Q
FORESTRY PAMPHLETS VIRGINIA VOL. I.
Forestry on The Peninsula of Eastern Vir- ginia. By John Gifford. Reprinted from The Forester, April, 1898.
Forestry Laws of Virginia. Compiled "by the Forest Service. Forestry Leaflet iJo. 1.
Forest Fire Laws of Virginia. 1915. Forest- ry Leaflet Ho. 2.
A Plan of Forest Fire Protection for Virgin- ia. 1915. Forestry Leaflet UQ. 3.
Shortleaf Pine in Virginia. By W. W. Ashe. 1913. Dept. of Agriculture and Immi- gration of Virginia.
Wood-Using Industries of Virginia. By Roger E. Simmons. 1912. Dept. of Agri- culture and Immigration. Commonwealth of Virginia.
Mam Lib. Forestry
v sp
V, I
FORESTRY
ON
THE PENINSULA OF EASTERN VIRGINIA
By JOHN GIFFORD
Reprinted from THE FORESTER April, 1898 \ '
338538
FORESTRY ON THE PENINSULA OF EASTERN VIRGINIA.
EING especially interested in the treatment of sandy lands, and the protection and culture of forests of the Smooth-bark or Shortleaf Pine, I was led to visit the two counties of Virginia, Northampton and Ac- comae, the southernmost portion of the peninsula formed by the confluence of Chesapeake Bay and the Ocean. Ac- cording to Dr. Mohr, the Smooth-bark or Shortleaf Pine (Pinus echinatd] is for many reasons the forest tree of the future for a large portion of the Southern Atlantic States.
The large Coastal Plain, beginning with Southern New Jersey, would soon be capable of producing almost limitless quantities of this valuable timber were it properly protected from reckless devas- tation. With Cypress and White Cedar in the swamps ( the latter equaling, if not excelling the White Pine in quality of its wood ) and Shortleaf Pine on the uplands, this region is capable of yielding a perpetual supply of timber suited to almost all kinds of construc- tion. The Shortleaf Pine is well fitted for coarse stuff — for houses and ships, and boards for floors and ceilings, and is excellent for pilings and timbers for wharves, and poles for telegraph and tele- phone lines, while the Cypress * and cedar serve for shingles and finishing boards, and other purposes for which the pine is not suit- able.
I was told that in the two counties mentioned above the for- ests were being properly cared for and even propagated without the aid of foresters or forest laws. My surprise was of course great when I found the region even more than was anticipated, and that at least in one part of the Eastern States the forests are free from fire, and the sentiment of its people wholesome in reference to their natural resources. This little spot in Virginia demonstrates that if the people are of the right mind the protection of pine forests is not only possible, but simple, easy and inexpensive.
The region reminded me of the Medoc, and the fields of young pines resemble the blocks of the Maritime Pine along the shores of Gascony. Almost every farm has its pine forest. These, of course, are of all sizes and ages, varying from fields as thick
* The region of the Pokomoke River, as far as the writer has been able to observe, is the northernmost limiUof the<natural growth of the Cypress.
1 * '• • >* **'« *>*' » C >»» «**•**•.*
and dense as wheat to forests fit for large size timber. There were few signs of forest fires, which the natives say are always promptly extinguished.
The truth is, in fact, the inhabitants have a forestry system of their own, which Americans can study to great advantage.
The soil of this region is light and sandy, being dunelike in nature along the shore. The pines grow close to the shore, al- though a few have been killed by the shifting sand. The natives recognize the value of the forest in holding the soil in place and in protecting their truck patches from the force of wind, which would naturally at times sweep furiously over this narrow peninsula.
On entering one of these forests one observes at once that although there are small trees of Sweet Gale and Holly, the ground is free from litter and brush. If one happens to visit the region at the proper season he will see men and women raking up the forest litter. The pine ".chats," i( needles" or "brows" are valuable for a fertilizer and are spread on the neighboring fields. They are also used for bedding stock — Accomac being famous for its blooded horses. In fact, it is a land of plenty, with all the bay and sea afford, besides wild game in abundance. The pine chats produce a fine grade of sweet potatoes. The writer is unable to say whether there is a peculiar manurial value in the pine leaves, or whether they merely add to the porosity of the soil, acting, no doubt, at the same time as a mulch, although they disintegrate and disappear in the course of a single season.* About this season of the year one can see field after field covered with pine chats to be ploughed under just as soon as the weather permits. In fact, the fields are laid out in squares by means of the plough, in order that the pine chats can be easily measured, and thus evenly distributed. Just as soon as a field becomes fallow the farmer leaves it to Nature. The neighboring seed pines furnish the mast, the winds sow it, and soon a fresh young green growth appears, as dense and level as a field of grain. Here and there throughout the forest there are avenues which, although constructed to facilitate the collection of pine chats, serve at the same time the purpose of fire lanes.
Now the great question is: Why don't they have fires? Stranger still, their jails are often empty, a very suggestive and im- portant concurrence of circumstances. Because of the value of the pine chats the forest floor is free from inflammable
* The German literature on fhis subject is quite exhaustive. . The manurial value of pine straw lies mainly in its nitrogen contents. From one acre there may be had annually about 2, 500 pounds of straw furnishing about 20 pounds of nitrogen, 12 pounds lime, 3% pounds potash, 3^ pounds magnesia and less than 3 pounds phosphoric acid. — EDITOR.
materials just at the time when fires are most likely to occur, namely in the spring. The removal of this debris may be contrary to the principles of German forest management, because it naturally impoverishes the forest soil, but on the other hand, a part of the forest increment, to the ultimate good of everything concerned, is converted into as fine a grade of sweet potatoes as ever grew. In the course of time, however, these potato fields are allowed to come up in pines and fresh fields are cleared when the pines have been cut. This, fortunately, is easy, because the sand is soft, the stumps do not sprout, but are quickly honey-combed by wood- eating insects, and finally decay.
