T- '^ * • - cv.^t SL^ vX'

0

NEW YORK FORESTRY PAMPHLETS
VOL. I

First Annual Report of the Conservation Com-
mission, Albany, N. Y. , 1911.

The Improvement of the Woodlot, Walter Mulford, V
Farm Forestry Series No. 1, Cornell Univ.

Recent New York State Laws living Relief from

Taxation on Lands used for Forestry Purposes
'Jalter Mulford, Farm Forestry Series No. 2,
Vol. II, No. 28, Cornell University.

County, Town and Village Forests, A. B. Recknagel
Farm Forestry Series No. 3, Vol. II, No. 40,
Cornell University.

Bulletin 2, C. R. Pettis, Conservation Commission

Bulletin 8, C. R. Pettis, " "

Bulletin No. la, Series XIII, The Reforestation
of Cut-over and Idle Lands in New York,
Syracuse University.

Principles and Methods of Plant-Breeding, C. H.

Myers, Plant-Breeding Series No. 1, Vol. II,
No. 38, Cornell University.

The Farm Woodlot, F. S. Robertson

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rfcry

STATE OF NEW YORK

FIRST ANNUAL REPORT

OF THE

CONSERVATION COMMISSION

1911

TRANSMITTED TO THE LEGISLATURE JANUARY 10, 1912

ALBANY

J. B. LYON COMPANY, STATE PRINTERS
1912

0

Mato Lib.

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STATE OF NEW':YbRK

No.—

IN SENATE

JANUARY 10, 1912.

FIRST ANNUAL REPORT OF THE CONSERVATION
COMMISSION.

To the Legislature:

Pursuant to statutory direction, that the Conservation Commis-
sion " shall annually report to the Legislature on or before January
15th specifying the receipts, expenditures and work of the depart-
ment for the preceding iiscal year/' we have the honor to submit
the following:

The Conservation Commission was created by chapter 647 of
the Laws of 1911, known as the Conservation Law. To the enact-
ment of this legislation, there was virtually no opposition; such
members of the Legislature as dissented, having done so not on
grounds of policy, but because of what they regarded as defects
and imperfections in the proposed statute. The time was ripe,
the press and the public were ready. When Governor Dix affixed
his signature to the proposed legislation, " as a first and long step
toward true conservation," he but voiced the general hope and
expectation. " To the commission,'7 he said, " is delegated lineis of
work either new as state undertakings or to be performed under
new conditions and broadened powers; to drain swamp lands at
the expense of property benefited, to lease surplus canal waters
on a proper revenue basis so that that power may be utilized under

299058

, REPORT OF THE

safe and proper restrictions, to supervise all construction work in
streams in order to protect the public's right and safeguard life
and property against the danger from impounded waters, to protect
oyster beds against pollution, and to establish state nurseries from
which denuded lands may be reforested."

By the provisions of chapter 647 the Conservation Commission
succeeded to all the powers and duties of the Forest, Fish and
Game Commission, the Forest Purchasing Board, the Water Sup-
ply Commission, and the commissioners of water power on Black
river. The intent and effect was to consolidate under one head all
the closely related duties and problems of administration over
forest and stream, fish and game, and to give powerful impetus to
the conservation of the natural resources of the Empire State.

To this end, the law vests the Conservation Commission
with jurisdiction over investigation of water resources ; regulation
and use of water in the principal watersheds ; safety of dams and
reservoirs ; prevention of floods ; supply of potable water to munic-
ipalities; disposal of sewage; drainage and irrigation, as well as
tree culture and reforestation, the care and custody of forests and
parks, and the protection and propagation of fish and game. In
order that consolidation might not mean confusion, the framers
of the Conservation Law wisely provided for three grand divisions
of the Conservation Department, along the natural and logical
lines of (1) lands and forests, (2) fish and game and (3) inland
waters, and directed that one of the three deputy commissioners
to be appointed should perform duties relating to one of these three
divisions. Thus, the general scheme of organization centers in
a commission, directly responsible to the Governor, and through
him. to the people; while each of the divisions, with its bureaus
or sub-divisions, has its well defined duties and responsibilities.

While each of the divisions will be taken up later in this report,
it may be well, by way of general summary, at this point to note
that the forest preserve placed under the care of the Conservation
Commission embraces 1,600,000 acres; that there are 100,000 acres
of swamp land in the State which may be advantageously drained ;
that six million acres of forest lands are to be protected from fire ;
that more than 15,000,000 trees are being grown from seed, in
the six State nurseries, for purposes of reforestation; that the

CONSERVATION COMMISSION. 5

commission is now propagating for distribution, approximately a
billion fish; that there is a steadily increasing demand for an ex-
tension of the invaluable work of protection of fish and game, now
performed by ninety-five regular game protectors ; that more than
a million horsepower to-day remains to be harnessed and utilized
for the general good, — the equivalent of 10,000.000 tons of coal
per year. But whereas coal once consumed is destroyed, water is
an ever renewable natural resource.

Herein are involved far-reaching problems whose solution calls
for intelligent, concerted administrative and legislative action ;
but a plan which shall save and store, the vast horse-power now
annually dissipated in flood and freshet, and utilize it for com-
mercial use, to the benefit alike of public treasury and of private
industry, will mark a constructive achievement not surpassed in
our State since the days of Governor 'Clinton and the Erie Canal.

The Conservation Law took effect July 21, 1911 ; but not until
November 15th last, was consolidation completed, in fact as well
as in law, through occupancy of the property located at 21-23
Washington avenue, where all the theretofore scattered divisions
and bureaus are now housed under one roof, greatly facilitating
the conduct of departmental business.

The Conservation Law directs the Conservation Commission to
report to the Legislature on or before January 15, 1912, bills to
" revise and consolidate into the Conservation Law" all laws re-
lating to lands and forests, to fish and game, to hydraulic develop-
ment, and to water storage for power purposes. These proposed
statutes will in due course come before the Legislature. Con-
temporaneously, the Commission has co-operated with the joint
committee of the Legislature headed by Senator T. Harvey Ferris,
which has held many hearings on water storage and hydraulic
development, in various parts of the State.

'Such recommendations as the Commission is ready to submit
along these lines of proposed legislation will be found, for greater
clarity, in the parts of this report devoted severally to the Division
of Lands and Forests, the Division of Fish and Game, and the
Division of Inland Waters.

Hereto annexed, and made a part of this report, will be found a
financial statement by which it will be seen that this Department

6 FIEST ANNUAL REPORT OF THE

has received from hunter's licenses $156,005.60, and from miscel-
laneous sources $102,221.05, a total of $258,226.65, which exceeds
the receipts for the last previous fiscal year ($248,878.08) by
$9,348.57.

The total disbursements for the fiscal year ($607,875.08) ex-
ceed those of the last previous fiscal year ($563,198.82) by
$44,676.26, an increase due wholly to necessary special engineer-
ing work devolved upon the Inland Waters Division, such as
$25,000 for the Genesee river improvement, $35,092.59 for de-
veloping water power, and $24,410.69 for C'anaseraga creek im-
provement. The increase in this division was partly offset by a net
decrease in the other two divisions amounting to $12,596.60.

DIVISION OF LANDS AND FORESTS

In the preservation and restoration of the forests in the water-
sheds of the Adirondack and Catskill Preserves, the prevention of
fires is the fundamental thing. It is of little use to reforest the
bare places unless the growth is protected, as a single fire
could wipe out the results of several years' work in replanting.
The efficiency of the fire protection of the forests is shown in the
fact that, although the year 1911 was a year of unusual drought
and with an increased number of fires over that of previous years,
but one-half of one per cent, of the total area of the forests under
protection suffered fire loss; and this, although each patrolman
covered an area of over one hundred thousand acres.

The State bears the entire cost of the patrolling of forest lands,
although it owns less than one-fourth of the area patrolled. The
entire expense of the patrol system is borne by the State, as well
as one-half the extra expense of the cost of fighting fire. These
two items last year amounted to $71,067.60, of which the -State
paid directly $47,693.62 for patrolling, and for one-half of the
cost of hiring extra help in fighting fires, $23,373.98. It would
seem only a matter of good business and justice to all concerned if
the cost of patrolling and of fire fighting should be based on the
area of the forest lands protected. Is there any reason why the
State should pay for the protection of the forests of private
owners ? An equitable system could be devised whereby each pri-
vate owner and the State would pay a just and proportionate
amount of the expense of saving the forests.

CONSERVATION COMMISSION. 7

So much of the welfare and prosperity of the State at large de-
pend upon the protection of the watersheds that the State should
assume control of the timber cutting, and by law regulate the size
of the trees to be cut. The various interests which now own large
tracts of forest lands in the Adirondacks especially, have in most
cases expressed a willingness for the enactment of such a law, and
have 'agreed to co-operate in seeing that such a law was properly
observed. This regulation, which would provide that no trees
should be cut under a certain diameter, would be an efficient means
to prevent the destruction of the watersheds and a great aid in the
work of reforestation of cut over lands, in that it would provide
natural reforestation by seed trees.

Referring again to the work of forest fire protection, it may be
properly stated that the increased efficiency was in a large part
due to the installation during the year of sixteen new observation
stations, making thirty-six in all as follows : Ampersand, Frank-
lin county; Arab, St. Lawrence; Bald, Lewis; Black, Washington;
Blue, Hamilton; Boreas, Essex; Catamount, St. Lawrence; Crane,
Warren; Dunn Brook, Hamilton; Kempshall, Hamilton;
Makomis, Essex; Ohmer, Saratoga; Owl's Head, Hamilton;
Vanderwhacker, Essex; Wakely, Hamilton; Woodhull, Herkimer.
Several additional mountain stations are contemplated for 1912.
Telephone lines were built to connect the various stations, and the
Commission is pleased to report the hearty cooperation of land
owners and others in connection with this work. The Commission
has the free use of over one hundred miles of private telephone
lines.

The number of fire patrolmen was increased in 1011 from
forty-eight to sixty-four, leaving an average area for each to pro-
tect of about one hundred thousand acres as against an average of
one hundred twenty thousand acres in the previous year. The
districts in many cases are still too large.

The forest product showed a falling off, as shown by the follow-
ing figures for the lumber, pulpwood and round wood output re-
ported for the three years: 1010, 027,033,201 feet; 1000, 1,091,-
104,710 feet; 1008, 1,226,754,305 feet.

The annual removal of one billion feet of wood material from
the State forests could not go on indefinitely, without reforestation
on a scale which shall enable the growth to at least balance the

8 FIRST ANNUAL REPORT OF THE

cutting of trees. There lias been a falling off of 300,000,000 feet
the last three years, or 25 per cent. It is estimated that the forest
area containing merchantable timber is 10,709,970 acres, or
16,734 square miles, including the large area of State lands upon
which there is no cutting. The timber reported cut in 1910, if
reduced to boards one inch thick, would cover 22,956 acres, or
thirty-six square miles. The increase in stumpage prices and the
advent of the portable mill are to-day producing an extraordinary
amount of forest products.

The State nurseries now contain nearly 16,000,000 growing
trees. During the year the State supplied at cost to private land
owners 1,774,000 trees, besides carrying on its own reforesting
operations. It has on hand 11,000,000 trees for sale next spring.
A new nursery was established during the year ,at Saratoga and
plans are being put into effect for the establishment of another at
Great Meadows, Comstock. The Great Meadows nursery will be
one of the largest in the State and one of the most efficient in the
United States.

The utilization of idle soil is one of the established prin-
ciples of conservation, inasmuch as it makes available for the use
of man the productivity of land too sterile, or for other reason*
not suitable for other than forest purposes. It is estimated that
in this State to-day five trees are cut down to every one planted.
At the present rate of increase of reforestation and in accordance
with the Commission's plans it is expected to reach the much to be
desired result of planting, at least one tree for every one removed.

The method of reforestation recommended by Governor Dix has
received approval of the people in all parts of the State.

The use of prisoners in growing nursery stock for reforesta-
tion will greatly reduce the cost of the transplants, since labor is
the main item. The State should encourage by every means this
reforestation work and the policy of selling trees at cost should be
a very large inducement. The State should make no profit what-
ever on transactions of this character.

The policy of the State in regard to its land in the Forest Pre-
serve should be to consolidate its holdings so that the work of pro-
tecting the forests and of reforesting the watersheds can be most
effective and at the least expense. The summits of mountains in

CONSERVATION COMMISSION. 9

the parks should be acquired so as to afford the greatest protection
to the watersheds in the conservation of water.

The Conservation Commission regards the State Forest Pre-
serve as the people's great playground and health resort, for the
use of all and abuse of none.

The prevalence and destructive effects of the chestnut blight
have received much attention during the summer. The disease has
virtually wiped out the valuable chestnut groves of New Jersey,
and, according to the Pennsylvania Chestnut Blight Commission
has caused $10,000,000 damage to the forests of that state. A
conference was held by this Commission with Commissioner of
Agriculture Pearson and representatives of Pennsylvania, New
Jersey, Massachusetts and Connecticut, and plans discussed for
controlling and eradicating the disease, which is threatening the
extinction of a valuable forest tree. This disease, together with
the State's experience with the white pine blister rust and other
serious tree troubles, suggests the urgent necessity for the services
of an expert plant pathologist. The nature of many of the tree
diseases, the agencies by which they are spread and methods of
control are almost unknown.

Purchase of Forest Lands.

Prior to the creation of the Conservation Commission the
authority to purchase lands in the Adirondack and Catskill parks
was vested in the Forest Purchasing Board. The powers and
duties of that board were delegated to this Commission by the
Conservation Law.

At the time of the organization of this Commission it appears
that the State owned 1,643,244: acres of land in the Forest Pre-
serve counties. Of this acreage 1,401,942 acres are situated within
the Adirondack park and 102,677 acres within the Catskill park.
The remaining lands aggregating 138,625 acres are situated in the
Forest Preserve counties outside of the parks proper. These
isolated tracts, averaging small areas of land, are so scattered that
it is difficult and expensive to protect them from the dangers of
fire and from devastation by trespass, and they contribute very
little to the purpose for which these parks were created. They
are of little or no use as pleasure grounds for the people ; nor do

10 FlJKST ANNUAL IxEPOliT OF THE

they protect the head waters of our streams for the preservation
and regulation of the same.

It seems to us that it would be wise for the State to adopt some
measures by which these isolated tracts might be sold and the pro-
ceeds thereof used in the purchase of lands within the parks
proper.

The Commission also found that its predecessors in office had
been conducting negotiations for the purchase of a considerable
quantity of land in the park system, particularly in the Catskills.
These negotiations were found to be in various stages of com-
pletion. In some cases the deeds had been taken from the owners
and placed on record. In other cases, proposals for the sale of
land had been tendered by the owners and the State had made
offers for the same and agreed upon the price to be paid therefor,
subject, of course, to the production of an abstract showing title
thereto and subject, further, to the consent and approval of the
Executive.'

In the Catskill park it was found that negotiations for the pur-
chase of lands aggregating 16,678 acres had been undertaken by
the Forest Purchasing Board. The price agreed to be paid for
these lands, subject to approval of title and the further approval
of the Governor, was $90,518.30, and it was found that the appro-
priation available for their purchase was $22,289.86, leaving a
balance unprovided for amounting to $68,228.44.

In the Adirondacks it appears that aside from the large area
known as the Taggart-Fisher tract of about 40,000 acres which
had been appropriated by the Forest Purchasing Board, it had
negotiated for the purchase of lands amounting at the agreed price
to the sum of $1,860. The balance of the appropriation available
for the purchase of lands in the Adirondacks amounted to the sum
of $48,174.48.

It appears, therefore, that this Board had practically contracted
for lands valued at $21,913.96 more than had been appropriated
for that purpose. This does not take into account the value of the
large tract of land appropriated by the Forest Purchasing Board
as heretofore mentioned.

This Commission has completed the purchase of all lands where
the owners had delivered deeds thereto to the State and the same
had been recorded, and has also investigated the remaining lands

CONSERVATION COMMISSION. 11

with a view of ascertaining whether the prices agreed to be paid
are reasonable and the title thereto marketable; and while it
appears that in some instances the State agreed to pay more than
the land was reasonably worth, we recommend that the balance in
the appropriation for the purchase of lands in the Adirondacks be
made available for the payment of lands contracted for in the
Catskill park ; also that the Legislature appropriate a sum sufficient
to complete the sales so contracted for by the Forest Purchasing
Board, estimated to be approximately $25,000. We further recom-
mend that they appropriate a like sum so that this Commission
may at all times have money available to take advantage of any
offers that might be made for the sale of land to the State, where
it appears that the price is just and reasonable.

This Commission will submit a complete revision and codifica-
tion of all the laws relating to the powers and duties of the Land
Purchasing Board and Forest, Fish and Game Commission, and
we recommend :

1. A permanent and more extensive fire patrol system in the
forest preserve counties, with additional patrolmen and observa-
tion stations, and State-wide fire supervision of woodlands and
railroad rights of way.

2. More stringent regulations in regard to protection against
fires, and greater powers to the Commission in making such regu-
lations and enforcing penalties for violations thereof.

3. More extended powers to the Commission of acquiring, land
for the protection and conservation of the forests and waters of
the State.

4. Power of supervision over parks and reservations receiving
and disbursing State moneys, and not now under the supervision
of any other State officer.

5. Power to establish rules whereby lumbering on lands within
the Adirondack and Catskill parks shall be carried on in a scien-
tific manner so as to perpetuate the forest cover, preserve the parks
and protect the water supply of the State.

0. The promotion of reforestation by the adoption of measures
whereby the burden of taxation may be lessened upon those lands
within the forest preserve counties which shall be replanted with
trees or allowed to remain as wild forest lands.

12 FIRST ANNUAL EEPORT or TII..K

7. Extend the powers of the Commission in regard to establish-
ing and maintaining nurseries and reforesting both State and
private lands.

DIVISION OF FISH AND GAME.

Throughout the State there has been apparent during the year a
more general desire on the part of the public to assist the depart-
ment in the enforcement of the fish and game laws, indicating an
aroused popular sentiment in favor of the objects of these laws.
During the year the regular and special protectors brought actions
for violations which resulted in the recovery of $37,173.74 in
fines, at an expense of $4,735.79, cost of prosecutions. The
average cost of prosecuting the case was less than the preceding
;vear. This year but 83 special protectors were actively in the
service as against 104 last year, but the results indicate that the
smaller force of specials performed their duties more efficiently
because of the weeding out of the inactive ones. The regular pro-
tectors reported 1,277 cases and the specials 258.

The game laws cannot be enforced unless they appeal to the
common sense and common interests of the sportsmen, the farmers,
the land owners and all who delight in the recreation of rod and
gun. The Conservation Commission is in hearty accord with Ihe
popular demand for " fewer laws, more fish and game."

The general desire of the Commission .is to make the law,
first, more simple in form so that it may be clearly understood, not
only by the experienced lawyer, but by the average citizen;
secondly, to make the law general throughout the State, in so far
as it is practicable. The present law abounds in local provisions,
and in order to eliminate these it will be necessary to give to the
Conservation Commission the power within certain proper limits
of prohibiting, or regulating the taking of any species of fish or
game when such prohibition or regulation becomes necessary for
the proper conservation or protection of the same. Among the
more radical changes recommended are: First, a change in the
size limit of trout from six to seven inches ; second, a bag limit of
twenty-five birds to be placed on wild fowl ; third, a bag limit of
fifteen birds per day to be placed on shore birds; fourth, the per-
mitting of the sale of trout raised in private hatcheries under a
proper System of licensing and tagging.

CONSERVATION COMMISSION. 13

The Commission believes that without imposing any unjust
burden on the citizens of the State, the Division of Fish and Game
can be made self-supporting, providing a proper solution may be
reached for obtaining an adequate income from the lands leased
for shell fish purposes.

The fish and game protective departments of the State have
heretofore rated their efficiency too largely on the number of con-
victions secured and penalties recovered, with the greater the num-
ber of successful prosecutions the greater the -credit claimed by
the protectors. This Commission will endeavor to popularize the
work of preserving and protecting; the wild life of forests and
streams to a point where the oldtiine standard shall change, By
that, of course, is not meant that there shall be any relaxation of
vigilance and determination to bring habitual and willful violators
of the law to justice, for as tho chief protector says, " Every time
the. game law is violated with impunity, the moral sense of the
violator is weakened and his respect for the law is lessened." And
touching on the necessity for the moral support of the general
public in the work of law enforcement, he adds : " But, if the sense
of the community in which he resides is in favor of a strict enforce-
ment of the law, the breaker of that law will be severely judged by
his associates." However, until public cooperation in the enforce-
ment of the law shall have become more general and active, the
efficiency of protectors must be to a large extent based on the num-
ber of convictions secured; and, until that time the hands of the
protective department should be strengthened in this State. An
increased number of protectors is urgently required. There should
bo at least one in every county and several protectors in the eoun-
tios where the fish and game are most abundant and the largest
number of violations of the law necessarily occur. From all over
the State come demands for increased protection for fish and game
which the Commission is unable to meet without legislation in-
creasing the total number of protectors.

It is gratifying to report that during the year chapter 256 of the
Laws of 1910, for the protection of wild birds in this State, the so-
called plumage law, attacked by the plumage interests as uncon-
stitutional on the chief ground that the Legislature had no right
to classify birds into families, was upheld by the LTnited States

14 FIRST ANNUAL REPORT OF THE

Circuit Court in Xew York, and the Attorney-General's interpre-
tation of the law sustained.

The utility and effectiveness of the so-called Bayne-Blauvelt
Law, prohibiting the sale of game (with certain exceptions), with
a view to the increase of game, is now on trial. All lovers of
recreation in forest, field and stream show a disposition to co-
operate with the Commission- in making the test an instructive and
useful one. The general experience of the protectors is that the
anti-sale law is very helpful to the service and in itself a valuable
protection to the wild game of the State. The Cold Storage Law
and the Sullivan Law also come in for a similar commendation.

As a result of the enforcement of the Bayne Law, the pot hunter
has lost his market, and hence his incentive to kill more game than
he can use himself.

The reorganization of the force of special protectors, including
regulations requiring them to report to a division chief, has im-
proved the discipline among the specials and made them more
effective.

Game protectors throughout the State report that as a whole
deer are more plentiful this year than ever before. The experi-
ment of feeding deer during the winter, made possible through an
appropriation by the last Legislature, proved successful and should
be greatly extended in scope.

The State Game Farm at Sherburne distributed through the
State during the year 2,535 pheasants and 12,945 pheasants' eggs.
Arrangements are already under way to increase the brood birds
to 1,000 and the farm superintendent gives assurances that the
distribution of pheasants and pheasants' eggs will be easily doubled
in 1912.

Experiments are being carried on in relation to raising ruffed
grouse for propagation purposes, and there is much to encourage
the belief that the " partridge," the hunter's favorite game bird,
may again be restored to covers now unten anted. At least one
additional game farm should be established in the eastern part of
the State.

"Reports from all quarters of the Adirondacks show that the
beaver are increasing.

A most helpful work was the elimination from Xew York
market of the sale of canned game.

CONSERVATION. COMMISSION. 15

The moneys collected for netting1 licenses for the year was
48.44, a gain of $406.62 over 1910. For hunting licenses
there was collected $15(5,005.60, which is an increase of $14,786.60
over the preceding year. This with the amount of fines collected
makes a total of $196,991.98.

Fish Propagation.

The State lish hatcheries during the year produced and dis-
tributed throughout the State 700,000,000 fish. New York's nine
hatcheries produced almost one-fourth as many fish as the Federal
government's fifty hatcheries. 'New York propagated twice as
many fingerling and yearling trout in proportion as the United
States Fisheries Bureau. Of the 8,000,000' of trout distributed
during the year over 45 per cent, were fingerlings. The State's
fish output was 165,000,000 more this year than last, and the State
Fish Culturist expects a production of 1,000,000,000 fish for the
waters of the State in 1912. Upon a basis of one-half the price
charged by commercial hatcheries, the State hatcheries' production
in 1911 was worth over $200,000, and the cost of the work was
only about $75,000.

The inventoried value of the hatcheries properties, located at
Upper Saranac, Bath, ALumford, Bemus Point, Cold Spring Har-
bor, Margaretville, Old Forge, Linlithgo and Constantia, totals
$144,251.77.

The Commission respectfully recommends the establishment of
;i fish hatchery in St. Lawrence county. The .State Fish Culturist
urges tin's additional hatchery on the ground that the distribution
of bass, pike-perch, muskallonge, yellow perch and the various
kinds <if trout and whitefish for the St. Lawrence region should
represent hundreds of millions of fish every year, instead of the
few millions which the Commission is now able to send to the
county. 'He is convinced that "All of the fish mentioned could be
propagated more advantageously in St. Lawrence county, and the
waters of the St. Lawrence and of other counties within reasonable
distances from the proposed hatchery could be more effectively
and economically supplied with good fish than at present. Not
only is it expensive to transport live fish over long distances, but
the risk of loss in transportation is very great, especially in hot
weather."

16 FIRST ANNUAL REPORT OF THE

•

Bureau of Marine Fisheries.

The growing importance of the Bureau of Marine Fisheries
may be illustrated to a degree by directing attention to the fact
that the revenue derived from its operations in 1907 was $4,846.18
and for the year just closed $23,694.02. This result was made
possible .by legislation regulating the leasing of lands under water
for shell fish cultivation. It marked the 'beginning of a new policy
looking to the development of this important resource in contrast
with the old practice through which the 'State had granted to indi-
viduals in perpetuity thousands of acres of its most valuable shell
fish lands. There are at present held under these so-called fran-
chises 15,991.6 acres, while the acreage under lease is 15,336.9,
making a total of 31,328.5 acres. Of this total, 2,192.2 acres was
added during the past fiscal year, and there are now pending ap-
plications covering 1,795.6 acres. These lands are subject to "a
uniform tax of twenty-five cents an acre. During the year there
was collected the sum of $7,417,27, -while the total rentals paid
by lands held under lease was $13,166.63.

The system of triangulation continued during the year covers
about thirteen miles between Horton's Point and Orient Point and
Plum Island. These surveys will eventually cover the whole of
the north shore of Long Island and should be extended to the
waters surrounding Fishers Island. There have been sixty-one
surveys of individual lots covering 6,992.2 acres.

From the best statistics obtainable the value of the shell fish
taken from waters within this State during the past year is
upward of $12,000,000, and while no statistics are available con-
cerning the value of the migratory food fish output it is safe to
assume that it wras at least of as great commercial value as the
shell fish. 'So that it must not 'be lost sight of that the State of
New York through the Bureau of Marine Fisheries is dealing with
an economic and commercial condition which at present shows an
annual output value at from $20,000,000 to $25,000,000 and
capable of enormous development under proper legislation, and
likewise capable of producing for the State a great increase over
the present revenues of the bureau without imposing an unfair
burden on those engaged in fisheries as a means of livelihood.

CONSERVATION COMMISSION. 17

The great needs in the development of our marine fisheries are
a just and equitable system of taxation of shell fish lands; proper
laws to prevent pollution of public waters by sewerage and manu-
facturers' waste, and suitable legislation to enable the State to take
advantage of modern scientific methods for the propagation and
protection of the various marine species. Under the present law
a uniform tax of twenty-five cents per acre, upon all shell fish lands
within the jurisdiction of the bureau, must be levied, regardless
of value. Oyster lands iii favored localities and properly culti-
vated if available for private ownership are frequently estimated
to be worth from $500 to $5,000 per acre, depending on productiv-
ity. Uplands planted to corn under favorable cultivation yield a
hundred fold. Shell-fish lands cultivated under modern methods
are capable of producing twelve hundred fold. There is of course
as much difference in the relative value of oyster lands as exists
in the value of agricultural lands.

In view of this plain fact the levy of a tax of twenty-five cents
per acre upon all lands without respect to value is upon its face
unwise and unjust. Various states have given consideration to
this problem and without going into details of their experience it
is established that the most practical and fair method of taxation
is the one which provides for the appraisal of all shellfish lands
and a determination of their value upon the basis of productivity
and the imposition of a small amount per centum of tax upon the
determined value. The methods used can easily follow the present
methods for the appraisal and taxation of real estate values under
our general tax laws. The result would be a revenue of at least
$100,000 to the State, which might be available to the bureau for
extending its system of protection of oyster lands, the establish-
ment of experimental stations for the scientific study of shell and
marine fish protection. Some idea of the possibilities of develop-
ment with the added revenue derived from the proposed system
of taxation may be had when attention is called to the fact that the
total output of marine species at the Cold 'Spring Harbor station
for the period ending June 30, 1911, was 338,600,000. This total
represents food fish exclusively and includes about 45,000,000 of
lobsters alone, a species which five years ago was all but extinct
in our waters, but the artificial propagation of which under great

18 FIRST AXXUAL EEPOKT OF THE

difficulties lias been successfully carried on under the direction of
the State Fish Culturist.

The most serious problem with which the Conservation Commis-
sion is called upon to deal in the administration of this bureau is
that of pollution of our public waters by the untreated sewage of
municipalities and the waste of manufacturing plants. Thousands
of acres of shellfish lands have been destroyed by the deposits of
contaminating substances. Public health is jeopardized and
migratory food fish supply reduced by the destruction of great
numbers of fish in waters polluted by various manufactur-
ing waste. It is estimated that in the Hudson river alone over
fifty thousand acres of what were formerly valuable shellfish lands
have been ruined by the deposit of industrial waste. Legislation
is needed to prevent the pollution of public water from sewage by
requiring municipalities to install sewage disposal plants. The
question has been ignored too long, although its great importance
has frequently been called to public attention. Provisions should
be made by statute prohibiting the cities and towns of the State
from sewering into public waters, and the authority of law should
likewise be vested in this Commission to prevent by injunction the
pollution of streams by the manufacturers in all cases where it
can be shown that the deposit of such materials in streams is
destructive to fish life or where the public health is imperilled by
a continuance of the process.

The investigation of sanitary conditions of oyster beds is bcinir
actively prosecuted by the Commission, and .such measures will be
taken as are deemed necessary for the protection of public health.-
Many of the states1, including Massachusetts, Maine, IJhodo Island
and Maryland have already dealt with the problems of pollution in
a modern and progressive manner. The city of Baltimore has but
recently inaugurated a system of sewage disposal and prohibited
the discharge of manufacturers' waste products into the water?
within its jurisdiction. The same work is now being given active
consideration by ihe fisheries and health authorities of New Jersey.
This State -should no longer delay action upon a question which
concerns the health of its people and the protection of one of its
important industries. There is a great necessity for ,a biological
station on Long Island for the study of the habits, spawning

CONSERVATION COMMISSION. 19

grounds and propagation of migratory fish, mollusks and Crustacea.
This would inaugurate a work which would within a short period
increase the catches of marine species to a great degree and furnish
to. our citizens vast quantities of cheap and desirable food. The
Empire State cannot afford to lag behind in a work of this
character which is now being carried on with great success by most
of the European countries, some of the South American Republics
as well as the states of ^Tew Jersey, 'Virginia, Alabama, Mississippi
and Louisiana. If Uruguay can afford to appropriate $150,000
per annum for the development of its fisheries we ought not to
hesitate in the work of developing and protecting the fisheries in
our four hundred miles of sea coast.

DIVISION OF INLAND WATERS.

.The most notable feature disclosed by the investigations of the
department during the past year, in relation to water storage and
hydraulic development, is the magnitude and value of the water
powers which are at present owned by the State through owner-
ship of riparian lands, surplus canal waters, those which would
naturally belong to the State through the operation of proposed
storage reservoirs, and those which may properly become the
property of the State by virtue of federal grants of rights in
boundary waters. A general summary of some of the principal
of these powers is given in the following table. It is not in-
tended herein to list all the powers to which the State may lay
claim :

TABLE or HYDRAULIC POWEK OF NEW YORK STATE IN WHICH THE Sr.vn:
HAS OB CLAIMS A PREDOMINANT INTEREST.

1. Undeveloped powers belonging to the State by reason of practically com-
plete riparian ownership or otherwise. (Powers are for regulated flow.)

CO per cent, of
Continuous. time.

Horsepower. Horsepower.

( a ) Niagara Falls 75, 000 75, 000

(b) Kettle Mountain, Hudson river 25, 000 33, 000

(c) On Sacandaga river above Northville ... 29,000 35,000

(d) Au&able river 8, 000 10, 000

137, 000 153, 000

20

FIRST ANNUAL REPORT OF THE

2. Powers added to existing and contemplated private plants along streams
by reason of proposed water storage.

Increase by

regulation over

present min.

flow.
Horsepower. Horsepower.

(a) Sacandaga storage 32, 000 90, 000

Upper Sacandaga storage 6, 000 20, 000

(b) Indian Lake storage (new) 15, 000 40, 000

(c) Genesee storage (Portage dam) 8, 000 20,000

(d) Black river storage (2 small reservoirs). 22,000 53,000

(e) Raquette river 33, OCO 90, 000

( f ) Oswego river (est. ) 12, 000 20, 000

(g) Oswegatchie river (est.) 10, 000 30, 000

138, 000 363, 000

3. Power created at or near site of proposed storage dams:

60 per cent, of

Continuous. time.

Horsepower. Horsepower.

