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DAKOTA FORESTRY PAMPHLETS
VOL. I

Trees and Fruit in North Dakota. By C. B. 7/aldron
N. D. Agri. Experiment Station. Bull. 59. i .

Windbreaks and Hedges, By C. B. Waldron. N. D.
Agri. Experiment Station. Bull. 88.

Press Bulletin No. 50. Notes on Tree Planting.
N. D. Agri. Experiment Station.

Tree Planting for the State of North Dakota.
Quarterly Bulletin of N. D. State School of
Forestry. By Fred W. Smith. \c

Demonstration Work at the N. D. School of Forestry,
Bulletin No. 1.

V c .

Evergreens. Bull. 102. S. D. Agri. Experiment

Station. By N. B. Hansen.

v<£

Forestry. Bull. 15, Dept. of Forestry, Horticul-
ture and Botany, Dakota Agri. College and Exp-
eriment Station, Brookings, Dakota.

it °- .

Forestry. Bull. 32, Dept. of Forestry and Horti-
culture, S. D. Agri. College and Experiment
Station, Brookings, S. D.

Forest Trees, Fruits and Vegetables. Bull. 23,
Dept. of Forestry, Horticulture and Botany,
S. D. Agri. Exp. Station.

Forestry and Fungi. Bull. 29, Dept. of Forestry,
Horticulture and Bqtap$f S. D>:;Agri. Exp. Sta.
Brookings, S. D.

B 4-4-

\j ,

,GRICULTURAL COLLEG E

'w^Wuferf

Government Agricultural

(Experiment Station

FOR

NORTH DAKOTA.

Bulletin No. 59.

TREES AND FRUIT IN NORTH DAKOTA

By C. B. WALDRON.

Any farmer, teacher or student in the State may have this Bulletin mailed to
his address, free of chargre, upon application

FARGO, NORTH DAKOTA, U. S. A.,
March, 1904.

399110

BOAKD OF

ALEX. STERN, President, Fargo.

J. D. MOULDER, Fargo

MAYNARD CRANE, Cooperstowu.

B. N. STONE, LaMoure.

S. S. LYON, Fargo.
CHAS. McKISSICK, Mayville.
ADDISON LEECH. Addison.

L. B. HANNA, Treasurer. Fargo.

STATION STAFF.

J. H- WORST, LL. D.
Director

E. F. LADD, B. S-,

Chemist.

C. B. WALDRON, B. S.,

Horticulturist and Entomologist,

H. L. BOLLEY, M. S.,

Botanist.
J H SHEPPERD, M. S. A.,

Agriculturist.

L VANES. M- D., V- S.

Veterinarian.

j. c. MCDOWELL, B. AGR.,

Agriculturist.
HUGH McGUIGAN, B. S..

Assistant Chemist.

L. R. WALDRON, M. A ,

Assistant Botanist.

NICOLAS GREST,

Foieman Farm.

C. E. NUGENT.

Secretary.

TREES AND FRUIT IN NORTH DAKOTA

BY C. B. WALDRON.

The day of exploitation in North Dakota is rapidly passing
and that of home building has taken its place. It is probable thai
no equal population has a larger proportion of home owncra
than has North Dakota. This fact coupled with the important
one that there is greater wealth per capita in North Dakota
than in any other state gives such conditions as should make
possible a class of homes characterized by their comfort and at-
tractiveness.

Since the earliest days of man trees have been considered a
natural and fitting adornment and shelter for his home. In
forests primitive man found his first shelter and protection.
Trees were his necessity then and the race can never rid itself
of the instincts developed through the long ages of its evolution.
We may admire the great expanse of prairie stretching away
to the horizon, as we do the boundless ocean, but that does not
inmply that it includes the conditions making the most desirable
homes. With the home are naturally associated the ideas of in-
dividuality, of snugness and, to a certain extent, seclusion, none
of which can be attained if the place seems a part of the public
domain.

In a region, too, like that of North Dakota, where the winds
have fairly earned a reputation for strength and persistence, trees
have a use as well as beauty. Passing from the shelter of the
forest to open country on a cold windy day .one is made aware
of all the difference between comfort and misery.

These facts are admitted by everyone, even by those that
can offer no excuse for the bare dreariness and desolation that
characterize the places where their lives are spent. To spend a
lifetime without the presence of a single natural object about which
the affections and memories can center, should not be an aluring

prospect to civilized man. To busy men with their great amount
of necessary work to be done these things are often overlooked,
but for all that their importance is not less real.

Attractive homes constitute an active and potent force in
shaping and determining the character of society and its mem-
bers and after all there is nothing important but that.

There are certain elements in people that are accepted as
evidences of civilization. These are established for the most
part during the period of childhood and youth. Nothing on earth
can take the place of a high state of civilization and they make but
a poor bargain who sacrifice the possibility of it for wealth or
acres.

To rear a generation amid surroundings that because of their
dreariness and monotony depress and stultify the mind and imagi-
nation instead of quickening and enlivening it, is neither wise
nor patriotic. It is not enough to say that we don't intend to
do so. It is our duty and privilege to see that we do not. ThJe
individual experiences of the most of us bear testimony to the
fact that no memories are more vivid or fondly cherished than
those of the trees that once offered us protection and company.
We feel somehow that their influence was good. Until human
nature becomes something different than it is they will continue
to exercise a most potent influence on the character of man.

Nations live or die with their forests, as the records of the
world testify. Forests are the one great conserving element in
nature. The winds and waters are constantly wasting and wear-
ing away the fertile elements of the soil and hurrying them on
to the sea, beyond the reach of man forever. By this process,
long continued, whole continents have been made desolate and
barren beyond reasonable hope of redemption and even within the
memory of living man large areas have been rendered useless
through the same causes.

Aside from the secondary value of forests in preventing the
waste and destruction of cultivated areas, the time has come when
the forests themselves have a high money value. It is possible
to grow five cords of wood per acre each year for an indefinite per-
iod upon millions of acres of our lands. With the present high
price of timber, and that constantly increasing, this prospect alone
should be an inviting one to the far sighted man.

Trees are grown for three purposes, for shelter, for orna-
ment and for their timber or fuel value. About forty species can
be grown in North Dakota, Among these are the white ash,
white elm, red elm, rock elm, box elder, solf maple, hard maple,

359

Norway maple, basswood, burr oak, cottonwood, white poplar, wal-
imt, Russian wild olive, hackberry, white willow, birch and moun-
tain ash.

SIZE AND COST OF TREES>

For the planting of groves, shelter belts, etc., seedling trees
from one and one-half to two feet high will be found the most sat-
isfactory. They may be procured from any nursery at a cost of
from three to five dollars per thousand. Trees that have been
transplanted in the nursery cost much more, from ten to twenty
dollars per hundred, and are more difficult to transplant.

METHOD OF PLANTING.

In planting seedling trees we ordinarily plow a deep furrow
by going down and back in the same place, thus throwing the soil
out in both directions. A line is then stretched along the furrow
about a foot from the bottom supported by stakes at convenient
distances. For further convenience the line may run through
holes in the stakes and may be marked at intervals of four feet
to give distance in planting.

As the tree are unpacked they should be partially buried in
moist earth at different points along the place of planting to
keep them in good condition and make them easily accessable to
the planters.

Three men are required for planting, one to pass along the
line holding the trees in position while a man on either side
shovels the earth about the roots. After this process is completed
it is very essential to pass along the row and tread the earth very
firmly about each tree.

TIME OF PLANTING.

The trees should be set as early in the spring as the soil
can be handled. Trees should be ordered early if one wishes to
get good quality and to be sure of having his orders filled. They
may be ordered shipped on any date. If they arrive before the
ground is ready they should be unpacked and spread out in
a cool shady place where they may be covered with damp earth

36°

or straw or they may be heeled in the earth out of doors, covering
the tops with straw to prevent the buds starting.

CULTIVATION.

Trees demand a mellow, moist soil, such as is found in the
forest. They will not make a satisfactory growth if indeed they
live at all, in a hard dry soil, especially if it be allowed to grow to
grass and weeds. For these reasons the soil must be kept constantly
cultivated until such time as the trees by their own shade supply
the conditions under which they will thrive.

The number of years that a grove will require cultivation de-
pends upon the character of the soil, the kinds of trees employed
and the distance apart in plainting. Quick growing trees like the
box elder planted in moist, mellow soil two by four feot apart
and kept well cultivated will make forest cover in throe years.

On the other hand trees giving but little shade like the cotton-
wood will never make a forest cover sufficient to keep out the
grass and weeds, no matter how planted.

VARITIES AND ARRANGEMENT IN PLANTING SHELTER BELTS.

Trees for this purpose should be easily and quickly grown,
perfectly hardy and of dense, compact habit. All of these qualities-
may not be found in any one variety but a selection of three or four
kinds may be made to include all the necessary qualities.

A single row of trees, excepting the evergreens, is n >t sufficient
to make a good wind-break. It is found that three of four rows
are required to make a perfect shelter. To give height to tlie wind-
break, and that as soon as possible, a single row of cottomvooda,
or preferably Carolina poplars, should be planted as the north row
of a wind-break running east and west and the west row of one
running north and south. As they will not endure crowding they
should not be planted closer than eight feet apart.

This same distance should be maintained between the ro\vs.
The two middle rows should be made up of trees having a compact
bushy growth like the silver maple and box elder. These will en-
dure shade and may be planted four feet apart.

The maple is a little harder to start that the box elder but
makes a better tree for the purpose in time. The two sorts planted
alternately make an excellent combination.

The inner row may be of any compact growing kind like the
Golden Russian Willow or Russian wild olive planted two fort
apart. On high, dry soils, where the silver maple Is not a sue-

1

362

cess the green ash may be substituted. Some of the best shelter
belts on the station grounds are made up of elm, white ash and soft
maple for the inside rows, leaving out the box elder, which is apt
to make a poor growth after the first few years, except on very deep
moist soil.

For the first few years the windbreak will need to be kept
well cultivated. When the trees begin to reach across the spaces
between the rows, a heavy mulch of old straw may be applied
to the ground to take the place of cultivation. By the time that is
gone the trees will have the weed question settled for good. Trees
in a wind-break should not be trimmed but allowed to branch
freely, clear to the ground if they will. To encourage this the trees
are planted further apart than they should be in a grove.

LOCATION OF THE WIND-BREAK.

The location of the wind-break will depend upon the conditions
surrounding each place. It is a mistake to plant too close to the
buildings. Enclose a space large enough to include the garden
and fruit plantation as well as to give a spacious yard about the
buildings for planting ornamental things.

Wind-breaks should be so placed that the snow which accu-
mulates on the south side in the winter will not cause inconven-
ience. If there is some difficulty in doing this a single line o-f
willows planted a few rods to the north of the shelter belt will
catch the snow and prevent its drifting through. The space
between this row and the wind-break may be used for strawberries
and bush fruits which are benefitted by a snow protection in
winter. Apple and plum trees so located would be broken down
by the snows. Where the shelter belt bounds the lot on which the
house stands either at the sides or rear or both, it may be greatly
improved in appearance by planting more or less irregular masses
of shrubbery against it. These break up the rather formal and
harsh appearance of the straight lines of trees into something
more artistic and effective. As the trees get large a place without
shrubbery looks desolate and cheerless compared with the comfort-
ing and homelike appearance that shrubs give.

The shrubs suited for this purpose will be given in another
part of the bulletin.

TREE PLANTING FOR GROVES.

The primary purpose in planting a grove is to establish a
wood lot on which to draw for supplies of fuel and posts as they

364

are needed on the farm. Incidentally it may be made a very at-
tractive feature of the farm and also serve for shelter.

The increasing scarcity of timber for all purposes is making
ihe timber question a very important one. Timber is being re-
moved from the forest areas of the country to day about twice as
fast as the forests can renew it. This of course will lead to a
condition when growing timber will become a necessity.

Already timber-growing on a commercial scale has been entered
upon in some parts of the country. It is doubtful if timber-
growing will ever be established as a great commercial enterprise
in North Dakota. At the same time the value of a wood lot on each
farm if properly grown, will in most cases more than compensate
for the time and money required to grow it.

The work at this station has not been extended enough to an-
swer in a practical way all the questions that might be asked
concerning timber culture. We can only call attention to the ex-
periments we are making and to what we have seen in other
groves including the belts of native timber.

Among the trees that will succeed well in groves are the
willow, white ash, green ash, American elm, rock elm, solf maple,
box elder, basswood, birch and white poplar. They are all native
trees but will not of course all succeed equally well in all parts
of the state. The green ash is found wherever trees will grow at
all and the elm is also widely distributed. The soft maple and
the basswood seem to require moist soils, such as are found along
river bottoms.

It will be noticed that the cotton wood and balm of Gilead
both native trees and rapid growers have been left out of the list
of trees suited for groves. The balm of Gilead may possibly be
used to some extent but the cottonwood is not to be considered.
Planted singly it does well and is a useful tree but it demands
too much light and gives too little shade to make it a possible
forest tree. It is also a well known fact among tree growers that
other trees will not thrive in the vicinity of cottonwoods.

DISTANCE APART FOE PLANTING.

Trees suited for groves ordinarily do not make a good growth
when planted some distance apart unless they are of considerable
size when planted. A seedling elm or ash left to itself tends to
grow in the form of a bush and makes little progress in height.
For this reason seedling trees of the varieties named must be
planted close enough together to shade each other at the sides.

366

This will prevent the growth of lateral branches and compel an up-
right growth.

Trees in a grove to be of any value should be tall and straight.
By being forced to stretch up to get the light they naturally become
so.

Two feet between the trees in a row is about the right dis-
tance at first. The rows may be far enough apart to cultivate
easily with a two-horse team or about eight feet. The soil should
be in such a shape that it may readily be cultivated. The method
of planting has already been described.

Trees like the box elder, making a quick growth but being
short lived are used simply as nurse trees to get the others started.
They shade the ground quickly and in that way are a benefit to the
other trees. The permanent trees are those like the elm, ash and
basswood. Every other tree should be a nurse tree. Between
these the permanent trees may be distributed as suits the fancy of
the planter. The larger growing trees like the elm and white ash
should not be nearer than eight feet apart in the row. The green
ash makes a quicker growth than the white ash but does not con-
tinue it so long. It may be used as a semi-permanent tree planted
half way between the larger kinds. Its timber is valuable for
posts or fuel.

CULTIVATION.

While small the trees may be cultivated the same as corn with
an ordinary two horse cultivator. Another excellent tool for this
purpose is the acme harrow. This cuts about seven feet wide. It
is a good weed destroyer and leaves the soil well pulverized and
in good shape to retain the moisture. With it one can cultivate an
acre of trees an hour.

Until the trees begin to shade the ground they should be cul-
tivated frequently, about once in ten days or two weeks and es-
pecially after every rain. In ordinary seasons the cultivation
should continue until late in the fall but in seasons of excessive
rainfall the cultivation may stop late in the summer to give vhe
wood a chance to ripen for winter.

In dry seasons cultivation is more imperative than in wet.
As the trees become large enough to shade the ground, which they
will do very quickly if well tended, less cultivation will be re-
quired and after four or five years they will need but little. In
most cases it can be done away with entirely and a good mulch,
•of old straw will meet all requirements.

PRUNING.

During the first and second years the trees will be benefitted
by cutting off the side branches to keep them from forking and
to force an upward growth. After that they should shade each,
other enough so that side branches will not form. This work
may be done in the spring or summer, not later than July, or in
the late fall. Pruning late in the summer forces a late growth
that will not mature before winter.

THINNING.

Left to themselves, no matter how thickly planted, the stronger
trees gradually out-top the weaker ones and thus nature does her
own thinning. One can save time however and get better results if
this process is not left wholly to nature. When the trees show
evidences of being crowded a part of them should be removed.
These will naturally be the nurse trees that have served their pur-
pose in getting the others started. If desired for planting else-
where they may be dug out late in the fall and heeled in for winter
in some spot where the snow will drift over them or they may
be dug out in the spring and planted at once when needed.

These trees being nursery grown should be tall and straight
and well suited for street or lawn planting. They have a market
value of about ten dollars per hundred, an acre producing 13 CO
trees where none are missing. This still leaves the trees standing
four by eight feet apart and in time these will need further thin-
ning.

LIST OF TREES FOR TIMBER PLANTATION.

White Ash .The wood of this tree is strong and durable.
It is used where strength and elacticity are required as in fork
handles, whiffle-trees, the manufacture of Vehicles, farm machinery,
etc. It is fairly durable when used as posts and has a high fuel
value. The wood of the green ash has much the same qualities.
Both of these trees are slow to leave out in the spring and shed
their foliage early in the fall. For that reason they should be
planted with other sorts not having this defect in order to better
prevent the growth of grass and weeds among the trees.

American Elm. This is of little money value to the farmer
except for fuel. The wood is not durable in contact with the soil.
Its value is chief Iv as a shade tree.

36S

Basswood. The timber of this tree has no special value except
for fuel until such time as the trees are large enough to be made
iuto lumber. It is then in demand where a light, stiff material is
required as in the manufacture of trunks, etc.

Silver Maple. This is also known as white maple and soft
maple. Its only timber use for the farmer is for fuel. It should
not be planted singly as it is easily broken by the winds. It
is very ornamental and holds its foliage well. Its chief use is
as a shelter and nurse tree.

White Willow. This tree grows rapidly and makes a large
amount of fuel in a few years. When well seasoned it makes
a post that is fairly durable. Its hardiness and the ease with
iwhich it is started makes it one of the most valuable of trees
for prairie planting.

Golden Russian Willow. Has much the same habit as the
white willow but grows faster, at least when young. Is more es-
pecially suited for hedges and shelter belts.

Box Elder. A quick growing, short lived tree. The timber
has no value except for fuel. Its chief value is as a nurse tree
and for lawn and street planting?. Unless the top is kept thinned
out it becomes scraggy and makes a poor growth. With heavy
pruning from the time it is a young tree it grows into a symmetri-
cal tree that makes a dense shade.

Burr Oak. This is the only native oak. Its timber is valu-
able for many purposes, but its growth is too slow to make it
a profitable tree for planting.

White Poplar. A native tree growing in dense groves along
the streams and in the northern part of the state. Grows rapidly
for the first fifteen years. Will produce as high as ninety cords
of wood per acre with eighteen years growth. As it springs up
thickly from suckers it reproduces itself without planting. On
this account it is probably one of the best fuel trees that can
be grown.

HacTcberry. A native tree having something of the character
of the elm to which it is botanically related . While not attaining
[the size of the elm it is in some respects a better tree growing
more symmetrically and thus requiring less attention. It is rather
better adapted for lawn and street planting than for timber
plantation though it succeeds well there.

37°

American White Birch. When of sufficient size the birch
is made into lumber for the manufacture of furniture and vari-
ous wooden implements. The chief use of small trees such as
(are found native in the northern part of the state, is for fuel.
This tree makes a fairly rapid growth and its extreme hardiness
and striking beauty lead to its being largely planted.

STREET AND LAWN PLANTING.

The interest in tree planting to improve the appearance and
comfort of our towns and villages is being made manifest in
many localities. At other points little or nothing has been done
and as a result their cheerless and forlorn aspect makes a sorry
comparison with the beauty and attractiveness of their more en-
terprising neighbors. All of the timber trees that have been
named are more or less suited to street and lawn planting and in
addition there are other smaller sorts that are useful for orna-
mental purposes only.

Throughout the middle and northern states the elm is usually
looked upon as the best tree for street planting though at the
present time the box elder and the cottonwood are more exten-
sively used in North Dakota. The elm combined with these, or
rather with the Carolina poplar and box elder makes a good com-
bination. On the outside of the walk, plant the Carolina poplar
and elm alternately, leaving twenty feet between the trees. On
the inside of the walk plant the box elders opposite the poplars.
At the end of fifteen or twenty years the poplars should be re-
moved leaving the elm and box elder alternating on opposite
sides of the walk with a space of forty feet between the trees
oi each row and a tree for every twenty feet along the walk.

It is the ordinary practice to set trees much closer than this
and never remove them. Some people are too kind hearted to
cut down a tree. Others have still kinder hearts and cut down
some that the remainder may grow into natural and perfect shape.
Such trees live longer and unless one takes pleasure in deformed
things look better.

Trees for street planting should be nursery grown if possible
and in all cases should be headed high. The trunks should be
straight and two inches or more in diameter excepting the Caro-
lina poplars which may be smaller. It is difficult for a very small
tree of most varities to grow tall and symmetrical when set in
an open and exposed place. They should be grown in the nursery
long enough to give them an established form and character.

37 '

PRUNING STREET TREES.

The butchery that it has seemed fitting to perform on street
trees to keep them within bounds just at a time when they should
bo growing into their greatest beauty could be obviated by giving
them the proper attention when young.

Branches of old trees are pretty sure to droop and get in the
way unless is headed well up from the ground and kept that
way by cutting away the lower branches while they are small,,
long before the trees seem to need it. This process increases the
rate of growth of the upper and outer branches and gives what
is needed, a tall spreading tree.

The elm has a tendency to an irregular or even sprawling
habit of growth. This should he corrected by cutting back the
extending branches making the top symmetrical. The box el^er
should be kept well trimmed from the bottom from the time
it is planted and its growth will be faster if the interior limbs
are removed before they become too thick. Trees with open tops
like the cotton wood may be improved by keeping the tops cut
back thus making them more dense. The hackberry requires lit-
tle or no pruning except to keep the lower branches cut as it
develops in height. The typical street tree is one headed high
enough not to interfere with traffic and to allow an open view
between the house and street, under the trees. The general eff ct
is also infinitely better if the pruning be done gradually as the
tree grows instead of waiting till one final day and then cutting
oil most of the branches, leaving crippled, crooked trunks sur-
mounted by a pinched and straggling top.

ORNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS.

The average lawn requires but few large trees and these will
ordinarily be at the sides and rear. Small compact trees and
shrubs give a better effect and these should be arranged so as
not to break up the open effect in front nor interfere with good
views from the house.

Planting in irregular masses about the boundaries of the
place and close against the house leaving a free open expanse
of lawn between will give the best results.

We have over thirty shrubs growing upon the station grounds
and there are very many more suited to this latitude. There are
several trees like the cut leaved weeping birch, mountain ash,

372

blue spruce and black hills spruce that are especially adapted
for lawn planting.

The Cut Leaved Weeping Birch easily stands at the head
of all trees for planting upon the lawn. It grows rather rapidly
•while young but never attains very great size. It should be
planted where other trees will not crowd it and where the
branches may be allowed to droop to the ground. On account
oi its rich and elegant appearance it must be planted very spar-
ingly, not more than two or three trees upon small grounds.

The Mountain Ash is another tree of great beauty. Its rich
dark foliage and bright red berries give it a very striking appear-
ance. It is perfectly hardy but somewhat liable to sunscald mak-
ing protection of the trunk necessary in very exposed places.
Like the birch is should be planted sparingly.

The Colorado Blue Spruce is the most striking of all ever-
greens on account of its silvery blue color. It is hardy in northern
latitudes, but should have some protection against south winds
as indeed all evergreens should. It grows into symmetrical form
and because of its acknowledged beauty should be generally planted.

The Red Cedar is one of the hardiest of the evergreens,
growing wild in the western portion of the state. It starts rather
slowly, but soon grows about a foot a year becoming a compact
and very ornamental tree.

The Black Hills Spruce is a form of the White Spruce but
often closely resembles the blue spruce in color. It is very
hardy and desirable.

Of ornamental shrubs the Common and Persian Liliac, Snow-
ball, Tartartarian Honeysuckle. Barberry, Red Dogwood, Burning
Bush, Ninebark, Spirea (Van Houtii,) Juneberry, Choke Cherry,
Buckthorn, Whitethorn, Buffalo Berry, Golden Currant, Elder-
terry (black,) Eed Berried Elder, Sumac and the Eugosa Eoses
are all easily grown and very ornamental.

They should be grown for the most part in clumps or masses
close about the porch and sides of the house to relieve the bare-
ness of the building and also where walks diverge or curve, or
against the larger trees to hide the trunks. Shrubs give a rich
and soft aspect that cannot be attained by other forms of plant-
ing.

374

HEDGES.

The plants now growing at the station for hedge purposes
are the buffalo berry, wild plum,, silver leaf (Eleagnus argentea),
Caragana, Buckthorn, Russian Wild Olive, Tartartian, Honey-
suckle, silver maple, golden Russian willow and red cedar.

They may be divided into two classes, those used for fences
against stock and the strictly ornamental hedges though of course
all may be made more or less ornamental.

The golden Russian willow is the one we have planted inrst
extensively probably because it costs less to get it started. It
grows readily from cuttings, is very ornamental both in summer
and winter and when required grows large enough to make a
line shelter and heavy enough to protect against stock.

The cuttings are set early in the spring about a foot apart
and in soil that can be kept cultivated. The cultivation should
continue along the sides of the hedge for three or four years.
After the plants are two or three years old they should be cut
back to the ground so they wTill make a dense growth. The other
plants making heavy stout hedges are the buffalo berry, wild plum,
Russian wild olive and silver maple. These are not grown from
cuttings, but from young plants. In some respects the buffalo
berry makes one of the best hedges. It is of course perfectly har V,
is free from disease or insect attack, well armed with formidable
spines, holds its foliage till very late in the season, and is very
ornamental. The fruit is also valuable in making jelly.

When grown in cultivated ground it has the habit of send-
ing up suckers about the old plants. While these mav .be easily
kept down yet the habit may be considered a slight objection to
the plant. When the land alongside is seeded down the suckers
do not appear.'

The wild plum suckers worse than the buffalo berry, but.
as with that plant, when the land has once been seeded down, the
tendency to sucker is not serious.

Both of these plants require less attention in the wry of
trimming thn the willow, but on the other hand do not grow
as fast. They should also be planted about a foot apart and kept
cultivated till they are well established. The silver maple is a
stronger grower than anv of the plants mentioned and makes an
excellent hedge. le requires however a deep moist soil and is
not generally considered a success outside the Red River Valley.
Where a hedge is required large enough to afford a shelter it
is probably the best plant to be found in soils where it will grow.

375

In starting a maple hedge seedlings of course will be used.
They may be set one and a half or even two feet apart. If allowed
to do so they will naturally grow in the form of a bush which
makes them the more valuable for hedge purposes. The silver
maple is not so easy to start as the willow but is rather more
thrifty after the first few years as the interior branches stand
shade better than those of the willow.

The Russian wild olive has been tried but two years -with us
and in a small way at that. It is very highly spoken of as a
hardy, drouth resisting plant. The tree growers in western Ne-
braska have placed it at the head of their list. It resembles the
buffalo berry in the color of its foliage but is a more rapid grower
and more showy. The plants on the station grounds grew two
feet last season. It has not winter killed with us, though Mr.
Uelland Uelland at Edgeley reports the tops having killed back
a little with him. It holds its foliage till winter, does not sucker,
grows into good form for hedges and is well armed with stout
epines. We shall plant it largely next spring. If it proves hardy
it ought to make a valuable hedge about school grounds and
similarily exposed places.

ORNAMENTAL HEDGES.

All of the other hedge plants named are valuable for orra-
mental purposes only, though some of them have often sold by
tree peddlers under the name of "Siberian hedge," etc., with the
assurance that they will turn stock in three years. It is imp~s-
sible to tell which is the best of these as no one is the best for
all purposes. The buckthorn makes an excellent hedge and in
time will afford some protection against dogs and stock. It has
rich, dark green foliage that remains on till late in the fall. It
requires little attention, does not sucker and makes a dense
growth. It is slow about getting started but does well when
once established.

The Caragana starts readily and will make a fairly good hedge
in three years. The foliage is light green and while very beauti-
ful in early summer is apt to rust and get dingy later in the
season. It is very hardy and a valuable plant.

The silver leaf is a native of the state and is sometimes
known as the badger bush. It grows readily into a low, pretty
hedge but suckers badly.

The Tartartian honeysuckle is about the best plant, all things
considered, for an ornamental hedge. It is perfectly hardy, a

376

profuse bloomer, starts readily, is not subject to disease or in-
sect attacks, and will succeed with any reasonable treatment.

It will grow eight or ten feet high as a dense, stout bush, or
may be kept trimmed to any height. The red cedar is probably
our surest evergreen and is well adapted for hedges. Trees ob-
tained from Minnesota seem perfectly hardy. It is not a rapid
grower, though last season our trees made a growth of about a
foot. It is of course an ornament the year round and for that
reason should appeal to those wanting something unusually fine
if they are prepared to give it the attention it demands till it
becomes established. The plants of the red cedar should be
set about two feet apart, of the others named, about one foot.

TRIMMING HEDGES.

For this purpose a straight corn knife kept well sharpened
is used. The straggling branches are lopped off by quick upward
strokes. The trimming may be done any time in the summer, not
later than the last of July, or the last thing before winter sets
in. Trimming in late summer causes a new growth to start that
is likely to be winter killed. The older branches in a hedge as
they begin to get scraggy may be cut out entirely and sometimes
it is necessary to cut the whole hedge back to the ground to get
a new healthy growth.

No one feature on our own grounds is more admired than
the hedges and considering the ease with which they are grown
and the necessity for some sort of boundary about the place for
shelter and protection there is no reason why they should not
be universally planted.

FRUIT CULTUEE.

The success that the Experiment Station and many private
growers have had with small fruits has led to numerous inquiries
as to the methods employed and the varieties that may be recom-
mended. We do not advise anyone to attempt the cultivation of
fruits without providing for their shelter by means of windbreaks.
This is particularly true of strawberries that suffer greatly
through the effects of drying south winds and applies in a greater
or less degree to all fruits.

The shelter should be along the south as the destructive winds
come from that quarter. For the location of the fruit plantation

a north or northeast slope where it can be obtained and at
any rate avoid a south or west one.

Provision must also be made such that water will not remain
on the ground for any length of time during the spring thaws or
after heavy rains.

Where the rainfall is not heavy, as in North Dakota, one
should avoid a sandy or gravelly soil. In mellow soil the roots of
strawberries extend down two and one-half feet and of the other
fruits probably as deep. From this fact will be seen the necessity
of providing a place having a deep mellow soil free from gumbo
and of course from alkali.

Any soils excepting those naturally too light will be benefitted
by a deep plowing and subsequent firming down with a harrow.
We have not found it necessary nor even profitable to fertilize the
soil at the station on which fruit is growing. Of course soil having
a much less degree of fertility would be benefitted by plowing
under a good dressing of well rotted stable manure. Unless it
is so thoroughly decomposed as to mix readily with the soil it-
will be better not to use any. It is generally recommended that
currants and gooseberries have heavier soil than raspberries and
while that rule may be successfully applied in localities having vari-
able soil and a heavy rainfall it is sufficient to say under our own
conditions that the deepest and best soil should be selected on
which to grow all of our fruits. While there are undoubted diffi-
culties to be encountered in growing fruit in North Dakota, still
some of the fruits may be made to do unusually well here and
considering the high prices to be obtained others are quite as
profitable here as in more favored localities.

PLUMS.

The plum is the most valuable fruit for North Dakota and
doubtless will be for years to come. Wild plums of many types,
some of them of excellent quality are found growing in all parts
of the state. The demand for these now far exceeds the supply
and the general cultivation of the plum should begin at once.

Many of the thickets contain trees bearing fruit of good
quality and these may be transplanted to the home garden with
profit. A hundred trees thus selected twelve years ago have been
growing upon the station grounds since and have been the source
of hundreds of seedlings that are now coming into bearing. In
this way improved varieties may be obtained that are of course
well suited to the different localities in which they are grown.

379

In this way also one may be sure of securing a variety sufficiently
early to ripen before frost as all of the sorts of the American Plum
brought from other localities will not. There are now over
a hundred varieties of the same plum that is found growing wild
in our state offered for sale.

A few of these are growing at the station, the most of them
just coming into bearing. These were only partially protected
on the south and last fall a violent gale coming just after an ex-
cessive fall of rain blew them over. They were then removed to
a better protected location. This circumstance shows that it is
quite necessary to provide good shelter, though it must not be
placed so as to allow the snow to drift over the trees.

The trees may be further protected by planting them close
together, as close as six by ten feet. They should be planted
considerably deeper then they grew in the nursery row or native
thicket. This will enable them to stand the winds better and
will afford better root protection in winter.

Before planting the land may be ridged by plowing it in
narrow strips setting the rows of trees between the ridges in the
dead-furrows, pulverizing the soil well first. With this method
of planting, which insures loss from drouth, a quantity of black
surface soil should be put around the roots of each tree in plant-
ing.

Keep the grass and weeds out and the soil moist by frequent
cultivation. The trees will begin bearing in three or four years.
A mulch of old straw spread on the ground after cultivation for
the season has stopped will prevent root-killing in any open win-
ters. It may also be necessary to bind tar paper about the trunk
of each tree in the winter to protect from mice and rabbits. There
is a very large list of varities to select from that are a decided
improvement over the ordinary wild type, especially in size. Some
of these ripen their fruit too late for the far north. The De
Soto, Forest Garden, Cheney, Wolf, Rollingstone, Wyant and Sur-
prise is the list recommended by the Minnesota Horticultural So-
ciety for general cultivation.

APPLES.

To the average man fruit growing means apples. All over
the country on farms where no special effort is made to raise fruit
one will find apple trees growing. Because of the great adaptability
of the apple to meet varying conditions this is true over large
regions that a generation or two ago produced no apples. Generally

38o

speaking it has been found that the apple is introduced into regions
ol new conditions only as new varieties have been created to suit
those conditions. Practically all of the apples grown in the eastern
states today are of varieties that were created there and the same
condition is being found true in the Northwest. Aside from the
Russian apples that were created under conditions similar to our
own the only possible apples with us are those like the Lyman's
Prolific, Wealthy, Patten's Greening, etc., apples that originated
in the northwest.

While the development of new varieties is a thing apart
from apple culture as generally understood, yet in a new country
where apple growing is more or less uncertain because of the ab-
sence of thoroughly hardy varieties all who are interested in the
development of the apple industry will be planting apple seeds
from time to time. In ten years most of the trees thus produced
will be bearing fruit. There were exhibited at Minneapolis last
fall over one hundred seedling apples, many of them of high
quality, all grown from apple seeds planted ten years ago.

At the same time, it is possible to accomplish something with
the varieties in existence. Crabs and hybrids of the folowing varie-
ties have been found suitable for growing in the Northwest: Vir-
ginia, Whitney, Early Strawberry, Minnesota, Gideon No. 6, Flor-
ence and Lyman's Prolific.

Among apples suited for the same region are the Duchess,
Hibernal, Charlamoff, Patten's Greening, Wealthy and Malinda.

Apples in this region seem to succeed better if the trees are
headed very low, those heading right at the ground after the original
tree had killed back often proving the most profitable trees. Where
the soil will admit it it is advisable to plant the trees from six
inches to a foot deeper than they grew in the nursery. Trees thus
planted naturally grow a little slower and ripen their wood better
thus possibly reducing the danger of blight and winter killing
and at the same time they are less affected drouth.

Ordinary varieties may be planted about twelve by sixteen
feet apart or if they have good shelter and rich soil, sixteen by
twenty feet. It is not wise to try and grow apples without a
good shelter belt on the south and west. This may be planted
at the time the trees are set. It is a poor plan to buy large trees.
They cost more and are worth less for the planter. It is better
to buy two year old trees or even root grafts. When one does not
feel tike investing much money in apple trees he can buy root
grafts of the best varieties for three or four cents each that will
make him as good trees in eight or ten years as he would obtain

through planting trees of the regular size. Eoot-grafts should
be planted deeply, leaving a single bud above the ground. The
situation may be still further improved by planting them in a
broad trench made with a plow.

Clean cultivation for apple orchards is undoubtedly the best,
especially in a dry country. In very wet seasons a bushel of oats
to the acre may be sowed upon the land late in July and harrowed
in. These will help the trees to ripen their wood and will afford
a protection in winter. They will not greatly interfere with cul-
tivation the following spring. The apple blight must be guarded
against and when twigs or branches turn brown and die, usually in
June, they must be cut off and .burned.

It is found best not to trim apple trees much in regions like
our own, but rather to let the head grow dense and compact to
protect the trunk and larger limbs. The line of sucessful apple
culture has moved toward the northwest so rapidly during the
past twenty-five years that North Dakota also has something
more than a reasonable hope for future success.

CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES.

These are already successfully grown more or less in most
sections of the state, yet there are thousands of homes where the
cultivation of even these valuable and easily grown fruits is not
attempted. The}' thrive best in deep moist soil. Given that and
clean cultivation, at the same time allowing about eight canes to
grow to the hill, cutting out the canes four years old and allowing
only enough new ones to grow each vear to take their place, and
any one can grow these fruits in abundance.

Set the plants four by eight feet apart and see that the grass
does not get a foothold among the plants. They will stand a
richer soil than most fruits and stable manure forked into the
soil close to the plants will increase the yield. If too many canes
are allowed to grow in a hill, the fruit is small though the seeds
are all sure to be there.

The London Market is the best currant we have tried. The
North Star, Red Dutch, Victoria, White Grape, Long Bunch,
Holland, Pomona and Eed Cross are all standard sorts. The Down-
ing Champion and Houghton are the leading gooseberries.

RASPBERRIES.

Our sucess with raspberries has not been encouraging though
some have met with considerable success. With a better drained

soil* we think we could do better but unless one is prepared to put
considerable work upon his raspberry plantation such as covering
the plants in winter, keeping the suckers cut out as fast as they
appear, etc., he had better confine himself to the other fruits.

This is not saying that with a good location and some time
at his disposal a man might not be well repaid in his efforts to
grow raspberries. There is no particular secret in their cultivation,
.at least if there is we haven't found it here. Set the plants four
by eight feet apart, far enough to make cultivation easy. Allow
six new canes to grow in each hill each season, cutting out all the
rest. Eemove the old canes in the fall, those that have borne fruit,
so the new ones may be protected easier.

For protection bend them all to the north throwing dirt on
the tops to hold them down. After that plow a furrow on either
side of each row throwing the soil over the plants. If covered
with straw they are liable to injury from mice. Lift the canes
in the spring as soon as the weather is settled.

About the only varieties that have made much of a showing
with us are the Cardinal, Colorado, Iron Clad and London.

STRAWBERRIES.

Since our windbreaks have become established we have not
experienced much difficulty in producing a good crop of straw-
berries each year. Last season there was no rain to speak of
till after the fruit was ripe and yet the yield was very good.

The strawberry requires a well drained but moist soil. Avoid
land that is very weedy, especially that containing fox tail and
quack grass. Set the plants in early spring, plainting them firmly
with the roots spread out and extending straight down and the
crown just at the surface of the ground. Give them plenty of
room to make cultivation easy and to allow each plant a good
share of moisture. We set our plants two by four feet apart-
If the soil is rather dry or weedy keep all of the runners cut off
for the first season and make the cultivation very thorough.

If the soil condtions are good about three runners may be
allowed for each plant training them along the row so they will
not interfere with cultivation. In the fall after the ground begins
freezing cover with three inches of straw that is free from seeds
of any kind. Take it from the side of the straw pile opposite
from where the machine stood. In the spring when the straw
is dry on top but still somewhat moist at the bottom, it may be
burned off. If done at the right time enough will remain to spread

3S4

about the plant? <is a mulch to retain the moisture and to keep the
berries clean. After the first crop has been harvested the bed
mast be put in shape for the following year's crop. This is done
by thorough cultivation for the remainder of the season, and the
removal of runners as they appear.

It must be remembered that the fruit for any given season
is all provided for and made ready the previous season. Unless
the plants are kept thrifty and vigorous they will not find it
possible to prepare for much of a fruit crop. In July and August
the soil will become hard and baked unless constantly stirred. It
is just at this time however that the plants should be doing their
best work for the future and must not be neglected. If the bed
is well tilled after the first crop removing most of the old plants
and encouraging the young ones, the second crop will be as Inrge
as the first one. By continuing this same method we have grown
three good crops in Ric-cession on the same land and last season one
old bed was put into shape to see what the fourth crop will amount
to. It is generally advised however to grow but two crops and then
plow up the bed.

VARIETIES.

Out of the thirty-four varieties in the trial bed last season
the following gave the highest yields, coming in the order named :
WarfielcL Tennessee Prolific, Emperor, Senator Dunlap, Samy.le,
Wm. Beit, Beder Wood, Drouth King and New York. Of these
the Warfield and Sample are not self-fertilizing and will need
to be planted in alternate rows with some of the other varieties.

Considering vigor, hardiness and quality, the Senator Dun-
lap made perhaps the best showing. Twenty-four plants set in
1902 gave twenty-four and one-half quarts in 1903.

The Wm. Belt is another excellent berry and very lar^e. We
raised single specimens measuring seven inches in circumference,
twelve of them filling a quart box. In all the tests made the
plants were not watered. While the price for strawberries in
North Dakota is very high, still we would not advise growing
on a large scale till one is able to grow them successful^ in a
pmall way. To be successful one year with another it will be
necessary to luive a well sheltered location. With a goccl lo-
cation and a thorough knowledge of the business a profit of from
two to five hundred dollars per acre should be obtained. The late
varieties will ordinarily pay the best as everything is out of the

market by the time they are ready and fifteen to eighteen cents
wholesale can easily be obtained. Whether the proposition from a
financial side is an enticing one or not, there are few people so
situated that they may not have an abundance of this excellent
fruit for house use.

C. B. WALDRON.

NORTH DAKOTA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE
GOVERNMENT AGRICULTURAL

EXPERIMENT STATION

FOR

NORTH DAKOTA jjj}I&5S!i ^
NOV23 1914*"'

Division of Forestry
Bulletin No. 88 University of California

WINDBREAKS AND HEDGES

BY

C. B. WALDRON

Any farmer, teacher, or student in the State may have this Bulletin
mailed to his address, free of charge, upon application.

FARGO, NORTH DAKOTA, U. S. A.
June, 1910

BOARD OF TRUSTEES

GEORGE H. HOLLISTER, President, Fargo.

CLARK W. KELLY, Devils Lake.

JAMES RADFORD, Warren

H. R. HARTMAN, Page

FRANK SANFORD, Valley City

R. J. BOWEN, Mohall

W. A. YODER, Secretary, Agricultural.College
W. P. PORTERFIELD, Treasurer, Fargo, N. Dak.

STATION STAFF

J. H. WORST, LL. D., Director.

E. F. LADD, B. S., Chemist.

C. B. WALDRON, B. S., Horticulturist and Entomologist.

H. L. BOLLEY, M. S., Botanist and Plant Pathologist.

L. VAN Es, M. D., V. S., Veterinarian.

J. H. SHEPPERD, M. S. A., Agriculturist and Vice-Director.

W. B. BELL, Ph. D., Assistant Botanist (Plant Survey).

W. B. RICHARDS, B. S. A., Assistant Agriculturist (Animal Husbandry)

O. O. CHURCHILL, B. S., Assistant Agriculturist (Plant Breeding).

T. D. BECKWITH, M. S., Assistant Botanist (Bacteriology).

ADOLPH ZEIFLE, Ph. D., B. S., Assistant Chemist (Drugs).

W. F. SUDRO, B. S., Assistant Chemist (Drugs).

R. E. REMINGTON, B. S., Assistant Chemist (Drugs).

W. L. STOCKHAM, M. S., Assistant Chemist.

J. W. INCE, A. M., Assistant Chemist (Soils).

H. L. WHITE, M. A., Assistant Chemist (Cereals).

H. F. BERGMAN, B. S., Assistant Botanist (Mycology).

R. C. DONEGHUE, M. S., Assistant Agriculturist (Soils).

O. W. DYNES, B. S., Assistant Agriculturist (Poultry).

R. M. DOLVE, B. S., Assistant Agriculturist (Engineering).

A. McMEANS, Assistant Horticulturist.

C. V. KENNEDY, Farm Foreman.

W. A. YODER, Secretary

SUPERINTENDENTS^ SUB-STATIONS

O. A. THOMPSON, Edgeley.

L. R. WALDRON, Dickinson.

E. G. SCHOLLANDER, Williston.

E. D. STEWART, Langdon.

W. R. PORTER, Superintendent of Demonstration Farms.

NO. 1.

OATS GATHERED AT DIFFERENT DISTANCES FROM
WINDBREAK.