Another point of great advantage is that the forest is not continuous, but cut up into parcels with farm lands intervening. The land is also in the form of so-called ''necks," that is, small peninsulas jutting out into bays, or strips of land between small bays or streams. There is only one railroad, which runs straight down the peninsula. This road is ballasted with oyster shells and ditched on both sides. What, however, is most important in reference to the fire question is the fact that the people are an honest and law-abiding set. The truth is, the shameful condition of our forests is, as Dr. Fernow says, a question of morality. In regions inhabited by a wild, heterogeneous set of half-starved rogues you will find forest fires and full jails. The great question in connection with American forest fires is not how to extinguish, but how to prevent them. The employment of wardens to ex- tinguish fires is like caring for the sick in a typhoid epidemic without purifying a contaminated water supply.* Time spent in extinguishing forest fires is to a, certain extent time lost, because there ought be no fires to extinguish. The real work of the forester does not begin until fires are stopped. The prevention of fires, or at least all fires except those accidentally, unavoidably set, belongs to detectives, sheriffs and the courts. The first step in the prevention of fires is the conviction and punishment of all persons or corporations guilty of causing them. Well-enforced laws of this kind will reduce the record seventy-five per cent. The forest owners, being encouraged by the prospect, will be less apathetic. After fires are stopped Nature, with a little help, will do the rest, as she does on the peninsula of Virginia. It is not so much a question of forestry as it is of justice. The same applies to other industries as well.
JOHN GIFFORD.
* The best way to keep a garden clean is never to let the weeds start.
Forestry Leaflet No. 1 Issued April 15, 1915
Virginia Geological Commission OFFICE OF STATE FORESTER
UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA CHARLOTTESVILLE
FORESTRY LAWS OF VIRGINIA
Div»sjoN or
FORESTRY
OF & AGRICULTURE of CAUFC;<K:A
COMPILED BY THE FOREST SERVICE IN THE OFFICE OF STATE COOPERATION
BY JEANNIE S. PEYTON
Forestry Laws of Virginia
(Through Reg. Sess., 1914.)
PART I.— ADMINISTRATION
(This division comprises the provisions of law, if any, defining the general executive and administrative powers and duties of the reg- ularly constituted State forestry officials, also certain miscellaneous forestry provisions. For specific provisions concerning administra- tive duties of these or other State officers in connection with forest fires, forest taxation or State and municipal forests and nurseries, see Parts II, III, and IV, respectively.)
SECTION 1, CHAPTER 195, LAWS 1914.
Office of State Forester — Geological Commission, personnel. — Be
it enacted by the general assembly of Virginia, That there be, and is hereby, created the office of State forester, which shall be under the direction and control of the State geological commission, com- posed of the governor (who shall be ex-officio chairman of said com- mission), the president of the University of Virginia, the president of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute, the superintendent of the Vir- ginia Military Institute, and one citizen from the State at large who shall be appointed by the governor for a period of four years.
SECTION 2.
Forester, appointment; qualifications. — The State forester shall be appointed by said commission, and he shall be a technically trained forester, and shall have both a practical and theoretical knowledge of forestry.
SECTION 3.
Bond. — The State forester, before entering upon the performance of the duties of his office, shall execute bond to the Commonwealth with surety or sureties worth at the time not less than twenty thou- sand dollars, to be approved by the governor and filed in the office of the secretary of State, conditioned for the faithful performance of the duties .of his office, upon which, for any breach thereof, action may be instituted from time to time and recovery had to the extent of the damage sustained by the Commonwealth or others. Said bond shall be examined and the sureties approved by the governor once in each year, and he may at any time, when he deems the bond insufficient, require the execution of a new bond or additional sureties on the old one.
SECTION 4.
Forestry work of Geological Commission. — Said commission shall observe, keep in view, and, so far as it can, ascertain the best methods of reforesting cut-over, and denuded lands, foresting waste lands, preventing the destruction of forests by fire, the administering
forests on forest principles, the instruction and encouragement of private owners in preserving and growing timber for commercial and manufacturing purposes, and the general conservation of forest tracts around the headwaters and on the waterseeds of all the water courses of the State.
SECTION 7.
Waters, duties of Commission. — It shall be the duty of said com- mission to make or cause to be made a careful investigation of the streams and navigable rivers within and bordering upon the State, of the methods, means, and cost of improving the same; of pre- venting their pollution; of conserving the water supply thereof; of using the same for the production of power, and how and in what ways the said streams and rivers may be made of most value to the State, and to the people thereof.
SECTION 8.
Reports and recommendations — Bulletins, etc. — Said commission shall preserve all evidence which it may take with reference to con- serving the forest and the water supply of the State and the methods best adapted to accomplish those objects, arid it shall make report of its doings, conclusions, and recommendations to each session of the general assembly, and, from time to time, publish, in a popular manner, and print for public distribution, in bulletin or other form, such of its conclusions and recommendations as may be of im- mediate public interest.
SECTION 12.
Receipts and expenditures; report on. — The said commission shall keep a full and accurate account of its receipts and expenditures, and it shall make a full and accurate and complete report to each ses- sion of the general assembly, showing in detail its receipts from all sources and its expenditures and the purposes for which ex- penditures have been made.
Civil engineer, surveyor, assistants. — It shall also have power to employ a civil engineer and surveyor from time to time, with his necessary assistants, whenever the necessities of the case may re- quire.
SECTION 13.
Co-operative work — Expenses. — Subject to the direction of the said commission, the State forester shall, whenever he may be di- rected so to do by the said commission, co-operate with counties, municipalities, corporations, and individuals in preparing plans for the protection, management, and replacement of trees, wood lots, and timber tracts under an agreement that the parties obtaining such assistance shall pay the field and the traveling expenses of the man employed in preparing said plans.
SECTION 1 5.