(a) Portage 30, 000 34, 000

(b) Mount Morris 14, 000 16, 000

(c) Black 2,500 3,000

(d) Saoandaga . 34, 000 41, 000

(e) Indian Lake 11, 000 16, 000

91,500 110,000

4. Power belonging to the State as a result
of Barge canal construction. Estimated

by the Barge canal authorities, as 50, 000

5. Power that may belong to the State from
assertion of rights in cases where damages
have ibeen paid in the construction of the

Erie canal, etc. Estimated at 20, 000

70, 000
Total continuous horsepower 436, 000

In the column headed 60 per cent, of time are placed the figures
showing the size of development which could run at full capacity
60 per cent, of the time. This represents the ordinary commer-
cial limit of development.

In any comprehensive scheme for the development and use
of the powers of the State there should be considered also other

CONSEKVATIOIST COMMISSION. 21

powers in connection with which private interests or other ques-
tions must be taken into account. To furnish a highway for the
transportation of this product to market is believed to be a proper
governmental function. The following table gives an idea of
the magnitude of this subject. It is not intended to be a com-
plete inventory of undeveloped powers, but to show the largest
of those which could contribute power to a general system of
power highways:

TABLE OF LARGE UNDEVELOPED POWERS IN THE DEVK'.OPMENT OF WHICH
PRIVATE INTERESTS OR OTHER QUESTIONS MUST I>K CONSIDERED.

Continuous

power.
Horsepower.

Long Saulit of the St. Lawrence 500, 000

Kapids of .Niagara river (Using a second time at the rapids the
20,000 second feet available at the Falls on the American

side under the International Treaty) 145, 000

Upper Hudson 100, 000

Raquette 90, 000

Total 835, 000

Total undeveloped power for which electric highways should

be provided 1, 271, 000

The commission is conducting a careful investigation of the
rights of the State in existing power developments. A complete
plan for the development and use of State-owned powers should
be worked out, and the support of the Legislature, in the granting
of adequate appropriations, is earnestly invited in .behalf of the
numerous lines of investigation and research which are needful
in order that the provisions of the Conservation Law may be
realized. Investigations already begun under the Fuller Act
of 1907, on the Black, Oswegatchie, and other unsurveyed streams,
should be continued, as well as subsurface investigations near
Conklingville, in connection with the proposed Sacandaga reser-
voir and along the proposed tunnel line, for power development
at Hadley.

During the past year there have been several important devel-
opments relating to the river improvement law, the most signifi-
cant whereof was the decision of Justice Sutherland in the Can-

22 FIEST ANNUAL REPOHT OF THE

Crock improvement matter. When the Conservation
( 'ommission, in July last, succeeded the State Water Supply
Commission, it was confronted by the Sutherland decision, handed
down January 4, 1911, to the effect that, in dealing with the
Canaseraga Creek improvement, the Water Supply Commission
had exceeded its statutory authority by including in its ordered
construction artificial channels, thus grafting upon the river im-
provement scheme a drainage scheme. Obviously, if sustained
by the higher courts, the effect of this decision would be to jeop-
ardize the bonds previously sold, from whose proceeds the Canas-
eraga improvement was financed. The Conservation Commie*
sioii was confronted with a serious dilemma. The land owners
of the district affected actively desired a continuance of the work.
At the same time, it was imperative that the bonds be protected.
The Conservation Commission has continued the work, after mak-
ing careful and impartial appraisals of the property of the inter-
ested land owners, and taking measures calculated to protect the
interest of the bond owners.

The State has had drainage laws since its formation, and con-
siderable work has been done under such laws, but the result has(
been almost universal failure. If we look for the reason, we shall(
find it in the methods prescribed for carrying on the work. The-
provisions for drainage contained in the Conservation Law are
de-signed to overcome previous defects of procedure. Hence it is
believed that there will eventually result from the present law th(^
reclamation of at least 100,000 acres of swamp land and an ad-
dition of $10,000,000 to farm land values of the State.

The future work of the Conservation Commission iuwl<T tlir
drainage law should develop into a very important feature of its
activities, and appropriations should be made to provide neces-
sary funds to carry on reconnaissances of swamp lands and a de-
tailed survey of at least one promising project.

We call the attention of the Legislature to the distressing con-
ditions arising from the water supply situation in Westchester
county, and urge legislation looking to co-operation among the
various municipalities in. the southern portion of that county for
securing an adequate and permanent supply of pure and whole-
some water.

CONSERVATION COMMISSION. 23

Water for domestic purposes was carried through the streets in
milk cans and sprinkling carts in the city of Mount Vernon and
various small villages in the fall of 1910. Only opportune fall
rains prevented a recurrence of the same conditions in 19fll. <•

Each of the various municipalities is engaged in endeavoring
to solve its own small problem, and naturally finds no solution for
more than a very limited period, while the rapid growth in the
population of the region makes a large general and permanent
solution more imperative.

The work of the commission during the past year in the equi-
table apportioning of water supplies to the various municipalities
of the State, as required by law, is briefly indicated by the fol-
lowing table of water supply applications:

WATER SUPPLY APPLICATIONS.

Application

No. filed. Disposition.

93 Vilage of Avoca Jan. 23, 1911 Approved Feb. 10, 1911

94. Westbury Water District Feb. 21. 1911 Approved April 7, 1911

!);». Weedsport Water Co Mar. 1. 1911 Approved Mar. 22. 1911

9»>. City of Gloversville April 2«>. 1911 Approved June 1C>. 1911

97 Village of Cornwall May 24. 1911 Approved June <>, 1911

98. City of Cortland June 17. 1911 Approved July 11, 1911

99. Castle Heights Water Co July <5. 1911 Approved Sept. 25, 1911

100. Village of Mexico Aug. 12. 1911 Pending.

101. N. Y. City, Borough of Richmond... Sept. 12, 1911 Pending.

102. N. Y. City. Borough of Brooklyn... Sept. 12, 1911 Pending.

103. Manhasset-Lakeville Water District. Oct. 24, 1911 Approved Dec. 20, 1911

Experience has shown that the laws governing State and munici-
pal water supplies could be .amended to advantage, by giving this
commission power to exercise more thorough supervision and
control over proposed water supply systems. It is especially
important that the commission should be empowered to inter-
vene in the not infrequent cases in which existing water supply
systems, especially those of private companies, are found inade-
quate to meet the demands for, water of the communities which
they serve. Control of rates charged for water should be exer-
cised by some State authority, as complaints of excessive and
inequitable charges have been numerous.

Inspection of Dams.

Among the important duties intrusted to the Conservation
Commission is the protection of life and property from the dan-
gers arising from impounded waters. The appointment by this

24 FIRST ANNUAL BEPO&T OF THE

commission of an expert engineer as Inspector of Docks and Dams
chanced to coincide closely with the disaster at Austin, Pa., an
object-lesson as to the danger attendant upon faulty construction
— a danger whose gravity has been by no means adequately :ap-
predated. Among the first duties assigned to him by the com-
mission was the inspection of the Austin dam, and his report as
to the causes of its collapse, which was the earliest explanation
thereof, has been widely accepted as authoritative, and has been
fully corroborated by subsequent testimony.

Between October 10 and November 30 last the commission
inspected and reported on no less than 46 dams in this State.
They were found generally in a neglected condition. Many of
the older type of wooden dams had been continued in use, which
were built when the country was unsettled and surrounding prop-
erty of slight value; others were poorly constructed earth dams.
But the old structures were not alone faulty. Five solid masonry
dams, in process of construction, were condemned. In all, 38
of the 46 dams were found defective ; in some cases entire rebuild-
ing, and in others, repairs, were recommended. The commission
is pleased to add that in every case its recommendations are being
cheerfully complied with.

These investigations will be actively continued. The commis-
sion proposes to see to it that every old dam in the State is made
safe, that no new dam shall be constructed which is not safe. To
the end that adequate power in this regard may be vested in the
commission, we recommend that the -law be amended.

LEGAL BUREAU.

It is contemplated by the Conservation Law that all legal mat-
ters shall be carried on under the direct supervision of the com-
mission and its counsel at its main office. Heretofore local attor-
neys had been employed throughout the State at great expense,
with unsatisfactory results. Upon the organizing of the commis-
sion its counsel found that there were pending in the various
counties of the State upwards of 200 suits for injunctions, tres-
pass and penalties, many of the cases involving the question of the
State's title to large tracts of forest lands and the enforcement of
the laws intended to lessen the danger from forest fires.

CONSERVATION COMMISSION. 25

All attorneys representing the State's interest were requested
to send their cases to the commission with substitutions, and at-
this time the Deputy Attorney-General assigned to the work of
the commission has on his calendars every action and appeal in-
volving proceedings authorized by the commission or its prede-
cessors.

Many cases heretofore commenced were found to be without
merit and have been promptly discontinued, and we are now scru-
tinizing carefully the proofs in all complaints before ordering
,-mit upon them with a view to prosecuting only real violators of
the law, and as a result of this policy of discrimination but two
cases have been decided adversely to the State's interests since
the formation of this department.

There seems to be a growing tendency to observe the laws
which lessen the dangers from forest fires, and the violations, for
the most part, come from those who were ignorant of the law.
In nearly all cases the precautions required of each have been
promptly taken when their attention was directed to the regula-
tions. A great many cases arise from deliberate trespass upon
lands claimed by the State in order that disputes as to title may
be settled by the courts. These cases require careful preparation
and great difficulties have been experienced on account of the lack
of a proper survey, as many thousands of acres of land have been
purchased by the State without >any attempt at a survey, and we
have cases where no such land as described can be located on
found to exist. We have established a bureau of surveys, with
n plan whereby each survey as made will fit into a scheme of
surveys and field notes so that when complete there can be no
excuse for trespass upon the State's land and no question as to
the location of any parcel.

An experienced title lawyer has been appointed specially to
prepare cases involving titles, to make abstracts and, as far as
possible, the titles abstracted will when completed set forth fully
and comprehensively the status of the State's title to lands in the'
two great parks.

The codification of the forest law is doubly important at this
time when the water storage problem, whereby the waste waters
of the State can be converted into power, is of great moment

26 FIRST AXXUAL REPORT OF THE

.aid laws encouraging reforestation of lands now barren and look-
ing to the scientific cutting of timber at the head waters of the
streams so as to preserve a forest cover, have received careful
iittentidn and we hope will meet with the approval of all inter-
ested. The codification of the fish and game law is also of great
importance and we hope to report a statute so that no violation
can be excused by a misunderstanding of its provisions. Many
changes and amendments are suggested, possibly the chief of
which is that an habitual offender shall receive more severe pun-
ishment. Both these reports in full with the modifications and
changes recommended will be placed in your hands later as well
as the proposed new statutes relating to the conservation of the
waste and flood waters of the State.

The rights of the mill owners on the streams where regulation
of the flow is contemplated are being carefully investigated and
tabulated. This work involves a complete examination of the
earlier laws, under which most of the mill sites were created, and
the result is very important and interesting when the question
of the manner of making the improvement is taken up.

During the year 247 actions were settled and 110 otherwise
disposed of. One action for trespass resulted in the payment of
$10,000 in cash and the ceding to the State of property worth at
least $20,000 more.

IN CONCLUSION.

State sovereignty necessarily includes among its attributes
authority to control and regulate the material resources provided
by nature.

It may be asserted without fear of contradiction that water
power is a paramount factor in the State's growth and prosperity ;
that the conservation of water in reservoirs and at head-waters, and
regulation of the same, would result in a uniform flow, an increase
of power, the protection of public and private property from dam-
age by flood, the removal of a menace to public health and an im-
provement to navigation.

The State should own and regulate the disposition of whatever
additional water power it may create, provide for the proper utili-
zation thereof, and dispose of it at such reasonable charge as will

CONSERVATION COMMISSION. • 27

vie Id a public revenue, stimulate the development of industries
and afford greater opportunities for the wage-earner. If Iliis ran-
not be accomplished, otherwise than by direct action of the Si air.
then the State itself should develop and furnish power for the gen-
eral benefit. In the initiation of a plan of conservation, the future
should be amply provided for, and every precaution essential to
]> resent and future interests of the people of the 'State should be
taken. Legitimate investments of private capital should be prop-
erly protected.

From time to time laws have been enacted permitting leases of
ihe surplus waters of the canal system, but by reason of limitations
surrounding the same, the revenue derived therefrom was nominal
and the opportunity for power development was slight. Sub-
stantially all these leases have been terminated, and the few re-
maining in force should be terminated as early as practicable.

When the barge canal is completed, the quantity of surplus canal
water will be materially increased. It is conservatively estimated
that it will then be sufficient to develop at least 50,000 horse power
without injury to navigation.

The surplus water of the canals is unquestionably owned .by the
Slate. The State should not permit so valuable a resource to be
wasted, or utilized without adequate return.

The development and distribution of the surplus water of the
canals, for power purposes, can be secured at comparatively small
expense. Measures providing for such development, and distribu-
tion for public purposes along the line of the canals where many
municipalities and citizens can derive material benefit therefrom,
should be enacted.

All of which is respectfully submitted.

GEORGE E. VAN KEN N EX,
JAMES W. FLEMING,
JOHN D. MOORE,

Conservation Commissioners.

28 FIEST ANNUAL EEPOKT OF THE

CONSERVATION DEPARTMENT.

Statement of Expenditures for the Fiscal Year Ending
September 30, 1911.

DIVISION OF FISH AND GAME.

Propagation and Distribution of Fish :
For maintenance of hatcheries and col-
lection and distribution of fish and

fry $64,078 35

For repairs and improvement of hatch-
eries 8,309 07

For collecting and purchase of fish eggs 2,348 32
For miscellaneous expenses, fish car, etc 410 16
For fish culturist's salary and expenses. 3,609 41

$78,755 31

Protection of Fish and Game :

For salaries of chief protector, assistant
and division chiefs, game protectors
and clerk $84,404 51

For payment of moieties, justices, con-
stable, attorney, witness and court
costs 23,987 49

For purchase and maintenance of

steamboats and launches 6,953 27

For printing game law summary 41 44

For printing hunters' licenses 2,110 00

For traveling expenses of chief, assist-
ant chiefs, division chiefs and pro-
tectors 39,054 96

For extra expenses of protectors and

special protectors 3,192 44

For salaries and maintenance expenses

of game Hrd farm 5,262 36

CONSERVATION COMMISSION. 29

For services and expenses of hunters'
license bureau and fees and expenses

of county clerks $2.832 09

$167,838 56

Brought up . . $246,593 87

Marine* Fisheries Bureau:

For salaries of superintendent, deputy
superintendent, engineer, clerks,
three fisheries and two Jamaica Bay
protectors $15,929 20

For expenses of superintendent, deputy,

engineers and protectors. 3,498 69

For rent of office, postage, stationery

and general office expenses 3,075 35

For surveying, plotting and monument-
ing shellfish lands 161 00

For expenses of shellfish commissions

convention 30 62

$22,694 86
Division of Lands and Forests :

For salaries of superintendent of for-
ests, assistant superintendent, forest-
ers, inspectors, fire superintendents
and clerks $28,368 56

For surveying, witness, court and attor-
neys' costs in defending State's title
to land 4,717 01

For rebates paid towns for fighting for-
est fires and salaries and expenses of
fire patrol, telephone lines and obser-
vation stations 72,395 30

For reforesting burned and denuded
lands in the forest preserve and the
maintenance of nurseries for the
propagation and distribution of seed-
ling trees 23,381 55

30 FIRST ANNUAL EEPORT OF THE

For land purchased in the forest pre-
serve and expenses of inspecting, at-
torney fees, recording, etc., Adiron-
dack park . $7,807 90

Catskill park ^,187 08

For repairs to John Brown homestead. 220 25

For services and expenses of stereopti-
con operator in connection with
lectures on forestry 1,402 20

For repair of docks and pavilions and
care of grounds, St. Lawrence Reser-
vation. 201 30

For map of Catskill preserve 1,201 50

For traveling expenses of superintend-
ent of forests, assistant superintend-
ent, foresters and employees 0,901 75

$149,940 46

Brought up $419,229 19

DIVISION OF INLAND WATERS.
(Water Supply Commission).
Genesee River Improvement:

Salaries of engineers and assistants. . . $21,003 04
Expenses of engineers and assistants. . 3,396 96

25,000 00
General Office Expenditures:

Salaries of commissioners $20,161 30

Salaries of officials and employees .... 8,892 53

Expenses of commissioners 1,826 08

Expenses of officials and employees. . . 460 74

General office expenses 2,54-7 66

Rent of offices 916 66

34,804 97

Water Power and Storage, Surveys
and Investigations:

Salaries -of engineers, etc $22,902 01

Rent, equipment and general expenses. 12,190 58

35,092 59

CONSERVATION COMMISSION. 31

Surveys and Investigations under
State Boards and Commissions:

Salaries of engineering force $10,909 97

Miscellaneous expenses, travel, equip-
ment, etc 2,500 01

$13,409 98
Canaseraga Creek Improvement:

Engineering and legal services $9,242 36

Interest on bonds 10,000 00

Account of construction 2,701 79

Miscellaneous expenses 2,466 54

24,410 69

Brought up $551,947 42

Miscellaneous :

Salaries of commissioner and deputy
commissioner (Forest, Fish and
Game) $7,081 00

Expenses of commissioner and deputy
commissioner (Forest, Fish and
Game Commission) 847 04

Salaries of conservation commission-
ers, deputies, secretary, counsel and
engineers 9,121 52

Salaries of secretaries, agents, stenog-
raphers, clerks and employees 15,514 77

Traveling expenses, conservation com-
missioners and employees '57 1 47

Louis Marshall, claim services 2,518 45

Legal department salaries 9,967 81

Legal department expenses 1,173 38

Legal department rent 291 67

General office expenses, printing, post-
age, equipment, transportation, rent,

etc 9,037 55

55,927 66

Total $607,875 08

32 FIRST ANNUAL REPORT OF THE

SUMMARY OF RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS FROM
VARIOUS SOURCES EXCLUSIVE OF REGULAR
ACCOUNTS WITH THE STATE COMPTROLLER FOR
THE FISCAL YEAR ENDING SEPTEMBER 30, ign.

Receipts :
From fines and penalities collected. . . $34,334 19

From trespasses on State land 16,712 74

From setting forest fires 340 00

From failure to lop trees 3,738 30

From rentals of shellfish lands 24,034 62

From sales of seedling trees 6,821 25

From rebates on fire bills paid by State 4,626 99

From sales of hunters7 licenses 156,005 60

From sales of net licenses 10,048 44

From sales of bird licenses 500

From sales of breeders' licenses 25 00

From refunds from various sources. . . 437 17

From miscellaneous receipts 1,097 35

$258,226 65

Disbursements :
By moieties paid complainants in ac-

tions $882 77

By justice, constable, court and witness

costs '. 775 05

By cash paid State Treasurer 256,568 83

$258,226 65

CONSERVATION COMMISSION. 33

MEMORANDA.

Total disbursements for fiscal year ending Septem-
ber 30, 1911 $607,875 08

Total disbursements for fiscal year ending Septem-
ber 30, 1910 563,198 82

Excess over 1910 $44,676 26

The excess was caused by special work done by the Inland Water
Bureau, their disbursements in 1910 being $75,445.28 and this
year (1911) $132,718.23, an increase of $57,262.95. The in-
crease was owing to :

Genesee river improvement expenditures $25,000 00

Developing water power 35,092 59

Canaseraga creek improvement 24,410 69

The actual disbursements of the Commission, not

including the water supply, in 1910 $487,753 54

In 1911 475,156 85

Net decrease exclusive of Inland Water Di-
vision ' $12,596 69

Receipts for 1911 from hunters' licenses $156,005 60

Receipts for 1911 from miscellaneous sources 102,221 05

Total $258,226 65

Total receipts from same sources in 1910 248,878 08

Increase in receipts over 1910 $9,348 57

LESSON FOR THE FARM

Published semi-monthly throughout the year by the New York State College of
Agriculture at Cornell University. Entered as second-class matter October 13, 191 1,
at the post office at Ithaca, N. Y., under the Act of Congress of July 16, 1894

L. H. BAILEY, Director
COURSE FOR THE FARM, CHARLES H. TUCK, Supervisor

VOL. i. No. 12

ITHACA, N. Y.
MARCH 15, 1912

FARM FORESTRY SERIES No. i

THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE WOODLOT

WALTER MULFORD

In order to get a crop of potatoes, we plant and cultivate; if we want
the best orchard, we spray a:H. prune; but we let nature plant and care for
the woodlot — and then we wonder why that woodlot does not pay !

FIG. 210. — The timber crop can be greatly improved in quality and quantity by proper
care. This stand of hardwoods has been given such care

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Look carefully at your woodland. Are all the trees of the kinds that
you like best ? Are there places where the trees are so crowded that none
of them can grow well? Are there young trees growing so far from their
neighbors that they will hold their branches most of the way to the ground,
and so make knotty lumber? Are there open spaces with no trees at all?
Are there decaying, crooked, or forked trees, whose room could be more
profitably occupied by better ones? Is there grass in the woodlot? If
you care for the woodlot as a place to raise timber rather than to furnish
pasture, a cover of grass instead of a leaf mulch is as bad a condition in
the woodlot as is a tangle of worthless bushes in the orchard.

It is sometimes said that the woodlot needs no care because timber will
grow without help. So it will. And so will the natural meadow yield a
crop, but if we want plenty of the best hay we do not trust entirely to the
natural meadow. The woodlot will respond to care just as much as will
the hayfield, both in the amount of product and in its quality.
: The most serious objection made to giving care to the woodlot is that
it takes too long to raise the crop. It is true that many years are required
to raise timber of considerable size. This is one of the reasons why the
government should practice forestry on a large scale. The national, state,
county, and city governments will probably raise most of our large-sized
timber of the future. It does not take so long to raise small and medium-
sized products, however, and there are several reasons why it is usually
good business to raise them on the farm.

A large amount of farm land is too poor to be used profitably for
the regular farm crops. Instead of being cultivated at a loss, or lying idle,
such land should be used to raise timber crops. If there is already some
thrifty young timber on the land, it will not be many years before it is
large enough to cut. By giving such timber a little care, it can be brought
to merchantable size much sooner than if left to itself. Even if the wood-
lot must be started from seed and therefore a long time must pass before
the harvest, its care is an easy and safe way in which to build up a bank
account of several thousand dollars for old age or for one's children. More-
over, the time is coming when first-class woodlots of thrifty young timber
not yet large enough to cut will have a decided value. Such a woodlot
will give the farm as a whole a higher value.

The value of the woodlot should not be judged simply by the sale value
of the product raised on it. If there is no woodlot on the farm it will be
necessary to buy wood materials ; and the buying price is decidedly greater
than the price for which the farmer could sell the same products, entirely
aside from the cost of haul. The convenience of having wood, posts, and
timbers of various sorts at hand when wanted is in itself no small matter.
Further, many woodlots increase farm crops by shielding them from wind.

THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE WOODLOT in

Because of the protection it affords against disagreeable winds, and because
of its beauty and the pleasure to be derived from it, the woodlot often
makes the farm a still more pleasant place on which to live. For this
reason alone the farm frequently commands a higher sale value.

The expense needed in caring for the woodlot is much less than for
other crops.

One of the troubles with the farm-help problem is that many farms do
not have enough winter work to hold the good help all through the year.
The woodlot offers one means of providing winter work for men and
teams at times when they might otherwise be idle.

In one way or another the soil should be kept usefully busy. The need
of most farms is better cultivation, rather than more land to cultivate.
The good lands should receive the best possible tillage, and good woodlots
should be maintained on such lands as are not well suited to other crops.

HOW TO CARE FOR THE WOODLOT

There are three principal ways in which a woodlot left to itself is not so
good as it might be. There are, therefore, three chief aims to be kept in
view in caring for the woodlot: (i) to keep the ground covered with as
many trees as can grow to advantage; (2) to have only the best possible
trees; (3) to make the trees grow rapidly.

Density of stand

Openings in the forest do several kinds of injury. An open space is idle
ground. The trees around it will have many low branches unless their
trunks are already cleaned of limbs to a good height, and each branch
means a knot in the timber. Every opening tends to dry out the soil by
letting in sun and wind, and means a poorer leaf mulch on the ground.
Care should therefore be taken that all open spaces are covered with good
trees as quickly as possible. This is done by protecting desirable young
growth and by planting trees or seed when a good crop will not start of
itself.

Young trees need protection from grazing animals, fire, and breakage
due to carelessly felled timber. Grazing animals should be kept out of
the woods whenever there is not enough young growth to keep the ground
well covered. A woodlot which is so clean of undergrowth that it looks
like a park is not in so good a condition as one which has young trees
coming on wherever there is light enough for them to grow. Even when
there is a good supply of young growth, if after turning in animals it is
found that they are breaking or browsing the young trees, the animals
should be shut out again. This is assuming that, the woodlot is valued
more as a place to raise timber than as pasture. It should be made either

ii2 T.HE CORNELL READING-COURSES

good pasture or good woods; the combination of the two uses does not
work well.

It is sometimes said that fire does no injury unless it kills trees of mer-
chantable size. The fact is that even light surface fires may do great
injury by killing young growth.

A little care in felling trees will often save many thrifty seedlings and
saplings.

I Even after every care is taken to favor the natural growth of young
trees, it is often well to help out by some planting. This is especially
true where many of the trees are not of the best kinds.

Quality of trees

Poor kinds of trees should be discouraged and good kinds favored when-
ever timber is being cut or new trees started. Not only should the poor
kinds be removed, but also poor specimens of good kinds, such as decaying
or crooked trees. Whenever possible, such trees should be cut instead of
the best ones. Do not take out the clover and leave the thistles !

Rapidity of growth

The income from the woodlot depends largely on how fast the timber
grows. Aside from climate, the rate of growth depends principally on three
things : first, the species, or kinds, of trees that are being raised ; second,
the moistness and mellowness of the soil ; and third, the amount of light
that the tree receives.

Species. — When choosing species to be favored or planted, their rate of
growth should be considered. For example, among fence-post trees red
cedar grows slowly, locust rapidly.

Soil conditions. — Soil moisture and the mellowness of the soil strongly
influence the rate of growth. The growth of timber depends more on
these things than it does on the richness of the soil in plant food. A mel-
low, moist, and well-drained soil is best for the forest.

The best way to keep the soil moist and mellow is to keep a layer of
leaf litter on the ground. The litter serves as a mulch in holding mois-
ture; it keeps the soil mellow by supplying organic matter; and it acts as
a fertilizer by returning large amounts of plant food to the soil. Every
effort should be made to keep a leaf mulch on the ground, except when
trying to get new trees started from seed scattered by neighboring timber.
! Fire, sun, and wind are likely to destroy the leaf mulch. Slight surface
fires do great harm by burning off the mulch, even if no trees are directly
hurt; therefore care should be taken to keep fire out. If much sunlight
reaches the ground it causes rapid decay of the litter; for this reason,
openings in the forest should be filled quickly, so that the ground is kept
well shaded. Wind destroy? the leaf mulch by blowing the leaves so that

THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE WOODLOT

they gather in heaps instead of covering the ground evenly; in order to
keep out wind, all openings should be filled and the exposed edges of the
woodlot kept as dense as possible, especially on the sides exposed to
the most trying winds. This may require the leaving of otherwise
worthless trees and underbrush, or the planting of more trees on the
exposed edges. Norway spruce is a good tree to plant as a windbreak.

Water is lost by
allowing sunlight and
wind to get to the
ground, not only be-
cause of injuries to
the mulch, but also
because both wind
and sun greatly in-
crease the evapora-
tion from the soil.
By keeping the ground
well shaded and pro-
viding windbreaks on
the exposed sides, this
loss of moisture may
be decreased.

Grass is very unde-
sirable in the woodlot.
It uses much water
that should be used
by the trees if the
main object is to raise
timber. Grass and a
good leaf mulch can-
not both exist. When
grass comes into the
woodlot, the chances

are that the timber will grow much more slowly. Grass should be kept
out by having the ground well shaded.

Amount of light. — The third important factor that determines how fast
a tree will grow is the amount of light it receives. The food materials
that are later used to make new wood must be worked over in the leaves
and the leaves must have light in order to do this. The more leaves
there are on a tree, and the more light they have, the better chance the
tree has of making a large amount of new wood. If closely crowded by
its neighbors, the tree will not have a well-developed top or set of branches

FIG. 211. — It is very important that a leaf mulch be kept on
the ground; such a mulch is a great help in keeping the soil
moist and mellow, and it is also a fertilizer

ii4 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES

(called the crown) ; therefore, it will not have as many leaves and will
not grow so fast as it might otherwise do. By removing a few trees
from crowded clumps, relieving the best trees from too great competition,
these trees can be made to grow much more rapidly.

There are, however, two dangers in this thinning. A tree growing in an
open position will have more branches and the lumber will therefore be
more knotty. In order to avoid this, the tree should not be given too
much room until the trunk has cleaned itself of branches high enough to
give one or more clear saw logs. In the second place, by letting in sun-

FIG 212. — In making improvement cuttings, cultivate the habit of looking up.
This picture was taken with the camera pointing straight up from the
ground. A tree has just been removed from the center, and the trees left
standing will now have a chance to spread into the space that has just been
vacated. The object is to develop as many medium-sized, compact, high-
set crowns as possible

light and wind the soil may be dried out, and perhaps grass and weeds
may have a chance to come in because of the light, without which they
cannot grow. The slower growth due to this running wild of the soil may
more than offset the more rapid growth due to light. Thinning should
not be so severe that the soil will dry up seriously or that grass and weeds
can start.

Improvement cuttings

In order to accomplish the ends that have been explained, improvement
cuttings should be made in the woodlot.

THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE WOODLOT 115

Objects. — Such cuttings have several objects : they should gradually
remove poor trees, and increase the proportion of the best ones; they
should make the timber that is left standing grow more rapidly; they will
usually yield some useful wood materials.

What to cut. — Instead of first selecting the trees to be cut from a crowded
clump, it is better to pick out the best trees in the clump and then decide
what trees should be removed in order to help the best ones. In choosing
the best trees, we should consider not only the species, or kind, of tree,

FIG. 213. — A stand of young hardwoods in which an improvement cutting has just

been completed

and the straightness and freedom from knots, but also the crown. If the
tree has only a few scraggly branches it will probably not be able to develop
into a rapidly growing tree, even if given more light. The best crown is
one that is set high on the trunk, leaving a clear trunk below, is compact
instead of wide spreading, and is about equally developed on all sides.
The aim in thinning should be to get as many of the trees as possible to
develop crowns of this kind. If a tree that is otherwise good has its crown
hemmed in on one or more sides by other trees, it can, if still vigorous, be
enabled to develop a good full crown by removing one or more of its neigh-
bors. The trees to be cut should be so chosen that when the thinning is

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THE CORNELL READING-COURSES

finished the trees left will cast a fairly even shade; there should not be
dense thickets alternating with large open spaces.

Among the trees that should be cut whenever possible, the following
may be mentioned: poor species of trees; decaying and crooked trees, and
those with so many limbs that there is no hope of getting the lower part
of their trunks cleaned of branches; overripe trees; trees with large spread-
ing tops, taking up
more than their share
of room; poor trees
overtopping better
ones — for example, a
soft maple standing
over a white pine;
trees, even though
good in themselves,
which are standing so
close to better ones as
to retard the growth
of the latter.

However, it is by no
means always desir-
able to remove all
such trees at one cut-
ting. It may be nec-
essary to leave some
to furnish seed; or it
may be that there are
so many poor trees in
the woods that if they
were all cut at once

FIG. 214. — Do not trim out undergrowth to make the woods
" look pretty." This undergrowth was planted at consid-
erable cost in order to keep the soil in good condition so that
the overhead stand of pine would grow faster

the! soil would run

wild. In such cases,
either special meas-
ures should be taken

to get a young crop of trees started in place of those that are cut, or else
the thinning should be done so gradually as not to injure the soil. It is
more important to keep a good cover over the land than to get rid of all
poor trees at once. Where there are only a few good trees among many
poor ones, it is often advisable to cut all of them and plant a new crop, i
The underbrush should not be trimmed out in order to make the woods
" look pretty." It is better to have as many young trees as possible
growing under the older ones, unless the young growth is of poor kinds.

THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE WOODLOT 117

Quantity to cut. — When timber is ripe, the harvesting may be done by
taking a few trees here and there, or by clear cutting part or all of the
woodlot. But when making an improvement cutting, the object of which
is to help the growing timber, the number of trees removed should not be
great. It is impossible to give definite rules as to how much can be cut
safely; this is entirely a matter of judgment. The following sugges-
tions may be helpful, however. They apply to improvement cuttings,
not to the harvesting of ripe timber :

1. Do not give a young tree so much room that the lower part of its
trunk will not be cleaned of branches. There is no danger that new
branches will start out on those parts of the trunk that have been well
cleaned of limbs.

2. Even after the tree is well cleaned, do not give it so much room that
it develops a wide-spreading top instead of a compact one.

3. Do not make an opening so large that it will not be filled by the
surrounding crowns in a few years, otherwise the soil may run wild.

4. Since an opening should not be very large, it is a good plan not to
cut two trees whose crowns adjoin unless there is a special reason for
doing so.

5. Do not thin so severely that on a clear day you will see more than
one third of the ground with the bright sunlight reaching it ; this sunlight
should be in small patches here and there.

It is perhaps well to repeat that these suggestions do not apply when
timber is being harvested.

How often to repeat cutting. — The improvement cutting should be
repeated as frequently as there seem to be many trees that need to be
helped by thinning. It is usually not necessary to do this oftener than
once in five years.

