58. Plagiaulax, 319. Plagiostoma, 59. Plagiostomi, 99. Planorbis, 79. Platemys, 282. Platyacanthus, 104. Platycrinus, 31. Platysomus, 138. Plesiosaurus, 223. Plectrodus, 101. Plectrolepis, 138. Pleuracanthus, 103. Pleuraster, 33. Pleurophorus, 57, 66. Pleurosternon, 281. Pleurotomaria, 78. Plicatilia, 15. Plicatula, 59. Pliolophus, 325. Pliopithecus, 350. Pliosaurus, 232. Pododus, 138. Podopilumnus, 46. Peecilopleuron, 271. Pollicipes, 41. Polycystinee, 10, 15. Polygastria, 14. Polypi, 19. Polypothecia, 7. Polytremaria, 78. Polyptychodon, 235. Polythalamia, 11. Porambonites, 51. | Porcellia, 71. Poromya, 68. Posidonomya, !2, 57. _Potamides, 77. Poteriocrinus, 30. Prionus, 47. Proccelia, 273. Producta, 53. Propterus, 144. Prosoponiscus, 45. Protaster, 33. Protemys, 281. Protichnites, 159... Protopithecus, 393. Protornis, 291. Protorosaurus, 253. Protovirgularia, 20, 39. Protozoa, 5. Psammosteus, 138. Psendocrinus, 30. | Psittacodus, 117. 419 Pteraspis, 101. Pterichthys, 119. Pterinea, 60. Pterocera, 73. Pterocoma, 31. Pterodactylus, 246. Pterodonta, 80. Pteroperna, 60. Pteropoda, 71. Pterosauria, 244. Pterotheca, 72. Pterygotus, 43. Ptilodictya, 20. Ptilopora, 20, 28. Ptyacanthus, 103. Ptychoceras, 89. Ptychodus, 110. Ptychognathus, 238. Pulmonifera, 70. Pulvinites, 60. Purpurina, 73. Pycnodontes, 140. Pycnodus, 142. Pygaster, 34. Pygocephalus, 45. Pygopterus, 168. Pyramidella, 76. Pyrina, 36. Pyritonema, 21. | Pythina, 65. RapiaTa, 19. Radiolites, 63. Raia, 115. Raiide, 113. Ramphorhynchus, 246. Rana, 284. Ranella, 73. Raniceps, 183. Raphiosaurus, 278. Raphistoma, 77. Rastrites, 20. Reptilia, 168. —— Geological distribu- tion of, 285. Requienia, 63. Retzia, 52. Rhabdoidea, 11. Rhinoceros, 366.. Rhinodon, 98. Rhizodus, 132. Rhodocrinus, 31. Rhizopoda, 8. Rhombus, 149. Rhyncholites, 86. Rhynchonella, 51. Rhynchosaurus, 239. Rhynchoteuthis, 81. Rimella, 73. Ringicula, 80. Rissoa, 62. Rodentia, 385. Rosalina, 12. Rostellaria, 73. 420 Rotalina, 12. Ruminantia, 368. Rytina, 346, 400. Saccosoma, 31. Salenia, 35. Saurichthyide, 138. Saurillus, 279. Sauropsis, 140. Sauropterygia, 209. Sauropus, 167. Saurostomus, 140. Saxicava, 69. Scalaria, 77. Scalites, 77. Scalpellum, 41. Scaphites, 89. Scelidosaurus, 258. Scelidotherium, 391. Schizaster, 36. Schizodus, 62. Sciurus, 385. Scoliostoma, 71. Scutella, 34. Scutellina, 36. Scyphia, 6. Semionotus, 145. Semiophorus, 146. Sepia, 90. Septifera, 61. Seraphs, 73. Serpula, 40. Siluride, 100. Simosaurus, 214. Siphonia, 6. Siphonotreta, 53. Sivatherium, 387. Smerdis, 147. Solecurtus, 68. Solemya, 62. Solenella, 62. Solenida, 68. Soroidea, 11. Sowerbya, 67. Spalacotherium, 315. Sparella, 97. Sparsispongia, 6. Spatangide, 35. Spheronites, 30. Sphagodus, 100. Sphenacanthus, 104. Sphenotrochus, 26. Sphinx, 48. Spinax, 105. Spiniferites, 8. Spinigera, 74. Spirifera, 50. Spiroglyphus, 40. Spirorbis, 40. Spirula, 90. Spirulirostra, 90. Spondylus, 59. Sponges, 5. INDEX. Squalidex, 110. Staganolepis, 257. Steganodictyum, 6. Stellaster, 33. Stellispongia, 7. Steneosaurus, 271, 274. Stephanophvllia, 26. Stereognathus, 308. Stichostega, 11. Strepsidura, 75. Streptospondylus, 272. Stringocephalus, 50. Stromatopora, 6. Strombus, 738. Strophalosia, 55. Strophomena, 53. Sturionide, 145. Stylina, 25. Suchosaurus, 271. Sus, 368. Synapta, 37. Syndosmya, 68. Synocladia, 28. Syringopora, 23. | TANCREDIA, 67. Tanystropheus, 220. Teleosaurus, 271, 274. Tellina, 67. Tellinidx, 58. Telephoride, 47. Temnopleurus, 36. Tentaculites, 46. Terebellaria, 28. Terebellum, 73. Teredina, 69. Terebralia, 77. Terebratella, 49. Tetragonolepis, 142. Teuthide, 90. Textularia, 15. Thamniscus, 28. Thecidium, 50. Thecodontia, 248. Thecodontosaurus, 248. Thecosmilia, 25. Thetis, 68. Thryssonotus, 140. Thylacoleo, 396. Tinea, 48. Tornatella, 80. Toxaster, 36. Toxoceras, 89. Toxodon, 393. Tragos, 6. Trematosaurus, 195. Tretosternon, 