Administrative and investigative duties of Forester— Charge of wardens, laborers, fires, State Forests — Waters; report on — Co-op-
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crative work — Educational work — Reports and recommendations. — The State forester shall have the supervision and direction of all forest interests and of all matters pertaining to forestry within the State; he shall have charge of all forest wardens who may be ap- pointed by said commission, and the appointment, direction, and superintendence of the persons and laborers whom the commission may deem it necessary to employ to perform labor in the forest res- ervations or the nurseries herein provided for; he shall take such action as is authorized by law to prevent and extinguish forest fires; enforce all laws pertaining to forest and woodlands; prosecute any violation of such laws; collect information relative to forest de- struction and conditions; direct the protection and improvement of all forest reservations; make the investigation required by section seven of this act with reference to the streams and navigable rivers within and bordering upon the State, and report in writing with re- gard thereto to the said commission; co-operate with land owners as provided in section eight [thirteen] of this act; and, as far as his duties as State forester will permit, carry on an educational course on forestry at the University of Virginia for credit toward a degree of farmers' institutes and similar meetings within the State. He shall also recommend to said commission and prepare for its use plans for improving the State system of forest protection, manage- ment, and replacement, and prepare for said commission, annually, and also whenever required so to do by said commission, a report on the progress and conditions of State forest work.
SECTION 17. •
Salary, etc., of State Forester. — The salary of the State forester shall be fixed by the said commission, and shall not exceed two thousand dollars per annum, and he shall be paid reasonable trav- eling and field expenses actually incurred in the performance of his official duties.
SECTION 27.
Disposition of fines — Forest Reserve Fund; use of. — All money received as penalties for violations of the provisions of this act, less the cost of collection and not otherwise provided for, together with any amount obtained from the State forestry reserves, shall be paid into the State treasury, to the credit of the forest reserve fund, which fund is hereby created; and the moneys in said fund are hereby ap- propriated for purposes of forest protection, management, replace- ment, and extension, under the direction of the commission.
SECTION 28.
University of Virginia to defray expense of administration. — Prior to the meeting of the general assembly of Virginia in nineteen hun- dred and sixteen, the commission herein provided shall organize and put into operation the purposes of this act, and tjie expenses in- curred by this organization and its operation for that period of time shall be paid out of the budget of the University of Virginia.
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SECTION 29.
Federal co-operation. — The said commission is hereby authorized to arrange with the United States forestry department in regard to co-operation in such instances as may be deemed necessary and of advantage to the State; provided, that in all co-operative work a sum of money shall be expended by the said United States for- estry bureau equivalent to that expended by the State commission,, and that the said commission may accept or reject the work of the United States forestry bureau.
PART II.— FIRES
(For localized fire provisions chiefly concerning protection of the forest lands owned by the State and the private lands adjacent thereto, see Part IV.)
(1) PROTECTIVE SYSTEM.
(This sub-division comprises the provisions of law, if any, defining the personnel, and the executive and administrative powers and duties, af the general State-wide organization charged with the pre- vention,— including provisions for slash disposal after lumbering, — detection, control and extinguishment of forest fires.)
SECTION 18, CHAPTER 195, LAWS 1914.
Forest wardens, appointment — Compensation — Powers of, for pro- tection of State forests, and fish and game. — Whenever the State geological commission considers it necessary, it may apply to the governor to commission such persons as it may designate to act as forest wardens of this State, to enforce the forest laws, and, under the direction of the board, to aid in carrying out the purposes of this act; but they shall be subject to removal at any time at the pleas- ure of the State geological commission. Such wardens shall receive such compensation from time to time as the State geological commission may allow them for special services. Forest wardens thus appointed shall, before entering upon the duties of their office, take the proper official oath before the clerk of the court of the county in which they reside, after which they shall, while holding said office, possess and exercise all the authority and power held and exercised by constables at common law and under the statutes of this State, so far as arresting and prosecuting persons for viola- tions of any of the laws or rules and regulations enacted or made, or to be enacted or made, for the protection of the State forestry reserves, or for the protection of the fish and game contained therein, are concerned.
SECTION 19.
Duties of wardens — Arrests — Fires; assistance — Expenses; report
on. — It shall be the duty of the forest wardens to enforce all forest laws of this State; to protect the State forest reserves, and to see that all rules, regulations and laws are enforced; to report viola- tions of the law to the State forester; to assist in apprehending and convicting offenders, and to make an annual report to him as to forest conditions in their immediate neighborhood. When any for-
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est warden shall see or have reported to him a forest fire, it shall be his duty immediately to repair to the scene of the fire and employ such persons and means as in his judgment seem expedient and necessary to extinguish said fire. He shall keep an itemized account of all expenses thus incurred and send such account immediately to the State forester.
SECTION 20.
Funds for forest protection — Action for cost of fire-fighting. — The boards of county supervisors of the several counties of this State are hereby authorized to levy and appropriate money for purposes of forest protection, improvement, and management; and said boards shall have recourse under an action at law for debt against any land owner, individual, or corporation on whose account they shall be obliged to pay out money for fighting fire for the amount which they shall have expended for such purpose.
SECTION 16.
Notice, fire, trespass, etc. — The State forester shall furnish notice, printed in large letters on cloth, calling attention to the dangers of forest fires and to trespass laws and their penalties, and to the rules and regulations of the commission, which notice shall be dis- tributed by the State forester to forest wardens and posted by them in conspicuous places upon State forest reserves and along the highways.
(2) FALLOW AND OTHER FIRES.
(This sub-division comprises the provisions of law, if any, concern- ing the burning of fallow, brush, etc., by farmers and the general setting of fires to woods by hunters, fishermen and others.)
SECTION 3701, CODE SUPPLEMENT, 1910 (POLLARD).
Setting fire to woods, grass, etc.; penalty. — If any person unlaw- fully and maliciously set fire to any woods, fence, grass, straw or other thing capable of spreading fire on lands, he shall be fined not less than five nor more than five hundred dollars, and be confined in jail not less than one or more than twelve months, or in the dis- cretion of the jury be confined in the penitentiary not less than one nor more than three years. [L. 1908, Ch. 40.]
SECTION 3702, CODE, 1904.
Setting fire to woods, marshes, brush, etc., whereby another is damaged; penalty. — If any person carelessly, negligently, or inten- tionally set any woods or marshes on fire, or set fire to any stubble, brush, straw, or inflammable substance, capable of spreading fire on lands, whereby damage is done to the property of another, he shall be fined not less than ten nor more than one hundred dollars. [L. 1887-8, p. 288.]