Thinning of sprouts. — A special form of thinning is often advisable
where sprouts come up thickly from stumps. All sprouts coming from a
stump are using a part of the water and food taken up by the roots of the
mother stump. By thinning the sprouts the rate of growth of those remain-
ing can be greatly increased. No rule can be given as to how many sprouts
should be left on each stump; this will depend on how close together the
old stumps are, and how vigorous the sprouts seem to be. The aim should
be to leave enough trees so that they will shade the ground thoroughly
within a few years, and not to make such large openings that the trees will
not be cleaned of their lower branches. Usually from one to three sprouts
are left on each stump. Such thinning also tends to make the sprouts
straighter; if too closely crowded, they are likely to twist into every little
opening. The thinning of the sprouts should not be done until they are
several years old. If done when they are one or two years old, much of

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THE CORNELL READING-COURSES

the benefit of the thinning may be lost because a second crop of sprouts
may spring up and almost overtake those of the first crop. If the thin-
ning is not done until the sprouts are five years old or more, there is still a
possibility that a second crop may start ; but the first crop will have such
a lead that they should quickly crowd out the younger ones.

Pruning. — The necessity of pruning should be avoided so far as possi-
ble, by keeping the trees rather crowded when young. Where the trees
have not cleaned themselves, the question arises whether it would pay to
prune them by hand. It will not usually pay to prune when it has to be

FIG. 215. — A clump of sprouts, before thinning
(Courtesy of Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station)

done with the axe, saw, or pruning shears, although there may be here
and there a tree that would be so greatly improved by a few minutes'
work that it would be worth while. Sometimes, as with white pine, the
dead lower branches will hang on for a long time, causing very knotty
lumber. These branches can often be knocked off with a stiff pole far
enough up to clean one good saw log. When the branches break easily, such
pruning can be done cheaply and should often prove a paying investment.

STARTING NEW TREES IN THE WOODLOT

There are several ways of starting new trees in the openings made by
harvesting the timber, and to cover the bare spots now in the woods.

THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE WOODLOT

119

Whatever method is used, grazing animals should be kept out of the woods
while the young trees are starting.

By sprouts

The easiest way to start new trees is by sprouts that come from the
stumps within a year of the time trees are cut. This method cannot be
used with evergreens in New York State, as none of them make sprouts of
any considerable size. It is a practicable method only in the southern
part of the State, as sprouting is usually poor where the climate is severe.

FIG. 216. — The same clump as shown in Fig. 215, after thinning. The thinning
could have been done a few years sooner to good advantage

(Courtesy of Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station)

The vigor of the sprouts can be greatly increased by the following
simple means: Sprouting is best if the timber is cut in the late fall or
winter, and especially if done just before growth starts; cutting the old
timber in the spring or early summer greatly lessens the vigor of the
sprouts. The trees should be cut as near the ground as possible. The
cut should be smooth, and the stump left slanting in such a way that
water will not gather on it. Care should be taken not to tear the bark
from the wood.

Sprouts rarely make as large timber as do trees grown from seed; this
method is therefore more useful for the raising of poles, railroad ties, fenc-

120 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES

ing, fuel wood, and the like, than for saw logs. The same stump will not
usually produce more than two or three generations of sprouts to advan-
tage; after two or three crops of sprout timber have been cut, it is better
to start the next crop from seed. The stumps of old trees do not usually
produce vigorous sprouts.

By seed blown from neighboring 'trees

Another method of starting trees is by seed blown from neighboring
trees. Light seeds, such as those of pine, spruce, hemlock, and poplar,
may be carried long distances by the wind; but it is not safe to rely on
thus seeding the ground thoroughly for a distance greater than twice
the height of the trees from which the seed comes. Such trees as maple,
elm, and ash cannot be expected to scatter seed thoroughly for a distance
greater than their own height. Trees with heavy seeds, such as hickory,
chestnut, walnut, beech, and oak, do not scatter their seed far, and this
method cannot be used with such trees.

A better stand of young trees will be obtained if the seed falls on bare
soil instead of on a thick leaf mulch. Usually much of the litter has been
destroyed in the larger openings in the woods, and this is a good thing
at the time when young trees are to start, although at all other times
we should keep the litter carefully. If the soil has become hard, or covered
with dense sod, it will help things greatly to loosen the soil and to break
up the sod somewhat. This can often be done by letting hogs root around
in the woods. The animals must be kept out as soon as the seed falls.
Sometimes it will be found practicable to loosen up the ground a little
with a disc harrow. Even if only small patches of loose soil appear, these
patches will give seed falling on them a much better chance to start. In
some cases even the plowing of single furrows here and there can be done
to advantage, not attempting to make the furrows straight, but dodging
stumps and roots wherever necessary.

When harvesting timber this method of relying on seed from neighboring
trees to start the new crop is often advisable. Sometimes the harvesting
is done by cutting single trees or small groups here and there in the woods,
wherever there are ripe trees; in this case the seed need not be blown far
in order to fill up the openings. At other times considerable areas are
to be cut clear. In such cases it is often a good plan to do the cutting
in strips, cutting all the timber from one strip and then allowing that strip
to be seeded from the neighboring standing timber. As soon as the young
crop is safely started, another strip can be cut, and so on across the woodlot.
The strips should run as nearly as possible at right angles to the direction
of the strongest winds, and should be not more than once to twice as wide
as the height of the neighboring timber. The first strip should be cut

THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE WOODLOT

121

on the side of the woodlot away from the strongest winds, so that seed
from the trees left standing will have the best possible chance of being
scattered all over the cut area. On the last strip on the windward side
it will be necessary to start the young crop in some other way.

When the clear-cutting method is used, care should be taken not to
leave half-grown trees standing alone ; such trees are almost sure to develop
very wide-spreading crowns, taking up much room that should be occupied
by better trees. On the other hand, it may be desirable to leave groups

FIG. 217. — Starting a new crop of trees by seed blown from neighboring timber. The
trees on the strip in the center have grown from seed blown from the timber on the
left. The strip on the right was similarly seeded a few years previously, by timber
then standing on the strip in the center. Another strip at the left will now be cut.
The few trees of the old crop left standing are to remain until the crop now starting
is harvested, in order to make large saw logs

of small trees that are just starting, and perhaps some tall trees that have
already been cleaned of branches to a good height.

The method of harvesting ripe trees singly or in small groups here and
there will ordinarily be used whenever the woodlot is made up of trees
of all sizes, only a few of which are of merchantable size at any one time.
It is also an advisable method when the woodlot is wanted as a wind-
break to shelter buildings or fields, and on very steep slopes where the
soil washes rapidly if exposed. Clear cutting of a part of the woodlot

122 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES

is a good method when most of the timber is of about the same size, and
therefore becomes merchantable at about the same time.

By sowing seed broadcast

If it is desired to have for the new crop a kind of tree of which there
are not many in the woods, seed can be collected or bought and scattered
broadcast on the ground. The same method can be used when so large
an area is to be cut clear that there will be no timber left near enough
to seed the ground.

This method, however, is usually very unsatisfactory. A large part
of seed scattered on the surface is destroyed by birds and other animals,
or dies because it does not find the proper conditions for germinating.
For this reason, a great deal of seed must be sown, and the expense is
often considerable. Even when plenty of seed is used, it is very uncertain
whether a good crop of young trees will be obtained. This method should
not be used at all with large seeds, such as acorns and nuts. If one wishes
to try it with pine, spruce, hemlock, or locust, three to six pounds of seed
per acre should be sown. Broadcasting is best done just before growth
starts in the spring. If possible, it is well to scatter the seed on one of
the last snows. It should not be tried on more than a small area the
first year, in order to see whether it will succeed.

If the surface soil can be loosened a little, this greatly increases the
chances of success; and if the seed can be partly covered by going
over the ground with a bundle of brush or a harrow, the chances are still
better. Usually, however, the ground is such that neither of these things
can be done, except perhaps by turning in hogs.

By planting trees or seed

By far the surest way of starting young trees is to sow the seed in a
garden and take care of the trees there until they are large enough to be
planted; or to make " seed spots," that is, to plant the seed where the
trees are to remain. This method also gives the desired kind of trees,
and is the quickest way of getting the open spaces covered. The expense
of planting is often not so great as that of broadcasting seed, or as the
loss in timber value or in time due to delaying the lumbering in order to
get natural seeding from the side in strips. In many other cases, planting
may be decidedly more expensive than some other method. In any case,
this method requires more work than does any other.

For convenience in describing planting, trees may be divided roughly
into three classes: evergreens, large-seeded hardwoods, and small-seeded
hardwoods.^

THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE WOODLOT 123

Evergreens. — Starting evergreens (pine, spruce, hemlock, cedar, and the
like) and tamarack (larch) by seed spots is not recommended, as there is
great danger of failure. It is better to plant trees that have been raised
in a garden or a nursery. Evergreen tree seeds are gathered early in the
fall and are not sown in the garden until the next spring. They may be
kept over winter in bags hung in a cool, moist place. The successful
raising of evergreen trees in the garden requires considerable experience,
and it is not usually wise for the busy farmer to attempt to raise them from
seed unless he wishes to do a good deal of planting, making it worth while
to learn how to raise the trees.* It will probably be better to buy them
from a commercial nursery or from the State. The State Conservation
Commission at Albany sells trees at cost, as long as their supply lasts,
to persons who wish to do forest planting in New York State.

Two-year-old pine seedlings may be used for planting if the trees do
not have to fight with heavy sod or with other adverse conditions ; if
conditions are unfavorable, three-year-old pines should be planted.
Three-year-old spruces and hemlocks may be used where the conditions
are good, four- and five-year-old trees where they are bad. Trees that are
three years old or more when finally planted, should have been trans-
planted once in the garden.

Large-seeded hardwoods. — With large-seeded hardwoods (oak, walnut,
hickory, chestnut, beech) and with locust, the seed-spot method is usually
best. If the seeds are destroyed by animals, or if for any reason the trees
fail to start well, it may be necessary to sow the seed in the garden and
to plant the trees when one year old. The former method is successful
in most cases. All the above trees have large roots, and considerable
expense is saved by avoiding transplanting. The seeds should be gathered
in the early fall ; the locust seed may also be gathered later, as the pods hang
on the trees for a long time. The seed should not be sown until
spring, except white oak, which should be sown as soon as gathered.
Locust seed can be kept over winter in bags hung in a dry, cool place;
acorns and nuts should be buried in soil. The latter can be done by
digging a pit outdoors in a well-drained spot, placing the nuts in the bottom
in a layer two to four inches deep. It is well to cover acorns, chestnuts,
and beechnuts with six inches to a foot of leaves, straw, or hay, and this
again with the soil that was thrown out of the pit. A pit about one foot
deep is convenient for these seeds. Hickory nuts and walnuts should
be left so near the surface that frost will get at them, and the cover of
leaves or straw should be omitted. The outside of the seed should be dry
before placing it in the pit, otherwise it may heat or mold. A sand or

:

*Persons wishing to raise evergreen trees from seed, or to collect and take care of evergreen tree seeds,
should send for Bulletin 76 of the United States Forest Service, " How to Grow and Plant Conifers in the

Northeastern States." This bulletin, which is by Mr. C. R. Pettis, Superintendent of State Forests of
New York State, may be obtained free, as long as the supply lasts, by writing to The Forester, Washington,
D. C. No copies of the bulletin can be distributed from Ithaca.

124 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES

sandy loam soil is the best in which to bury the seeds, but a heavy soil
will do if in a well-drained place. The pit should be watched to see that
animals do not disturb it.

Instead of putting the seeds in a pit outdoors, they may be kept in
boxes in an unheated building. A layer of soil, the more sandy the better,
is placed in the bottom of the box, then a layer of seeds, then another
layer of soil, and so on. A good arrangement is to have the layers of
soil about six inches deep, and those of seeds two to four inches deep.
Look at the seeds once in a while to see that they are not molding because
of too much moisture, or are not drying out. Drying can be detected
by cutting open a few of the seeds in order to see whether they are keeping
their usual plump, moist, fresh look. The seeds should be taken from
the pits or boxes and planted in the garden or in seed spots just as early
in the spring as the ground can be worked.

Small-seeded hardwoods. — With the small-seeded hardwoods, such as
maple, ash, and elm, it is well to sow the seed in rows or in broadcast
beds in the garden, giving them good care for one or two years before
planting. One year is ordinarily enough if the trees are thrifty and if
the conditions under which they are to be planted are fairly good ; otherwise
they should be kept in the garden for two years. The seed of elm
and of soft maple should be gathered in the spring as soon as they are
ripe, and sown within a few days. The sugar maple and the ash
seeds should be gathered in the fall and stored over winter in boxes
of soil, as described for the larger seeds. With these seeds, however,
it is better to have the layer of seed only one or two inches thick, and the
layers of soil need be only about four inches deep. The seeds should
be sown as early in the spring as possible.

Wild stock. — Trees for forest planting can sometimes be obtained from
the woods or the roadsides. This wild stock does not have so good roots
as do trees that have been cared for in a garden, and more trees are
likely to die after transplanting than is the case when nursery stock is
used. However, where fairly good wild stock can be procured cheaply,
it is sometimes a good plan to try it, on a small scale at first. Care should
be taken that a good supply of small roots is left on the tree in taking it
up. For forest plantations, evergreens more than about a foot high,
and hardwoods more than about eighteen inches high, should not be used,
as the cost of planting larger trees is too great. For ornamental planting,
much larger wild stock can be used.

Distance of planting. — In this country, trees are usually planted either
five or six feet apart in each direction; in Europe, closer planting is custom-
ary. Seed spots are ordinarily spaced the same as though trees were
being planted. Spacing the trees six feet in each direction means 1,210

THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE WOODLOT

125

trees per acre; spacing five feet, 1,740 trees; four feet, 2,720 trees. The
expense of planting is therefore greatly increased by close spacing. The
advantages of close planting are that the ground is shaded sooner, thus
getting the soil in good condition more quickly ; and that the lower branches
die while still small, thus greatly increasing the chance that the trees will
shed the branches. Six by six feet is probably close enough for hard-
woods, and on good soil for evergreens that grow fairly rapidly after the
first few years, such as
pine and larch. If on
poor soil, or if planting
an evergreen that
grows very slowly for
a number of years (as
spruce or hemlock) ,
it may be well to plant
five by five feet. The
spacing should be kept
fairly regular, but it
is not worth while to
spend much time in
being sure that each
tree is in exactly the
right spot.

The above spacing
applies to planting
where there are not
already some trees.
Planting is also fre-
quently desirable
where the ground is
partly covered with
young timber or with
underbrush, in order,
to get more trees of
the best kinds or to fill up small openings. In such work the trees will be
planted wherever there is a chance, rather than where they will make reg-
ular spacing. The number of trees planted per acre will vary widely ; if the
average spacing is about ten feet, about 400 trees per acre will be used.

Planting season. — Planting should begin as early in the spring as the
ground can be worked. Hardwood trees should not be planted after the
buds have opened. It is better to finish the planting of evergreens, also,
before growth starts, but they can be planted after the new shoots -are

FIG. 218. — Young trees should stand sufficiently close together
to insure a thorough shading of the ground within a few
years, and to cause the lower branches to die while still small

126 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES

rather long. Early fall planting can be done, at least with hardwoods.
There is danger of fall-planted trees being winter-killed or lifted by frost,
and the only especial advantage in fall planting is to lessen the rush of
spring work. Seed spots should not be made in the fall, except with
white oak.

When shipments of trees are received, such trees as are not to be planted
the same day should be "heeled in"; that is, placed very close together
in a trench and the soil packed firmly about the roots, with the tops shaded
from the bright sun. In this way they can be kept all through the plant-
ing season. It is well to wet the roots before or after heeling in.

Method of planting. — When planting, the roots of evergreens must be
kept moist all the time; exposure to sun or wind for even a few minutes
may be fatal. The trees can be carried in pails of water or wrapped in
wet burlap. Hardwood roots are not so sensitive, but they should not
be needlessly exposed.

The grub hoe or the mattock is the tool most employed in planting,
or, where the soil is light and easily dug, the spade is used. Grass and
other plants should be removed from a spot about twelve to sixteen inches
square. A hole is dug in the center of this spot, just large enough to
receive the roots comfortably, the tree being set a little deeper than it
grew in the garden. The roots should be spread out fairly well in the hole ;
they should not be rolled into a ball. It is well to prune long, stringy
roots. The soil should be packed firmly around the roots, but a little mulch
of loose soil should be left on top in order to check evaporation. The
work should be tested now and then by pulling at a tree just planted;
if it is not firm in the ground, the soil has not been sufficiently packed.

In making seed spots, grass and weeds should be stripped from about
the same sized spots as though trees were being planted. Then a little
soil is loosened in the center of the spot, and a hole dug deep enough so
that the seed can be covered with about twice as much soil as the size
of the seed itself. Three to five hardwood seeds are planted in each spot.
All the seeds will not produce trees, and it is usually cheaper to go over
the ground after two or three years and take out the extra trees than to
plant again in places that have failed.

Plowing and harrowing the ground before planting will greatly lessen
the amount of labor required. After harrowing, the ground can be marked
out with a corn marker. Trees can then be planted with a spade, and seeds
with a garden hoe or a corn planter.

Cost of planting. — When planting with the mattock on unplowed ground,
a man should be able to plant 300 to 600 trees or 400 to 1,500 seed spots
per day, according to conditions. If the ground is plowed and harrowed,
the speed of planting can easily be doubled. The total cost of planting,

THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE WOODLOT

127

including buying the trees or seed and doing the planting, usually averages
five to twelve dollars an acre. This is assuming that all labor is paid for
at the usual rates per day. But if on the farm the planting is done by
the regular help, and also if the seed is collected and the trees raised at
home instead of being bought, the actual cash outlay may be very small.
The planting can be done very early in the spring, before the rush of
regular farm work begins. It costs more to plant evergreens than to start
such trees as oak and hickory by seed spots, but this fact should not

FIG. 219. — A group of white pines recently planted in an opening in a hardwood

woodlot

discourage the planting of pine and spruce, which yield larger crops than
do the hardwoods.

Few species. — An attempt should not be made to start too many different
kinds of trees, especially at first. It is wise to select the one or two or
three kinds that seem best adapted to the land to be planted. It is easier
and usually better to plant each kind alone on some part of the area, unless
there is some special reason for mixing them.

Planting under other trees. — Locust, poplar, yellow poplar (tulip tree),
hickory, catalpa, red oak, white ash, white pine, Scotch pine, western
yellow pine, and tamarack (larch) should not be planted under other

128 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES

trees unless the old timber is to be removed within a very few years.
This is because these trees will not grow well when shaded from overhead,
except when very young. Basswood will endure a moderate amount of
shade. Sugar maple, beech, hemlock, and spruce can be planted in heavy
shade.

The method to use

The sprout method can be used to advantage with hardwoods in the
southern part of the State, when the stumps are still vigorous and when
only the smaller wood products are wanted.

Relying on seed from neighboring trees is a good method wherever
only a few trees are being cut here and there and the neighboring trees
are the kinds that are desired in the new crop. It is also a good method
to try when considerable areas are to be clear cut, if the neighboring
timber is of the right kind and has light seed.

The method of scattering seed broadcast on the ground should not be
used on a large scale until it has been tried in a small way to see whether it
will yield anything.

The planting of trees or seeds is recommended in all cases when one
wishes to increase quickly the proportion of the best kinds of timber,
and it should be done when other methods fail.

OTHER SUGGESTIONS

When is a tree ripe?

There is much uncertainty in the minds of persons who wish to take
good care of their woods as to when a tree has reached the proper size for
cutting. In general, a tree is ripe and should be cut, unless there is some
special reason for leaving it, when it has reached the time at which it
will yield the greatest profit. It is not an easy matter to determine this
time, which varies with many conditions. One of the things we most
need to know in order to determine the average age or size at which it is
best to cut timber, is the rate of growth of timber trees at different times
in their life. As yet we have few figures on the growth of timber in New
York State. Until we have such information, the decision as to whether
a tree is ripe will be entirely a matter of judgment, in which some of the
following suggestions may be helpful:

General quality.— It the timber is desired for certain products, such as
telegraph poles or railroad ties, the right time to cut it is, of course, when
it has reached a good size for making poles or ties. Poor kinds of trees
should be cut in order to give room for better kinds, whenever possible.
Trees that are decaying rapidly are beyond their time of most profitable
growth and therefore are overripe. In some trees, however, decay goes

THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE WOODLOT 129

on so slowly that it may not offset the greater value due to the growth
of new wood and the increasing market value of timber. The ground occupied
by very crooked or low-forked trees, or by trees that will make very knotty
timber, is usually not yielding so good an income as though these trees were
replaced with better ones.

Crown. — With good, sound trees of medium or large size, it is not so
easy to decide whether the tree is ripe. For example, if we have some
good oaks that are twelve or sixteen or twenty-four inches in diameter,
or even larger, are they ripe? As already explained, this question cannot
be answered until we know more of the rate of growth of our timbers.
However, much help can be derived by looking at the crown: trees with
compact, medium-sized, healthy-looking crowns are probably growing
well, while those that have poor, ragged crowns and a general appearance
of not being vigorous may "be assumed to be ripe. An important excep-
tion is found in many trees that have rather poor crowns simply because
they are closely crowded by their neighbors ; such trees may grow well if
given more room. Trees that have very wide-spreading crowns, taking
up much more than the usual amount of space for a tree of their diameter,
should usually be cut. These so-called " wolf trees " take up too much
room for the growth they are making.

Width of annual rings. — Some idea as to whether the timber is growing
fast can also be obtained by noticing the width of the rings on stumps and
logs in the neighborhood. Each of these rings is the growth of one year.
By knowing what is the usual width of ring in the locality, and then by
cutting a little notch in a few standing trees in your woods, a general
idea can be gained as to whether the timber is doing well. It should be
noted that even if the rings become somewhat narrower as the tree grows
older, the amount of wood laid on each year may be just as great. This is
because the last rings are laid on around a larger circle and up a taller
trunk than were the earlier ones. If there is a sudden, decided narrowing
of the rings, however, it shows slower growth.

Increase in value. — Asa tree grows larger the wood is worth more, because
large-sized products bring higher prices than do small ones. It should
also be remembered that even if the trees are not making much new wood
each year, yet the market value of good timber is increasing. The hold-
ing of good timber, so long as it remains thrifty, is usually a paying invest-
ment, unless the land is very valuable for other purposes.

Summary. — In deciding whether or not to cut a tree, the following points
should be considered : whether the tree has reached a good size to make
the product desired; whether or not it is a good kind; its soundness, and the
cleanness and straightness of the trunk; the crown development and the
general appearance of vigor ; and, whenever possible, the width of the annual

130

THE CORNELL READING-COURSES

rings. Size by itself is not a sure sign of ripeness. When in doubt it is best
to keep the tree ; the rise in the value of timber will warrant doing this.

Desirable trees for New York State

The species of trees to be planted or favored in the cutting will
depend on what kind of product is desired and on the conditions under
which the tree is to be grown, especially the climate, soil, and amount of

shade the tree will
have to endure. The
following list is by no
means complete, and
is intended only to
suggest some of the
best trees for general
use in this State and
to point out some
troubles with certain
of our trees :

Among the ever-
greens, white pine
and Norway spruce
are the best trees for
general use under
most conditions in
New York. Both of
these will endure the
climate in any part of
the State. White pine
grows slowly for the
first few years, but
after that it grows
well. It is not suit-
able for very dry sand
or gravel, or for heavy, wet land, but is at home on all other soils. It
grows well on sandy soils if they are not unusually dry. Although it
will endure shade at first, it will not grow well under other trees after
the first few years.

Norway spruce will do well on any moist soil, provided the soil is fairly
well drained; it should not be planted on dry soil. Starting very slowly,
its growth after the first few years is good. It will endure heavy shade
and is therefore a good tree to use in planting land already partly
wooded. It is able to grow on very shallow soil if such soil is moist.

FIG. 220. — A stand of Norway spruce. Some of the lower
dead branches could be easily knocked off

THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE WOODLOT 131

On very dry sands or gravels where the white pine will not do well, the
Scotch pine is a good tree. It grows very rapidly when young, but later
in life it does not grow so fast as does white pine. The value of its timber
is decidedly less than that of white pine. Because of its slower growth
(except in early life) and because of its poorer timber, its use is
not recommended on soils where white pine will grow. The Scotch
pine will not endure much overhead shade, and it should not be
planted under other trees. The western yellow pine (" bull pine ")
will probably prove to be a better tree than Scotch pine for very dry
soils; but as yet it has not been planted in the East long enough to
make this certain.

Among the hardwoods, red oak, white ash, and basswood are excellent,
except in the colder parts of the State; sugar maple is fairly satisfactory
in all parts of the State. All of these, except maple, are fairly rapid
growers; the maple grows comparatively slowly. All need moderately
moist and well-drained soil. If the soil is dry, white pine should be planted ;
if very dry, Scotch pine or western yellow pine. White ash and red oak
will not endure much overhead shade; basswood is moderately shade-
enduring; sugar maple, like spruce, will endure heavy shade and can be
planted under other trees.

The locust (black locust) is often used as a fence-post tree. The great
trouble with it is that borers (grubs) often attack the plantations, fre-
quently killing half of the trees, although many plantations suffer no
injury. Even when the percentage of loss is large, the locust is still a
desirable fence-post tree. It can be put on any soil that is fairly deep
and not swampy. It is a good tree to hold steep banks. It grows very
fast for twenty or thirty years, but later in life its growth is slow. It will
not endure overhead shade, and therefore should not be planted among
other trees in the woodlot except in openings of considerable size. It is
not satisfactory in the coldest parts of the State, where it suffers from
severe early fall frosts.

Catalpa should not be planted in New York State, except perhaps in
the warmest parts and on good soils. Catalpa is a rapidly growing tree
on good soils in a mild climate. Many of the failures in severe climates
have come because of not having the hardy variety; but even the hardy
catalpa does not make profitable growth in a cold climate, especially if on
poor soil. It should not be one of the trees commonly used in this State.
Where it is planted, none but the hardy variety should be used, and it
should not be put in the shade of other trees.

Chestnut should not be planted in this State at present. The chestnut
bark disease is so fatal and is spreading so rapidly that this tree is an
unsafe investment until we learn whether or not the disease can be checked.

132 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES

If the danger from the disease disappears, chestnut will be one of the most
desirable timbers for the warmer sections of the State.

White oak grows so slowly that, in spite of its excellent timber, it is not
a satisfactory tree for private owners to plant. Thrifty young white oak
timber already in the woods, however, should be given good care.

Hemlock is not advised for general planting where the object is to raise
timber. It does not transplant easily, grows slowly, and the timber is
inferior to other kinds that can be raised on the same soil. On any soil
in this State where hemlock will grow, Norway spruce can be grown to
better advantage. Where hemlock is already in the woods, however, it is
well worth caring for when it does not interfere with better trees. It will
grow under heavy shade.

Austrian pine is sometimes used in forest planting, but it has no advan-
tages for New York over the other pines mentioned above, and is not to
be recommended for woodlot purposes.

SUMMARY

1. The timber crop can be improved by care, for the same reasons that
other crops can be improved.

2 . Although it takes longer to raise this crop than any other, it can be
raised on land otherwise unprofitable or idle.

3. Such a crop will in the end yield a comfortable bank account: and
the value of the woodlot to the farm is greater than the sale value of the
crop, in the convenience and the saving of money by having various wood
products at hand ; in protecting buildings and fields from wind ; and in the
beauty of the farm. The time is coming when thrifty young timber, not
yet large enough to cut, will have a good sale value.

4. The care of this crop causes little expense, and the woodlot offers
one means of solving the problem of how to keep good farm help profitably
employed all the year.

5. The three principal aims in caring for the woodlot should be: to keep
the ground thoroughly covered with trees; to have only the best possible
trees ; to make them grow rapidly.

6. In order to make timber grow fast, care should be taken in choosing
the kinds of trees to raise; the soil should be kept moist and mellow by
protecting the leaf mulch; the best trees should be given a fair amount of
light by making improvement cuttings.

7. Methods of starting new trees, either to fill openings now in the
woods or to replace timber to be harvested, are as follows : by sprouts ; by
seed falling from neighboring trees; by sowing seed broadcast; by planting
trees or seed.

LESSON FOR THE FARM

L. H. BAILEY, Director
COURSE FOR THE FARM, ROYAI/GILKEY, Supervisor

VOL. H. No. 28

ITHACA, N. Y.
NOVEMBER 15, 1912

FARM FORESTRY
SERIES No. 2

RECENT NEW YORK STATE LAWS GIVING RELIEF FROM
TAXATION ON LANDS USED FOR FORESTRY PURPOSES

WALTER MULFORD

Several new laws relating to the taxation of forest lands in New York
State went into effect in April, 1912. Complete exemption from taxation
is granted in some
cases, and a reduc-
tion or limitation
of the tax in other
cases.

In order to get
relief from taxation,
the land must be
used for forestry
purposes. It must
be planted with
forest trees if it is
not already well
wooded. If it is
now covered with
brush or with an
unsatisf actory
stand of timber, it
must be under-
planted, that is,
good trees must be
planted under the
existing growth.
If it is already well wooded, it must be maintained as a satisfactory forest.

Published semi-monthly throughout the year by the New York State College of Agriculture at
Cornell University. Entered as second-class matter October 13, 1911, at the post office at Ithaca,
N. Y. under the Act of Congress of July 16, 1894.

34

THE CORNELL READING-COURSES

Trees needed for the planting or underplanting may be bought from the
New York State Conservation Commission if desired. The Commission
has large nurseries in various parts of the State, and sells trees at the cost
of production to private parties who will use the trees for forest planting
within the State.

The control of the regulations under which tax relief is granted is in the
hands of the Conservation Commission. Applications for relief from taxa-
tion under these new laws, correspondence regarding details of the work
to be done, and requests for trees to be used in planting, should be
addressed to the Conservation Commission, Albany, N. Y.

THE NATURE OF THE TAX RELIEF

The nature of the tax relief to be granted depends on the character of
the land and on the kind of care that is given to the land by the owner.
For convenience, the lands on which tax relief can be obtained may be
divided into four classes. These four classes are not entirely distinct
from one another; that is, many lands are of such character that they
could be placed in more than one class. The following table shows the
character of the land in each class, what must be done in order to get
relief from taxation, and the nature of the relief granted :

Character of land

What must be done
in order to get re-
lief from taxation

Nature of the relief granted

Not wooded; I to
acres

100

Wooded or brush land;
i to 100 acres

Assessed valuation of
land not over $5 per
acre ; unsuitable for
agricultural purposes ;
bare or wooded; over 5

Wooded (either natural
growth or planted) ;
not over 50 acres

Plant with forest trees
and maintain as
forest

Underplant with for-
est trees and main-
tain as forest

Plant or underplant
with forest trees
and maintain as
forest

Manage as a perma-
nent woodlot

No tax on either trees or land for
35 years

No tax on trees for 35 years; land to
be taxed, but the assessment for
35 years to be only 50 per cent of
the assessable valuation

No tax on trees for 35 years; land
to be taxed, but the assessed valu-
ation to be fixed now and remain
constant for 35 years, this assessed
valuation not to exceed the present
assessed valuation of similar lands
in the vicinity

No tax on trees until cut; land to be
taxed, but the assessed valuation
not to exceed $10 per acre; a tax of
5 per cent of stumpage value of
trees when cut; these provisions to
continue so long as the property is
managed as a permanent woodlot

The principal points in the law dealing with each of the above classes of
land are summarized below, often by means of direct quotations from the

LAWS RELATING TO TAXATION ON FOREST LANDS 35

law. The complete text of the laws is then given, for the use of those who
wish further details.

RELIEF FROM TAXATION BY FOREST PLANTING

On lands not wooded, and of small area

Areas of one acre to one hundred acres of land not wooded may, after
the land has been planted for forestry purposes with not less than eight
hundred trees per acre, be exempted from all taxation for a period of thirty-
five years. The exemption from taxes applies both to the land and to the
trees growing on it. But " lands situated within twenty miles of the cor-
porate limits of a city of the first class, or within ten miles of the corporate
limits of a city of the second class, or within five miles of the corporate
limits of a city of the third class, or within one mile of the corporate limits
of an incorporated village " are not entitled to this exemption.

Lands that were forested before this law was passed (April 10, 1912)
may also receive the benefit of the law if the planting was done since April
10, 1909, and if the application for exemption is made before April 10, 1913.

The procedure in exempting the planted area from taxation is as follows :
After the planting is completed, the owner files with the Conservation
Commission at Albany an affidavit proving the planting and describing
the location of the land. The Conservation Commission then sends a
representative to inspect the area. If the planting is found to have been
properly completed, the Conservation Commission reports to the county
treasurer that the land is to be exempted from taxation. The county
treasurer reports in turn to the assessors of the tax district in which the
land is located, who enter the land on the next assessment roll as being
exempt from taxation for a period of thirty-five years.

If land thus exempted ceases to be used exclusively as a forest plantation
before the period of exemption has expired, the usual taxes will again be
levied against the property.