281. Trichites, 61. Triconodon, 318. Tridaena, 65. Trigonellites, 86. Trigon, 105. | Trigona, 67. Trigoniade, 58, 62. Trigonoceras, 83. Trigonosemus, 50. Trilobites, 44. Trinucleus, 42. Trionyx, 282. “ Tripoli,” 14, Triton, 76. Trivia, 76. Trochide, 77. Trochocyathus, 26. Trochotoma, 74. Trogontherium, 386. Tropidaster, 33. Tropifer, 45. Trystichius, 104. Tubina, 71. Tubulipora, 29. Tunicata, 17. Turbinolia, 25. Turbo, 62. Turrilites, 89. Turritella, 77. Tylostoma, 80. Uncires, 50. Unicardium, 65. Unionide, 62. Uronemus, 1838. Ursus, 384. VAGINELLA, 75. Varigera, 80. Veneride, 58. Venerupis, 67. Ventriculites, 6, 8. Vermetus, 40. Vermicularia, 40. Vermilia, 40. | Verruca, 41. | Verticellopora, 7. Verticordia, 62. Volutide, 76. | Volutilithes, 75. Volvaria, 75. WALDHEIMMIA, 49. Webbina, 12. Woodocrinus, 31. XANTHIDIDM, 8. Xestorrhytias, 196. Xiphias, 148. Xiphodon, 337. Youpra, 62. ZAPHRENTIS, 23. Zeuglodon, 344. Zygobates, 114. Zygosaurus, 196. A CATALOGUE OF WORKS PUBLISHED BY ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK, EDINBURGH. ENcY€LoPp2pDIA Brirannica, Sir WALTER Scort’s Works, ArnAsns AND Maps, . Mepican AND SurGicasL Works EpucationaL Works, Guipr Books anp Maps, MiscELLANEOUS Works, > ENCYCLOPADIA BRITANNICA, BKBIGHTH EDITION. Now Publishing in Monthly Parts, price 8s., AND Quarterly Volumes, price 24s. LIST OF SOME OF THE CONTRIBUTORS, Ricut Hon. Lorp Macautay. Right Rey. RicHarD WuHarTELY, D.D., Archbishop of Dublin. Right Rev. R. Dickson D.D., Bishop of Hereford. Wittiam WuHEWELL, D.D., Trinity College, Cambridge. Sir Davip Brewster, K.H., LL.D., Principal of the University of Edin- burgh. RicHarD OweEN, Esq., F.R.S., Superin- tendent of the Natural History De- partments in the British Museum. Joun Leg, D.D., late Principal of the University of Edinburgh. Sir Witi1am Hamitton, Bart. Sir ARCHIBALD ALISON, Bart. Sir Joon RicHarpson. Sir Jonn M‘NEILL. Henry Rocers, Esq., Author of the “Eclipse of Faith,” &e. Isaac Taytor, Esq., Author of the “ Natural History of Enthusiasm,” &c. Rey. Cuartes Kinestey, Author of| “ Hypatia,” “ Westward Ho,” &e. J. D. Forprs, Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of | Edinburgh, &c., &c. RoBert STEPHENSON, Esq., M.P., late President of the Institution of Civil Engineers, &c. Richarp Monckton MILNEs, M.P.., Hepwortu Dixon, Esq. THEODORE Martin, Esq. Major-General Portiock, R.M.A., Pre- sident of the Geological Society of London. PATRICK FRASER TyTLER, Esq. HAMPDEN, Esq., Davip Masson, M.A., Professor of English Literature in University College, London. Sir Jonn F. W. HerscuHet, Bart., K.H., M.A., D.C.L., &c. D. F. Arago, late Member of the Royal Institute of France. Sir Jonn Rosrson, LL.D., late Professor of Natural Philosophy in the Univer- sity of Edinburgh. Sir WALTER Scott, Bart. Ca) Ca Jae BoNsEN Dias Dix. DSEsEE Lord JEFFREY. Tuomas Youne, M.D., late Correspond- ing Member of the Royal Institute of France. Sir Jonn Lustre, late Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh. Sir Jonn Barrow, Bart. JoHN PLayFratr, F.R.S., late Professor of Natural Philosophy in the Uni- versity of Edinburgh. The Right Hon. Sir James Macxin- tosH, LL.D., &c. DuGALD Stewart, F.R.SS. L. and E. Sir James E. Suita, F.R.S., late Presi- dent of the Linnean Society. JEAN Baptiste Brot, Member of the Royal Institute of France. Right Rey. Grorer Guere, D.D. Lieut.