SECTION 23, CHAPTER 195, LAWS 1914.
Burning brush, etc., precautions — Prima facie proof of wilfulness or neglect — Civil action and costs. — It shall be unlawful for any per- sons or corporations, as land owner, to set, or procure another to
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set, fire to any woods, brush, logs, leaves, grass, or clearing upon their own land, unless they have previously taken all possible care and precaution against the spread of such fire to other lands not their own, by previously having cut and piled the same, or carefully cleared around the land which is to be burned, so as to prevent the spread of such fire. The setting of fire contrary to the provisions of this section, or allowing it to escape to the injury of adjoining lands, shall be prima facie proof of wilfulness or neglect, and the land owners from whose land the fire originated shall be liable in "a civil action for damages for the injury resulting from such fire, and also for the cost of fighting and extinguishing the same.
SECTION 25.
Liability to State or county for damage by fires, and expenses. —
All individuals and corporations causing fires by violation of any of the provisions of this act shall be liable to the State or county in which the fire occurred for all damages the State or the county may sustain by such fire or fires, and, in addition thereto, to the full amount of all expenses incurred by the State or county in fighting or extinguishing said fire.
SECTION 28.
Jurisdiction in cases of prosecution — State's attorney to prosecute.
— Justices of the peace for this State, in the county wherein the offense shall have been committed, shall have the jurisdiction to hear and determine all prosecutions for the purpose of enforcing fines and penalties collectable under the provisions of this act, not exceeding the amount of one hundred dollars, and of holding the offender, under proper bail if necessary, for hearing before the cir- cuit court, and committing him to the county jail until hearing, if the required bail is not furnished. It shall be the duty of the Com- monwealth's attorney of the several counties to prosecute all vio- lators of this act.
(3) RAILROAD FIRES.
(This sub-division comprises the provisions of law, if any, defining the responsibility of, the precautions to be taken by, and the liability for damages occasioned by railroad and logging companies in the operation and maintenance of their trains and rights of way; also provisions concerning the use of spark arresters and other safe- guards on traction, thrashing, other portable and saw-mill engines, and boilers.)
SECTION 1294D, CODE, 1904.
Spark arresters on locomotives; penalty. — (18) No railroad com- pany doing business in this State shall run on its road any locomo- tive not having an approved spark arrester. Every company violat- ing the provisions of this section shall be fined ten dollars for each offense, and each day of running such locomotive shall be deemed a separate offense.*
*Note. — The wording of this subdivision (18) is identical with that of Section 1264 (derived from an earlier act contained in the volume of Session Laws of 1883-4, p. 704).
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Rights of way to be kept clear. — (55) Every railroad company shall keep its right of way clear and free from weeds, high grass, and decayed timber, which, from their nature and condition, are combustible material, liable to take and communicate fire from pass- ing trains to abutting or adjacent property.
Penalty. — (70) Any railroad company failing to comply with, or violating, or permitting any of its agents or employees to violate, any of the provisions of this chapter, or any valid order, rule, or regulation of the State corporation commission, relating to the pro- visions of this chapter, if not otherwise provided in this chapter, shall be fined not less than ten dollars nor more than five hundred dollars for each offense. [Chapter 4 of Act Concerning Public Service Cor- porations, Sess. Laws, 1902-3-4, p. 968.]
SECTION 1, CHAPTER 269, LAWS 1908 (Coos SUPPLEMENT, 1910, p. 796).
Liability of companies, regardless of location of fire and condi- tion of appliances. — Be it enacted by the general assembly of Vir- ginia, That whenever any person shall sustain damage from fire occasioned by sparks or coals dropped or thrown from the engine or train of any railroad company, such company shall be liable for the damage so sustained, whether said fire shall have originated on said company's right of way or not, and whether or not such engine is equipped with proper spark-arresting appliances, and regardless of the condition in which such appliances may be.
SECTION i, CHAPTER 392, LAWS 1908 (CODE; SUPPLEMENT, 1910, p. 856).
Insurable interest. — Be it enacted by the general assembly of Virginia, 1 hat every railroad company shall have, and is hereby invested with, an insurable interest in the property upon the route of any railroad operated by it, and may procure insurance there- upon in its own behalf for protection against any damage to said property by fire or otherwise, for which such company shall or might be liable.
SECTIONS 23, 25, CHAPTER 195, LAWS 1914.
Civil liability — Note. — Railroad companies are liable as corpora- tions, for damages and costs of extinguishing fires in cases in which they cause fires which result in injury. For full text of the provi- sions, see sections 23 and 25.
SECTION 24.
Spark arresters, etc. — Ash pans; fire boxes — Penalties.— Logging and railroad locomotives, donkey or threshing engines, and other engines and boilers, operated in, through or near forest or brush, which do not burn oil as fuel, shall be provided with appliances to prevent, as far as may be possible, the escape of fire and sparks from the smoke-stacks thereof, and with devices to prevent, as far as may be possible, the escape of fire from ash pans and fire boxes. Faiture to comply with these requirements shall be a misdemeanor, punishable, upon conviction, by a fine of not less than ten dollars
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nor more than one hundred dollars for each and every offense com- mitted.
SECTION 3859, CODE, 1904.
Spark arresters on engines moved with steam; penalty. — Any per- son, who moves any engine with steam on any road shall * * * Such engine shall be provided with a good spark arrester in proper order and place, to prevent spreading fire. If any person violate any provision of this section he shall be fined not less than five nor more than twenty dollars. [L. 1883-4, p. 519.]
PART III.— -TAXATION
(This division comprises the provisions of law, if any, covering the classification and taxation of forested lands and lands to be forested, the purpose of which is to encourage the practice of forestry by pri- vate land owners; also such bounty and exemption laws as have a similar purpose. For taxation provisions concerning State or mu- nicipal forests, see Part IV.)
PART IV.— PUBLIC FORESTS
(This division comprises the provisions of law, if any, authorizing the practice of forestry by the State, by municipal or town corpora- tions, and by forestry and similar associations of a quasi-public char- acter, through the setting aside or acquisition of lands for forest reserve and nursery purposes, and providing for the administration and protection of such reservations.)