If the land continues to be used exclusively for the growth of a
planted forest after the thirty-five-years period of exemption has expired,
the land is to be assessed at its true value but the timber growing on
the land remains exempt from taxation, with the following exception :
if any timber is cut before taxes on the land have been paid for five con-
secutive years after the exemption period has expired, a tax of five per
cent of the estimated stumpage value of the cut timber must be paid.
However, this tax is not levied on trees that are cut, under the super-
vision of the Conservation Commission, for the purpose of thinning the
forest in order to increase the rate of growth of the remaining timber.

For further details, the reader is referred to chapter 249 of the Laws of
.1912 (p. 38).

36 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES

On wooded or brush lands of small area

The law dealing with relief from taxation on wooded or brush lands of
small area (one to one hundred acres) is the same as described above for
small areas not wooded, with the following exceptions: (i) Instead of
planting at least eight hundred trees per acre, the owner is to underplant
the area with at least three hundred trees per acre. (2) All trees growing
on the land are exempt from taxation for thirty-five years ; the land itself
is to be taxed, but it is to be assessed for thirty-five years at only one half
its assessable valuation.

Further details may be found in chapter 249 of the Laws of 1912 (p. 38).

On nonagricultural lands, bare or wooded, of large or small area, assessed at
not over five dollars per acre

The owner of bare or wooded land who wishes to use that land for
raising a crop of timber may obtain some tax relief if the land is unsuitable
for agriculture, if its assessed valuation does not exceed five dollars per
acre, and if its area is at least five acres.

The relief that may be obtained in this case is that all trees growing on
the land are exempt. from taxation for thirty-five years; and that, although
the land itself is taxed, its assessed valuation is determined at the outset
and cannot then be increased for thirty-five years. In determining this
assessed valuation, it cannot be placed higher than the average assessed
valuation of the land for the preceding five years, or than the assessed
valuation of other similar lands in the same tax district. The certainty
as to the rate at which the property will be assessed for a period of thirty-
five years is the distinctive feature of this law.

In order to obtain this tax relief, the owner must plant or underplant
with such forest trees as the Conservation Commission may direct, and
must maintain and protect the forest in accordance with the instructions
of the Conservation Commission.

The procedure in getting the lands specially listed for taxation under
the provisions of this law is as follows: The owner should apply to the
Conservation Commission at Albany, giving a description of the land,
and enclosing a certificate or sworn statement by the tax assessor as to the
value of the land. A representative of the Commission then examines
the property. If the area is found to be suitable, a written agreement
is made between the Commission and the owner, the former agreeing to
supply at cost the trees needed for planting, and the latter agreeing to do
the planting and to care for the forest as directed. This agreement is
recorded in the county clerk's office, and " the provisions thereof shall be
deemed to be and be covenants running with the land." The owner is
to do the planting within one year after making this agreement. When

LAWS RELATING TO TAXATION ON FOREST LANDS 37

the planting is completed, he files with the Commission an affidavit proving
the planting. After inspection of the area to see that everything is satis-
factory, the Conservation Commission reports to the county treasurer,
and the county treasurer to the local tax assessor, that the area is to be
taxed as described above.

" The right to such exemption and taxation shall be inviolable and
irrevocable as a contract obligation of the state, so long as the owner of
the land so planted shall fully comply with and perform the conditions
of such contract not exceeding said period of thirty-five years." If the
owner does not live up to the contract, the property may be taxed in the
ordinary manner, or the Commission may by injunction restrain the owner
from improper treatment of the forest.

Further details may be found in chapter 444 of the Laws of 1912 (p. 41).

RELIEF FROM TAXATION BY CARE OF WOODLOTS

A modified form of taxation may be obtained for a woodlot, either of
natural growth or planted, if its area does not exceed fifty acres and if it is
not " situated within twenty miles of the corporate limits of a city of the
first class, nor within ten miles of the corporate limits of a city of the
second class, nor within five miles of the corporate limits of a city of the
third class, nor within one mile of the corporate limits of an incorporated
village."

The modified plan of taxation for such lands is as follows: (i) The trees
growing on the land are exempt from taxation until they are cut. (2) The
land is to be taxed, but its assessed valuation is not to exceed ten dollars
per acre and is not to be greater than the assessed valuation of other similar
lands in the same tax district. (3) When live trees are cut, they are sub-
ject to a tax of five per cent of their estimated stumpage value, except that
trees cut for " firewood or building material for the domestic use of said
owner or his tenant " are not taxed.

In order to get the benefit of this method of taxation, the law requires
that the owner must maintain the woodlot in a manner to be prescribed
for it by the Conservation Commission.

The first step in getting the land separately classified for taxation on
this basis is for the owner to apply to the Conservation Commission,
describing the land and giving such other information as the Commission
may require. A representative of the Commission then inspects the wood-
lot, and if it is found to be suitable the Commission submits to the owner
a plan of management for the woodlot. If the plan is accepted by the
owner, the Conservation Commission reports to the county treasurer, and
the county treasurer reports to the tax assessors of the district, that the
property is to be given the special form of taxation.

38 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES

The property will continue to be taxed on this basis so long -as the owner
maintains it as a woodlot in accordance with the instructions of the Con-
servation Commission. If the owner fails to so maintain the woodlot,
it will again be taxed in the usual way.

For further details, the reader is referred to chapter 363 of the Laws of
1912 (p. 40).

SUGGESTIONS

The State now guarantees reasonable taxation on certain classes of
forest lands that are managed as true forest properties. The State
also furnishes trees for planting at cost. It is to be hoped that the
owners of lands which are not well adapted to cultivated farm crops will
see their opportunity and will take advantage of this twofold help in
making their forest lands more profitable.

A person owning land of such character that it is entitled to be entered
for tax relief under more than one of the above described laws, may apply
to have the land listed for taxation under whichever law he chooses.

This lesson is intended merely to help in calling attention to the laws,
and to give a brief general outline of the working of each law. It is not a
complete manual of procedure of the work to be done in taking advantage
of the laws. The Conservation Commission will prescribe detailed methods
of procedure and will direct the work. The first thing to be done in all cases
is for the owner to write to the Conservation Commission for full information
as to the method of procedure. Possible loss of time and work will be avoided
by 30 doing.

FULL TEXT OF THE LAWS

New York State Laws of 1912, Chapter 249

AN ACT to amend the tax law, in relation to the exemption and reduction in assess-
ment'of lands which have been planted with trees for forestry purposes.

Became a law April 10, 1912, with the approval of the Governor. Passed, three-fifths

being present.

The People of the State of New York, represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact as
follows:

Section I. Article one of chapter sixty- two of the laws of nineteen hundred and nine,
entitled "An act in relation to' taxation, constituting chapter sixty of the consolidated
laws," is hereby amended by adding at the end a new section to be section sixteen, and
to read as follows:

§ 1 6. Exemption and reduction in assessment of lands planted with trees for forestry
purposes. Whenever the owner of lands, to the extent of one or more acres and not
exceeding one hundred acres, shall plant the same for forestry purposes with trees to
the number of not less than eight hundred to the acre, and whenever the owner of existing
forest or brush lands to the extent of one or more acres and not exceeding one hundred
acres, shall underplant the same with trees, to the number of not less than three hundred
to the acre, and proof of that fact shall be filed with the assessors of the tax district or
districts in which such lands are situated as hereinafter provided, such lands so forested
shall be exempt from assessment and taxation for any purpose for- a period of thirty-five

LAWS RELATING TO TAXATION ON FOREST LANDS 39

years from the date of the levying of taxes thereon immediately following such planting,
and such existing forest or brush lands so underplanted shall be assessed at the rate of
fifty per centum of the assessable valuation of such land exclusive of any forest growth
thereon for a period of thirty-five years from the date of the levying of taxes thereon
immediately following such underplanting. The owner or owners of lands forested as
above provided, in order to secure the benefits of this section, shall file with the con-
servation commission an affidavit making the due proof of such planting or under-
planting and setting forth an accurate description of such lands, the town and county
in which the same are situated, the number of trees planted or underplanted to the
acre and the number of acres so forested, which affidavit shall remain on file in the office
of said commission. Upon the filing of such affidavit it shall be the duty of the con-
servation commission to cause an inspection of such forested lands to be made by a
competent forester or other employee of said commission who shall make and file with
said commission a written report of such inspection. If the commission is satisfied
from the said affidavit and the report of inspection that the lands have been forested
as above provided, in good faith and by adequate methods to produce a forest planta-
tion, and are entitled to the exemption of assessment or to a reduction of assessment as
provided in this section, it shall make and execute a certificate Under the seal of its
office, and file the same with the county treasurer of the county in which the lands so
forested are located, which certificate shall set forth a description of the lands affected
by this section, the area and owner or owners thereof, the town or towns in which the
same are situated, the description upon the last assessment-roll which included said
lands, the period of exemption or of reduction of assessment to which such lands are
entitled and the date of the expiration of such exemption or reduction of assessment.
Upon the filing of such certificate it shall be the duty of the county treasurer to file with
the assessors of the tax district in which the lands described therein are located within
ten days after receipt thereof a certified copy of such certificate, and the assessors of
such tax district shall place the lands according to the description contained in said
certificate upon the next assessment-roll prepared for the assessment of lands within
such tax district, and shall exempt, or reduce the assessment upon, the lands so described
as hereinbefore provided, and shall insert upon the margin of said assessment-roM
opposite the description of said lands, a statement that in accordance with the provisions
of this section of the tax law said lands are exempt from taxation or that the assessment
thereof is reduced fifty per centum as the case may be and insert also in the margin the
date of the expiration of such exemption or reduction of assessment and such lands
shall continue to be exempted, assessed and carried in such manner upon the assess-
ment-rolls of such town until the date of the expiration of such exemption or reduction
of assessment. Lands which have been forested as above provided within three years
prior to the taking effect of this section may come within its provisions if application
therefor is made to the conservation commission within one year from the time when
this section takes effect, but except as provided by this section the period of exemption
or reduction as certified to by the conservation commission shall not exceed the period
of thirty-five years from the date of the original planting. Lands situated within
twenty miles of the corporate limits of a city of the first class, or within ten miles of the
corporate limits of a city of the second class, or within five miles of the corporate limits
of a city of the third class, or within one mile of the corporate limits of an incorporated
village shall not be entitled to the exemption or reduction of assessment provided for
by this section. In the event that lands exempted or reduced in taxation as above
provided shall, by act of the owner or otherwise, at any time during the period of exemp-
tion or reduction in taxation cease to be used exclusively as a forest plantation to the
extent provided by this section to entitle such land to the privileges of this section, the
said exemption and reduction in taxation provided for in this section shall no longer
apply and the assessors having jurisdiction are hereby empowered and directed to assess
the said land at the value and in the manner provided by the tax law for the general
assessment of land. If any land exempted under this section continues to be used
exclusively for the growth of a planted forest after the expiration of the period of exemp-
tion provided hereby, the land shall be assessed at its true value and the timber growth
thereon shall be exempt from taxation, except if such timber shall be cut before the
land has been duly assessed and taxes regularly paid for five consecutive years after the
exemption period has expired, such timber growth shall be subject to a tax of five per
centum of the estimated stumpage value at the time of cutting, unless such cuttings
are thinnings for stimulating growth and have been made under the supervision of the
conservation commission. Whenever the owner shall propose to make any cutting of

40 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES

such timber growth for a purpose other than for thinning as above provided, he shall
give thirty days' notice to the assessors of the tax district on which the land is located,
who shall forthwith assess the stumpage value of such proposed cutting, and such owner
shall pay to the collector of the town in which such land is situated before cutting such
timber five per centum of such assessed valuation. If such owner shall fail to give such
notice and pay such taxes he shall be liable to a penalty of three times the amount of
such tax, and the supervisor of the town may bring an Action to recover the same for
the benefit of the town in any court of competent jurisdiction.
§ 2. This act shall take effect immediately.

New York State Laws of 1912, Chapter 363

AN ACT to amend the tax law, in relation to the exemption and reduction in assessment
of lands which shall be maintained as wood lots and to encourage the growth of trees
for such purposes.

Became a law April 15, 1912, with the approval of the Governor. Passed, three-fifths

being present.

The People of the State of New York, represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact as
follows:

Section I. Article one of chapter sixty- two of the laws of nineteen hundred and nine,
entitled " An act in relation to taxation, constituting chapter sixty of the consolidated
laws," is hereby amended by adding at the end a new section, to be section seventeen,
and to read as follows:

§ 1 7. Exemption and reduction in assessment of lands maintained as wood lots and
to encourage the growth of trees for such purposes. In order to encourage the mainte-
nance of wood lots by private owners and the practice of forestry in the management
thereof, the owner of any tract of land in the state, not exceeding fifty acres, which is
occupied by a natural or planted growth of trees, or by both, which shall not be situated
within twenty miles of the corporate limits of a city of the first class, nor within ten
miles of the corporate limits of a city of the second class, nor within five miles of the
corporate limits of a city of the third class, nor within one mile of the corporate limits
of an incorporated village, may apply to the conservation commission in manner and
form to be prescribed by it, to have such land separately classified for taxation. Appli-
cation for such classification shall be made in duplicate and accompanied by a plot and
description of the land, and such other information as the commission may require.
Upon the filing of such application it shall be the duty of the commission to cause an
inspection of such land to be made by a competent forester for the purpose of deter-
mining whether or not it is of a suitable character to be so classified. If the commission
shall determine that such land is suitable to be so classified, it shall submit to the owner
a plan for the further management of said land and trees and shall make and execute
a certificate under the seal of the commission and file the same with the county treasurer
of the county in which the land is located, which certificate shall set forth a description
and plot of the land so classified, the area and owner thereof, the town or towns in which
the same is situated, and that the land has been separately classified for taxation in
accordance with the provisions of this section. Upon the filing of such certificate it
shall be the duty of the county treasurer to file with the assessors of the tax district in
which the land described therein is located, within ten days after receipt thereof, a
certified copy of such certificate. So long as the land so classified is maintained as a
wood lot, and the owner thereof faithfully complies with all the provisions of this section
and the instructions of the commission, it shall be assessed at not to exceed ten dollars
per acre and taxed annually on that basis. In fixing the value of said lands for assess-
ment, the assessors shall in no case take into account the value of the trees growing
thereon, and said land shall not be assessed at a value greater than other similar lands
within the same tax district, which contain no forest or tree growth, are assessed. The
assessors of each tax district where said land so classified is located shall insert upon the
margin of said assessment and opposite the description of such land a statement that
said land is assessed in accordance with the provisions of this section. In the event
that land so classified as above prescribed shall at any time by act of the owner or other-
wise cease, in the judgment of the commission, to be used exclusively as a wood lot to
the extent provided by this section to entitle the owner of such land to the privileges

LAWS RELATING TO TAXATION ON FOREST LANDS 41

of this section, 'the exemption and valuation in taxation provided for in this section
shall no longer apply and the assessors having jurisdiction shall, upon the direction of
the commission assess the said land at the value and in the manner provided by the tax
law for the general assessment of land. Whenever the owner shall propose to cut any
live trees from said land, except for firewood or building material for the domestic use
of said owner or his tenant, he shall give the commission at least thirty days' notice
prior to the time he desires to begin cutting, who shall designate for the owner the
kind and number of trees, if any, most suitable to be cut for the purpose for which
they are desired, and the cutting and removal of the ktrees so designated shall be in
accordance with the instructions of said commission. After such trees are cut and
before their removal from the land, the owner shall make an accurate measurement
or count of all of the trees cut and file with the assessors of the tax district a verified,
true and accurate return of such measurement or count and of the variety and value
of the trees so cut. The assessors shall forthwith assess the stumpage value of the
timber so cut, and such owner shall pay to the tax collector of the town in which such
land is situated, before the removal of any such timber, five per centum of such
valuation. If such owner shall fail to give such notices and pay such taxes he shall be
liable to a penalty of three times the amount of such tax, and the supervisor of the town
may bring an action to recover the same for the benefit of the town in any court of
competent jurisdiction.

§ 2. This act shall take effect immediately.

New York State Laws of 1912, Section 89 of Article 5 of Chapter 444

AN ACT to amend the conservation law generally, and in relation to lands, forests

and public parks.

Became a law April 16, 1912, with the approval of the Governor. Passed, three-fifths

being present.

The People of the State of New York, represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact as
follows:

§ 89. Exemption of reforested lands from taxation. In consideration of the public
benefit to be derived from the planting and growing of forest trees, and to the end that
the growth of forest trees may be encouraged and the water supply of the state protected
and conserved, and that floods may be prevented, the owner of any waste, denuded
or wild forest lands, of the area of five acres or upwards, within the state, which are
unsuitable for agricultural purposes, who shall agree with the commission to set apart
for reforestation or for forest tree culture, the whole, or any specific portion of such
waste, denuded or wild forest lands, of the area of five acres or upwards, may apply
to the conservation commission, in manner and form to be prescribed by it, to have
such lands separately classified as lands suitable for reforestation or underplanting
within the purposes and provisions of this section. Each application for such classi-
fication shall be accompanied by a plot and description of the land, and shall state
the area, character and location thereof, and such other information in reference thereto
as the commission may require; such application shall be accompanied by a certificate
of the assessors of the tax district or districts in which said lands are located, which
shall set forth the assessed valuation of said lands for the last five years preceding the
date of such application; or if said lands have not been separately assessed during any
part of said period, or the timber has been removed therefrom at any time during said
period of five years, by a sworn statement of the assessors of the value of said lands,
which lands shall be valued at the same rate as other waste, denuded or wild forest
lands in said tax district, similarly situated; such application shall also contain a decla-
ration that the owner intends to reforest or underplant the lands described in such
application with such number and kind of trees per acre and in such manner as the com-
mission shall specify, and to comply with all reasonable rules and regulations of the
commission in reference to future care and management of said lands and trees.

If it appears from said application and certificate or sworn statement that said lands
are suitable for reforestation or underplanting purposes and have not been assessed
during the period of five years next preceding the date of such application at an average

42 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES

valuation of more than five dollars per acre, or that similar lands in said vicinity have
not been assessed for more than five dollars per acre, the said commission shall, as soon
as practicable after the receipt of such application, cause an examination to be made
of the lands for the purpose of determining whether or not it is of a character suitable
to be reforested or underplanted and to be classified as such. After such examination
if the commission shall determine that such lands are suitable for reforestation or under-
planting, it is hereby empowered to enter into a written agreement with the owner,
which agreement shall be to the effect that the commission will furnish said owner,
at a price not to exceed cost of production, trees to be set out upon said lands, the kind
and number to be prescribed by the commission, and to be set forth in said agreement;
that the owner will set out upon said land the number and kind of trees per acre desig-
nated by the commission; and that said land will not be used for any purpose other
than forestry purposes, during the period of exemption, without the consent of the
commission; and that said lands and the trees thereon will be managed and protected
at all times during the period of said exemption in accordance with the directions and
instructions of the commission. Said agreement shall be recorded in the office of the
county clerk of the county where the lands are situated, and the provisions thereof
shall be deemed to be and be covenants running with the land. Within one year after
the making of such agreement, said lands shall be planted by the owner with the number
and kind of trees specified therein; and the owner shall file with the commission an
affidavit making due proof of such planting, which affidavit shall remain on file in the
office of said commission. Upon the filing of such affidavit the commission shall cause
an inspection of such lands- to be made by a competent forester who shall make and
file with said commission a written report of such inspection. If the commission is
satisfied from said affidavit and report that the lands have been forested in good faith
as provided in said agreement, it shall make and execute a certificate under its seal,
and file the same with the county treasurer of the county in which the lands or any part
thereof so forested are located, which certificate shall set forth a description of said
lands, the area and the owner thereof, the town in which the same are situated, a state-
ment that the land has been separately classified for taxation in accordance with the
provisions of this section and a valuation, in excess of which, said lands shall not be
assessed for the period of thirty-five years, which valuation shall not in any event be
greater than the average valuation at which the same lands were assessed for the last
five years preceding the date of said application, or the value of such lands as appears
by the aforesaid sworn statements of the assessors of such tax district, and a statement
that the trees and timber thereon shall be exempt from taxation during said period.
Upon the filing of such certificate it shall be the duty of the county treasurer to file
with the assessors of each tax district in which the lands described are located, a cer-
tified copy thereof, and the assessors of such tax district shall place the lands according
to the description contained in said certificate upon the next assessment-roll, prepared
for the assessment of lands within such tax district, at a valuation not to exceed the
amount stated in said certificate, and not to exceed the assessed valuation of similar
lands in said tax district; and said assessors shall insert upon the margin of said assess-
ment-roll opposite the description of said lands, a statement that said lands shall not
be assessed during the period of thirty-five years at a value in excess of said amount
and that the trees and timber growing upon said lands shall be wholly exempted from
taxation during said period; and said assessors shall also insert upon the margin of said
assessment-roll the date of expiration of said exemption. Such lands shall be assessed,
and continue to be assessed, and carried in such manner, upon the assessment-rolls,
of such towns until the end of the exemption period. In the event that lands so classified
shall, in the judgment of the commission, cease to be used exclusively for forestry pur-
poses to the extent provided in the agreement between the conservation commission
and the owner, or that said owner has violated its terms, or any reasonable rules and
regulations of the commission in respect to the use of or the cutting of timber on said
lands, the exemption from taxation provided in this section shall no longer apply; or
at the election of the commission such owner may be also restrained from said acts
by injunction; and the assessors having jurisdiction shall, upon the direction of the
commission, assess said lands against the owner at the value, and in the manner pro-
vided by the tax law for general assessment of land.

The planting or underplanting of a tract in forest trees in compliance with the agree-
ment as provided in this section shall be taken and deemed to be an acceptance by the
owner of the exemption privileges herein granted and of the conditions herein imposed ;
and in consideration of the public benefit to be derived from the planting, underplanting,

LAWS RELATING TO TAXATION ON FOREST LANDS 43

cultivation and growth of such trees the exemption of such trees from taxation and
the taxation of the land upon which such trees are grown as herein provided, shall be
continued and is hereby assured; and the right to such exemption and taxation shall
be inviolable and irrevocable as a contract obligation of the state, so long as the owner
of the land so planted shall fully comply with and perform the conditions of such con-
tract not exceeding said period of thirty -five years.

THE CORNELL READING-COURSES

Since October, 1911, a publication known as "The Cornell Reading-
Courses " has been issued by the College. This is an enlargement and
revision of the Reading-Course for Farmers and the Reading-Course for
Farmers' Wives, which have been published by the College for ten years.
The Cornell Reading-Courses are two in number — The Reading-Course
for the Farm and The Reading-Course for the Farm Home. These are
not correspondence courses in the ordinary sense, but means of interesting
readers in the elementary agricultural subjects and important farm,
household, and general rural problems. They also aim to lead the reader
to express his own mind on the different subjects and to discuss his own
experience. Such persons as desire may receive suggestions for advanced
reading. The lessons for the farm are issued on the fifteenth of each
month and are numbered by even numbers. The lessons for the farm
home are numbered by odd numbers and issued the first of each month.
The Cornell Reading-Courses are free to residents of New York State.

CORNELL STUDY CLUBS

The late fall of the year is the time to lay plans for spending one's leisure
during the winter months to the best advantage. A large number of
inquiries are received concerning the farm publications of the College
of Agriculture and it is evident that many persons desire to undertake
reading that will help them conduct their farming operations to better
advantage. When such reading can be done in a group there is an added
interest and a better opportunity for self-expression, resulting often in
mutual helpfulness between members of the group. The group may
include men, women, and young people and may have social features as a
part of the programs for the meetings.

Reading matter which is particularly adapted to such groups is found
in the two Cornell Reading-Courses — the course for the farm and the
course for the farm home. If the group is composed of both men and
women, the lessons in the two courses may be alternated, or two separate
groups may be formed holding part of the program in common. Granges,
churches, and other organizations have undertaken the formation of
such groups or conducted such work in connection with regular meetings.
In communities where organizations are not attempting to take up agri-

44 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES

cultural study, Cornell study clubs are particularly helpful. The
supervisors of the Cornell Reading-Courses will cooperate with interested
persons in any locality in the State in the formation of study clubs. Sug-
gestions will be offered for preparing programs. Correspondence is
invited.

THE CORNELL READING-COURSE FOR THE FARM

The Cornell Reading-Course for the Farm, as stated above, is an enlarge-
ment and revision of the former Reading-Course for Farmers. Following
is a list of available back numbers of the former Reading-Course for
Farmers (designated as " Old course ") and lessons of the present course
(designated as " New course "), arranged by series:

Series Lessons

The soil Old course 37 Drainage and larger crops

New course 2 The soil: Its use and abuse

Poultry New course 4 Incubation. — Part I

6 Incubation. — Part II
10 Feeding young chickens
Rural engineering . . New course 8 Knots, hitches, and splices

Farm forestry New course 12 The improvement of the woodlot

28 Recent New York State laws giving relief from
taxation on lands used for forestry purposes

The horse New course 14 Horse breeding to increase the farm income

Dairying Old course 23 Construction of sanitary dairy stables

New course 16 Practical dairy problems

Fruit growing New course 18 The renewal of the neglected orchard

22 The culture of the currant and the gooseberry

Farm crops Old course 10 Pastures and meadows

New course 20 Alfalfa for New York

24 The rotation of farm crops

Stock feeding Old course 7 The computing of balanced rations

New course- 26 Computing rations for farm animals

Plant-breeding Old course 41 Improving plants by selection or breeding

42 Improving corn by seed selection

Residents of New York State may register for one or more of the series
named above by addressing the Cornell Reading-Course for the Farm,
College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y.

The foregoing list is correct to November 15, 1912. The demand may
at any time exhaust the supply of particular numbers. Requests will be
filled as long as the supply lasts.

LESSON FOR THE FARM

L. H. BAILEY, Director
COURSE FOR THE FARM, ROYAL GILKEY, Supervisor

VOL. II. No. 4o FARM FORESTRY No. 3

COUNTY, TOWN, AND VILLAGE FORESTS

A. B. RECKNAGEL

A new law for the acquisition and development of forest lands by
counties, towns, and villages of New York State went into effect in March,
1912. The governing board of a county, town, or village may hereafter
acquire by purchase, gift, lease, or condemnation, tracts of land having
forests or tree growth thereon or suitable for the growth of trees.

This opens up a new phase of forest management in New York State.
There are already national forests created from the public domain, or,
more recently, by purchase of land at the headwaters of navigable streams.
These national forests are controlled and administered by the Federal
Government through its Department of Agriculture. Forest reservations
are owned and administered by many of the States, also, such as the state
forest preserves in New York. But most of the forested area of this
country is owned privately or corporately. In New York State there
are large areas of unproductive land, yielding little or nothing in taxes,
which could be made productive. Such lands are well suited to become
county, town, or village forests that will substantially decrease taxes and
will keep up the roads.

To the private owner the forest is primarily a source of immediate
gain. To the nation or state it is more than this — it is a safeguard for
the prosperity of future generations, a prosperity dependent to no small
degree on the proper conservation of forests. The law making possible
the acquisition of lands for forestry purposes by counties, towns, and vil-
lages, is therefore a further step toward the goal of nation-wide conserva-
tion of natural resources.

Conservation means not the locking-up of resources but the using
of them without abusing them. It emphasizes the management of forests
in such a manner that they will continuously produce timber and other
forest products without impairing their protective function.

Published semi-monthly throughout the year by the New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell
University. Entered as second-class matter October 13, 1911, at the post office at Ithaca, New York,
under the Act of Congress of July 16, 1894.

146 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES

PROVISIONS OF THE LAW

The law gives the counties, towns, and villages of New York State
an opportunity to own and administer communal forests, deriving
therefrom a perpetual income from the sale of timber and all the

PIG. 80. — The timber crop

safeguards of a forest cover. Such safeguards are not to be discounted;
they include the regulation of the run-off of streams, the prevention of snow-
slides and earth slides, shelter from winds, protection to birds, game, and
fish, and a beautiful and healthful playground for old and young. All
these benefits are now within reach of every county, town, and village
in the State of New York, provided it comply with the law.

COUNTY, TOWN, AND VILLAGE FORESTS

147

148

THE CORNELL READING-COURSES

COUNTY, TOWN, AND VILLAGE FORESTS 149

The principal points in the law are summarized below, together with
some suggestions as to their application. The complete text of the law is
then given for the use of those who wish further details. Finally, a
typical instance of a communal forest in Europe is cited, in order to
show the possibilities opened up by the new law.

Lands to be developed

The lands acquired by counties, towns, and villages as forests shall be
developed and used for the planting and rearing of trees thereon accord-
ing to the principles of scientific forestry. They shall be administered for
the benefit and advantage of the county, town, or village. Moneys may
be appropriated for the care and maintenance of the lands so acquired
and for the development and use of the forests thereon, the necessary
amounts to be raised by taxation in the same manner as for other expend-
itures of counties, towns, or villages.

This provision of the law enables the intelligent development of forest
land acquired by a county, town, or village. It enables the carrying-out
of a plan of management, a working plan prepared by a specially trained
forester. If the tract is of sufficient size a resident forester is desirable;
otherwise, periodic visits of a technically trained forester will suffice. The
local organization must depend, of course, on the size of the forest and the
character of the work to be done. Responsibility for the correct develop-
ment of the tract should in no case, however, be placed in the hands of
laymen unfamiliar with the science of forestry, although laymen could
and should be employed in carrying out the directions of the forester
in charge.*

How land is acquired

After the governing board has determined by resolution to acquire
lands under the law, public notice is given by publication in an authorized
newspaper for at least two weeks. The board shall give a hearing to all
persons appearing in support of, or in opposition to, such proposed resolu-
tions. After the purchase of such lands has been authorized, the necessary
moneys may be raised by taxation or by the issuance and sale of county,
town, or ^illage bonds, as the case may be.

Object of the forests

All revenues from the lands shall be used for the reduction of taxation
in the municipality concerned. The principal object, therefore, is the
sale of forest products in aid of public revenues, and the protection of the
water supply of the municipality.

* The Department of Forestry of the New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University
will be glad to assist and advise in the management of county, town, and village forests.

THE CORNELL READING-COURSES

-

COUNTY, TOWN, AND VILLAGE FORESTS 151

Disposal of the forests

The forests shall be subject to such rules and regulations as the govern-
ing board of the municipality shall prescribe. The land or parts thereof
may be sold or leased on the adoption of a resolution to this effect by
two thirds of all the members of the governing board, but such resolution
is not effectual unless adopted after a public hearing similar to that pre-
ceding the acquisition of the land.

FULL TEXT OF THE LAW

Laws of New York. — By authority

Chap. 74

AN ACT to amend the general municipal law, in relation to the acquisition and develop-
ment of forest lands by counties, towns and villages.

Became a law March 26, 1912, with the approval of the Governor. Passed, three-fifths

being present.

The People of the State of New York, represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact as
follows:

Section i. Chapter twenty-nine of the laws of nineteen hundred and nine, entitled
" An act relating to municipal corporations, constituting chapter twenty-four of the
consolidated laws," is hereby amended by adding thereto, after section seventy-two,
a new section, to be section seventy- two-a, to read as follows:

§ 72 -a. Acquisition and development of forest lands. The governing board of a
county, town or village may severally acquire for such county, town or village, by purchase,
gift, lease or condemnation, and hold as the property of such municipality, tracts of land
having forests or tree growth thereon, or suitable for the growth of trees, and may appro-
priate therefor the necessary moneys of the county, town or village for which the lands are
acquired.* Such lands shall be under the management and control of such board and
shall be developed and used for the planting and rearing of trees thereon and for the
cultivation thereof according to the principles of scientific forestry, for the benefit
and advantage of the county, town or village. The determination of any such board
to acquire lands under the provisions of this section shall be by resolution ; but the ques-
tion of the final adoption of such resolution shall be taken up by the board only after
public notice thereof has been published for at least two weeks, as follows: If it be
a resolution of a board of supervisors, the publication shall be made in the newspapers
in which the session laws and concurrent resolutions are required to be published;
if it be a resolution of a town board or of a board of trustees of a village, the publica-
tion shall be made in a newspaper published in the town or village, respectively. The
board shall give a hearing to all persons appearing in support of or in opposition to such
proposed resolution. If it be determined to purchase such lands the moneys necessary
therefor may be provided as follows: If the acquisition be by a county, the board of
supervisors may cause such moneys to be raised by taxation and levied and collected
as other county taxes or may borrow money therefor on the credit of the county by
the issuance and sale of county bonds in the manner provided by law for the issuance
and sale of other county obligations; if the acquisition be by a town, the moneys neces-
sary therefor shall constitute a town charge and be raised by taxation as other town
charges, or, the town board may in its discretion, cause town bonds to be issued and
sold in the manner provided by law for the issuance and sale of town bonds, under
the town law, to pay judgments; if the acquisition be by a village, the moneys therefor
may be raised by taxation, as other village taxes, or by the issuance and sale of village
bonds in the manner provided by the laws governing such village relating to village
obligations, after the adoption of a resolution therefor by the board of trustees, with-

* The author of this lesson is responsible for the italics.