NOV 2 3 1914

Division of Forestry
University of California

WINDBREAKS AND HEDGES

By C. B. Waldron

• In a region composed almost wholly of high grade agri-
cultural lands the extent and kind of tree-planting should
naturally be greatly different than in a region made up in
part of lands not especially suited for agriculture. General-
ly speaking, lands which will produce good crops cannot
profitably be devoted to the production of timber. This
does not mean that a certain amount of tree planting may
not prove profitable even on high-priced land. It simply
means that, as a crop, timber is not now as profitable as corn,
wheat, or alfalfa.

The profit derived from tree-planting is not measured
wholly by the timber supply. Trees may be profitably plant-
ed to prevent the washing away of soil on hillsides, the form-
ing of gullies across the land, and for the protection of our
homes, stock, gardens, and orchards from the winds. Meas-
ured in terms of comfort and satisfaction, the right sorts of
trees properly planted will prove highly profitable.

The primary object of tree-planting in North Dakota has
been and should be for protection.

The damage done by hot winds to growing crops is a
matter of common observation. This damage will depend
upon the nature of the crop and the stage of its development.

Small grains are injured most when they are stooling or
when the grain is forming.

Strawberries are severely injured if hot winds come dur-
ing the blossoming period or again when the fruit is ripening.

Hot winds are most trying to celery and most other
garden vegetables just after transplanting.

The injury to garden crops from hot and drying winds
makes a shelter belt almost a necessity if one is to get satisfac-
tory results either from the standpoint of quantity or quality.
Both the trees and the fruit of plums and apples are liable to
considerable injury from strong winds, and most growers do
not consider it practical to plant without some protection.

A badly arranged system of planting may be a positive
detriment, because of the accumulation of snow drifts about
the buildings and in the orchards. On the other hand, trees
may be so arranged as to prevent the piling of snow about
the buildings and to provide for approximately the right
amount of snow among the small fruits and in the orchards.

The winds most injurious to vegetation are from the
south or southwest, and for this reason orchards and gardens
should have trees planted along the south and west. It is
also an advantage to have the buildings protected from this
quarter, but they need protection likewise from the severe
ngrth winds. The planting at the north should be far enough
away from the buildings so that the snow will not pile up
about them. A very good arrangement at the north is a
double belt of trees with a space of from four to six rods be-
tween. The intervening strip may be planted to small fruits,
but never to orchard trees.

The advantage or even the practical necessity of shelter
belts about orchards and fruit plantations is unquestioned,
and in prairie states one rarely finds even an attempt at fruit
growing where there are no trees.

1*0 what extent substantial belts of trees planted east
and west at intervals of eighty rods would affect the yield
of grain can be determined only by a great number of ex-
periments. We have all seen instances in dry seasons when
the effect of trees was very marked. Observations made in
Nebraska by Prof. Fred W. Card* were to the effect that the
rate of evaporation a few rods north of a windbreak was from
one-third to one-half as great as from a point beyond the in-
fluence of the windbreak, while the growth of millet was
considerably greater on a strip within sixteen rods of the
windbreak, excepting the two rods nearest the trees.

* Bulletin No. 48, University of Nebraska.

The accompanying cut (No. 1) was made from samples
taken on June 21, 1910, from a field of oats growing on the
station grounds at Fargo. Fig. 1 represents the growth
taken six rods north from a windbreak twenty-seven feet
high, and fig. 2 is a fair average of the growth twenty rods
north. The land has received the same treatment for the
last five years. Previous to that the land on which number
1 was grown had a crop of clover, which may have made
some difference in its favor.

Awaiting further evidence upon this question we can at
least be sure of the general proposition that hot winds are
damaging to crops of all kinds and that trees are more or lesr
effective in stopping such winds.

The injurious effects of windbreaks result only when
orchard fruits, particularly plums and apples, are so closely
enclosed by heavy planting as to prevent a free circulation
of air. This condition may favor the development of certain
diseases, like apple blight and plum pocket, tho at the present
rate of tree planting in North Dakota there is little need to
take alarm on that account.

KINDS OF TREES

An ideal tree for windbreaks is one of dense, rapid growth,
that is at the same time hardy and long-lived. As it is impos-
sible to get all of these qualities in perfect degree in any one spe-
cies, it is usually advisable to use a combination of two or three
different kinds to get the best results. For instance, the cot-
tonwood is hardy and grows rapidly, but it is not long-lived
when planted thickly and its growth is not dense enough to
do much toward checking the wind. The Norway poplar and
the Carolina poplar being both forms of the cottonwood, are
open to the same objections. They may be planted in single
rows not nearer than twelve feet to the other trees to give
height to the windbreak, while the slower growing and more
permanent species are getting started. For this purpose they
should be set eight feet apart, removing every other tree at
the end of five or six years.

Certain strains of the*balm-of-Gilead are even better for
this purpose, as the growth is fully as rapid and more dense.
Other forms of this species are small and weak in growth and
sucker badly, making them unfit for any kind of planting.

The forms suited for planting can be obtained through the
leading nurseries.

The box-elder possesses many of the requisites of a
typical windbreak tree, growing rapidly while young, forming
a dense, heavy growth, and thriving in any climate. Its de-
fects are that it never gets tall enough and does not live long
enough. It can be used for the first few years with elm and
ash, cutting it out as it crowds the other trees.

In the eastern part of the state we have found the soft
or silver maple to be among the best of windbreak trees. It
makes a rapid, heavy growth and the lower branches keep
vigorous and healthy. It is not found to be satisfactory
everywhere, but in locations having a reasonable amount of
soil moisture it grows well. In favorable surroundings it at-
tains to great age and size.

In poor, dry soils or on alkali soil, the oleaster, commonly
known as the Russian wild olive, is about the most success-
ful tree. It never attains a large size and the top is short-
lived, though it will grow again from the roots when the old
tops are cut down. Its thorny character makes it a good
protection against stock. It should not be extensively planted
where larger and better trees will grow, but in difficult loca-
tions it is a very valuable tree for windbreaks.

The native or green ash is ordinarly looked upon as a
grove or timber tree, but it has many qualities fitting it for a
place in the shelter belt. It is of fair size, makes a dense,
heavy top, and will grow on almost any kind of soil. Its
growth under average conditions is about one and one-half
feet per 'year. It does not make a dense growth close to the
ground, as do the willow and oleaster.

The white or American elm is preeminently a shade tree,
but some of our best windbreaks owe their good qualities
largely to this tree. It gives permanence, stability, and
height, as well as character and beauty to the windbreak.

Plate No. 2 is a view of a windbreak eighteen years old
and twenty-seven feet high, the south row being elm. The
elm grew slowly at first, but is now making a yearly growth
of about three feet. It requires a good, moist soil to make
a rapid growth.

The common gray or white willow, which has been so large-
ly planted in the west during the last fifty years, is perhaps the
best single deciduous tree for the shelter belt. It makes a

dense growth and attains a height of from forty to fifty feet
in twenty years. It does well upon all except very dry soils
or soils containing alkali. It is easily and cheaply started
from cuttings and never needs replanting, as it starts readily
from the stumps. If several rows of willow are planted at
a distance of eight feet apart, they will furnish a liberal sup-
ply of posts and fuel for an indefinite period. The young
trees are subject to attack by caterpillars and the larvae of
a sawfly, but these may be killed by spraying with Paris green.
The white willow is a native of the old world, where it ranges
over large parts of Europe and Asia and even into northern
Africa. Like most species having a wide range, it has a
number of forms varying more or less from each other in ex-
ternal appearance, rate of growth and hardiness. One of
the most striking of these different forms is cultivated under
the name of golden Russian willow. The bark, especially in
winter, is a deep red gold in color. The tree is more bushy
than the ordinary type of the white willow and grows some-
what faster. It will not stand extremes of temperature so
well and is apt to be killed back by warm spells in winter
from the loss of moisture through its rather thin bark. In
spite of these drawbacks, it gives general satisfaction and is
very largely planted, especially where a narrow windbreak of
only one or two rows is required. It branches close to the
ground and for that reason it may be planted to advantage as
the north row along with ash and elm.

There are a number of the smaller trees or large shrubs,
like the choke cherry, wild plum, and wild thorn, that may be
used along the outside of a windbreak to insure a dense growth
close to the ground.

The most perfect windbreaks are naturally made by the
planting of evergreens, but owing to their slower growth and
the difficulty in getting them started, they have not thus far
been very generally planted.

Cut No. 4 shows a very fine shelter belt of Norway spruce
growing at the Agricultural College. The trees are now
twenty-five feet in height and about twenty-five years old.
They are entirely hardy and need only protection from the
sun while young, to make them a safe tree to plant. They
should be set about eight feet apart and protected at first by
box-elders set a few feet away on the south or west, depend-
ing on the direction of the rows. Those shown in the cut
are planted in north and south rows, protected on one side by

soft maple and on the other by ash and oleaster. For the
last ten years they have really needed no protection. Where
the Norway spruce can be readily started and grown, as among
the fruit growers of the eastern states, it is the most popular
windbreak, since a single row is more effective than three or
four rowrs of deciduous trees.

The western yellow or bull pine, known to botanists as
Pinus ponderosa, is doubtless the one evergreen destined to
be planted largely in North Dakota for windbreaks. This
tree grows wild in the southwestern part of the state, where
it attains a height of from fifty to seventy feet and a diameter
of two and one-half feet. It is native also over most of Mon-
tana and the entire Rocky Mountain region. In the most
favored locations it attains a height of over two hundred feet
and a diameter of eight feet. This tree is characterized by
its remarkably dense, heavy growth. The leaves or "needles"
are very thick and firm and about six inches long, giving it
a luxuriant appearance such as is ordinarily possessed by only
tropical plants.

It is noted for its ability to grow in very dry locations
having great extremes in temperature. It is said to require
only one-sixth as much moisture as the average deciduous
tree of the same size. A branch collected in the western part
of the state a week ago is still lying upon the writer's desk
and tho the temperature of the office has averaged about
ninety degrees the pine shows no more signs of wilting than
does the whisk-broom beside it.

In starting this tree, small plants not more than a foot
in height and not over four years old should be used. They
should be shaded the first year or two and mulched. Cover-
ing the entire plant with a light mulch the first winter is good
practice. It is best also to plant them on the north of box-
elders that will be removed later. When once they are es-
tablished they will thrive where most other trees would perish.

The jack pine, which grows so widely over barren lands in
Wisconsin and Minnesota and on east to the Atlantic, is a
rapid growing tree when young, perfectly hardy and content
to grow in any kind of soil. It never makes a large tree, but
is of recognized value for windbreaks, especially on light,
sandy soil where few other trees will grow. The other pines
which we have tried are not so reliable as the two mentioned.

. .

"

(NO. 6 j

[SOFT MAPLE SHOWING GROWTH OF BRANCHES CLEAR TO THE GROUND

9

The Colorado blue spruce and the Black Hills spruce can
be readily grown in North Dakota, but they are too expensive
and slow growing for ordinary windbreaks.

PLANTING THE WINDBREAK

The width of a windbreak has much to do, not only with
its efficiency in checking the wind, but in the matter of the
growth of the trees themselves.

A single tree or row of trees planted on the open prairie
cannot succeed as well as a mass of trees. This is true of all
trees suited for grove or windbreak purposes. Trees growing in
a mass protect each other and furnish the shade that keeps the
soil mellow and moist and prevents the growth of grass and
weeds. The broader the belt of trees, the more perfectly
this is accomplished. On the other hand, if the shelter belt
is made more than about two rods in width, it will be neces-
sary to plant a single row of willows four or five rods to the
north to prevent the snow from piling in and breaking down
the trees that go to make up the windbreak. The one shown
in plates Nos. 2 and 3 consists of golden Russian willow on
the north, elm on the south, while the intervening rows are
of green ash and soft maple. This windbreak is seventeen
years old and twenty-seven feet high. The willows have been
out back from time to time to furnish cuttings.

The elms have been kept trimmed for appearance's -sake,
but the rest of the trees have been allowed to develop branches
as low down as they would. The growth, was too dense to
allow cultivation after five years. The trees at planting time
were two year old seedlings that had been discarded as too
crooked and scrubby to plant in a grove. They were set in
furrowrs made with a walking plow and cultivated as long as
possible. This may be considered a good type of windbreak
for the eastern part of the state. Further west it might be
safer to plant box-elder in place of the soft maple and oleaster
in place of the willow, the ash still to be planted as the prin-
cipal tree.

As a matter of fact, all the trees mentioned are hardy
enough and if the man planting them will give them the same
care that nature does, by providing a mellow, moist soil,
his windbreaks will comfort him till the end of his days.

10

HEDGES

For certain purposes the windbreak may take the form
of a high hedge. At other points a lower hedge planted simply
to define the boundaries of the place may add greatly to the
appearance and be useful as well. Generally speaking, we
would not recommend the use of hedges for field fences. Their
chief use should be to shut off the door yard from the barn-
yard and highway, or to enclose the garden against hogs and
chickens.

A hedge should always serve some obvious use and never
be planted merely for show.

Several of the very best hedge plants are hardy in North
Dakota and the work of starting and maintaining a hedge is
not at all difficult. The land must be carefully prepared by
breaking up a strip about eight feet wide. As with all tree
planting, this should be done the season before the trees are
planted. In the spring plants from twelve to eighteen inches
high are set a foot apart in the middle of the cultivated strip.
Cultivate or mulch the land well for two years and then cut
the plants back to within an inch or two of the ground. They
will then make a dense, bushy growth that can be readily
trimmed with a sharp corn-knife into any shape. It will
thrive better if not allowed to get to wide at the top. It may-
be kept always fresh and vigorous by removing the older
cones, allowing young ones to take their place.

The golden willow is often used for hedge purposes, and
while it makes a beautiful hedge for the first fewr years, &
soon dies at the center and must be cut to the ground again-

The Russian wild olive or oleaster makes an excellent
hedge that can be grown to any height and becomes fairly
stock-proof. On account of its ability to endure heat, cold,
and drouth, it is about the safest hedge to use for general
planting.

The wild plum makes a good hedge, but suckers too much.

The buckthorn is one of the commonest and one of the
best of all hedge plants. It has about all the good points that
a hedge plant should have and none of the bad ones. It also
may be made stock proof. From the standpoints of both
beauty and use, it has no superior.

The Caragana, sometimes called the Siberian pea, is a
very hardy and beautiful hedge plant. It will not turn stock

m : •

\f '•

.,

V.

11

and its foliage does not last like that of the oleaster or buck-
thorn.

For a purely ornamental hedge the Tartarian honeysuckle
has scarcely an equal. It is dense and heavy and grows into a
free, graceful form without trimming. Its profuse bloom and
bright red fruit are points in its favor. It will grow to a
height of ten feet if left untrimmed, when it makes a beautiful
screen to shut out unsightly objects.

We have growing a number of other kinds of hedges that
have their good points, but those that we have named are
most likely to find favor with the general planter. It should
be remembered that the time to prepare for any kind of tree
planting is now, so that the soil will be in good shape in the
spring. Make this preparation by covering the ground with
old straw or by plowing and cultivating where this is not
possible.

One of the best returns from the planting of trees for pro-
tection is the happy assemblage of fruits and flowers that is
sure to find a congenial home among them sooner or later.
The first step in disarming the critics of North Dakota who
berate us for our barren and cheerless homes, is the planting
of trees for protection.

NOV 2 3 1914

Division of Forestry
North Dakota Agricultural ^

PRESS BULLETIN No. 30

MARCH, 1909

Notes on Tree Planting.

The average prairie settler after becoming established
naturally thinks of protecting his home by a shelter of trees.
Later on as the shelter grows there is a desire to plant fruit
trees and flowering plants. It is safe to say that there is scarce-
ly a farm in the state that is properly supplied with trees of
all kinds, while most of them are but poorly supplied. The
reason for this is the urgent need for doing other things and the
lack of knowledge in the planting and care of trees.

It is natural that the first trees planted should be of a
quick, sure growth. For this purpose cotton-woods have or-
dinarily been used. The difficulty with these is that the growth
is more quick than sure. In localities in which there is an
abundant supply of moisture that the trees can draw upon
after the first few years the cottonwood is a valuable tree.
Wherever the supply of moisture is deficient the cottonwood
begins dying after twelve or fifteen years. Soils having a
stratum of sand at a depth of twelve or fifteen feet that is
filled with water invariably grow good cottonwoods. What is
known as the white cottonwood produces timber which is of
little economic value aside from fuel. The yellow cottonwood,
on the other hand, is distinguished by timber of a very different
sort. It takes a good finish and has about as much value for
many purposes as basswood.

In most localities white willow will be far more satis-
factory than the cottonwood. The most valuable groves in the
state at the present time are undoubtedly of this variety. They
can be grown much thicker upon the ground than the cotton-
wood, and on the average soil will grow nearly as rapidly^.
They do not begin dying out at an early age as does the cotton-
wood. The timber is well suited for fuel and makes very good
posts, especially when treated with creosote. The white willow

is one of the few deciduous trees which succeeds well in a pure
plantation, that is without the mixture of other varieties.
For general purposes it should be planted about four feet
apart each way. It is always started from cuttings. If the
ground is in good condition these may be planted at once in
place or they may be planted in the garden for a year while
the ground is being put into shape.

The one other most valuable tree for general planting in
North Dakota is the ash. It is of a very different type than
the white willow in that its wood is more valuable and does
not mature at so early a period. As a permanent grove we
have no tree at the present time to equal it. When neglected it
is rather slow in growth, but with good care in the eastern part
of the state its growth is rather rapid, being one and one-half to
two feet per year. Ash trees grown from seed at the Experi-
ment Station are now thirty-five feet in height, though only
seventeen years old. The ash tree makes but poor shade while
young, and for this reason the box-elder is often planted alter-
nately with the ash. The rows in this case are eight feet apart,
the trees in the row being two feet apart with the ash and box-
elder alternating. The box-elders are removed at the end
of about four years, leaving the ash four by eight feet apart.
Later on these will require additional thinning.

We have about discarded the elm for all purposes except
street planting. It is difficult to start in a grove and is
inferior for all purposes to the ash. If grown in a nursery
until it attains a height of ten to twelve feet it then makes
our one best shade tree.

The soft maple is a valuable tree in some places but it is
not so generally reliable as the white willow. We find it an
excellent tree for windbreaks in the southeastern part of the
state but do not recommend its general cultivation outside of
that.

There are a number of other trees that one can plant
to a greater or less extent, but these should not be depended
on for general planting. Among these are the Hackberry,
Butternut and Walnut. The first is much like the elm but
somewhat more valuable for general planting. It does not
make so good a shade tree. The Black walnut seems to be
doing well among the other trees. We gathered several bushels

of nuts last year grown oio.se to Fargo. There are also bearing
trees as far north as Grand Forks.

For all the trees except the white willow v: -j plant seedling
trees, usually from one and one-half to two feet in height.
These are quickly planted in a trench made w«th a plow and
are more apt to grow than older trees. We hive aiv.rays re Com-
mended pretty constant cultivation but find that in Is.e we- PITI
part of the state mulching with old straw socifis to be prtier-
able. This also seems to be true more or le- . ,he eastern
part of the state.

The failure with trees often arises fror/i the "t that too
few are planted. The timber belt should be of generous pro-
portions no less than eight rods in width. The right sorts of
trees so planted and properly tended will yi^ld hir ,;er returns
than any equal area on the farm.

C. B. WA

(Jj)«art?rhj

NOV 4 1914

Division of Forestry
University of California

STATE SCHOOL OF FORESTRY

Vol. I. February, 1914 No. 1.

To The Landowners Of North Dakota: —

In accordance with the action of the North Dakota Legislature of
1913 the North Dakota State School of Forestry is making every effort
to supply forest trees, seeds, cuttings, and seedlings for planting on the
prairies of our state. The quantity of material available for distribution
in 1 9 1 4 is, of course, not very great, but in 1915 we expect to have ready
at least one million trees. In this number of the State School of Forestry
quarterly, an effort has been made to answer questions as to how the
distribution of forest trees, seeds, seedlings and cuttings will be made. Any
further information desired will be gladly given.

As provided in the law, the State Forester is available for lectures
before farmers' institutes, associations, and other organizations interested
in forestry.

It is earnestly hoped that the landowners of our state will avail
themselves of the opportunity to secure trees, at practically no cost, for
extensive planting of tree plantations, windbreaks, and shelter-belts.
February 10, 1914. Very truly yours,

Bottineau, N. D. State Forester of North Dakota.

QUARTERLY BULLETIN

NURSERIES, STATE FORESTER.

Chapter 170.
(H. B. No. 409— Haroldson.)

AN ACT Authorizing the Establishment of Nurseries Under the Su-
pervision of a State Forester, Providing for the Distribution of Seeds and
Forest Trees, Seedlings to Institutions and Land Owners of the State.

BE IT Enacted by the Legislative Assembly of the State of North Dakota:

Sec. 1. STATE FORESTER.) For the promotion of forestry
in this state there is hereby created the office of state forester. This office
shall be filled by the President of the School of Forestry. He shall have
general supervision of the raising and distribution of seeds and forest tree
seedlings as hereinafter provided; shall promote practical forestry; compile
and disseminate information relative thereto, and publish the results of such
work by issuing and distributing bulletins, lecturing before farmers, insti-
tutes, associations and other organizations interested in forestry, and in such
other ways as will most practically reach the public.

Sec. 2. STATE NURSERY.) There shall be established in
connection with the state School of Forestry and under the direction of
the state forester, a forest tree nursery for the propagation of seeds and
forest tree seedlings which shall be best adapted to the climatic conditions
of this state. For such purpose the board of trustees of the school of
forestry shall set apart a tract of not less than ten acres of the lands
belonging to such school.

Sec. 3. DISTRIBUTION.) Seeds and seedlings from such nur-
sery shall be distributed to citizens and land owners of this state upon the
payment of the actual cost of transportation from the nursery to the place
where the same are to be planted. As a condition precedent to such dis-
tribution the citizen or landowner making application therefor must agree
to plant the seeds and seedlings distributed under the direction of the
state forester and in conformity with his instructions.

Sec. 4. The state forester is hereby required to furnish to each ap-
plicant for seeds or forest tree seedlings, suitable directions for planting
the same, and when requested so to do, shall furnish skilled assistants to
supervise such work and in the event that assistance is furnished, the ap-
plicant therefor shall pay the expense thereof.

Approved March 11, 1913.

SCHOOL OF FORESTRY

STATE SCHOOL OF FORESTRY CO-OPERATION IN
FOREST TREE PLANTING.

1 . Any institution or landowner in the state of North Dakota wishing
to take advantage of the co-operation of the State School of Forestry in
the planting and cultivation of a permanent forest plantation or shelter
belt shall make application to the State Forester at the State School of
Forestry, at Bottineau, North Dakota, stating the quarter-section on which
the plantation is proposed to be made, the nature of the soil and how culti-
vated, the nearest express office and his post office address.

2. On receipt of this application the State Forester, or his agent, will
visit and examine the land, and if he is satisfied that trees can be success-
fully grown thereon he will see to the execution by the applicant of a
certain form of agreement setting forth the conditions on which the State
School of Forestry proposes to assist in this work. The State Forester,
or his agent, will also confer with the applicant while on the ground and
arrange for the location of the said forest plantation or shelter belt, advising
the applicant as to the preparation of the soil, the varieties of trees to be
grown, the proper system of planting and other details. When necessary
he will prepare a plan or sketch for the use of the applicant showing how
the trees are to be planted.

3. By the agreement the applicant consents to set apart and cultivate
a certain area of land for the permanent forest plantation or shelter belt,
and agrees that the trees to be grown thereon shall not at any time in the
future be cut off or removed so as to injure the plantation, except with
the advice or consent of the State Forester, but it is understood that the
wood and other products of the said plantation or shelterbelt shall belong
to the owner of the property. It is, however, provided that the State
Forester, or his agent, shall have the right to take the cuttings and the
seedling trees that may be grown upon the plantation and the tree seeds,
when these are not required by the owner to extend his own plantation. It
is also provided that the applicant shall properly prepare the soil and plant
and care for the trees after planting in accordance with the directions of
the State Forester. This will include his providing protection against
animals by fencing or otherwise and against fires by fire-guards or other
effective means.

4. The State School of Forestry, as far as the means placed at its
disposal for the purpose will permit, will furnish seed or other plant ma-
terial for planting the said forest plantations or shelterbelts.

QUARTERLY BULLETIN

5. The State School of Forestry will furnish the services above speci-
fied without charge, except as follows: —

A. Actual cost of transportation of seeds, seedlings, or trees must
be paid by the landowner wishing to plant a plantation or shelterbelt.

B. Wages and expenses of such assistants as may be desired to assist
in the planting of the seeds, seedlings, or trees, must be paid by the land-
owner.

6. The State School of Forestry will furnish no trees for planting on
town, or village lots. No trees will be given to settlers already protected
by bluffs or bodies of natural timber, or in cases where a good supply of
natural timber is in the immediate neighborhood where seed and seedling
trees of native varieties can be obtained with little difficulty.

No trees will be given for ornamental planting only. Any trees sent
out by the State School of Forestry must be set out, either as a windbreak,
shelterbelt, or forest plantation for raising fuel, fencing material, etc.

Fruit trees and ornamental shrubs can not be distributed at the present
time, but it is hoped that this can be done in the near future.

7. It will be observed that this plan is distinctly co-operative in char-
acter. The State School of Forestry furnishes expert advice and sees to
the carrying out of the terms of agreement, and in addition to this assists
the owner of the land by supplying him with seeds, cuttings, or young trees ;
while, on the other hand, the owner is required permanently to set apart a
small portion of his land for tree growth and to do all the actual work
of preparation and cultivation of the land so set apart, to plant the seed,
cuttings, or trees and to take proper care of the young growth after planting
according to the directions of the State Forester.

8. Although the State School of Forestry desires to meet the wishes
of the landowners as far as possible, it must be understood that, owing to
the difficulty sometimes experienced in obtaining seeds or other plant ma-
terial, the State School of Forestry will not guarantee to furnish any
specific quantity, and as in many localities young trees and cuttings can
be obtained from natural woods in the vicinity, it is advisable for those
contemplating planting to supply themselves in this way as far as possible.

9. Institutions or landowners desiring the assistance of the State School
of Forestry, as above outlined, for securing seeds, cuttings, or young trees
for planting plantations or shelterbelts, should apply to Fred W. Smith,
State Forester, State School of Forestry, Bottineau, North Dakota, before
the first day of March, in the year previous to the one in which the planting
is to be done, i. e., applications for planting in the spring of 1915 must be
filed at Bottineau before the first day of March, 1914, and so on, so as
to enable the State School of Forestry to provide ahead for the supply of
nursery stock for spring planting and to allow time for the State Forester to

SCHOOL OF FORESTRY

visit the land. Applications which are not received by that time will be
left over until the following year.

NOTE: — This regulation will be waived for the year 1914, and every
effort will be made to meet the wishes of landowners this year. Applica-
tions for planting in 1915 should, if possible, be sent in before June 1 , 1914.
While the State School of Forestry is just starting in upon this work
of aiding in the planting of trees in North Dakota it may not be amiss
to call attention to the fact that in Canada the Department of the Interior
has been carrying on similar work in Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta
since 1901. The work there has been carried on under rules and regula-
tions which their experience has proved necessary and satisfactory, and
from which the foregoing regulations have been adapted. In 1910, after
nine years of work, they have published a bulletin containing a large num-
ber of letters from settlers who had been assisted in the planting of trees.
These letters, coming from men who are in very similar circumstances to
the landowners in our own state to whom this offer is open, are full of
encouragement to those who are doubtful as to the advisability of planting.
Everyone realizes that farmhouses on our prairies should be surrounded
by windbreaks and that our farms should have shelterbelts across them.
Not all, however, have felt sure that trees could be successfully grown.
The Canadian experience, under less favorable conditions than our own,
ought to convince the most skeptical.

Tree Planting Testimonial, from a landowner of the Prairie Province
of Canada who received help in tree planting similar to that now
offered to landowners in North Dakota by the State School of
Forestry.

Crandall, Manitoba, Jan. 1910.

Dear Sir: — Your communication regarding success of trees I have
planted out to hand.

The first ones I planted have had five seasons' growth and are from
fifteen to eighteen feet high. They so thoroughly shade the ground that
cultivation is unnecessary. Both this winter and last they have kept the
snow from gathering around the buildings to a great extent, and are getting
high enough to provide considerable shelter from the wind. The varieties
used were ash, Manitoba maple and Dakota cottonwood. My trees are
the admiration of the whole neighborhood, and add very much to both
the beauty and value of the place. I consider the hedge worth $500.00
at least.

There have been a number of my neighbours inquire of me where I
got my trees and some of them have since planted for themselves.

(Signed) CHAS. M. FORSTER.

QUARTERLY BULLETIN

PREPARATION OF THE SOIL FOR TREE PLANTING.

Ground should be well tilled before planting to trees. The essential
conditions of a forest should be reproduced as nearly as possible. The
prairie gives us a tough, compact sod with the under ground stems of the
native prairie grasses holding the dirt in an almost solid mass. Beneath
the sod the subsoil is generally packed so hard that tree roots cannot make
their way through it. In the forest we find the soil loose to a depth of
many inches at least, and in most cases to a depth of several feet. In the
forest we find a mass of decaying leaf mold on top and a sub-soil made
porous by the growth and decay of the tree roots. Thus, it is easy to see,
that the first great work in raising trees is to properly prepare the soil.

Land that has been under cultivation for a year or more is best.
This should be plowed to a depth of eighteen or twenty inches. The
growing of potatoes or corn the year previous to planting trees is a good
method. This insures thorough cultivation and eliminates the weeds.
After digging the potatoes or harvesting the corn, plow the land to the depth
indicated and then harrow to establish a mulch. Care should be taken not to
establish a dust mulch, the evil effects of which are now well known.

Land upon which grain has been raised is not so well suited because
the stubble tends to hold up the dirt and cause spaces in the soil. If care
is not taken to fill these, the roots of the trees will dry out causing injury
to the trees, at least, if it does not kill them.

The spring in which the planting is to be done, the soil should be
kept in condition by harrowing or discing. Manure may be added to the
land the year before the trees are planted, if conditions are such that it
is needed. However, trees rarely need any added fertility, and in many
cases it is an actual injury to them.

Summer fallowing leaves the ground in good condition. This is
advisable when the ground is stony, hard, or when foul with weeds, or
where the soil has been injured by plowing or discing when too wet. If
the land has been well farmed there is no need of summer fallowing.

Where the land is very heavy, as gumbo, the physical texture of the
soil may be very much improved by spreading straw over it and having
it tramped in by stock. This will make the soil more porous and will suit
trees much better.

Prairie sod needs careful preparation for at least one year before
trees are planted in it. Early in the spring break to a depth of about two
inches. Turn the sod completely over and roll if necessary. In six or
eight weeks the sod will be sufficiently rotted to backset. In back-setting
plow at least five inches deep. Immediately disc or harrow the ground
as often as is necessary, to bring the soil into very fine particles. In the
fall plow to a depth of eighteen or twenty inches. The next spring if the
above treatment, which in most cases will be sufficient, has not put the
ground in a good friable condition, plant it to some root crop which will
insure constant cultivation and wait until the following spring to plant the
trees. Nothing will be gained by planting trees in poorly prepared soil.

SCHOOL OF FORESTRY

Application To The State School of Forestry, Bottineau, N. Dak.
For Forest Trees, Seeds, Cuttings and Seedlings.

Name of Landowner

Post Office Address .
Express Office Address ....

Town ...Range Section

Lot . Block...

Nature of soil ,..1.

State of Cultivation .

I wish to plant the following parcels of land located on the above
section or block. — (Give as definite a description as possible, of the
exact sizes of land to be used for this purpose.)

I, , do hereby request the North Dakota State

School of Forestry to supply me the following seeds, cuttings and seed-
lings for planting on the above designated land, for the purpose of growing
a windbreak- or shelterbelt.

I agree to set apart the land above designated as a permanent shelter-

8

QUARTERLY BULLETIN

belt or windbreak, and that the trees grown thereon shall not at any time
in the future be cut off or removed so as to injure the plantation, ex-
cept with the advice or consent of the STATE FORESTER, but it is
understood that the wood and other products of the said plantation, wind-
break or shelterbelt shall be the property of the land owner.

I agree to protect all trees with suitable fences, fire-guards, etc., when-
ever necessary.

I agree to pay transportation expenses on all supplies sent me; to pre-
pare the ground, plant, and thoroly cultivate the trees after planting, ac-
cording to the directions of the STATE FORESTER.

I further agree that the NORTH DAKOTA STATE SCHOOL
OF FORESTRY may have such seeds and seedlings as may be produced
from the supplies furnished me, provided I do not need them for further
planting.

(Sign here)

Date

List below the seeds, cuttings, or forest tree seedlings desired.

UU 3|UJ

NOV 4 1914

Division of Forestry

Bulletin No. 1

DEMONSTRATION
WORK

AT THE

NORTH DAKOTA
SCHOOL OF
FORESTRY

by F. E. OLDER

Horticulturist

BOTTINEAU, NORTH DAKOTA

OOCRATfT PRINT, BOTTTNBAtt

4 1914

Division of Forestry
University of California

Demonstration Work at the North Dakota
School of Forestry.

by F. E. OLDER, Horticulturist

In the spring of 1907 a tract of 30 acres was set aside
for demonstration and experimental purposes at the
North Dakota School of Forestry at Bottineau, North
Dakota. The first planting at the school was made in
the spring of 1908 under the direction of Prof. R. K.
Thompson and consisted chiefly of rapid-growing trees,
such'as willows, poplars, and box elders for the purpose
of making a quick and effective windbreak on the north
and west. Of the 5,000 trees and cuttings put out in 1908,
about 3,500 were poplars and willows. Most of these
were cuttings. Besides these, about 1000 two year old
trees consisting of ash, elm, box eider, and soft maple
were set out; also some small evergreens which were
obtained from the Forest Service of the United States
government. Part of the ornamental shrubs on the cam-
pus were set out the same season. The previous year a
tract of land had been secured for experimental purposes
and was used for tree planting and for variety tests of
grain, and grasses. This work in variety tests was con-
tinued in 1908 on the grounds at the School of Forestry;
but the demonstration work is now being confined more
strictly to horticulture and forestr}'. The work falls
naturally into three divisions; viz: (l) tests of shrubs
for ornamental planting, (2) trials of hardy fruits, (3)
growing and testing of hardy trees suitable for groves
and windbreaks.

I. The testing of hardy ornamentals has been
carried far enough to demonstrate the great value of a
few shrubs for planting in this locality. The best results,
have been obtained from the Caragana, Tartarian honey-
suckle, common lilac, Siberian hedge rose, (R. Rugosa)

and Spirea Van Houttei. These have given such ex-
cellent satisfaction during the past three years that a
brief description of each is here given:

The Caragana is perfectly hardy, having come through
severe winters and unusually dry summers in excellent
condition. Its habit of growth is that of a low-growing
tree. As grown elsewhere in the Northwest, it seldom
exceeds twelve or fourteen feet in height, and is usually
less. If pruned, it can be trained to a very good tree
form; but when left to itself, it branches considerably
and assumes the form of a large shrub. This tree is
excellent for planting in hedges and also for group
planting. The wealth of fragrant golden blossoms in
early summer makes it very attractive, arid it stands out
in strong contrast to most of our other flowering shrubs.

The Tartarian honeysuckle is a hardy and very satis-
factory shrub. While sometimes grown as a hedge
plant, it is especially valuable in group plantings for
lawn and garden. The foliage is a luxuriant green,
which forms an excellent background for the many small
pink and white flowers appearing in June. In late sum-
mer, the reddish yellow berries give an excellent effect.

The common lilac is one of the very best shrubs to
plant. It is perfectly hardy, arid is almost without an
equal for profusion of large, clustered bloom. It is ex-
cellent in group plantings, and makes a beautiful hedge
for the garden border.

The Siberian hedge rose (Rosa Rugosa) is by far the
most satisfactory rose which we have planted. The bush
is hardy, though it should receive winter protection for
best results. The foliage is dark green and gives a
beautiful effect. The blossom is single, but the bloom-
ing continues through the summer, until checked by
autumn frosts. As a low hedge plant it is undoubtedly
without an equal for this region.

For a small shrub to be grown in a corner of the
lawn, the Spirea Van Houttei, popularly known as bridal
wreath, is the most satisfactor3r shrub which we have
grown. It possesses a fair degree of hardiness, but is
best in a somewhat sheltered location. In early June the
bush is often completely covered with its clusters of small

snow-white blossoms. Several other shrubs are being
tested at the present time but it is too soon to draw any
definite conclusions in regard to them. Several shrubs
which were brought to our grounds from the Turtle
Mountains give promise of excellent results.

A list of our best- ornamentals would not be com-
plete without the peony. This is a herbaceous perennial
and therefore has no part above ground which lives over
\vinter. The roots remain alive for years and produce
buds from which the growth starts. The root habit is
very similar to that of rhubarb, and peonies are as easily
grown as rhubarb. Therefore no lover of flowers of this
kind should be without peonies. No other herbaceous
perennials have been thoroughly tested at the School of
Forestry.

II. Among the fruits, the experimental work has
been principally in variety tests of currants, gooseberries,
raspberries, plums, cherries, and apples.

Currants and gooseberries have made a very good
growth and have stood the winters well. Of the former,
five varieties have been tried with good results in each
case. These varieties are the White (/rape, White Dutch,
Red Dutch, Perfection, and Fay's Prolific. The last of
these is not so rank in habit of growth as the others, but
the fruit is larger.

Two varieties of gooseberries have been tried, viz:
The Houghton and the Downing. The Houghton has
given good results, but the Downing has shown a slight
tendency to winter kill. Some native gooseberries have
also made a good showing. The results with currants
and gooseberries at the School of Forestry and the ex-
perience of several men who have grown them for years
in this locality fully justify the opinion that no farmer or
gardener need be without a good supply of these excellent
fruits.

Raspberries have been tried, but further tests are
necessary before we can pass judgment on many of the
varieties. Thus far, the Turner has far surpassed all
others. It seems fairly hardy and has produced some
fruit. However it will probably require winter protec-
tion in order to give best results. The native raspberries

are growing well and are hardy. Other varieties that
have been tried are the Cuthbert, Cumberland, Gregg,
King and London; but none of these have succeeded
well enough thus far to receive favorable mention.

Three varieties of plums, the De Soto, the Wyant,
and the Surprise, haye been growing here for t-vo
years. They have not come into bearing, but have
stood the winters well and have made an excellent
growth. It is rather early to pass judgment upon them;
but thus far these varieties have been all that one could
wish.

Early Richmond Cherries are a failure, the tendency
being for them to winter kill almost to the ground. But
the Compass Cherry, a hybrid between the Sand Cherry
and the Miner plum, has made a splendid growth and
has stood the \vinters perfectly. In 1910 one tree, the
second year after setting out, matured a few cherries.
All who are interested should watch carefully the results
obtained from the planting of the Compass cherry. It
seems to be one of our most promising tree fruits.

Apple trees have been growing on these grounds for
two years. The trees are in a rather exposed location
and the lay of the land is not the best for an orchard.
However, a few of the hardiest varieties have made a fair
showing. The Oldenburg, Charlemoff, Hibernal, Wealthy,
and some of the crab apples are worthy of trial.

III. The results obtained from tree plantings have
been very satisfactory. The work has already shown
that there are several kinds of trees which are excellent
for groves and windbreaks, and that these can be grown
if given a reasonable amount of care.

In Bottineau county, the cotton wood has been more
extensively planted in grovel than any other tree. Ex-
perience and observation have taught us that the cotton-
wood is not a satisfactory tree for grove planting in the
prairie regions ot Minnesota, North Dakota, and South
Dakota, except where there is an excessive amount of
moisture. A single row of cottonwoods along a road
will usually do well; but in a thickly-planted grove on
the prairie the trees begin to die out rapidly as soon as
they are large enough to crowd each other. This is

. 5 '

largely due to the fact that the roots of the cottonwood
are nearly all near the surface and therefore the trees in
a grove soon suffer for moisture, unless they are in a low
or damp place.

The Norway poplar grows even faster than the cot
ton wood, and has a much more symmetrical form.
While it is a near relative of the cottonwood, it is super-
ior to the latter for grove planting.

Willows grow rapidly and can be easily started from
cuttings. The white willow and the diamond willow
are perfectly hardy and make good windbreaks. If a few
rows of cuttings are put out and cultivated five years,
there is no reason why every set of farm buildings should
not have a very effective protection from the northwest
winds in winter.

Golden willows are more beautiful than white or
diamond willows, but they have not stood drouth so well
here.

TheTaurel leaf willow is quite satisfactory also. Its
dark green glossy leaves make it especially desirable; and
its freedom from insect pests is remarkable. As a rapid-
growing shade tree it has few equals, and for a street or
lawn tree it is quite acceptable.

The box elder seems to be the favorite tree for street
planting in this region. The tree has many things to
commend it; such as, — rapid growth, hardiness, and dense
foliage. The showing that it has made and its durability
justify a wider planting of the box elder in groves, and
especially when mixed with other trees.

The white elm is being tried on these grounds, and
gives promise of satisfactory results. This is especially
desirable for street planting, but needs rather careful
pruning to keep it in good form.

The green ash is unquestionably the very best tree
for grove planting in North Dakota. The tree is native
along many of our streams and is absolutely hardy. It is
not so rapid in growth as the box elder or cottonwood;
but is far more durable in a grove and furnishes more
valuable wood and. posts. If ash and box elder are plant-
ed alternately and rather close together, the ash grow up
much straighter and more rapidl\r than when given too

much room. The men who pet out ag'ft aft ^'^lye them
good care for the first few years *a'fe*th"e" men who will
have the desirable groves in the future.

DIRECTIONS FOR PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES

Many different kinds of plants and trees must be
planted in different ways and each must receive the
special care which it needs in order to secure the best re-
sults. But there are a few rules which may be applied
quite generally to the planting of trees, and some of the
most important are here given:

1. Always have the soil in the best possible condi-
tion before planting trees. The question is often asked
if it is all right to set out trees in sod. Would it give
satisfactory results to plant corn in the same way? In
general, the ground for tree planting should be in just as
good condition as you have it for corn. You cannot ex-
pect success unless the trees are given a chance. It is
possible to secure excellent results from setting trees in
the sod, but those trees must receive much more atten-
tion than trees set out where the soil is in good tilth.

2. Dig the hole considerably larger and deeper than
is apparent!}7 necessary for the tree. This is to allow the
roots to be well spread and to give some loose dirt in
which the first tender rootlets may grow.

3. Do not allow the roots of a tree to be exposed to
the sun or wind for any length of time. Many men kill
their trees by exposure before they set them out and then
wonder why the}7 do not grow. Distributing the
trees at the holes and leaving them exposed to the sun
and wind for hours before setting out is a pernicious
practice and cannot be too severely condemned.

4. Trim off the broken and bruised parts and set the
tree into moist soil, placing the roots firmly in the bottom
of the hole. Spread the roots well and work moist rich
earth closely around them, firming it around the tree. If
the soil is dry enough to need watering, fill the hole about
half full of dirt and then put in water which is slightly
warmed, allowing it to soak away before filling the hole.
When finished, the tree should be three or four inches

deepre> iii.'ijhe ^rouud .than before transplanting- and there
should be a slight depression around it.

5. Cultivate the trees frequent!}' to keep down the
weeds, to conserve the moisture in the soil, and to keep
the ground in good condition. If trees are properly cul-
tivated, watering is not often necessary. If they are
watered at all, it should be done by thoroughly soaking
the ground around the trees; and this should be followed
by cultivation as soon as the soil begins to dry and to
form a crust.

6. Mulch the trees freely but judiciously. Many
trees die that could be saved by mulching at the right
time and in the right way. On the other hand it fre-
quently happens that trees are killed by careless mulching.

7. Do not let stock run in the lot where you are try-
ing to grow trees. It usually results in killing the trees.

The great value of tree planting on North Dakota
farms ^cannot be too strongly emphasized. Five acres of
good trees on every quarter section of land would be of
inestimable benefit to the state. It would furnish protec-
tion from the severe winds of winter and the drying
winds of summer; it would furnish posts and firewood;
it would tend to distribute the moisture more evenly;
and it would make the farm homes more pleasant and
therefore more valuable.