-Col. CHARLES HAMILTON SMITH, E.R.S. E. G. Sgqurer, formerly Chargé D’Affaires of the United States to the Republics of Central America. Sir Joun Grawam DALyeE tt, Bart. A. H. Layarp, LL.D. 4 RoBeRT JAMESON, F.R.S., late Regius Professor of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh. ALAN STEVENSON, Esq., F.R.S.E., C.E. Epwarp Epwarps, Esq. Joun CRAWFURD, Esq., F.R.S. J. Y. Smupson, M.D., Professor of Mid- wifery in the University of Edin. THOMAS DE QuINCcEY, Esq. R. G. Latuam, Esq., M.A., M.D., &c. W. E. Ayvoun, Professor of Rhetoric and Belles Lettres in the University of Edinburgh. J. R. M‘Cutxocn, Esq., Member of the Institute of France, &ce. Avcustus PETERMANN, Esq., F.R.G.S., &e. Wititam Sparpine, M.A., Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the Uni- versity of St Andrews. Rey. P. Ketuanp, M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the University of Edinburgh. Antonio Panizzi, Esq. THomas AnDERSON, M.D., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Glasg. Dr Doran, Author of “ Habits and Men,” &e. 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Dr SanpwirH, K.B. Institutes of Medicine i in the Univer sity of Edinburgh. WinirAm Howirt, Esq. WILLIAM STIRLING, Esq., M.P. Rev. W1LuIAM ELLIs. GEORGE Witson, M.D., Professor of| Rev. W. H. Gooxp, D.D. Technology in the "University of| Rev. F. W. FARRAR, Fellow of Trinity Edinburgh. WALTER BaGsnor, Esq. Rospert Carrutuers, Esq. Joun Hitu Burton, Esq. College, Cambridge. Gotpwin Smit, M.A., Professor of Modern History i in the University of Oxford, ENCYCLOPZEDIA BRITANNICA. EIGHTH EDITION. — PRINCIPAL SUBJECTS. VOLUME I. DISSERTATION FIRST.—On the Progress of Metaphysical and Ethical Philosophy, since the Revival of Letters in Europe. By DuGALD STEWART, late Professor of Moral Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh. DISSERTATION SECOND.—On the Progress of Ethical Philosophy, chiefly during the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. By Sir JAMES MACKINTOSH, LL.D. With a Preface by Wi~LL1AM WHEWELL, D.D. DISSERTATION THIRD.—On the Rise, Progress, and Corruptions of Christianity. 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Roperr Mary, Royal Observa- tory, Greenwich. Archery—Arithmetic. VOLUME IV. ASTRONOMY. By Tnuos. Gattoway, Sir Joun Prayratr, and Tuos. Hexprerson. With Supplements by Rev. R. Mary, Royal Observatory, Greenwich. ATHENS and ATTICA. By James Browne, LL.D. Revised by Dr. L. Soumirz, F.R.S.E., Rector of the High School of Edinburgh. “I ENCYCLOPADIA BRITANNICA.—PRINCIPAL SUBJECTS. VOLUME IV.—Continued. ATMOMETER, BAROMETER, and BAROMETRICAL MEA- SUREMENTS. By Sir Joun Lestrz, With Supplements. ATMOSPHERE. By Tuomas Tuomson, late Professor of Che- mistry in the University of Glasgow. ATTERBURY. By the Right Hon. Toomas Bapinetron Macautay. ATTRACTION. By James Ivory, F.R.S. AURORA BOREALIS. By Rosrert Jameson, F.R.S., late Pro- fessor of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh. AUSTRALASIA & AUSTRALIA. By Sir Joun Barrow. With continuation by SamuEL Mossman, Author of the “Gold Fields of Australia,” ete. AUSTRIA. By Emeric Szasap, Author of “Hungary, Past and Present.” AVERAGE. By Joun Warrack, Average Stater. BACON. By Witt1am Spaxprine, Professor of Logic in the Univer- sity of St. Andrews. BAKING, BLEACHING, etc. By James Srarx, M.D., F.R.S.E. BAILLIE, BARBOUR, BALLAD, BARCLAY, ete. By Davin Irvine, LL.D. : BALANCE OF POWER and BIBLIOGRAPHY. By Macvey Napier, late Professor of Conveyancing in the University of Edinburgh. BALLOT, BANKRUPTCY, and BENTHAM. By J.H. Burton, Author of the “ History of Scotland,” ete. BASKET-MAKING. By Sir J. G. Dauzett. BATHING, BECCARIA, etc. By Tuomas Youne, M.D. BENGAL. By Epwarp TuHornton, East India House. BEAUTY. By Lorp Jrerrrey. BEE. By James Witsoy, F.R.S.E. BEETHOVEN. By Grorcre Farquyar GRAHAM. BELGIUM. | BELL, (SIR CHARLES.) By Sir Jonn M‘Nemi1. BIBLE and BIBLE SOCIETIES. By Rev. James Tayror, D.D. BLACK SEA. By Lawrence Orrpuant, Author of “The Russian Shores of the Black Sea.” BLASTING. By Rozert and Thomas Stevenson, Civil Engineers. BOHEMIAN BRETHREN. By James Monrcomery, Author of * Greenland and other Poems.” BOLIVIA. Babylon—Baptism—Bernouilli— Blind—Block-Machinery—Blowytpe. § ENCYCLOPZDIA BRITANNICA.