152

THE CORNELL READING-COURSES

out other authorization. All revenues and emoluments from lands so acquired shall
belong to the municipality and be paid to its chief fiscal officer for the purposes of such
municipality and in reduction of taxation therein. Such forest lands shall be subject
to such rules and regulations as such governing board of the municipality shall pre-
scribe; but the principal object to be conserved in the maintenance of such lands shall
be the sale of forest products in aid of the public revenues and the protection of the
water supply of the municipality. Such lands or portions thereof may be sold and
conveyed, or leased, if a resolution therefor be adopted by the affirmative vote of two-
thirds of all the members of such governing board; but no such resolution directing
an absolute conveyance shall be effectual unless adopted after a public hearing, held
upon notice given in the manner required in the case of a resolution to acquire such
lands. A deed of conveyance or lease of such lands, when authorized as aforesaid,
shall be executed by the county treasurer of the county, supervisor of the town or pres-

FIG. 84. — When some of the old trees are cut, the seedlings are given a chance to grow

ident of the village by which the conveyance or lease is made. Moneys may be appro-
priated for the care and maintenance of such lands and the development and use of
forests thereon annually, by the county, town or village, respectively, and the amount
thereof raised by taxation in the same manner that other expenditures of such county,
town or village are provided for by law.

§ 2. This act shall take effect immediately.

EUROPEAN EXAMPLE

An excellent example of a successfully managed communal forest is
the woodland belonging to the city of Zurich in Switzerland. Altogether
this city controls 2,840 acres of land, of which 2,560 acres are covered
with timber and only 39 acres are unproductive rock slides. The forest

COUNTY, TOWN, AND VILLAGE FORESTS 153

is located in the northern foothills of the Alps and stretches along the
Sihl River for a distance of nearly five miles. It may be reached from
Zurich in about half an hour by rail or in two and one half hours by wagon.

The Sihl valley has an approximate elevation of 1,600 feet above sea
level. From the valley floor the wooded slopes rise rather steeply to the
ridge-top elevation of nearly 3,000 feet. This is nonagricultural land,
which would be comparatively unproductive were it not devoted to the
growing of trees.

In the Zurich city forest eighty-six percent of the trees are hardwoods —

FIG. 85. — The Zurich city forest

beech, ash, maple, and elm. The remaining fourteen percent are conifers —
pine, spruce, fir, and larch. The beech is the chief species.

By the gradual removal of mature trees, the seedlings are given
light and room in which to grow and to replace the old stand. The average
tree of this forest is considered to be mature at ninety years of age; that
is, it has reached its prime. The choicest trees are consequently allowed
to attain this age ; defective and inferior trees are removed earlier by means
of thinnings. Formerly, the chief aim of this forest was to produce fuel —
this was before the advent of the railroads — and to this day 64 per cent
of the income is from fuel wood; the lumber produced brings only 9.4

154 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES

per cent of the income, ties and timbers only 4 per cent, and miscellaneous
materials 22.6 per cent.

This forest has been controlled and managed by the city of Zurich
since 1309. One family, the Baumanns, were represented on the ranger
staff continuously from 1539 to 1843. At present there is one technical
man in charge, assisted by one clerk in the office and six rangers in the
woods.

The first systematic working plan for the larger part of this city forest
was made in 1696, and the first modern working plan for the whole city
forest in 1834. This means that since 1696 only as much wood as grew
each year was cut; only interest on the capital was being utilized, not
the capital itself. The forest has netted the municipality an average
income of nearly $20,000 annually. The net income from all forest
products has averaged as high as $8 per acre each year. From the entire
city forest there can be obtained annually without diminution of the
supply, 1,916 cords from final cuttings and 880 cords from thinnings,
a total of 2,796 cords or a yield of about seven eighths (.866) of a
cord per acre of forest each year.

CONCLUSION

It is hoped that the counties, towns, and villages in the State of New
York will avail themselves of the opportunity now offered to acquire and
administer forest lands as a source of revenue and of future timber supply,
and as a protection from floods and other damage by the elements. It
is too much to expect immediately such incomes as those obtained
from communally-owned forests in Europe ; but even as a source of revenue
communal forests will be advantageous to communities in New York
State, while at the same time they are providing a source of enjoyment
and safety to the citizens. In the meantime the forest land will increase
in value as settlement progresses and the large timber holdings now in
private hands are cut over; for the National forests and the State forests
will always be confined largely to the higher mountains where the ques-
tion of watershed protection is paramount. The county, town, or village
forests will take their place between these mountain forests and the
privately owned forests, and, if properly managed, will form demon-
stration centers of effective forestry, standing as object-lessons to all who
now waste their woodlands. .

NOTE. Figs. 1,2, and 3 are from photographs by Director James W. Tourney of the Yale Forest School;
Fig. 4 is from a photograph taken by the Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture;
Fig. 5 is from a photograph taken by Lincoln Crowell.

COUNTY, TOWN, AND VILLAGE FORESTS 155

THE CORNELL READING-COURSE FOR THE FARM

In order to assist those who desire to learn but are unable to leave their
work, a Reading-Course for the Farm is offered free to residents of this
State. This is not a correspondence course in the ordinary sense, but
a means of interesting readers in elementary agricultural subjects and
important rural problems. It aims also to lead the reader to express
his opinion on the different subjects and to discuss his own experi-
ence. This course is conducted by means of lessons which deal with
practical agricultural problems. Certain lessons discuss fundamental
principles which should be understood by those who wish to farm most
successfully ; others contain concrete suggestions or give detailed directions
for the best practices. New lessons are published each month, thus
making it possible for the Reading-Course to present some of the
latest information available.

Reading-Course Lessons for the Farm are grouped in series, each series
taking up a farming enterprise. On the last page of this lesson is given
a list of the present series together with available lessons in each. Lessons
in any series are sent one at a time so that the reader may give them
careful attention and receive consecutive information. When the reader
returns the discussion paper accompanying each lesson another lesson in
the series is sent. This plan is continued until the reader has received
all the available lessons in the series. He is then supplied with references
for advanced reading if desired and is registered for future publications
on the subjects of interest. The Reading-Course aims to encourage the
reading of reliable agricultural literature.

ADVANCED READING

The Reading-Course lessons are designed merely to introduce the sub-
ject; they are elementary and brief, and are intended to arouse a desire
for fuller knowledge along particular lines. The study of Reading-Course
lessons should be introductory to the study of standard agricultural
books .and of the bulletins of the United States Department of Agri-
culture and the state experiment stations. The Supervisor of the Read-
ing-Course will suggest, as far as possible, agricultural literature to meet
the needs of any reader. Particular books or bulletins are recommended
because they are thought to be of special interest to the reader in his
individual study and not because they are considered superior to others
on the same subject.

156 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES

AVAILABLE READING-COURSE LESSONS FOR THE FARM, ARRANGED BY SERIES

Residents of New York State may register for one or more of the series
mentioned below by addressing The Cornell Reading-Course for the
Farm, College of Agriculture, Ithaca, New York:

SERIES LESSONS

The soil 2 The soil : its use and abuse

42 Tilth and tillage of the soil (in press)

Poultry 4 Incubation. — Part I

6 Incubation. — Part II
10 Feeding young chickens

Rural engineering 8 Knots, hitches, and splices

Farm forestry 12 The improvement of the woodlot

28 Recent New York State laws giving
relief from taxation on lands used for
forestry purposes
40 County, town, and village forests

The horse 14 Horse-breeding to increase the farm

income

Dairying 16 Practical dairy problems

32 Composition of milk and some of its
products

Fruit-growing 18 The renewal of the neglected orchard

22 The culture of the curr^±t and the goose-
berry

36 Culture of red and black raspberries and
of purple-cane varieties

Farm crops 20 Alfalfa for New York

24 The rotation of farm crops

Stock-feeding 26 Computing rations for farm animals

Vegetable-gardening 30 Hotbed construction and management

34 Home-garden planning

Plant-breeding 41 Improving plants by selection or breeding

38 Principles and methods of plant-breeding

The above list is correct to May 15, 1913. The demand may at
any time exhaust the supply of particular numbers. Requests will be
filled as long as the supply lasts.

STATE OF NEW YORK

Conservation Commission

BULLETIN 2

REFORESTING

BY

C. R. PETTIS, F. E.

Superintendent State Forests

ALBANY

J. B LYON COMPANY, PRINTERS
1912

STATE OF NEW YORK

CONSERVATION COMMISSION

ALBANY
GEORGE E. VAN KENNEN, Chairman

JAMES W. FLEMING, Commissioner ALBERT E. HOYT, Secretary

JOHN D. MOORE, Commissioner JOHN J. FARRELL, Ass't Secretary

DIVISION OF LANDS AND FORESTS

CHARLES H. JACKSON Deputy Commissioner

CLIFFORD R. PETTIS Supt. State Forests

WILLIAM G. HOWARD Asst. Supt. State Forests

ROBERT ROSENBLUTH Director of Forest Investigation

W. HOWARD RANKIN Forest Pathologist

FREDERIC A. GAYLORD Forester

GEORGE L. BARRUS Forester

ALBERT H. KING ... Forester

BUREAU OF PUBLICATION
M. H. HOOVER, Chief of Publication

CONTENTS.

Introduction 5

Reforesting . 5

How you may secure stock 5

Conditions under which trees are sold 6

Size of trees 6

When and how trees are shipped 7

Cost of trees 8

When to plant 8

How to plant 8

Number of trees per acre 10

Cost of planting 1 1

What to plant 1 1

General conditions 12

Soil moisture 12

Light 12

Species 12

Evergreens / 12

White pine • ' 12

Scotch pine 13

Red pine 13

Bull pine 13

Norway spruce 13

Red spruce 13

Balsam 13

European larch 13

Hardwoods 14

Red oak 14

White ash 14

Basswood 14

Tulip or yellow poplar 14

Black locust 14

Catalpa 15

Black walnut 15

Carolina poplar 15

Basket willow 17

Chestnut 17

Yield from planted forests 17

Protection of plantation 22

Cattle 22

Fire 22

Insects ' 22

Diseases 22

Private planting 22

3

REFORESTING.

INTRODUCTION.

In order to supply general information in regard to reforesting
land a pamphlet " Instructions for Reforesting Land " was pre-
pared. A large edition was printed and all distributed. This is a
revision and enlargement of the above-named publication, necessi-
tated by the continuous demand for information in regard to
reforesting.

It is the purpose of this bulletin to give our citizens definite
detailed information on how to start a forest. There is combined
in this pamphlet information relative to securing planting stock, the
most desirable kinds to use under different conditions, when to
plant, how to do the planting and some data as to the results that
may be expected.

REFORESTING.

Reforesting means the establishing of forests on lands formerly
under forest cover. It may be secured either by nature, from wind
sown seeds, or by man planting small trees or sowing seeds.
Nature is so slow and erratic that she cannot be depended upon.
Experience in planting trees and sowing seeds in the field under
varying conditions clearly indicates that planting is a successful
method, while broadcast seed sowing is too expensive and uncer-
tain to be used generally.

HOW YOU MAY SECURE STOCK.

Trees for planting may be collected in some localities where
there is a sufficient supply, may be purchased or can be grown from
seed.

The first-named source offers but a limited supply, the cost is
usually high and the success uncertain, because such trees generally
have but few roots, which increases the loss in transplanting.

5

The purchase of trees for reforesting purposes is difficult because
there are at present so few commercial nurseries growing the
desired kinds of trees in sufficient quantity. The demand being
much greater than the supply, high prices have resulted.

The Forestry Bureau of this Commission maintains several
large nurseries for the propagation of forest tree seedlings and trans-
plants — pine, spruce and other species — for reforesting the public
lands and for distribution at a nominal price to land owners in this
State who may wish to undertake reforesting operations on their
own account. The price of these seedlings and transplants is small,
being placed at bare cost, but varies with the age of the plant and
species.

Any land owner who desires trees for planting in order to
raise a forest can secure them while there is a supply on hand by
making application to this Commission.

No orders can be considered unless submitted on our regular
application blanks. If you desire trees, send us your name and
address that the same may be placed on our mailing list. Appli-
cation blanks are sent to all names on our mailing list when we
are ready to receive orders. Names for this list may be sent at
any time of the year and will be gladly received.

CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH TREES ARE SOLD.

The application blank constitutes a contract and provides five
things. First. That payment will be made to the Commission
within ten days after you have been notified that your application
has been granted. This gives us time to sell the trees to others if
the applicant does not pay. Second. That the trees will be used
for reforesting purposes. This is necessary because the law under
which this work is done contemplates this result. No trees will
be sold for ornamental purposes. Third. That the applicant will
not sell the trees. This is to prevent speculation. Fou?tb That
any trees purchased will be properly planted. Fifth. That the
purchaser will make a report as to the success of his plarting,

THE SIZE OF TREES.

The purpose of this Commission is to grow trees for reforesting
land. Inasmuch as the material is shipped and planted in large
quantities small trees with well developed roots are most desirable
for this purpose.

The largest trees for sale are transplants 8-14 inches in height.
WE HAVE NO LARGER TREES.

Evergreens usually are of the following height, but we do not
guarantee the size.

4 year old transplants are from 8-14 inches high.
3 year old transplants are from 6-10 inches high.
2 year old seedlings are from 3-6 inches high.

Hardwoods are usually sold as seedlings and average about one
foot in height.

Willow and poplar are sold in the form of cuttings about 9 inches
long.

Parties intending to do a large amount of planting with trans-
plants will find it desirable to purchase seedlings and set them out
in a cultivated field or garden for one or two years. The demand for
transplants (seedlings transplanted for one or two years in the
nursery) is so great that we are unable to fill all orders, but by
purchasing seedlings and transplanting them at home a planter can
have a supply when desired without increased expense. A large
saving in transportation will be effected by purchase of seedlings.

If any one desires to establish a nursery to propagate his own
trees we will be glad to advise him.* The growing of evergreens,
especially the first year, requires experience and is not to be gen-
erally recommended if seedlings can be purchased at a reasonable
price.

[WHEN AND HOW TREES ARE SHIPPED,

The greater portion of our stock is shipped during the latter part
of April or the first week in May, for the purposes of spring planting.
In case fall planting is to be done, shipments will be made during
September.

Our nurseries are located at Salamanca, Saratoga, Saranac Inn
and Comstock. Shipments as far as possible will be made from
the nursery nearest to destination.

On account of the danger due to the drying of roots and heating
of the trees during shipment, express has been found to be the only
feasible method of transportation, except on local orders. ^

* Detailed information in regard to this work will be found in Bulletin 76 ,
U. S. Forest Service, which can be secured of Superintendent of Public Docu-
ments, Washington, D. C., for ten cents.

COST OF TREES.

The cost of trees varies from year to year, depending upon the
success of operation and money expended. The following were the
prices for the spring of 1913:

White pine transplants 4 yrs. old at $4 . oo per i , ooo f . o. b.

3 yrs. " " 3 . 50 "

" " seedlings 2 yrs. " " i . 50 " " «

Scotch Pine transplants 4 yrs. 4 .50

3 yrs. « « 3.50 « «

" seedlings 2 yrs. " " i . 50 " " «

Red pine transplants 3 yrs. " " 3.50 " " "

Norway spruce transplants 3 yrs. ""4.00" "

Basswood seedlings 3 . oo " u

White Ash " 3.00 "

Tulip Poplar " " 2.50 " «

Black locust seedlings i yr. " " 2.50 " " u

Carolina poplar cuttings " i . 50 "

Basket willow cuttings " i . 50 " " "

WHEN TO PLANT.

Thus far most of the planting has been done in the spring, as
early as possible, so as to take advantage of the spring rains. This
usually means during the month of April, but in the Adirondack.*;
some successful plantations have been made as late as the last
week in May.

The first attempts of this department with fall planting were not
very successful, but since then about 200,000 trees were planted
near Lake Clear Junction with better success. A few orders
were sold in the fall to private planters and it is expected that
fall planting for evergreens will be developed quite extensively in
the future. Shipments for fall planting will be made in September
or October.

HOW TO PLANT.

When the trees arrive they should be taken to the planting field
and unpacked immediately. ' The roots should be dipped in water
and the plants " heeled in;" i. e., placed upright in a ditch, and the
dirt packed tight around the roots. (See illustration.) They can
be kept in this manner while the planting is in progress.

The number of men required and the organization of the force
will depend entirely upon the amount of planting to be done. In
these directions we will assume that only a small number of trees

Photo v. H. Pettis

Making the Hole.

y

are to be set out, i. e., not over 10,000 plants. For larger operations
the force must be increased.

The working unit is two men, one of them equipped with a grub
hoe and the other with a pail for carrying the little plants. Two
men working thus as a pair — one making the hole and the other
planting the tree — will, after a little experience, set out about
1,000 transplants or 1,200 seedlings per day. If only a few
thousand trees are to be planted two men can do the work
within the required time; but if many thousand, several pairs of
men will be necessary.

The planting site having been selected, the men with the grub
hoes will begin making the holes in a straight line across the field.
It is well to set up a stake, or two, in order that the man digging
holes can move forward in a straight line. These stakes or poles
can be moved over and used again when making the next row of
holes. The planter follows immediately behind the grub-hoe man,
setting a tree in each hole before the exposed soil becomes dry.
The planter's pail should always have enough muddy water in the
bottom to keep the tree roots wet.

In making a hole, it is well to cut off and remove a thin slice of
sod, as this gives the plant a better opportunity to grow. The hole
should be large enough to give room for the roots without crowd-
ing; but on a light soil the least dirt that is moved in order to set
the plants properly the better it will be. The plant should usually
be placed in the ground at the same depth that it was before; but
on light, sandy soil it may be set slightly deeper. The earth should
be packed about the roots thoroughly, so that the plant will be able
to get all the moisture possible from the 'surrounding earth. Care
should be taken also to place the roots in their natural position.

Special pains should be taken to prevent any exposure of the
roots to the sun. Once they become dry the plants are very likely
to die. The trees " heeled in " should be kept moist at roots.

The men continue planting back and forth across the field until
the work is completed. The trees planted in these rows should be
set .at regular distances apart and the rows also at even distances
in order to properly utilize the soil and light and to secure, in time,
the greatest product. The spacing varies under different conditions
but for general forest planting six feet apart both ways is most
desirable. When the trees are planted six feet apart in the row,
and the rows are made six feet distant, it will require 1,200 trees
to plant an acre. It will be readily seen that the interval used de-
termines the number of trees required per acre, the amount of labor
necessary to plant them and the cost per acre of the work.

IO

In planting spruce special care must be taken to get the tree in the
ground the same depth as it has been growing. The roots should also
be placed in as near a normal position as possible.

Scotch pine is not recommended for planting on Long Island.

Cultivation is not necessary before planting, but it will improve
the growth of the plantation.

It is absolutely necessary that a much larger number of trees be
planted on an acre than would be found in a mature forest. A
close, dense stand of trees is necessary while they are young in
order to produce a proper development in the future growth. The
close planting produces a crowded and shaded condition which kills
off the side branches when the trees are small, reduces the number
and size of the knots and finally makes a higher grade of lumber.
The dense stand also causes the trees to grow much taller, and
hence there will be more logs in a tree. The value of this close
planting is easily seen when we compare the difference in trees
which have naturally grown in a forest with those in the open.

There are, however, other considerations than growing the highest
possible grade of wood material. We all realize that some soils
will produce much larger quantities of farm crops than others.
The land that is most likely to be used for tree planting will be the
poorer, meager soils of a small productive capacity. Hence, in
order to make the growing of wood crops profitable, consideration
must be given to the quality and productive capacity of the soil
where the planting is to be done. If twelve hundred trees per acre
are growing we would naturally expect to produce a tree having
a diameter of twelve inches in less time than we would if there were
seventeen hundred trees per acre. Therefore, in order to make
planting profitable, we must not only grow good timber in dense
stand, but at the same time aim at a profitable harvest in the
shortest possible period.

In some cases there will be a tree growth upon the land desired
to be planted. If the present growth is such that it can be utilized
to sufficiently crowd the young trees and cause them to make a
good height growth and produce sufficient shade to kill off the side
branches, the trees can be planted in openings of from twelve to
fifteen feet and more, or wherever they will have necessary light.
This method is called underplanting.

NUMBER OF TREES PER ACRE.

When plantations are made in open fields, the trees are usually
set at a distance of six feet apart each way, requiring about 1,200

II

trees per acre. If the trees are planted five feet apart, 1,740 trees
will be required. Close spacing greatly increases the cost, and,
therefore, is prohibitive on account of the expense in nearly all cases.
The fast growing and light demanding trees may be set at a wider
spacing, for example, eight feet apart each way, requiring 680 trees
per acre.

If the trees are not sufficiently close together, grass will grow,
rob the soil of moisture which the tree needs, and increase the
fire danger, besides resulting in an inferior quality product.

If a mixed planting is desired the black locust and Carolina
poplar are particularly adapted to this purpose. The trees should
be planted six feet apart each way: — in every alternate hole a
locust or poplar, whichever is to be used, should be set, with pine,
spruce, larch, or other trees of a permanent nature in the other
spaces. The fast growing tree, such as the poplar or locust will be
cut out in fifteen or twenty years, and the other tree which will form
the future forest is to be left for a longer period in order to
produce lumber.

COST OF PLANTING.

The cost of planting varies with local conditions, such as soil
cover, topography, nature of the soil, size of the trees, price of labor,
transportation, etc. An examination of several hundred reports
made to this office shows that the price ranges from $3 per acre
for underplanting, when 400 transplants are set, to a maximum
of $15 to $16 for setting transplants at the rate of 1,200 per acre.
The latter price is not a fair criterion as to the cost because in this
case excessive cartage, unnecessary preparation of the ground, etc.
produce this price. Generally the average price, including cost of
trees in cases where transplants are set six feet apart each way, is
approximately from $8 to $10 per acre. The reduced price of
tree stock prevailing in 1912 ($3.50 per thousand transplants)
should lower this average cost by about $1.80 per acre.

WHAT TO PLANT.

In order to have the plantation successful and prove a profitable
investment, there are certain factors which must be considered.
They are mainly light, soil moisture and soil fertility. These re-
quirements must be considered in the selection of trees for planting.
Some trees have much greater demands on both light and upon soil
than others.

12

GENERAL CONDITIONS.

Some trees are quite exacting in regard to necessary fertility.
The pines are best adapted to light sandy soils with but little fer-
tility, while the spruce, yellow poplar and catalpa require good soils

SOIL MOISTURE.

The amount of moisture required by trees depends upon their
root system. Such trees as the Scotch, Austrian and red pines, also
black locust and red oak, make satisfactory growths upon dry soils
because their long tap roots are able to take up moisture from the
lower sub-soil. No trees can make a satisfactory growth in cold
soils thoroughly saturated with water because air in the soil is
necessary.

LIGHT.

All trees in order to make a profitable growth require light.
Some kinds, such as spruce, have the ability to withstand shade,
and it is beneficial to nearly all of them when they are small. In
order to secure the most satisfactory growth a tree must have its
light requirements satisfied. The existing growth, be it grass,
bramble, brush, mature trees, or other vegetation, and the density
with which it stands (therefore, the amount of shade so produced, or,
in other words, the scarcity of light which results for the planted
tree) is a very important factor in determining not only what kind
of a tree should be planted under these conditions but the age or
size of tree.

In a publication of this nature covering such a large subject, no
complete directions can be given. A careful study of these pages
ought to enable the planter to determine the kind and size to use.

Whenever pasture or other lands of but little shade are to be
planted with pine the two-year old seedlings are sufficiently large.
In planting spruce only transplants should be used. When plant-
ing under heavy shade only transplants should be used, and if the
shade is dense the species which endure shade are most desirable

to use.

SPECIES.

White Pine. — This species is usually found on sandy or light
soils, but it will do well on any land that is well drained. It will
thrive in good soil as well as any other tree when once established.
The better the soil, the faster its growth will be. This is one of
our most valuable timber trees and adapted to a wide range of soils.
It should not be used on the light, sterile sandy soil which will

Photo C. R. Pettis

Planting a Tree.

13

not retain a vegetable covering, nor should it be used on heavy
clay soil or in places where the soil is saturated with water or sub-
ject to serious flowing for a long period. It can be used on light
soils that have the ability to maintain fibrous coverings.

Scotch Pine. — On the poorest sterile soils the Scotch pine is far
more desirable for use than is the white pine. It is particularly
adapted for this purpose because it has a long tap root which goes
deep into the soil and is not affected by drying out of the surface
soil. The lumber produced from this tree is not as valuable as that
of white pine, but the greater growth that it is able to make on the
very poorest sterile soils ought to offset the difference in price.

Red Pine. — The red, or Norway pine, is a native tree in this
State. It is very desirable for use on coarse, gravelly soils. The
lumber is not as valuable as white pine, the wood being harder, but
it is better than that from Scotch pine.

Bull Pine. — This is the yellow pine of the western states and
in the Black Hills of the Dakotas, makes a very fine tree. The
young trees are very vigorous and are adapted to the poor dry soil
and should be used the same as Scotch pine.

Norway Spruce. — This is a German tree which has been intro-
duced and generally planted in the northeastern states with good
results. It is perfectly hardy in this State and should be used for
forestry purposes in preference to our native or Adirondack spruce.
It is the one generally used abroad, and should be used in
practically all cases in this State wherever spruce is planted. The
spruces have a flat root system and are, therefore, adapted to use
on shallow soils if other requirements are satisfied. It is the best
conifer we have for use on swampy or wet locations. In order to
make a desirable growth it should not be planted on sand or light
soils. In the latter part of this pamphlet will be found some figures
as to the growth of this species and its value as a crop. It is desir-
able for underplanting and use under heavy shade.

Red Spruce. — This is the native Adirondack species, and even
our short experience with it in plantations indicates that it has no
qualities not found in the Norway spruce, and grows much slower.
It is such a slow grower that its use is not recommended.

Balsam. — Should be used only in exceptional cases. The Norway
spruce is a far better tree for situations where balsam would be
used. We do not grow this tree.

European Larch. — This is a true mountain tree of Central Europe,
and when planted in this country has usually made a fine growth.
The wood is very durable and strong. It is not like our native

14

larch (the tamarack) a tree of the swamps, yet it requires a deep,
fairly porous, and moderately fresh soil. It should not be used
on the poor or sandy soils. The season's growth often begins before
the frost is out of the ground and, therefore it should not be used
where the danger from late spring frosts is great. It is a rapid
grower, but demands a large amount of light. It is best used
in mixture with spruce, pine, or some of our hardwoods. It can
be set in pure plantations if it is desired to underplant when the
trees are about twenty-five (25) years old. It makes excellent
ties, posts and poles. Fence post size should be attained in fifteen

years.

HARDWOODS.

In some cases and for special purposes the owner may desire to
grow hardwood rather than coniferous trees. In order to assist
such parties, we are growing red oak, white ash, basswood, yellow
poplar and black locust.

Red Oak. — This tree grows best on a porous soil either with a
sandy or gravelly tendency. The soil should always be well drained.
It should never be shaded except for the first two or three years.
It is the most rapid growing oak and is a desirable tree to plant
under fairly favorable conditions. It is valuable not only as lumber
but is much used for posts, poles and ties.

White Ash. — Is a desirable tree for planting in this State out-
side of the Adirondacks on moist soils of fairly good quality. The
trees, the first few years, will withstand heavy shade, but when
established should have full light. It is a rapid grower and the
wood is of great value.

Basswood. — This species is suitable for planting on deep rich
soils, moist but well drained. It will withstand a moderate amount
of shade, but when it becomes fully established should have suffi-
cient light. Its rate of growth is comparatively rapid and the
material of much value. It is not suited for planting in the
Adirondacks.

Tulip or Yellow Poplar. — This tree is very exacting in its soil
requirements. In order to make a satisfactory growth it must
have a deep, fertile, well drained soil and a constant even moisture
supply. It requires a large amount of light. It is one of our most
valuable timber trees, but the planting sites should be carefully
selected. The lumber is nearly as valuable as white pine and when
its demands are satisfied is a very fast grower.

Black Locust. — This tree is suitable for planting on any soil except
undrained swamps. It is sensitive to frost, hence not adapted

15

for planting in the Adirondack or Cat skill regions. It requires a
large amount of light and should not be used for underplanting or
where there is much shade. It is liable to injury from wood borers
in many localities and less loss to the plantation is sustained where
locust is planted alternately with pine, spruce, European larch or
other species, as soil requirements permit. In some cases black
locust has been planted 12x12 feet, so that there would be little shade,
grass would come in, and the ground could be used for pasture.
Under such conditions the trees do not make such good growth.

Black locust makes one of the most durable fence posts, in which
form it finds its greatest value. Size suitable for fence posts,
should be attained in 1 2 to 1 5 years after planting.

Catalpa. — The catalpa has been extensively recommended and
advertised as a tree for forest planting. Its use in this State is
limited and cannot be recommended for forestry purposes because
it requires good agricultural land and much care after planting. In
the purchase of this stock care should be taken to secure the hard y catalpa
(Catalpa Speciosd). It is sensitive to early frosts and should be
planted only in the warmer portions of the State. There are many
other trees better adapted to our uses. The claims made by nursery-
men should not be accepted without careful investigation. We
do not grow this tree on account of its limited use.

Black Walnut. — This tree has been planted in some localities on
a large scale. The high price of lumber from this tree is due to
the very dark color of the heart wood which is secured only from
old trees. It is a fast growing tree with but little soil requirements
except a reasonable amount of moisture. It can be successfully
grown throughout the State except in the mountain sections, but
undoubtedly other trees can be planted to produce a merchantable
crop in less time and with a larger profit on the investment.

Carolina Poplar. — A plantation of this species is easily made.
All that is necessary is to secure cuttings and stick them in the ground.
It is a rapid grower and should attain sizes suitable for pulp wood,
excelsior and box boards in approximately 15 years. The high price
of pulp wood makes a plantation of these species very profitable,
When a pure plantation is about 10 years old, the larger trees should
be removed and not more than one-half the original number left.
A similar thinning can be made approximately every eight years; at
such intervals about 6 cords per acre should be obtained. In case
of pure planting, the trees should be set 6 feet apart each way. This
tree is adapted to nearly all soils and can be used on overflowed
land, providing the water does not remain for too long a period.

16

Soil
req

8 '

* i i 8

fi

II

e.h'
1|

<o D 4> o

bo bo bo M

*-<»-<*-tt-'

s : :

CGG

!->•• ^ ' '.2.2.2. -

'**'

cCGCwG -C •

'rt'rt I-, 0) CO

£ £ "a c a a a a fl ft"0 ft ?J

5 .fa 3 3 D <u <u <u g <u .tj a>.i3

-^+J^^OOOoiwO^O+J

XXX Xv™ X C X G

1C

GO
CO

Hi

in

When the plantation is one year old, the trees may be cut back and
left at a height of about three inches. This will induce sprouting
and result in a better growth. The branches which have been cut off
can be used for other planting.

Basket Willow. — This stock is sold in the form of cuttings. They
are suitable for planting on overflowed land, except in the Adiron-
dack and Catskill regions. If you are interested in this matter,
send for our Bulletin No. 3, entitled " The Basket Willow ". It
is the purpose of this Commission to furnish small orders of cuttings
so that a few may be planted the first year and material for extending
the plantation secured from the cuttings made from such planting.

Chestnut. — This was one of our most promising trees, but on
account of the appearance and very rapid spread of the " chestnut
blight " a most virulent and destructive disease, it is not to be
recommended until some means of controlling the disease can be
found.

YIELD FROM PLANTED FORESTS.

In the destruction of forests by axe and fire which has been
taking place in this country ever since settlement began, vast areas
not adapted to agricultural purposes have been cleared, placed in
farms, tilled for a time, the soil exhausted and then abandoned.
These areas are of varying size, but in the aggregate are extensive.
In some places they include a few acres of an occupied farm; at
others they embrace entire abandoned farms. This land is lying idle,
is not producing any revenue for its owner ; in fact, is held at a loss be-
cause taxes must be paid, and the interest on the capital invested is
lost. A large area of such idle land in any State is just as serious an
economic proposition as idle labor, because both are non-productive.

Such land should be planted with small trees in order to grow
forest crops and reap a future profit. The resulting forests will
also make the country more beautiful, more habitable, more health-
ful and more enjoyable. These forests will protect the hillsides
from erosion, prevent the floods which carry down debris and devas-
tate the low lands, and will make the water in the streams more
equable in its flow. These streams rendered cooler by the shade
will support more fish, and the forest cover will also afford a shelter
for birds and game. We can secure all of these benefits and at the
same time realize a large profit from these idle lands if they are
placed under wood crops.

Natural grown forests are not the most valuable, because nature
does not utilize the light and moisture to the best advantage; but
by properly spacing the tree, as done in an artificial forest, more
and better trees can be grown in a shorter period.

We have not many planted forests in this country old enough
to give complete information of what can be expected from them.
Therefore, we have to use natural growth in determining the yields
from prospective wood crops. The quantity produced will, on the
average, be less than what would be obtained from planted forests;
therefore, these figures are conservative.

We have not yet had time to secure sufficient data in regard^to
the growth of white pine in this State, but careful examinations and
measurements have been made in New Hampshire and Mass-
achusetts which are just as reliable as a basis for computing future
growths in New York as in those states.

The following yield table for white pine was constructed after
examining and measuring 177 sample plats in Massachusetts of
various ages in all parts of that State:

YIELD TABLE FOR WHITE PINE.*

APTT (V'FA'RC^

SOIL QUALITY I.

SOIL QUALITY II.

SOIL QUALITY III.

i -in. boards.

i-in. boards.

i-in. boards.

25 .

Ft. B. M.
10,825

Ft. B. M.
6,750

Ft. B. M.
3.975

19,900

12,500

7 ? 50O

35

31 ,150

24,400

16,950

40,650

32,800

25,200

45

49,350

40,600

32,100

SO ...