(1) STATE FORESTS.
(For other provisions, if any, concerning State forests and nur- series, see Part I.)
SECTION 4, CHAPTER 195, LAWS 1914.
Management of State Forests, and funds. — The care, management and preservation of the forest reserves of the State hereafter to be acquired and established, and the forests thereon, as well as future growth thereon, and all moneys appropriated in that behalf, or collected therefrom in any way, and all personal and real property acquired to carry out the objects of this act, are hereby made sub- ject to the control of the said State geological commission as the same may be herein or in subsequent acts defined and required.
SECTION 5.
Purchase of lands — Rules and regulations — Gifts of lands — Min- eral and mining rights — Deeds. — Said commission shall have the power to purchase lands in the name of the State suitable for for- est reserves, at a price which shall not exceed ten dollars per acre, using for such purposes any surplus money not otherwise appro- priated which may be standing to the credit of the forest reserve, fund, and to make and enforce all rules and regulations governing State reserves, the care and maintenance thereof, the preventing of trespassing thereon, and for the conduct of its officers, agents, and employees; and it may accept gifts of land and money to the State for forestry purposes, the same to be held, protected, and adminis- tered by said commission as a State forest reserve, and to be used
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so as to demonstrate the practical utility of timber culture and as a breeding place for game. Such gifts must be absolute, except that mineral and mining rights over and under land which may be do- nated may be reserved by the donors, and that they may be sub- ject to a stipulation that the lands shall be administered as State forest reserve, and the attorney general of the State is directed to see that all deeds to the State lands mentioned above are properly executed before the gift is accepted.
SECTION 6.
Title. — Before completing the purchase of any land for forestry purposes, the attorney general of the State shall see to it that a good title thereto is obtained and that the deed or deeds therefor are properly executed before payment is made of the purchase money.
SECTION 9.
Sale of timber — Bids — Proceeds, disposal of. — For the purpose of preserving the living and growing timber and promoting the younger growth on forest reservations, said commission, upon the recom- mendation of the State forester, may cause to be designated and appraised so much of the dead, matured, or large growth of trees found upon the forest reservations of the State as may be compatible with the utilization of the forest thereon, and may sell the same for not less than the appraised value thereof. When the appraised value of the trees to be sold is more than one thousand dollars, said commission, before making sale thereof, shall receive bids therefor, after notice by publication once a week for four weeks in two news- papers of general circulation; but said commission shall have the right to reject any and all bids and to readvertise for bids. The proceeds arising from the sale of the timber and trees so sold shall be paid into the State treasury, and shall be held as a special fund for the purchase of additional lands, and shall be paid out in like manner as money appropriated for the use of said commission.
SECTION 10.
Gas, oil, etc.; leases, etc. for removal of — Bids — Proceeds, dis- posal of. — The said commission is hereby empowered to make and execute contracts and leases, in the name of the Commonwealth, for the removal or mining of gas, oil, or any valuable minerals that may be found in said forestry reservations whenever it shall be made to appear to said commission that it would be for the best interest of the Commonwealth to make such disposition of such gas, oil, or minerals; but before a contract or lease is made the same shall be approved by the governor of the State, and bids therefor shall be received after notice by publication once a week for four weeks in two newspapers of general circulation. The said commis- sion shall have the right to reject any or all bids and to readvertise for bids. The accepted bidder shall give bond with good and suffi- cient surety to the satisfaction of said commission, and in such amount as it may fix for the faithful performance on his part of all
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the conditions and covenants of said contract or lease. The pro- ceeds arising from any such contract or lease shall be paid into the State treasury, to be held and used for the same purpose as the proceeds from the sale of trees and timber, and be paid out in like manner.
SECTION 11.
Lands not subject to warrant, etc. — When lands have been ac- quired by the Commonwealth for forestry purposes, however the same may have been acquired, they shall not thereafter be subject to warrant, survey, or patent.
SECTION 14.
Nurseries— Seeds and seedlings. — The commission may establish and maintain a nursery, or nurseries, for the propagation of forest tree seedlings, either upon one or more of the forest reservations of the State, • or upon such other land as the said commission may and which it is hereby empowered to acquire for that purpose. Seedlings from this nursery shall be furnished to the Common- wealth without expense for use upon its forest reservations or other public grounds or parks. Seeds and seedlings may also be distrib- uted to land owners and citizens of this Commonwealth under and subject to such rules and regulations as may be established by said commission.
SECTION 21
Penalties for violations of rules and regulations. — Whoever vio- lates any rule or regulation for the goveritment or use of any State reservation or park, or road or boulevard traversing the same, shall, for such offense, be punished by a fine of not less than five dollars nor more than fifty dollars, and if the person so fined neglects or refuses to pay the same, he shall be committed to the jail of the county, there to remain until such fine be paid, but not longer than one day for each and every two dollars of the fine imposed.
SECTION 22
Fires and trespass on State Forests; penalties. — Any person or persons who shall kindle fire upon any of the forestry reservations of this Commonwealth, except in accordance with such rules and regulations as may be prescribed by the said commission, or who shall cut and remove any timber whatever, or who shall do or cause to be done any act that will damage forest land or timber belonging to the Commonwealth, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and, upon conviction thereof, be subject to a penalty not exceeding five hun- dred dollars for each offense committed, with costs of suit. If the defendant or defendants neglect or refuse to pay the penalty and costs imposed, he or they shall be committed to the jail of the county, there to remain until such penalty and costs are paid, but no longer than one day for each and every two dollars of the fine and costs imposed.
[12]
Forestry Leaflet No. 2 Issued April 20, 1915
[ FOREST FIRE LAWS
OF VIRGINIA
I
or • \ VISION or
FORESTRY
i
COLLEGE OF & AGRICULTURE Ufm'£ft£lTV Or CAUPO.S'K'M
Virginia Geological Commission OFFICE OF STATE FORESTER
UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA CHARLOTTESVILLE
INTRODUCTORY NOTE
Forest Fires are burning every year in the Southern States, with no organized effort being made to stop them, and are probably do- ing $500,000 worth of damage every year in Virginia. They are espe- cially severe after lumbering, and injure the young growth more than the mature timber, and as a result probably over 200,000 acres in the mountains of Northern and Central Virginia, which once were heav- ily timbered, are now covered with nothing but brush, and are prac- tically a barren waste. The same will be true after the timber is cut in Southwest Virginia unless measures to prevent it are taken in time.