The North Dakota School of Forestry was established
to help develop ''trete planting and fruit culture in North
Dakota. It is a school for the people of North Dakota.
It is your school. We wish to make this institution of
the greatest value to you. You can secure the advan-
tages of the school by sending your boys and girls here.
You can also call upon us for suggestions and advice
about your groves and windbreaks, your fruits and
ornamental shrubs. We are ready and glad to offer what
assistance we can in the planning of groves, selection of
trees, and the planting and care of the same.

Bottineau, North Dakota, January 18, 1911.

Bulletin 102

April, 1907

SOUTH DAKOTA

Agricultural Experiment Station

South Dakota State College of Agriculture and
Mechanic Arts

BROOKINGS, SOUTH DAKOTA

EVERGREENS

FOR SOUTH DAKOTA

N. E. HANSEN
DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE

WILL A. BEACH PRINTING Co.
Sioux Falls, S. D.

GOVERNING BOARD

Board of Regents

Hon. E. C. Ericson, President Elk Point, S. D.

Hon. F. A. Spafford Flandreau, S. D.

Hon. S. E. Forest Britton, S. D.

Hon. A. W. Burtt .Huron. S. D.

Hon. A. J. Norby Sisseton, S. D.

STATION COUNCIL

F. A. Spafford Regent Member

A. J. Norby Regent Member

Robert L. Slagle, President of the College
James W. Wilson, Director and Agriculturist

N. E. Hansen, Vice-Director Horticulturist

James H. Shepard Chemist

W. A. Wheeler. Botanist and Entomologist

E. L. Moore Veterinarian and Zoologist

R. A. Larson Secretary and Accountant

Assistants

H. G. Skinner Animal Husbandry

John S. Cole Agronomy

A. E. Koch Chemistry

Charles Haralson Horticulture

B. B. Lawshe Stenographer

T. B. Kelly ..Clerk

Any farmer of the state can have the Bulletins of this
Station free upon application to the Director.

EVERGREENS FOR SOUTH DAKOTA.
N. E. Hansen.

TABLE OF CONTENTS :

1. General Notes 7. Management of Young

2. Transplanting Seedlings

3. Cultivation 8. Winter-Killing

4. Pruning 9. Snow-traps and Windbreaks

5. Propagation from Seed 10. Evergreens in the Black Hills

6. Nursery-grown vs. Forest u. Description of Varieties

Seedlings 12. Summary

General Notes.

The numerous letters received by this department con-
cerning the cultivation and management of evergreens, in-
dicate that considerable interest is being taken by planters
in the subject. This bulletin is a summary of the experi-
ments with evergreens at this Station the past nineteen years,
together with the experience of planters in other parts of the
state. The object of this is to enable beginners to profit by
the experience of others who have made an effort to beautify
their home surroundings by planting evergreens on the lawn
for ornament, or to secure protection from surface windsweep
by planting windbreaks.

The word "evergreen" is somewhat misleading as some
members of the evergreen family drop their leaves in winter,
while some plants that retain their leaves during the winter
are not members of the great evergreen family. The word
uconifer," which means cone-bearer, is a better term. The
coniferse or cone-bearers are by far the most important family
of forest trees. For example, what would our lumbermen in
the west have done without the White Pine ? What would

the lumbermen of Europe have done without the Scotch
Pine? The great majority of conifers are native of the tem-
perate zone, only a few being tropical or sub-tropical. The
conifers number about three hundred species divided into
nearly forty genera. The North American flora contain not
less than one hundred species and sub-species, the largest
variety being found on the Pacific coast. In addition there
are at least four hundred nurserymen's varieties selected
mainly for their ornamental value.

As we look back over the history of conifer cultivation in
America we must admit that we have neglected our native
species, which are inferior to none, for imported species.
For example, the Norway spruce and the Scotch pine have
been planted more extensively than any other conifers; this
is mainly because the seed is obtainable at low prices from
western Europe where it is picked up in the forest by cheap
labor as a waste product.

Our valuable native western evergreens have been like
prophets, "not without honor save in their own country."
Some of them are more popular in Europe than in America.
The common evergreens of western Europe have been found
valuable in our eastern states, but the further northwest their
cultivation extended on our prairies, the more uncertain is
their behavior. The same may be said of our native eastern
evergreens ; while perfectly hardy in swamps, moist soils
and protected localities even far northward, they fail on the
windswept prairies. On the other hand, some evergreens,
such as the native pine and spruce of the Black Hills, or the
red cedar on high dry bluffs along the Cheyenne river west of
the Missouri river, are found making vigorous growth in
dry soil and the most exposed situations. It is time that
these general principles were well understood by planters,
as the multitude of failures in the past from a disregard of
these rules have caused much disappointment and the loss
of many thousands of dollars. In addition, evergreens have
certain peculiarities which planters must learn before they

1,58

can expect success. Nurserymen and others who have
learned these characteristics transplant evergreens with about
as much success as they do Cottonwoods or Willows.

It is scarcely necessary to discuss the great desirability of
having prairie homes sheltered by evergreens. Suffice
it to say that a windbreak of evergreens will add to the value
of the farm immensely more than they have cost, and the
cheering effect of the green foliage every day of the year,
with the grateful protection afforded from wintry blasts,
will add immensely to the comfort of the homes upon our
windswept but fertile prairies.

Transplanting.

Sometimes evergreens are planted in the fall. This is
usually due to the efforts of irresponsible agents who sell
evergreens for fall delivery. It is a waste of time and money
in this climate. Reliable northwestern nurserymen never
sell evergreens for fall delivery. This lack of success with
fall planting of conifers is due mainly to the drying winter
winds, the trees not being able to make new root growth
until the following spring.

About ten years ago it became necessary to clear a block
of Ponderosa pines in the fall. Seven thousand of these trees,
which were about two feet in height, were donated to the
department to test the matter of heeling in the trees care-
fully, in a protected place with lath screens over during the
winter. The following spring these trees were carefully
planted in the usual manner in a plantation intermingled
with aspen and other trees. Very few of these pines lived.
So few, in fact, that it would have saved time and money to
have burned them in autumn instead of heeling them in.

THE BEST TIME TO TRANSPLANT EVERGREENS. — The
best time to transplant evergreens is when the buds
are beginning to swell in the spring. This means that they
can ordinarily be handled a little later than the deciduous

159

trees, such as cottonwood, willow and maple, which start in
growth earlier. It is too late to transplant evergreens when
the young shoots have appeared and are still soft, as there
is an extra drain on the roots for moisture at this time. If
evergreens must be moved late the work should be deferred
until the young shoots have hardened and the terminal buds
have formed. It is possible then to move evergreens of con-
siderable size if a large ball of earth is preserved intact about
the roots ; this, of course, means that the method is practic-
able for short distance removals only. A favorite method of
moving large specimen evergreens for the lawn is with a
frozen ball of earth in late winter ; such trees maybe moved
on a stone-boat and are ready for vigorous growth when the
season opens. It should be remembered also that evergreens
are among the class of trees which derive benefit by sym-
biotic relationships with the lower forms of plant life, thus
enabling them to derive more food from the humus in
the soil. Hence retaining some of the earth on the roots in
transplanting is a great advantage to the trees in becoming
established in their new home.

To fully understand the principles involved in transplant-
ing evergreens, take a piece of rosin and leave it for an in-
definite time in a pail of water. Of course you will say that
this experiment is useless because every one knows the rosin
would not dissolve to any appreciable extent. Now remem-
ber, if you please, that rosin comes from the sap of ever-
greens and that the sap is resinous throughout. This is the
first fact about evergreens that must be learned. Another
fact of equal importance that must be remembered is that
the leaves are steadily at work in the process of transpiration
and hence the roots must be placed in intimate contact with
moist soil as soon as possible.

Evergreens are easily transplanted, if it is properly done,
but an evergreen out of the soil is like a fish out of water
and can be killed in about as short a time. A few moments
exposure of the roots to our drying sun and wind will dry

i6o

the resinous sap, so that any amount of soaking will be of
no avail afterwards. The trees may look fresh and green
for a time, but will be dead in spite of their appearance. The
mellow earth should be made very firm about the roots, care
being taken that no caves or hollow places are left to dry out.
In the nurseries in transplanting large numbers of evergreens,
a tamper, larger than those used in setting fence posts, is
used to firm the earth about the roots; but precaution is
always taken to have loose earth on top to prevent baking.
For a few trees on a lawn, the mellow earth can be poked in
among the roots with the fingers protected by heavy gloves
and a blunt stick ; in firming the soil use the heel rather than
the ball of the foot, as much more effective work can be done.
If the soil is wet, no tamping must be done, as that would
puddle it and cause it to bake very hard. A little water
may be used until the hole is about half full, but care must
be taken to leave the earth loose on top. In nursery plant-
ing on a large scale, water is very rarely used, it being found
much better to plant when the soil is moist and tamp firmly.
If there is any clay or mud partly dried on the roots when
the trees are received, care should be taken to wash this off,
or at least to thoroughly wet it before planting. In shipping
evergreens, it is a common practice in nurseries to dip the
roots in thin mud, preferably clay, before shipping. This
upuddling" helps to retain moisture on the roots. The roots
are well packed in moss and tight packing insured by a
cleat across the box, permitting more freedom for the leafy
top to prevent heating; in addition to this, sufficient holes
are bored in the sides to permit free access of air to the leaves.
When the trees are received from the nursery unpack at
once, wash off or thoroughly wet the "puddled" earth on the
roots to give them a chance to begin work. If not
ready to plant immediately, the trees should be heeled-in in
a sheltered and shaded place. By this is meant that a trench
with sloping sides is dug deep enough so the roots are cov-
ered entirely with moist earth and the tops left free. The

foliage must not be wet any more than can be avoided. Wet
leaves become spattered with mud which soon dries, pre-
venting the leaves from performing their functions and
causing them to turn yellow. It is a common rule in nursery
practice in handling conifers, never to wet the leaves if it
can be avoided.

When ready to plant, a few trees are taken at a time and
the roots kept moist in a pail with water in the bottom and
planted without delay. Young evergreens are usually set clear
"up to the chin" in transplanting; by this is meant to set
them in up to where the side branches begin. Large ever-
greens may need staking at first until well established. Do
not take too many trees at a time; they must never be left
even for a moment on top of the ground exposed to drying
winds. If possible, do the work on a cloudy day. Do not
dig more than two or three holes ahead of planting as the
earth must be moist. Remember always the two main prin-
ciples already mentioned: (i) The sap of conifers is
resinous; (2) Conifers are -always in leaf. Hence the tree
must be put where it can begin work again with as little
delay as possible. In this respect it differs from deciduous
trees which are dormant during part of the year.

TRANSPLANTING EVERGREENS WITH BALLS OF EARTH.—
The great advantage gained in transplanting evergreens
when the earth is retained on the roots has led nurserymen
to supply the demand for evergreens handled in this manner.
Some do the work at the nursery by planting evergreens into
boxes, tubs or baskets while others retain the ball of earth
in place by sewing it up in burlap. The latter method is
more adapted for such trees as spruces which have an abun-
dance of fibrous roots than for pines which have a more
meager root system. Of course such trees are expensive
and hence adapted for lawn specimens only. However, in
transplanting large specimens, for immediate effect, it is
especially desirable to retain the earth on the roots.

i6a

Cultivation.

After planting the soil must be kept mellow by frequent
cultivation. The "dust mulch" is especially necessary with
evergreens. By "dust mulch" is meant a layer of loose
earth made by constant stirring of the soil all through the
growing season. This prevents baking of the soil and the escape
of moisture. The drier the season, the greater the necessity
for frequent cultivation. Many people make a mistake by
mulching young trees heavily and doing no cultivating. It
must be remembered that the roots need air as well as mois-
ture, and that the best mulch is the "dust mulch." Where
frequent stirring of the soil is impracticable or inconvenient;
such, for instance, in the case of large trees on the lawn, a
mulch of old hay, leaves, well rotted stable litter or similar
non-heating material may be applied. Bright .straw reflects
the sun and favors burning of the leaves. But the mulch must
be removed at intervals and the ground stirred thoroughly
with a hoe or light spade. Soil that is left undisturbed all
summer under a mulch will often bake very hard, especially
in a dry season.

When dry weather comes on in July and August it may
be necessary to water evergreens, especially for the first two
or three years after transplanting, because the soil dries down
deeper than the roots extend.

After several years the roots will have extended down to
permanent moisture and can take better care of themselves.
If watering becomes necessary, do not water every day as
that is the best and surest way to kill them, but water at
intervals of a few days and then give the ground a good soak-
ing. Just before the ground freezes in autumn it is espec-
ially desirable to wet the roots very thoroughly as it pre-
vents the drying out by winter winds. This process of win-
ter dessication is very trying on all trees and shrubs, but
especially on evergreens, as they have foliage all winter
while the roots are ice-bound. Hence it pays to protect an
evergreen windbreak by several rows of cheaper trees, such

as willows, as breaking the wind means lessened evaporation.
Test this matter for yourself by hanging out a family wash-
ing in two places, part out in the open where fully exposed
to the wind and part in some place where the wind is cut off
or much broken. In which place will the clothes dry first?
The statement is sometimes made that our dry winter winds
will take the moisture from our fence posts. Examine the
young shoots of as many kinds of trees as you can in early
spring for any indication of shrivelling of the bark. Com-
pare this to their appearance later, after the abundant spring
rains. The twigs will 'be found plump and the shrivelled
condition has disappeared. After a dry, open winter, nurs-
erymen do not like to dig trees too early before the spring
rains have restored the twigs and young shoots to their nor-
mal condition.

Pruning.

It is natural for evergreens to make their main growth by
one central leader with side branches symmetrically arranged.
When by some accident the leader is destroyed, a struggle
ensues in the next lower whorl as to which is to be the
leader. It often happens that two or more branches receive
a nearly equal proportion of the flow of sap so that the sym-
metry of the tree is ruined. The planter should decide for
himself which shoot should be selected for the new leader
and by bending it upwards carefully and tying to the stub
it will soon take the lead; the rivals are pinched back if it
is found necessary. A good rule for pruning evergreens in
general is to prune early to promote growth and prune late
to check growth. By early pruning is meant early in the
spring where it is necessary to improve an uneven evergreen
hedge. But avoid pruning below live foliage as conifers do
not break easily from old wood. In midsummer shoots that
are getting an undue advantage over their neighbors are
checked by a light pinching. Often removal of the terminal
bud is sufficient. It is a mistake to prune an evergreen

164

hedge in the fall or winter as the removal of outside limbs
exposes the weaker inner branches which have not accustomed
themselves to open exposure and consequently are less hardy.
Such injury is sometimes seen when an evergreen group which
has become too close is thinned out.

One of the chief beauties of evergreens is lost when the
trees are deprived of their lower branches. The limbs should
be left intact from the ground up so that the symmetry and
beauty of the trees are not marred or ruined.

Propagation From Seed.

Frequently inquiries are received at this department for
information as to the best methods of raising evergreens from
seed. I do not advise amateurs to attempt growing evergreens
from seed with the expectation of making a success of it.
Even few of the nurserymen attempt to do the work as it is
a business that has gone more and more into the hands of
specialists. It is comparatively easy to get the seed to ger-
minate under lath or brush screens which shade off about
half of the sunlight. But the seedlings are inclined to
"damp off'' before the se'cond or third set of leaves are formed.
By this is meant the moulding or decaying of the young
seedlings at the surface of the ground. The trouble is
especially prevalent soon after the young seedlings appear
above the ground and suffer from lack of moisture and in ex-
cessively rainy weather followed by bright sunlight. It is
prevented by sowing dry sand among the seedlings to absorb
the surplus moisture, sometimes by removing part of the
shade until the beds dry out, and in drouthy spells by judi-
cious watering.

The seed is sown in beds four feet wide. The soil should
be well drained and quite sandy. If only black soil is avail-
able, considerable sand should be mixed in with the top
layers of soil. Early in May the seeds are sown broadcast
about four seeds to the square inch and covered lightly with
very sandy soil. The beds are made four feet wide and pro-

tected by boards one foot long set on edge along the sides
and held in place by stakes. This stops surface windsweep.
The bed is protected by screens made of lath which are bet-
ter than brush as the shading is more uniform. The lath
screens are made so that the spaces between are the width of
a lath, thus giving half shade to the young seedlings. The
seed is pressed into the soil with the back of a spade and cov-
ered very lightly with sand. In nurseries where the work is
done on a large scale, the lath is placed on framework high
enough to walk under, or covered with brush instead of lath.
In some experiments at this Station the lath screens have
been found more efficient especially in dry windy springs,
by being covered with very thin white muslin at first. The
advantage of the lath screens is that they can be readily re-
moved in cloudy weather when the seedlings should have
more light. The first year the young seedlings make a
growth of not more than two or three inches and are pro-
tected over winter by a light covering of straw or leaves.
The second year the seedlings make a growth of two to four
inches. In the spring of the second year the seedlings must
be transplanted to beds.

Nursery-Grown vs. Forest Seedlings.
The seedlings are either grown from seed in the nursery or dug
in the forest. Although the nursery-grown seedlings usually
cost more, they are much better adapted to prairie conditions
than the seedlings which have come up in the shade and
shelter of the forests. Furthermore, the nursery plants have
more fibrous roots because they are transplanted at two years
of age into beds and later into nursery rows, while the forest
plants have formed tap-roots and are transplanted with
greater difficulty. However, forest seedlings are planted
largely by nurserymen and others who have learned the art
of gradually adapting them to the prairie sun and air. This
gradual hardening is accomplished by shading the seedlings
the first two years with brush or lath screens in much" the
same manner as for seed beds. The forest seedlings should

1 66

not be too old, 6 to 10 inch seedlings are much better than
larger ones. A cheap screen for beds 4 to 8 feet wide, is
made of brush resting on a framework made of strips nailed
on 2x43 with posts along the sides so that the shade is raised
two feet above the surface. Another method is to have the
beds 8 to 10 feet wide with a narrow walk through the
center through which runs a row of posts supporting a ridge
pole. Branches of cottonwood and other brush are fastened
to this ridge-pole by wires or twine, thus making a long
tent-shaped arbor. The shade is gradually removed as
the plants become accustomed to the air and sun.

The busy prairie planter will probably prefer to leave
this task to his nearest nurseryman who makes a specialty
of such work and buy the young seedlings all ready for plant-
ing into permanent positions.

A safe rule is to order twice transplanted nursery grown
seedlings from one to two feet in height. The seedlings
one foot in height when planted, with proper care will soon
outstrip those much larger and set out at the same time and
they are easier transplanted. But if the trees are too small
when received they will need to go into nursery beds as al-
ready described, from which they can be removed when
large enough with earth adhering to the roots at the most
favorable time for transplanting.

Management of Young Seedlings.

Evergreen seedlings, when two years old, are from four to
six inches in height. For a large lot of trees it will pay to
buy two-year seedlings and plant them in beds for about two
years, by which time they are ready for transplanting to per-
manent places in a tree plantation. These small seedlings
are from four to six inches in height and are planted most
conveniently in beds eight feet wide. A board a foot wide
is placed across the bed and serves as support for the planter.
The trench is opened up along the edge of the board with a
spade, the young seedlings set four to six inches apart along

i67

the perpendicular side of the trench and the earth firmed
with the hand, the object being to get the mellow earth in
firm- contact with the roots. The hole is now filled level
full and the board taken up and put on the other side of the
row of seedlings which has just been planted, and the pro-
cess repeated.

When the work is done the seedlings will be planted in
the bed very accurately. . Cultivation is done with a sharp
hoe. It is usually necessary to shade the evergreen seed-
lings the first year, although in the case of the Black Hills
and Jack pines it is not found necessary, as they stand the
sun better than any other evergreen. When the seedlings
are about a foot in height they can be transplanted to their
permanent position, advantage being taken of a favorable
time for the work. The best time for transplanting is in
the spring just before the pine buds begin to start.

If it is desired to get the seedlings larger in size before
transplanting to a permanent position, it is necessary to trans-
plant them about every other year in nursery row after they
leave the bed. If this is not done the tap-roots, especially of
the pines, are formed and when finally removed there are no
fibrous roots to hold the earth in transplanting. To state
the case briefly, the first six or ten years in the life of an
evergreen the growth is very slow and special care is needed
to keep them from the enemies, the weeds. Hence most
people will prefer to buy their evergreens of their nearest
reliable nurseryman, who has evergreens in beds or nursery
row ready for their permanent place. However, many
planters have found it economical to buy two or three thous-
and seedling evergreens two years old direct from the seed-
bed, and plant them in beds with the aid of a board as above
described. In two years they will have some trees ready for
permanent places while the smaller ones are transplanted in
nursery row or re-set in other beds if too small for nursery
row. Some evergreens, such as the spruce, are so slow at
first that it is ten years before they are of suitable size for the

i68

lawn or for hedges and windbreaks. But after an evergreen
has attained a height of three feet the growth is very much
more rapid and with proper care there will be no complaint
as to slow growth at least in the case of pines. Some will
say that two or three thousand young seedlings are too many
to start with. It must be remembered that this makes
allowance for accidents and early mortality. Furthermore,
evergreens should be planted in quantity by the hundred,
rather than by the half dozen.

Winter-Killing.

Ordinary winters do not give us accurate ideas as to the
relative hardiness of evergreens. Species of far southern
origin of course are killed even by mild winters, but with
those of more northern origin we must wait for the occasional
test winters before passing final judgment. The term "hard-
iness" as ordinarily used means ability to resist cold; but in
reality it includes many factors, such as resistance to drouth,
open exposure, drying winds and intense sunlight, and
adaptability to prairie soils; in fact, to say that a plant is
hardy in any locality means the ability to succeed under the
ordinary environment as to climate, soil and method of cul-
tivation, of that region.

A. Norby, of Madison, S. D., writes as follows on the win-
ter-killing of young evergreens :

"Test winters, as before mentioned, the winter of 1894-5
was specially trying on evergreens. Then 75 per cent
of two-foot red pines went out, and about 25 per cent of the
young ponderosa (Black Hills) pine. Six to i8-inch white
spruce also killed more or less, while the blue spruce came
out fine as usual.

"The exceptionally cold winter of 1898-9, damaged the
red, Austrian and Scotch pines in color, and balsam firs and
white spruce also discolored and cedars killed back some.
Black Hills and blue spruce escaped any visible injury.

"And now the last winter (1905-6) proved the most dis-

169

astrous to cedars and young white spruce and Scotch pines,
large or small, ever experienced. Blue and Black Hills
spruce, bright as ever, and small ponderosa pines in nursery
rows out from any protection, came through exceptionally fine
with no loss at all. Same can be said of the Douglas spruce.
The balsam fir also escaped much injury."

Snow-traps and Windbreaks.

It is a matter of common observation that snow will lodge
on the leeward side of a fence, hedge or other obstacle to the
wind. Hence many planters on the open prairies of the
northwest have found that a windbreak too close to the
buildings will cause the snow-drifts to lodge about them.
This undesirable condition is prevented by planting a hedge
of willows or other cheap trees that can be kept low and
bushy, six to eight rods on the windward side of the main
windbreak, by leaving an open space between. This forms
what is called a snow-trap in which the snow-drifts lodge.
This open space can be utilized for raising vegetables during
the summer or it may be seeded down and cut for hay.

When evergreens are planted too close together, the lower
branches will soon die for want of light. If the remaining
stumps are too long to heal over for some years, they become
covered by the layers of new wood, thus forming knots in
the timber. It is interesting to go into a forest and note
this struggle for life among the lower branches.
Nature's method of pruning certainly makes good straight
timber, but for windbreaks it is undesirable because the loss
of lower limbs permits unobstructed windsweep right where
it is most desirable to stop it.

In our older sister states examples of such "windbreaks on
stilts" may be seen. To obviate this difficulty the evergreens
in a windbreak should not be planted too near each other.
The rows especially should not be too close together, and
the rows should "break joints'' so that the trees of one row

alternate with those in the next row. A single row of pines,
for example, with trees ten or twelve feet apart, and abun-
dant room on either side, will retain their lower limbs in-
definitely, while if several rows are set too close the lower
limbs will soon be crowded out and the best part of the wind-
break will be up too high.

But a single row may be considered inadequate as it does
not provide for the accidental loss of a tree, hence for pines,
rows at least twenty feet apart with trees ten feet apart will
provide for some years of growth, and further apart will be
still better. However, closer planting in the row is all right
if the planter has the courage to thin out the superfluous trees
promptly before they crowd in the least. But the thin-
ning of evergreens, fruit trees, shrubs, and other plants set
too close at first, is usually neglected till it is too late.

Evergreens in the Black Hills.

The magnificent forests of pine and spruce that cover the
Black Hills in the south-western part of South Dakota are the
glory of that region. Long ago the dark green evergreen
mantle of beauty which clothed these rocky summits caused
our predecessors, the Indians, to name them the Black Hills.
Hitherto, the difficulty of access has made this picturesque
region more popular with Nebraskans than with eastern
South Dakotans; but the new railroad lines now nearly
completed will make it easier of access. After having
traveled extensively in three continents, Europe, Asia and
North America, the writer must say that in picturesque
beauty, some of the scenery in the Black Hills is the peer of
any, and eminently worthy of the artist's brush. More and
more these wild fern and flower filled glens and rugged con-
ifer-clad summits will attract the tourist and others in search
of health, rest, and beautiful scenery.

In a brief trip through the Hills in the summer of 1904,
the writer saw much of the extensive pine and spruce for-
ests but had no opportunity to take photographs. It is high
time for our prairie planters to realize that we have a pine

native of the highest and driest points of the Black Hills
that is wholly adapted to our open prairies, and also a spruce
that is perfectly hardy and valuable for lawn planting every-
where in the state.

Plate i, the frontispiece of this bulletin, shows young
scattered specimens of the Black Hills pine growing on high
dry upland near Hot Springs in the southwest corner county
of the state.

The attention of the U. S. Forest Service has been di-
rected to the Black Hills pine in recent years and much seed
has been collected by members of the Forest Service for
planting in government experiments in tree-planting in the
Sand Hill region of western Nebraska.

Some of our western nurserymen also have begun the
work of gathering and growing these native South Dakota
conifers in preference to those coming from the mild moist
climate of western Europe; from the sheltered swamps of
northern Wisconsin and Minnesota; from the balmy slopes
of the Pacific coast; from the moisture-laden air of the
Atlantic coast or from the forests of the sunny south. In
the frequently occurring test winters, the influence of environ-
ment acting through thousands of years makes itself mani-
fest: and only those inured to climates similar to ours will
remain to comfort the planter.

Geo. H. Whiting, Yankton, S. D., who has made several
trips to the Black Hills, has told the State Horticultural
Society of finding the Black Hills pine in quantity on very
high dry points and that wherever, the forest fires were
kept out the elevated plateaus soon become densely covered
with a young growth It is a remarkable drouth-resistant
tree. Near Piedmont he found the Black Hills form of the
white spruce. In comparing the Black Hills spruce with
the same species as found native in Wisconsin, Michigan,
and farther east, Mr. Whiting reports: "This Black Hills
type is more of a stocky, sturdy grower and somewhat
slower in its growth. Its foliage is of a darker shade and

172

more inclined to bluish tints, in fact, some of the speci-
mens are decidedly blue, almost, if not quite as much so as
a good blue specimen of the Colorado Blue Spruce. They
certainly are better qualified to endure our bright, hot sun
and our dry western winds. This is perhaps due to the
fact that they have been grown there generation after gener-
ation and nature has gradually fitted them for their surround-
ings." Mr. Whiting also finds that "it is a little slower in
growth, more stocky and sturdy, the needles are larger,
stiffer and of a darker color, and that the tree is more com-
pact than the eastern White spruce. It is admirably equipped
for the western prairies, easily transplanted, and altogether,
it is very desirable for the general planter."

Description of Varieties.

South Dakota is as yet in the early stages of its horticul-
tural development; hence only a few of the many species
and varieties of conifers in cultivation have been tested in
this state. It will be well for Dakota planters to remember
in looking over nursery catalogues that a safe rule is not to
test evergreens native of regions with a much milder climate.
Planters will do well to confine their first plantings at least,
to the varieties recommended in the following list. The
general reader will understand that the botanical or Latin
names following the common names are necessary to a full
understanding as to what is meant, the common names vary-
ing widely in different, sections of the country, and of the
world.

The Pines.

The pines are the most important group of conifers includ-
ing over seventy species and six hundred varieties. About
forty species are native to North America.

The pines have the needles arranged in sheaths from two
to five in a sheath. As a class they should be transplanted
in the early years of growth, as older specimens suffer from

the earth dropping off the roots in transplanting. This is
because of the few side or fibrous roots and the long tap root.

Black Hills Pine.

Black Hills Pine. (Pinus ponderosa scopulorum , Eng-
elm.). This western pine has many names, such as Rock
pine, Bull pine, Heavy-wooded pine, Western-yellow pine.
For Dakota the name, Black Hills pine, will be preferred
as it is the one species found native in this state. The
word ponderosa means heavy, referring to the heavy wood;
and scopulorum, in the rocks or cliffs. The species Pinus
ponderosa is the largest and best of the far western pines,
attaining a height of 300 feet and a diameter of 15 feet.
Found native from British Columbia and Montana, south
to California and northern Mexico. It extends into
the Black Hills of South Dakota, and as found there and in
the adjacent mountain region of Montana is the variety
called scopulorum. This is the best of all pines for our ex-
posed prairies. It is a handsome ornamental tree; dark green
leaves, three to six inches long, generally three in a sheath.
Planters have experienced some difficulty with it in trans-
planting but its peculiarities are now better known. It must
be transplanted every year while in the nursery owing to its
remarkable root system. A long tap-root is formed from the
beginning, with comparatively few side-roots. Hence in
digging a tree that has stood several years without trans-
planting, the most of the roots are lost as they have gone
deep down to water. This explains its remarkable power to
resist drought. If transplanted at one year of age in the
nursery, instead of waiting until two, it forms more fibrous
roots than when left undisturbed. Nurserymen find that no
shading is necessary in raising this conifer from seed.

Prof. Thomas A. Williams wrote in May, 1895 :* "This is
the only pine found in the state. It reaches a fair size and
is a valuable timber tree. The leaves grow in clusters of
two or three and are from three to five inches in length. The

^Bulletin No. 43, Exp. Sta., S. D.

cones require two seasons to reach maturity, ripening in
autumn. This pine is very hardy. In many places in the
west, fine trees may be found growing in the poorest soil un-
der the most adverse conditions of drought and exposure.
It is a promising tree for forest plantations. It occurs
throughout the Black Hills."

A. Norby, Madison, S. D., Lake county, east central, re-
ports as follows on his twenty years' experience with this
tree: "First among pines I would put the Bull or Black
Hills pine (Pinus ponderosa). I have a row of this on the
top of a hill, now averaging about twenty feet high, straight
and thrifty as a pine should grow. Never have they showed
a dead limb or lost their leader. The color is a light green
the year around. If you think it too much work to cultivate
or even break the ground, just stick it out on the sod, and if
it starts the first season, it will come on and make a good
thrifty tree, showing that it does not mind drouthy spells or
sod bound sites like most other evergreens. Like all pines,
it requires plenty of room and sunlight. Running its roots
far and deep, it must be handled right in the nursery to trans-
plant well. The ponderosa is the only pine found in the
Black Hills and Nebraska, where it occupies the dry table
lands in the northwestern portion, where it has been growing
for ages past under the most adverse conditions."*

A. Norby, Madison, S. D., wrote in January, 1904, as fol-
lows: "We are fortunate in having evergreens native of our
state — grand trees through centuries adjusted to conditions far
more trying to sylvan culture than this section, and admir-
ably adapted for windbreaks.

"Look at the ponderosa pine in its native habitat in the
semi-arid region east of the Black Hills, in this state and
Nebraska, where it extends down to the icoth meridian.
Fine single specimens are found in the tough prairie sod and
groves cap the dry rocky hills where a deciduous tree could

* Dakota Farmer, Feb. 15, Aberdeen, 1907.

not survive. In the Black Hills it is the only pine and the
main timber tree. Thirteen years ago I obtained a handful
of Pinus ponderosa seed from Custer County, Montana,
which I planted. Today the trees raised from that seed stand
fifteen to seventeen feet high, straight and thrifty. This
rate of growth I think is very satisfactory, taking in consid-
eration the fact that it takes a spruce or pine four to five
years to reach the first foot in height. These trees stand on
high ground and have had ordinary cultivation until lately.

To test the drouth-resisting power of the ponderosa,
small trees were stuck out in the prairie about eight years
ago and^left to fight their own way as best they could. Of
nineteen trees put out, eighteen are alive today and are ap-
parently looking well and satisfied with the site and situation.
The ponderosa transplant very satisfactorily as raised on our
fine mellow soil frequently transplanted or root-pruned, but
wildjplants generally fail. It is of value for ornament, the
very long leaves keeping the silvery green color all the year
around."

Geo. H. Whiting, Yankton, S. D., writes: "A strong,
stocky and rapid grower. There is probably no pine in ex-
istence that requires so little moisture or that will thrive so
well on high, dry, exposed situations. At about the age
when the Scotch pine fails, the ponderosa pine begins to
show its value. It is very hard to transplant the small trees
from the woods, but nursery-grown trees that have been
transplanted at one year old, handle quite successfully."

H. C. Warner, Forestburg, S. D., reports under date of
April 19, 1907: "The ponderosa pine is looking well, but
have not had it long enough to be certain of its qualities."

Jack Pine.

Jack Pine. (Pin-
us divaricata, (Ait.)
Sudw.). The old
botanical name was
Pinus Banksiana,
Lamb. This is also
called the Gray pine
and Northern Scrub
pine. Leaves, two
in a sheath about i y2
inches long. This
pine is easily dis-
tinguished by its
habit of forming
several whorls of
branches each year
on the new growth
instead of one whorl
as with other pines;
also its light, some-
what yellowish, cast
of foliage. It is
found native from
northern New Eng-
land, west to Min-
nesota, north to Hud-
son Bay and north-
west to the Rocky
mountains. It attains
a height of 40 to 60
feet and a diameter
of 2 to 4 feet.

This pine has been
found well adapted
to open exposure.
A plantation made
at this Station in
1898 is shown in
plates 5 and 6. This

Plate No. 2. Showing several whorls on new growth of the Jack Pine.

177

plantation had the full benefit of unobstructed windsweep
on all sides except the south. This is some distance re-
moved so it is safe to say that this tree is well adapted to
prairie planting and that at some distance. These trees
were received from Carlton in northwestern Minnesota. In
this region it is found as one goes westward long after the
White pine ceases, showing that it is more of a western
prairie tree. While of rapid growth and hence desirable for
windbreaks, it can scarcely be recommended for its
beauty, owing to its somewhat open habit of growth and
stiffness of the branches and the peculiar cast of foliage.
The Black Hills pine and the Jack pine are the two hardi-
est evergreens for the Dakotas as both endure open exposure
and dry seasons.

C. W. Gurney, Yank ton, S. D., writes: "Jack or Gray
pine is also a very valuable fast growing tree, but, like the
cedars, turns to a yellowish green or brown in winter."

A. Norby, Madison, S. D., writes: "The Jack pine is
hardy and of rapid growth, but is not at home on my soil.
It grows straggling and has a sickly yellowish color. On
very sandy soils it is said to be a good tree."

White Pine.

White Pine. (Pinus Strobus, Linn.). Leaves, five in a
sheath, about four inches long. White pine is found native
in Canada from Newfoundland to Manitoba, and in the New
England states westward to Minnesota where it is common
through the northern half of the state. It is not found in
the western and southwestern parts of Minnesota. Its south-
east extension is along the Alleghanies to Georgia. A beauti-
ful and stately evergreen of rapid growth in regions where
it is at home, attaining a height of 150 feet and a diameter
of 4 feet.

Extended trials by many planters have demonstrated that
the White pine is not at home on exposed prairies. If planted
at all it should be where well sheltered by hardier trees.

1 78

A. Norby, Madison, S. D., reports in Feb., 1907, on White
pines eighteen years planted: uThe noble timber tree of
the northern forest, the White Pine, is not considered safe
in exposed places in this state, being a native of a more
humid section. Still, I have some nice specimens 15 to 18
feet, thrifty and vigorous, standing in a sheltered place. It
is the prettiest of pines."

Red Pine.

Red Pine. (Pinus resinosa, Ait.). Leaves about six
inches long, two in a sheath. Also called the Norway pine,
but this is a lumberman's term; it is purely an American
species and is not a native of Europe. Native from New-
foundland and New England westward to Manitoba and
Minnesota. A handsome ornamental tree of vigorous growth,
attaining a height of 70 feet and a diameter of two feet. In
open exposure at this Station the Red pine has not proved
long-lived, which is the general experience with it. However,
it endures prairie conditions better than the White pine. It
is not a common pine in the nurseries which may account
for the limited experience with it.

A. Norby, Madison, S. D., reports his 18 years test as fol-
lows: "The Red pine is also a native of our northern for-
ests, and by some thought valuable for prairie planting, but
here it is not equal to our test winters, when young at least,
and should be planted with caution."

Limber Pine.

Liimber Pine. (Pinus flexilis, James). Also called
Western White Pine, is a tree attaining a height of 50 feet;
leaves, five in a sheath like those of the common White pine.
It is a native of the Rocky Mountains from Alberta, Canada,
to Arizona. It is rare in cultivation and of slow growth. A.
Norby, of Madison, S. D., has tested it the past eight years
and reports it hardy but not as pretty a tree as the common
White pine.

Scotch Pine.

Scotch Pine. (Pinus sylvestris, L,inn.). This is the
common timber pine throughout northern Europe and ex-
tends far into Siberia. Leaves, two in a sheath, one and
one-half to two inches long, bluish-green, somewhat twisted.
The seed is very plentiful and cheap, being picked up as a
waste product mainly in western Europe but occasionally
seed is gathered further east on the Eurasian continent
which furnishes hardier trees. As ordinarily obtained the
seed is from the mild, moist climate of western Europe and
from dwarf, scrubby trees on poor land. The Scotch pine
has been planted more extensively than any other evergreen
in the prairie northwest, and is popular for its rapid growth
when young. However, it becomes open in habit when old.
It often begins to fail when about twenty years old and when
on dry soil is apt to die out soon after when it should be at-
taining stateliness and beauty. Upon moist soils and shelt-
ered localities it lasts longer. Upon the grounds of this
Station, the Scotch pine has been planted to a considerable
extent. Those in shelter of deciduous trees planted in 1888
show no signs of failing, while those in exposed situations
on the lawn, with no protection from the windsweep, are
showing marks of the severe test.

In government forestry planting in Russia, great differ-
ence has been found in the Scotch pine from various local-
ities. Trees grown from seed obtained in France and Ger-
many, are greatly inferior in hardiness and vigor and
rapidity of growth to trees grown from North Russia and
Siberian seed. The same difference has been observed in the
Norway spruce. Hence great care is now taken to have the
seed gathered from the erect-growing giants of the forest
instead of from low scrubby specimens. Our present com-
mercial system of securing tree-seeds is not calculated to fur-
nish the most desirable variety.

C. W. Gurney, Yankton, S. D., who has worked with
evergreens for forty years in Iowa, northern Nebraska and

i8o

South Dakota, writes: "Fora quick grove, a tree that trans-
plants easily, use the Scotch pine. The only objection is
that it is not as long-lived as some of the others. This is true.
Adjoining my place on the north is a grove of Scotch pine
planted in 1872. Perhaps seventy-five trees. The largest
girth is sixty-nine inches and the average would not be less
than fifty. In the winter of 1898-9 all these trees were more
or less injured, but none died, and all but three seem to have
fully recovered. I would rather have a grove of ponderosa,
but it would take longer and take more trees to make it, as
it is a more upright grower, and the safety in transplanting
is in favor of the Scotch pine."

H. C. Warner, Forestburg, S. D., writes: "The Scotch
pine is doing well in this county but is not equal to the
Austrian pine."

A. Norby, Madison, S. D., who has tested the Scotch pine
twenty years, writes: "The Scotch pine has several good
qualities. It is cheap, transplants readily, grows fast in the
start and shows up well. But the branches are brittle, it
leans over to the north and dies comparatively young."

Austrian Pine.

Austrian Pine. (Pinus Laricio, var. Austriaca,
Endl.). A native of Austria and of southern and central
Europe. Leaves, two in a sheath, rigid, four to six inches
long. The dark green color of the foliage and regular -outline
are characteristic. Prof. S. B. Green reports the Austrian
pine as very desirable for planting in Minnesota, being
"rather longer lived and perhaps hardier than the Scotch
pine." Upon the South Dakota Station grounds at Brook-
ings the Austrian pine in open exposure browns its leaves in
winter much more than the Scotch pine although it recovers
during the summer. Eventually both will probably be re-
placed by our native pines better adapted to our climate.

H. C. Warner, Forestburg, S. D., writes: "The Austrian

pine is the best of the pine family that has been thoroughly
tested. It is a very rapid grower and holds its color well."

A. Norby, Madison, S. D., from trees planted in 1892 re-
ports: "The Austrian pine is much like the Pinus ponderosa
in appearance, having very long leaves, also makes about the
same rate of growth, but it is much more liable to be injured
during the latter part of winter and show brown leaves. It
however, holds on well after being well established."

Geo. H. Whiting, Yankton, S. D., finds that "the foliage
of Austrian pine sunburns considerably when the trees are
small but endures it better when the trees get larger.
Rather handsome and fine formed. A much better and more
lasting tree than the Scotch."

Dwarf Mountain Pine.

Dwarf Mountain Pine. (Pintts montana, var.
pumilio, Willk.). This is an attractive shrub or dwarf tree
of dense habit, usually not over three or four feet in height
and some times attaining a height of ten or twelve feet. A
dwarf variety of the Swiss Mountain Pine, native of the
mountains of central Europe. Leaves two in a sheath. The
plants vary considerably in size and habit. This species has
been divided into three sub-species, based on the cones: var.,
uncinata; var., pumilio; var., mughus. It is extremely
hardy and should receive attention for ornamental planting,
either for single specimens in front of larger evergreens or
for low hedges. In Europe it is found desirable for planting
on sand-dunes, serving as a soil-binder. Prof. J. L. Budd,
many years ago planted about 200 Dwarf Mountain pines
upon the grounds of the Horticultural Department grounds
of the Iowa Agricultural College. The present writer has a
lively recollection of the great variation in size and habit in
this plantation, some being very dwarf, low and spreading
while others were of the erect, compact habit, though all
were dwarf.

H. C. Warner, Forestburg, S. D., writes: "The Dwarf
Mountain Pine is hardy and fine among shrubs."

i8a

A. Norby, Madison, S. D., writes: "The Dwarf Mountain
Pine as I have it, is hardy but grows up too high for a dwarf
and is not compact enough. There may be better strains."

The Spruces.

The spruces are distinguished from the pines by having
the leaves arranged one in a place and pointing outward all
around the twig, like the spokes of the wheel. In the pines
the needles are arranged in clusters or sheathes, from two to
five in a sheath, depending upon the variety. As a class,
the spruces are much slower in growth than the pines and
must be considered more from the ornamental standpoint.
The chief beauty about the spruce is its perfectly symmetri-
cal habit of growth, forming a cone, thus making it attractive
from the time it is a foot high. Some might object to this
primness and sedateness of habit but a well developed spruce
tree standing in the open where it has a chance for proper
development must be regarded as a jewel among trees to be
sheltered from all enemies. Of these dogs are the worst,
especially while the tree is young. Dogs, by the way, are
very destructive to young evergreens on the lawn and should
be kept at a distance while the trees are young, vby a low bar-
rier of poultry netting. Dog urine kills the foliage and
causes the death of young trees.

Norway Spruce.

Norway Spruce. (Picea excelsa, Link.). Native of
northern Europe and ranging eastward into Siberia, merging
gradually into Picea obovata, Ledeb. (Picea excelsa, var.
obovata^ Koch.) This is distinguished by the absence
of bloom, the leaves being plain green, and by the large
cones which are from 5 to 7 inches long. It is the
most common spruce in the nurseries, the seed being easily
obtainable from western Europe. It is a hardy, beautiful
and popular tree in the eastern states but does not enjoy the

dry air of the western plains. There are some fair specimens
on the lawns of Brookings and it has done well in the shelter
of the forest plats at this Station, but it does not enjoy open
exposure. The general experience is that there are other
evergreens better adapted to prairie air.