55 , 150

46,500

37,550

55

59,650

50,550

42 , 100

60

63 , 600

53,200

44,550

65

67,050

56,600

46, 150

* After Harold O. Cook, under the direction of F. W. Rane, State Forester of Massachusetts.

This table indicates at a glance that much more timber can
be grown in the same period of time on good soil than on poor soil.
The highest production was found on the rich lowlands, where the
soil was deep, rich and moist, but withal well drained. The upland
pasture, our hillsides and upland plateaus, which form the largest
part of land where wood crops will be planted, is indicated by soil
quality two. The rate of growth here is not far below that of soil
quality one, because the pine finds its demands as regards moisture,
food supply, etc., well supplied. The third quality of soil consists
of the wet, cold, mucky swamps, or the most sterile drifting sands.
For the purpose of this publication soil of the second quality will
be considered, because this is the kind of soil that will most largely
be used for growing forest, raising crops of timber and wood materials.

The table shows in a most striking manner how the quantity of
timber increases with the age of the forest. It, therefore, shows
what a short-sighted policy and poor financial plan it is to cut
growing forests. It will be seen that a forest thirty years old con-

i

tains nearly twice as much lumber as one twenty-five years of age,
or a thirty-five year old crop three and one-half times as great as
when harvested at twenty-five years; also, that while it takes
twenty-five years to grow the first 6,750 feet of lumber, nearly
40,000 feet more can be grown in a second twenty-five years — i. e.,
allowing the crop to grow fifty years.

The land owner is also interested in knowing what he may expect
in the way of financial returns as well as quantity production. For
this purpose the following interesting tables, which were prepared
by the State Forest Service of Massachusetts, are herewith pub-
lished with the permission of Frank Wm. Rane, State Forester of
Massachusetts :

MONEY YIELD TABLE.
STUMPAGE VALUES.

AGE

(years) .

QUALITY I.

QUALITY II.

QUALITY III.

Volume.

Per
M.
Ft.

Stump-
age.

Volume.

Per
M.

Ft.

Stump-
age.

| Per
Volume. 1 M.
1 Ft.

Stump-
age.

25...'
30

Bd. ft.
10,825

19,900
3i,i50
40,650
49,350
55,150
59,650
63 , 600
67,050

§{

o 1
<*» I

0

o

8

51

£ l

II

$65 oo
119 40

249 20
325 20
394 80
551 50
596 50
763 20
804 50

Bd. ft.
6,750

12,500
24,400
32,800
40 , 600
46,500
50,550
53,200
56,600

8f

a

<*» I

8
8

8

0

v+

$40 50
75 oo

195 20
262 40
324 80

465 oo
505 50

532 00

566 oo

Bd. ft.
3,975

7,500
16,950
25,200
32,100
37,550
42,100
44,550
46,150

8

o
«<s

8
9

°°\

at

$23 85
45 oo
101 70
201 60

256 80
300 40
336 80
445 50
461 50

35

40

45 ...

50

55

60

65

FINANCIAL ROTATION OF WHITE PINE.
Money at 4 per cent.; value of land, $4 per acre; cost of planting, $7 per acre.

EXPENSES.

"ROTATION

Gross

TAXES.

COST OF PRODUCING.

(years).

stump-
age

Taxes on

Taxes

Interest

Cost of

Total

Net
profits.

value.

timber

on land

on value

planting

ex-

accrued
to end of

accrued
to end of

of land
accrued.

carried penses.
to end of

rotation.

rotation.

rotation.

.

$40 50

$2 17

$6 66

$18 66

$27 50

$13 oo

30

75 oo

$3 03

2 90

8 97

22 70

37 60

38 40

35

195 20

9 32

3 82

II 78

27 62

52 54

142 66

40

262 40

18 47

4 92

15 20

' 33 61

72 20

190 20

45

324 80

42 16

6 25

19 36

40 89

108 66

2l6 20

SO

46=5 oo

75 76

7 9O

24 43

49 75

157 85

307 15

55

505 50

127 04

9 90

30 58

60 52

228 05

277 45

60

532 oo

192 60

II 35

38 08

73 64

315 68

216 32

65

566 oo

281 32

15 18

47 20

89 60

433 28

132 72

20

Money at 5 per cent; value of land, $4 per acre; cost of planting $7 per acre.

]

EXPENSES.

ROTATION

Gross

TAJi

.ES.

COST OF

PRODUCING.

(years).
.

stump-
age
value.

Taxes on
timber
accrued
to end of

rotation.

Taxes
on land
accrued
to end of
rotation.

Interest
on value
of land
accrued.

Cost of
planting
carried
to end of
rotation.

Total
ex-
penses.

Net
profits.

25

$40 50

•

$2 50

$9 54

$23 70

$35 75

$4 75

30

75 oo

$3' 13

3 48

13 30

30 25

SO 15

24 85

35
40

195 20

262 40

9i8o
191 85

4 73
6 54

18 06
24 16

38 61
49 28

71 20
99 83

124 oo
162 57

45
50

324 80
465 oo

45.6o
8v 36

8 37
10 99

31 94

41 87

62 90

80 27

148 82
216 50

175 98
248 50

g

505 50
=532 oo

142^37
220 82

14 30

18 55

54 54
71 70

102 45
130 75

313 66
441 83

191 84
90 17

65

566 oo

331 . 40

23 97

91 35

166 88

613 60

* — 47 50

* Minus sign means a loss; the investment bringing less than 6 per cent, interest return.

Money at 6 per cent.; value of land, $4 per acre; cost of planting, $7 per acre.

ROTATION

(years).

Gross
returns
stump-
age
value.

EXPENSES.

Net
profits.

TAXES.

COST OF PRODUCING.

Total
ex-
penses.

1

Taxes on
timber
accrued
to end of
rotation.

Taxes
on land
accrued
to end of
rotation.

Interest
on value
of land
accrued.

Cost of
planting
carried
to end of
rotation.

25

$40 SO
75 oo
195 20
262 40
324 80
465 oo
505 50

532 00

566 oo

$2 90
4 18
5 90

8 20

ii 26
IS 37
20 87
28 23
38 08

$17 17
22 97
30 72
45 14
55 06
73 68
98 60
131 94
176 56

$30 04
40 20
53 80
72 oo
96 35
128 94
172 55
230 90
308 98

$50 10
70 56
100 69
146 64

212 IS

307 03
452 32 |
646 30 |
914 14

*— $9 6 1
—4 44
94 Si
IIS 76
112 65
151 97
53 18
— 114 30
—348 14

30

$3 21
10 28
21 3O

49 48
89 04
160 30
255 23
390 52

35

40

45

50

55

60!:

65

* Minus sign means a loss; the investment bringing less than 6 per cent, interest return.

A small plantation of white pine was made by C. H. Faxon of
Chestertown in 1884. Measurement of the trees made this year
shows that there is in this plantation about 24,000 feet of white
pine lumber per acre. In other words, this land, which was too poor
for agricultural purposes, has produced, approximately, 1,000 board
feet of lumber per acre per year.

Norway Spruce. — A small plantation of Norway spruce was made
on the Billings' Estate at Woodstock, Vermont. The trees were
planted in a narrow strip on a side hill, and were set out 8 feet

21

apart each way. The soil was poor. In 1908, or thirty-two
years after the planting, four (4) trees were cut. Their measure-
ments were as follows:

No. i — 72 feet high, n-inch butt cut, 46$ feet of logs 6* at top end
No. 2 — 57 feet high, i s-inch butt cut, 47 J feet of logs 6* at top end
No. 3 — 63 feet high, 14-inch butt cut, 42 feet of logs 6' at top end
No. 4 — 67 feet high, i6-inch butt cut, 40 feet of logs 6' at top end

The rate of growth, shown by the trees cut, amounts to one and
one-half cords of pulp wood per acre per year.

PROFIT TO BE DERIVED BY REFORESTING

Rotation.

Accrued
taxes on
land.

COST OF PLANTING AND
INTEREST ACCRUED
TO END OF ROTATION.

Interest
on value
of land
accrued.

Gross
returns.

NET RETURNS.

Net
interest
return
on seed-
ling plan-

Seed-
lings,

Trans-
plants,

Seed-
lings.

Trans-
plants.

$6.00

$8.00

25

$2 50

$20 32

$27 09

$9 54

$40 50

$8 14

$i 37

.008

30

3 48

25 93

34 57

13 30

75 oo

32 29

23 65

.040

35 • •

4 73

33 1°

44 *3

18 06

195 20

139 3 1

128 28

078

40

6 54

42 24

56 32

24 16

262 40

189 46

175 38

.076

45

8 37

53 91

71 88

31 94

324 80

230 58

212 71

.072

5°

10 09

68 80

pi 74

41 87

465 oo

343 34

321 40

073

55

14 30

87 81

117 10

54 54

505 50

447 85

319 56

.072

60

18 55

112 O5

149 40

•70 73

5.32 oo

330 67

293 32

.060

65

23 97

143 05

190 70

91 36

566 oo

307 62

259 97

.054

Area, one acre.

Species, white pine.

Land valued at $4 per acre.

Taxes at 2 per cent, on two- thirds valuation.

Interest at 5 per cent.

Seedlings at $1.50 per thousand or $2 per acre.

Transplants at $3.50 per thousand or $4 per acre.

Cost of planting (labor etc.) $4 per acre.

Yield of white pine based on New England yield tables.

Soil second quality.

Stumpage prices are those prevailing at present, no allowance has

been made for increase which will surely occur and greatly

increase the profit.

With the decreased supply coupled with increased demand higher
prices for lumber and wood products will result. Planting a forest
crop on our poor, worn out, or abandoned lands is an excellent
investment, and there is nothing difficult in the operation.

22

PROTECTION.

Naturally every investment is attended with some risk, but in
case of forest properties the owner must care for his own property,
and to a very large extent his own policy determines its safety. In
reforesting there are but four risks to be considered. They are
injury from domestic animals, forest fire, insect pests and plant
diseases.

Cattle. — There is but little use in attempting reforesting unless
the plantation is to be protected. In any case all domestic animals
must be excluded after planting. They not only stamp down and
injure the small trees but often eat them off, producing stunted or
deformed trees.

Fire. — This is the worst enemy of young trees. A plantation,
or in fact any forest growth, should always be protected from this
danger.

Insect Pests. — They are of but little consequence in connection
with the trees considered in this publication except the black locust.
The locust is attacked by borers in some parts of this State and is,
therefore, only a short-lived tree. In case of any insect troubles
correspond with the State Entomologist, Albany, N. Y.

Plant Diseases. — These, except the white pine blistef rust,
fortunately are not sufficiently common in this country to be serious-
ly considered. The use of imported trees in reforesting should not
be considered. They may be, apparently, purchased for a less price,
but on account of the many and very serious diseases on forest trees
abroad, they should not be used. Their importation into this State
is prohibited except after inspection by agents of the Department
of Agriculture, Albany, N. Y.

The white pine blister rust is so serious that imported white pine
should not be used under any circumstances.

The chestnut blight is so virulent that when a tree is affected it
is sure to die. There is no known remedy for this disease. The
shipment of chestnut trees from eastern States or from eastern
New York into other parts of the State is quite likely to carry the
disease. Chestnut should not be brought from these localities on
this account.

PRIVATE PLANTING.

Reforesting has been going on in this State several years, but it
is difficult to determine all that has been accomplished.

Several large land owners have their own nurseries and are re-
foresting on a large scale. In 1909 this Department tried to secure

information on this subject but was unable to secure complete^data.
It is, however, certain that private land owners have planted about
6,000 acres in the last ten years on their lands, and this Commis-
sion has planted nearly as much more State land. The difficulty
with private planting in the past has been to secure the necessary
stock, which we hope will soon be overcome by either State or com-
mercial nurseries being able to fill the demand with good material
at a reasonable price.

PRIVATE LANDS PLANTED WITH STATE STOCK.

ACRES

PLANTED.

Watersheds.

1908.

1909.

I9IO.

1911.

Lake Champlain

2

no

320

1 60

St. Lawrence

8

158

210

310

Oswego

230

45

75

Seneca

8

20

25

Genessee

82

35

90

Alleghany

I

8

5

35

Lake Erie

2

35

15

Niagara River & Lake Ontario

5

Hudson:

IO4

360

285

Mohawk
Lower Hudson

IO

133

5i

320
150

175
340

Susquehanna

1 06

145

150

Delaware

I

79

60

45

Long Island

60

50

90

Total acres

22

i 071

1 1 755

1 , 800

The best information relative to the forest areas of the State
indicates that there are about six million acres containing mer-
chantable timber; approximately four and one-half million acres
with more or less valuable tree growth, which does not now contain
merchantable material, in addition, about one and one-half million
acres upon which there is no valuable growth. The latter, together
with about eight hundred thousand acres of unimproved or
abandoned farm land, indicates that there is not less than two
million three hundred thousand acres of land in this State which
must, in order to produce profit, be reforested. This land is now
held by owners at a loss, but on the other hand can, by means of
planting, be made to produce a satisfactory return. Inasmuch as
there are but, approximately, twenty-five billion feet of lumber on
the forest lands in this State, and statistics show that we are cutting
our forests five times as fast as they grow, and that the consumption
of material in this State is supplied to a large extent from outside
sources, all tend to prove that we are consuming in this State ten
times as much as we grow in the forests. In addition to the large

area already referred to, which must be entirely planted, there are
four million, four hundred and forty thousand acres of farm wood-
lots whose growth would be greatly improved if there was a judi-
cious amount of underplanting, requiring but very few hundred
trees per year.

This Commission will be glad to assist private owners in plant-
ing or in the management of their forest lands. If any of our citizens
have any problems on which they would like advice, we will be glad
to have them furnish us with detailed information, stating the
location, extent, size and kinds of trees, and such other information
as we might need in order to give them the advice which they desire.

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS ISSUED BY CONSERVATION COM-
MISSION GIVING INFORMATION IN REGARD t TO
FORESTRY.

Bulletin i. General Forestry. — A discussion of the value, and
meaning of forestry. Suitable for teachers and
general reading.

Bulletin 2. Reforesting. — Instructions, how and when to reforest
land, with statements as to profit.

Bulletin 3. The Basket Willow. — How to plant an ozier holts and
produce basket willows.

Bulletin 4. The Forests of Oneida County. — A description of the
forests and information as to methods of forest
management that should be applied.

Bulletin 5. Outline of Forestry Lectures. — A synopsis for pre-
paring a lecture on forestry for students, clubs,
granges, etc.

Bulletin 6. Forests of Warren County. — Report on forest condi-
tions and advice as to better management.

Bulletin 7. Shade Trees. — Suggestions as to planting, care and
uses of trees for streets and highways.

Bulletin 8. Forest Taxation.— Synopsis and text of laws relative
to reduction and exemption of woodlots and re-
forested lands.

Bulletin 9. Woodlot Forestry. — Discussion of principles and ad-
vice how to best handle farm woodlots and forests
on small estates. (In preparation.)

These publications will be supplied to residents, free, on request,
as long as a supply is available.

A map of the forest sections of the sixteen Adirondack counties,
showing lines of travel, drainage, land allotment and state land,
scale two miles to an inch, in portfolio form, will be sent to any-
one post paid on receipt of one dollar.

A map of the forest sections of four Catskill counties, similar
to that of the Adirondacks, will be sent to anyone post paid en
receipt of one dollar.

STATE OF NEW YORK

Conservation Commission

DIVISION OF LANDS AND FORESTS

BULLETIN 8

FOREST TAXATION

BY

C. R. PETTIS, F. E.

Sup't State Forests

ALBANY

J. B. LYON COMPANY, PRINTERS
1913

STATE OF NEW YORK

CONSERVATION COMMISSION

ALBANY

GEORGE E. VAN KENNEN, Chairman

JAMES W. FLEMING, Commissioner ALBERT E. HOYT, Secretary

JOHN D. MOORE, Commissioner JOHN J. FARRELL, Ass't Secretary

DIVISION OF LANDS AND FORESTS

CHARLES H. JACKSON Deputy Commissioner

CLIFFORD R. PETTIS Supt. State Forests

WILLIAM G. HOWARD Asst. Sup. State Forests

ROBERT ROSENBLUTH Director of Forest Investiga

W. HOWARD RANKIN Forest Pathologist

FREDERICK A. GAYLORD Forester

GEORGE L. BARRUS Forester

ALBERT H. KING . . Forester

BUREAU OF PUBLICATION
M. H. HOOVER, Chief of Publication

INTRODUCTION

The question of assessment and taxation of forest land has been
widely discussed; given careful consideration by students of taxa-
tion problems, also by woodland owners, and has in many States
been the cause of legislation.

The underlying principal has been that the land should pay its
just proportion of tax but that the growing forest should not be
assessed. There have been various attempts in this State to enact
taxation laws which would encourage reforesting of denuded areas,
induce woodland owners to properly manage their natural growth
and otherwise secure a more equitable taxation of forest lands.

The last session of the Legislature enacted three forest taxation
laws. Two of them relate to reforested lands and one to woodlots.
These laws either exempt the land and crop from assessment and
taxation until such time as a revenue is available, or reduce the
assessment to the value of the land only for a period of years.

It is hoped that all land owners will carefully read these laws
and avail themselves of the benefits.

There will be found on the following pages not only a complete
copy of these laws but also a synopsis of each. It will be desirable
for those who are interested to study all of them carefully, and
decide which one will best apply to their case. If the owner will
then advise the Conservation Commission which law he desires to
use, the necessary blanks will be sent.

It should be remembered that Section 17 of the Tax Law applies
to woodlots only. The provisions of Section 89 of the Conservation
Law can not apply to any plantation already established, because
an agreement must precede the planting. Section 16 of the Tax
Law will apply to plantations made since April 10, 1909, if applica-
tion is made before April 10, 1913, but if anyone desires to avail
himself of this exemption, application should be made at once.

This Commission has issued a publication, Bulletin No. 2, entitled
" Reforesting " which will be sent to any land owner free on applica-
tion. There are various other publications on forestry which have
been issued by this Commission, particulars of which will be found
on the last page of this Bulletin. They are for general distribution.

Ace. 7. 3

CLASSIFICATION OF LAND FOR REFORESTING AND
REDUCED TAXATION.

(Conservation Law as Amended by Section 89, Chapter 444, Laws

of 1912.)

The provisions of this section apply to any waste, denuded or
wild lands of five acres and upward not suitable for agricultural
purposes which the owner thereof shall agree with the Conservation
Commission to set apart for reforesting purposes, provided the
land, at the time the application is made, is not assessed at an
average value of more than $5.00 per acre, or that similar land in
the same tax district is not assessed for more than this amount.

The benefits of this section may be secured as follows :

First. — The owner shall apply to the Conservation Commission
on forestry form 68, asking that his land be separately classified^
and that examination and recommendations be made to carry out
the work. This application must give a definite description of the
land to be planted. It must describe the property so that there
will be no question as to its location at any future time. If it is
a portion of a farm or larger parcel the complete description of
the entire tract as given in the last assessment roll must also be
included. The smaller piece should be described by roads, brooks,
property lines, boundaries and distances that will give a proper
description. The diagram requested should be made as accurately
as possible not only locating the entire assessed tract but the parcel
desired to be planted. The certificate from the assessors must be
submitted in all cases. If the land in question has not been sepa-
rately assessed or if the timber has been removed during the past
five years or other elements enter which affect the assessed valua-
tion of the land it will then be necessary to have the certificate of
the assessors that similar lands in the same tax district are not
assessed for more than $5.00 per acre.

Second. — The Conservation Commission after the receipt of the
application makes an inspection. If such inspections shows that
the lands are not suitable for agricultural purposes they shall classify
such lands as suitable for reforesting or underplanting and shall
submit to the owner an agreement for reforesting which will specify
the number and kinds of trees that should be planted. All owners
of the land must sign the application and agreement. Forestry
Form 70.

Third. — When the agreement is executed it is recorded in the
county clerk's office of the county in which the land is located and
the provisions thereof shall be deemed to be a covenant running
with the land.

Fourth. — Within one year after making such agreement the
land shall be planted by the owner with the number and kinds of
trees specified and then the owner shall submit by affidavit, proof of
planting and file the same in the office of the Conservation Com-
mission, using Forestry Form 72.

Fifth. — The Conservation Commission shall then cause an in-
spection of the lands to be made, and if satisfied from the. affidavit
and report that the work has been done satisfactorily, and in good
faith, it shall execute a certificate to the county treasurer certifying
that the lands so situated are entitled to the benefits.

The provisions of this section provide that lands so classified and
planted shall continue to be assessed and taxed at the same valua-
tion as they were before planting, or on the average assessment of
the five years previous to making the application, or at the value
of similar lands in the same tax district. The purpose is to prevent
the raising of the assessment of the property on account of the
increase in the growth of timber due to the reforesting. The wood
growth is exempt from taxation but the land is assessed at its origi-
nal value.

The contract becomes an obligation on the part of the State, as
long as the owner complies with all the provisions, and becomes
irrevocable during the thirty-five year period.

TAXATION OF REFORESTED LANDS.

(Pursuant to Section 16 of Tax Law Added by Chapter 249, Laws

of 1912.)

The purpose is to encourage reforesting of waste and denuded
lands.

This law applies to tracts of not less than one or more than
one hundred acres of land, which shall be planted for forestry pur-
poses. If the land is without trees, not less than eight hundred trees
must be planted per acre. If covered with existing forest or brush
growth it may be underplanted with not less than three hundred
trees per acre.

Land planted as provided for in this section since April 10, 1909,
may come under these provisions if application is made to the

Conservation Commission before April 10, 1913. This law does
not apply to any lands (located) within twenty miles of the cor-
porate limits of a city of the first class; ten miles of the corporate
limits of a city of the second class ; five miles of the corporate limits
of a city of the third class, or one mile of the limits of a corporate
village. In the event that the land so exempted shall, at any time
during the period of exemption or reduction, cease to be used ex-
clusively as a forest plantation within the meaning of the law, the
benefits of this chapter shall no longer apply.

The method to be pursued in securing this reduction is as follows :

First. — The owner must file proof of planting (use Forestry
Form 65) with the assessors of the tax district or districts in which
such lands are situated.

Second. — File with the Conservation Commission, Albany, N. Y.,
an affidavit (Forestry Form 66), making due proof of planting, and
giving other required information. If the Conservation Commission
is satisfied that the reforesting has been done by adequate methods,
and in good faith, and that the owner is entitled to such exemption,
the Commission shall so certify to the county treasurer of the county
in which the land is situated, and the local assessors, on notice from
the county treasurer, shall place the lands according to the descrip-
tion on the assessment roll with the proper record for reduction
or exemption.

The benefits derived depend upon the number of trees planted.
On open land planted with not less than eight hundred trees per
acre there is an absolute exemption of assessment and taxation of
the land and timber thereon for a period of thirty-five years from
the date of the levy of taxes immediately following such planting.
In case existing forests or brush land shall be under planted with not
less than three hundred trees per acre, such property shall be assessed
at 50 per cent, of the assessed value of such land exclusive of any
forest growth for a period of thirty-five years from the date of
the levy of taxes thereon immediately following such planting.

If any land, exempted under this section, continues to be used
exclusively for the growth of a planted forest after the thirty-five
year period herein provided, the land shall be assessed at its true
value, and the taxes paid on said lands for 5 years but the timber
thereon shall be exempt from assessment and taxation until
harvested.

The owner must, before making any cuttings, except thinnings
to stimulate growth, in accordance with directions of the Conserva-

tion Commission, give thirty days' notice to the assessors of the
tax district in which the land is located. The assessors shall forth-
with assess the stumpage value of the timber proposed to be cut,
and such owner shall pay to the collector of the town in which the
land is located a tax of 5 per cent, of such assessed value of stand-
ing timber. The law prescribes a penalty of three times the tax
for failure to make the proper payment to the collector.

TAXATION OF WOODLOTS.

(Pursuant to Section 17 of the Tax Law as Added by Chapter 363,

Laws of 1912.)

The purpose is to encourage the maintenance of woodlots and
initiate the practice of forestry by private owners.

The provisions apply to any tract not exceeding fifty acres cov-
ered by a natural or planted forest growth or both, provided it is
not situated within twenty miles of a city of the first class, ten
miles of a city of the second class, five miles of a city of the third
class or one mile of an incorporated village.

The reduction is secured in the following manner: The owner
must make application for classification of his land as a woodlot on
blanks (Forestry Form 68) supplied by the Conservation Commis-
sion prepared in duplicate and accompanied by a plot and description
of the land together with full answers to all the other questions.
If an inspection by a competent forester shows that the land is of
suitable character to be classified as a woodlot, the Commission shall
submit a plan of management, and if the owner agrees to carry out
the plan of management recommended, the Conservation Commis-
sion must prepare the necessary certificate for transmittal to the
county treasurer, and the local tax assessors will be instructed to
assess the land in accordance with the provisions of the law. (The
entire tree growth is exempt from annual assessment and taxation.)
The law also provides that the assessment shall in no case exceed
$10.00 per acre.

This reduction applies as long as the owner fulfills his agreement
to manage the forest in accordance with the plans furnished by
the Commission. In case the owner at any time thereafter fails to
use the property exclusively as a woodlot the exemption and reduc-
tion shall no longer apply.

Whenever cutting of live trees is to be done except for firewood
or domestic use of the farm the owner must give the Conservation

8

Commission thirty days' notice prior to the time he desires to
begin cutting, and its agents shall designate the trees that should
be removed in order to best secure the purposes of proper forest
management.

In lieu of this exemption of taxation on the crops the owner will
be required to pay a 5 per cent, tax on the value of the timber
removed; such tax to be paid to the tax collector of the town in
which the land is situated before the wood is removed. Failure
to pay the taxes subjects the owner to a fine of three times the
tax.

This provision of the Tax Law is one of great importance to
the land owner.

First. — It enables him to secure expert advice how best to handle
his woodlot.

Second. — Will result in increased wood production and therefore
greater profit from the land.

Third. — Will enable the owner to hold his woodlot and be taxed
on the value of the land only but in no case at more than $10.00
per acre.

EXEMPTION OF REFORESTED LANDS FROM
TAXATION.

(Conservation Law as Amended by Section 89, Chapter 444, Laws

of 1912.)

§ 89. Exemption of reforested lands from taxation. In con-
sideration of the public benefit to be derived from the planting and
growing of forest trees, and to the end that the growth of forest
trees may be encouraged and the water supply of the state protected
and conserved, and that floods may be prevented, the owner of any
waste, denuded or wild forest lands, of the area of five acres or
upwards, within the state, which are unsuitable for agricultural
purposes, who shall agree with the Commission to set apart for
reforestation or for forest tree culture, the whole, or any specific
portion of such waste, denuded or wild forest lands, of the area
of five acres or upwards, may apply to the Conservation Commission,
in manner and form to be prescribed by it, to have such lands sepa-
rately classified as lands suitable for reforestation or underplanting
within the purposes and provisions of this section. Each applica-
tion for such classification shall be accompanied by a plot and
description of the land, and shall state the area, character and loca-

tion thereof, and such other information in reference thereto as the
Commission may require; such application shall be accompanied by
a certificate of the assessors of the tax district or districts in which
said lands are located, which shall set forth the assessed valuation
of said lands for the last five years preceding the date of such
application ; or if said lands have not been separately assessed during
any part of said period, or the timber has been removed therefrom
at any time during said period of five years, by a sworn statement
of the assessors of the value of said lands, which lands shall be
valued at the same rate as other waste, denuded or wild forest lands
in said tax district, similarly situated; such application shall also
contain a declaration that the owner intends to reforest or under-
plant the lands described in such application with such number and
kind of trees per acre and in such manner as the Commission shall
specify, and to comply with all reasonable rules and regulations of
the Commission in reference to future care and management of
said lands and trees.

If it appears from said application and certificate or sworn state-
ment that said lands are suitable for reforestation or underplanting
purposes and have not been assessed during the period of five years
next preceding the date of such application at an average valuation
of more than five dollars per acre, or that similar lands in said
vicinity have not been assessed for more than five dollars per acre,
the said Commission shall, as soon as practicable after the receipt
of such application, cause an examination to be made of the lands
for the purpose of determining whether or not it is of a character
suitable to be reforested or underplanted and to be classified as such.
After such examination if the Commission shall determine that such
lands are suitable for reforestation or underplanting, it is hereby
empowered to enter into a written agreement with the owner, which
agreement shall be to the effect that the Commission will furnish
said owner, at a price not to exceed cost of production, trees to be
set out upon said lands, the kind and number to be prescribed by
the Commission, and to be set forth in said agreement; that the
owner will set out upon said land the number and kind of trees
per acre designated by the Commission ; and that said land will not
be used for any purpose other than forestry purposes, during the
period of exemption, without the consent of the Commission ; and
that said lands and the trees thereon will be managed and protected
at all times during the period of said exemption in accordance with
the directions and instructions of the Commission. Said agreement

IO

shall be recorded in the office of the county clerk of the county where
the lands are situated, and the provisions thereof shall be deemed
to be and be covenants running with the land. Within one year after
the making of such agreement, said lands shall be planted by the
owner with the number and kind of trees specified therein; and
the owner shall file with the Commission an affidavit making due
proof of such planting, which affidavit shall remain on file in the
office of said Commission. Upon the filing of such affidavit the
Commission shall cause an inspection of such lands to be made by
a competent forester who shall make and file with said commission
a written report of such inspection. If the Commission is satisfied
from said affidavit and report that the lands have been forested in
good faith as provided in said agreement, it shall make and execute
a certificate under its seal, and file the same with the county treasurer
of the county in which the lands or any part thereof so forested
are located, which certificate shall set forth a description of said
lands, the area and the owner thereof, the town in which the same
are situated, a statement that lands have been separately classified
for taxation in accordance with the provisions of this section and
a valuation, in excess of which, said lands shall not be assessed for
the period of thirty-five years, which valuation shall not in any
event be greater than the average valuation at which the same lands
were assessed for the last five years preceding the date of said
application, or the value of such lands as appears by the aforesaid
sworn statements of the assessors of such tax district, and a state-
ment that the trees and timber thereon shall be exempt from taxa-
tion during said period. Upon the filing of such certificate it shall
be the duty of the county treasurer to file with the assessors of
each tax district in which the lands described are located, a certified
copy thereof, and the assessors of such tax district shall place the
lands according to the description contained in paid certificate upon
the next assessment-roll, prepared for the assessment of lands within
such tax district, at a valuation not to exceed the amount stated in
said certificate, and not to exceed the assessed valuation of similar
lands in said tax district; and said assessors shall insert upon the
margin of said assessment-roll opposite the description of said
lands, a statement that said lands shall not be assessed during the
period of thirty-five years at a value in excess of said amount and
that the trees and timber growing upon said land shall be wholly
exempted from taxation during said period; and said assessors
shall also insert upon the margin of said assessment-roll the date

J I

of expiration of said exemption. Such lands shall be assessed, and
continue to be assessed, and carried in such manner, upon the assess-
ment-rolls, of such towns until the end of the exemption period. In
the event that lands so classified shall, in the judgment of the Com-
mission, cease to be used exclusively for forestry purposes to the
extent provided in the agreement between the Conservation Com-
mission and the owner, or that said owner has violated its terms,
or any reasonable rules and regulations of the Commission in respect
to the use of or the cutting of timber on said lands, the exemption
from taxation provided in this section shall no longer apply; or at
the election of the Commission such owner may be also restrained
from said acts by injunction; and the assessors having jurisdiction
shall, upon the direction of the Commission, assess said lands against
the owner at the value, and in the manner provided by the tax law
for general assessment of land.

The planting or underplanting of a tract in forest trees in com-
pliance with the agreement as provided in this section shall be taken
and deemed to be an acceptance by the owner of the exemption
privileges herein granted and of the conditions herein imposed; and
in consideration of the public benefit to be derived from the plant-
ing, underplanting, cultivation and growth of such trees the ex-
emption of such trees from taxation and the taxation of the land
upon which such trees are grown as herein provided, shall be con-
tinued and is hereby assured; and the right to such exemption and
taxation shall be inviolable and irrevocable as a contract obligation
of the state, so long as the owner of the land so planted shall fully
comply with and perform the conditions of such contract not ex-
ceeding said period of thirty-five years.

REFORESTING EXEMPTION ORIREDUCTION.

CHAPTER 249.

AN ACT to amend the tax law, in relation to the exemption and
reduction in assessment of lands which have been planted with
trees for forestry purposes.

Became a law April 10, 1912, with the approval of the Governor. Passed,
three-fifths being present.