These facts are becoming better realized, and the experience of certain Northern and Western States has demonstrated that by or- ganized effort fires can be controlled. As a result Virginia now has laws for fire-prevention and control, but they have never been enforced for lack of an appropriation to this effect.
The Laws of Virginia now provide:
1. Fine and imprisonment for setting fire to woods.
2. Anyone burning brush and allowing the fire to spread to a neighbor's woods is liable to a fine and liable for the damage done and the cost of fighting the fire.
3. Logging and railroad locomotives, donkey and threshing en- gines, etc., operated in, through, or near, forest or brush, must carry spark arresters. Failure to comply is punishable by a fine.
4. The appointment of Forest Wardens, under the direction of the State Forester, to enforce the laws and fight fires. (Note. There is at present no money with which to pay them. They cannot be expected to work for nothing, unless they choose to.)
Forest Fire Laws of Virginia
(1) PROTECTIVE SYSTEM.
(This sub-division comprises the provisions of law, if any, defining the personnel, and the executive and administrative powers and duties, of the general State-wide organization charged with the pre- vention,— including provisions for slash disposal after lumbering, — detection, control and extinguishment of forest fires.)
SECTION 18, CHAPTER 195, LAWS 1914.
Forest wardens, appointment — Compensation — Powers of, for pro^ tection of State forests, and fish and game. — Whenever the State geological commission considers it necessary, it may apply to the governor to commission such persons as it may designate to act as forest wardens of this State, to enforce the forest laws, and, under the direction of the board, to aid in carrying out the purposes of this act; but they shall be subject to removal at any time at the pleas- ure of the State geological commission. Such wardens shall receive such compensation from time to time as the State geological commission may allow them for special services. Forest wardens thus appointed shall, before entering upon the duties of their office, take the proper official oath before the clerk of the court of the county in which they reside, after which they shall, while holding said office, possess and exercise all the authority and power held and exercised by constables at common law and under the statutes of this State, so far as arresting and prosecuting persons for viola- tions of any of the laws or rules and regulations enacted or made, or to be enacted or made, for the protection of the State forestry reserves, or for the protection of the fish and game contained therein, are concerned.
SECTION 19.
Duties of wardens — Arrests — Fires; assistance — Expenses; report
on. — It shall be the duty of the forest wardens to enforce all forest laws of this State; to protect the State forest reserves, and to see that all rules, regulations and laws are enforced; to report viola- tions of the law to the State forester; to assist in apprehending and convicting offenders, and to make an annual report to him as to forest conditions in their immediate neighborhood. When any for- est warden shall see or have reported to him a forest fire, it shall be his duty immediately to repair to the scene of the fire and employ such persons and means as in his judgment seem expedient and necessary to extinguish said fire. He shall keep an itemized account
[4]
of all expenses thus incurred and send such account immediately to the State forester.
SECTION 20.
Funds for forest protection — Action for cost of fire-fighting. — The
boards of county supervisors of the several counties of this State are hereby authorized to levy and appropriate money for purposes of forest protection, improvement, and management; and said boards shall have recourse under an action at law for debt against any land owner, individual, or corporation on whose account they shall be obliged to pay out money for fighting fire for the amount which they shall have expended for such purpose.
SECTION 16.
Notice, fire, trespass, etc. — The State forester shall furnish notice, printed in large letters on cloth, calling attention to the dangers of forest fires and to trespass laws and their penalties, and to the rules and regulations of the commission, which notice shall be dis- tributed by the State forester to forest wardens and posted by them in conspicuous places upon State forest reserves and along the highways.
(2) FALLOW AND OTHER FIRES.
(This sub-division comprises the provisions of law, if any, concern- ing the burning of fallow, brush, etc., by farmers and the general setting of fires to woods by hunters, fishermen and others.)
SECTION 3701, CODE SUPPLEMENT, 1910 (POLLARD).
Setting fire to woods, grass, etc.; penalty. — If any person unlaw- fully and maliciously set fire to any woods, fence, grass, straw or other thing capable of spreading fire on lands, he shall be fined not less than five nor more than five hundred dollars, and be confined in jail not less than one or more than twelve months, or in the dis- cretion of the jury be confined in the penitentiary not less than one nor more than three years. [L. 1908, Ch. 40.]
SECTION 3702, CODE, 1904.
Setting fire to woods, marshes, brush, etc., whereby another is damaged; penalty. — If any person carelessly, negligently, or inten- tionally set any woods or marshes on fire, or set fire to any stubble, brush, straw, or inflammable substance, capable of spreading fire on lands, whereby damage is done to the property of another, he shall be fined not less than ten nor more than one hundred dollars. [L'. 1887-8, p. 288.]
SECTION 23, CHAPTER 195, LAWS 1914.
Burning brush, etc., precautions — Prima facie proof of wilfulness or neglect — Civil action and costs. — It shall be unlawful for any per- sons or corporations, as land owner, to set, or procure another to
[5]
set, fire to any woods, brush, logs, leaves, grass, or clearing upon their own land, unless they have previously taken all possible care and precaution against the spread of such fire to other lands not their own, by previously having cut and piled the same, or carefully cleared around the land which is to be burned, so as to prevent the spread of such fire. The setting of fire contrary to the provisions of this section, or allowing it to escape to the injury of adjoining lands, shall be prima facie proof of wilfulness or neglect, and the land owners from whose land the fire originated shall be liable in a civil action for damages for the injury resulting from such fire, and also for the cost of fighting and extinguishing the same.
SECTION 25.