One of the most rapid in growth of the spruces in regions
adapted to its best development. Upon my first trip to
Russia in 1894 I learned that the Russian foresters had found
that the Norway spruce of Germany, France and west Eur-
ope in general, was much inferior for planting on Russian
steppes to Norway spruce as found native in European-
Russia and in Siberia although botanically the same. This
illustrates the point that botanical names are sometimes in-
adequate for the horticulturist. This observation was con-
firmed while visiting Russia in 1897 and again in 1906 as
agricultural explorer for the U. S. Department of Agriculture.
A small amount of Russian seed of Norway spruce was ob-
tained in 1897 but circumstances did not permit the carrying
out the details of the experiment. Until our present system
of seed-gathering is changed and for various other reasons,
it will be difficult to test this matter in a commercial way.
If we do our duty in the way of gathering the seed of Col-
orado Blue spruce there will be no especial need for this as
our native Rocky Mountain tree is unexcelled for its beauty.

H. C. Warner, Forestburg, S. D., writes: "Norway spruce
planted twenty years ago burned badly and failed."

Geo. H. „ Whiting, Yankton, S. D., writes: ''Norway
spruce is a very finely formed and strong growing tree, and,
where the climate is congenial to it, one of the most valuable
sorts. It is not quite at home in this section."

C. W. Gurney, Yankton, S. D., writes: "Norway spruce
will be of but little value in most parts of the state, but ans-
wers a good purpose in the southern counties."

A. Norby, Madison, S. D., Feb. 15, 1907, writes: "The
writer set out the first evergreens here in Lake county
in the spring of 1885 (100 Norway spruce seedlings.). Most

of them started, but kept diminishing in number until the
trying winter of 1894-5 finished the last one. Already, then,
pines and spruces had been planted throughout this section,
but only with the general poor results, and the opinion was
that evergreens would not grow in our state. In justice to
this species it must be stated that there are some fairly .good
specimens in this vicinity now over twenty years old, but be-
ing a native of the moist climate of western Europe, it is
much more liable to turn brown in the latter part of the win-
ter by the action of the sun, and sometimes kills out entirely
when small."

White Spruce.

White Spruce. (Picea alba, Link; P. Canadensis, Britt,
Sterns & Pogg.). Native from Maine to Minnesota northward
to Hudson Bay; also found froni the Black Hills, northwest-
ward to British Columbia and Alaska. The leaves are one-
half to one inch long, resembling those of Norway sprue®,
but covered with a white bloom, especially in thrifty speci-
mens. Cones are from one to one and one-half to two inches
in length, falling during the first winter following their
growth. One of the most valuable of ornamental evergreens
owing to the perfect conical shape. The growth is too slow,
as are all other spruces, to consider them from other than
the ornamental standpoint. As received from Wisconsin
the White spruce has proven very hardy at this Station. The
abundant fibrous roots make them easy to transplant.

H. C. Warner, Forestburg, S. D., April 19, 1907, reports
the White spruce as being hardy and desirable.

A. Norby, Madison, S. D., reports as the result of twenty
years' experience: "The White spruce generally develops
into nice perfect specimens here. It withstands the vicissi-
tudes of our climate better than the Norway and is very use-
ful for windbreaks and ornaments."

The Black Hills Spruce.
This is the White spruce as found in the Black Hills of

'85

South Dakota. Some notes have already been given on a
preceding page on the native pine and spruce of this region.
The following additional reports will be of interest.:

White Spruce. (Picea Canadensis, (Mill.) B. S. P.). Prof.
Thomas A. Williams wrote in May, 1895, concerning the
White spruce: u A handsome tree of large size growing on
the higher hills in the Black Hills region. A valuable tree
for forest planting. The occurrence of this tree in this
region afford an interesting problem in the geographical dis-
tribution of plants. This is the Picea alba of Gray's Manual."

A. Norby, Madison, S. D., writes concerning specimens in
1892: "The Black Hills spruce is more compact and a little
slower in growth, but also hardier, more uniform in shape,
less hurt by drouth, and, as ornamental specimens, ranks
second only to the best Blue spruce or Silver fir. It is superior
to any of the eastern or exotic conifers, and deserves of being
largely planted. It also transplants readily."

C. W. Gurney, Yankton, S. D., writes: "The Black Hills
spruce is 'a slow grower, but when established has no super-
ior for hardiness and utility."

H. C. Warner, Forestburg, S. D., writes: "The Black
Hills spruce is a slow compact grower that should find a
place on every lawn."

The Silvery Black Hills Spruce. As found in the
Black Hills, some specimens of the Black Hills spruce are
decidedly blue or silvery in color. These of course, are
more valued as lawn specimens than the ordinary green ones
and as our horticulture gets older these blue specimens will
be highly prized and more generally propagated.

Black Spruce.

Black Spruce. (Picea nigra^in^P. Mariana, (Mill.) B.
S. P.). Native of the northeastern United States, westward into
Minnesota and far north into Canada. The leaves are about
one-half inch in length, bark of young shoots reddish. The
cones hang on a number of years and soon become black

Plate 3. — General view of forestry plantations at the South Dakota Experi-
ment Station. These comprise many kinds of trees, deciduous and
evergreen.

Plate 4.— Red Cedar hedge at the home of E. D. Cowles, Vermillion,;S.^D.

Plate 7.— In Lake County. A shelter belt of Black Hills Pine, twenty
feet high, at the home of A. Norby, Madison, S. D.

Plate 8. — Young orchard and shelter belt at the ln.me of N. O. P.
Synoground, Groton, S. U., showing the results that can be obtained
on the open prairies of Brown county, a few miles from the North
Dakota line. The light colored trees at the right are Russian Olive.
In the shelter of such a plantation evergreens will do especially well,
as the lessened windsweep reduces the excessive transpiration and
evaporation.

Plate 1). — Colorado Blue Spruce in foreground on left side; White Spruce
in center of back ground. Black Hills Pine in foreground on right.
At the home of A. Norby, Madison, S. D.

Plate 1O. — Colorado Blue Spruce at the home of A. Norby,
Madison, S. D.

Plate 1 1 . — Black Hills Pines sheltering an apple orchard at the home of
A. Norby, Madison, S. U.

Plate 13. — Scotch Pine and European White Birch at the South Dakota
Experiment Station. These two trees are good neighbors.

.Plate 14, — Black Hills Pines and Hibernal apple trees at the home of A.
Norby, Madison, S. D. These apple trees show the crop of 1906; set
eight years ago at three years of age; have been early and heavy
biennial bearers.

Plate 15.— The chief beauty of the Colorado Blue Spruce is the striking
contrast between the vivid silver blue foliage and the dark green of
other trees. This is especially the case just when the new growth has
been formed for the season. A remarkable photograph of a specimen
at the home of A.. Norby, Madison, S. D.

Plate 16. —Deciduous Plants for Snowtraps. (I.) Hedge of Siberian
Sandthorn at the South Dakota Experiment Station, 1905. This is
Hippophae rhamnoides as found native at Irkutsk, Siberia. The Si-
berian Sandthorn is not a conifer but might serve a useful purpose as
a hedge for the outer protecting row of a snow-trap

Plate 17. — Deciduous Plants for Snowtraps. (2.) A hedge of Niobe weep-
ing willow at the South Dakota Experiment Station. Of promise not only
for ornamental purposes but for windbreaks owing to the rapid growth and
long limbs which hang down and serve to check surface winds weep.

Plate 18.— Deciduous Plants for Snowtraps. (3.) Ten-year-old hedge of
Buckhorn (Rhamnus cathartica, L.) at the South Dakota Experi-
ment Station, Brookings. This hedge has never been trimmed.

si

§

3

I

c/J

Douglas Spruce.

Plate 23. Balsam Fir.

Siberian Larch. Plate 24.

European L,arch.

202

and unsightly. The tree also loses its lower branches early
and becomes thin and open and has proven itself short-lived,
in prairie planting. Nurserymen generally do not aim to
propagate this tree but it is often found as a mixture in
White spruce as they are difficult to detect when the young
seedlings are dug from the forest. Hence some prefer to
raise White spruce from seed.

A. Norby, Madison, S. D., writes: "The Black spruce I
got for White spruce some eighteen years ago. When about
eighteen feet high they were leaning over to the north and
looked ragged. All are now gone/'

Colorado Blue Spruce.,

Colorado Blue Spruce. Silver Spruce. (Picea
pungens, Engelm; Picea Parryana, Barren.). This is gener-
ally acknowledged in Europe as well as America to be the
most beautiful of all spruces and indeed one of the most orna-
mental of the whole conifer family. It is found native in
the mountains of Wyoming, Colorado and Utah. It attains
large size in exposed situations in its native home.
The seedlings vary greatly in color, varying from dark green
to light silvery blue. The blue specimens are much higher in
price and have become very popular in Europe, where selected
blue varieties are propagated by grafting on Norway spruce
seedlings. These selected blue specimens have in Europe
been named Picea pungens glauca and Picea pungens argentea.
Grafting is resorted to because the blue trees do not come
true to seed. So far in America, at least in the western
states, we content ourselves by digging up the young seed-
lings upon the mountains of Colorado and by raising seed-
lings from seed gathered from the best blue trees, a fair per
cent of which will give blue seedlings. The green-leaved
specimens are also worthy of planting, but have not the peer-
less beauty of the silvery specimens which appear as though
dipped in a bath of molten silver, especially when the young
growth has just formed for the season. At that time, in fact,

203

many have considered it the most beautiful of all evergreens.

In the gathering of Colorado Blue spruce and other Rocky
Mountain evergreens it is highly desirable that they be
gathered as far east as possible, as they will be better adapted
to prairie conditions than those developed on the Pacific
slope side of the mountains, where much more favorable
climatic conditions obtain.

H. C. Warner, Foresthurg, S. D., writes: "Too much can-
not be said in favor of the Blue spruce. It is hardy,
handsome and an ornament to the finest lawn in the state."

C. W. Gurney, Yankton, S. D., writes: "Blue spruce
or Picea pungens is the most beautiful of all and is easily
transplanted and as hardy as any."

A. Norby, Madison, S. D., writes concerning trees grown
from seed gathered in Colorado and planted in the spring of
1887: "For hardiness, general adaptation and ornamental
qualities, the Colorado Blue spruce stands at the head of the
list of all conifers tried here. Never have I lost one from
any climatic cause. Only a small per cent take on the
silvery color so much sought for, but all are certainly beauti-
ful in contour and color."

Engelmann Spruce.

Engelmann Spruce. (Picea Engelmanni, Engelm.).
Native of the Rocky Mountains from Arizona to British
Columbia but found mainly in high elevations. This re-
sembles the Colorado Blue spruce except that the needles
are much softer. As received from the mountains the two
species are sometimes mixed. They are readily distinguished
by seizing hold of a young branch; the needle-like pointed
leaves of the Blue spruce will quickly make themselves felt.

The Engelmann spruce has not been given extensive trial
as it has been overshadowed by its more popular neighbor, the
Blue spruce. A few specimens received among Blue spruce
from Colorado have, however, not proven themselves super-
ior in any way so that the Colorado Blue spruce will no
doubt retain its lead.

204

A. Norby, Madison, S. D., writes: UI have had the Engle-
mann spruce about fifteen years. It is the slowest grower
of all the spruces. Compact and fairly hardy. I consider it
of little value."

Douglas Spruce.

Douglas Spruce. (Pseudotsuga Douglasii, Carr;
Pseudotsuga taxifolia, Poir. Br.). This is also called Douglas
Fir. Pseudotsuga means false Hemlock. This is a tree in-
termediate between the Firs and the Hemlock. Leaves are
about one inch long, with a distinct petiole or stalk. The
distinguishing characteristic of the tree is the pointed red
buds. Native from Mexico and Texas through the Rocky
Mountains to California and British Columbia. In Oregon
it attains a height of 300 feet. This is one of our most im-
portant American forest trees. It is a beautiful and grace-
ful ornamental tree and is attracting the attention of Eur-
opean foresters owing to its rapid growth. Prof. S. B. Green,
writes in "Forestry in Minnesota," "The Douglas spruce is
a fine ornamental tree of graceful proportions, good color,
rapid growth and wonderful hardiness. Probably one of the
most valuable evergreens for general planting in Minnesota,
and apparently destined to partly supercede the White and
Norway spruce for this purpose. It is also the most promis-
ing foreign tree for sowing on the cut-over timber lands of
this section, and should be largely experimented with for
this purpose."

Ten years ago a considerable number of Douglas spruce
from Colorado were planted at the South Dakota Experiment
Station. They proved to be of rapid growth but of uncertain,
hardiness, the branches frequently killing back in winter or
having the leaves much reddened at the close of the winter.
In spite of this repeated killing-back they gain year by year,
but as a whole they can not be considered an unqualified
success. At their side the White spruce proved entirely
hardy. It is probable that much depends upon the source of

205

the seed. Several specimens received from Kalispell, Mon-
tana, have done quite well but they were not in open expo-
sure. There is opportunity here for careful experimenting
with the hardiness of the Douglas spruce as received from
various regions.

H. C. Warner, Forestburg, S. D., writes: "While my
specimens of Douglas spruce are young there are some very
fine trees of this variety in the county."

A. Norby, Madison, S. D., reports as follows on trees grown
from seed gathered in Colorado and planted in the spring of
1887: "Another valuable tree from the Rockies is the
Douglas spruce or fir. As grown here from Colorado seeds, or
collected on this slope of the Rocky mountains, it stands
well, keeping its fresh, green color well during the winter.
No spruce or fir takes on a more graceful form than this, and
none will likely retain their beauty for a longer time. The
Douglas spruce is the great timber tree of Washington and
Oregon."

Hemlock.

Hemlock. (Tsuga Canadensis, Carr.). Native from
Minnesota to Nova Scotia and southward along the Al-
leghany Mountains. One of the most graceful of the ever-
greens, with small flat leaves one half inch in length with
short stalks. A favorite ornamental tree in eastern states.
A single specimen on the lawn or a sheared hedge show the
ornamental possibilities of the hemlock. The result of many
trials on the open prairies shows that it is not adapted to the
prairie northwest. Too many of the plants fail in the early
years for profit to the nurseryman and even older specimens
have their leaves sunburned. The hemlock does not endure
drouth and is injured by cold winds. In extreme eastern
Minnesota, where well protected and in moist soil, it has
done well.

2O6

The Firs.

Among the firs we find some species of great value for
ornamental purposes. Of the two species mentioned in this
bulletin, the western species is of much more promise. The
leaves of the firs are arranged singly as in the spruces, but
are flat instead of rounded as in the case of the spruce.

Balsam Fir.

Balsam Fir. (Abies balsamea, (I,) Mill.). Native from
Virginia to Labrador northwestward to Iowa, Minnesota,
Hudson Bay and the Rocky Mountains. In Minnesota it
is found chiefly in the northeastern part of the state.
This tree is a native of swamps and damp woods, preferring
a moist soil. A beautiful ornamental tree of conical habit
with dark green leaves one inch long, whitish on the under
side, divided by the green midrib. The needles leave a
round scar upon removal. The main trunk is marked by
the blisters containing balsam used in medicine.

The Balsam fir from Wisconsin has proven of slow
growth even in sheltered situations at this Station. The
general experience upon open prairies with the eastern
Balsam fir is not favorable. The leaves are inclined to
redden and sunburn. It should be sparingly planted if at
all, and in sheltered positions.

C. W. Gurney, Yankton, S. D., writes: "Balsam fir will
be of but little value in most parts of the state, but answers
a good purpose in the southern counties. "

H. C. Warner, Forestburg, S. D., writes: "The Balsam
fir is short-lived so far."

A. Norby, Madison, S. D., reports as follows on Balsam
fir planted twenty years: "Of the less desirable kinds to
plant in this section may be mentioned the common Balsam
fir. True, it is fairly hardy and does quite well while
young, but it soon loses its vitality and shows dead top
and branches after a trying season."

A. Norby, Madison, S. D., writes concerning the Rocky

207

Mountain form of the species: "A very pretty tree. No
evergreen excels it in beauty when the new growth is un-
folding. Of more compact habit than the eastern balsam.
Leaves come all around the branch. It has proved hardy."

White Fir.

White Fir. (Abies concolor, Lindl. & Gord.). This is
also called Concolor or Silver fir. Native of the Rocky
Mountains from Arizona and New Mexico to Colorado, Cali-
fornia "and Oregon. It is. a worthy companion to the Col-
orado Blue spruce and is becoming more popular as it
becomes better known. The leaves are pale silvery green,
one to two and one-half inches long. The Silver fir has
stood several years at Brookings in open exposure, without
injury and is a beautiful ornamental tree for the lawn.
However, it cannot be said that its hardiness is fully estab-
lished. Its scarcity in the nurseries has prevented extensive
trial.

A. Norby, Madison, S. D., reports as follows on speci-
mens planted in the spring of 1892: uln well sheltered
places, the Silver fir of Colorado can be grown in this lati-
tude. It is a grand and beautiful evergreen, but is often
injured in our severest winters, even after several feet high."

H. C. Warner, Forestburg, S. D., reports: "The Con-
color fir is doing well."

Red Cedar.

Red Cedar. (Juniperus Virginiana, Linn.) Native
from Florida to New Brunswick west to Texas, Nebraska,
South Dakota and North Dakota. The seeds of the Juni-
pers are in blue, berry-like cones This waxy layer prevents
germination the first year. A valuable ornamental tree,
slow of growth at least in the early years, but drought-
resistant and hardy in exposed situations on the lawn or for
windbreaks in hedges. The great trouble with the Red
Cedar in cultivation in the northwest, was the total disre-

208

gard of its variable hardiness. Into Iowa, for example,
many thousands of Red Cedars were shipped from Tennes-
see. They could not be distinguished from the Red Cedar
found native in Iowa and Minnesota except that after a hard
winter the northern Red Cedar would be alive and the
southern trees would be dead or severely injured. This
fact of varying hardiness was not understood in the early
days of our prairie horticulture. It is another illustration of the
essential fact that botanical names do not tell the whole
story. In recent years the Red Cedar as found native along
the Platte river of Nebraska was extensively collected and
grown by various nurserymen in Iowa and Nebraska. This
form has .done reasonably well in southern South Dakota.
For Dakota planters it would be better to gather the seed
from such places as along the bluffs of the Cheyenne river
west of the Missouri and other places in the state where
found native.

The "Cedar apples" found upon the Red Cedar is a fungus
which lives part of the time upon the Red Cedar, and part
of the time upon the apple and its allies such as Juneberry and
Hawthorn, where it forms orange colored spots on the
leaves. Two or three years ago an interesting case of this
was observed in a South Dakota nursery. The Red Cedar
hedges were badly infested with Cedar apples and the young
apple trees in the nursery row, especially the Wealthy, had
the foliage badly affected with the other stages of the fun-
gus. The long tubes or horn-like projections from the
Cedar apples after a shower contain the spores which spread
to the apple foliage. This trouble is serious only at long
intervals but eastern apple growers have long ago learned to
have no Cedar hedges near their orchards. The last four
or five years a nursery blight has also affected the Red
Cedar so that it has lost in popular favor with prairie
planters, and further developments are anxiously awaited.

C. W. Gurney, Yankton, S. D., writes: "The Red cedar

209

is also a slow grower, but we all know how hardy and valu-
able it is."

H. C. Warner, Forestburg, S. D., writes: "The Red cedar
has always done well on my place and has so far escaped
the cedar gall. It makes a fine growth after becoming well
rooted."

A. Norby, Madison, S. D., reported February, 1907, his
twenty years' experience with this tree as follows: "Our
native Red cedar has behaved peculiarly of late. Last
winter, 1905-06, it killed out by the thousand in this
part of the state, almost any size from seedlings to six-foot
trees, no matter what source the seed came from. I had
little trees one to two feet, raised from seed collected near
Pierre that proved no better. Then there is a fungus
disease or blight attacking the small trees in the nursery,
killing them by the wholesale, in these wet seasons. I must
say, however, that I have some rows of thrifty cedars, now
1 8 to 20 feet high, making an excellent barrier against the
wind."

RED CEDAR. (Juniperus Virginiana, I/.). Prof. Thomas
A. Williams wrote in May, 1905:* "This cedar occurs as a
small or medium-sized tree in the Sioux Valley, along the Mis-
souri and its tributaries, and throughout the Black Hills.
As in the Creeping Juniper, the leaves are usually opposite
and of two sorts. The scale-like leaves are usually obtusely,
pointed and the berries are on straight stalks and are only
about one-fourth of an inch in diameter.

"A pale or glaucous-leaved variety is common along the
Cheyenne river. It is a much prettier tree than the com-
mon form and would undoubtedly be valuable for an orna-
mental tree."

Silver Cedar. This name is applied to the silvery
leaved Red cedar mentioned in the preceding paragraph.

*Sulletin No. 43, S. D. Exp. Sta.

210

This variety, as found in the Black Hills, is being brought
into cultivation by western nurserymen. H. C. Warner,
Forestburg, S. D., reports:

"THE SILVER CEDAR, (funiperus scopulorum}, is beauti-
ful when the leaves hold their color, but often they lose that
silver green and then are no better than the Red cedar.''

A. Norby, Madison, S. D., writes: "The Silver cedar is a
good tree worthy of planting."

RED CEDARS FROM SEED. A number of inquiries have
been received at this Station from places along the Missouri
river and other rivers in the state asking for information as
to the raising of Red cedars from seed. The correspondents
state that they have gathered seed from native trees in the
vicinity but have failed in germinating them. This is be-
cause the waxy layer covering the seed effectually prevents
access of moisture. One way to remove this waxy layer is
to stratify the seed one year before planting. By this is
meant that the berries, as soon as gathered, are mixed with
sand in a small box such as crackers come in. This box
with holes in the bottom for drainage, is buried just beneath
the surface of the soil in a well drained spot with a mulch
over the soil to prevent drying out. The second spring fol-
lowing the seeds are planted. Some nurserymen have
learned the art of removing the wax or gum by rubbing
with wood ashes, sharp sand or lye the first fall and
planting the following spring. However, the method is not
recommended to amateurs.

Arborvitse.

Arborvitse. (Thuya occidentalis, Linn.). Native from
North Carolina to Nova Scotia west to Illinois and eastern
Minnesota, north to Lake Winnipeg. In this region it is
very common in swamps and wet soils. The name White
cedar is often applied to the Arborvitse but this properly be-
longs to another tree native far south.

211

The Arborvitse lias been planted extensively for evergreen
hedges as it endures severe trimming, keeps a bright green
color and retains its lower limbs. The general experience
with it on the dry open prairies is unfavorable as it is a sur-
face-rooted tree. In the early days of the Agricultural Col-
lege at Brookings, a hedge of Arborvitse was planted along
the street on one side of the campus; only a few specimens
now remain. In places where abundant irrigation can be
given and there is no trace of alkali in the soil, an Arbor-
vjtse hedge can be maintained in good condition, but most
planters will find the task beyond their capacity. The
Arborvitse transplants easily. If planted at all a well shel-
tered situation and moist soil should be given if possible.
Under cultivation in the eastern states and in Europe many
varieties have appeared, such as the Siberian Arborvitse
(which is really American), the Pyramidal, the Golden, Tom
Thumb, and many more which are propagated from cuttings.
We have not tested these.

H. C. Warner, Forestburg, S. D., writes: "Three varieties
of Arborvitse were planted in 1885 but the last passed away
in three years."

A. Norby, Madison, S. D., reports twenty years' experience
as follows: uThe Arborvitse must be mentioned and warned
against as unreliable for planting here."

C. W. Gurney, Yankton, S. D., writes: "Arborvitse is a
very beautiful tree and does well right around Yankton;
probably would not stand in more northern latitudes."

Common Juniper.

Common Juniper. (Juniperus communis, Linn.). This
is also called Trailing or Dwarf juniper. One of the most
widely distributed conifers, being native across the conti-
nent from Labrador to Alaska and in the Rocky Mountains to
Arizona, and across northern and central Europe and Asia.
In Asia it ranges south into the Himalayas and India.

212

The wide range of this species makes it variable in hard-
iness as found in cultivation, it is a beautiful dwarf orna-
mental tree which endures severe pruning and in formal
gardens of Europe is used in topiary work, such as globes,
vases, geometric figures, animals and many fantastic and
grotesque forms. Many varieties have appeared under cul-
tivation in Europe, some of which are very dwarf or of
compact habit. One of these, the Irish juniper, is not con-
sidered hardy in the northwest. As ordinarily found in the
United States it is a densely foliaged shrub three of four
feet in height and of spreading habit. Occasionally it be-
comes taller especially in its southern range.

H. C. Warner, Forestburg, S. D., writes: "The Trailing
Juniper, when given full sunshine is a beautiful low ever-
green and worthy of a place on the lawn."

A. Norby, Madison, S. D., writes: "The Trailing Juniper
seems to do as well as the Silver Cedar."

THE BLACK HILLS FORM OF THE TRAILING OR COM-
MON JUNIPER is attracting attention and is well worth
considering by prairie planters as a dwarf ornamental coni-
fer for the lawn :

COMMON JUNIPER. (Juniperus communis, Linn.). Prof.
Thomas A. Williams, formerly botanist of this Station, wrote
in May, 1895: UA low spreading evergreen with the rigid,
sharp-pointed leaves in whorls of three and about half an
inch in length, and with dark blue berries about one-fourth
of an inch in diameter. Found in the Black Hills region at
Custerv and probably also occurring elsewhere in the Hills."*

TRAILING JUNIPER. Geo. H. Whiting, Yankton, S. D.,
writes: "This is a native of the Black Hills; of spread-
ing habit. In fact, it does not grow up in tree form, but
after it gets up two or three feet high lops over on the
ground all around, and its growth only increases its breadth
and circumference. The terminal branches are always in-

*Bul. 43, South Dakota Exp. Sta.

2I3

clined upward, therefore, if it is trimmed in a round form,
it makes the most beautiful saucer-shaped specimen for the
lawn imaginable. It also makes one of the most delicate,
beautiful little hedges.-'

Savin Juniper.

Savin Juniper. (Juniperus Sabina, Linn.). The Savin
juniper is a native of northern Europe, Asia and North
America. It is a dwarf spreading shrub forming a mat of
dark green foliage three or four feet in height; rarely taller,
up to ten feet, with erect stem. The shrub spreads with age,
sometimes becoming twenty feet in diameter. An interest-
ing shrub for single specimens on the lawn; for dwarf hedges
or for concealing the lower part of a stone wall or founda-
tion. It is an exceedingly variable species with many
varieties and of varying degrees of hardiness.

The ordinary Savin juniper of the nurseries, of unknown
origin, is doing well as a dwarf edging or hedge bordering a
lawn walk at Brookings.

A. Norby, Madison, S. D., writes: "The Savin Juniper
is doing fairly well with me, but I see in Madison where
it has been planted for hedges that it dies out in spots."

H. C. Warner, Forestburg, S. D., writes: uThe Savin
Juniper, a low shrub, is hardy and doing well here."

THE NATIVE NORTH AMERICAN FORM OF THE TRAIL-
ING JUNIPER, {funiperus Sabina, var. prostrata, Loud. ; or
J. Sabina, var. procumbens, Pursh.). Ranges from Nova
Scotia south to New York, west to British Columbia and
Wyoming. It is sometimes called Waukegan Juniper.

The native Black Hills form merits especial attention from
Dakota planters where a dwarf conifer is needed. It is now
being taken up by South Dakota nurseries. The two fol-
lowing reports are of interest in this connection:

CREEPING JUNIPER. {funiperus Sabina procumbens,
Pursh.) Prof. Thomas A. Williams wrote in May, 1895:*

^Bulletin No. 43, S. D. Exp. Sta.

214

"A prostrate or creeping evergreen shrub with two sorts of
leaves, one awl-shaped and loose, the other scale-like and
appressed; berries about one-third of an inch in diameter,
on short recurved stalks.

"This was found in ravines at Pineau Hills, [about 95
miles west of Pierre, S. D.,] where it formed a thick mat over
the surface of the ground. It was also sent from Westport.
It is an excellent thing for use along embankments and other
places likely to wash. The long, creeping stems are also
valuable as Christmas decorations."

Geo. H. Whiting, Yankton, S. D., writes: "The Creep-
ing Juniper is a prostrate or creeping evergreen shrub similar
to the Trailing Juniper, in habit of growth, but hugs the
ground closer. The leaves are awl-shaped, loose and scale-
like. Valuable for low hedging and covering steep hillsides.
Also valuable for a variety on the lawn."

The Larches.

The Larches belong to the conifers or cone-bearing trees.
Hence they are included in this discussion of evergreens al-
though not evergreen in foliage, the leaves falling in au-
tumn. In their summer condition they would be readily clas-
sified with the evergreens. All the Larches have this marked
peculiarty of requiring transplanting very early in the spring,
before the buds swell. Very few will live if the work is
delayed until after the buds start, hence it is necessary to
ship them earlier than other nursery stock unless they have
been kept back in the cellar. Of the Larches the American,
European and Siberian have been tested at this Station.
There is a western larch found from Montana to British
Columbia which attains a large size; however, if seed were
obtained from the Pacific coast the chances are greatly
against their successful growth upon the open prairie. The
lumber of all the larches is valuable for many purposes.

215

American Larch.

American Larch. (Larix Americana, Michx; L.
laricina, Koch.). Also called American larch, Tamarack or
Hackmatack.

The American larch is distinguished from the European
larch by the cones which are one-half to one inch long while
those of the European larch are about twice that size.
Native from the north Atlantic states westward to eastern
Minnesota and north to the Arctic circle. It grows on swamp
land but attains its best development on land that is not too
wet. It is a tree adapted to moist soil only. A number of
specimens of the American larch were tested at this Station
a few years ago in open exposure intermingled with Ameri-
can Aspen, where they made a fair growth for several years
until it became necessary to clear the plat. The growth,
however, was too slow and slender for the tree to be re-
garded as of value for the prairie planter

European Larch.

European Larch. (Larix decidua, Mill, DC.; L.
Europaea, DC.). Native of northern Europe and the Alps of
central Europe. A graceful lawn tree attaining large size
on moist soil in its native home. It has been largely
planted in eastern states for profit and ornament. There are
some excellent plantations of this tree in northern Iowa.
For all purposes it is regarded superior to the American
larch as it does better on dry land. But the general exper-
ience with it on northwestern prairies is unfavorable. A
moist soil and sheltered locality are necessary for the best
results. Only a small proportion of those originally planted
at this Station are standing. It is subject here to injury of
the new growth from late frosts.

Geo. H. Whiting, Yankton, S. D., writes that the Eur-
opean larch "is a very graceful lawn tree, but this is about
the northwestern limit of its hardiness."

216

Siberian Larch.

Siberian Larch. (Larix Sibirica, Loud; L. Europaea
Rossica, Regel.). Some authorities consider this to be a sub-
species of European larch but it appears best to consider it as
a distinct species. While visiting Russia as agricultural ex-
plorer for the U. S. Department of Agriculture, in 1897, the
present writer learned that in the extensive government
forestry planting on the dry steppes, the Siberian larch had
proven much superior to the European larch in erect habit of
growth and general adaptation to steppe conditions. An
effort was made to obtain a large quantity of the seed which
succeeded by the courtesy and kind co-operation of the Rus-
sian Bureau of Forestry at St. Petersburg. In hands of an
eastern propagator, no success was had with raising the
young plants although the seed was good and germinated
freely. Since then there has been no occasion to test the
matter again. A few seedlings were also obtained, two of
which were planted upon the grounds of this Station. They
have proved perfectly hardy so far, in open exposure. So
far as I know they are the only specimens in the state.
When the opportunity permits I will try to secure some
more of the seed, as there is a place for a good, hardy larch
upon the prairies of the northwest.

Maidenhair Tree.

Maidenhair Tree. (Ginkgo biloba, Linn; Salisburia
adiantifolia, Smith). Also called Ginkgo or Kew tree. An
interesting native tree of Japan and China, with leaves two
inches or more in diameter and resembling in outline the
leaf of Maiden-Hair fern. This is a true conifer but the
leaves fall in autumn. Several specimens of this tree were
planted at this Station but did not prove hardy.

Plate 26. It is when snow comes that we most appreciate the green
foliage and cheerful beauty of evergreens. The above cut shows Jack pine
(at left), Norway spruce (center), and Scotch pine (back of center), in winter
condition at the South Dakota Experiment Station.

Summary.

1. With proper care as to methods and varieties, South
Dakota planters can grow evergreens with success upon our
most exposed prairies.

2. Some of our hardiest and best native American ever-
greens have been greatly neglected for European varieties
less desirable for prairie conditions. Special attention is
directed to the native South Dakota evergreens.

3. Hardiness means ability to resist not only cold, but
heat, windsweep and all other factors of climate. Much
depends on the original source of the seed. Attempting to
acclimate a mild climate evergreen to northwestern prairies
is useless, as acclimation is a work that nature takes thous-
ands of years to complete. It is best to take advantage of
nature's work by selecting varieties already adapted to
prairie conditions.

•**

DAKOTA

AGRICULTURAL C01LEGE

AND

EXPERIMENT STATION,

BROOKINGS, DAKOTA.

Bulletin JsTo.

NOVEMBEE 1889.

DEPARTMENT OF FORESTRY, HORTICULTURE AND BOTANY.

FORESTRY.

SENTINEL STEAM PRINT, BROOKINGS, SOUTH DAKOTA.

OFFICERS OF THE

Station.

BOARD OF TEUSTEES.

A. B. SMEDLEY, President, Milbank. O. T. GRATTAN, Elkton.
GEORGE MOREHOUSE, Brookings. JOSEPH HOLT, Esmond.
L, H. BAILEY, Faulkton. JOHN M. ROPER, Parker.

Gov. A. C. MELLETTE, Ex-Officio.

LEWIS McLouTH, Director.

LUTHER FOSTER, Supt. of Agricultural Experiments.

CHAS. A. KEFFER, Supt. of Forestry and Horticultural Experiments.

I. H. ORCUTT, Entomologist.

JAS. H. SHEPARD, Chemist.

C. A. GARY, Veterinarian.

C. J. COTEY, Stenographer and Accountant.

NANCY L. VANDOREN, Librarian.

J. M. ALDRICH, Assistant

JAS. C. DUFFEY, Foreman of the Gardens.

W. C. COPELAND, Foreman of the Farm.

WILLIAM LAWSON, Herdsman.

Any resident of Dakota can have the bulletins of the Station
mailed to him free by addressing a request to the Director at Brook-
ings, South Dakota.

Correspondence is invited upon any question relating to farm
^interests. Questions relating to farm crops or stock should be ad-
dressed to Professor Foster; questions relating to tree culture or to
gardening should be addressed to Professor Keffer; questions relating
to insects should be addressed to Professor Orcutt; questions concern-
ing the chemical composition of soils or waters should be addressed
to Professor Shepard, and questions about the diseases of animals and
their treatment should be addressed to Dr. Cary, all at Brookings,
South Dakota.

LEWIS McLOUTH, Director.

.. J^paftnient oi Forestry, Horticulture and Botany

CHAS. A. KEPFER, Superintendent.

FOKESTBY.

The work of experimentation in forestry has been pursued during
the past season under the same unfavorable conditions that have troub-
led the farmers over the greater portion of the state. Insects have
attacked our trees, and the fall was dry, and the spring was dry and
cold. In order to give the most accurate basis possible from which t»
judge the results of the work, a few items from the meteorological
record are inserted.

Beginning with September, 1888, the weather, as observed at th»
Station was as follows :

DAKOTA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

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AND U. S. EXPERIMENT STATION. 5

It will be noted that only 1.18 inches of rain fell during the au-
tumn months, and of this amount .872 fell in two days, Sept. 20, and
Oct. 11. Many farmers in this vicinity plowed as late as December 20,
showing that no severe freezing had occurred up to that date. As is
well known, evaporation is greater before the ground freezes than af-
terward; hence, it is safe to conclude that there was comparatively lit-
tle moisture in the soil when cold weather came. During the
month of February, the coldest month of the season, the thermometer
fell below zero on 14 days ; the lowest point reached being — 30 ° Fah-
renheit.

Compared with the preceding winter, the weather was warmer, but
there was much less snow, thus affording less protection to plants. In
March the precipitation was very slight (not quite one-sixth of an inch.)

During April a very little more than one inch of rain fell on 11
days, the greatest amount in one day being only about one-fourth of
an inch. In May there was almost two inches of rain, but the weather
was not at all favorable for growth ; after vegetation had started nicely
and gardeners' early crops were well above ground, a night with the
thermometer 12 degrees below the freezing point entirely checked
growth, killing the early vegetables.

The subjoined tables of growth for the several months of the season,
in addition to what has been said of the weather of the preceding fall
and winter, will aid the reader in getting a fair idea of the atmospheric
and soil conditions during the year. In considering the action of any
variety of tree on our grounds, the above facts should be kept in mind.
Our weather is not more severe than is met with in all the northern
half, possibly the northern two-thirds of the State. If then, knowing
the conditions of growth, a variety is found to succeed with us, it is
fair to suppose it worthy of trial over the greater part of the state.
Results in all experiments in forestry and horticulture, require time
for their full determination, and thus far we can announce but few
things proven. Our experiments are rich in suggestions and indica-
tions, and all things considered, they point to ultimate success in for-
estry, and give great promise of successful fruit-growing.

THE FORESTRY PLANTATION.

The seedling trees that were planted in nursery in the spring of '88,
and a record of whose growth will he found in Bulletin No. 12, were
planted in permanent forest plats in April, 1889. The location chosen
is almost level ground at the bottom of a long, gentle slope, with a very
slight slant to the north. It is an open prairie with no trees or other
protection. The ground had been cropped the four years previous in

6 DAKOTA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

small grain, save a small portion, on which corn was grown last year,
It was plowed twelve inches deep, with riarrow furrows, in April, and
was repeatedly harrowed and planked until the soil was fine and free
from clods. The plats were made 8x10 rods, with a road 16^ feet wide
on each side, and with a path eight feet wide between the plats.

Following is a diagram of the plantation, with the varieties of
the trees used:

AND U. S. EXPERIMENT STATION.

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8 DAKOTA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE.

The trees were dug as soon as the frost was out of the ground, and
were carefully heeled in. When planting begun, the roots of all the
trees were "puddled" in a mixture of fresh cow-dung, clay and water.
In planting, the trees were carried in buckets, with earth thrown over
the roots. All were planted with a spade, four feet apart both ways.
In setting the small trees, the spade was thrust into the ground the full
length of the blade, the earth was pressed back, the tree inserted, and
the hole filled and tramped firmly with the feet. For all trees having
fibrous roots a hole was dug. All were made firm by tramping close
to the crown. The plats are so arranged that the soft wooded varieties
will serve as nurses to slower growing hard wooded sorts, compelling
them to grow tall and straight. The hard wooded sorts are arranged
so that all trees of the same variety in one plat are equally distant; by
this means if any one kind bejiremoved, the relative position of the re-
mainder will not be changed.

An effort was made to give the permanent trees as much space as
possible. The culture has been thorough. At no time during the sea-
has a crust been permitted to remain on the plats, and no weeds or
grasses have been allowed to grow. Almost the entire work of cultiva-
tion has been done with harrow-tooth cultivators, implements of the
highest value where only surface-stirring of the soil, and weed killing,
are desired. It is necessary in their use, however, to keep them going.
It is impossible to use them to advantage after the ground has become
weedy, but for killing small weeds I know nothing better.

Twice during the season the plantation was carefully examined for
couch grass or quack grass (Triticum repens), and the few plants found
were carefully dug out with a spade. This weed is the greatest ene-
my to tree-claims in Dakota. It spreads very rapidly by means of
slender underground stems, every joint of which strikes root and sends
up leaves. If the plant be pulled up, these underground stems, which
are very delicate, break off and remain in the soil to continue the
growth of the pest. It is almost impossible to kill the couch grass
after it is once established. The only safe plan is to keep the tree
plantation entirely free from the first.

Freedom from weeds is the least of the benefits derived from thor-
ough culture. By far the greatest good is seen in the condition of the
soil. At any time during the dry month of June, when the adjacent
prairie grass seemed almost dead for want of water, moist soil could be
found anywhere in the tree-plantation by brushing a little of the sur-
face soil away with the foot. Places that were not well cultivated were
baked and hard, while moist soil could always be found just below the

AND U. S. EXPERIMENT STATION. 9

" dust blanket " of the tree-plantations, and the orchards. If there is
a, remedy short of irrigation for long seasons of drouth, it will be found
in deep plowing and thorough shallow cultivation.

The plantation was cultivated on the following dates : May 4, June
10, June 22, July 6, July 22. Each time the cultivator was followed
by the hoe, so that no weeds were allowed to stand near the trees.
The harrow-tooth cultivator leaves the surface soil very fine, and al-
most without furrows. It stirs the soil to a depth of two to four inches.

The only serious enemy experienced during the year was the cut-
worm. Probably on account of the extremely dry autumn and open
winter, this worm appeared in large numbers. The months of May
and June were unfavorable for tree growth, so that in June, when the
cutworms were most numerous, the trees in the forestry plat had but
just begun to grow. The worms ascended the small trees in the night,
and in many cases completely denuded them of leaves. The elm and
black wild cherry suffered most: in many of these trees not only the
leaves, but the young buds also, were eaten off, destroying quite a num-
ber of trees. All the varieties, including the pines and spruce, were
more or less damaged. A few trees of box elder were barked by jack
rabbits, but only small loss resulted.

In the following table, all the figures given are averages. A num-
ber of the trees that made the greatest growth during the month were
measured, and the average of these measurements is recorded as the
maximum growth; the other columns were determined in the same
way. It will be seen but little growth was made in May. This month
was quite cold, and for the time of year, dry. Cutworms, also, seriously
retarded growth during the latter part of the month.

10

DAKOTA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

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AND U. S. EXPERIMENT STATION. 11

The month of July brought with it many seasonable showers, and
these, with the warmer weather, enabled the trees to make a good start.
The last cultivation was given during the week ending July 27th; after
that date the barn grass and tall growing weeds were kept down with
hoes.

THE SEEDLING FOREST PLAT.

This plantation, covering two acres 49 rods, was planted with tree
seeds in the fall of 1887. The method of planting, and growth during
1888, has been described in Bulletin No. 12. In April all the vacant
places were set with one and two year old trees of the following varie-
ties: Box elder, cottonwood, Norway poplar, laurel leaved willow,
white birch, yellow birch, Scotch pine, white pine, white ash, white
elm. On June 14th all the tips of the lateral branches of the trees
which had come from the seed planting were pinched back, leaving
only one leader; the effect was to increase the growth of the leading
branch.

In the following table the letter T after the name of a variety in-
dicates that it has been set in the plantation the present year. All
other varieties are of the original planting of seed in the fall of '87,
and hence the measurement of the two years' growth is given. It has
been interesting to observe the growth of the transplanted trees com-
pared with those grown from the seed where they stand. Without ex-
ception, the seedlings are far in advance of the transplanted sorts. It
is equally apparent that the trees in the forestry plats, for which the
ground was deeply plowed before planting, have grown better, as a
rule, than those set among the seedlings where plowing was impossi-
ble, though as thorough culture was given in one case as in the other.

12

DAKOTA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

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AND U. S. EXPERIMENT STATION.

The culture for the year consisted of the frequent use of the har-
row tooth cultivator. The last cultivation was given July 31st. The
trees were hoed three times during the season.

GROWTH OF ROOT.

In the latter part of September, trees of each of the varieties of
seedlings above noted, were carefully taken up.

In digging the green ash it was found that the root descended al-
most in a vertical line. It was traced down three feet and two inches,
where it was still the thickness of knitting cotton. In its descent it
passed through the black loam, into which the strongest lateral roots
grew, thence through a six inch stratum, poorly defined, of gravelly
loam, thence through a foot of yellow clay of somewhat loamy texture,
finally penetrating into the stiff clay which contains white chalky de-
posits, wrongly called by many people, "hard pan." The tree in ques-
tion is two years old, the seed having been planted in October, '87.

Box elder trees of the same age showed an equal tendency of the
roots to penetrate the lower soil, though in box elder the tap root was
not so well developed, one of the trees dug having four deep-growing
lateral roots.

Black walnut and honey locust of the same age had also grown
deep into the ground. The root of a hard maple tree which had a top
only eight inches high, was followed almost straight down for thiee
feet, where it was broken off ; but it had become very thin at that
point. Another hard maple and a black wild cherry had long roots
which only went about a foot deep, and then grew laterally.