—PRINCIPAL SUBJECTS. VOLUME V. BOOKBINDING. By Caries Martet. ‘ BOMBAY, BURMAH, etc. By Ep. Tuornton, East India House, BOOK-KEEPING. By Josrpu Lowe. BORNEO and BORNOU. Revised by Avaustus PETERMANN, F.R.G.S., ete. BOTANY. By Jonn Hurton Barrotur, M.D., Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. BRAHMINS. By James Browne, LL.D, BRASS. By Cuarves SyLvester, C.E. BRAZIL. BREAKWATER. By Sir Joun Barrow, Bart. Revised by Joun BARRow, Admiralty. BREWING. By James Starx, M.D., F.R.S.E. BRICKMAKING. By Samvuet Hoimes, Liverpool. BRIDGE. By Tuomas Youne, M.D., F.R,S. BRITAIN. By James Browne, LL.D., with Continuation. BRUCKER. By Sir Wirtiam Hamixton, Bart. BUILDING. By Wiitam Hosxine, Author of “ Architecture.” BUNYAN. By the Right Hon. THomas Baprneron Macau.ay. BURMAH. By D. Bucuanan and E. Tuornton. VOLUME VI. BUTLER (BISHOP.) By Henry Rocers, Author of the “ Eclipse of Faith,” ete. BURNING-GLASSES. By Grorce Bucnanay, F.R.S.E. CALENDAR. By Tuomas Gatioway, F.R.S. CALIFORNIA. CALVIN and CHANNING. By Rev. W. L. Atexanper, D.D. CAMPBELL, THOMAS. By W.E. Aytoon, Professor of Rhetoric and Belles Lettres in the University of Edinburgh. CANADA. By J. B. Brown, Author of “ Views of Canada,” CANARY ISLANDS. By J. Y. Jounson, Madeira. CANNON. By Colonel Porttocx, Woolwich. CAPILLARY ACTION, By James Ivory, F.R.S. CARTHAGE. By James Browne, LL.D., and Dr. Scumitz. CARPENTRY and CHROMATICS. By Tuomas Youne, M.D. CAVAN and CLARE. By Henry Senror. CENTRE, By Jonn Rosison, late Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University sf Edinburgh. ENCYCLOPZDIA BRITANNICA.—PRINCIPAL SUBJECTS. 9 VOLUME VI.— Continued. CEYLON. By J. Capper, Ceylonese Commissioner to the Great Exhibition of 1851. CHALMERS, (THOMAS.) By Rev. Wittiam Hanna, LL.D. CHEMISTRY. By Wiit1am Grecory, Protessor of Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh. CHESS. By James Donatpson. CHILI. By C. B. Brack. CHINA. By Sir Joun Barrow. CHIVALRY. By Sir Watrter Scort, Bart. CHLOROFORM. By J. Y. Sureson, M.D., Professor of Midwifery in the University of Edinburgh. CHRONOLOGY. CIVIL LAW. By Davin Irvine, LL.D. CLIMATE. By Sir Joun Les ie. VOLUME VII. CLOCK and WATCH WORK. By Epmuxp Becxerr Denison, M.A., Q.C. COHESION. By Tuomas Youne, M.D., F.R.S. COINAGE. By Roserr Musuer of the Royal Mint. COLD and DEW. By Sir Joun Lestiz, late Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh. COLLISION, COMBINATION, CORN-LAWS, CORN-TRADE, and COTTAGE SYSTEM. By J. R. M‘Cuntocu. COLLIERY. By Witttam Avexanper, Mining Engineer. COLONY. By James Mitt. COLOUR-BLINDNESS. By Georce Witson, M.D., F.R.S.E. COMET. By Tuomas Gatitoway, F.R.S. COMMUNISM and CORPORATION. By J. H. Burton. CONIC SECTIONS. By Witi1am Wattace, LL.D., late Professor of Mathematics in the University of Edinburgh. CONSTRUCTION. By Wittiam Hosxine, Author of “ Archi- tecture.” CONSTANTINOPLE. By Epwarp Sane, late Professor of Mechanical Philosophy in the Imperial School, Constantinople. COPPER SMELTING. By James Napier, Glasgow. CORK. By Henry Senior. COTTON MANUFACTURE. Revised by Tuomas Bazez, Chairman of the Chamber of Commerce, Manchester. COWPER. By A. Smiru, Author of “ A Life Drama,” ete. CRIMEA. By James Laurie. 10 ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA,—PRINCIPAL SUBJECTS. VOLUME VII.—Contenued. CRUSADES, CUVIER, DANTON, and DEFOE. By James Browneg, LL.D. CRUSTACEA. By Joun Friemine, D.D., Professor of Natural Science, New College, Edinburgh. CUNNINGHAM, DALRYMPLE, and DEMPSTER. By Davin Irvine, LL.D. DAIRY. By Joun Witson, Author of “ Agriculture.” DEAF and DUMB. By P. M. Roget, M.D., F.R.S. DEMOSTHENES. By Witiram Sparpine, M.A., Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of St. Andrews. DENMARK. By Emeric Szapap, Author of the Article “Austria.” DIALLING. By Henry Mertz, C.E. Commerce—Constantinopolitan History— Copyright—Crystallization— Deluge. VOLUME VIII. DIPLOMACY and ENTAIL. By Jounn Hitt Berton. DISTILLATION. By James Srarx, M.D., F.R.S.E. DIVING and DIVING BELL. By