Liability to State or county for damage by fires, and expenses. —
All individuals and corporations causing fires by violation of any of the provisions of this act shall be liable to the State or county in which the fire occurred for all damages the State or the county may sustain by such fire or fires, and, in addition thereto, to the full amount of all expenses incurred by the State or county in fighting or extinguishing said fire.
SECTION 26.
Jurisdiction in cases of prosecution — State's attorney to prosecute.
— Justices of the peace for this State, in the county wherein the offense shall have been committed, shall have the jurisdiction to hear and determine all prosecutions for the purpose of enforcing fines and penalties collectable under the provisions of this act, not exceeding the amount of one hundred dollars, and of holding the offender, under proper bail if necessary, for hearing before the cir- cuit court, and committing him to the county jail until hearing, if the required bail is not furnished. It shall be the duty of the Com- monwealth's attorney of the several counties to prosecute all vio- lators of this act.
(3) RAILROAD FIRES.
(This sub-division comprises the provisions of law, if any, defining the responsibility of, the precautions to be taken by, and the liability for damages occasioned by railroad and logging companies in the operation and maintenance of their trains and rights of way; also provisions concerning the use of spark arresters and other safe- .guards on traction, thrashing, other portable and saw-mill engines, boilers.)
SECTION 1294D, CODE, 1904.
Spark arresters on locomotives; penalty. — (18) No railroad com- pany doing business in this State shall run on its road any locomo- tive not having an approved spark arrester. Every company violat- ing the provisions of this section shall be fined ten dollars for
[6]
each offense, and each day of running such locomotive shall be deemed a separate offense.*
Rights of way to be kept clear. — (55) Every railroad company shall keep its right of way clear and free from weeds, high grass, and decayed timber, which, from their nature and condition, are combustible material, liable to take and communicate fire from pass- ing trains to abutting or adjacent property.
Penalty. — (70) Any railroad company failing to comply with, or violating, or permitting any of its agents or employees to violate, any of the provisions of this chapter, or any valid order, rule, or regulation o'f the State corporation commission, relating to the pro- visions of this chapter, if not otherwise provided in this chapter, shall be fined not less than ten dollars nor more than five hundred dollars for each offense. [Chapter 4 of Act Concerning Public Service Cor- porations, Sess. Laws, 1902-3-4, p. 968.]
SECTION 1, CHAPTER 269, LAWS 1908 (CODE SUPPLEMENT, 1910, p. 796). Liability of companies, regardless of location of fire and condi- tion of appliances. — Be it enacted by the general assembly of Vir- ginia, That whenever any person shall sustain damage from fire occasioned by sparks or coals dropped or thrown from the engine or train of any railroad company, such company shall be liable for the damage so sustained, whether said fire shall have originated on said company's right of way or not, and whether or not such engine is equipped with proper spark-arresting appliances, and regardless of the condition in which such appliances may be.
SECTION 1, CHAPTER 392, LAWS 1908 (CODE; SUPPLEMENT, 1910, p. 856). Insurable interest. — Be it enacted by the general assembly of Virginia, That every railroad company shall have, and is hereby invested with, an insurable interest in the property upon the route of any railroad operated by it, and may procure insurance there- upon in its own behalf for protection against any damage to said property by fire or otherwise, for which such company shall or might be liable.
SECTIONS 23, 25, CHAPTER 195, LAWS 1914.
Civil liability — Note. — Railroad companies are liable as corpora- tions, for damages and costs of extinguishing fires in cases in which they cause fires which result in injury. For full text of the provi- sions, see sections 23 and 25.
SECTION 24.
Spark arresters, etc. — Ash pans; fire boxes — Penalties. — Logging
*Note. — The wording of this subdivision (18) is identical with that of Section 1264 (derived from an earlier act contained in the volume of Session Laws of 1883-4, p. 704).
[7]
and railroad locomotives, donkey or threshing engines, and other engines and boilers, operated in, through or near forest or brush, which do not burn oil as fuel, shall be provided with appliances to prevent, as far as may be possible, the escape of fire and sparks from the smoke-stacks thereof, and with devices to prevent, as far as may be possible, the escape of fire from ash pans and fire boxes. Failure to comply with these requirements shall be a misdemeanor, punishable, upon conviction, by a fine of not less than ten dollars nor more than one hundred dollars for each and every offense com- mitted.
SECTION 3859, CODE, 1904.
Spark arresters on engines moved with steam; penalty. — Any per- son, who moves any engine with steam on any road shall * * * Such engine shall be provided with a good spark arrester in proper order and place, to prevent spreading fire. If any person violate any provision of this section he shall be fined not less than five nor more than twenty dollars. [L. 1883-4, p. 519.]
[8]
Forestry Leaflet No. 3 Issued November 15, 1915
A PLAN OF
FOREST FIRE PROTECTION
FOR VIRGINIA
How an Effective Beginning Can Be Made Toward Lessening
The Present Enormous Destruction of Merchantable
Timber, Young Growth, and Other Property
By the " Triple Alliance " Composed of
The Federal Government, The State
Government, and Either the
County Government or
the Timber Land
Ownerj
f«o*ei?Tr ofjfe DIVISION or
ISTRY
Of£i AGRICULTURE: Vt4 1 i'C * C- « T y Or CAU ! C .
R. C, JONES
State Forester
Charlottesville, Va.
Virginia Geological Commission
OFFICE OF STATE FORESTER
UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA
CHARLOTTESVILLE
A Plan of ForeSt Fire Protection for Virginia
Forest fires have been prevalent for years in all parts of Virginia, and have done an incalculable amount of injury to merchantable timber, young growth, the soil, and frequently to other property, such as houses, barns, fences, farm crops, etc. Formerly the damage was not thoroughly realized, particularly in backward sections and where timber was relatively abundant. But with the spread of education and with the increasing scar- city and the resulting higher prices of timber there has come an increasing realization of the enormous amount of the annual destruction of property by forest fires, which, judging by very conservative figures on the subject collected in Maryland and North Carolina, must amount to considerably over $600,000 per year in Virginia to merchantable timber alone, disregarding the damage to young growth and to the soil, etc., which is enor- mous, but hard to estimate. There has come a very wide-spread determination among citizens of Virginia that this senseless de- struction shall cease, and in place of the former feeling of help- lessness, there is a realization that Virginia timber can be pro- tected just as well as that of some of the Northern and Western states where very efficient state fire protective systems are now in operation, at a trifling cost compared to the value of the timber protected. One Southern state, Maryland, has for years had a fire protective system, which is becoming more efficient constantly, and the beginning of such a system has already been made in the adjoining states of Kentucky, West Virginia, and North Carolina. It is time that Virginia fell in line with the march of progress if she is to keep the place to which she is entitled among her sister States. A very effective beginning can now be made through the cooperation of the federal govern- ment, the state government, and either the County government or the timber land owners.