These facts are noted as refuting a statement very commonly
heard in Dakota: " Trees will not grow here because their roots do
not grow deep." In the case of box elder, white ash, black walnut and
honey locust, it is seen that two year old trees penetrate the ground as
deep in Dakota prairie as in any other soil.

At the time of digging these seedlings, trees of the same sorts that-
had been set in the plantation in April, were taken up. A- fine growth
of fibrous roots was found, the box elder having made the greatest root
growth, closely followed by white ash. The ash trees had not devel-
oped a tap root, but the growth of fibrous roots was excellent, surpass-
ing the lateral root-growth of the two year old trees from seed. So
also the black walnut and honey locust, trees that develop a strong tap
root when grown from the seed, when transplanted made a fine growth
of fibrous roots, none of which seemed to follow the habit of tap roots,
In digging trees that have stood a few years after transplanting, deep-
growing roots are always found. This growth of fibrous roots the first

14 DAKOTA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

year after transplanting becomes, then, a matter of prime importance.
Careful preparation of t'«e ground by deep plowing and thorough har-
rowing, and high cultivation after planting, are aids to growth that
the planter should never lose sight of. Boot growth is of far greater
importance, during the first years of a tree's life, than top growth,
though luxuriant foliage always indicates good healthy root action.

THE FOREST-TREE NURSERY.

During the first week in March the following forest-tree seeds
were received from Douglas & Sons, of Waukegan, 111 : Norway ma-
ple (Acer platinoides), Scotch alder (Aliius incana), white birch
(Betula alba), European larch (Larix Europaea), red elm (Ulmus
fulva), cockspur thorn (Crataegus crus-galli), white willow (Salix
alba), red oak (Quercus rubra), scarlet oak (Quercus cocciuea),
pin oak (Q. palustrus), hawthorn (Crataegus oxycantha), white
walnut or butternut (Juglans cinerea), black walnut (Juglans
nigra) bitter hickory (Carya amara), shellbark hickory (Carya
alba), pig nut (Carya porcena), Ohio buckeye (^Esculus glabra),
yellow birch (Betula lutea), honey locust (Gleditschia tricanthos),
iron wood (Ostrya Virginica), Kentucky coffee tree ( Gymnoclaudus
Canadensis), hackberry (Celtis occidentalis), sugar maple (Acer
saccharinum), canoe birch (Betula papyracea), black locust (Kobi-
nia pseudacacia), basswood (Tilia Americana), black wild cherry
(Prunus serotina), white ash (Fraxinus Americana) from Michigan
and from Kansas; box elder (Negundo aceroides) from Michigan and
from Kansas.

As a rule there is enough cold weather in March to freeze any
variety of seed sufficient for its germination.

The following varieties were mixed with moist sand and placed in
a shaded situation, where they were frozen until near the time of
planting: The maples, ash, box elder, oaks, thorns, hackberry, bass-
wood, wild cherry and buckeye. The walnuts, butternuts and hick-
ories were spread on the ground in layers three inches deep in a
shaded place, and covered lightly with straw. Here they were kept
until ten days before planting, when they were placed in a barrel of
water and soaked until planted. The remaining seeds were kept dry
until four days before planting, when they were put to soak The
seeds of black locust, honey locust and Kentucky coffee tree were
covered with boiling water 24 hours before planting. All the varieties
were planted April 10th. The vessels containing the soaking seeds
were carried to the field and the seeds were sown direct from them.
The frozen seeds were sown with the sand in which they were kept.

AND U. S. EXPERIMENT STATION. 15

The ground for the deciduous trees had been plowed very deep in
the fall, and was in the finest condition at planting time. It sloped to
the east, with a slight southern trend. The plat was laid off in rows
165 feet long, four feet apart. The seeds were sown quite thick in nar-
row drills, and covered from one to three inches deep — the latter cov-
ering only for the nuts, acorns and buckeyes.

The subjoined tabulated statement will give in brief the record of
the year.

The white ash was almost an entire failure, but few seeds germi-
nating. There was but little severe weather after the seeds were put
out to freeze, and this may account for the failure to germinate. We
have had the best results with ash with fall-planted seed, having tried
fall-planting, soaking in water 10 days, and the plan above mentioned.
If the seeds could be placed to freeze in the fall, it would be better
than March 1st.

It is customary to plant the seeds of birch and alder under shade.
In this experiment all the seeds were given the same treatment. Not
a single seed of birch or alder germinated. The ground was very dry
for a while after the seeds were put in, and this may account for it.
Seeds of birch from the Turtle Mountain region, N. D., were soaked in
water a week and then planted under a well-built shade, in moist soil.
These also failed to germinate.

A heavy loss was caused by cutworms ; entire rows of box elders
were cut off when the trees were in the fourth leaf, and maple, black
wild cherry, apple and black locust, were badly cut. During the time
that the cutworms were at work the weather was dry and cold, making
altogether a most unfavorable season up to the month of July. During
this month frequent showers and warm growing weather started an ex-
cellent growth. As will be seen by the table, the hickory nuts and
several other sorts did not germinate until the warm weather and rains
of July came. The black locust, honey locust, hickories, hackberry,
walnuts and Kentucky coffee tree were very irregular in sprouting,
some new plants appearing from time to time until frost came in Oc-
tober. Following is a tabulated record of the sprouting and growth of
the different varieties:

16

in.

DAKOTA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

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^Killed by cut-worms. fDid not come up. JThese were germinating until frost came.

AND U. S. EXPERIMENT STATION. 17

CUTTINGS.

In addition to the above named tree seeds, cuttings of the follow-
ing trees and ornamental shrubs were planted: Populus alba argen-
tia, Populus nolester, P. pyramidalis, P. pyramidalis suavoleus, P.
certineusis, Salix laurifolia, S. fragalis, S. lanceolata, Salix (Russian
yellow) Lonicera gracilis, L. rubra grandiflora, L. speciosa, L. elegans,
L. vicolor, L. splendius, L. lutea, L. naiia, Tamerix Amurensis, Phila-
delphus Gordoniana and P. speciosa.

The cuttings were received during the winter and were packed in
damp sand in a cold cellar. As soon as the frost was out of the ground
sufficiently in March, a shallow pit was dug, and the cuttings placed
perpendicularly in it, butts* up. They were then covered with three
inches of fine soil and two feet of coarse stable litter. As soon as the-
days became warm in April, the litter was removed during the day,,
permitting the warm sunshine to fall on the cutting bed. Toward
night the litter was replaced. The cuttings were kept moist by occa-
sional waterings. By May 1st the poplars and willows showed a good
callous formation, planting was begun May 4th and was continued till
May 9th. The cuttings were carried to the field in water, and the cal-
lous and young roots (which were striking before the planting was
finished), were thus protected. They were planted in rows that had
been subsoiled to a depth of 14 inches. Like the forest tree seedlings,
the cuttings suffered great injury from cutworms during May and
June. Almost every cutting of poplar and willow (together aggregat-
ing over 100,000), started growth. But they were kept completely de-
nuded of foliage, save in a very few cases. As will be seen by the ac-
companying table of growth, but little more than an inch is recorded
for P. certineusis — an exceptionally rapid grower up to July 1st.

The above method of treating cuttings before planting seems to
save much -time and puts them in a far better condition for growth as
soon as set. The cuttings may be placed in pit in the fall, which is
much the best time for making them. It is important that the cut
tings remain in the pit until calloused, and I have had the best success*
when the cuttings have been left until the roots begin to appear.
Some varieties require much more time than others, so that each va-
riety should be kept to itself.

POPLAR GRAFTS.

During the winter of 1888 a number of cions of Populus bolleana,
Populus alba and Populus alba argentia, all Silver-leaved poplars from
Russia, were grafted on roots of the cottonwood (Populus monilifera).
Of about 100 whip grafts (the method used in root grafting the apple)

18 DAKOTA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

only two grew, and neither of these mfcde good growth. Of 400 wedge
grafts (the method practiced with the cherry, plum and pear) about 40
per cent, grew and nearly all made fine growth. An examination shows
a perfect union between cion and stock.

The silver poplars are difficult to grow from cuttings, so that any
method of propagation that will increase the number of these trees,
especially the beautiful Russian forms, is worthy of notice. The
growth of cuttings and poplar grafts during the season is shown in the
following table:

TOTAL.

AND U. S. EXPERIMENT STATION.

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NAME OF VAKIETY

I«S

H M P4

20

DAKOTA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

TREES IN THE COLLEGE LAWN.

In May the mulch was removed from the trees planted in the
lawn, and the ground about each tree was turned with a digging fork,
;amd made fine, for a distance of five feet from the trunk. A heavy
mulch was then spread over the forked ground. This was the only
(Culture the tree received. The record of growth, with that of 1887
and 1888, is as follows :

NAME OF VARIETY.

1887.

1888.

1889.

Ft

in.

Ft

In.

Ft

In.

Box elder -

2

2

2

6

2

8

9

1

1

9

s

1

2

8

3

o

White ash

1

1

1

7

1

1

10

2

9

Ijombard, poplar

4

6

1

3

1

4

Oak leaved mountain ash

9

1

4

1

1

5

1

6

1

5

Silver maple . .

2

3

2

2

10

9

1

3

1

4

IMountain ash «

1

6

1

10

1

9

Black spruce

7

8

6

6

9

Balsam fir

4

5

6

Hed cedar

8

10

5

Scotch pine

1

1

2

European larch

1

1

10

8

5

4

4

3

Arbo"1* vitse .

1

1

10

Alder

1

3

2

2

2

6

THE EVERGREENS.

None of the conifers have been transplanted from the nursery,
except as referred to in the plantation. Five thousand small trees,
from four to eight inches high, were set under a well built shade last
spring; these have made very little growth, and the stand is not enough
better than that secured last year in open planting (see our Bulletin
No. 12) to warrant the expense of a shade.

The Douglass fir and arbor vitse suffered in nursery from sun-
burned foliage ; Colorado blue spruce (Picea pungens) has grown fairly
well and has had fine foliage throughout the season. The Scotch pine
has made a fine growth and thus far leads all varieties. The trees have
stood in nursery rows and the ground is heavily mulched Daring the
growing season they were kept free from weeds. Following is a table
of the growth of the different varieties for the year :

AND U. S. EXPERIMENT STATION.

21

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^

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1C rH C3 CO rH rH rH rH O^

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§1

2 DAKOTA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

EVERGREENS FROM SEED.

From one-fourth to one pound of seeds of the following varieties
were received in March: Wite pine, Scotch pine, Balsam fir, White
spruce, Colorado blue epruce, Austrian pine. The seeds were kept dry
mntil April 30th when they were put to soak in water and allowed to
itand ten days. They were planted in close drills, under a well built
shade, and the soil was kept moist by mulching. The only variety
that sprouted well was white pine, and of this nearly all grew. Only
a few seeds of the other sorts germinated. The White pine seedlings
suffered very little from "damping off" (rotting at the ground) and are
now, at the end of the season, a little more than one inch high and in
good condition.

TIMBEE CLAIMS.

By far the greater part of the trees planted in Dakota are set on
timber claims, with a view to securing title to the land from the national
government. Comparatively few of the plantations thus made have
proven as successful as is desirable. Without commenting on other,
and possibly more important causes of failure, a few suggestions on
the care and management of timber claims may be pertment.

First of all, the man who thinks a timber claim title can be secured
with little labor is greatly mistaken. Successful growers have found
that tree culture is as laborious as the care of the most exacting crop
the farm can produce. From a large correspondence extending to
nearly every county east of the Missouri river, and confined largely to
questions of tree growing, and from my own observations and the tes-
timony of successful cultivators, I am led to believe that the principal
causes of failure in the management of timber claims are two: lack of
preparation of the soil, and too little cultivation. I believe that the
time during which the claimant may cultivate the land before planting
any trees should be extended two years, so that the soil could be more
thoroughly subdued and the prairie grasses and other plants killed,
thus removing a prolific cause of failure. But under the present law
the settler should adopt a method of culture that will be most effectual
in totting the roots of the native plants and permit deep plowing for
his trees. The following plan has been followed with success: The
ground for trees was broken early in June and millet was sown on the
breaking. This crop was removed early in September and the land was
immediately back-set, cutting but an inch deeper than the breaking.
Late in the fall the piece was again plowed, somewhat deeper than be-
fore. The millet, being a rank grower, choked down the native grasses
during the summer, and the shallow plowing in September turned the

AND* U. M. EXPERIMENT STATION. 2$

ground up, and the remaining grass and weed roots were thus mostly-
killed. The fall plowing left the land in the best condition for absorb-
ing and holding moisture. In the spring the land was well harrowed
and was planted with oats. This crop is a far better one for prevent-
ing weed growth than wheat. As soon as the oats could be harvested
the ground was plowed about eight inches deep, and was again left until
late in the fall, when the final plowing for the trees was done.

Deep plowing is necessary for successful tree growing. The land
should be plowed eleven or twelve inches deep at the east. I am aware
that there is a prevalent idea that new land in Dakota cannot be plowed
so deep, but if the plan above outlined, or one similar to it, is followed,
the field can be plowed twelve inches deep the second autumn. The
work requires three horses, and I have always used a fourteen- inch
walking plow. The furrows should be narrow and straight; the plow
should go as deep as three horses can pull it, and the work should be
done in the fall of the year. The frosts of winter will aid very mate-
rially in pulverizing the plowed land. During the early spring the
melting snow will be retained in the field, instead of running off, as it
would if the ground were unplowed and hard. The tree-grower should
lose no opportunity, however slight, to save to his soil the water that
falls on it as rain or snow. As early in the spring as the land can be
worked it should be thoroughly harrowed and pulverized. I have found
the Acme pulverizer a most useful implement in fining the soil for trees.
A final harrowing, going diagonally across the plat, will better prepare
it for the marker.

In planting, the points to be observed are: see that the roots are
kept moist and are well placed and not turned up at the ends; plant a
little deeper than the tree stood before, and press the earth firm about'
the roots. The first and last points are of especial importance.

The only cultivation that can be called good is that which keeps
the soil in the best possible condition. It is possible for land to be free
from weeds and yet not to be well cultivated. A harrow-tooth cultiva-
tor is best for use among young trees, because it does not go deep enough
to strike the fibrous roots, and leaves the soil very fine; but excellent
work can be done with a common corn cultivator, so set that it will not
go deeper than four inches. The kind of implement is of far less im-
portance than that it be kept going. During the entire season, from.
the time the trees are plan ted until August, the ground in the tree-claim,
should be a dust blanket — so fine that the foot sinks into it. This will
require quite as much work as any crop that can be put in. And herein
is the great mistake of many settlers. They imagine, because trees-

24 DAKOTA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

grow with comparatively little care in states east and south, that their
tree claims can be neglected. I am convinced that no crop demands
more care and attention.

It is usually true that the settler is more or less dependent on his
year's £rop, and hence turns all his energies to the care of the fields
that will bring him a harvest; but there is always an interval between
seed time and harvest — just at the season when trees should be receiving
the highest culture. The importance of thorough culture cannot be too
greatly emphasized.

Among the worst enemies to trees in Dakota is the couch grass
( Triticum repens L. ) mentioned in this bulletin. It is almost impossi-
ble to rid a tree-claim of this pest after it is well established. The only
way is to dig out the plants with a spade, being careful to secure all the
delicate underground stems, for every bud that is left will grow, and the
plant spreads rapidly.

Culture should cease early in August. Thereafter it is only neces-
sary to watch carefully for couch grass, removing every plant of it. If
seeds are used instead of trees, they may may be planted either in the
fall or spring. All things considered, I think it will be found safest to
save seed in the fall, ( unless, like white elm and cottonwood, they ripen
very early in summer) mix them with damp sand, and bury them
slightly in a shady place, so that they will remain frozen until they can
be planted in the spring. The results of experiments with seeds are
given in this bulletin.

As to varieties, green ash and box elder are favorably mentioned in
every part of the state. White elm has been generally successful
throughout the state. Cotton wood and willow are more preyed upon
by insects than box elder, but both are hardy and cheap, and will doubt-
less continue to form a large part of our tree-claims.

NOTES ON VAKIETIES.

WHITE ELM. — To the many planters who are seeking for a better tim-
ber tree than box elder for use in tree-claims and shelter-belts, the
white elm is worthy a trial. In the plantation set last spring, two year
old trees of this species made excellent growth. In the table of meas-
urements only one branch of a tree is measured, but the white elm is a
branching tree, and hence has many leaves, indicating also a good
growth of root. The wood is tough and far more durable than box-
elder. Save the item of rapid growth, the elm is in every way superior
to the soft wooded trees. Elm seed should be planted as soon as ripe,
in May or June. The seed soon loses its vitality and will seldom ger-
minate if kept till the following spring. It is a slender grower the first

AND U. S. EXPERIMENT STATION. 25

few years, and is apt to form forked branches; usually one of the
branches will take the lead, in which case pruning is unnecessary; but
if two branches of equal strength grow up, one should be cut off. The
white elm is universally recognized as one of the very best lawn and
street trees in America.

Box ELDER. — I have been often asked to recommend a variety that
will take the place of box elder. The objections to this species are its
small size when mature, low trunk and poor quality of timber. It is
harder to prepare for the stove than cotton wood and makes no better
fuel. Its merits are ease of propagation, rapid growth while young,
suitability for nearly all locations and soils, general good health and
•comparative freedom from insect pests For the present I am inclined
to think the box elder is fairly entitled to rank as a leading variety for
Dakota planting. It is one of the few trees that nature has distributed
throughout the west, and we are as yet not sufficiently out of the pio-
neer stage to warrant discarding any tree that will grow as well as this
species. As the country becomes more thickly settled the box elder
will probably give place to a variety having more economic value.

ASH. — A number of correspondents have asked what is the species
of the native ash — Fraxinus viridis (green ash) or Fraxinus Ameri-
cana (white ash). My first thought was that ours is the white ash,
but in looking up the authorities, I find the weight of testimony favors
naming it the green ash. Dr. Sargeant places us beyond the range of
the F. Americana, which all botanists agree is the larger and better
tree. It is quite impossible to give characteristics that will enable
the amateur to distinguish between young trees of the two species;
the only strong point of difference is in the size of the mature trees;
F. Americana attains a height of 90 to 125 feet and a diameter of 3 to
•5 feet. F. viridis reaches a heigh th of 45 to 54 feet and diameter of
1J to 2 feet. Other points of difference noted by botanists are: In
the white ash the leaflets are slightly downy beneath, 7 to 9 in num-
ber, ovate pointed, but little toothed. In the green ash the leaflets
are smooth beneath, 5 to 9 in number, narrower than last, sharp
toothed margins. But in either variety may be found specimens that
approach so near to the description of the other that it is often very
difficult to determine the species. In the fruit of green ash the body
is more than half the entire length ; often the wing is but little longer
than the body; in white ash the body of the fruit is only from one-
third to one-half the length of the wing. These points are given to
aid the reader in determining between the two most valuable species
of the genus.

26 DAKOTA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

Robert Douglass, one of the leading practical foresters of the
United States, strongly advises the planting of green ash in the west,
rather than white, because the former species ranges farther west nat-
nrally and is therefore presumed to be better adapted to the climate.
While smaller than white ash, the green ash is yet a timber of the
highest value for almost all farm uses. No species has given a better
stand on our grounds, and none have shown better foliage or stood
transplanting better. The seed does not germinate as readily when
sown in spring as box elder (see experiments in germination of forest
tree seeds), but with fall planted seed we have had quite as good
success with the ash as with the box elder.

The ash is not as good a lawn or street tree as elm. It grows
slower in grass and does not make as fine a top.

WHITE AND YELLOW BIRCH. — These species seem to do about
equally well in the Station grounds, so they are considered together,
though the yellow birch (Betuta lutea) is by far the more desirable
timber tree, on account of its greater size.

The dry weather of last fall and winter showed the weak point of
the birches. Nearly all the trees winter-killed very badly, both in
the lawn and in nursery rows. A few specimens in the lawn were un-
injured and these made a fine growth during the summer. The trees
that killed back ( from ^ to f of each tree was killed) have put out
strong new branches, and the new growth is perfectly healthy. The
birch trees are found native far north into Manitoba, so it could not
have been the cold that killed our trees. Both species are beautiful
lawn trees, and doubtless they are safe to plant in the lawn; but the
-experience of the past year is not favorable to their general planting
in timber belts. However, they should receive a further test before
being discarded.

EUROPEAN LARCH. — This species also shows the effect of a dry
fall and winter. The lawn trees have made very little growth this
season. The trees set in the plantation last spring made a fine start
and all seemed to be growing; they were set earlier than the other
.sorts and before they had begun to grow. But a few weeks of bad
weather in May killed quite a n amber of them, and the remainder
have made only a moderate growth. Further trial is necessary before
.any estimate can be formed.

GOTTONWOOD. — Our young trees of this species, one year old when
transplanted last spring, have made a growth that fully explains the
popularity of the tree for timber-claim planting. It is being found
by experience however, that the cottonwood does not succeed in so

AND U. S. EXPERIMENT STATION. 27

great a variety of soils and locations as the box elder. It is native
along streams, in low, rich land, and when transplanted to ridges it
often fails. Of late too, the cottonwood beetle has become a very seri-
ous pest, not infrequently killing whole plantations. I am not aware
of any effectual way of killing this beetle. The principal value of the
cottonwood is in its rapid growth. The timber is about equal to box.
elder, neither being good for much save for burning, and they are of
only moderate value as fuel.

THE RUSSIAN POPLARS. — A number of poplars — trees closely re-
sembling the cottonwood — have been disseminated over the northwest
by the Department of Agriculture and the Iowa Agricultural College.
Most of these varieties are known by the common name Russian Pop-
lar. Not counting the silver-leaved sorts, but few of which have been
distributed, there seems to be only one of the Russians that merits
special notice. This is Populus certinensis. This tree is a very rapid
grower, and succeeds, like the box elder, on both high and low land,
and in almost if not all soils. In habit it is more erect than cotton-
wood, growing tall and straight. Its leaf resembles the cottonwood,
save that its serrate margin is curved in and out. It has been grown
from one year old plants at the station, and thus far only good words
can be said of it. The one drawback to its success is the cottonwood
beetle, which seems rather to prefer this tree to the cottonwood itself.
The wood is in its general nature like cottonwood, but is said to be
superior to that tree. It is worthy extensive trial.

BLACK WILD CHERRY. — As regards growth during the present
year, I should place this after the ash and elm. In the plantation
there is one plat in which ash, elm, birch and wild cherry are alter-
nated. The ash rows are uniformly good, though not so high as the
elms. The elms are far more uneven in height than the ash, and a
few are missing. The cherries seem healthy, but they have not grown
as much on the average as the ash, nor is the stand as good as the elm.
The variety is "promising, and as no timber is more valuable for special
uses, it will repay a little care.

WHITE OAK. — About a hundred trees of this species were placed in
the plantation last spring. About half of them lived, but very few did
more than grow a tuft of leaves, or a small branch from near the
ground. In taking up specimen plants for the fair in September, I
found that a good root growth had been made. About seven miles
east of the College is a grove of oaks and walnuts, seven years of age,
in which the white oaks average six feet in height. As will be seen in
the tables, oaks in our seedling grove, two years from the acorn, are

28 DAKOTA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE.

now but ten inches high. This may seem like very slow progress, but
if the oaks be planted among other trees of more rapid growth, they
will in time be worth the waiting for. The burr oak ( Qxercus macro-
carpa) and red oak (Q. rubra) are both native in this county, but I
have not found the white oak ( Q. alba). It is probable that the native
species will succed better under cultivation, especially as the white
oak thrives best in a region of much greater rain fall than we have.

THE WALNUTS. — In growing from the seed, white walnut or butter-
nut seems to be more difficult to germinate than black walnut, though
I regard it as a more promising variety for Dakota growing, because
its native range is farther north. Both trees are valuable, the black
walnut timber being considered especially desirable for furniture mak-
ing. The walnuts have grown strong tap roots, the greater growth
thus far being below ground. I have seen healthy walnut trees six to
eight feet high near the village of Aurora, in this county, and I am in-
formed that the walnut is being successfully cultivated in Minnehaha
county. The better plan is to plant the nuts where the tree is to
stand, so as to avoid cutting the tap root.

WHITE PINE. — This -is a most valuable species, but our brief ex-
perience does not give much encouragement for its planting in Dakota.
Trees transplanted from our own nursery last spring, under most fav-
orable conditions and with great care, have made but little growth and
many of them have failed. None of the white pines in the lawn,
placed there three and four years ago, are making good growth. It
may be that in the plantation they will succeed; but thus far the in-
dications show the tree to be out" of its climate.

SCOTCH PINE. — This variety has grown far better than the white
pine, in the lawn, the nursery, and the plantation. Two years ago
seedling trees of white and Scotch pine, 4 to 8 inches high,, were set
in nursery and given the same treatment. Now the Scotch pine trees
are from two to four times as large as the white pines. The Scotch
pines that were transplanted last spring have made an excellent stand
and a fair growth and have been in fine condition throughout the year.
While this species does not equal the last in economic value, it is far
superior to it for windbreaks — a use for which we must find some
evergreen trees. The Scotch pines in the lawn have grown well;
growth was somewhat checked by pruning lateral branches, and form-
ing new leaders on many trees in which the leading branches had been
injured. Thus far the Scotch pine seems well adapted to cultivation
here.

OTHER VARIETIES.— Notes on other species, both of evergreens
and deciduous trees, are witheld until their behavior under transplant-
ing can be

- — In "Officers of the Experiment Station," for "James M.
Aldrich, assistant librarian," read "assistant entomologist."

SOUTH DAKOTA

AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

AND

EXPERIMENT STATION

BROOKINGS, S. I).

BULLETIN NO. 32.

DECEMBER 1892.

Department of Forestry and Horticulture.

FORESTRY.

DUTCHEK, BBBBD & 8TORGAABD, BBOOKINUS.

GOVEKNING BOARDS.

REGENTS OF EDUCATION.

HON. J. W. SHANNON, Pres., Huron

HON. ALEX. MC!NTYRE, Vice-Pres , Watertown

HON. Jos. FREUDENFELD, Sec'y and Treas., Plankinton

HON. A. B. SMEDLEY, Milbank

HON. J. P. WARD, Monroe

REV. W. S. PETERSON, Rapid City

HON. M. R. HENNINGEK, Westport

HON. L. T. BOUCHER, Eureka

HON. F. G. HALE. , . . Scotland

BOARD OF TRUSTEES.

HON. E. T. SHELDON, Pres., St. Lawrence

HON. JOHN GIESE, Watertown

HON. J. G. CARTER, Ipswich

HON. CHARLES H. COLLINS, Brookirjgs

HON. LARS K. LARSON, Dell Rapids

STATION STAFF.

LEWIS McLouTH, PRES., Ex-Officio.

JAS. II. SHEPARD, Analytical Chemist

A. H. WHEATON, Dairy Science

T. A. WILLIAMS, Botanist and Entomologist

E. C- CHILCOTT, Agriculturist

D. A. COKMACK, Veterinarian

L. C. CORBETT, Horticulturist

N. II. OTT, Animal Pathology

ED. F. HEWIT,. Accountant

JOHN M. PARKINSON, Librarian

C. G. HOPKINS, Assistant Chemist

II, B. MATHEWS, Assistant Meteorologist

L. E. WINSLOW, Stenographer

A. W. WILLIAMS, Foreman of the Farm

The Bulletins of this Station will be sent free to all citi-
zens of the State who will apply for them.

All letters and other mail matter for the Station should be
addressed to the Experiment Station.

FORESTRY.

J. C. WRITTEN.

During the season of 1892 no new plantings have been
added to the forest plats. The season has, as a whole, been
favorable to tree growth, though so wet as to prevent the suc-
cessful extermination of weeds. During the early part of the
growing season, copious rains greatly hindered work with the
cultivator, and also kept the, ground so cold that weed growth
did not begin in earnest until the latter part of June. About
this time the soil became dry enough to be worked to better
advantage, and a vigorous use of the cultivator was continued
until July 7th, when cultivation ceased, in order to allow a
thorough ripening of the new wood, as well as to allow the weed
growth to cover the soil for holding the snows of the coming
winter. Weed growth continued very late, so that clipping
with a scythe became necessary, in some plats, where too great
a tendency to ripen foul seed was noticed. This has been the
only season in the history of the forest tree plantations at this
Station, that has afforded opportunity to note the comparative
effects upon different varieties of copious rains throughout the
entire growing season. This adds features of interest that have
not before been noted. Heretofore observations have been made
principally with a view to determining what trees will quickly
form leaf canopy, and thus prevent weed growth. Some of the
plats have already reached that stage and will no longer admit
of cultivation.

The accompanying diagram represents the entire forest
plantation, with the exception of a seedling plat, and gives the
varieties of trees in each plat. Plats 1 to 10 were planted in
1889; plats 11 to 22 in 1890 and plats 23 to 30 in 1891.

10 Rode

0 0 p^3 0

a

V

* a

1 1118!

s

5 S S

w.'

.

8

3

,

*

s i:-

i. O

<u^
— °

u

ill
PI

C^ 35

1

p)

"

Variety.

Total Growth in Inches.

1889.

1890.

1891.

1892.

•d

a

1

H

5

a

tt

M

3

bl

*

ni

s

<

a

s

<

r".

a

<

Popnliif pyramidalis

23

so
7l/2
9k
10

j*

12
I2M

10
5

34
1

f*

4

4

8

2%

16

18' ->

jgj

r

•jk

i:»' ,

4=,
5

40
38
9

18
18
3

36
85
6

43
46
20

16

20
6

n%

18

40 "

3"

ii"

Populus nolenter

Black Walnut

White Walnut.

Yellow Birch

g

20

1-

9
14

2
12

10
6
16
18
o

8

22?^
16

22 '4

5

36
13

40
46
32
45
40
lii
16

9

10

15
20
26
22
2
5

21
10

2::
32

v4

11 4

60
22
48
62
10
40
54
25
37
6

22
4

19

20
22
6
15

1

23'
13
45
33
16

39

30

:«)
83
S2
14
25

!5

ill
-10

White Oak

White Birch

Whit*: Klin

Black Wild Cherry .

Soft Maple

Suliv friirili8

Scotch Pine . .

Larch

Black Hills Spruce

White Pine

S*

5l/J
4'/o

-'5 1 ;:

S

40

45
66
34

1
14

10
20
16

8

37 /2

283.,'
17 'i
40k

Populns certineneis

51
40
31

10
22
21
lit

6

^24

?

81

62
49

48

Box Elder, 1 year old*

Box Elder, 2 years old*

*'ot ton wood. 1 year old*

White Ash ....

14

B

Itk

*When transplanted.

The foregoing table affords an opportunity for studying the
comparative growths, made by the different varieties, during
the past four seasons. By comparing this table of growths
with the meteorological table the comparative effect of wet and
dry seasons upon the growth of each variety may be ascertained.
This, to some extent, will indicate the ability of each sort to
continue growth during dry and trying seasons. It must always
be borne in mind, however, that each year's growth may be
modified by certain conditions, such as the ravages of insect
enemies upon some species, and the tendency to accelerated
growth, as the tree becomes better established in others:

Month.

Rainfall.

Temperature.

\V ml.

OD

a
~ >>

«j

a
as

0

X

Northerly

Southerly.

0

B

11

3

I

fc

OJ

41.°

43.o
55.o
S3.0
91.o
93.6°
98 o
97.o
89.o
76.4?
28.°

5-> o

1

1889.

January

.3

-,

-24 °

:?o!o
f o

I2.o
20.°
36.10
4(l.o
41. So
30.o
23.8°
-8.0
-11. o

-280
-85°

-4.o
10.°
23.°
39 o
4i.o
35 o
25.o
21.°
0
-18.

-10.o
-28
-24.
U.
80'
40.
60.
30.5
25.5
19.5

15.°
19.' 6°
82.0

51.20
56.7°
64.20

68. S"
99.50

55.10
•i:j. 7°
22.87

2-J.7S

7.5(i
11.32
19.69
46.71
32.197
•17.75
71.06
68.8
57.50
:',8.8o
29. 11
21.2°

t
6.95
17.94
48.9
55.54
62.5
69.5
66.3
63. 1
45.4

11
17
10
15
15
11
6
{»
18

13

15
15
18

10

20
(1
10
14
11
li
22
8

14
11
IS
18
17
15
13
15
24
IS

(i
15
«
14
16
15
10
10

11

IS

Hi
13
14
12

9

19

16
16
11
12
19

Iti
17

1 ")

9
12
14
16
14
6
11

February

March..

.16
1.025
.93

.483
.918

.72
.70
.(H>5

.April ..

11
9
11

9

4
-1

.27

. t>!v

.54

.89

2"! 22

.005

May

June . .

,n.iy :.;::::::;::.:

A 11 lariat

Septem her ,

October

November

December

-

475

189(1.
January

#•?

*6 5

4:5.90

47.o
32.25
84.o
VK).0
90.50
9<.5o
99.°
91.o
74.50
68.0
58.o

52.o

48.o
50.
88.
92.5

89.
80
09.5
98.
80.

February . .

',\

*2.
31

*2.
56

March

April

4
17

14

.51

.80
2.
54

.787
3 .:•}:!
7.91
1.535
2.07
.45
.32
.03

May

Juno .. .

July

August

1

.88
.19
.1-2

September

October

November

December

1S91.

jAnnary

February

*8

*2
})
5
12

7
5

0

*4.
*4.
.98
.38
1.34
.7
.44
.27
.62

*10.

li.
2.23
.84
1.0!)
2.01
1.38
.48
1.07

March

April ...

May ....

June

July

August — Frost on 2*!rd

September

October

November

December

F

11
14
15
19
24
16
12
11
15
15

g
14
10

14

19
20
15
13

1892.
January

6
5

a

10
H
9

11
3
3

.20

.ai

.26
1.12

3.63
1.09
1.43
1.19

.89
.26

.35
.36

.84
3.15
7.32
3.82
3.69
3.0:5
1.49
. 5.')

49.°
48.°
65.°
65.°
75.°
85.o
97.°
94.50
97.°

!)2.'J

-34.o
-19.°
- 7.°
15.o
28.0
38.5°
45.o
36.°
30.°
.090

8.33°
18.78
27. 10°
39.°.
47.°
62.8°
69.2°
67.2°
60.7°
49.2°

February ..

March

April

May

June .

July , ..

August

September

Octoberj

November

December .

* Snow.

t Observations not completed,

8

Total rain fall during growing season:—

April to November inclusive— 1889, 10.783 inches.

1890, 16.402 "

1891, 12.10

1892, 22.73

CONDITION AND GROWTH OF THE DIFFERENT
VARIETIES.

The following discussion is made on the different varieties
in order of their occurance throughout the plats, beginning with
plat No. 7:

BLACK HILLS SPRUCE.

This variety occurs in plats 1, 24, 29 and 30. This is the
first season in which the spruce has made anything like satis-
factory growth. In 1891, the trees in plat 1 made an average
growth of one inch, only a very few trees showing any tendency
to put out a leading branch and to develop tree form. The
trees of this variety in the other plats, being set that season,
made almost no growth. During 1892 an average growth of
three inches has been made by the trees in plat 1. A large part
of them are establishing leading branches, the longest new
growth being nearly six inches. The fact that these trees have
made three times as great a growth as during any previous year
is no doubt partly due to the unusually wet season. This indi-
cation is emphasized by the fact that, during this season, other
spruces in plats of two years planting made greater growth
than did these spruces at that stage of planting. Again, the
spruces in plat 1 have, during this season, made greater growth
than those of any of the later planted plats. This would indi-
cate that, as the trees become longer established their yearly
growth increases, and the increased tendency of the oldest trees
to put out leading branches, would seem to confirm this prob-
ability. With the exception of the Scotch Pine, the Black
Hills Spruce is the most promising evergreen now growing at
this Station.

SCOTCH PINE.

This evergreen occurs in plats 1, 8 and 30. Like the Spruce
just discussed, it makes slow growth when first transplanted,

10

but grows more rapidly once it *gets established. The trees in
plats 1 and 8 were planted the same day. Those in plat 8 have
made the best season's growth, Max. 25, Av. 14, and Min. 6
inches. In plat 1, the growth for the year is, Max. 19, Av. 11,
and Min. 4 inches. The soil in these two plats is very similar
in quality and elevation. Plat 8 has the better leaf canopy, not
so much on account of the varieties of trees, as of uniformity
of growth. This may account for the better growth of pines in
this plat. In plat 30 the pines are tlie tallest trees, and have as
yet no shelter. They have made poorer growth the past season
than did those in plats 1 and 8, which had shelter the oonv-
sponding season after planting. This is the most promising
evergreen growing at the Station, both for forest plats and for
lawri planting.

BOX ELDER.

This most valuable nurse tree, is making best growth in plats
4 and 5, in which it constitutes three-fourths of the original
planting. In plat 4, about one-half the Box Elders were two
years old when set, the other half being trees of one year's growth.
The two-year olds have made much the better growth from the
first, and now average 12 ft. 6 in. in height, with a diameter of
2 to 3 inches one foot from the ground. These trees are past
the stage of cultivation, having permitted the germination of
actually no foul seed beneath their shade this season. Their
growth has been remarkably even and their leaf canopy, during
the past summer, was perfect. They have made an average
growth this season of about 40 in., directing upward fine,
straight boles, so that the plat now assumes the appearance of
a fine young forest. Already a tendency to self prune is noticed,
the lower branches being very weak and slender, and bearing
few leaves, except at their ends, which, in their search for light,
reach out and fill every opening thus making the shade more
dense.

Though the Box Elder themselves are making fine growth,
it must be borne in mind that they are only the temporary
trees, to act as nurses to the Birch and White Pines, planted
among them. Their shade seems to make very little difference
with the growth of the pines, but, already, the Birches are

11

showing the effects of their dense cover; those in more open
places making a much better growth, (plat 10.) The Birch
makes a somewhat slow growth, is more low and branching than
the Box Elder, consequently the latter makes a poor nurse tree
for it. The dense shade of the Box Elder, is in plat 4, all the
more deleterious, as the Birches are effected with a fungus
growth which seems to flourish best in shade. This fungus,
while it has not yet seriously injured the Birches, has, during
the past season, somewhat scrolled up their leaves, and con-
torted twig growth. As a nurse tree for the taller varieties of
hard wood, like Elm and Ash, or for any shade enduring sorts,
the Box Elder surpasses any other tree in the forest plats.
This is illustrated in plats 5 and 7, where the hard woods are
making excellent growth. The Ash and Elm keep well up with
the Box Elder in height growth, and so hold their ground.

THE POPLARS.

Cottonwood, (Populus monilifera,) Populus certinensis, and
Populus nolesteri: Much may be said of these trees in com-
mon. They have much 'the same appearance, and are similar,
though not identical, in habit of growth, hardiness, and value
as nurse trees, so far as tried at this Station.

The Cottonwood makes the most rapid height growth, one, 17
ft. high, and 3| in. in diameter being the tallest tree in the planta-
tion. This variety predominates in plat 2. Here many of the
largest specimens have already began to die, branch after branch
dropping its leaves, and drying out, until on some trees
very few branches retained their vigor throughout the past
season. This seems to be a very common fault with the
cottonwood in many localities throughout the Dakotas. It
seems to endure thin planting better than dense, succeed-
ing best, where it is planted in a row, at long distances, along
streets and drives. The trees in the plantation have suffered
some from the cottonwood leaf beetle ( Lina Scripta ) but not
so badly as have the P. certinensis. Cottonwoods that have
become established along the streets and drives, in this county,
have, in many cases attained a very large size, and are still
thrifty. So far as I can learn, these large trees are not molested
by the leaf beetle. P. certinensis is a better nurse tree than

12

cottonwood. It makes a less rapid height growth, and thus
enables Ash and Elm to keep pace with it. While under the
cotton woods in plat 1, the weeds gain a foot-hold, from the
trunk of the tree out, under the P. certinensis the ground is
free from weeds from the trunk well out even with the tips of
the lower branches. The last named tree suffers most from the
leaf beetle. 'In 1891, the growing points of the certinensis were
almost denuded of their leaves by the ravages of this insect
In the fall after the beetle had disappeared, these branches put
out a new growth of leaves. As was at the time antici-
pated, all this new growth died back during the winter.
This season, a similar occurrence, though in a less degree,
has taken place, and we may expect a corresponding
dying back the coming winter. The ravages of this beetle were
measurably checked during this season, by spraying the trees
with London Purple, one pound to 200 gallons of water.

The tallest P. certinensis, planted in 1889 is 11 ft. 8 in. in
height and 2J in. in diameter, one foot from the ground. The
average height is about 9 feet.

EUROPEAN LAECH.

Perhaps no other tree in the forest plats has shown greater
improvement over previous season's growth than has the Larch.
It occurs in plat 3, the nurse trees in this plat being Box Elder.
Heretofore, the Larch has shown little or no tendency to estab-
lish a leading branch. During the first few years, it merely
developed a mass of lateral twigs, which, interlacing, gave the
tree much the appearance of a tumble weed. Last season a few
trees put out leaders, and began upward growth. During the
present season, nearly all have began developing tree form,
making an average growth of 25 in. of new wood. The largest
specimen is now about 6 ft. tall, having put out 37 in. of new
wood this season. They showed no tendency to die back during
the past winter, and this year's growth was for the most part,
directed straight upward from the main stem.

YELLOW BIRCH.

This tree has made its best development in plat 10 where it-
has hard woods for all its neighbors. It seems to like bright
sunshine, a fungus growth which effects its leaves, doing less

13

damage in thin open plat, than in plat 1, where the Box Elders
overshadow it with their shade. None of the trees have died
this season, and the tree, thus far, seems to withstand this
climate well, once it gets established. The Birch is a dense
shade tree, allowing no weeds to grow beneath it. Thus far no
deleterious effects from using hard woods entire, in this plat,
can be noticed. Whether or not they will continue to thrive as
well as they would with soft wood neighbors remains to be seen
as growth continues. It will be noted from the table that the
annual growth of the Yellow Birch has increased each year.
The trees now average about 9| ft. in height, the largest being
13 ft. high, with a diameter of 3-| in., one foot from the ground.

WHITE BIRCH.

For the four seasons since the plantation was begun, the
growth of the White and Yellow Birch has been nearly parallel,
some years the balance of growth being in favor of the one, and
again, in favor of the other. This season, the White Birch has
made less growth than has the Yellow.. The largest White
Birch is 12 ft. high, and 3^ in. in diameter, one foot from the
ground. The Birches succeed well, not only in the cultivated
plats, but as a lawn tree. The cut leaf, or Weeping Birch, is
one of the finest ornamental trees on the College grounds.
BURR OAK. (Quercus macrocanpa.}

The burr Oaks in the plantation are yearly becoming more
promising. They grow very slowly at first, but during this time
they are making strong root growth, so that once established,
they withstand the trying features of our climate with impunity.
At time of transplanting, care should be taken not to mistake
live trees for dead ones, as they nearly always look dried and
lifeless, when taken up. During the present season, those trees
that have only moderate shade from the Box Elders, have made
a little better growth, than those growing in that section of the
plat, where the nurse trees are larger, and shading denser. The
largest Oaks in the plat are about 4 ft. in height.

WHITE ELM.

The Elm is one of the most desirable hard wood trees yet
planted'at the Station. It has few insect enemies, is a strong,
vigorous grower, and, year by year, proves itself more valuable.

14

Once established,- it makes a very rapid height growth, keeping
well in pace with the Box Elder as a nurse tree, so that it will
endure planting where a dense leaf canopy is to surround it.
This season, it has made its best growth in that part of plat 5,
where the best stand of Box Elders, as nurse trees was secured,
and where the leaf canopy is as nearly perfect, as in any part of
the plantation. The second best growth was made in the hard
wood plat, 10. In this plat, the leaf canopy is superior to that
of most of the soft wood plats, except 4 and 5. The largest Elm
in the plats is 12| ft. high and has a diameter of 2J in-

ASH.

As a hard wood the Ash promises to be equal, if not superior
to the Elm for this vicinity. It is more hardy, more easily
transplanted, seems to endure drought better, especially in its
early stages, and makes a more valuable wood than Elm- Here
it suffers more from the ravages of the Ash borer, than does the
Elm from any insectf enemies. In growth it keeps well up with
the Elm. The largest tree in the plats is 10 ft. 3 in high and
1J in. in diameter, a foot from the ground. Plats 21 and 20
planted to Ash and Elm respectively show a more nearly equal
comparative growth than do plats 14 and 15 planted to the same
varieties. The two first mentioned plats are very low, and were
very wet, during the growing season. The two latter named
are oil higher and dryer ground. The growth in these four
plats, indicates that Elm makes more rapid comparative growth
on low wet land than does the Ash.