Georcr Bucnanan, F.RS.E. DOCK and DOCK-YARD. By Sir Joan Barrow, Bart. Revised by his Son, Jonny Barrow, Admiralty. DOLLOND, DOLOMIEU, and DUHAMEL. By Txomas Youne, M.D., F.R.S. DONEGAL, DOWN, and DUBLIN. By Henry Senior. DRAINAGE of TOWNS. By W. Hosxine, Author of “ Archi- tecture,” etc. DRAINAGE of LANDS. By J. Witson, Author of “ Agriculture,” etc. DRAMA. By Sir Watrer Scort, Bart. DRAWING and ENGRAVING. By W. H. Lizars. DRY ROT. By Sir Joun Barrow, Bart. DUMONT, LORD DUNCAN, ete. By James Browne, LL.D. DUNBAR, (WILLIAM,) and ENGLISH LANGUAGE. By Davip Irvine, LL.D. DYEING (Carico Priytine.) By F. Crace Carvert, Professor of Chemistry, Royal Institution, Manchester. DYNAMICS. By Joun Roptson, late Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh. ECONOMISTS. By James Mitt. EDINBURGH and EDINBURGHSHIRE. EGYPT. By R. Sruarr Poorer, of the Department of Antiquities, British Museum, ENCYCLOPAZDIA BRITANNICA.—PRINCIPAL SUBJECTS. dial VOLUME VIII.— Continued. _ ELECTRICITY. By Sir Davin Brewster, K.H., M.A., D.C.L., ete. EMBANKMENT. By J. C. Loupon. EMIGRATION. By J. R. M‘Cuxttocn, Author of “ Commercial Dictionary,” ete. ENGLAND. By James Browne, LL.D., with Continuation. VOLUME IX. ENTOMOLOGY, FISHERIES, and EDWARD FORBES. By JAMES WILSON, F.R.S.E. EPHRAEM SYRUS. By Rev. Henry Burcess, LL.D. EPISCOPACY. By Rev. Grorce Grete, D.D. ERASMUS and FEUDAL LAW.’ By Davin Irvine, LL.D. EQUATIONS. By James Ivory, F.R.S. ETHNOLOGY. By R. G. Latsam, M.A., M.D. al EUGENE, FENELON, etc. By James Browne, ee By Cuartes Macraren, F.R.S.E., and James Laurie. EVIL. By Rev. W. L. Atexanper, D.D. EXAMINATIONS. By J. F. Mactennay. EXCHANGE, EXCHEQUER BILLS, and EXCISE. By J. R. M‘CuLLocuH. EXTREME UNCTION, FATHERS, FEDERAL GOVERN- MENT, ete. By Rev. J. Taytor, D.D. FABLE and FALLACY. By Wirtiam Spatpine, A.M., Professor of Logic in the University of St. Andrews. FALCONER, FARQUHAR, and FAIRFAX. By Rozenrt CARRUTHERS. FASHION. By Dr. Doran, Author of ‘ Habits and Men,” ete. FERMANAGH. By Henry Sentor. FEZZAN. Revised by Aucustus PETERMANN. FICHTE. By Joun Cotqunoovn, F.R.S.E. FIFESHIRE and FORTH. By Tuomas Barctray. FIGURE of the EARTH. By Tuomas Gattoway, F.R.S. FILTER. By Grorce Bucuanay, F.R.S.E. FLINTSHIRE. By Joun Girpwoop. FLORIDA. By J. Smira Homans, New York. FLUXIONS. By Wituam Wattace, LL.D. FONTANA, FOSTER, and FOURCROY. By Thomas Youne, FOOD. By Tyomas Lrwpnry Keur, M.D. 12 ENCYCLOPZDIA BRITANNICA.—PRINCIPAL SUBJECTS. VOLUME IX.—Continued. FORFAR. By James Cowr. FORTIFICATION. By Colonel Portiock. FOSTER. By J. E. Ryvanp, M.A. FOX, C. J. By Jon ALten. Exhibition—F anaticism. VOLUME X. FRANCE. By A. V. Kirwan, of the Middle Temple, Barrister- at-Law. FRANKLIN, (BENJAMIN.) By ALexanperR NICHOLsoN. FRANKLIN, Sir JOHN By Sir Jonn Ricuarpson. FUEL and GAS LIGHT. By Cuartes Tomiinson, Editor of “Cyclopedia of Useful Arts,” ete. FULLER, ANDREW. By J. E. Ryianp, M.A. FUNDING SYSTEM. By D. Ricarpo, supplemented by J. L. Ricarpo, M.P. FURNACE. By George Bucnanay, F.R.S.E. GALILEO. By James Browne, LL.D. GALWAY. By Henry Senior. GANGES. By Epwarp Txornton, India House. GASSENDI and GIBBON. By Henry Rogers, Author .of the “Eclipse of Faith,” ete. GEOGRAPHY. By Rev. Joun Wattace, D.D. GEOMETRY. By Wri1am Wattace, LL.D. GEOMETRY, ANALYTICAL. By Rev. P. Ketianp, M.A, Professor of Mathematics in the University of Edinburgh. GERMANY. By W. Jacos. Revised by Jamus Laurte. GLACIER and FRESNEL. By J. D. Fores, Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh. GLASGOW. By Joun Srrane, LL.D. GLASS. By James BaLiantyne. GNOSTICISM. By Joun Tuttocn, D.D., Primarius Professor of Divinity, St. Andrews. GOETHE. By Tuomas pe Quincey. GOLDSMITH. By the Right Hon. T. B. Macauray. CAPE of GOOD HOPE. By B. C. Ping, late Lieutenant- Governor of Natal. GOTAMA BUDDHA. By Rev. R. Spence Harpy, Hon. M.R.AS., Author of “ Eastern Monachism,” ete. GOTHS. By Leonarp Scumirz, LL.D. GOVERNMENT. By P. E. Dove, Author of the “ Theory of Human Progression,” ete. GRAMMAR. By Bishop Guere. Revised by W. SpaLpine, Pro- fessor of Logic in the University of St. Andrews. ENCYCLO?’ ZDIA BRITANNICA.—PRINCIPAL SUBJECTS. 13 VOLUME XI. GRAY, HERRICK, and HOGG. By Rosertr CarrvutHers. GREECE. By Cuaries Mactaren, F.R.S.E. Revised. GREEK CHURCH. By W. M. Heruerinerton, D.D., LL.D. GREGORY of NAZIANZUM. By Joun Turtocn, D.D. GREGORY (Dr. JAMES.) By W. P. Arison, M.D. GUINEA and HOUSSA. By Acustus PEeTERMannN, F.R.G.S., ete. GUN-COTTON, GUNPOWDER, GUTTA PERCHA, and HAT-MAKING. By Cuar.es ToMLinson. GUN-MAKING. By P. E. Dove. GUNNERY. By Colonel Portiock. HALL (ROBERT.) By Henry Rocers. HARBOURS. By Tuomas Stevenson, C.E. HARE (C. J.) By W. L. Atexanper, D.D. HARVEY. By Tuomas Laycock, M.D., Professor of the Practice of Physic in the University of Edinburgh. HEAT. By T.S. Trartz, M.D., Professor of Medical Jurisprudence in the University of Edinburgh. HELMINTHOLOGY. By James Witson, F.R.S.E. HEMP. By T. C. Arcuer, Author of “ Popular Economic Botany,” etc. HERALDRY. By T. W. Kine, York Herald, Herald’s College. HEYNE. By Sir Witt1am Hamitron, Bart. HIEROGLYPHICS. By R.S. Pootr, M.R.S.L., etc. HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. By Josrrn D. Hooker, M.D., F.R.S. HINDUSTAN. Revised by Epwarp Tuornton, India House. HISTORY. By Davip Masson, M.A., Professor of English Litera- ture, University College. HOLLAND. Revised by the Rev. James Ineram, M.A. HOMER. By Joun S. Bracxir, Professor of Greek in the University of Edinburgh. HOMCEOPATHY. By W. T. Garrpner, M.D. HOOD (THOMAS.) By Ricuarp Monckton Mixnes, Esq., M.P. HORACE. By TrHeopore Martin. HORSE, HORSEMANSHIP, and HOUND. Revised by W. H. LANGLEY, Editor of “‘ Bell’s Life in London.” HORTICULTURE. By Cuarues Macinrosu, Author of the “ Book of the Garden,” HOWARD (JOHN.) By Hepworrs Dixon. HOUSEHOLD (ROYAL.) By Samurt RepGravr 14 ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA.—PRINCIPAL SUBJECTS. VOLUME XIl. HUME (DAVID.) By Usnry Rocers, Esq., Author of the “ Eclipse of Faith,” etc. p : HUNGARY. By Emeric §zasap, late Secretary under the Hun- garian National Government of 1849. HUNTER (JOHN and WILLIAM), and JENNER. By Tuomas Laycock, M.D., Professor of the Practice of Medicine in the University of Fdin- burgh. HUNTING. By Nimrop. Revised by W. H. Lanetey, Esq, Editor of “ Bell’s Life in London.” ’ HYDRODYNAMICS. By Sir Davin Brewster, K.H., LUD. HYPATIA and IAMBLICHUS. By the Rev. CHaries Kinaster, Author of “ Westward Ho,” etc. ICELAND. By Roserr Atian, Esq. Revised by Rovert CHAMBERS, Esq. ICHTHYOLOGY. By Sir Jonn Ricuarpson, K.B., ete. ICHTHYOLOGY (FOSSIL.) By T. S. Trarrt, M.D., Professor of Medical Jurisprudence in the University of Edinburgh. INSURANCE (LIFE.) By W. T. Tuomson, Esq., Manager of the Star.dard Life Assurance Company. INSURANCE (FIRE.) By F. G. Suits, Esq., Secretary of the Scottish Union Fire and Life Insurance Company. INSURANCE (MARINE.) By Jonn Warracs, Esq. INTEREST. By J. R. M‘Curtocn, Esq. IONIAN ISLANDS. By Wirtiam Brarr, Esq., late Member of the Supreme Council of Justice of the Ionian Islands, and Author of “ Inquiry into Slavery amongst the Romans,” IRELAND (HISTORY.) By Rev. E. Groves. (Statistics) by Henry Sentror, Esq. IRON. By Wittiam Farrzarrn, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S., ete. IRON BRIDGES. By Roserr Steruenson, Esq., M.P., President of the Institution of Civil Engineers. IRRIGATION. By James Carrp, Esq., Author of “ English Agriculture in 1850-51.” TTALY.! By F* JAMAICA. By SrepHen Cave, Esq. JAPAN and JAVA. By Joun Crawrurp, Esq. F.R.S., Author of “A Descriptive Dictionary of the Indian Islands.” JESUITISM. By Isaac Taytor, Esq., Author of the “Natural History of Enthusiasm,” ete. JESUS and JEWS. By the Rev. Davin Wersn, D.D., late Pro- fessor of Ecclesiastical History in the University of Edinburgh. Revised. JOHNSON (SAMUEL.) By the Right Hon. Tuomas Basrneron MACAULAY. JOINERY. By Tuomas Trepcoup, Esq., C.E. Revised by AxrHuR AspHITeL, Esq. ENCYCLOP4DIA BRITANNICA.