The People of the State of New York, represented in Senate and
Assembly, do enact as follows:

Section I. Article one of chapter sixty- two of the laws of nineteen
hundred and nine, entitled " An act in relation to taxation, con-

12

stituting chapter sixty of the consolidated laws," is hereby amended
by adding at the end a new section to be section sixteen, and to
read as follows :

§ 1 6. Exemption and reduction in assessment of lands planted
with trees for forestry purposes. Whenever the owner of lands, to
the extent of one or more acres and not exceeding one hundred
acres, shall plant the same for forestry purposes with trees to the
number of not less than eight hundred to the acre, and whenever
the owner of existing forest or brush lands to the extent of one or
more acres and not exceeding one hundred acres, shall underplant
the same with trees, to the number of not "less than three hundred
to the acre, and proof of that fact shall be filed with the assessors
of the tax district or districts in which such lands are situated as
hereinafter provided, such lands so forested shall be exempt from
assessment and taxation for any purpose for a period of thirty-five
years from the date of the levying of taxes thereon immediately
following such planting, and such existing forest or brush lands so
underplanted shall be assessed at the rate of fifty per centum of the
assessable valuation of such land exclusive of any forest growth
thereon for a period of thirty-five years from the date of the levy-
ing of taxes thereon immediately following such underplanting. The
owner or owners of lands forested as above provided, in order to
secure the benefits of this section, shall file with the Conservation
Commission an affidavit making the due proof of such planting or
underplanting and setting forth an accurate description of such
lands, the town and county in which the same are situated, the
number of trees planted or underplanted to the acre and the number
of acres so forested, which affidavit shall remain on file in the office
of said commission. Upon the filing of such affidavit it shall be the
duty of the Conservation Commission to cause an inspection of such
forested lands to be made by a competent forester or other employee
of said Commission who shall make and file with said Commission a
written report of such inspection. If the Commission is satisfied
from the said affidavit and the report of inspection that the lands
have been forested as above provided, in good faith and by adequate
methods to produce a forest plantation, and are entitled to the ex-
emption of assessment or to a reduction of assessment as provided
in this section, it shall make and execute a certificate under the
seal of its office, and file the same with the county treasurer of the
county in which the lands so forested are located, which certificate
shall set forth a description of the lands affected by this section,

the area and owner or owners thereof, the town or towns in which
the same are situated, the description upon the last assessment-roll
which included said lands, the period of exemption or of reduction
of assessment to which such lands are entitled and the date of the
expiration of such exemption or reduction of assessment. Upon the
riling of such certificate it shall be the duty of the county treasurer
to file with the assessors of the tax district in which the lands
described therein are located within ten days after receipt thereof
a certified copy of such certificate, and the assessors of such tax
district shall place the lands according to the description contained
in said certificate upon the next assessment-roll prepared for the
assessment of lands within such tax district, and shall exempt, or
reduce the assessment upon, the lands so described as hereinbefore
provided, and shall insert upon the margin of said assessment-roll
opposite the description of said lands, a statement that in accordance
with the provisions of this section of the tax law said lands are
exempt from taxation or that the assessment thereof is reduced
fifty per centum as the case may be and insert also in the margin
the date of the expiration of such exemption or such reduction of
assessment and such lands shall continue to be exempted, assessed
and carried in such manner upon the assessment-rolls of such town
until the date of the expiration of such exemption or reduction of
assessment. Lands which have been forested as above provided
within three years prior to the taking effect of this section may
come within its provisions if application therefor is made to the
Conservation Commission within one year from the time when this
section takes effect, but except as provided by this section the period
of exemption or reduction as certified to by the Conservation Com-
mission shall not exceed the period of thirty-five years from the
date of the original planting. Lands situated within twenty miles
of the corporate limits of a city of the first class, or within ten
miles of the corporate limits of a city of the second class, or within
five miles of the corporate limits of a city of the third class, or within
one mile of the corporate limits of an incorporated village shall not
be entitled to the exemption or reduction of assessment provided
for by this section. In the event that lands exempted or reduced
in taxation as above provided shall, by act of the owner or other-
wise, at any time during the period of exemption or reduction in
taxation cease to be used exclusively as a forest plantation to the
extent provided by this section to entitle such land to the privileges
of this section, the said exemption and reduction in taxation pro-

14

vided for in this section shall no longer apply and the assessors
having jurisdiction are hereby empowered and directed to assess
the said land at the value and in the manner provided by the tax
law for the general assessment of land. If any land exempted under
this section continues to be used exclusively for the growth of a
planted forest after the expiration of the period of exemption pro-
vided hereby, the land shall be assessed at its true value and the
timber growth thereon shall be exempt from taxation, except if
such timber shall be cut before the land has been duly assessed and
taxes regularly paid for five consecutive years after the exemption
period has expired, such timber growth shall be subject to a tax
of five per centum of the estimated stumpage value at the time of
cutting, unless such cuttings are thinnings for stimulating growth
and have been made under the supervision of the Conservation Com-
mission. Whenever the owner shall propose to make any cutting
of such timber growth for a purpose other than for thinning as
above provided, he shall give thirty days' notice to the assessors
of the tax district on which the land is located, who shall forthwith
assess the stumpage value of such proposed cutting, and such owner
shall pay to the collector of the town in which such land is situated
before cutting such timber five per centum of such assessed valuation.
If such owner shall fail to give such notice and pay such taxes he
shall be liable to a penalty of three times the amount of such tax,
and the supervisor of the town may bring an action to recover
the same for the benefit of the town in any court of competent
jurisdiction.

§ 2. This act shall take effect immediately.

LAW RELATIVE TO TAXATION OF WOOD LOTS.

(Pursuant to Section 17 of Tax Law as Added by Chapter 363 of

Laws of 1912.)

AN ACT to amend the tax law, in relation to the exemption and
reduction in assessment of lands which shall be maintained as
wood lots and to encourage the growth of trees for such purposes.

Became a law April 15, 1912, with the. approval of the Governor.

Passed, three-fifths being present.
The People of the State of Neiv York, represented in Senate and

Assembly, do enact as follows:

Section i. Article one of chapter sixty-two of the laws of nine-
teen hundred and nine, entitled "An act in relation to taxation, con-

stituting chapter sixty of the consolidated laws," is hereby amended
by adding at the end a new section, to be section seventeen, and to
read as follows :

§ 17. Exemption and reduction in assessment of lands main-
tained as wood lots and to encourage the growth of trees for
such purposes. In order to encourage the maintenance of wood
lots by private owners and the practice of forestry in the manage-
ment thereof, the owner of any tract of land in the state, not exceed-
ing fifty acres, which is occupied by a natural or planted growth of
trees, or by both, which shall not be situated within twenty miles
of the corporate limits of a city of the first class, nor within ten
miles of the corporate limits of a city of the second class, nor within
five miles of the corporate limits of a city of the third class, nor
within one mile of the corporate limits of an incorporated village,
may apply to the Conservation Commission in manner and form to
be prescribed by it, to have such land separately classified for taxa-
tion. Application for such classification shall be made in duplicate
and accompanied by a plot and description of the land, and such
other information as the Commission may require. Upon the filing
of such application it shall be the duty of the Commission to cause
an inspection of such land to be made by a competent forester for
the purpose of determining whether or not it is of a suitable char-
acter to be so classified. If the Commission shall determine that
such land is suitable to be so classified, it shall submit to the owner
a plan for the further management of said land and trees and shall
make and execute a certificate under the seal of the Commission
and file the same with the county treasurer of the county in which
the land is located, which certificate shall set forth a description
and plot of the land so classified, the area and owner thereof, the
town or towns in which the same is situated, and that the land has
been separately classified for taxation in accordance with the pro
visions of this section. Upon the filing of such certificate it shall
be the duty of the county treasurer to file with the assessors of the
tax district in which the land described therein is located, within
ten days after receipt thereof, a certified copy of such certificate.
So long as the land so classified is maintained as a wood lot, and
the owner thereof faithfully complies with all the provisions of this
section and the instructions of the Commission, it shall be assessed
at not to exceed ten dollars per acre and taxed annually on that
basis. In fixing the value of said lands for assessment, the assessors
shall in no case take into account the value of the trees growing

i6

thereon, and said land shall not be assessed at a value greater than
other similar lands within the same tax district, which contain no
forest or tree growth, are assessed. The assessors of each tax dis-
trict where said land so classified is located shall insert upon the
margin of said assessment and opposite the description of such land
a statement that said land is assessed in accordance with the pro-
visions of this section. In the event that land so classified as above
prescribed shall at any time by act of the owner or otherwise cease,
in the judgment of the Commission, to be used exclusively as a wood
lot to the extent provided by this section to entitle the owner of
such land to the privileges of this section, the exemption and valua-
tion in taxation provided for in this section shall no longer apply
and the assessors having jurisdiction shall, upon the direction of
the Commission assess the said land at the value and in the manner
provided by the tax law for the general assessment of land. When-
ever the owner shall propose to cut any live trees from said land,
except for firewood or building material for the domestic use of
said owner or his tenant, he shall give the Commission at least
thirty days' notice prior to the time he desires to begin cutting, who
shall designate for the owner the kind and number of trees, if any,
most suitable to be cut for the purpose for which they are desired,
and the cutting and removal of the trees so designated shall be in
accordance with the instructions of said Commission. After such
trees are cut and before their removal from the land, the owner
shall make an accurate measurement or count of all of the trees cut
and file with the assessors of the tax district a verified, true and
accurate return of such measurement or count and of the variety
and value of the trees so cut. The assessors shall forthwith assess
the stumpage value of the timber so cut, and such owner shall pay
to the tax collector of the town in which such land is situated, before
the removal of any such timber, five per centum of such valuation.
If such owner shall fail to give such notices and pay such taxes
he shall be liable to a penalty of three times the amount of such tax,
and the supervisor of the town may bring an action to recover the
same for the benefit of the town in any court of competent jurisdic-
tion.

§ 2. This act shall take effect immediately.

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS ISSUED BY CONSERVATION
COMMISSION GIVING INFORMATION IN REGARD
TO FORESTRY.

Bulletin i. General Forestry. — A discussion of the value, and
meaning of forestry. Suitable for teachers and
general reading.

Bulletin 2. Reforesting. — Instructions, how and when to reforest
land, with statements as to profit.

Bulletin 3. The Basket. Willow. — How to plant an ozier holts and
produce basket willows.

Bulletin 4. The Forests of Oneida County. — A description of the
forests and information as to methods of forest
management that should be applied.

Bulletin 5. Outline of Forestry Lectures. — A synopsis for pre-
paring a lecture on forestry for students, clubs,
granges, etc.

Bulletin 6. Forests of Warren County. — Report on forest condi-'
tions and advice as to better management.

Bulletin 7. Shade Trees. — Suggestions as to planting, care and
uses of trees for streets and highways.

Bulletin 8. Forest Taxation. — Synopsis and text of laws relative
to reduction and exemption of woodlots and re-
forested lands.

Bulletin 9. Woodlot Forestry. — Discussion of principles and ad-
vice how to best handle farm woodlots and forests
on small estates.

These publications will be supplied to residents, free, on request,
as long as a supply is available.

A map of the forest sections of the sixteen Adirondack counties,
showing lines of travel, drainage, land allotment and state land,
scale two miles to an inch, in portfolio form, will be sent to any-
one post paid on receipt of one dollar.

A map of the forest sections of four Catskill counties, similar
to that of the Adirondacks, will be sent to anyone post paid on
receipt of one dollar.

18

ax Law relative
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363, Laws of 19

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BULLETIN

OF

NEW YORK STATE

COLLEGE OF FORESTRY

AT

SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY

THE REFORESTATION OF CUT-OVER AND
IDLE LANDS IN NEW YORK

SYRACUSE
1913

FACULTY OF THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF
FORESTRY AT SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY.

JAMES ROSCOE DAY, S. T. D., D. C. L, LL.D.,

Chancellor of the University.

HUGH POTTER BAKER, M. F. (Yale 1904) ; D. Oec. (Munich

1910), DEAN,
Professor of Silviculture.

FRANK F. MOON, B. A. (Amherst College 1901); M. F. (Yale

1909),
Professor of Forest Engineering.

PHILIP TRIPP COOLIDGE, A. B. (Harvard 1905) ; M. F. (Yale

1907),
Director of Ranger School; Professor of Forestry.

EDWARD F. MCCARTHY, B. S. (University of Michigan 1911);
M. F. (University of Michigan 1911),
Assistant Professor of Forest Products.

JOHN WALLACE STEPHEN, B. A. (University of Michigan) ;

M. S. (University of Michigan 1907),

Assistant Professor of Silviculture.

NELSON CORTLANDT BROWN, B. A. (Yale 1906) ; M. F. (Yale

1908),
Assistant Professor of Forest Utilisation.

REUBEN PARKER PRICHARD, B. S. (Dartmouth 1907) M. F.

Yale (1909),
Instructor in Forestry at Ranger School.

RUSSELL TAYLOR GHEEN, B. S. F. (Penn State 1912),
Student Assistant in Forestry.

EDITH E. HAITH, B. L. E. (Syracuse 1912),
Librarian.

LILLIAN M. LANG,

Secretary to the Dean.

Photo by Hugh P. Baker.

THERE ARE VALUABLE FORESTS UPON STATE LANDS IN
NEW YORK.

Virgin Forest in Township 40 in the Adirondacks.
Much of the larger Spruce, Fir and Beech and Birch
are over-ripe and should be removed to insure the
proper development of the future forest.

THE REFORESTATION OF CUT OVER AND IDLE LANDS IN

NEW YORK.

A LARGE PART OF NEW YORK BETTER SUITED TO FORESTRY THAN
TO AGRICULTURE.

Out of the 34,000,000 of acres in the State of New York over 35
per cent or 12,000,000 of acres are better suited for the growing of
timber than for any other purpose. This is the verdict of the Census
Bureau for the Great State of New York. It is difficult indeed to
appreciate what this large area of land means, but if it were one
unbroken forest, it would cover the States of Rhode Island, Connecti-
cut, Massachusetts and extend for forty miles across the southern
part of Vermont and New Hampshire. Or it would cover in our own
State practically all of the section north of the New York Central
Railroad.

Statistics show also that out of the 22,000,000 of acres enclosed
within the farms of the State, but 15,000,000 are actually in agricultural
crops. This means that there are 7,000,000 of idle acres in the farms
of New York which should be made productive. It is probable that
not all of this large area is actually nonagricultural, but without ques-
tion there is an area larger than the State of Massachusetts enclosed
within our farms and permanently non-productive. Of the 12,000,000
of acres outside of the farms and referred to above, it has been
shown that less than half contains merchantable timber, about four
million and a half of the twelve millions of acres are covered with
more or less valuable growth but non-merchantable; there are then
nearly two millions of acres with no valuable growth at all, really in
the form of waste lands.

NEW YORK HAS NO REAL WASTE LAND.

It is a misnomer in a way to call these essential forest lands waste
lands. To-day New York is land poor in a sense and yet these very
lands will in time become a source of large profit to the State.
Forest land in Europe not nearly as well adapted to the production
of forests as much of the forest areas of New York is producing
as high as $3 to $5 per acre per year. It may be many years before
our waste lands will be producing so high an annual return as this
but with reasonable care these lands will soon begin to be productive
and in time will bear a large share of the burden of the support of
this great Commonwealth.

[5]

6 College of Fores try

LITTLE OR NO VALUABLE TREE GROWTH ON DENUDED LANDS.

What is the condition of these denuded lands at the present time?
Over much of the area we will find a scattering growth of brush
and inferior tree species occupying the ground or we may find old,
abandoned pastures gradually giving up to the extension of the forests
about them. Usually they produced a valuable timber crop in the
past and are capable of such production again. If left to herself
Nature might succeed in time in re-establishing a good forest. How-
ever, the often repeated statement that if we will simply protect our
cutover lands, as they now exist, from fire, that they will soon come
up to valuable forests again, is seldom true. Where a reasonable
number of the right kind of mother trees have been left on the
ground, Nature may in time reforest the surface with a fair growth
of timber. There are very extensive areas in New York where all of
the valuable trees have been cut or destroyed by fire and it will take
many years indeed to bring back anything in the way of a satis-
factory forest. Over such areas it will be necessary to do a certain
amount of planting before the right kind of forest can be established.
As the forest lands of New York lie largely in the zone of the
maximum development of the conifers, which are usually evergreens,
the future forests of the State will without doubt be made up largely
of rapid growing conifers such as some of the pines and spruces.

SECOND GROWTH HARDWOOD OFTEN WORTHLESS.

Over lands which formerly produced a hardwood forest, Nature
often re-establishes a second forest in a comparatively short time.
These second growth hardwood or sprout forests are formed readily
from the stumps of trees and in a measure are independent of seed
trees for reproduction. It is very different with the conifers or ever-
greens which with one or two exceptions are incapable of reproducing
by means of sprouts. As certain of our conifers are the most rapid
growing trees which we can put onto the land and have a timber
that is very desirable for use in the industries, it is probable that
much of our future forests will be evergreen or coniferous. There is
too much land in the State to-day covered with poor, worthless, second
growth hardwoods. These should be removed entirely and replaced
by seedlings of the evergreens. Much quicker returns will be gotten
by this clear cutting and planting than can be expected from the present
growth on the ground, even though some attempt is made to im-
prove it. After the coniferous forest is once well established it may

Photo by Hugh P. Baker.

After the lumberman has come and gone and fire has swept over annually
for a few years, the soil formed by centuries of forest cover disappears.
It may take centuries to bring the soil back again and make the land as
able to produce the forests as when the virgin forest was cleared off.

Courtesy of Conservation Commission.

A bit of valuable forest land in New York that should never have been
denuded. Why should this land lie idle for almost a century waiting for
nature to crown it with forests? While it is idle it is not only unpro-
ductive but because of erosion is a menace to agricultural lands below
and to streams and rivers.

8 College of Fores try

be possible to use methods of natural reproduction that will make
unnecessary any large amount of planting. The reforestation of idle
or barren lands by replanting is expensive and it is hoped that as
Forestry develops in the State that less and less of it will be neces-
sary. The fact that over 3,000,000 acres or nearly 10 per cent of the
States are covered with no growth of value should be cause enough
for active agitation and real beginnings in reforestation. The great
area of ten per cent of the State should be returning from six to
eight millions of dollars annually with only very ordinary forest
management. In the County of Onondaga alone there are 70,000
acres of unimproved land and it is very safe to say that over 15,000
of these must be replanted if they are to be made in any way pro-
ductive. They will be absolutely nonproductive if left barren as they
are not adapted to agriculture of any kind.

IDLE LANDS WITHIN FARMS OF THE STATE.

Too much of the real idle land of this State is found enclosed
within our farms. There are very few farms which do not have
from 10 to 40 acres that are better suited for growing timber than for
any agricultural crop. Often, if these lands are stripped of their tree
growth they will soon begin to wash and at once become a menace
to the more valuable lands lying below them, therefore, when the tim-
ber is cut, the land should be replanted at once to forest trees. One
objection to planting a forest is that it takes considerable time for the
trees to become of value. This should have less weight in the con-
sideration of the farmer than it has. It is coming to be recognized
that thrifty growing trees have a definite value however small they
are. We do not expect or want good agricultural land to be used for
the production of trees, but a few acres of drifting sand or rocky
hillside will give a bad impression of the farm as a whole. A pros-
pective buyer will be greatly influenced in his valuation of the prop-
erty by the barren and unsightly portions, perhaps more strongly
influenced than by the actual amount of fertile land, thus it will be
seen that a good growth of forests on the idle lands of our farms
would be of value from an aesthetic standpoint and regardless in a
way of the actual value of the growing stock. With the constant de-
mand for poles and posts and other timbers on the farm, it will be
possible to draw very early indeed upon the planted timber for a
return. Then too, many of the farms in the State could be made to
produce as a bi-product obtained by thinning from the planted forest

Courtesy of Conservation Commission.

Experimental plantations being put out by the State on State lands.
Forests are necessary to protect the soil, conserve the water supply and
by planting where nature will not restock the ground easily we grow
what we want, where we want it, more of it, with a greater value, in a
shorter time, and, all things considered, at less expense.

Courtesy of Conservation Commission.

Results of planting on State lands in Adirondacks. Instead of paper
birch, trembling aspen and pincherry occupying this ground for the next
twenty-five years, we have a uniform stand of thrifty pine with every square
rod occupied. Such results can be gotten on idle lands anywhere in the State.

io College of Forestry

enough Christmas trees annually to more than pay for the thinning
and in a sense pay a considerable part of the cost of the plantation
itself. The same is true of larger bodies of cut-over or idle land
belonging either to the States or to large land owners. In their
desolate barren condition, they are of no value to anyone and they
are a disgrace to a State as progressive and prosperous as the State
of New York. The only way to make them valuable is to start a
forest upon them which in time will produce an annual crop of
timber. Far-sighted business men are beginning to see the value of
young timber and are buying lands covered with promising young
growth and holding them until they have a market value.

IDLE LANDS MADE PRODUCTIVE BY PLANTING OF FOREST TREES.

It is a fair question to ask each farmer in the State and each land
owner whether he has such idle lands as are described above and
whether it is not worth while to grow a crop that will not only
increase the sale value of the property but will annually make the land
more and more productive. Trees are the only crop which will do this
and leave the land in better condition than at the start.

Take for example the case of John Mathers who has a larm in
Onondaga County. It contains 20 acres of land in the form of a
rocky hillside that is practically useless for agriculture. This piece
has a slope greater than io per cent, and therefore should never have
been cut-over and left clear in the first place because of the danger
of severe erosion. It has long been a question with Mr. Mathers as
to what use to make of this barren hillside. As it stands to-day it is
a constant expense for taxes besides it depreciates the value of the
entire farm because of its unsightly appearance. Every rain cuts
deeper and deeper the gulleys on the hillside and carries gravel and
rocks farther down over the cultivated fields. The New York State
College of Forestry at Syracuse University would like to step in here
and co-operate with Mr. Mathers by making a plan or giving sugges-
tions for planting of this waste area with such rapid growing ever-
greens as the White or Norway Pine or the Norway Spruce. Mr.
Mathers being a practical man will want to know the expense and the
approximate returns of such a plantation before undertaking the work.

The expense of such a plantation as Mr. Mathers would want to
make would consist of the cost of planting, interest on value of land,
taxes on land and timber all carried at compound interest to the time
of harvesting. The net returns will be the gross returns less the total

Reforestation of Cut Over and Idle Lands

ii

expense. With lands worth $4 per acre, cost of planting $7 per acre
and money at 4 per cent., it will result as follows for White Pine:

Age of plantation in years.

Gross
returns.

Expenses.

Net
returns.

Net
return
per acre
and year.

25

$6 per M

$40 50

$27 50

$13 00

$0 52

80
35

(Stumpage value) ,

75 00
195 00

37 60
52 54

38 40
142 66

1 28
4 07

40

$8 per M

262 40

72 20

190 20

4 75

1 "i

324 80

108 66

216 20

4 80

50

$10 per M

465 00

157 85

307 15

6 14

55

(Stumpage value)

505 50

228 05

277 45

5 04

(>0

$12 per M

532 00

315 68

216 32

3 60

<•>•">

(Stumpage value) . . . .

566 00

433 28

132 72

2 04

This table will bear careful study as it is taken from a large number
of studies made from the growth of planted White Pine under condi-
tions very similar to those existing in the county. What does the
table show? It indicates that land of poor quality is capable of pro-
ducing valuable returns. Up to 25 or 30 years of age, the diameter is
small and the material has to be used for poles or fuel or pulp and
boxboards. The Stumpage value is around $6 per thousand feet.
From that age on it puts on timber rapidly and the quality of the
timber is ever better. It will bring $8 per thousand feet and yield a
net return at the age of 35 to 50 of over $4 per acre per year. At
about 60 years of age it yields the highest return which is $6 per acre
per year. From the time the timber has passed 35 years of age until
it reaches 60, it can be cut at any time and will return a greater value
per acre than the value of the land if used in any other way. It
shows further that one can afford to pay somewhat more than $4 an
acre for land that is now idle and reforest it with every assurance
that it will make a profitable long time investment. Approximately
the same results as described for the White Pine can be obtained by
using Norway Pine, Norway Spruce, Western Red Fir and such hard-
woods as the Ash and Red Oak. These last must be put into some-
what different soils and different locations than the conifers described
above and yet the results of plantations of these species show that
very excellent returns can be gotten even on the worst bits of idle
land in the farms of the State.

Courtesy of Conservation Commission.

Forest conditions on a cut-over and abandoned tract fifty years after
self-seeding has been accomplished. Note the variety of species many of
which are inferior both in kind and quality. Proper management would
remove the undesirable species and increase by two or three times the
growth of the right kind of trees.

Courtesy of W. C. Shepard.

A second growth sprout and seedling woodlot properly thinned. Poor
and worthless kinds of trees taken out and the better ones given a
chance to greatly increase their growth.

Reforestation of Cut Over and Idle Lands 13

THE IMPROVEMENT OF WOODLANDS AND FARM WOODLOTS.

It may be that there is already a sort of forest growth on these idle
lands. If there is, it will pay to handle it properly. Thus far in this
State, we have been using the accumulation of years of growth with-
out thought for future growth. Little or no provision is being made
for a second crop. Where a second growth is coming on, too little
thought is being given to it. No forest can be continued permanently
unless satisfactory reproduction is secured and proper conditions
maintained.

The grove or woodlot, as timber on the farm is usually called, may
be so open that the trees retain their limbs well down towards the
ground, making it impossible to produce anything but knotty timber.
It may be so open that leaf mold, so necessary to proper conditions of
growth will not decompose properly and grass and weeds and brush
will come in and occupy the ground. It is all too often in such
neglected condition that reproduction is impossible and then the only
thing that can be done is to cut off the present growth and start a new
forest from the beginning. It may be possible at times to thicken up
the woodlot by underplanting or to change the condition to such an
extent that self-seeding will be successful. This natural reproduction
will often take place easily if stock is kept out of the woodlot. No
reproduction can be expected if land is pastured. The wood lot may
be so dense that the trees crowd each other so severely that growth
is checked and the trees do not develop. Eventually a certain number
must die and the others continue to maturity. This struggle which
causes the death of many young trees may be lessened in intensity
to the great benefit of the woodlot by taking out enough trees so that
those which are left will put on a much larger amount of wood because
of additional space and light.

Many woodlots are made up of a great variety of species, a large
proportion of which are of little value and should be removed to give
room to the more valuable sorts. The composition and thus the value
of an entire woodlot may be greatly improved and increased by
simply taking out the so-called forest weeds, such as Ironwood, Red
Maple, Dogwood, Juneberry, Hawthorn and others.

Unfortunately nearly all of the conditions described above are found
in woodlots in every county in the State. Several may be found in
any one farm forest. Look through woodlot or timberland ! Is there
a tree there under 25 years of age? If not, is it not because you have
pastured it or have allowed surface fires to run through annually?

Photo by Hvgh P. Baker.

Very barren and waste hillsides in the Karst in Southern Austria being
brought back to productive forest conditions through the planting of trees.
Nowhere in New York are there more barren hills than these which are
being so successfully reforested. Climatic conditions are much more favor-
able in New York than in region shown in above picture.

Photo by Hugh P. Baker.

Planted White Pine in Germany on very sandy soil. This is not the
result of superior soil or climatic conditions or of an extended period
of time, but results from the proper handling of the forest from the
beginning.

Reforestation of Cut Over and Idle Lands 15

If no tree has succeeded in starting in the last 25 years, what will be
the condition of your woodland in the future? Many thousands of
acres of forest land are being culled annually with no thought of the
future stand. Every tree removed makes the stand thinner and allows
of the incoming of more grass and brush and of more windfalls. No
farm can afford to be without a woodlot upon it both because of the
pleasure and comfort of it and because the material you can take from
it annually, makes it well worth while from a financial standpoint.

The trees and the method of planting that would be suitable for one
farm or forest property may not be applicable at all to the adjoining
one. Conditions of soil, slope and general situation vary so much
that each area to be reforested is in a sense a problem by itself. It
will often save both time and money not to plant without knowing
thoroughly as to the nature of soil and trees best adapted to these
soils.

LANDS PLANTED TO FORESTS OR MAINTAINED AS FORESTS MAY BE EX-
EMPTED FROM TAXATION.

A State Law passed in 1912 provides for exemption from taxes
upon certain classes of lands which are planted with forest trees or
which are maintained as permanent woodlots or timber lands. For
copy of this Law and information as to the procedure to be followed
in listing forest lands for exemption from or reduction in taxes
address the Conservation Commission, Albany, New York. It is
strongly urged that .owners of idle or forested lands throughout the
State take advantage of the help offered by this Law which seeks to
overcome some of the unfairness of the older methods of taxing
forest lands and puts them more nearly on the same basis as true
agricultural lands.

The New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse University
is a State Institution established and supported for educational work
throughout the entire State. It is ready to co-operate with any land
owner who wishes to begin planting or who is desirous of improving
his woodlot or timberland by practical forestry methods. Applications
for advice and co-operation should be addressed to The New York
State College of Forestry at Syracuse University, Syracuse, New
York. These applications will be placed on file and as rapidly as
possible will be taken up in groups by counties and assigned to the
expert in charge of this work. The only expense connected with the
inspection will be the necessary traveling expenses and maintenance

16 College of Forestry

from the nearest previous inspection. By the system of grouping by
counties this amounts to very little and would probably never exceed
five dollars. If the amount of land to be examined is over 300 acres
and reasonable assurance is given that the plans of management will
be carried out the inspection will be made free of charge. Groups of
land owners in the same neighborhood may unite and by bringing
their combined areas to 300 or more acres have plans made at no
cost.

LESSON FOR THE FARM

L. H. BAILEY, Director
COURSE FOR THE FARM, ROYAL GILKEY, Supervisor

roL. n. No. 38

ITHACA, N. Y.
APRIL 15, 1913

PLANT-BREEDING
SERIES No. I

PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF PLANT-BREEDING*

C. H. MYERS

The possibility of breeding plants was not, wholly unknown to the
ancient peoples. One of the Latin poets showed familiarity with the idea
when he wrote the verses:

" Still will the seeds, though chosen with toilsome pains,
Degenerate, if man's industrious hand
Cull not each year the largest and the best."

FIG. 74. — Individual rows of wheat

It must not be supposed, on the other hand, that the breeding of plants
was well understood. Long after the breeding of animals had become an
established practice, the field of plant-breeding remained unexplored,

*Paper No. 34, Department of Plant-breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.

Published semi-monthly throughout the year by the New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell
University. Entered as second-class matter October 13, 1911, at the post office at Ithaca, N. Y., under
the Act of Congress of July 16, 1894.

130 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES

probably because the sexes are less clearly differentiated to the casual
observer. Until recent years, plant-breeding had not been dignified as a
subject for scientific study. Such investigation has shown that the same
principles of evolution and heredity apply to both plants and animals,
and that " good blood " tells in corn as well as in cows. At the present
time the breeding of plants is being presented in some fifteen institutions,
and definite instruction is received by one thousand to fifteen hundred
students.

Every organism is the product of two factors, environment and heredity.
Environment means home conditions or surroundings. In the case of
plants, this includes soil, climate, and care. Heredity means the trans-
mission of similar characters from one generation to another. It is only
by giving attention to both these factors that the maximum yield of
crops can be produced. The environment must be good, that is, the soil
must be kept in good condition by fertilization and cultivation. It is
not the purpose of this pamphlet, however, to discuss that part of the
question, but rather to emphasize the factor of heredity.

A great demand for conservation of resources has been sweeping over
the country during the past decade. At first the conservation movement
dealt mainly with the forests and the water power. Recently it has included
the conservation of the soil and mineral resources. The writer believes
that this movement should be further enlarged to include the conserva-
tion and propagation of high-yielding strains of plants.

Many may think that the breeding of plants is a complex task, as com-
pared with the breeding of animals. This is not true. The laws and
principles that apply to animal-breeding apply also to plant-breeding, and
one who understands the breeding of stock should be able to apply this
knowledge to the improvement of plants.

The plant-breeder has several advantages over the animal-breeder.
In the first place, he can handle -much larger numbers. He is able to
discard undesirable types of plants more easily than the stock-breeder
can discard " scrub " animals. In crossing, he can control the matings
more closely.

METHODS OF BREEDING

There are two general methods used in the breeding of plants: first,
hybridization, and second, straight selection. It is sometimes difficult
to separate these two processes, for selection is practiced to isolate and
preserve both forms already existing and those that may be produced by
hybridization. Sometimes the terms breeding and selection are con-
sidered to imply two different processes, but selection is merely one of the
methods of breeding.

PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF PLANT-BREEDING

Hybridization

Among the higher plants, as well as animals, every individual is the
product of the fusion of germ cells from two parents. In other words,
plants have sex and are possessed of female organs and male organs.
The latter consist of the filaments and anthers of flowers, while the former
consist of the style and stigma. The floral parts of timothy shown in
Fig. 75 will serve our purpose as an illustration. The anthers produce
pollen, which is the male element. Some of this pollen falls on the stigma,
and from there it is conducted through the style to the ovary or female
element, where fertilization takes place. Fertilization means the process
in which the male element unites with the
female element. As a result of this union a
new individual is formed, or, rather, a seed is
formed which will develop into a new indi-
vidual. This new individual contains the
characters of both parents to a certain extent.
The process of crossing one plant on another
plant of a different variety or strain is called
hybridization.

It has been found that these characters
behave in a definite way, according Jto Mendel's
law. * According to this law, characters behave
as units, or single items. The term " unit
characters " is often applied in this connection.
The character of every individual plant or
animal is represented in the germ cell by a
small unit. This must be true, since offspring
do possess the characteristics of the parents, although nothing except the
germ cell is handed on from the parent to the offspring. This law of
Mendel includes the laws of dominance, segregation, and recombination of
characters, terms which will now be defined.