BLACK WALNUTS.

The walnuts were slow growers at first and many died the
first few seasons. For the past year none have died. All that
once succeeded in establishing themselves are growing well.
Those that have most shade, thus far tend to outgrow those in
sunshine. The tallest is 6 ft. 3 in. high.

SOFT MAPLE.

Heretofore, the records of each season accredited this tree
with dying back badly ^ during each winter, and sending up
tufts of shoots of nearly equal size, each summer. The past

15

season seems to have been no general exception to this rule,
but iii plat 8, where the largest tree has reached a height of 11
ft., there seems to have been very little killing back last winter,
and a greater tendency than usual to establish leading branches.
lu a good many specimens in this plat, an upward growing branch
has taken the ascendency, and promises a good, symmetrical
growth. In plats 18 and 19, planted one year later, very few
specimens have shown any tendency to develop tree form. The
actual height of the trees, is very little above what it was a year
ago, there being in most cases only a number of withes at each
crown. As this tree is not a strong one, this tendency to form
forked branches of equal size, results disasterously to the tree
growth, by these branches splitting down, as soon as loaded
with leaves. The maples in plats 25, 26 and 27 were planted
one year later than those in plats 18 and 19. The trees were
ordered from the same nursery, but very few died back. They
are making rapid, symmetrical growth, and at present promise
well as nurse tress. A greater annual growth was averaged by
trees that died back. This unusual growth, may result in leav-
ing the tissues infirm, and unable to withstand the winter;
hence the continued tendency, in trees that have once winter-
killed.

TO FARMERS AND STOCKMEN.

The Veterinarian of the Experiment Station, desiring to se-
cure at all times as much information as possible regarding the
diseases of domestic animals in this state, and to assist farmers
and stockmen, would be pleased to receive and answer all l«'t-
ters that may be addressed to him concerning any matters in
his department. Such letters should be as definite as possible
in the statement of symptoms and other attendant facts.

In case of suspected outbreaks of contagious or infectious
diseases he will endeavor to visit the locality and give such
advice and assistance as may be possible, on condition that his
necessary expenses are paid by the owners of stock suppose to
1 >e affected, or by the county commissioners. All communica-
tions should be addressed to

D. A. CORMACK,

Brookings, S. D.

SOUTH DAKOTA

AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

AND

EXPERIMENT STATION

BROOKINGS, S. D.

Balletin f\lo

APRIL, 1891.

DEPARTMENT OF FORESTRY, HORTICLUTURE
AND BOTANY.

Forest Trees, Fruits and Vegetables.

PRESS PRINT, BROOKINQS.

OF TRUSTEES.

A. H. WHEATON, President, (Clark,

A. H. HITCHCOCK, Secretary, Mitchell,

S. W. LOCKWOOD, Treasurer, Brookings.

C. J.jPETERSON, Deuel.

J. P. DAY, Mellette.

STATION STAFF.
LEWIS McLouTH, A. M., PH. D., PRES., Kx-Officio,

COUNCIL.

LUTHER FOSTER, M, S. A., Director,
Agriculturist.

CHARLES A. KEFFER, M. H.,

Horticulturist.
I. H. ORCUTT, M. D., PH. D.,

Entomologist,
JAS. H. SHEPARD, A. M.,

Analytical Chemist.

C. A. GARY, B. S., D. V. M.,

Veterinarian.

WILLIAM FROST, LL. B.,

Accountant and Stenographer.

JOHN M. ALDRICH, B. S.,

Assistant Entomologist.

C. G. HOPKINS, B. S.,

Assistant Chemist.
T. A. WILLIAMS, B. S.,

Assistant Botanist.
ROBERT F. KERR, A. M.,

Librarian.

W. G. COPELAND,

Foreman of the Farm.

The Bulletins of this Station will be sent free to all resi-
dents of the State who apply for them.

Mail for the Station should be addressed to the Director.,,
and that for any special department to the officer in charge.

-AJESBOiEB

The proclamation of the Governor, designating the first of
May as Arbor Day, is printed herewith. Governor Mellette
urges the general observance of this holiday with such force and
judgment that comment is unnecessary :

"Whereas, the ceremonies of Arbor day, which are generally
observed throughout the states by setting apart a day annually
for the planting of trees and the dissemination of knowledge of
forestry and statistics pertaining to the importance of the prob-
lem of the world's future timber supply, has become a custom in
South Dakota,

Now, therefore, I, Arthur C. Mellette, governor of South
Dakota, do hereby designate and proclaim Friday, the first day
of May, 1891, to be observed as Arbor day in South Dakota.

"Teachers should take this occasion to impress upon pupils
the necessity of timber to civilization, besides its important
climatic influence, and utilize the day by planting trees upon
public grounds and providing for their culture. Parents and
children should observe the day by planting trees about their
homes and private grounds. Citizens should give the subject
recognition from a public standpoint. I especially invoke the
aid of the press, the great levenof modern power, in aid of the.
proper observance of the day and the benefits sought.

While the subject is attracting the attention of those States
still possessing great areas of natural timber, it is doubly impor-
tant to the State of South Dakota, practically devoid of natural
timber, and within which artificial forests are readily produced
by the aid of experience and skill. It has been written that he
who plants a tree has not lived in vain. Its shades delight and
its branches protect e oming generations. The nation and tht
state alike, by legislation, encourage tree culture. It is for peo-
ple to decide, and they should bring to the work the energy
which it deserves.

Done at Pierre, the capital, this 3d day of April, 1891,
[SEAL.] ARTHUR C. MEUVETTE, Governor.

By the Governor:

A. O. RINGSRUD, Sec. of State.

FOREST T£?EES, FH^ITS and VEGETABLES,

CIIAKLKS A. KEFFEIi. HORTICULTURIST.

This Bulletin contains suggestions for methods of planting
forest trees, street and lawn trees, orchard and small fruits and
garden vegetables, with notes on varieties suitable for culti-
vation in South Dakota.

In April, 1888, a Bulletin on "Arbor Day: Why to Plant,
What to Plant, How to Plant" was issued by this Station.
Since that time thirteen acres of forest trees and about six acres
of fruit trees have been planted at the Station, and thus a begin-
ning has been made in sylva-culture and orcharding.

The drouth of the past two years has merely emphasized the
need of a forest area in this treeless region. Nebraska planters
generally, and individual planters throughout South Dakota,
have conclusively proven that trees can be grown with less
moisture than corn. We must regard our trees as pioneer crops
to be established at the earliest possible time, so that the farm
fields may be protected from dry winds, and that- the snows of
winter may be saved for the growing crops.

I have been interested in observing the action of groves as
snow catchers. During the last snow storm the small trees in
Station plantation, set in the spring of 1889 and averaging not
more than four feet high, caught the snow so that a drift two
feet deep and covering about two acres was formed among them.
The fields of the Station slope slightly from "the trees. After the
snow was melted on the open fields, the drift remained among
the trees, melting more slowly, because shaded by the tree tops.
As' the snow melted the water was absorbed by the dry earth,
and none was wasted. A more striking instance of the value of
trees as water-savers was observed in 1890. While driving
along a country road several miles north of Brookings, I noticed

12i SOUTH DAKOTA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

V

a grove planted on the crest of a ridge; a plowed field sloping
from it toward the highway. The snow was melting rapidly,
and the water from a drift that had formed among the trees,
could be seen moistening the entire field as it sought the lower
levels.

These instances, coupled with the present interest in irriga-
tion or other water supply for crops, have impressed upon me the
value of forest trees in this connection. If the heights of the
farm can be planted with trees that will catch the snow, a great
saving of moisture to the adjacent fields can be effected. The
plan has been tried many times, and has been commended in sev-
eral letters received the past year. But usually the trees are
placed on low ground, and this benefit has thus been lost. Most
trees grow best on low land, but if the ground is well prepared
and if the trees are given good cultivation they will succeed in
the higher places.

GROVE PLANTING,

All necessary preparation should be made before the day
for planting trees arrives. The land should be plowed twelve
inches deep. Of course, it is best to reach this depth by turning
"up new soil gradually, going an inch or two deeper for four or
five years. It is doubtful if very deep plowing on new land is
'ever advisible. It requires at least three years of thorough cul-
ture to kill the wild growth of prairies. During these three
years land broken two inches deep can be plowed four, six and
•>eight inches, though many excellent farmers advocate a more
gradual deepening than this. However, if care has been taken
to kill all the wild roots — particularly of the prairie grasses, four
inches or even six inches of new soil can be turned for trees in
•order to reach a depth of twelve inches, when for almost any other
nth of new soil on the surface would not be advisa-
ble. In case it is necessary to turn four or six inches of new soil,
it is very desirable thai the work should be done early in the fall,
so that the frosts of winter can disintegrate the solid earth thus
turned, and the air can permeate it thoroughly. In the spring
•careful harrowing is advisable, so that the land shall be in the
finest tilth when planting time arrives. Fall plowing is always

AND EXPERIMENT STATION. 125

best for trees, but the work may be done in spring, and often-
times with good results; the peculiar conditions of each year
having always to be considered.

CLOSE vs. WIDE PLANTING, — The distance at which to
plant trees apart seems a subject ol controversy. The Manuals
of the Minnesota and Iowa horticultural societies advocate close
planting and this is the practice of Kuropeans foresters. It should
be the object of the planter to make his grove independent as
soon as possible. This seems of especial importance in this
State, where help is scarce and each man depends largely on his
own efforts for all the work of the farm.

The advantages of close planting are manifest. Trees
planted three or four feet apart, if of proper varieties, shade the
ground so completely in their fourth or fifth year that it is im-
possible for grass and weeds to grow beneath them. Thus the
period of cultivation is materially shortened, Close planted
trees serves as a protection for each other and form straight,
clean pole~, which are free from knots and make the best kind of
timber. They also make a much better wind break than trees
planted from six to ten feet apart, because they quickly become
massed, the branches touching one another.

The principal disadvantage of close planting is the neces-
sity of early thinning; if the trees are allowed to stand too
long they are thought to exhaust the soil and thus the great
majority of them die and the planter has little to show for his
labor. But there seems to be a misconception on this point also.
Trees will grow longer without thinning than is popularly sup-
posed. There is a plantation on the grounds of the University
<)f Illinois which was close planted, and had not been thinned
when the trees stood from twenty-five to forty feet in height.
Doubtless a somewhat better growth would have been secured
had a first thinning been made sooner, but the excellence of the
stand and the thriftiness of the trees when examined, showed they
liad not materially suffered. It should be remembered, too, that
thinnings from a grove of trees twenty feet in height, can be used
for fuel. Probably the cost of such fuel would prevent its use in
more favored regions, but the State of South Dakota is
remote from coal fields, and [fuel is one of the {heaviest items

126 SOUTH DAKOTA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

of the farmer's expense account, unless hay or straw-
is used. There can be little doubt, then, that the value
of the thinnings from a close planted grove will repay both the
added first cost of trees and the work of thinning.

One of the greatest objections to wide-planting is the form of
tree resulting. Trees planted six to twelve feet apart, either in
squares or rows, will make a lateral growth at the expense of
height growth. The greater distance encourages the develop-
ment of lateral branches, and of the division of the trunk into
forked branches near the ground. Such branches are of very
little economic value. Their worth for fuel will hardly pay for
trimming and they have no other use. The formation of many
laterals necessitates far more pruning than would otherwise be
necessary. The trees, having light on every side, are more apt
to be crooked, and hence of less use as timber, than where close
planted. Probably more wood is formed in wide planted than in
close set groves, if we consider trigs as well as trunks, but cer-
tainly less available timber is formed in wide distance planta-
tions, and it has less value for farm or commercial uses. When
in addition to the above, we consider the several years of extra
cultivation necessary, the balance would seem to be decidedly in
favor of close planting.

MIXED PLANTING. — The Station has advocated mixed
planting as against the use of a single variety in every Forestry
Bulletin that has been issued. This is . not only the universal
practice of all authorities on tree growing, but it is the method
of nature. It is much less trouble to plant an entire grove of
one variety of trees, and where the stock must be purchased the
planter is liable to be controlled by considerations of price rather
than utility. The availability of certain species — as cottonwood,
willow1-, ash and box-elder, has had much to do with the making
of groves exclusively of one of these varieties. The intending-
planter should consider the problem, "How can I most quickly
get the best grove for the least money?" He will see that the
trees that grow most quickly are not of the highest economic
value; but he will recognize their great utility in the making of
a leaf canopy, and he will be lead to use rapid growing trees for
the greater part of his plantation, with more valuable forms inter-

AND EXPERIMENT STATION. Ii27

mixed. A mixed plantation presents an uneven sky line to the
winds and forms a better barrier against them. More trees can
be brought to maturity in mixed than in homogeneous planting,
as the intervals between the taller growing sorts are well adapt-
ed to certain shade enduring kinds. In many cases, too, the
varieties that are of rapid growth in youth are overtaken and
passed by others which are of very slow growth, and which need
protection, while young. This is true of such sorts as box elder
with the walnuts and oaks. The very .rreat majority of trees
used in a plantation should be of a qirck growing kind with
dense foliage, so that the ground may bu shaded as soon as pos-
sible, and weed growth thus prevented. Among these, at inter-
vals from twelve to sixty feet, slower growing sorts of greater
economic value can be placed. By this arrangement cultivation
is only necessary four or five years, and the "nurse" trees (the
rapid growing kinds) will have compelled the slower growers of
greater value to reach upward for light, and thus grow a straight
trunk. The rapid growing kinds are then removed as needed.
In all prairie planting, the greater part of the forest should be
composed of trees with good foliage, rather than of such varie-
ties as cottonwood, which do not make a dense shade no matter
how closely they are planted.

By close mixed planting height growth is first secured. As
the trees are thinned, however, especially if the final removal ot
nurse trees be deferred until the height growth is almost attained,
the diameter of the boles increases rapidly, and usable timber is
secured more quickly than by more open planting/

Another advantage of mixed planting, and one that is of the
first importance, is the relative freedom from insect ravages in
mixed plantations. If the mixture includes some fruit bearing
trees, like the wild cherries and plums, birds will be attracted by
them, and these friends will prove the most valuable insect
destroyers about the farm. Usually an insects attacks but one
or two species, and so in a mixed grove there would always be
many trees that would escape.

It is not necessary or desirable in mixed plantations, that
there be same number of trees of each species. One species,
such as box elder, or in parts of the State where it is available

128 SOUTH DAKOTA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE.

the native Spruce (Picia alba} should form at least three-fourths
of the plantation, and the remaining one-fourth could be mixed
at intervals of twelve feet among the predominant variety.
This one-fou-ith should consist of trees of the greatest
economical value, hence ash would form a large part of it. Kim,
black wild cherry, the walnuts (in some localities), burr oak and
in the borders of the plantation, the wild plum could be used
wTith profit.

GROWTH OF TREKS FROM THE SEED. — The question is often
asked: Is it best to plant forest tree seed where the trees are to
stand, or to plant one year old seedlings? The answer will
depend upon circumstances. If good seed could be planted late
in the fall, in moist soil, and if the surface soil could then be
kept from blowing off before the warm days of spring, probably
a good stand would be secuted. But even then the care of the
plantation would be much more expensive than where seedlings
are used, as more handweeding would be necessary. The use
of trees is to be preferred, then, not only because they are more
easily cultivated the first and second years, but, generally, a
better stand is secured. Seedlings can be cultivated most
economically by planting the seeds thick in drills three inches
wide and three feet apart, Close sowing in the drill will force
the seedling to grow tall and thus make it easier to handle in
planting. It is true that thin seeding in the drill will make
stronger trees, but usually they will be plenty strong enough to
transplant at one }rear old where sown thickly in drill.

The seed of silver or "soft" maple (Acer dasycarpum) and
White Kim, Ulmus Americana) both of which are native along
Dakota streams, ripen almost as soon as the leaves expand and
should be sown immediately, as they loose their vitality by be-
ing kept a year. The seed of cottonwood should also be sown
as soon as ripe. Seeds of black, wild cherry, green ash, white
ash, box elder, the acorns and nuts, should be gathered as soon
as ripe in the fall, and placed where they will freeze and remain
frozen, if possible till planting time. The smaller seeds are
usually mixed with moist sand before freezing, and the larger
ones may be given the same treatment, or spread in thin layers

AND EXPERIMENT STATION. 129

and covered with boards or straw. All should be stored in a
well drained, shaded place, where frost remains late in spring.
I have had much more satisfactory results by freezing seed and
planting in the spring than by fall planting. Fall planted seed
are apt to germinate early, only to be killed by subsequent hard
frosts. Rich, warm soil should be chosen for forest tree seeds.
Sown in drills as early as possible in spring, in well prepared
land, enough trees can be grown on an eighth of an acre to plant
several ten acre groves. The farmer will find this treatment
more satisfactory than planting the seed where the trees are to
stand and more economical than any other.

The oaks and walnuts are more difficult to transplant than
other species, and these will oftentimes succeed better when the
seed is planted in the grove. This can be most easily done by
leaving the places for such trees blank while planting, and in
the fall putting in two or three nuts or acorns in each place.
They should be covered to a depth of two or three inches, to
allow for wind action.

STREET AND LAWN PLANTING.

The ideal street tree is one that has a straight, clean trunk
with a well formed head and dense foliage. It must be able to
stand neglect, and must thrive under adverse conditions. It
should be as tree from insect pests as possible. It may either
have a compact, rounded head, like the hard _maple, or may
have extended branches, like the graceful elm. Its principal
purpose is to shade the walks and drives, hence dense foliage is
important. The list of valuable native' trees, suitable for street
planting is very limited,

METHODS OF PLANTING. — In planting street trees, it is im-
portant to dig large holes of greater depth than would seem
necessary for the tree. The surface soil should be kept separate
from the subsoil. Good, moist, black soil is put in the bottom
of the hole and about the roots, the subsoil being used used in
filling up. The soil should be tramped firmly about the roots
and it is often best to pour on a few pailsful of water in order to
bring it in close contact with the roots. As soon as planted each

130 SOUTH DAKOTA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE.

tree should be liberally mulched with straw or other litter. Be-
fore planting any bruised roots should be pruned with a clean
cut, the cut surface to be on the under side of the root. If dry
the roots should be plunged into water, but of course it is best
never to let the roots of trees become dry.

The amount of top pruning depends entirely upon the con-
dition of the roots where the tree is ready to set. In this dry
climate it is necessary to cut back more severely than in the
Eastern States. It will always pay to cover the wounds made in
pruning with wax, clay or paint, grafting wax being the best
material. When tall trees are used, they are made more sure by
wrapping the trunk with old cotton cloth or paper, which may
be wet occasionally until the tree is established. This treatment
serves the double purpose of preventing evaporation and lessen-
ing the liability to sunscald.

All the trees in a street should be set at equal distances from
each other. And by far the best effect is secured by planting an
entire street with one species, especially if all of the trees in it
can be of about the same size and planted the same day. In
this way with the full development of the trees the bare street
will be transformed into a beautiful avenue. No better celebra-
tion of arbor day could be devised than for all the property hold-
ers on a village street to unite in planting their road way with
trees as above indicated. Many of the streets in the city of
Washington have been planted in this way, elm being used for
one avenue, basswood for another, maple for another, etc.; great
variety and beauty has resulted. Necessarily our range of choice
is limited, but even with the few suitable species we have a great
improvement could be made in street planting.

In small lawns trees and shrubs are best set regularly, but in
large lawns, school grounds or parks, groups of irregular shape
with curved outlines are more pleasing. Such groups are usually
placed at the junction of walks, or to hide unsightly objects, but
they should always leave room for broad stretches of grass
between. The proper grouping of trees and shrubs is a
difficult art which cannot be outlined in a brief Bulletin. Suc-
cessfully accomplished, nothing can be more pleasing than
groups of plants properly proportioned to the size and shape of

. I XI) EXPERIMENT STA TfOX. 1 31

the lawn, but anything short of complete success is apt to be a
failure.

In lawn planting, as in street planting, the roots of trees or
shrubs should be freed from all bruises by pruning away the in-
jured parts. Rich top soil should be placed among the roots,
which must be given their natural spread, and all plants should
be set firm. It is best to keep the soil near transplanted trees
free from weeds and grass. If the plants are mulched, the mulch-
ing can be removed at intervals and a good hoeing will prove
useful, after which the mulch should be replaced,

VARIETIES.

FOR GROVE PLANTING. — In discussing the relative value of
varieties, it is essential to keep in mind the purpose which the
tree is designed to fill, and its adaptability to the peculiar condi-
tions of the locality in which it is to be planted. This is most
important for the new-comer, because South Dakota differs
greatly in climate from the older settled parts of the country.
As an advocate of mixed planting, I have not had occasion to
search for a "general purpose tree," and it is doubtful if such a
thing exists for Dakota. We have two distinct needs, and they
are not met in any one species, a quick growing tree that will
soon give us protection, and a valuable timber that will relieve
us of the expense of high lumber rates.

RAPID GBOWING VARIETIES — COTTON WOOD (Populus monili-
fera). — This tree has been used more than any other in the
plantations of the western prairies. It is hardy, is the most
rapid grower of any of the natives, is propagated readily either
from seeds or cuttings, and makes fire-wood more quickly than
any species. It reaches its highest development south of this
state, but under favorable conditions it attains large size here.
The most favorable locality for cottonwood is the rich bottom
lands of streams, but it is successfully grown on high prairies.
There jare several serious objections to cottonwood for close
planting. It it not a dense foliage tree and never makes a suffi-
cient shade to prevent weed growth. This is the most serious
defect in the tree, because it makes it unfit for the principal pur-

132 SOUTH DAKOTA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

pose to which a rapid growing soft wooded species can be applied.
The wood is of very little value either for fuel or farm uses. It
is not durable used as fence posts or poles, is not strong, warps
badly when made into boards. Cottonwood is a rank feeder and
is not a good neighbor for other and more valuable sorts. The
cottonwood leaf beetle has done immense damage to trees in
many parts of the state and the pest is rapidly spreading. In the
dryer parts of the state the cottonwood is proving a short-lived
tree. In the presence of all these objections its one great virtue
of rapid growth is hardly sufficient to warrant its use in groves.
Cottonwood is easily grown from cuttings.

THE RUSSIAN POPLARS. — A number of these varieties of the'
genus Populus have been tested in the state, but as all are sub-
ject to the attacks of the cottonwood leaf beetle their value is
questionable. With this pest out of the way the Russian Popu-
lus certinensis, P, pyramidalis and P. Nolester have proven trees
of very rapid growth, and all are said to yield a timber of greater
value than the cottonwood. The Russian poplars while not
common, are offered for sale by several nurseymen in this State,
Minnesota and Iowa. They are only known as yet by their
scientific names.

THE WHITE WILLOW. — This tree has been largely plan ted as
a wind break, for which purpose it is peculiarly fitted by reason
of the great number of branches which extend from the ground
along the entire stem. It is of rapid growth, especially in moist
situations, and of easy culture. The timber is regarded as of
rather more value than cottonwood. It does best in moist soils,
but is successfully grown on uplands. It is not a good tree with
which to hedge an orchard, or to plant where it is desirable to
crop the land adjoining, as it is a gross feeder and its surface
roots spread wide on every side.

Of late, in this vicinity, the elm sawfly has denuded the
willows of their leaves, making them very unsightly and check-
ing growth seriously. The larvae succumbs readily to arsenical
spraying. The willow reaches a higher degree of development
in central Iowa than in central South Dakota, but it can be
grown here. It is not so well adapted for mixed planting as
other species, ranking with cottonwood for this purpose. It is

AND EXPERIMENT STATION. 133

used most effectively as a screen or wind break. It is propa-
gated from cuttings.

RUSSIAN Willows. — A number of varieties of the willow
have been imported from Russia which give promise of useful-
ness in this State. Among the best- of these is Salix fragilis, a
red willow, and a variety sent out by the Iowa Agricultural Col-
lege as as No. 106 Vor., this latter is very ornamental, having
bright yellow twigs. Among other forms grown only for orna-
ment may be mentioned the Laurel Leaved Willow and ^S. Na-
polconis a trailing or weeping form.

Box KIJDBR (Neguudo Aceroides}. — This treej has more of
the elements of a valuable nurse tree than any of the native
species. It is a rapid grower while young, is a good neighbor,
can be easily grown from seed which can be secured along the
streams of the state, and when five years old, planted four feet
apart both ways, trees of this variety will shade the ground so
completely that further cultivation is unnecessary. It is com-
parative.ly free from insect enemies. Its leaves decay more
readily than those of cottonwood, and it is hence a soil improver.
With good cultivation it grows rapidly while young in either
high or low land, and its slower growth with age is an advan-
tage in mixed planting, as it is a shade enduring tree and will
live in the shade of more valuable kinds that are of slower growth
in youth. The wood of box elder, while regarded by many as
making better fuel than cottonwood, is not greatly superior to it
for other purposes. Sugar has been made from the sap of box
elder in quantities sufficient to warrant a further trial of the ex-
periment. In quality box elder sugar is said to be equal to
that made from hard maple.

SOFT MAPLK (Acer.dasyc&rpum). — This species iscommon in
the native groves along the rivers in the Southern part of the
State, but is less common in the central part and almost dis-
appears at the north. Where perfectly hardy it is as|good a soft
wooded, rapid growing tree as we have and can be substituted
for box elder to form the greater part of a grove. It retains the
habit of rapid growth later in life than box elder, and does not
endure shade quite so well, and hence is not quite so desirable
as a nurse tree. In the central part of the State it winter kills,

134 SOUTH DAKOTA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

while young at least, and several shoots spring from near the
ground, necessitating careful pruning in order to get one straight
trunk.

This pruning is troublesome and requires considerable time,
making the cultivation of the species more expensive than box
elder. In the northern part of the State silver maple is not
hard}- and should not be planted. It is comparatively free from
insect enemies. It is as good for sugar making as box elder and
rather better for fuel. When a grove of only one rapid growing
species is desired, soft maple will prove useful in the southern
part of the state, but north of Brookings county its cultivation,
save in favored localities, will not prove profitable.

SLOWER GROWING VARITIES — Green Ash (Fraximus viridis)
— This tree has been more uniformly successful in prairie planta-
tions than any other. When planted among box elder it equals
that tree in height at the end of seven years, and there after is
the more rapid grower of the two. It is best planted with box
elder, as it does not make a dense shade, and when planted alone
weeds and grass will materially check the growth of the trees.
Green ash wood is only second to white ash in value for repairs
about the farm. As the tree is native here it will probably suc-
ceed better under cultivation than white ash, which is rarely
found native in South Dakota, unless in ;the extreipe south-
eastern part of the State. It does not grow as large as white ash
but reaches small saw-log size. The great value of the tree
seems to be in its ability to withstand heat and drouth. In this
vicinity the ash tree borer is becoming very common. It works
in the trunks of the trees, and so weakens them that the winds
break them down. It will probably be less troublesome in mixed
plantations than in isolated trees or groves composed exclusively
of ash.

WHITE ELM (Ulmus Americana). — The white elm seems to
have fewer insect enemies than any of our native trees, and as it
succeeds in both high and low lands it should be extensive!}'
planted. Trees in the mixed plantation at the Station have on
the average made a better growth than green ash. While young
the elm has a tendency toward forked branching, but if the trees
are set close one of the branches usually gets the start of the

, 1 ND EXPERIMENT S TA TJON. 135

other, and a straight bole results. The Elm wood can be sub-
stituted for ash for mam- farm uses, and it is especially valuable
when a tough timber is desired. When dry it is a fairly good
wood for fuel, but not equal to ash.

The Red or Slippery Elm (Ulmus fidva), is recotnmen
very highly by Iowa planters, but I have not heard of it yet in
Dakota plantations.

BivACK WILD CHERRY (Prunus scrotina). — This species is
most successful on deep, rich soil, but succeeds well enough on
high land to deserve a place in every grove. It is unnecessary
to mention the high quality of its timber, which almost equals.
Black Walnut for cabinet making. Its peculiar value to the
South Dakota planter lies in its fruit, which is greatly relished;
by birds. A grove that contains a number of fruiting wild
cherry trees is apt to be comparative!}- free from insect ravages-,
as the birds that are attracted by the fruit will usually keep down
the insects. The fruit is liked also, by many people, and is
very healthful.

The tree is not quite hardy while very young, the tips of
the branches of three-year-old trees killing back at the station,
but like the soft maple, it becomes more hardy with age.

It has been fruited for three years in Grant county, and is
worthy of extended trial in all parts of the state. It is an at-
tractive species ' throughout the season. In June it is covered,
with sweet scented white flowers, which are followed by hanging,
clusters of dark colored fruit, while throughout the season the.
foliage is a rich, sprightly green color.

HACKBERRY (Celtis occidental is). — This is a tree that is sel-
dom seen outside the native groves of the state, where it is com-
mon. It deserves a place in every plantation if for no better
reason than its beauty. It is one of the best native fuel woods.,
and while delighting in damp soil has been grown successsulh/
on upland.

The fruit may be gathered from trees in the natural groves
in t"he fall, mixed with sand and frozen over winter and planted.

130 SOUTH DAKOTA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

in spring, either in nursery rows, or where the plants are to
stand.

THE WALNUTS {fitglans uigra andy. cinerea). — No mixed
grove would be complete without the black or white walnut.
The black walnut can be grown as far north as the central part
of the state, and the white walnut or butternut will range some-
what further north. Both species — the black walnut particularly
— do best on the deep soil of low lands along the streams, but
''fluey can be successfully grown on ridges where there is good
depth of soil. The walnuts are greatly benefitted by planting
among more rapid growing trees, which compel them to reach up
for light, and thus grow straight and tall. Where planted alone
they form many lateral branches and are scrubby, but where
''nursed" during infancy they follow the form assumed in the
.native woods.

The timber is of the highest value. The black walnut has
been so thoroughly cut in the forests of the country that it is ex-
tremely scarce and is every year becoming higher priced. It can
not be expected to thrive in this state as it does farther east and
south, but it is one of the trees that should be planted for
posterity.

THE OAKS. — (Quercus macrocarpd) Burr Oak, and (Q. nigra)
Black Oak.

South Dakota is fortunate in having in its native groves one
of the most valuable species of the entire oak famiiy— the burr
oak. It is very durable when .in contact with the soil, and can
be substituted with advantage for the more commonly used
white oak in all cases.

Another species is native in this country, belonging to the
group of which jack or black oak may be taken as the type.
This is much inferior to burr oak, though a more rapid grower
while young. The oaks are cultivated in the same manner as the
walnuts. They are of very slow growth while young,*and there-
fore not suitable for planting alone. Planted among other trees,
while making top very slowly, their root system is strengthening
and in time they grow much faster above ground.

It is best, both with oaks and walnuts, to place them at wide

A ND EXPERIMENT STA TION. ] 37

intervals in the plantation, so that no appreciable opening for
weed growth is left, as would happen if a group of them were
made. It is important to keep the value of dense leafage con-
stantly in mind in planting a mixed grove.

SMALLER TRKES. — In natural forests we find as great varie-
ty in sky line as in grouping, caused by mixture of tall growing
and low tree forms. Usually the openings among the high trees
are occupied by shrubs, like wild gooseberry, dwarf Juneberry,
currant, sand cherry, or the larger choke cherry; and in more
open woods, and in the borders of groves, by the wild plum, haw-
thorn, and similar low growing forms. And so in our artificial
groves all these things may have a place. Their value as tim-
ber is of course nothing, but the birds love them, and they make
a more complete soil cover. The fruit of the wild plum is valu-
able, and by top grafting seedlings of the wild stock, any one
can have in the borders or openings of his grove, plums of the
best quality. The other plants mentioned furnish fruit for birds,
and these friends should not be forgotten, for they are the best in-
sect exterminators that can be brought to the farm, In addition
to these arguments in favor of including small trees and shrubs
in the forest plantation, is the constant one of additional beauty
and variety to the grove, and consequently greater attractiveness
for the prairie home. Many open groves can be gradually im-
proved by the introduction of low woody plants, which succeed
in the shade of other trees, where timber forms would fail.

STREET TREES.

The varieties that seem best adapted to street planting are
white elm and box elder, the elm being the finest street tree that
is native to the temperate zone. Cottonwood grows better in sin-
gle rows than in close plantations. To many it is an attractive
form, and where the cottonwood leaf beetle has not appeared it
makes a fair street tree, though never giving the dense shade of
box elder. Silver maple ranks next to white elm and box elder
as a street tree, and will be found satisfactory in the southern
half of the state. It is apt to throw out strong "water sprouts"
near the crown, which are sometimes difficult to get rid of. In

138 SOUTH DAKOTA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

low moist land the basswood or linn makes an excellent street
tree. Towns lying on river banks will find this species desira-
able as affording an agreeable variety in form and foliage. The
black wild cherry is not as useful for the street as for lawn plant-
ing. It is apt, when standing alone, to grow crooked, and street
trees should have straight clean trunks, The ash, though often
used in street planting, is one of the least desirable species for the
purpose. When planted in grass as most street trees are, it grows
very slowly, its shade is light, and trees of a good size for street
use do not bear transplanting as well as elm or box elder.

LAWN TREKS.

For lawn planting the range of choice is much greater than
for street use. In addition to the species suitable for street plant-
ing, the ash, hackberry, white birch, cut leaved birch, Russian
silver poplar, laurel leaved willow, buffalo berry, (Shcpherdia
argentia,} wild plum, wild and cultivated crabapple, hawthorn,
and the wild cherries, all can be grown in any part of Dakota
where a sufficient water supply is to be had. No trees do so well
planted in grass as in cultivated land, and this is especially true
iti dry regions. Hence the slower growing trees and the species
named in this paragraph particularly will be profited by occasion-
al thorough watering when set in the lawn. All the trees men-
tioned are native except the birches, Russian silver poplar, lau-
rel leaved willow, wild crabapple, and the Siberian crabapple,
the last being a well known fruit tree. The wild crabapple is a
native of eastern Minnesota, and is hardy in the vicinity of Brook-
ings. It has pink colored fragrant blossoms and in blooming
time is a very ornamental tree. In size it is but little larger than
the wild plum. Several silver poplars were imported from Rus-
sia by the Iowa Agricultural College. Of these the most orna-
mental is Populus bolcana, which has deep lobed-ieaves, the under
side being clear white and the upper side dark, rich green. The
tree is erect in habit and is a valuable addition to the list of orna-
mentals. It is not quite so much damaged by the cottonwoocl
leaf beetle as are others of the genus. The laurel-leaved willow
is also a Russian. It is a tree of small size, compact, rounded

AND EXPERIMENT STATION. 130

form, having beautiful shining foliage. It also is subject to the
attacks of the cottonwood leaf beetle.

The birches are native far north, but they prefer a cool,
damp atmosphere, and may not, for that reason, prove success-
ful in all parts of the state. Many trees have died in the college
lawn, b'ut those that survive are in fine condition. There are a
few line specimens of cut-leaved birch growing in Brookings,

Among the flowering shrubs which may fairly be entitled
to a share of attention in lawn planting, the iollowing have
proven hardy at this Station: White, common and Persian lilac,
mock orange or syringa, snowball, Spiraea opulifolia and Spiraea
Van Houtii, flowering current, purple-leaved and common bar-
berry, wahoo, snowberry, rugosa rose and other roses.

EVERGREENS.

At the last meeting of the State Horticultural Society held
at De Smet in December, 1890,- a number of fine specimens of
cornifers were exhibited. They were grown in the drouth-
stricken part of Kingsbury county, but in spite of three years of
unprecedented dry weather some species showed fine growth and
all were in the best condition.

In the Station grounds the growth of several conifers has
been excellent, and there would seem to be no good reason why
at least three species should not be included in the plantations
of the state, and probably five varieties can be successfully
grown as lawn trees over the larger part of the state. The
hardiest of the evergreens seems to be the Scotch pine, and it is
also the most rapid grower, at least while young, The red
cedar and the white spruce, in addition to the Scotch pine, can
be grown in any part of the state. Red cedar is native along the
Missouri bluffs, and the white spruce is one of the principal
forest trees of the Black Hills.

In addition to these species, which should be generally
grown throughout the state, balsam fir, Norway spruce and
arbor vitae may be successfully cultivated in the southern
counties. Colorado blue Spruce is quite as hardy as white
spruce, but it is a high-priced tree. It' can be safely recom-
mended as a fine species for the lawn.

140 SOUTH DAKOTA AGRICULTURAL COLLL'

The following suggestions on* the management of evergreens
are taken from our Bulletin No. 3:

1. If possible get your trees of a Dakota grower. The
home nurserymen should be patronized in all cases where pos-
sible, but it is especially important that coniferous trees be pur-
chased as near home as possible. If you can, drive to the nurs-
ery, with a wagon box full of straw and old rags or sacks, and
select your trees, having them dug with care.

2. From the time the trees are taken up until you set them,
do not permit the dry air to strike the roots if it can be avoided.
This is essential. Have wet straw at hand, and as soon as the
trees are out of the ground, wrap the roots well in it. Put wet
straw in the bottom of the wagon, pack the trees closely, and
throw wet blankets or sacks over all.

3. Choose small trees. Trees two feet high are far better
than those of greater size, and in five years will be larger than
those four feet high when planted. t

, 4. Set the trees firm. Put fine soil in among the roots,,
shaking the tree to make it fill all crevices; then tramp the
ground hard.

5. Mulch deep with coarse litter.

A FFAV HARDY FRUITS,

The Station has received a great man}* inquiries regarding
fruits that will succeed in this state. Our experiments with or-
chard fruits are not yet sufficiently advanced to determine the
hardiness of the varieties of apple, cherry, and pear that are be-
ing tested, and only a few of the varieties of plum have fruited;
hence we cannot base information on our own experiments. There
have been exhibited at the state fairs excellent samples of twenty
or more varieties of apples and several varieties of crabs. These
were nearly all grown in the southern tier of counties of the
state, and it would not be safe to base recommendations for the
state at large on that favored region. The Duchess is the hard-
iest of the standard apples commonly grown in this country. It
has fruited in Grant count}7, and is probably the most promising
variety handled b}r all nurseymen. The Wealthy succeeds in

, ! ND EX PER 7 ME XT S TA TK )N. 1 4 1

the southern part of the state, but is not reliable north of vSioux
Falls and Mitchell. Fine specimens of Fameuse or Snow apple
are grown in Clay, Union, Yankton and Bon Homme counties,
but the variety should not be planted, unless in exceptionally
favorable localities, beyond their limits. The crab apple is more
hardy than the standard, and it gives promise of success over a
wide area. Transcendant, Hyslop, Whitney No. 20 and other
varieties fruited in Brookings last season, and then there are a
number of fine healthly trees in the town gardens. Unfortu-
nately the crab is subject to blight during our bright, warm,
summers, but every farmer in the State should plant crab apple
trees. Doubtless many of us think a crab is a poor substitute
for the fine apples of our eastern homes, but the crab apple is a
long, long way ahead of no apple at all. Let us plant crab ap-
ples' until we can find something better.

The Russian apples have attracted a great deal of attention
in the Northwest, and they have been recommended as being
much more hardy than American sorts. A limited number of
varieties- from the long Russian list have proven more hardy
than the Duchess, and these should be extensively tested through-
out South Dakota. Among the hardiest of the Russian sorts are
the following: Blushed' Calville, Green Sweet, Revel Pear,
Cinnamon, Lubsk Queen, Rosy Repka, Ukraine, Hibernal,
Kremer, Silken Leaf, Juicy Burr, Ostrakoff, Lead Apple, Rosy
Aport. This list is selected from the hardiest sorts noted by
Professor J. L. Budd in a recent Bulletin; in all cases the varie-
ties named above have been growing in central South Dakota
from three to six years, and observations on the trees in this
State, warrant the belief that all the sorts in the list are worthy
of trial here. Most of them can be secured from nurseymen in
this and adjoining states. Of the standard varieties commonly
grown, the Duchess may be planted throughout the southern
and eastern parts of the state. There may be other varieties that
succeed in favorable localities, but for general planting the
Duchess can be recommended.

Among crab apples and hybrids, Transcendant, though sub-
ject to blight, is a good bearer. Whitney No. 20 is a shy bearer
but a fine tree. Hyslop, Brier's Sweet, Martha and Virginia can

SOUTH DAKOTA AGRICULTURAL COLL.

relied upon as satisTactory. All the varie' •

ly.

The plum is the most promising fruit tree 'for this State. I
'.; received samples oi' le fruit from native wild groves,

the trees in the Station orchard are full of promise. The
-t of them are hard}7 and thrifty. There are between thirty
forty sorts in the Station experimental orchard of which the
--wing are the most promising of those that have fruit
Harrison's Peach, DeSoto,- Wolf.

De Soto and Harrison's Peach ripen about the same time.
Last year ripe fruit of these varieties was picked September 6th.
Wolf is two week's later. Harrison's Peach is a good sized
plum of very fine flavor, yellow with red on sunny side, De

Soto is a well known standard variety. Wolf fruited better than

•

either of the sorts named, but its season is probably too late for
the central and northern parts of the State.

Our cherry trees have not yet fruited. I am told the Barly
Richmond cherry is successful in the Southern counties, but it
cannot be recommended for the State at large.

A northeast slope, with rich soil and a porous clay subsoil is
-suitable for fruit trees. In level land a wind break on the south
•and -west affords protection from the hot winds. In this State
close planting, should be practiced, the trees should stand from
to sixteen feet apar:, thus affording mutual protection.
.Low tops would seem to be preferable to high standards as there
•is thus less liability to sunscald. When trees are first set addi-
tional protection from sunscald should be given by leaning the
"tree to the two o'clock sun, and by placing a board erect in the
:ind so as to shade the trunk of the tree during the heat of the
day. Doubtless far more trees are ruined by summer killing
.than by cold.

When fruit trees or shrubs are received from nursery, they
•should be carefully root pruned, removing only bruised roots
and cutting off bruised ends with a clean cut on the under side
of the root. The roots should then be dipped in a mixture of
fresh cow manure, soil and water, made into a thin mud. They
are then read}* for planting, or may be buried until they can be

AND EXPERIMENT STATION. 143

planted. The roots of trees and shrubs should never be allowed
to dry. If but few trees are set they can be well mulched, but
in large orchards thorough cultivation is cheaper than mulching
and answers the same purpose.

SMALL FRUlTvS.

THE STRAWBERRY. — This delicious fruit can be grown in
any part of Dakota where there is sufficient water supply to en-
able it to perfect its fruit. At the the Station the plants grow
very well, but during the past two years the weather has been
very unfavorable and the crop of fruit has been small.

WHAT is MEANT BY PERFECT AND IMPERFECT VARIET
— An examination of the open blossom of Wilson's Albany or
Wilson strawberry, will reveal lour sets of parts in the flower.
In the center is a number of small light green parts, iorrning a
rounded mass. This is the portion that becomes the fruit. Sur-
rounding this central part are a number of little yellow organs,
each borne on a tiny stem. These are the anthers and they con-
tain the fertilizing material of the flower. Just without the an-
thers are the five white petals, and behind or underneath these
will be found the green scales that form the calyx. Every
variety of strawberry that has these four sets of parts is called a
perfect variety and will produce fruit when planted alone.

But if we examine the Crescent strawberry we find that the
second set named, the anthers, are not present or are abortive;
that is, the Crescent flower does not contain any fertilizing ma-
terial, and hence this variety is "imperfect" and will need to
have a perfect kind planted with it in order to produce fruit. It
is necessar}^ to keep these facts in mind in planting a straw-
berry bed. I have always had good success by setting first a
row of perfect-flowered sort, like Wilson, then two rows of an
imperfect sort like Crescent, then a row of perfect-flowered sort,
followed by two rows of imperfect, etc. As each perfect flower
produces a great deal more pollen than is necessary for its own
fertilization, the imperfect sorts are provided with pollen by
winds and insects which carry it from the perfect flowers.