—PRINCIPAL SUBJECTS. 13) VOLUME XIII. KAFRARIA. By Sir Bengamin Prxz, KANT. By the Rev. Jonn Cairns, M.A. KARS. Revised by Dr. Sanpwitn, K.B, KNIGHTS, KNIGHTHOOD, LIVERY, and LORRAINE. Iv Dr. Doran. LABRADOR and LAPLAND. Revised by Augustus PETERMAN, F.R.G.S., ete. LAGRANGE and LALANDE. By Tuomas Youne, M.D. LANGUAGE. | Revised by R. G. Latuam, M.A., M.D., etc. LAW. By J. F. M‘Lrunnan, M.A., Advocate. LAW OF NATIONS and LIBERTY OF THE PRESS. By JAMES MILu. LEAD, LEATHER, and LIFE PRESERVERS. By Cuarzes TOMLINSON. LEPROSY. By J. Y. Smeson, M.D., Professor of Midwifery in the University of Edinburgh. LIBRARIES. By Epwarp Epwarps, Free Library, Manchester. LIGHT. By T.S. Trairt, M.D., Professor of Medical Jurisprudence in the University of Edinburgh. LIGHTHOUSES. By Aran Stevenson, C.H. LOCK. By E. B. Denison, M.A., Q.C. LOGIC. By Wiritam Spaxrpine, M.A., Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of St. Andrews. LOMBARDS and LOMBARDY. By the Author of the Article “Ttaly.” LONDON. By H. G. Rep. LUTHER. By C. C. J. Bunsen, D.D., D.C.L., D. Ph., ete. MADAGASCAR. By Rev. W. Extis, “Author of “ Polynesian Researches,” ete. MADEIRAS. By J. Y. Jcunson, Author of a “ Handbock for Madeira. 16 ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA.—PRINCIPAL SUBJECTS. VOLUME XIV, MAGNETISM. By Sir Davi Brewster, K.H., &e. MAMMALIA. By James Witson, Author of the article “ Entomology.” MANCHESTER. By Tuomas Baztey, Chairman of the Cham- ber of Commerce, Manchester. MANUFACTURES. By J. R. M‘Cuttocz. MECHANICS. By W. J. M. Rangrnz, Professor of Civil Engineer- ing and Mechanics in the University of Glasgow. MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE. By T. S. Tram, M.D., Professor of Medical Jurisprudence in the University of Edinburgh. MEDICINE. By Tuomas Laycock, M.D., Professor of the Practice of Physic in the University of Edinburgh. MELBOURNE. By Witu1am Wesreartu, Author of the “ Gold Fields of Australia,” etc. MEMNON and MEMPHIS. By R.S. Poor; Author of the article “ Egypt.” MENSURATION. By Writ1am Swan, Lecturer on Mathematics and Natural Philosophy. MENTAL DISEASES. By Davin Sxaz, M.D., Physician to the Royal Edinburgh Asylum. METAPHYSICS. By Rev. H. L. Manser, Reader in Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy, Magdalen College, Oxford, and one of the Editors of Sir William Hamilton’s Works. METEOROLOGY. By Sir Jonn F. W. Herscuet, Bart., K.H., M.A., D.C.L., etc. MEXICO. MICROMETER. By Sir Davin Brewster, K.H.. ete. MICROSCOPE. By Sir Davi Brewster, K.H., ete. ENCYCLOPEDIA ERITANNICA.—PRINCIPAL SUBJECTS. 17 VOLUME XY. MILAN, MODENA, and NAPLES. By the Author of the article Ral MILTON. By Davin Masson, M.A., Professor of English Litera- ture, University College, London, MINERAL WATERS. By R. M. Grover, M.D., Author of “The Mineral Waters of Great Britain and the Continent.” MINERALOGICAL SCIENCE. MINERALOGY. By James Nicot, Professor of Natural History, Marischal College, Aberdeen, GEOLOGY. By J. B. Juxes, Vice-President of the Geological Society of Dublin. MINES and MINING. By J. R. Leircnirp, Author of “ Our Coal Fields and our Coal Pits.” MIRACLES. By Rev. James Taytor, D.D. MISSIONS. By Wirz1am Brown, M.D. MISSISSIPPI, MISSOURI, and MOBILE. By J. B. D. De Bow, Author of the “ Industrial Resources, etc., of the South and West.” MOBILIER, CREDIT. By Watrer Bacenor. MOHAMMEDANISM. By Rev. J. G. Cazenove. MOLLUSCA. By Ricuarp Owen, F.R.S. MONARCHY. By Dr. Doran. MONEY. By J. R. M‘Cuocs. MONTREAL. By Hon. Joun Youne. MOORE (THOMAS). By R. Carrutuers. MORAL PHILOSOPHY. By W. L. Arexanver, D.D. MOSQUITO SHORE. By E. S. Squier, Author of “Notes on Central America.” MOZART and MUSIC. By G. F. Granam. MUNICIPAL CORPORATIONS. By J. H. Burron. NATAL. By Sir Benzamin Pine. NATIONAL EDUCATION. By J. D. More ti, one of H. M. Tuspectors for Schools. 