Mendel's law may best be explained, perhaps, by referring to the experi-
ments that Mendel himself performed. He worked with a tall variety
and a dwarf variety of the common garden pea. When he crossed a tall
pea with a dwarf, all the plants resulting from this cross were tall.
When the seed from these tall plants was planted, it produced both tall
and dwarf plants in the ratio of three tall to one dwarf. When the seed
from these last tall and dwarf plants was planted, the third year of the
experiment, one third of the tall plants produced tall plants; the other

* This law was formulated by Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, in 1865, but remained unnoticed until
1900, when it was rediscovered by three men at almost the same time.

FIG. 75. — Drawing of a tim-
othy flower, showing the
floral, parts: a, anther; f,
filament; s, stigma; y, style

132 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES

two thirds produced tails and dwarfs in the original ratio of three of
the former to one of the latter. All the dwarf plants produced only
dwarfs.

In this particular experiment two unit characters were considered,
namely, tallness and dwarfness. The first- is the dominant character; the
second is the recessive. When these characters are possessed by two
different plants that are crossed, the first generation after the cross will
contain both of them. Owing to its dominance, only the character of
tallness seems to be present. The recessive character, dwarfness, is sub-
merged or hidden, but appears in the second generation after crossing,
in one fourth of the individuals. This appearance of the recessive along
with the dominant is what is meant by segregation. The reader must
not think that segregation occurs always in the exact ratio of three to
one. Perhaps it never comes out numerically exact. But if a large number
of individuals are grown, on the average the ratio will approximate three
of the dominants to one of the recessives.

For the sake of simplicity, the writer has used only the two characters
of peas to explain dominance, recessiveness, and segregation. It has been
worked out with innumerable plant characters since Mendel's time, as
well as with many animal characters. In the following list, which contains
only a few of the many examples that might be drawn upon, the dominance
for each pair of characters has been definitely determined. In each case
the dominant character is given first.

1. Tallness and dwarfness. Peas

2. Rounded and wrinkled seed. Peas

3. Yellow and green seed. Peas

4. Smooth and bearded heads. Wheat

5. Long and short staple. Cotton

6. Susceptibility and resistance to rust. Wheat

7. Starchy kernels and sugary kernels. Corn

8. Yellow kernels and white kernels. Corn

The reader's attention is directed especially to number 6 in the list.
Here it is evident that susceptibility and resistance to disease behave as
unit characters. This fact was discovered by Professor Biffen of England,
who has done considerable work with wheat.

The practical man may wonder of what service Mendel's law may be,
if various characters of plants and animals brought together in a hybrid
merely separate according to a definite ratio in the second and following
generations. A few words of explanation may be helpful. In addition
to ordinary segregation, there may occur a recombination of characters.

PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF PLANT-BREEDING 133

This can best be explained by an example. A tall, green-seeded pea is
crossed with a dwarf, yellow-seeded variety. In the second generation
after the cross, not only does the expected segregation of tall greens and
dwarf yellows take place, but also novelties appear in the form of dwarf
greens and tall yellows. There has accordingly been a recombination of
the unit characters: tallness becomes linked with the yellow color; dwarf-
ness with the green color. From such recombinations the practical bene-
fits are derived.

A large amount of work has been done on the problem of Men-
delism. The brief explanation presented aims to give some notion of
the intricate combinations that may arise from crosses. Ordinarily,
hybridization requires too much time and attention to be practiced
by the farmer. The production of new varieties by this process will
have to be left largely to scientific men. The practical man can accom-
plish most by the use of the second method of breeding, namely,
straight selection.

Straight selection

Variability the basis of selection. — No two persons are exactly alike.
Although in general structure there is more or less similarity, indi-
vidual characteristics and personalities differ. We learn to recognize
persons by their differences, not by their likenesses. Such variability
is common to all plants and animals, and is the basis of selection.
Without variation nothing could be accomplished. In order to study
variation, individuals must, be observed. The differences are not appar-
ent by a casual observation of a general population.

There are two kinds of variations, to which have been given the names
" fluctuations " and " mutations."

Fluctuations. — Variations of this kind are sometimes called quantitative
or continuous variations. They are called quantitative because they con-
form to certain mathematical principles. If an ear of corn that measures
exactly 10 inches in length is planted, the offspring are not all of that
length, but will range, perhaps, from 7 to 13 inches. If the kernels from
a head of wheat that measures 9 centimeters in length are planted, the
offspring do not all have heads 9 centimeters long, but may range in
length from 6 to 12 centimeters.

The following tables (Figs. 76 and 77), called distribution tables, repre-
sent some of the practical results derived from such study. They furnish
an excellent means for explaining fluctuations, as well as other matters
that will be referred to later in this lesson.

134

THE CORNELL READING-COURSES

In Fig. 76 * is shown the distribution in length of 327 ears of corn,
whose seed came from lo-inch ears. It will be seen that these ears ranged
in length from 3 inches to 12 inches, the greatest number being 9 inches

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long. The gradual decrease in frequency on either side of the p-inch
class should be noted.

In Fig. 77 is shown the distribution in length of 317 heads of wheat.
These 317 heads were not descended from heads of a certain length, but
represent a population of wheat and show the fluctuating variability.

* Davenport, Eugene. Principles of Breeding, p. 421.

PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF PLANT-BREEDING

CLASSES

X X

u>

FREQUENCY

136 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES

A glance at Fig. 77 shows that these heads ranged in length from 6 centi-
meters to 11.5 centimeters, the greatest number occurring in the group,
or class, between 8.5 centimeters and 9 centimeters in length. Here
again will be noted a gradual decrease in frequency on either side of this
group.

Fluctuations are not inherited, that is, they are not handed down from
parent to offspring. It has been shown that ears which came from parents
measuring 10 inches were not all 10 inches long. In fact, there were
more ears 9 inches in length than any other. The type of those ears,
in regard to length, was 9 inches. If fluctuations are not inherited,
they cannot be of especial value to the breeder. Even though we select
an individual that is in advance of or below the type, it will not produce
progeny all of which are like itself. It is not known what effect a long-
continued selection of this kind will have, but as yet there is no evidence
to prove that it will change the type.

Mutations. — The other kind of variation, called mutation, is of the
most importance to breeders. Mutations are sometimes called sports or
discontinuous variations. They are striking, and are different from the
plants among which they have their origin. Mutations are of practical
use because they are inherited. This does not mean that all the off-
spring of a mutation are exactly like the parent. • The offspring, if arranged
in a distribution table, will show fluctuating variability just as the parent
family did; but the type will be different. A mutation always establishes
a new type. For example, in Fig. 76 the type of the ear as to length was
9 inches. If a mutation should occur in that particular strain of corn,
the type would be changed to, possibly, a ic-inch ear, although there
would be a distribution on either side of the type just as there was in
the ears arranged in Fig. 76. No one knows what causes mutations to
appear. If they could be produced at will, the process of breeding would
be greatly advanced.

The Cupid sweet pea is one of the most striking examples of muta-
tion. It appeared in a pure variety of Emily Henderson, which is a tall-
growing variety. The dwarf plant suddenly appeared one year and has
continued true to its type. Most of our double flowers owe their origin
to mutation. A large number of 'varieties of tomatoes also originated
in this manner.

The same form of mutation may occur again and again in a group of
plants. The thornless cactus is an example of this. Smooth branches
often occur on thorned trees. This form of mutation is known as bud
mutation. The haw tree is rich in such mutations.

Without doubt many of our famous breeds or races of animals owe
their origin to some ancestral mutation. There are those who think the

PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF PLANT-BREEDING 137

Morgan horse was a result of mutation, and it is definitely known that a
large part of racing stock may be traced back to one exceptional, original
parent. It is not unreasonable to suppose that some of our great families,
in the human race, may have originated in this way. ' Farmers should be
always on the lookout for these striking forms of variation. Mutations
are constantly occurring among plants, but they cannot be made of use
unless some one observes and saves them.

Methods of selection

There are two methods of selection that have been used. The first
of these is mass selection and the second is individual selection. Both
these methods are in use, although the first method is not nearly so good
as the second.

Mass selection. — Mass selection is probably the method used most by
farmers. It consists, usually, of a selection of good-looking individuals,
without special regard to the performance record of the parent plants.
Individual performance records cannot be obtained because the seed from
these individuals is mixed together " in a mass " and then sown. Some-
times it is sown in a part of the field set aside for seed purposes and is
given special care and attention. The plants from this seed represent
many different families. The plant-breeder calls them strains, or types.
Some of these strains, or types, are good yielders, others are medium, and
still others are poor. In fact, there are all gradations of excellence. By
practicing mass selection persistently, the poorer types may gradually
become eliminated and the better types left. This process would take
years, however, and in many instances would be doubtful of accomplish-
ment even then. Isolation and conservation may be accomplished much
more readily by individual selection.

Individual selection. — It has been said that there is always variation
among plants, that no two plants are exactly alike although they may
belong to the same species. There are families of plants just as there
are families of people; not the families of which the botanist speaks, but
the types and strains of the plant-breeder. Every plant possesses its
own individuality or characteristics. These characteristics are of the type,
or strain, to which the plant belongs. It is by a study of individual plants
that these different type traits can best be noted and conserved. This
is what is meant by individual selection. Thus we have "ear to row,"
. " head to row," and "tuber unit " methods of conducting breeding plots.

The " ear to row " method in corn furnishes a means for testing the
individual capacities of ears of corn. The same number of kernels from
each of one hundred ears are planted in one hundred separate rows. The
rows are all of the same length and are treated as nearly alike as possible.

138

THE CORNELL READING-COURSES

Any differences that may occur must be due to the individuality of the
different ears. Such a test is most interesting, and the individual varia-
tions are striking. Some rows will be tall, others short; some will bloom
early, others late; some will have broad leaves, others narrow; and all
the plants of each row will be typical of that row. The most interesting
and practical variation, however, will be the yield that is produced by
the different rows (Fig. 78). Some will yield a great deal more than
others, and yet they all had equal chances and the original parent ears,
as far as could be determined by observation, were equally good. The
following list of yields was selected at random from such a breeding plot.

FIG. 78. — Inspecting a neighbor's corn-breeding plot

There is a difference of twenty bushels between the lowest and the
highest yield.

70 bushels per acre

73 bushels per acre

80 bushels per acre

76 bushels per acre

69 bushels per acre

89 bushels per acre

87 bushels per acre

73 bushels per acre

78 bushels per acre

Naturally, the seed should be saved each year from those rows that give
the highest yields, because they represent the high-yielding types or
strains. When such a corn-breeding plot has been conducted for a period

PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF PLANT-BREEDING 139

of four or five years, interesting results are to be observed. Descendants
of only three or four of the original ears will be represented in the breed-
ing plot at the end of that time. The others will drop out. It would
seem that our best strains of corn descend from especially striking ancestors,
just as breeds of stock or single herds contain almost exclusively the blood
of some exceptional progenitor. It would take many years to accomplish
such a result by mass selection. Mr. Reid spent practically his whole
lifetime in producing the Dent corn which bears his name. He might
have accomplished his purpose in much less time had he practiced individual
selection.

The method of individual selection can be applied to any crop; the
principle is always the same. Some unit, such as head, plant, or tuber,

FIG. 79. — Harvesting individual rows of oats

is taken as the basis, planted in such a manner that the comparison of
the individuals may be easy, and the seed kept separate (Fig. 79). It
is true that difficulty arises with some plants, such as corn, because of
cross-pollination. This difficulty is not serious from a practical stand-
point and is not to be considered in many of our crops, such as oats, wheat,
rye, barley, peas, beans, potatoes, and other plants that are either self-
fertilized or are propagated by cuttings. A leading authority on plant-
breeding has said that, as far as our cereals are concerned, there are enough
different types, already existing, to supply almost any demand that may
be made. It is unnecessary to resort to hybridization. It is only necessary
to examine a large enough number of individuals to find the desired one.

140 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES

The question of numbers is very important. One should not start
with too few, but should grow as many plants as possible. In the case
of corn, wheat, or oats, for example, it would be unwise to begin with
less than 50 heads or ears. If the crop is potatoes, surely not less than 200
tubers should be in the first choice. If a large number of individuals is
chosen for the beginning, the chance of finding more desirable types is
correspondingly greater.

A complicated system of records, with the pedigree of every plant grown,
is unnecessary. The scientific man should keep such records for the pur-
pose of studying principles which may be put to practical use. After the
farmer has obtained a type, or strain, of plants superior in comparison
with others, he needs only to increase the seed of that strain, protecting
it if necessary from mixtures, until he has enough for his whole farm
and perhaps a surplus to sell. There is an ever-increasing demand for
well-bred seed of all crops.

It is remarkable, too, how rapidly seed can be increased from a small
beginning. A single head of wheat may yield 150 to 200 bushels within
three years time. The farmer should take advantage of this generous quality
of nature. Seed selected from important crops will yield an abundant
increase in a surprisingly short time, and the yield of crops on the farm
will be materially increased by the use of highly bred seed.

BIOMETRY

The writer has said that it is not necessary for the practical man to
keep a complicated system of records. It is desirable, however, that he
have some means of sizing up the situation in order to determine varia-
tion and type and to see what progress he is making. For this purpose
the breeder, both of plants and animals, has had to call on the mathema-
tician for help. As a result of this, a subject called biometry has been
developed. The term means measure of life. To go into this subject
deeply would require special training. But there are some practical
uses to which it can be applied with but little study, no more, indeed,
than is needed to run a new type of farm implement.

To determine amount of variation

It might be supposed, for example, that a fanner is selecting corn rather
carefully, paying especial attention to length of ears. He should proceed
by measuring a random sample of 300 to 500 ears of each crop, arrang-
ing the results in a distribution table as shown in Fig. 76. If one person
measures the ears and another makes the marks in the proper square,
the task is comparatively short.

PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF PLANT-BREEDING 141

The first column of figures to the left, in Fig. 76, represents the different
lengths of ears. These different lengths are called classes, and in this
instance they differ by one half inch each. The last column to the right
contains the frequencies. These are the total number of individuals which
are grouped in each class.

In the above table there is a fairly wide range of variation. The extremes
range from 3 inches to 12 inches. This indicates a fair amount of vari-
ability. In other words, this particular " population " of corn was not
especially uniform. There are mathematical ways of calculating exactly
this amount of variation, but for practical purposes these are not necessary.

To determine type

What does a breeder mean when he speaks of type? His idea of type
is usually the standard which he has in mind. It is his ideal toward which
he is selecting. The ideal type should not be confused with the actual
type. The distribution table furnishes him a way to know exactly what
the actual type is as well as to know how nearly he is approaching his
ideal type, which we have called his standard. An inspection of Fig.
76, shows that the greatest number of ears were 9 inches long. In other
words, the actual " type " or " mode " is 9 inches. This is considered
the bes*t measure of type. It is important to know what percentage of
the population conforms to the type. To find this, divide the number
of individuals at the mode by the total number of individuals. In this
particular instance it is 67 -5- 327 = 20. 5. This is called the modal coef-
ficient. For this population of corn, 20.5 per cent of the individuals con-
formed to the type.

To measure progress

There is another coefficient which is of use to the practical man, called
the standard coefficient. In this case the breeder might be selecting for
a lo-inch ear. To determine what proportion of the individuals conform
to his standard, divide the number of individuals in the lo-inch class
by the total number. The standard coefficient, then, in this case, is
38 -7-327== ii. 6. In this instance, n.6 per cent of the individuals con-
formed to the standard of the breeder. If this coefficient increases from
year to year he knows that he is progressing. If it remains the same his
selection is of no avail.

The method of measuring variation, type, and progress that has here
been explained can be applied to numerous characters of any crop. To
those who care to make such investigation, it will prove interesting and
valuable.

142 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES

THE CORNELL READING-COURSE FOR THE FARM

In order to assist those who desire to learn but are unable to leave their
work, a Reading-Course for the Farm is offered free to residents of this
State. This course is conducted by means of printed lessons dealing with
practical agricultural problems. Certain lessons discuss fundamental
principles which should be understood by those who wish to farm most
successfully ; others contain concrete suggestions or give detailed directions
for the best practices. New lessons are published each month, thus
making it possible for the Reading-Course to present the latest ideas
on agriculture.

Reading-Course Lessons for the Farm are grouped in series, each series
taking up a farming enterprise. On the last page of this lesson is given
a list of the present series together with available lessons in each. Lessons
in any series are sent one at a time so that the reader may give them
careful attention and receive consecutive information. When the reader
returns the discussion paper accompanying each lesson another lesson in
the series is sent. This plan is continued until the reader has received
all the available lessons in the series. He is then supplied with references
for advanced reading if desired and is registered for future publications
on the subjects of interest. The Reading-Course aims to encourage the
reading of reliable agricultural literature.

CORNELL STUDY CLUBS

Often several persons in a community desire to undertake reading that
will help them conduct their farming operations to better advantage.
Readers who have found the lessons of the Reading-Course to be of
assistance to them may invite others to join the course. The demand
for Reading-Course lessons has increased rapidly during the past year.
In a number of communities, study clubs have been formed. If Read-
ing-Course lessons can be studied by a group there is added interest and
a better opportunity for self-expression, resulting often in mutual help-
fulness among members of the group. Such study clubs may include
men, women, and young persons, and may have social features as part
of the programs for the meetings. The two Cornell Reading-Courses —
the course for the farm and the course for the farm home — provide
lessons of particular interest to both men and women. Study clubs
may confine themselves to lessons in either course; or, if one club is
composed of both men and women, the lessons in the two courses may
be alternated, or two separate groups may be formed holding part of
che program in common.

PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF PLANT-BREEDING 143

The organization of a club for the purpose of studying lessons for the
farm can easily be effected even if at first only a few persons desire to
form a group. A meeting of those interested in Reading-Course lessons
should be called at some convenient time and place, a president and
secretary should be chosen, and the dates for meetings decided on. The
president should be responsible for the success of the meetings and
should act as presiding officer. The duties of the secretary will be to
correspond regularly with the Supervisor of the Reading-Course for the
Farm and to obtain lessons for distribution at meetings of the club.
The lessons should be distributed one week in advance and the members
urged to come to the meetings prepared to discuss the lessons. Speakers
should be chosen who will present the subjects taken up in the lessons.
Arrangements should be made far enough in advance of meetings to
enable the speakers to obtain information on their subjects from as
many sources as possible. On request special references for reading will
be given by the Supervisor of the Reading-Course for the Farm. The
meetings of a club should be held frequently enough to maintain an
active interest in them; regularly every two weeks during the fall and
winter is usually considered sufficiently often. If it is not advisable to
meet every fortnight in spring and summer, monthly meetings are sug-
gested. The meetings should proceed under a definite order of business.

The interest shown in a study of Reading-Course lessons for the farm
will depend largely on whether the lessons are related to local agricultural
conditions and whether they deal with operations in progress at the time
of year in which they are being discussed. It would be well for each
club to choose its own lessons for study. Before the first meeting a list
of available lessons should be obtained. If appropriate lessons are not
available, the Supervisor of the Reading-Course for the Farm will help
the secretary of the study club to obtain suitable bulletins as far as
possible.

Whenever desired, study clubs may be conducted in connection with
the educational work of granges, churches, schools, and local agricultural
societies. The following three ways are suggested in which Reading-
Course lessons may prove valuable to a study club or to any other
organization :

1 . For study by the entire membership previous to a general discussion
at a regular meeting.

2. To aid speakers in preparing for a program at a regular meeting.

3. For reference. A set of available lessons may be obtained for use
by a study club or for the library of any church, school, grange, or recog-
nized agricultural organization.

144 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES

AVAILABLE READING-COURSE LESSONS FOR THE FARM, ARRANGED BY SERIES

Residents of New York State may register for one or more of the series
mentioned below by addressing The Cornell Reading-Course for the
Farm, College of Agriculture, Ithaca, New York.

The following list is correct to April 15, 1913. The demand may at
any time exhaust the supply of particular numbers. Requests will be
filled as long as the supply lasts.

SERIES LESSONS

The soil 2 The soil : Its use and abuse

42 The tilth and tillage of the soil (in press)

Poultry 4 Incubation. — Part I

6 Incubation. — Part II
10 Feeding young chickens

Rural engineering 8 Knots, hitches, and splices

Farm forestry 12 The improvement of the woodlot

28 Recent New York State laws giving
relief from taxation on lands used for
forestry purposes

40 County, town, and village forests (in
press)

The horse 14 Horse-breeding to increase the farm

income

Dairying 16 Practical dairy problems

32 Composition of milk and some of its
products

Fruit-growing 18 The renewal of the neglected orchard

22 The culture of the currant and the goose-
berry

36 Culture of red and black raspberries and
of purple-cane varieties

Farm crops 20 Alfalfa for New York

24 The rotation of farm crops

Stock-feeding 26 Computing rations for farm animals

Vegetable-gardening 30 Hotbed construction and management

Plant-breeding 41 Improving plants by selection or breeding

38 Principles and methods of plant-breeding

AN AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

463

"

r
"I

an advantage that the wheat crop can compete with the western farms.
The straw is of little or no value on the wheat farms in the Central
West.

When both the wheat and the grass seeding are considered, it is
likely that one of the following fertilizer applications per acre will pay,
or a larger application may be made. The following are approximately
equivalent :

I. 200 pounds of a 2:10:5 fertilizer
i2O pounds of bone meal
20 pounds of muriate of potash

pounds of nitrate of soda
3.J 135 pounds of acid phosphate
[20 pounds of muriate of potash.

Miscellaneous crops. Many other crops are grown in the county.
Apples, barley, rye, pears, cabbages, lumber, telephone poles, posts,
wood, grapes, berries,
truck, plums, peaches,
maple syrup, beans,
nursery stock, millet,
sorghum, tobacco, are
some of a long list
that are grown. Few
of these are produced
in large quantities by
many farmers, but
many of them are of
great importance o n
certain, farms. Apples
and pears pay well
when cared for. It
would seem that these
should be grown much
more extensively.

FIG. 176. — A good young apple orchard. Apples are
a profitable crop in Tompkins county. They are
a good cash crop for dairy farms.

THE FARM WOODLOT 1

Area in Woods. About 13 per cent of the farm land of the county
is in woodlots. A considerably larger part of the county is in woods,
as there are some tracts of woodland that are not in farms, the owners
of which were not seen (Table 67).

1 The discussion of woodlots is a summary of a thesis prepared by F. E. Rob-
ertson.

464

BULLETIN 295

Development of the woodlot. A little over a hundred years ago
Tompkins county was covered with a dense stand of excellent virgin
timber. This consisted of white pine, oaks, hemlock, maples, beech,
elm, basswood and many other species. In the early days there was

FIG. 177. — The rough land and hill tops should be left in woods.

little market for lumber and in the haste to get the land cleared for
farm purposes much of the finest timber was burned. It is estimated
by men whose fathers settled the county that fully 60 per cent of the
virgin forest was cut and burned in order to clear the land. Unfortu-

TABLE 67. AREA IN FARM WOODLOTS.

Average

TOWNSHIP.

Number
of farms.

Average
size of
farms.
(Acres.)

Average
area of
woodlots.
(Acres.)

Number
of farms
having
woodlots.

area of
woodlot
per farm
having
woodlots.

Total
area of
woodlots.
(Acres.)

(Acres.)

Ithaca

135

103

ii

10^

15

1,551

Dryden

365

1 06

14

290

17

4,933

Danby

2IO

105

20

174

24

4, 122

Lansing

27-;

IOI

ii

2OO

i=;

2,98-?

Groton

298

88

10

223

14

3.°99

Caroline

173

148

26

163

27

4.423

Ulysses

178

95

8

112

ii

i ,361

Enfield

1 94

104

ii

156

14

2,114

Newfield

114

112

14

9S

16

i ,544

Average area of woodlots, 1,940 farms, 13.5 acres.

Average area of woodlots, 1,516 farms having woods, 17.2 acres.

AN AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

465

nately, neither the early or later clearing had much reference to the
character of the soil. Woodlots are still common on some of the level
rich land ; and poor barren hillsides that are too steep for tilled crops
or even for good pastures were cleared. There seemed to be no plan
or system in clearing land. Whether a field was cleared or not seems
to have been a matter of chance rather than a result of judgment.

Prices of lumber. The " log-run " prices of timber for a number of
years show how rapidly the price that the lumberman gets for timber

FIG. 178. — A stony hillside. This laud has never been plowed and should never
have been cleared. It will grow trees better than anything else.

has increased. Not only have the prices increased but many kinds of
lumber that once had no value now sell at fair prices. The figures in
Table 68 give the average prices obtained by examination of the books
of some of the oldest lumbermen. They are for the lumber just as it
comes from the saw-mill, or " log-run " prices.

Present condition of the woodlots. The present conditions of the
farm woodlots in Tompkins county are representative of the conditions
of the woodlots in many other counties in New York State. They
might well be described as irregular, detached pieces of woodland, con-

466

BULLETIN 295

TABLE 68. AVERAGE " LOG RUN" PRICES OF TIMBER. TAKEN FROM LUMBERMEN'S'

BOOKS.

1843.

1850.

1860.

1870.

1880.

1890.

1900.

1908.

White pine

$6 oo

«8 oo

$12 OO

$16 66

$21 33

$24 oo

528 00

$35 oo

Hemlock

White oak

4 oo
6 oo

4 66
7 5O

6 33

14 oo

7 oo
IS 33

9 33
16 oo

12 33
18 66

18 66
26 66

Red oak

10 00

12 OO

13 33

14 50

IS 33

18 33

22 50

Hickory

18 oo

20 oo

20 oo

22 SO

22 OO

26 oo

27 33

White ash

12 OO

12 SO

16 oo

19 oo

19 oo

20 33

26 oo

Cherry

7 oo

12 SO

18 50

19 So

24 oo

26 50

35 oo

Basswood

6 oo

8 oo

9 oo

II OO

12 66

15 66

20 66

6 50

8 oo

10 50

12 OO

14 33

19 oo

Chestnut

7 oo

8 oo

10 66

14 66

17 66

21 33

Elm

9 oo

12 OO

14 oo

15 oo

19 SO

20 50

Birch

8 oo

IO OO

14 oo

14 50

17 50

21 50

Beech

5 oo

7 oo

II OO

IS OO

Chestnut railroad tLs
Oak railroad ties

50

50

28-42C.

42-S8

28-45C.
45-60

30-50C.
50-75

I SO

2 OO

Hard cord-wood . . .

3 oo

3 25

4 oo

4 5o

4 oo

sisting of all sizes and ages of mixed deciduous and coniferous species,
of first, second, and stump growths. They occupy no definite position as
regards soil or altitude. Steep hillsides and ravines are denuded of their
forest covers, in certain sections, and in other sections more or less
thrifty woodlots occupy good agricultural land. They have no definite
relation to the general lay-out of the farms. They are composed of
dead, diseased, young, mature and weed trees all thrown in together.

FIG. 179. — Weed trees left and woodlot cut with entire disregard for

future crops.

AN AGRICULTURAL SURVEY 467

The valuable are left to struggle for supremacy with the useless but
hardy species, and in addition are frequently required to withstand the
ravages of stock. The fact that useful woodlots persist in spite of
these conditions is evidence of the excellent adaptation of this region to
the growth of trees.

It is a deplorable yet self-evident fact that only a few of the farmers
in Tompkins county have done anything toward improving their wood-
lots. When a piece of land is cut over, little attention is given to saving
the young growth. Probably one-third of the woodlots of the county
are being pastured. Such land is rarely worth much as a pasture, and
the stock greatly injure the woods.

The woodlots are worth saving. Farmers are usually not aware
of the value of their woodlots. Estimation of the value of standing
timber is not easy for an experienced lumberman. Many farmers seem
to have no idea of the value of timber. The following are a few examples
taken from lumbermen's books :

EXAMPLE I.

A farm of 122 acres, 80 acres of which was woodland consisting of
mixed hard and soft wood timber: oak, basswood, hemlock, maple,
cherry, beech, ash, birch, elm.

Price paid for farm $ 1,75°

Proceeds from lumber sales :

500,000 ft. mixed lumber at $20.00 per M 10,000

500 cds. slab wood at 5oc 250

Resold farm with top wood 7°°

Total sales $io,95°

Cost of cutting and marketing 4>25°

Net sales $6,700

Cost of farm .

Profit . $4,95°

EXAMPLE II.

A farm of 50 acres, 35 of which was of mixed hardwood.

Price paid for farm $ 5°°

Proceeds from lumber sales:

110,000 ft. mixed lumber at $20.00 per M 2,200

2,600 R. R. ties at 45c 1,170

1,700 R. R. ties at 6gc IJ73

468 BULLETIN 295

2,200 fence posts at 6c $132

150 cds. slab wood at 500 75

Resold lot with top wood and chestnut 344

Total sales $5,094

Cost of cutting and marketing

Net sales 3,5*

Cost of farm 500

Profit $3,094

EXAMPLE III.

A lot consisting of 16 acres of mixed hardwood.
Cost of lot $ 500

Proceeds from lumber sales:

98,000 ft. mixed hardwood $1,960

300 R. R. ties at 58c 174

120 cds. slab wood at 5oc 60

Total sales $2,194

Cost of cutting and marketing 900

Net sales $1,294

Cost of lot 500

Profit $794

Cost of putting lumber on the market. The cost of putting lumber
on the market is quite variable, depending on the kind of lumber and
the distance that it must be hauled. The price is constantly rising as
wages advance. An average of $10 per thousand board feet is perhaps
a fair estimate for a farmer to make.

Most of the timber cut in Tompkins county is sawed by portable
sawmills. The lumber then has to be hauled to market. The distance
to market varies greatly, but ordinarily it is two to six miles. The esti-
mated cost of cutting the timber, sawing and delivering to market is as
follows :

AN AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

409

Cutting (logs) per thousand feet

Skidding to mill per thousand feet ,

Sawing per thousand feet

Sticking (piling lumber) per thousand feet
Delivering to market per thousand feet . . .
Estimated overrun per thousand feet

* 7.

2 OO

3 oo

40

2 OO

Total expense per M. board feet $8 50

FIG. 180. — A portable sawmill, getting out lumber for new buildings.

The woodlot now a profitable farm crop. As an example, a farm
on the hill lands of southern Tompkins county consists of 100 acres, 30
acres of which is in timber. This woodlot was cut in 1907 for the
third time in 90 years. Each time it has been cut with entire disregard
for the future. The third cutting on the 30 acres sold for $2,100, stand-
ing. In spite of the present high price of lumber, no attention was given
to the future in this cutting. Young trees that were scarcely worth cut-
ting, but that would be valuable in 10 to 20 years, were cut. Those that
were too small to cut were broken down. This is the almost universal
practice, in spite of the profits that come from such a woodlot.

470

BULLETIN 295

After " skinning " the woodlot, the entire farm of 100 acres, with
buildings, was sold for $1,400. This farm would not rent for $i per

FIG. 181. — A valuable crop of "white pine.

FIG. 182. — White pines coming into a pasture.

acre, as indicated by the selling price. But, in spite of the owners, it
has grown $70 worth of wood per acre since the last cutting 30 years

AN AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

47 1

ago. If the $i per acre rent were placed at compound interest at 5 per
cent, it would not amount to $70 at the end of 30 years. In other
words, the wood land pays better than the farm land. If the wood land
were given a very little attention in cutting, so as to maintain a stand
of the best kinds of trees, the returns could probably be doubled.

As another example, in the township of Danby, a lot consisting of
35 acres composed of mixed hardwood was cut and the net proceeds
from the timber sales amounted to $4,938. Men who knew the history
of this woodlot asserted that 75 per cent of the wood had grown in the

FIG. 183. — A pastured woodlot. Too many trees for a pasture and too few for
woods. Either the trees or the stock should be removed.

past 22 years. That is, the lot was cut over 22 years ago and the
greater part removed. According to these estimates, $3,704 of timber
;grew on the 35 acres in 22 years. This is $106 per acre or $4.82 per
acre per year. This land would not sell for over $15 per acre.

These examples are fairly typical of southern New York wood-
lots. Neither of them received any care. If the diseased trees and
weed trees had been cut and the woodlot looked after as a farm crop,
the income would have been much greater.

These profits are based on what is made when lumber is sold, but
the chief use of a woodlot is to supply posts and lumber for farm pur-
poses. If lumber and posts have to be purchased, they usually cost much
4

472

BULLETIN 295

more than is received for those that are sold. So that the profits will
be much greater than those given above.

Suggestions on the care of woodlots. The first thing to consider
in the management of a woodlot is to decide where one is wanted.
There are some areas of land now in woodlots that are so rich and
valuable that it may be best to cut the wood and use the land for pas-
ture and later clear it. On other farms there is cleared land that is
of little value and that had best be set to trees. On still other farms the

FIG. 184. — An unpastured woodlot just over the fence from fig. 183.
excellent stand of white pine.

woodlot is already in the right place. If it has been decided that a
woodlot is desired in a certain place, this area should be devoted
woods. It should not be pastured. If it is needed for pasture it wi:
pay better to devote half of it to pasture and half to woods. The pas-
ture part will then be gradually cleared, leaving only enough trees for
shade. Half the area devoted entirely to woods will probably grow as
much wood as the entire area will if pastured. It is poor economy t<-
try to grow trees and grass on the same land.

After the area to be devoted to woods has been determined, the
woods should be looked on as a regular farm crop. The dead trees,
the ill-shaped trees, and the undesirable kinds should be cut. The open
spaces should be planted with good kinds of trees. Nearly all of this
work can be done in winter or at other times when little or no work
would otherwise be done. The planting can be done very rapidly and
at small cost.

399058

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