PLANTING AND CARE, — Strawberry plants should have the
roots puddled, as directed for fruit trees, as soon as received from

144 SOUTH DAKOTA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE.

the nursery. Fine dust should be" sprinkled among the roots as
soon as puddled, and if the ground is not read}* for planting, the
plants should be "heeled in" and the tops lightly covered with
straw. If the weather is very dry when the plants are received,
the bunches may be set close together in fine earth, and the
plants shaded by boards which will allow a free passage of air
between them and the leaves. In a few days plants so placed
will push out new roots, and in this condition the}7 are more
sure to grow when set at once in the open bed.

The plants should be set from fifteen inches to two feet apart
alternating perfect and imperfect sorts as heretofore suggested.
The stem of the strawberry plant is extremely short, which
makes careful setting necessar}r. The holes should be made
large enough to permit the full spread of the roots, without
turning the tips. The plant should be so set that the bud in the
center is not covered, nor the roots exposed. Firm planting is
necessary.

With careful cultivation matted rows will form the first year
from plats set fifteen inches apart in the row. When the ground
is frozen in the fall sufficiently to bear the weight of a wagon
the entire bed, rows and spaces, should be mulched with t\vo or
three inches of clean straw or swamp grass, and this should be
left on in the spring until the leaves begin to grow through it,
The mulch should then be raked off the plants into the spaces.
By leaving the mulch on late in the spring growth is retarded
and danger from late frosts is avoided.

VARIETIES. — From tests of thirty of the older standard
Varieties at the Station, Crescent (imperfect) is the best early
strawberry for Dakota and Windsor (imperfect), Manchester
(imperfect), Glendale (perfect), and Mt. Vernon (perfect) are
good later sorts. Wilson and May King are perfect sorts that
will fertilize the Crescent. Probably a safe selection from the
older varieties would be Crescent and Wilson for early, Man-
chester and Glendale a little later, Windsor and Mt. Vernon late.
The first named of each set is imperfect, the other its fertilizer.
None of the newer varieties have fruited at the Station. Among
the new kinds that have been reported as successful in different

,LV;; EXPKKTMENT STATION. 145

parts of the State the following may be mentioned: Bubach,
Warfield No. 2, Gandy and Haverland. All of these are im-
perfect and early except Gandy, which is a perfect, late fruiting
sort.

RASPBEBRIES. — It is doubtful if any of the black raspberries
will prove profitable, except in the south-eastern part of the
state, if at all. In the Station grounds they set a good crop of
fruit, but it dries and hardens before it can ripen. Fine fruit of
Turner and Philadelphia, (both red sorts,) is grown in this coun-
ty, and at the station theSheffer's Collossal. a purple-red variety,
is vigorous and fairly productive. Cutlii.cri is not hardy here.
Plants in the Station grounds that have been protected in winter
by bending down and covering with earth have fruited and grown
better than mulched plants.

GOOSEBERRIES. — Hough ton and Mountain Seedling goose-
berries gave heayy crops the past season, and both sorts are hardy
here. Chas Downing bears larger fruit than either of the varie-
ties named, but it is not hardy enough for central South Dakota.
Industry is a iailure at the Station.

CURRANTS. — Of several varieties tested in the Station grounds
Victoria is the most productive, and retains its foliage best. The
Red Dutch and White Dutch also bear good crops. Cherry and
Versaillaise, (red) and White grape are not as good bearers as the
sorts named. Both currants and gooseberries should be exten-
sively planted. They may be regarded as pioneer fruits, and will
stand roughing it better than any other fruits we have. They
are benefitted by heavy mulching and liberal manuring.

BLACKBERRY. — Stone's Hardy, one of the hardiest varieties
of the blackberry in cultivation, has entirely failed at this station.

DEWBERRY. — -This is a trailing form of the blackberry, and
where it can be sheltered from the hot summer winds it should
prove successful. The Windom originated in south-west Minne-
sota, was- loaded with fruit on the station grounds last sea-
son, but the plants were fully exposed to the wind and sunshine,
and comparatively few fruits matured. The mature fruit resem-
bles the blackberry in size and flavor. It is a promising fruit

146 SOUTH DAKOTA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE.

for South Dakota if covered in winter by and planted in a pro-
tected place.

GARDEN VEGETABLES.

The experiments which have been made during the past
three years have had for their object the determination of the
adaptability, of well known garden vegetables to the climate and
soil of South Dakota. In endeavoring to sum up results for the
period named, two facts seem thoroughly demonstrated. First,
the prairie soil of South Dakota, essentially the same throughout
the state, is especially adapted to the cultivation of almost all
garden vegetables ; and second, that our range of choice is limit-
ed chiefly by the water supply, both In soil and air, and in less
degree by other climatic conditions.

Such garden crops as mature in a comparatively short grow-
ing season, and whose edible portions are seeds or roots, are suc-
cessful with us. Succulent fruits, such as the tomato, and crops
that require a great amount of rain, as the cabbage, are uniform-
ly unprofitable or are precarious.

Vegetables, in the growth of which good culture can com-
pensate to the necessary degree for a limited rainfall, have prov-
en successful.

As to varieties, our experiments indicate what one would
naturally expect to find, that early sorts are more uniformly suc-
cessful than late kinds.

The vegetable garden should be thoroughly enriched with
well rotted barn yard manure. A black soil with sand and por-
ous subsoil is best, and the- early vegetables at least, like plenty
of sunshine.

Of garden roots or perennial vegetables, rhubarb, asparagus,
and horse radish should have their place in every garden. Horse
radish will thrive under neglect, but rhubarb and asparagus re-
quire very rich soil for best results. Asparagus succeeds best
in low situations, if the soil be well drained and warm. The one
or two-year-old plants can be purchased of nursery men, or the
seed may be sown in drills, the one-year-old plants being set in
beds the following spring. The soil should be spaded deep and

AND EXPERIMENT STA TION. 147

manured freely, and the plants set not closer than eighteen inches,
and covered about four inches deep. Conovor's Collossal is the
standard variety. Palmetto is said to be an improvement.

Rhubarb will flourish in any good soil. It should have a
good dressing of rotted manure every year. It should be planted
where it will get the spring sun, as the product is most relished
early in the season. Linneus is the best sort. It is usually prop-
agated bp division of the roots, which may be secured from nur-
serymen.

GARDEN VEGETABLES.

Simple directions for the cultivation of garden vegetables and
for the making ol hot beds are contained'in almost all seedsmen's
catalogues, and these are in the main applicable to South Dako-
ta. During the past two seasons the time of planting different
vegetables at the station has been as follows :

Seeds in hot beds, April ist, celery, early cabbage, tomatoes,
cauliflower, peppers. In the garden, middle of April, lettuce,
early radish, spinach, early peas, onions, beet, carrot, parsnip,
salsify.

Middle of May : Early cabbage and cauliflower, (transplant-
ed from hot beds,) late radish, succession peas, sweet corn, cu-
cumber, squash, beans, melons.

Last of May : Tomatoes transplanted from hot beds.

Last of June: Late cabbage and celery, (transplanted from
cold frames,) succession peas and beans.

VARIETIES. — The following list of varieties of garden vege-
tables is given to enable planters who may not be familiar with
the different forms to select such as will probably be satisfactory.
It is not claimed that the very best of each class has been named,
as we have not yet tested all the different kinds offered by seeds-
men. But every vegetable mentioned in the lift has been tested
in our gar.dens, and has proven valuable :

Bean: — Wardwell's Wax, White Wax, Henderson's Dwarf
Lima, Prylific Tree, (for winter.)

Beet: — Mitchell's Improved, Eclipse.

148 SOUTH DAKOTA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

Cabbage: — Extra Early Jersey Wakefield, Henderson's Sum-
mer. Flat Dutch, (for winter.)
«* Carrot: — Danver's Half Long.
Cauliflower: — LSnowball ,

Celery: — White Plume, (early,) Solid Ivory and New Rose,
. (late keepers.)

Corn, Sziw//-^Cory, (earliest,) Minnesota, Stowell's Ever-
green.

Cuctttnfor.'—Impioved White Spine.
Lettuce: — White Seeded Tennis Ball, Hanson.
Melon-Canteloupe: — Early Hackensack, Osage.
Okra;— Dwarf White Velvet

Onion: — White Silver Skin, Yellow Danvers, Red Weathers-
field.

Parsley: — Fern Leaved.

Pea: — Early Alaska, American Wonder, Yorkshire-Hero,
Stratagem, (late.)

Pepper: — Bull Nose.

Radish: — French Breakfast, (small early,) Long Scarlet
Short Top, (Second) White Strausburg, (summer.)
Salsify: — Mammoth Sandwich Island.
Spinach: — Long Standing.

Squash: — Summer-Crookneck; winter-Boston Marrow, Bay
State, Hubbard,

Tomato:— Alpha, Dwarf Champion, Ignotum.
Turnip:— Purple Top Sharp Leaf.

In the above list, when more than one variety is named the
first is the earliest, and the others follow in order of maturity or
keeping qualities.

PLANT A GARDEN,

There is always a tendency in a new country, for the farmer
to put all his energies into fhe work of the field crops, and to
neglect entirely the fruit and vegetable garden. 'Probably there
is a much larger number of farms in this state without- gardens
than with them, and yet for the amount of land and effort requir-
ed, no part of the farm brings as high a return as a good garden.
The farm garden should be convenient to the house, and so plan-

AND EXI>E1!LMKXT STA TIOX, 140

ned that nearly all the work can be done with the cultiva-
tor, L,et everything, even including onions, be planted in drills
or rows from thirty inches to three feet apart, and a few turns
with th'e cultivator on the way to the corn field will keep the
garden in good growing condition. The added variety to the
bill of fare that a good garden will afford, will insure increased
health and comfort to every family; and there is almost 'always a
surplus of vegetables, which command a .good price in all the
towns of the state.

SOUTH DAKOTA

AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

AND

EXPERIMENT STATION

BROOKINGS, S. D.

BULLETIN NO. 20.

DECEMBER, 1891.

Department of Forestry, Horticulture and Botany

FORESTRY AND FUNGI

DUTCHER & 3BBED, BROOKINGS,

GOVERNING BOARDS.

REGENTS OF EDUCATION.

HON. ED. F. HEWIT, Pres., Ipswich Term expires 181)4

HON. A. T. FREE, Yice-Pres., Yankton " 1890

HON. Jos. FREUDENFELD, Sec'y and Treas.,

Plankinton 1894

HON. A. B. SMEDLEY, Milbank 1896

HON. JL P. WARD, Monroe 1896

REV. W. S. PETERSON, Rapid City 1894

REV. R. O. BRANDT, Brandt 1892

HON. PAUL LANDMANN, Scotland 1892

HON. S H. ELROD, Clark 1892

BOARD OF TRUSTEES.

HON. J. P. DAY, President, Mellette Term expires 1895

HON. A. E. HITCHCOCK, Sec'y, Mitchell " " 189(5

HON. S. W. LOCKWOOD, Treas., Brooking. . . " " 1893

HON. C. J PETERSON, Deuel " 1894

HON. ALEX. MC!NTYRE, Watertown •' 1897

STATION STAFF.

9

LEWIS McLouTH, A. M., PH. D., PRES., Ex-Officio.

LUTHER FOSTER, M. S. A., Director, Agriculturist

CHARLES A. KEFFER, M. H., Horticulturist

I. H. ORCUTT, M. D., PH. D., Entomologist

JAS. H. SHEPARD, A. M Analytical Chemist

A. H. WHEATON, Dairy Science

Veterinarian.

WILLIAM FROST, LL. B Accountant.

JOHN M. ALDRICH, M. S., Assistant Entomologist

C. G. HOPKINS, B. S., Assistant Chemist

T. A. WILLIAMS, A. M., Assistant Botanist

V. B. VALLEAU, B. S., Stenographer.

ROBERT F. KERR, A. M., Librarian

CHAS. A. DUNCAN, B. S., Irrigator

W. G. COPELAND, Foreman of the Farm

The Bulletins of this Station will be sent free to all resi-
dents of the State who will apply for them.

Mail for the Station should be addressed to the Director,
and that for any special department to the officer in charge.

FORESTRY.

C. A. KEFFEB, Superintendent.

The season of 1891 has been favorable for forest tree growth
at the Experiment Station. The oldest planted plats begin to
assume something of the nature of trees, and to illustrate char-
acteristics of growth in the different species that seem to in-
dicate their ultimate utility in this region. Observations have
been made during the year upon the rate of growth of the dif-
ferent species, more especially with a view to determining what
trees will quickest form leaf canopy and thus require least cul-
tivation. This is a matter of supreme importance to the
farmer tree planter. Unlike the nurseryman, or the forester,
the farmer's tree planting must, in the nature of his vocation,
be one of many operations; and it is usually the last to receive
attention. In a very excellent bulletin recently issued from
the Forestry Division of the Department of Agriculture on
"What is Forestry?" Chief of Division Fernow proposes as an
experiment, uto simply break the sod in June, and sow millet
or oats thickly to make a close stand; this will secure a return
for the labor i f breaking. The millet should be cut with a high
stubble, which may bo expected to catch the winter snow, keep
down weed-growth, and act as a mulching the next season.
Plant next spring as early as possible, in trenches, without dis-
turbing the ground between trenches, and mo§t likely

tion will not be necessary the first season, while the second
season, with our dense planting, the trees should be able to
help themselves." This method is suggested more for the
Sand Hill region of Nebraska than for localities having a stiff
clay subsoil. It is certainly very different from our ordinary
practices, and if successful generally should act as a great im-
petus to tree planting, as it reduces the work to a minimum.
The reason why it is introduced here, is not to recommend it,
but only to indicate a fundamental principle in forest planting:
the necessity of securing a shade for the ground at the earliest
possible moment. So far as the method suggested by Prof.
Fernow is concerned, it would seem impracticable in this state,
where the grasses quickly take uncultivated ground, and where
the ordinary rainfall is not sufficient to insure the vigorous
growth trees would have to make to overcome the grasses and
weeds. However, it is an experiment easily tried, and planters
would get some interesting experience by devoting a small plat
to the work.

METE GEOLOGY AND GKOWTH.

METEOROLOGICAL TABLE.

Month.

Rainfall.

Temperature.

Wind.

•
5

Q

6
X

a

z >>

cc S3

il

s-i O

O

"3
I

1

4>

1

5

"So

4)

1

1

9

ft

0

£

j>>
«

1889.
January

.3

.5
.16
1.025
1.93
1.485
2.918
.72
2.70
.005

41. o
43. o
55. o
83. °
91. °
93.6 o
93. o
97. °
89. o
76.4 o
28. o
52. o

43.9 °

47. o
'32.25
84. o
90. °
90.5 o
94.5 o
99. °
91. °
74.5 o
68. °
58. o

52. o
48- o
50.
88.
92.5
89.
80.
99.5
98.
80.

-24. °
-30. °

4. o
12. o
20. o
36.1 o
40. o
41.8 °
30. o
23.8 °
-6. o

-11. °

-28. o
-35 o
_4. o
10. °
23. o
39. °
41. o
35. °
25. o
21. o
0
-18.

-10. o

-28.
-24.
11.
>50.
40.
60.
30.5
23.5
19.5

15.
19.6
32.
51.20
56.7
64.2
68.8
69.5
55.1
43.7
22.87
26.78

7.56
14.32
19.69
46.71
32.197
67.75
71.06
63.8 o
57.5 °
38.8 °
29.41
21.2 °

t
6.95
17.94
43.9
55.54
62.5
69.5
66.3
65.1
45.4

February

11
17
10
15
15
11
6
q

18
15
13

15
15
13
10
20
6
10
14
11
H
22
8

14
11
13
18
17
15
13
15
24
15

6
15
8
14
16
15
10
10
11
18

16
18

14
12
9
22
19
16
16
11
12
19

16
17

15

9

14
16
14
6
11

March . .

April

11
9
11
9
3
4
1

.27
.62
.54
.89
.53
2.22
.005

May

.June

July .

Austin! . .

October .

November ..

December

5

5
1

3

4
11
14
5
5
5
7
1

.475

*2.
*2.
.31
.51
.80
2.
.54
.88
.19
.12

.975

*6.5
*2.
.56
.787
3.33
7.91
1.535
2.07
.45
.32
.03

1890.
.January

February
March

April

May

June ... ...

July

September

October
November ....

December

1891.

February . ....

*3
*2
9
5
11

5
2

*4.
*4.
.93
.88

1.34

.7
.44
.27
.62

*10.
*6.
2.23
.84
4.09
2.01
1.38
.48
1.07

March

April

May

June . .

July

August — Frost on 23rd

September ....

October

November

December

1

2

* Snow, t Observations not complete.

Total rain fall during growing season. —

April to November inclusive — 1889, 10.783 inches.

1890, 16.402 "
« " 1891, 12.10 "

In the spring of 1891 eight half-acre plats were added to the
forest plantation, making a total of thirty plats or fifteen acres,
planted since 1889. Planting began April 23rd and was com-
pleted within two weeks. Copious rains fell April 13 and 16,
with light showers on the four following days, and .26 inch rain
on the 27th. These showers made the ground in good condi-
tion for planting, and in those plats that were set while the
soil was moist a good stand was secured. Before the two last
plats were set the weather had turned dryer, and, as during the
entire month of May only .8 of an inch of rain fell, the stand
in these plats is poor, the more so as a lar^e proportion of the
trees set in them were pines and spruces. All the trees that
were planted early enough to be benefited by the April rains
made good growth during the season, the months of June and
July being especially favorable for growth. After July 21st
only 2.63 inches rain fell the balance of the season, as against
2.87 inches for the same period in 1890. The extreme dry
autumn of 1890, with the lack of snow in the winter, resulted in
quite severe winter killing, the box-elders being most injured.
The rainfall was a little better distributed this year, and it is
hoped less injury will result-

The year's planting showed the great importance of having
the ground in suitable condition as regards moisture when
planting is begun. Had planting been begun a week earlier
last spring a better stand would have been secured, as the trees
would have thrown out young roots before the dry weather of
May came. By having the land deep plowed in the fall, the
planter will be able to take advantage of the first favorable
spring weather to begin operations.

Following is a plat of the forest plantation, showing the vari-
eties in each plat, and the number of trees alive in each in No-
vember, '91. As the blanks in several plats were filled in last
spring and trees thus set were not included in the summaries of
plats 1 to 10 made in another place in this bulletin, the totals
in the diagram and in the summaries will not agree.

In order that the numbers of the plats may follow in order as
the plantation is enlarged, a change in the numbering is made

from that which appeared in Bulletin No. 20. Plats 1 to 10
were planted in the spring of 188(>, plats 11 to 22 in 1890, and
plats 23 to 30 in 1891.

10 Rods,

a W

S U.M a

:

IS

o *•;

_> 0

3D EC

_

-^ X

w 2

^ >>

>W o

NOTE. — The blanks in plats 1 to 10 were filled in in the spring
of '91, and unless especial mention is made in the notes on these
plats, the trees thus planted are not included in the totals of
the table.

Ml SIS*

THE MIXED FOREST PLATS.

The following notes on the ten oldest forest plats, which were
planted with one and two yeav seedlings in the spring of 1889,
are given as showing the present condition of the various mix-
tures, and their utility in shading the ground. The plats are
numbered as indicated in the diagram published.

PLAT NO. 1.

This plat, as will be seen by the diagram, has for its tempo-
rary trees (those that are to be taken out first as thinning be-
comes necessary) box elder and Populus certinensis, and for
its permanent trees green ash, white spruce from Black Hills
and Scotch pine. The spruce were used, not because they were
regarded as especially suitable for permanents, but because,
having but few specimens, it was thought they would have a
better chance in this arrangement to show how wrell they would
withstand exposure. The following diagram shows the position
of the trees, which are four feet apart both ways.

NORTH.

BSBABSBA
BPB'PBPBP

BABSBABS ^fe6^61'

S — White Spruce.

BPBPBPBP ^ — P°PU1US certinensis,

A— Green Ash.

BSBABSBA . Scotch Pi™ substituted

in part for White Spruce.

BPBPBPBP
BABSBABS

SOUTH,

11

At the time of setting, in the spring of 1888, the box elders
used were one year seedlings, shipped in from nursery;
the ash were two years old, having been grown in our nursery
one year; the poplars were one year old, from cuttings set the
previous spring: the spruce were from ten to twelve inches
high, seedlings brought from the woods in the Black Hills. In
a few rows Scotch pine, twice transplanted, were used in place
of spruce. In a few cases cotton wood was substituted for pop-
lar. A very poor stand of box elder was secured, the yearling
trees not growing near so well as the two-year-olds set in other
plats. In '90 the blanks in box elder rows were reset with
yearling box elders. Last spring all blanks were set with year-
lino1 ash, the average growth of which for the season has been
about two inches.

The plat is, with one exception, the most open in the planta-
tion, it being easy to pass amon<£ the trees without touching
the branches. The box elders will not average more than four
feet high, though those of the original planting are seven feet
high. The poplars average about seven feet high, and only one
of the original setting has died- This poplar (P. certinensis) is
erect in habit, though not quite as upright as Lombardy. The
ash averages about four feet, only seven of the original setting
being higher than six feet. The spruces have merely become
established, somewhat more than half are promising, the rest
being in bad condition.

The forest plats were cultivated twice the past season, the
last time in June. As certinensis poplar is not a dense shading
tree, and the remaining species have not made good growth un-
til this year, the weed growth has been as great in this plat
as im any other save the larch plat. No 'math of weeds has
formed, and the land is now what would be called clean by
many farmers. The weeds that have grown among the trees of
this plat are Agrostis major, Pancum capillare, and Setaria
viridis, grasses; Chenopodium album, lamb quarters;
Amarantus albus, tumble weed; Portulaca oleracea, purslane
or parsley; Rosa blanda, wild rose; of these the fox tail
grass (Set ana viridis) and purslane are most preval-
ent. In an adjoining plat in which the shade was dense

12

throughout the summer, soil and other conditions being ident-
ical, no weed growth remained (See Plat 4).

The average growth of the past season, for the different
species, with the number of trees, exclusive of seedling ash
planted last spring, is as follows:
79 Spruce (Picea alba) ............ Average growth 1 inch

17 Scotch Pine ..................... " " 3 inches

102 Green Ash (Praxinus viridis) . . . ** " 12 inches

335 Populus certinensis ............ " " 33 inches

f>02 Box Elder-
Average growth of '88 planting ................... 30 inches

" '90 ................... 24 inches

Total in plat, 1035.

PLAT 2.

The following diagram will show the arrangement of tlio
trees in this plat:

B A B E B W B

C B C B C B C B— Box Elder (Negtmdo acer-

B E B W B A B C— Cotton wood (Populus mon-

C B C B C B C E— White Elm ( Ulmus Amer-

B W B A B E B A— Green 'Ash (Fraximis viri-

Black

C B C B C B C W— Black Walnut (Juglnns

B A B E B W B

C B C B C B C .

In several rows Populus nolester was substituted for cot-
tonwood, and in a few places black wild cherry was substituted
for black walnut.

A much better growth has been secured in this plat than in
dlat 1, resulting in a denser shade and less weed growth. The
tendency of weed growth to take possession of the ground is
clearly shown in this plat, where a few blanks of considerable
area have been formed. The cotton wood averages fully three

13

feet taller than any other species in the plat, many specimens
being three inches in diameter at the butt. The cotton wood
leaf beetle has been more prevalent this season than ever be-
fore. Appearing in July, it fed through the month of August,
and severely checked the growth of the trees. Late in Sep-
tember a new growth began, and the trees now (Oct. 20) show
young leaves at the, ends of the branches. This new growth
has been slight, only from one to three inches, but bein^ unsea-
sonable it may result in winterkilling.

Populus nolester, a Russian form, seems less successful than
the more common Populus certinensis. It is a much slower
grower than cottonwood, is not so stronsr, but seems less invit-
ing to the leaf beetle. Of the walnuts planted, but two in the
entire plat survived and these made poor growth. The blanks
in this plat, and in plats 4, 6, 8 and 10, were planted with choke
cherry seed last fall. The seed germinated freely but all the
trees were destroyed by cut-worms. The weed growth differed
from Plat 1 only in there being fewer weeds.

1 It will be noticed that the hard wood trees in this plat are
elm and ash (the walnut having failed), and the temporary or
nurse trees are cottonwood and box elder. Already the mixture
is proving itself a poor one, for the cottonwood demands more
light than any other species in the plat, and grows most rapidly,
not only in youth but in age. Its foliage is thin, and its shade
is not dense, so that it is the poorest species in the plantation
for preventing weed growth. By overtopping the more valu-
able elm and ash trees it will tend to check their growth, and
thus really hinder instead of aid their development. The box
elders used in this plat were nearly all one year old when set
(spring of '89) and a poor stand was secured, but the trees that
made a good start the year they were set have made a good
growth, and have winter killed very little, while those that made
a feeble growth have winter killed quite badly, and are hardly
yet in a thrifty condition.

This suggests the importance of careful setting- at a time
when sufficient moisture for growth is assured, and thorough
cultivation the first season.

14

ff

330 Cottonwood and P. nolester, average height 9 ft., highest
cotton wood 12 ft., 6 in. 243 Box elder, av. height 6 ft., tallest
tree 9 ft. 10 in. Ill White elm, av. height 3| ft , tallest tree 9 ft.
6 in; 28 elms over 6 ft. high. 121 Green ash, av. height 4J ft.,
tallest tree 7 ft. 4 in; 22 ash over 6 ft. high.

The average growth for the year was: ash 18 inches; box elder
38 inches (killed back in winter of '90-91, "on average 12 inches);
elm, 28 inches; cottonwood 33 inches (severely checked by leaf
beetle). Total trees in plat, 805.

PLAT 3.

This plat consists of European larch and box elders, planted
alternately throughout the plat. Larch trees 6 to 8 inches high
were bought and ^rown in nursery rows one year, then trans-
planted in the plat. Yearling box elders were used, except a
few two-year-olds. As will be seen by referring to our Bul-
letin No. 20, many larch trees were killed by a late storm in
May 1890. The survivors have shown peculiarities in growth
that are of interest. Only a very few of the trees have devel-
oped a leading branch, and made strong upward growth. Al-
most all have made good growth of latral branches, which are
horizontal and near the ground. The few that have begun ver-
tical growth, first made a similar latral development, so that it
is probable the remaining ones will develop "leaders" during
the next few seasons. The plat is the poorest in the plantation,
both in the number and condition of its trees. The larch
have grown slowly, and at the first a good stand of box elders
was not secured, so that there has been nothing to catch the
snow, and the ground has been bare during the winters- In the
summer the slight shade has not been sufficient to keep down
weed growth, and though the plat was cultivated two times
more than the remaining ones of the planting of '89, it now con-
tains the most weeds. The principal weed is Setaria viridis,
fox tail grass; the wild licorice, Glycyrrhiza lepidota, and wild
rose, Rosa hlanda var. Arkansana, weeds with very tough un-
derground stems, are more common in this plat than in any
other. They are extremely difficult to exterminate, nothing but

18

continued scalping seems effective, and three years of this
treatment has not entirely cleaned the forest plats of them.

Last spring the blanks in this plat were filled with yearling
ash trees, almost all of which have lived. The plat contains
208 larch trees, average height 15 in., tallest tree 4 ft. 6 in; and
529 box elders, average height 3 ft., tallest tree 10 ft. Total in
plat 737.

PLAT 4.

B B B B
P B Y B
B B B B

Y B P B

B— Box Elder.
B- B B B P White Pine (Pinus strobus.)

Y— Yellow Birch (Betula lutca.}
P B Y B

B B B B
Y B P B

B B B B

This plat illustrates more graphically than any other, the im-
portance of securing a good stand the first season. Six rows
crosswise of the plat were set with yearling box elders, direct
from a nursery, and in the next seventeen rows two-year-old box
elders that had been once transplanted, were used. In the first
six rows a very poor stand was secured, while of the two-year-
old trees less than a dozen failed. This may not indicate the
superiority of two-year-old trees so much, as it does the import-
ance of having the plants in the best condition at the time of
setting. The two-year-old trees were transferred from nursery
row in the experiment grounds direct to the plats, while the
yearlings were shipped in. The two-year-olds had much better
roots, however, and presumably were better able to make a vig-
orous growth at once. Thus far at the Station the most vigor-
ous seedlings have become more quickly established and have.

16

grown better than the smaller ones; and this indicates that it
pays to buy first sizes of yearling trees.

This plat also shows the value of rapid growing dense-shad-
ing trees. Among the two-year-old box elders mentioned the
latral branches were cut back in June, so as not to interfere
with the cultivator, but by September the branches were
slightly interlaced, and the ground was so shaded that no weeds
grew, though the more open parts of the plat, with the same
cultivation, supported a considerable growth of weeds.

The white pine is practically a failure. While there are
forty-nine pines alive, none have made over five inches of
growth in the three seasons they have stood in the plat. The y
merely send out a new tuft of leaves in the spring. Possibly
they will do better after a few years, but from their action thus
far they cannot be recommended. A few Colorado Blue Spruce
were set last spring where pines had failed, and these have be-
come well established.

The yellow birch has made satisfactory growth the past sea-
son, and no trees of the species have died since the first season.
Being a native of much cooler and moister regions, it was feared
this tree would not stand here, but thus far it has done well.
The specimens that stand among the largest box elders are not
doing as well as those that stand where they have more sun-
shine. The birches are light-demanding species, and succeed
best in full sunshine.

SUMMARY. — The plat contains 877 box elders, those two years
old when set now average nine feet high, the tallest being
eleven feet. Yearlings when set average four feet high.
Greatest growth of box elder for the year, 57 inches. Average
growth for year 36 inches. 105 Yellow birch, average height,
54 inches; tallest. 8 ft. 2 inches; average growth, 30 inches.
Forty-nine white pines; very little growth in three years.
Eight Colorado blue spruce (Picea pungerns), set spring of '91.
Total number of trees in the plat, 1039.

17

PLAT 5.

E 13 O B E 13
B 13 B 13 B B
O B E B O B

B B B B B B B Box Elder (Ncgundo aceroides]

E — White Elm ( Ulmus Americana )
E B O B E B O— Burr Oak (Quercus tnacro-

caupa).
P B B B B B

O B E B O B
B B B B B B

In this plat, as in the last, box elder is used as a nurse tree,
the permanent form being white elm and burr oak, both of
which species are indigenous in this county.

The elm seems to be especially adapted for cultivation in
prairie regions. It is hardy and a rapid grower. It has sev-
eral peculiarities in youth which are apt to bother the grower.
The first is a tendency to form forked branches, the two parts
being of such equal strength that one is always tempted to
begin pruning at once. In our plats this tendency is already
apparent, but in the large trees, one branch always gets the
lead of the other, and carries the trunk upward, so that there is
but little danger of splitting. The most destructive pest that
has yet troubled the elm is the jack-rabbit, which peels the
trees from a point just above the ground. The inner bark of
the elm seems a favorite food of the rabbit, and as it is tough
and stringy, instead of breaking like the bark of the apple, for
instance, it is pulled off in long strips. So that girdling this
tree is much more destructive than the barking of other species.
Very few elms have been killed, but they have been so in-
jured that new shoots have sprung from crown buds, and thus
many specimens consist of of a number of shoots, instead of one
upright trunk. Last year the rabbits commenced barking the

18

elins in October, and before anyone thought of danger to the
trees a good deal of mischief had been done.

Less than half the oaks grew. Small trees, 12-21 incljcs,
were planted. The first year many grew from stem buds, but
in most cases the second spring the trees threw up shoots from
the ground, and these will form the trees. The specimens are
in fine condition. Their growth is slow, but they have large
healthy leaves and promise well.

As in the other plats, wherever the box elders have stood
well from the first their dense shade has prevented weed
growth since cultivation ceased, but where the box elders are
too small to shade the ground considerable growth of purslane,
foxtail, and a few other weeds has appeared.

SUMMARY.— The plot contains 872 box elders, averaging 4 ft.
6 in. high, tallest 10 ft. 6 in. 164 elms, averaging 3 ft , tallest 8
ft. 11 inches. 46 burr oaks, averaging 20 inches, tallest 3 ft. 2
inches. Total 1102 trees, exclusive of ash, with which all
blanks were filled in the spring of 1891.

PLAT 6.
P A P A P A

E P E P E P

P A P A P A ^ — Populus certinensis, ( A Russian

Poplar).

TT P TT P TT P E — White Elm, ( Ulmus Americana. )

A— White Ash, (Fraxinus Ameri-

P A P A P A cana">-

E P P P E P

In this plat certinensis poplar is used as a nurse tree in-
stead of box elder, and the permanent trees are brought closer
together than in any of the plats before described. As has
been said, the poplar is not well adapted for use as a nurse, be-
cause it is a light demanding species, and because its shade is
not dense enough to entirely prevent weed growth. The leaf
beetle has checked the groweth of the poplars very seriously ;
but they have showed astonishing vitality. Notwithstanding

19

the trees have been badly injured by leaf -beetle. (Lina scripta)
for three successive seasons, very few have died, though the
growth has been greatly checked. Owing to the excellent stand
in this plat, a good shade has been formed, and weed growth
has been less than in plats where the box elder has been used,
but has not grown well. Certinensis poplar is more dense and
upright than the cottonwood, and so makos a heavier shade.
Both the elm and ash have thus far grown well with the poplar.

SUMMAKY. — The plat contains 688 poplars (in a few rows the
poplar was substituted for elm or ash), average height 6 feet
tallest 8 ft- 2 inches, average growth this season 2 feet; 277
white ash, average height 3 ft. 9 inches, tallest 6 ft. 6 inches;
344 white elm, average height 5 feet, tallest 8£ feet, average
growth this season 2-| feet; total 1309 trees.

PLAT 7.
E B 0 P A B W P E B

PBBBPBBBP

PABWPEBC

BPBBBPBBB

A B W P E B C

B P

W P

B P

E B

B P

B B B
E B C

P A B

n

P B B B P
P A B W P

BBBPBBBP
CPABWPEB
P B B B P

B B B

E — White Elm, ( Ulmus Americana).

B — Box Elder, (Negundo aceroides).

B— Black Wild Cherry, (Prunus serotina).

A — White Ash, (Fraxinus Americana).

W — Black Walnut, (Juglans nigra).

P — Poplar (Russian varieties).

20

*

In this plat tlfe elm and ash have grown better than in any
other, probably owing to the fact that the snow has drifted
more among the trees and remained longer on the ground in
spring. This is the only plat save one in which the walnuts
have done anything at all. Only 14 walnut trees, two of which
are white walnut (Juglans cinerea) and the remainder black,
are standing. They seem to have become established and will
probably grow without further trouble, though it has taken
three years for most of them to gain a foothold. The mixture
of poplar and box elder in the nurse-rows is not so satisfactory
as box elder alone. As in other plats, where the box elder has
killed back weeds have sprung up since cultivation ceased.
No great weed growth has been made however, and the cultiva-
tion of next spring will easily over come it. The soil through-
out the plantation is in very fine condition.

SUMMARY.-— The plat contains 75 elm trees, averaging 5 ft.
hiijh, 38 of which are 6 ft. high or more, the tallest bein^ 10 ft.
2 in.; 55 black wild cherry, averaging 4ft. high, with 9 over (>
ft., the tallest bein# 7 ft. 1 in.; 83 white ash, averaging 4 ft 9 in.
the tallest 7 ft. 8 in.; 14 walnut, averaging 18 in., the tallest be-
ing 3 ft. 7 in.; 573 box elder, averaging 5 ft. Bin.; the tallest be-
ing 10 ft. 7 in.; 313 poplars averaging 4 ft. 6 in. Total 1113
trees.

TLAT 8.

B C P C B
M C M C M

P C B C P

B— White Birch, (Betula alba ).
M— Silver Maple, (Acer dasycarputn ).
T> n T> n T> ^~~ Scotch Pine, (Pinus sylvestris}.

G— Cottonwood, (Popultts monilifcni).

M C M C M
P C B C P
M C M C M

21

As in other plats where different poplars have been used as
nurse trees, the result here is not as satisfactory as where "box
elder has done well. It was thought the silver or soft maple
might prove valuable as a nurse, but it is more tender than box
elder, and thus far has not proven as satisfactory as that varie-
ty in any other way. Last winter the box elder killed back
where not protected by snow, but the box elder, unless very
much injured, will send up one stem from below the dead place,
and thus form a single trunk; the maple is rather more tender,
and it sends up a member of shoots from below the dead line,
thus giving it a bush rather than a tree form. It may be, as
the trees mature that one of these shoots will overcome the
others, thus forming a good trunk, but the tendency is the
other way.

The white birch thus far equals, if it does not surpass the
yellow birch in hardiness and in growth. It is a beautiful tree,
and a few specimens will be valuable for this reason, though
the species is not considered a useful forest tree, not attaining
large size.

Of 170 Scotch pines originally planted, 84, or about one half,
are now standing. Not more than half of these are in good
condition. Last spring the blanks in the pines were reset with
line trees from our own nursery. Great care was taken in trans-
planting, but extremely dry weather followed, and very few of
the transplanted trees lived. The Scotch pines that are well
established are making satisfactory growth and seem better
adapted for cultivation on the prairies than any of the conifers
yet tried at the Station.

The cottonwoods in this plat are similar in growth and con-
dition to those already noted.

SUMMARY. — This plat contains 110 white birch, averaging 5 ft.
high, of which 58 are over 6 ft. high, the tallest being 8 ft.. 6 in.'
84 Scotch pine, averaging 18 inches, of which the tallest is 4 ft. ;
165 maple averaging 4 ft-, of which 17 are over 6 ft., the tallest
being 7 ft. 3 in.; 99 green ash (substituted for maple); 560 cot-
ton wood and other poplars, the cottonwoods averaging 9 ft,
Total trees 1018,

22

PLAT 9.

CBWBEB'BIBAB
SPPPSPBPPP

WSSSBiSASCS
PBSBBBPBSB
EPBiPAPCPWP
BSBSPSSSBS
BiBABCBWBEB
SPPPSPBPPP

ASCSWSESBiS

*y
PBSBBBPBSB

C— Black Wild Cherry, (Prunus serotina).

S— Red Willow, (Salix tragilis).

W — Black Walnut, (Juglans nigra) .

P — Populus certinensis.

E — White Elm, ( Ulmus americana).

B— Box Elder, (Negundo aceroides).

Bi— White Birch, (Betula alba).

A — White Ash, (Fraxinus Americana).

In this plat a Russian willow was used with a Russian pop-
lar and the box elder as nurse trees, the three species alter-
nating in the rows. The mixture has nothing to recommend
it, the willow being the poorest form in the plantation. In-
stead of forming a trunk, the willow branched freely from the
ground, growing in the form of a bush in which the diameter
equaled the height. It will be noticed that the ash and elm»
which in all the plats have stood better than the remaining
hard woods, have made less growth in this plat than in any
other. This is due in large measure to the willow, which has
grown very rank, though not in tree form. This willow would
make an excellent wind-break or screen, but it is infested with

23

the cottonwood leaf beetle (Lina scripta), though not to such
a degree as the poplars. The willow makes a denser shade than
cottonwood, but not so dense as box elder, which it only sur-
passes in hardiness. As a nurse tree box elder is to be prefer-
red. In this plat ash and elm were substituted it part for wal-
nut and birch.

The poplar has not grown as well in this plat as in plat 6.
owing probably to the spreading roots of the willow. The box-
elder has done better, relatively, than any of the other species.
The general indications, however, are that this willow is not
suitable for mixing with other trees.

SUMMAEY. — This plat contains fifty elm trees, averaging 3J
feet, ten of which are over 6 ft. high, the tallest being 8 ft. 2in. ;
67 ash averaging 3ft. 8 in., three over 6 ft. high, the tallest being
6 ft., 4 in.; 35 cherry averaging 3 ft. 6 in., of which only one was
six ft; 24 birch, of which 7 were over 6 ft., the species not in as
good condition as in plat 8; 3 small walnuts; 235 red willow
averaging 5 ft. high, very few being as much as 7 ft. high, much
branched and bushy; 289 poplars, averaging 3J ft., not thrifty;
256 box elder, averaging 5 ft., the tallest being 9 ft. 10 in.
Total trees in plat 959.

PLAT 10.

C B E A C
B E A B B

E A B C E C— Black Wild Cherry (Prunus serotina).
A C C E A B— Yellow Birch (Betula lutea).
C B E A C E— White Elm (Ulmus Americana).
B E A B B A— White Ash (Fraxinus Americana) .
E A B C E
A* C C E A

This is the only plat in the plantation that is composed en-
tirely of hardwood trees. And while from the stand point of a
quick soil cover the mixture is not so useful as one in which a
rapid growing soft wood has been largely used, yet it is a ques-
tion whether the greater value of the thinnings will not more
than pay for added cultivation necessary. The plat has been
freer from weeds, after being two times cultivated this year, than

24

plat 8, in which cottonwood is used for the nurse trees. The
shade cast by birch and cherry is dense, and nothing grows
beneath them, the ash at its best is a thin-foliaged tree, and
makes but little denser shade than the cottonwood. The elm
while young does not form a dense head, but its shade is quite
thick as it grows older.

The arrangement of trees in the plat has already proven to be
faulty. As planted, birch and cherry stand beside each other,
leaving the two poorer shade makers together, and thus making
a place where the soil will remain uncovered and grass and weeds
will grow. A better arrangement would have been to alternate
cherry, elm, birch, and ash, thus placing a light foliaged species
between two dense foliaged kinds-

As regards the action of the hard woods when planted together,
no difference has been observed in their growth between this
and other plots, with the possible exception of the ash, of which
fewer trees have reached the height of six feet. The black wild
cherry has only developed the tree form in few instances as yet.
Most of the trees of this variety consist of a mass of branches,
which start from the trunk within a foot of the ground, making
the tree as great in diameter as in height. A few specimens show
leading branches, and these indicate the tendency of the species.
Both white and yellow birch are spiral in shape, and they hold
their foliage later than any. other deciduous species. Thus far
they have withstood the extreme drouth of our autumns as well
as any species, though they are natives af a cool damp climate.
Fewer birches survived the first year than any other species,
but once established they have proven satisfactory. It is yet too
early to recommend them without qualification.

SUMMARY. — The plot contains 252 wild cherry, averaging 4- ft.
in height, of which 20 are 6 ft. or over, the tallest being 7 ft. 3
in.; average growth for the year 2ft, greatest growth 39 inches;
171 birch, averaging 5 ft. 6 in., 90 over 6 ft., the tallest being 9
ft. 7 in. ; average growth 2^ ft, greatest growth 56 in. ; 329 elm,
averaging 5 ft., 88 over 6 ft., the tallest being 8 ft. 6 in.} average
growth 2 ft., greatest growth 50 inches; 301 ash averaging^ ft.,
13 over 6 ft, the tallest being 7 ft. 2 in., average growth 18 inches.

In addition to the hardwoods the plat contains 147 Populns
certinensis and 47 evergreens, which have been set in blanks. Of
the conifers the principal species used is '.Finns ponderosa, set
last spring, and hence only established. A larger per cent of it
has lived after transplanting than any other conifer tried at the
station.

Total trees in plat 1247.

THE SEEDLING PLAT.

In this plat, containing 2 acres, 49 rods, fourteen varieties of
forest tree seeds were planted in the fall of 1887. The follow-
ing varieties survive: walnut, black wild cherry, green ash,
box elder, hard maple (acer saccharum). The plat is high
ground with a northern exposure, and but little snow lodged in
it last winter. The hard maple and walnut were measurably
protected by the snow, but the cherry, ash and box elder were
practically without protection. The cherry killed back but very
little. The ash came through the winter without injury, but
the box elder was badly injured, in many cases all the growth of
the previous season was killed. The tallest box elder in the plat
is 9 ft. 6 in. high, average height 6 ft. 6 in., average growth for
the year 3 ft. Compared with the oldest box elders in plat 1 — 10,
which were brought when one year old in the spring of 1888,
grown one year in nursery rows and then transplanted to their
present position, the seedlings of '87 are not so large, but they
average better than the yearling trees that were set in the other
plats in '89.

The green ash trees in this plat average 4 ft. 3 in. high, the
tallest being 7 ft. 2 in., and the average growth for the year 16
inches. The ash trees number several hundred, and they are all
in fine condition.

The hard maples are few in number and have made but little
growth, tta tallest being 12J inches hisrh. Cherry and walnut
are about equal in size and growth to the same species grown
in the forest plantation.