18 ENCYCLOP-EDIA BRITANNICA.—PRINCIPAL SUBJECTS. VOLUME XVI. NAVIGATION. By Rev. JosepH Woo.tey, LL.D., F.R.AS., late Principal of the School of Mathematics and Naval Construction at Portsmouth. NAVIGATION. Intanp. By Davi Stevenson, F.R.S.E., M.LC.E., ete. NAVY and NORWAY. By Joun Barrow, Author of “ Excur- sions in the North of Europe,” etc. NEANDER. By Joun Tutroca, D.D., Principal and Primarius Professor of Divinity, St. Mary’s College, St. Andrews. NELSON. By James Browne, LL.D. sagt es By Epwarp Tuornron, Author of “Gazetteer of ndia.” NEUTRALITY. By J. R. M‘Cuttocn. NEWSPAPERS. By Epwarp Epwarps, Author of the Article “ Libraries.” NEWTON (Sir ISAAC), and OPTICS. By Sir Davin Brewster. NEW YORK. By Freeman Hont, latc Editor of “ Hunt’s Mer- chants’ Magazine,” New York, U.S. NEW ZEALAND. By Rev. W. B. Boyce. NICARAGUA. By E. G. Squier, Author of the Article “ Mos- quito Shore.” NIEBUHR. By Rev. Cuartes Merivate, B.D., Author of a “History of the Romans under the Empire,” ete. NILE. By Georce Metty, Liverpool. NINEVEH. By A. H. Layarp. NORTH-WESTERN PROVINCES OFINDIA. By E. B. East- wick, Professor of Hindustani and Teluga, East India College, Haileybury. NUMISMATICS. ByR.S. Poorer, Author of the Articles ‘‘ Egypt ” and “ Hieroglyphics.” ODONTOLOGY and OKEN. By Ricuarp Owey, F.R.S., Super- intendent of the Departments of Natural History, British Museum. Q2HLENSCHLAGER. By Turopore,Marrin. OHIO. By J. D. B. De Bow, Professor of Political Economy in the University of Louisiana, and Superintendent of United States Census. OILS and OPIUM. By Professor T. C. ArcnEr, Honorary Direc- or of the Museums of Natural History and Applied Science, Liverpool Royal nstitution. ORDINATION. By W. 1. Avexanper, D.D. ORFILA. By Roserr Curistison, M.D., Professor of Materia Medica in the University of Edinburgh. ORGAN. By George Farquuar Grauam, Author of the Article “ Music.” ORNITHOLOGY. By James Wuison, Author of the Article “ Mammalia.” ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA.—PRINCIPAL SUBJECTS. 19 VOLUME XVII. OUDE and PERSIA. By E. B. Eastwick, Professor of Hindustani and Teluga, East India College, Haileybury. OWEN (JOHN). By Anprew Tuomson, D.D. PAINTING. By Bensamin Ropert Haypon, with Supplement by W. B, Jounston, R.S.A. PALEONTOLOGY. By Ricnarp Owey, F.R.S., Superintendent of the Departments of Natural History, British Museum. PALESTINE and PERU. By Davin Kay, F.R.G.S. PALEY and PASCAL. By Henry Rogers, Author of “ The Eclipse of Faith,” ete. PALIMPSESTS and PAPYRUS. By C.W. Russett, D.D. PANTHEISM. By Joun Downes. PAPAL STATES. By the Author of the Article ‘“Ttaly.” PAPER. Revised by Cuartes Cowan, M.P. PARASITE. By Dr. Doran. PARIS. By James Carmrcuarr, M.A., one of the Masters in the Edinburgh Academy. PARLIAMENT. By Joun Hirt Burton. PARRY (Sir WILLIAM EDWARD). By his Son, Epwarp PARRY. PARTNERSHIP (Lamrep anp Unrnurep Liasrurty): By J. R- M‘CuLtoca. ; ; PATENTS. By James Yate Jounson, Editor of the “ Patentee’s Manual,” étc. ST. PAUL and ST. PEFER. By W. bE. Arexanver, D.D. PEEL (Sr ROBERT). By Gotpwin Suits, M.A., Regius Pro- fessor of Modern History, Oxford. PENDULUM and PERSPECTIVE. By Epwarp Sang, F.R.S.E. PENN (WILLIAM). By Rozserr CarrutHers. PESTALOZZI. By Joun Titiearp. ST. PETERSBURG. By Professor Saw, B.A., St. Petersburg. PHILOLOGY. By the Rev. J. W. Donaupson, D.D., Author of the * New Cratylus,” Classical Examiner in the University of London. PHOTOGRAPHY, ete. By Sir Daviw Brewster, K.H., ete. PHRENOLOGY. By Tuomas Laycock, M.D., Professor of the Practice of Physic in the University of Edinburgh. oo GEOGRAPHY. By Sir Joun F. W. Herscue tt, Bart., -I1., etc. PHYSIOLOGY. 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