In 1889 and again in 1890 the blanks in this plantation were
filled in with box- elder, elm, certinensis popalar, laurel leaved
willow, birch, Norway popular (P. tremuloides ?} and Scotch

pine. The eertinensis popular has not grown as well in the
high, poorer soil of the seedling plat as it has in the plantation.
Elm and the Norway popular ( a popular received under this
name from the nursery, but evidently one of the aspens, pro-
bably P tremuloidcs] have done well, and the laurel leaved wil-
low has gi own very well. Its glossy leaves make it a noticeable
object in the plat. It is visited by the cottonweod leaf beetle, which
does it less injury than either cottonwood or certinenis poplar.

The birches do not thrive in this plat as they do in the lower,
richer soil of the plantation.

The small plat of Scotch pines, in which 342 trees were set in
the spring of 1890, showed more than any other of the forest
plants the effects of the very dry autumn and open winter. In
the fall, as noted in Bulletin No. 20, 285 pines were in good con-
dition. Of these not more than twenty-five survived, and less
than a dozen are in good condition.

The land in which they stood is a gravelly knoll, and they were
set there to test the adaptability of the species in the severest
way. Evidently the tree requires a moister soil than the gravel-
ly ridges furnish.

Comparing this seedling plat, which is on and near the ridge
of a long northern slope, with the forest plantation, which is in
low land at the base of a similar eastern slope, we find the trees
in the lower land as a rule larger, and in better condition, hav-
ing been less injured by winter-killing. The soil in the planta-
tion is deep and contains little gravel. That in the seedling plat
is comparatively thin and is underlaid with a gravel stratum,
under which is the stiff clay, which also forms the sub- soil in
the plantation.

It is of far greater importance, however, to cover the ridges
of prairies with trees than to grow them in the richer lowlands.
They are not only more effective as wind breaks when placed on
ridges — protecting thus a far greater area — but they are immeas-
urably more useful in saving snow water when planted in the
higher ground. And so, while observations thus far point to
greater success with trees grown in the rich low lands, the plat
in the higher ground demonstrates that, while growth is slower,

27

trees can be grown in the poorer soil of the knolls, and some
varieties, notably the ash and aspen, seem to flourish there.

GROWTH FROM SEEDS.

The work with tree seeds has been very unsatisfactory the
past two years owing to drouth at the critical time of germina-
tion, and to the pest of cut worms, which destroy the young
seedlings. Last fall seeds of choke cherry (Prunus Virginians.)
were planted in all the blanks of the even numbered plats from
2 to 16 inclusive The seed germinated well in the spring, but
while the little plants were less than two inches high they were
all destroyed by cut worms. The choke cherry is a slow grower,
and succeeds in partial shade, arid it was thought it would make
a more complete leaf canopy with the larger forms, besides at-
tracting birds with its fruit.

Early in the spring a large quantity of box elder and green
ash seed, which had been frozen over winter, were sown in drills,
and germinated well, but all were destroyed while in the seed
leaf by cut worms.

In districts where the cut worms are numerous, it would seem
inadvisable to plant seeds, as there is no known way in which to
prevent the distruction of the seedlings by the worms, especially
if they are planted in drills or where the trees are to stand in
the forest plat. It is probable that in the course of a few years
the pest will pass away, when it will be again advisable to sow
seeds. Meanwhile the planter will find it more economical to
buy seedlings.

Conifer seed planted early, failed to germinate. Shortly after
the seed were sown dry weather came on, and this was doubtless
the reason.

.b'or the purpose of comparison, a table of average growths of
varieties in plats, 1 to 10 inclusive, for the years 1889, 90 and
91 is here given. All the figures are averages, determined by
measuring a number of leading branches 011 the trees showing
the greatest, least and average growth, and working from these
data. They will not therefore correspond to the figures in the
notes.

28

Total Growth in Inche*.

Variety,

18««. 1890.

1891.

«

•s.
%

<
^

M
•<

H

es

1

i
<

H

03
S

a
'£

ii

*ft

•24

80

7'->

!»'.;

10
5

7Ji

10

o

1'2

1"

1

2^
3
4

4

8

•»4

256
1

94
3«

5'2
IW
9

16

18^8

4^4

«14

6
1%

5i4
!M2
8
8?8

lp

h

251,,

1()34

18
15',

»14

4(1
88
9

3lV '

g

29
42
2«
35
:W
9
14
4
8
40
38
45
»W
34

18
18
:j

?"
8

12
10
6
16
18
2

8
1
1
14
10
20

i<;

8

3H
35
6

^0^
5'-,
16 "
229^
16
22',
24
5

1^8

24
44
87

?8?4'

40^
22 ^

43
46
20

36"

13
40
46
32
45
40
18
16
24

84 '
39

.-,1
40
31

Hi
20

(i

y

10
15

•,'n
26
22
•i
5
2

10
22

24
19
1 1

35
374
18

•ii

10
23

:!2
28?j

34',

•»| :(

4
U '2

2V4

24 i4
32

:W'.,
2i.i4
19

Popnliih Nolester

BI'H-k Walnut

\V it- Walnut

V" i o\v Kirch

White Oak .

White Birch

White FJlm

24
12
12J*

84
7*

V6

?;
sJ*

33

34
-5
14

Hlack Wild Clierrv

Soft Maple

Scotch Pine • • • •

lilnck Hills Spruce

J»o\ Klcler one year old*

Box Elder, two yearn old*
Oottonwood 1 year oid* •

White A«*h

-When tranc>plaut<

.NOT US ON PARASITIC FUNGI OBSERVED AT KROOK-
I.NGS DURING THE SUJMM.ER OF

T. A. WILLIAMS, M. A.

INTRODUCTION.

The term fungus (plural fungi) is a general one, applied to a
class of flowerless plants that get their nourishment from other
dead or living plants, or from animals. They contain no green
coloring matter (chlorophyll}. They are unable to manufact-
ure their own food from the elements of the soil or air, as do
most of the higher plants, but get nourishment already prepared
by higher plants.

A fungus is composed of two parts, a vegetative portion, or
plant body, and a reproductive portion or spore. The former
usually consists of variously modified threads (mycelium), which
spread over or penetrate into the substance upon which the
fungus grows. These threads are usually more or less branched
and are colorless or colored according to the kind of fungus of
which they form a part.

The reproductive portion consists primarily of small bodies
(spores) which are born on branches of the mycelium, or, in
specialised bodies or receptacles.

From their methods of obtaining nourishment fungi are
divided into two classes: Those obtaining nourishment from
decaying matter, or SAPROPHYTES; and those obtaining their food
from living plants or animals, or PABASITES. A parasitic fungus

30

then is one that gets all its nourishment by robbing some other
living plant or animal.

Saprophtic fungi seldom does much damage. Under proper
conditions, however, some of them become parasitic or semi-
parasitic in their habits and then are more or less injurious. It
is to the parasitic fungi that we must look for our injurious
forms. These send their vegetative threads through the tissues
of other plants causing disease and often death. The plant
upon which a fungus grows is called the "host plant" or the
"host."

METHODS OF REPRODUCTION IN THE PRINCIPAL KINDS OF PARASI-
TIC FUNGI.

The greater part of our injurious fun^i belongs to the kinds
commonly known as, THE BLIGHTS, THE MILDEWS, THE WHITE

RUSTS, THE SMUTS, THE RED OR BLACK RUSTS, and THE LEAF SPOT

FUNGI. In order that all may have some idea of the ways these
plants perpetuate themselves, a short account of the various
methods of reproduction is appended.

THE DOWNY MILDEWS AND WHITE RUSTS.

In both of these there are two kinds of spores or reproductive
bodies, one kind born on mycelia within the tissues of the
host plant, remains there until the tissues decay and fall away,
which is usually the following spring. These spores are known
as resting spores. They serve to carry the fungus over to the
next season. That is performing the same function as do the
seeds of the flowering plants. The other kind of spores {conidia )
are born upon upright branches of the vegetative threads.
In the downy mildews these spores are born outside, on the sur-
face of the host plant, upon many- forked branches, and give the
surface a light colored down-like appearance. In the white rusts
the spores are developed beneath the surface of the host, form-
ing shining white spots and later bursting through the epidermis,
giving the surface a white powdery appearance. In nearly all
cases this last kind of spore is produced in much greater quanti-
ties than the resting spores, and as they germinate readily serve
to produce a more rapid multiplication of plants and a wider

31

(lestributioii than could be gained were thorn but the one kind
of spore.

THE BLIGHTS (Perisporiticeac).

These fungi have reproductive organs, much like the miedews
except that both kinds of spores are born 011 the surface of the
host plant. Leaves affected by the blight appear covered with
a grayish or whitish cobweb-like mass of threads or inycelia
interspersed here and there with small blackish specks. If one
of these specks were examined, with a compound microscope, it
would be seen to have a ball-like form, usually with many slender
projections coming from its surface. This ball-like body is the
resting' spore. When a mature resting spore is mashed under
the microscope it is seen to contain one or more sac-like bodies
filled with spores. These resting spores are provided with a
thick, heavy covering to protect the spores during the winter,
just as many seeds are provided with a 'hard shell for a like pur-
pose.

The conidia of the blights are of the same color as the my-
celia and are produced earlier than the resting spores. They
are born 011 upright branches of the inycelia.

The mycelia of the blights grow on the surface of the host
and send little branches or suckers down into the plant tissues
for nourishment and to insure a good hold upon the host.

In the leaf spot fungi the spores are born on little upright
threads or in minute blackish receptacles clustered in variously
colored (usually whitish or brownish) spots on the surface of
the leaf. Most of these fungi are imperfect forms and have but
one kind of spore.

THE SMUTS ( Ustilagineac).

The mycelia of the smuts grows entirely within the tissues of
the host plant so that it is difficult to acertain whether or not
plants are affected until the spores appear. As the mycelia de-
velope a mass of them congregate at some place within the host
plant (generally at or near the flowers or fruit) and form the
spores. These when ripe show as a black powdery mass, as is
seen in the smutted ear of corn or head of wheat or barley.
The spores are very small, more or less rounded and black; when

32

dry they are easily blown about by the wind and so become
scattered over a large field. Many of them are covered with
minute projections which enable them to adhere to the surface
of plants and various other substances, and are thus carried
about as sandburs or cockle-burs are-

THE KUSTS (Uredineae}.

The rusts are without doubt the most injurious of all fungi.
They are also the most difficult to destroy or prevent. This is
doubtless due to their natural facilities for insuring reproduc-
tion. Normally a rust, as for example the common wheat rust
Puccinia graminis), passes through three readily recognized
stages of growth on the same host plant or on different hosts as
the case may be. Stage I, known as the "Cluster Cap" stage
consists of numerous small orange colored cup shaped bodies,
arranged in clusters or scattered uniformly upon the surface of
the host. These "cups" are filled with yellowish spores which
fall upon the surface of the host plant, germinate, and give rise
to staye II, or the "Red Rust" stage. This may be readily re-
cognized in the reddish powdery masses covering the various
small grains just before harvest on a bad "rust" season. Tho
spores of this stage are born in small redish or blackish, often
elongated, openings in the epidermis of the host. These are
called sori (singular sorus). The red rust spores fall upon the
host and germinate very readily producing stage III, or the
"Black Rust" stage. Sometimes however the same sori that pro-
duced red rust spores produce black rust spores later in the
season. Black rust is by far the most destructive of all the stages
of these fungi. The black rust spores constitute the resting
spores. They lie in the straw or upon the ground till spring
when they germinate and produce minute colorless bodies which
attach themselves to the young host plant, germinates, and the
fungus starts on its round of life once more.

REMEDIES AND PREVENTIVES OF FUNGOUS DISEASES.

To combat fungous diseases successfully the greater part of
the work should be done in endeavoring to prevent the disease
rather than to try to cure it after it has gotten a start. While

it is often necessary to treat different diseases in different ways,
yet a few general suggestions can be given that may be profi-
tably followed in most cases.

No straw or trash from infested grain should be allowed GO
accumulate or remain upon the ground, especially if the same
crop must be planted the next year. All the refuse should be
burned. Straw and stubble, from wheat affected with rust
should be burned. Rotation of crops should be practiced as
much as possible. Potatoes or beets should never be planted in
ground where "scabby" potatoes have been raised the preceding
year.

For the deseases caused by "blights," "mildews," or the "leaf
spot" fungi such remedies as the Bordeaux mixture may be used
with reasonable assurance of success.

This mixture is made of lime, copper sulphate, and water,
mixed in the following proportions.

Lime, 4 Ibs.

Copper Sulphate, 6 Ibs.

Water, 22 gallons.

The usual way is to slack the four pounds of lime in six gal-
lons of water; then disolve the six pounds of copper sulphate in
sixteen gallons of water; as soon as they are cool mix all to-
gether well. As the lime is only held in suspension it is nec-
essary to keep the mixture well shaken while applying it to the
plants. It may be applied by means of a spraying pump. The
time for spraying depends a great deal upon the season. As a
rule the spraying should begin about the last of May or the
first of June; this being about the time that the fungi are be-
ginning their growth. The mixture falls upon the leaves and
prevents the germination of the fungus spores arid kills the
young fingi where they have not yet penetrated into the host.

It has been found that a more dilute solution of the Bordeaux
mixture is quite effective with such diseases as "leaf spot,"
"scab," &c. Mixing together 4 Ibs. lime, and 4 Ibs- of copper
sulphate to 50 gallons of water, this is much less expensive than
the first and more easily applied.

As yet no fungicide has been found that will successfully pre-
vent rust,

34

Serious damage from smuts may be prevented. It lias been
found that the damage done to grain by smuts comes from fungi
developed from spores adhering to the seed of the grain when
sown. Dr. Jensen acting upon this fact treated grain with hot
water and found that the fungus spores were killed and that
the grain grown from seed treated thus was practically free
from smut while untreated seed yielded smutted grain. Experi-
ments carried on at the Kansas Experiment Station by Dr. Kel-
lermau showed that grdin could be raised comparatively free
from smut, by treating the seed with either Jensen's Hot Water
Treatment or a solution of Livers of Sulphur (Potassium sul-
phide). Dr. Kellerman also found that there was a considerable
increase in yield of grain beyond the amount that would have
been destroyed by smut. He describes the method of treating
the grains as follows : *

•-ir.iillct.in No. 15, Kansas State Experiment Station isnii.

DIRECTIONS FOE TREATING THE SEED.

THE JENSEN HOT-WATEE TREATMENT.

"The hot-water treatment consists in immersing the seed which
is supposed to be infected with smut, for a few minutes in scald-
ing water. The temperature must be such as to kill the smut
spores and the immersion must not be prolonged so that the
heat would injure the grain or embryo concealed within the
seed coats. If the water is at a temperature of 132|°F. the spores
will be killed, and yet the immerson, if not continued beyond
«*. fifteen ninutes, will not in the least injure the seed. The smut
•* spores will possibly be killed by a ten minutes' immersion. A
fifteen immersion, however is recommended. The temperature
must be allowed to vary but little from 132^°, in no case
rising higher than 135°, nor falling below 130°. To insure these
conditions when treating large quantities of seed the following
suggestions are offered:

Provide two large vessels, as two kettles over a fire, or boilers
011 a cook stove; the first containing warm water (say 110° — 130°),
the second containing scalding water (132 J°).

The first is for the purpose of warming the seed preparatory
to dipping it into the second. Unless this precaution is taken,
it will be difficult to keep the water in the second vessel at a
proper temperature.

The seed which is to be treated must be placed a half bushel
or more at a time, in a closed vessel that will allow free entrance
and exit of water on all sides. For this purpose a bushel basket
made of heavvy wire could be used, within which spread wire
netting, say 12 meshes to the inch; or an iron frame could be
ma.cle at a trifling cost, over which the wire netting could be

3G

s treched. This would allow the water to pass freely, and yet
prevent the passage of the seed. A. sack made of loosely woven
material (as gunny-sack) could perhaps be used instead of the
wire basket. A perforated tin vessel might be preferable to any
of the above.

Now dip the basket of seed in the first vessel; after a moment
lift it; and when the water has for the most part escaped, plunge
it into the water again, repeating the operation several times.
The object of the lifting and plunging, to which might be ad-
ded also a rotary motion, is to bring every grain in contact with
the hot water. Less than a minute is required for this pre-
paratory treatment, after which plunge the basket of seed into
the second vessel. If the thermometer indicates that the tem-
perature of the water is falling pour in hot water until it
is elevated to 132|°. If it should rise higher than that, add
small quantities of cold water. This will doubtless be the most
effectual method of keeping the proper temperature, and re-
quires only the addition of two small vessels one for cold and
the other for boiling water. The basket of seed should very
shortly after its immersion be lifted and then plunged and agi-
tated in the manner described above, and the operation should
be repeated eight to ten times during the immersion (which
should be continued fifteen minutes). In this way every por-
tion of the seed will be subjected to the action of the scalding
water. * Immediatelyafter its removal dash cold water over it, or
plunge it into a vessel of cold water, and then spread out to dry.
Another portion can be treated similarly, and so on till all the
seed has been disinfected. Before thoroughly dry, the seed can
be sown.

The important precautions to be taken as follows: 1st — Main-
tain the proper temperature of the water (132 J° Fahr.), in no
case allowing it to rise higher than 135° or to fall below 130°.
This will not be difficult to do if a reliable thermometer is used
and hot or cold water be dipped into the vessel as the falling or
rising temperature demands. Immersion fifteen minutes will
not then injure the seed. 2nd. — See that the volume of scald-
ing water is much greater (at least six or eight times) than that
of the seed treated at any one time. 3rd. — Never fill the basket

s?

or sack containing the seed entirely full, but always leave room
for the grain to move about freely. 4th. — Leave the seed in the
second vessel of water fifteen minutes.

THE POTASSIUM SULPHIDE TREATMENT.

Our experiments this year seem to show that a weak solution
of potassium sulphide is nearly if not quite as good as hot
water for treating oats to prevent smut. Since this method may
prove more convenient than the Jensen method for treating
small quantities of grain, we give directions for carrying it out.
The potassium sulphide is cheapest in the "fused" condition;
it costs about 25 cents a pound. One pound of the sulphide
should be dissolved in 24 gallons of water. Place the seed in a
wooden vessel and pour on the solution until the seed is covered
several inches deep. Stir the solution before pouring it on the
grain and thoroughly mix the seed several times before taking
it out of the solution. The oats should stand in the solution 24
hours after which they may be spread out to dry.

It will probably be best to sow the seed as soon as possible
and before it becomes thoroughly dry."

NOTICE.

We are desirous of obtaining all the information possible
concerning the fungous deseases of economic plants. All such
information will be gratefully received. Specimens of diseased
plants can be sent by mail at one cent for each cunce. They
need only be wrapped in paper and directed to the station.

We are also anxious to get specimens of grasses and forage
plants of the state together with information concerning their
habits and value as forage, either for hay or grazing.

Address THE BOTANIST OF THE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT

STATION, BROOKINGS, SOUTH DAKOTA.

FUNGI CAUSING MORE OB LESS DAMAGE TO USE

FUL PLANTS.

PEKONOSPOEACEAE.

PERONOSPORA ARTHURI, Farlow. Mildew of evening primrose.
On yellow evening primrose (Oenothera biennis), covering
the leaves with a mass of white filaments causing them to curl,
lose color, and finally fall prematurely. It has been very
injurious to plants in the flower gardens this season,

PERONOSPORA VIOLAE, DeBary. Violet or pansy mildew. Found
rarely on pansies in flower gardens. It is very injurious.

PERISPORIACEAE. THE BLIGHTS.

PODOSPHAERA TRiDACTYLA,(Wallr ) DeBary. Cherry blight. On
leaves of the common cultivated cherry (Prunus cerasus) and
sand cherry (Prunus pumila ). It covers the leaves with a net-
work of fine whitish filaments, spreading over both upper and
under sides. The leaves of young shoots are usually more
liable to injury. The fungus was especially injurious to the
sand cherry, often covering every leaf on a plant and causing
eariy dropping of the leaves; thereby hindering the proper
developement oi: buds and ripening of the wood. June — Sept-
ember.

SPHAEROTHECA PANNOSA, ( Wallr. ) Lev. Eose blight. This fung-
us has been observed but a few times on leaves of wild rose
(Rose arkansana) and once on leaves of cultivated roses.
It has caused little or no damage so far. July.

39

SPHAEROTHECA MORS-UVAE, (Scliw.) Berk, and 'Curtis. Goose-
berry and currant blight, on leaves of cultivated gooseberry,
and wild black currant (Ribes floridum). Not common
enough to be injurious. June.

MICROSPHAERA ALNI, (DC- ) Winter. Lilac blight. On leaves
of lilac (Syringa vulgar is}. Bare. Causing but little dam-
age. June — July.

ERYSIPHE COMMUNIS, (Wallr. ) Fr. Pea blight, Common on
leaves and stems of garden peas. This fungus was not so
destructive this season as it has been in previous ones. It
often becomes a serious pest. June — July.

PYRENOMYCETES. THE BLACK FUNGI.

SPHAERIA ULMAE, Schw. On leaves of White Elm (Ulnnis
americana). It forms irregular blackish spots on the leaves
but appears too late in the season to do much damage.

PHYLLACHORA GRAMINIS, (Pers.) Fkl. Leaf spot. Forming
elongated black spots on the leaves of Muhlenberg's grass
(Muhlenbergia mexicana) and rice-cut-grass (Leersia vir-
ginica). Although the fungus is very plentiful it seldom
does much injury as it generally appears late in the season
when the leaves are dead or dying from frost.

PLOWRIGHTIA MORBOSA, (Schw.) Sacc. Black-knot. On limbs
of wild plum (Prunus americana ) and choke cherry (Prunus
virginiana), causing great black swellings, deforming and
finally killing the limbs. Very common and injurious. In
many states this fungus has become so bad on cultivated
plums as to completely ruin large orchards. The only reme-
dy is to cut off and burn all deseased parts year after year,
taking care that no affected parts are allowed to remain over
from one season to another.

DISCOMYCETES. THE CUP-FUNGI.

KHYTISMA ACERINUM, ( Pers. ) Fr. Black leaf spot of maple. On
living leaves of soft or silver maple (Acer saccharinum),
forming large, irregular, thickened, black, areas. Thus far this

40

fungus has not been plentiful enough to be very injurious. It
has been known to completely strip large groves of niaple
in Nebraska. June to September.

BHYTISMA SALICINUM, Fr. Black leaf spot of willow. On liv-
ing leaves of diamond willow, (Salix cordata var vestita),
forming spots as described in the preceding. It was found
quite plentifully this season and did considerable damage.
July — October.

UBEDINEAE. THE BUSTS.

UROMYCES TRIFOLII, (Alb. & Schw.) Winter. Clover rust. On
leaves of mammoth red clover (Tri folium pratense var.)
grown in the experimental plats on the College farm. It was
found but once and was not very plentiful but did considerable
damage to the host.

MELAMPSORA FARINOSA, (Pers.) Schroet. Willow rust. Very
plentiful on the leaves of nearly all our common willows.
During the summer the leaves become covered with small
powdery spots of orange yellow spores. These spots become
brown or black later in the season. The fungus has been
very destructive this year, having much to do with the early
falling of the leaves.

MELAMPSORA POPULINA, (Jacq.) Lev. Cottonwood or poplar rust.
Common on leaves of cottonwood (Populus monilifera) and
the various species of poplar growing on the college grounds.
Similar in appearance to the willow rust but not so injurious,
this year. A few trees were noticed badly damaged.

PUCCINIA CORONATA, Corda. Oat rust. II and III on leaves,
sheaths and stems of oats. This rust occurred but rarely,
and did but little damage compared to the next.

PUCCINIA GRAMINIS, Pers. Grain rust. II and III. Common
on wheat, cats and many grasses. It has not been very des-
tructive to small grains this year, as it appeared rather too
•late. A few fields of late wheat were found that were more
or less damaged. It has been very destructive to the wheat
grasses, (Agropyrum glaucum, Ag. caninum, and Ag. ten-

•4!

erum) especially to the latter species. Squirrel-tail grass
(Hordeum jubatum) was also very badly affected. Several
farms were noticed where wheat grass and squirrel-tail were
so badly affected that there is no doubt that their stems and
leaves contained enough rusts pores to "seed" thousands of
acres of grain. Were these grasses carefully collected and
burned most of these spores would be destroyed. It is prob-
able that such grasses as these aid materially in causing many
damaged fields of grain.

PUCCINIA PRTINI, Pers. Plum rust. III. On leaves of wild plum
(Primus americana). Rare. It is very injurious when abund-
ant.

PUCCINIA STIPAE, Arthur. III. On porcupine gmss(Stipa spartea).
It causes but little damage.

PUCCINIA VIOLAE, (Schum.) DC. Violet rust. I-IIL On leaves
of common wild violet (Viola cucullata). It often becomes
very injurious. May — July.

ACCIDIUM FBAXINI, Schw. Ash rust. On leaves and petioles of
green ash (Fraxinus viridis) Quite common and destructive.
Often greatly distorting the affected parts. June — July.

AECIDIUM GROSSULARIAE, Schum. Gooseberry or currant rust.
On leaves and berries of common gooseberry (Ribes rotundi-
folium), and black wild currant (Ribes floridum). Abundant.
Very destructive, especially when the fruit is affected. Many
bushes were noticed with scarcely a leaf or fruit unaffected.
May — July.

UREDO CAEOMA-NITENS, Schw. Blackberry and Raspberry rust.
Covers the whole under surface of the leaves with an orange
red powder (the spores). Does much damage to the host
wherever found. Happily it is as yet quite rare here.

USTILAGINEAE. THE SMUTS.

USTILAGO AVENAE, (Pers.) Jensen. Loose smut of oats. In
heads of oats, causing them to turn to a black powdery mass,
totally ruining the grains. Quite common and very destruct-
ive. Damaged some fields considerably this year.

42

USTILAGO HYPHODYTES, (Schlect) Fr. Grass smut. Destroys the
tissues of the stem within the sheaths. Found but once on
porcupine grass, (Stipa spartea.)

USTILAGO MAYDIS, (DC.) Corda. Corn smut. On ears, stalks,
and tassels of corn. Often totally destroying the ear. It lias
not been plentiful enough to cause much damage.

USTILAGO NUDA, (Jensen) Kellerm <fc Swingle. Naked smut of
barley. Often causing the complete destruction of barley
heads. Several fields were observed to be quite badly afflict-
ed by this smut-

USTILAGO TRITICI, (Pers.) Jensen. Loose smut of wheat. Sim-
ilar in appearance and effects to the proceeding species. Com-
mon and destructive. Some fields were badly damaged the
past season.

SPHAEKOPSIDEAE.

VERMICULARIA DENUDATA, Schw. ( ?). On leaves and stems of
Kentucky blue grass (Poa pratensis) and wire grass (Poa
compressa)- Usually not very destructive as it is most plenti-
ful rather late in the season. In a few instances it did con-
siderable damage to Kentucky blue grass.

STEGONOSPORA SPINACEAE, E. & E. (n. sp. in lit.). Leaf spot of
spinach. This species was discovered on leaves of spinach in
the college gardens the past season It forms circular grayish
spots on the leaves, causing them to be unfit for use, and final-
ly, to fall off. Very destructive. Found usually in company
of Peronospora efisua-

SEPTORIA PRUNI, Ellis. Leaf spot of the plum. On leaves of
common plum (Prunus americana), giving them a spotted
appearance, not pleasant to behold, and damaging them con-
siderably.

SEPTORIA RIBES, Desm. Gooseberry and currant leaf spot.
Quite abundant on leaves of gooseberry (Ribes rotundifolium),
and wild black currant (Ribes floridum) . Many instances of
its destructive character have been observed this season, par-
ticularly on the wild black currant.

43

SEPTOEIA EUBI, West. Raspberry leaf spot. Not uncommon on
leaves of both wild and cultivated raspberries. It sometimes
becomes destructive.

PIGGOTIA FEAXINI, B. & C. On leaves of green ash (Fraxinus
viridis). It forms irregular black patches on the leaves, and
though most plentiful on the fallen leaves, has been very de-
structive to the fresh ones this year. It has been one of the
chief agents in stripping the trees so early in the season.

HYPHOMYCETES.

OIDIUM EEYSIPHOIDES, Fr. Mildew. On leaves of turnip, caus-
ing them to appear as if covered with flour. Apparently not
injurious.

RAMULAEIA AEMOEACIAE, FUCKEL. Leaf spot of horseradish,
(Nasturtium armoracia}. Frequently doing a great deal of
damage to the leaves. Many of these may be found with the
spots completely covering the surface; the whole leaf having
a whitened appearance.

RAMULAEIA TULASNEI, Sacc. Strawberry leaf spot, or Straw-
berry blight. On leaves of both wild and cultivated straw-
berries, common. Some varieties of cultivated strawberries
are almost free from blight, while others are always more or
less affected. When a patch becomes infested with this fungus
all the affected leaves should be collected and burned. Some
growers recommend burning over the entire patch once
a year. This, however, should not be done if the ground is
very dry, but if the soil is moist and a good wind blowing, it
may do, great care is necessary at all times.

SCOLECOTEICHUM MACULicoLA, Ell. & Kell. Causing spots on
leaves of reed grass, (Phragmites vulgaris}.

CEECOSPOEA BETICOLA, Sacc. Leaf spot of beet. Common on
leaves of garden beet, frequently becoming quite injurious.
Causes the leaves to curl and dry up.

CEECOSPOEA CIECUMSCISSA, Sacc. Leaf spot of cherry; gun shot
disease. On leaves of wild and cultivated cherries- The

44

fungus forms brownish spots, which after a time, fall out,
leaving the leaves as if perforated by shot holes. Often very
destructive.

CERATOPHORUM ULMICOLUM, E. & K. Elm leaf spot. Not very
common, and not very destructive. On leaves of elm ( U/mus
Americana).

II.

BENEFICIAL FUNGI.

The fungi classed under the above head include those par-
asitic species damaging weeds, and injurious plants, hence they
are to be classed as beneficial to the farmer.

ENTOMOPHTHOKACEAE. THE INSECT FUNGI.

EMPUSA MUSCAK (Fr. ) Cohn. Fly fungus. On the common house
fly. It has been very plentiful here this year, appearing earlier
than usual. The affected flies may be readily recognized,as they
attach themselves to the walls, curtains, &c., and soon become
more or less distended, and covered with a whitish powdery sub-
stance (the spores). After hanging for some time in this man-
ner they become surrounded by a white circle of spores-

PERONOSPORACEAE.

PERONOSPORA OYPARISSIAE, DeBary. Mildew of spurge. On leaves
and stems of spurge (Euphorbia spp.). Showing as a violet
tinged mildew on the affected parts. It causes the plants to
assume an upright mode of growth, ( Coiiidia deeply tinged with
violet; 13 £— 18u, Ellipsoid). Very plentiful. The affected
plants were usually quite badly damaged.

PERONOSPORA LEPTOSPERMA, DeBary. On under side of leaves
of wormwood (Artemisia biennis). Common. Frequently
doing considerable damage to the host by causing the leaves
to turn yellow, dry up, and fall off. July — September.

SCLEROSPORA GRAMiNrcoLA, (Sacc. ) Schroet. Mildew of grass.
Very common this season on fox tail ( Setaria viridis). 1 1

46
i

appears usually, on the upper leaves and causes them to curl
and die. The flower-spike instead of ripening the usual quantity
of seed forms a bushy, leafy, mass and bears no seed at all.
The fungus has kept a great many plants of this weed from
"going to seed" this year.

PL ASM or A MA HALSTEDU, ( Farl. ) BerL and DeToni. On leaves
of wild artichoke (Helianthus tnberosus), and marsh elder
(Iva xanthi folia). Plentiful. This is the most destructive
species of my acquaintance. Many plants were found with
every leaf affected. The marsh elder is one of our commonest
roadside weeds, and thousands of them were killed this sea-
son by the mildew. July — September.

CYSTOPUS JJLITI, (Biv. ) DeBary. White rust of pigweed. Very
plentiful on common pigweed (Amarantus retroflexus), and
the tumble weeds (Amarantus alba and A. blitoides). It
forms white patches on the under side of the leaves; which
break open later emitting many white, powdery, spores, hence
the name "white rust." Quite injurious especially to the
tumble weeds. July — October.

CYSTOPUS < ANDIDUS, (Pers.) Lev. This white rust occurs upon a
great number of hosts belonging to the order Cruciferae. It
has been collected 011 pepper grass (Lepidium virginicum
and L. intermedium), hedge mustard (Sisymbrium offi-
cinale), shepherd's purse (Capsella bursa-pastoris), black-
mustard (Brassica nigra), white mustard (B. abla), charlock
(Z>. arvemis), and water cress (Nasturtium hispidum).

CYSTOPUS portulacae, (DC) Lev. White rust of purslane. Af-
fects the under side of the leaves of purslane (Portulaca ole-
racea). Very plentiful but apparently doing little damage.

CYSTOPUS TRAGOPOGONIS, (Pers.) Schroet. On rag weeds (Ambrosia
spp.\ Common. By far the most destructive species of this
genus, comparing well with Plasm, kalstedii. In many places
aloii^ the roadside and streets the weeds were completely
stripped of all but the very uppermost leaves, and sometimes
even these succumbed. What is probably the same species

47

was collected on wormwood (Artimesia biettmti), where it was
equally injurious, when found in sufficient quantities.

PERISPOEIACEAE. THE BLIGHTS.

EUYSIPHI: ci< HOEACEARUM, DC. On great rag weed (Ambrosia
trifida,} and golden rod (tiolhlayo .^>/>.). Common and often
quite destructive.

UKDEINEAE. THE RUSTS.

I'uo.MYCKs EuriiORKiAE, Cke. <fe Pk. Bust of Euphorbia or spurge.
II — III on leaves of spurge (Euphorbia serpyllifolia and E.
hypericifolia). One of our commonest rusts. It seldom be-
comes very destructive.

UROMYCES POLYGONI, (Pers.) FuckeL I — II — III. On leaves
and stems of knotweed, or door weed (Polyyonum erection, I*.
(t vie f flare and P. ramosissimum). A very commons pecies often
becoming quite destructive in all its stages. May — Septem-
ber.

UROMYCES BUDHECKIAE, Arthur & Holw. Cone nower rust. Ill .
On cone flower ( Rudbeckia laciniatd). Forms definite raised,
light browrn, or brown, spots on the underside of the leaf.
The tissues of the affected spot, after a time, fall away, leav-
ing an irregular hole- When the whole leaf is affected, it
rolls up and falls off. A common and destructive species.
June — October.

PUCCINIA coNvoLvuLi, (Pers.) Cast. Morning glory rust II— III.
On leaves of wild morning glory, or hedge bind-weed ((Jon,-
volvulits sepium). A common and often very injurious species,
often destroying nearly every leaf.

PUCCINIA EMACULATA, Schw. III. On old witch grass (Pani-
t-H.in capillare). Usually on the upper surface of the leaves,
causing them to shrivel and dry up. Not uncommon, and
frequently destructive.

PUOCINIA IIELIANTIII, Schw. Sunflower rust. II & III. On sun-
flower (Helianthus annuns^ M< mawimiliam, & H. gigant^us]

48

Very common and destructive. Often covering the entire
under surface of the leaf.

PUCCINIA POLY<;ONI — AMPIIIUII, Pers. II & lit. On water
persicaria (Potygonum amp/iibmm), and tan weed (P.otygonwm

terrestre). This species is very common, and also very de-
structive. It appears on the under side of the leaves, some-
times scattered indefinitely over the surface, but usually in
more or less circular spots.

PUCCINI A FRENANTIIIS, (Pers.) Fuckel. I, II & III. On wild
lettuce (Lactuca pulchella). Common and destructive, especi-
ally in the first stage, which is usually found along the mid-
ribs of the leaves. The affected plants assume a much more
upright mode of growth than their fellows, and seldom ripen
many seeds.

PUI;CINIA TAKAXACI, Plow. Dandelion rust. II <fe III. On false
dandelion (Troximon glancum). Not common and not very
injurious. What is probably the same thing has been collect-
ed several times on common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale),
upon which host it is much more destructive.

PUCCINIA XANTHII, Schw. Cockle bur rust. III. On common
cockle bur (Xanthium canadense). Forms large, swollen
brownish places on the under surface of the leaves. It is
quite common and frequently becomes very destructive.

PHRAGMIDIUM SPECIOSUM, Fr. Stem rust of the rose- II & III.
On wild rose (Rosa arkansana). Very common and destructive.
JSta^e II appears usually in June on the younger stems,
petioles, and sometimes, leaves, buds and fruit, forming lartre,.
bright orange masses of spores. Stage III appears later as
a black, powdery mass upon the stems.

PHRAGMIDIUM suBCORTiciuM,(Schraiik) Winter. Rose leaf rust. II
& III. On leaves of wild rose (Rosa, arkansana). Not uncom-
mon, and sometimes becoming destructive. Sori scattered
over the under surface of the leaf, giving it a powdery ap-
pearance- This species has been known to be quite in-
jurious to cultivated roses, but so far, it has been found here
only on wild roses.

49

AK< tnur.vL APOCYNI, Scliw. On Indian hemp or dogbane (Apoc-
tjm<m cannabinum). Not very common and seldom injurious,

AECIDIUM COMPOSITAIIUM, Mart. var. HJKLIANTHI, Burrill. Sun-
flower cluster cup, or rust. On leaves of sunflower (Ileli-
ant/ius riyidus and H- yrosse-serrafais) common and often de-
structive.

AKCIDIUM BUPHOBBiA»,0meL Euphorbia, or spurge rust, or cluster
cup. On leaves of (Euphorbia sp — .). Often very injurious,
completely covering the under surface of the leaves, and
causing the affected plants to have a more upright mode of
growth.

AECIPIUM .IAMESIANUM, Pk. Milkweed rust. On wild milkweed
( \sclepias syriaca and A. speciosa). Very common and quite
destructive, especially to the latter host.

AECIDIUM URTICAE, Schw. Nettle rust. On leaves of common
nettle (Urtica gracilis). Rather uncommon, but rery de-
structive whenever found.

AKCIDIUM VERBENAE Speg. Verbena rust- On leaves of hoary
vervain ( Verbena stricta}. As yet not common or destructive.

USTILAGINEAE. THE SMUTS.

USTII.AGO PANKJI-MILIACEI, (Pers.) Wint. On flower panicles of
old witch grass (Panicum capillare.) This smut has been ex-
ceedingly plentiful this year, and very damaging to its host,
often completely destroying the panicles, turning them into
black masses of spores. The plants are generally very much
distorted.

ENTYLOMA PHYSALIDIS, (Klachbr & Cke.) Wint. White smut
of ground cherry. On leaves of Physalis lanceolata, form-
ing roundish spots in the tissues of the leaves; white on the
lower surface and brownish on the upper. Not uncommon
and usually causing but little damage.

SPHAEROPSIDEAE.

SEPTORIA ASCLEPIADICOLA, E. & E. Leaf spot of milkweed. On
swamp milkweed (Asclepias incarnata], Common and destruct-
ive.

50

SEPTORIA ATRIPLICES, (West.) Fuckel. On leaves of goosefoot
(Chenopodiuni hybridum and C. albiduni). Very common and
destructive.

SEPTORIA EKIGEKONTIS, B. & C. Leaf spot of horse weed
(JSrigeron canadense). Plentiful and destructive.

SEPTORIA UU-TUCICOLA, E. & M. Leaf spot of lettuce. On leaves
of wild lettuce (Lactuca sp — . ) Not uncommon and often
rather injurious.

SEPTORIA POLYGONORUAI, Desin. Leaf spot of smart weed. On
leaves of lady's thumb (Potygonumpersicaria) and smart weed
(P. pennsylvanicd). Forms conspicuous spots on the leaves.
Very common and quite destructive.

SEPTORIA RUDBECKIJE, E. & Halsted. Leaf spot of cone flower.
On leaves of tall cone flower [Rudbeckia lacmiata]. Very
plentiful and destructive. Forms large irregular purple- brown
spots containing one or more whitish ones. The spots often
run together and cover the entire surface of the leaf, causing
it to wither and die.

HYPHOMYCETES.

OVULARLA OBLIQUA, [Cke.] Oud. Leaf spot of dock- On leaves
of curled dock (humex crispus), and golden dock (It.
maritimus}. Forming brownish spots on the leaves- Com-
mon and destructive.

RAMULARIA ARVENSIS, Sacc. On leaves of five finger or cinque
foil (Potentilla norvegica). Very common and one of the most
destructive members of the genus-

CERCOSPOKA AVICULARIS, Wint. Leaf spot of knot weed. Very
common on leaves of common knot weed or door yard grass,
(Polygonum aviculare & P. erectum). It is very destructive,
forming whitish spots on the leaves. Many patches of this
weed were almost completely destroyed by the fungus this
season.

CERCOSPORA CLAVATA, (Ger.) Peck. On leaves of swamp milk-
weed [ ^sclepias incarnata ) and common milkweed [ A. syriaca~\.
Forms brown patches on the under surface of the leaves.
Common, sometimes becoming quite injurious.

CERCASPORA ZIZIAE, E. & E. On leaves of Zizia cordata. Quite
common and injurious. Form conspicuous white spots with,
purple-brown borders.

Ill

FUNGI FOUND DAMAGING BOTH USEFUL PLANTS

AND WEEDS.

PERONOSPORACEAE.

PKRONOSPORA EFFUSA, [Grev.] Rabenh. Downy mildew of goose-
foot and spinach. On leaves of goosefoot [Chenopodium
hybridum and C. album], said spinach [Spinacea oleracea].
Plentiful. The fungus has been exceedingly destructive to
all hosts this season. The spinach was completely ruined,
much of it being killed before ^oing to seed, and nearly all
rendered unfit for use. Though this fungus is very useful in
injuring the weeds it is one of the worst enemies that the
spinach growers have to contend with here.

PERONOSPORA PARASITICA, [Pers. ] DeBary. This mildew has been
common on all of our cruciferous weeds, as the mustard, and
peppergrass. In some cases it has been very damaging to
them. It was also troublesome to the radishes in the garden
but did little damage to them.

PYEENOMYCETES. BLACK FUNGI.

CLAVICEPS PUEPUREA, [Fr.] Tul. Ergot Common on wheat grass
(Agropyrum glaucum), quack yrass (Ag. repens), and wild
rye (Klymus canadensis}. It has been especially destructive
to the wheat grass and quack grass- Hardly an un-
jured head of either species could be found on the
college grounds. Here where these grasses are weeds
the fungus is beneficial in its effects, but in some parts
of the state, especially the West, where the wheat grass is one
of the forage grasses, it is very injurious wherever it occurs,

52

It is thought by many to be very hurtful to stock that eat it
in the hay. The fungus has been known to occur on timothy
and cultivated rye in many states and is usually more or less
injurious in its effects.

UREDINEAE. THE BUSTS-

Piv< IXIA MEMTHAK, Pers. Mint rust II — III. On leaves of
Mint (Menthay* ), in wild flower garden, and on common
wild mint ( Menth,a canadensis\ along streams. Very plenti-
ful This is one of our most destructive rusts. The plants in
the garden were almost ruined by it this year.

C<»I,EOSPMRIUM HHIDAGINIS, ( Schw. ) Thuem Golden-rod rust.
On leaves of tall golden-rod ( Solidayo serotina ), in the flower
garden and in the fields- Common- Frequently covers near-
ly every leaf on a plant with scattered masses of orange colored
spores. Destructive

COLEOSPOIUUM SOXCHI, (Pers.) Lev. On leaves of wild aster in
both wild flower garden and field. Common. Not nearly so
injurious as the preceding species.

SPHAEROPSIDEAE.

SKPTORIA OENOTHKRAE, West- Leaf spot of evening primrose.
Very plentiful on yellow evening primrose (Oenotftera bietmis],
in wild flower garden and in the fields. It is very destructive
fom ing large, irregular, pallid spots on the leaves.

HYPHOMYCETES.

PKKH TI.AKIA (iiiisEA, [Cke ] Sacc. On leaves of foxtail (Xet&riu
oiridis and A', glauca), millet (Setti,ri<i it<ilir<i], and rice-cut grass
[ Leersia mryinica]. Common. It often proves very injurious
to millet, causing the leaves to shrivel and dry up long before
it is fit to cut for hay.

CEKO»SPOKA KOSKOLA, Pass. Rose leaf spot. On leaves of both
wild and cultivated roses, forming roundish pallid spots bor-
dered by purple. Not yet found to be very plentiful on cul-
tivated roses here, but becomes very destructive to the wild
rose.

I

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