The Working of the 'Triple Alliance."
The Forest Service of the U. S. Department of Agriculture is helping the states to protect themselves against fire by providing a certain amount of money to be spent in paying the salaries of patrolmen and watchmen. This money was appropriated under the Weeks Law, and can be spent only where the states them- selves are making an organized effort to prevent fires. The State of Virginia is now able to take advantage of this offer
of the federal government, and through an agreement between the Secretary of Agriculture, at Washington, D. C., and the State Forester of Virginia, at Charlottesville, Va., the sum of $2,000.00 per year has been allotted to the state of Virginia, to i)e spent for fire prevention under the direction of the State Forester. While the Legislature of Virginia at the time that it made provision for the establishment of the fire protective system by creating the office of State Forester and providing for the appointment of State Forest Wardens, unfortunately failed to make an appropriation to put the plan into effect, the work has been started by the use of a sum of money put at the disposal of the State Forester by the University of Virginia for general educational work throughout the State. Thus there is $2,000.00 per year from the federal government now available for fire protection, and this amount1 will undoubtedly be in- creased as soon as the State itself appropriates a larger amount. This sum, $2,000.00, is evidently too small to cover the State thoroughly, hence it has been decided that it shall be used only in localities where there is enough local interest in fire protec- tion to make either the County authorities or the timber land owners willing to go to an expense equal to that of the gov- ernment. This plan results automatically in the money being spent where it is the most needed and where it will do the most good.
County Authorities May Appropriate Money for Fire Protection.
The County Supervisors now have legal authority to appro- priate money for purposes of fire protection. This may take the form of paying for the service of Forest Wardens and men •employed by them for the time actually spent in fighting fire, or it may take the form of paying for patrol work. The former method is being adopted in nearly all States which have fire protective systems, and it is evidently essential to a thoroughly •effective system, and will undoubtedly be in use in most or all of the Counties of Virginia within a few years, but in the mean- time a beginning should be made by the employment of patrol- men. Such men work on a monthly basis only during the danger- ous seasons, particularly in the spring and fall, usually about four months per year, depending upon the dryness of the sea- son. If the County authorities will pay the salaries of such patrolmen for one half of their time, they can be paid for the other half of their time by the United States government, and an offer to this effect is made to the County authorities by the State Forester, as long as the government money holds out. These men would be selected and appointed by the State For- ester with the advice of the County Supervisors and other per-
sons interested, and would be local men, thoroughly familiar with their district and widely acquainted in the County. Their appointment would be made on the basis of efficiency alone, and experience has proved that capable and reliable men can be secured for this work. It is the duty of such men to travel throughout their district during the dry seasons, being con- stantly on the lookout for fires, fighting any that they discover, posting warning notices, explaining the laws to everybody, and cautioning those who may be careless.
Cooperation with Owners of Timber Land.
In sections where large bodies of timber land are owned by individuals or corporations the assistance of the State and gov- ernment is extended to such owners in the same way as to the County Supervisors. Another plan, which is already in force in southwest Virginia, is as follows : The State Forester ap- points patrolmen, who are paid entirely by the federal gov- ernment, and given districts including the holdings of the land owners or an association of land owners who cooperate by preparing for each fire season by constructing in advance thereof such permanent improvements as mav be most needed to make the work more effective, such as fire lines, trails, lookout stations, etc. The sum to be spent on such work must equal at least two months' salaries for the patrolmen for each fire season. It is believed that the construction of such improvements is well worth the cost, and in fact they are under most circumstances, in the mountains, absolutely necessary in order to secure a really effective system which will not fall down in the occasional very dry season. Ordinarily a patrolman can cover approximately 25,000 or 30,000 acres of mountain land, depending upon the character of the country and the roads, trails, etc. Owners of mountain land are strongly advised to form fire protective as- sociations, which have many obvious advantages over each land owner working alone. Many such associations have been in operation in Northern and Western states for years, and many others have recently been organized in the adjoining states of West Virginia, Kentucky and North Carolina, The assessments of these associations for fire protection work have averaged from one half a cent to two cents per acre per year. This amount is low in proportion to the value received, but it is believed that it can be still further reduced when the most important trails, look- out stations, etc., have been constructed, and when the people liv- ing in the woods and hunting there, etc., have been taught by the patrolmen to be careful with fire.
For further information address the State Forester at Char- lottesville, Virginia.
PLATE I.
Crowded small pole stand of shortleaf pine about 30 years old in need of thinning. The trees are slender and clean stemmed, but Irregular in size. A large number of the smaller trees should be removed.
Department of Agriculture and Immi- gration of Virginia
GEO. W. KOINER, Commissioner
In co-operation With the Forest Service United States Department of Agriculture
HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester
OFJ»OIVISION OF
JltiBBm.
FORESTRY
Of JL AGRICULTURE
PfNETW VIRGINIA
The Increase in its Yield by Thinning
By W. W. AS HE Forest Examiner, Forest Service
DEC 2 8 1914
Division of Forestry University of California
RICHMOND:
DAVIS BOTTOM, SUPERINTENDENT PUBLIC PRINTING 1913
CONTENTS
Purposes and results .'. » . 5.
Distribution and importance 6.
Names and distinguishing characteristics 7.
Uses of wood 8.
Condition and composition of old-field stands 9;
Permanency of old-field pine stands 10'
Management 12
Fully stocked and crowded stands 13
Understocked stands 14
Thinnings 15,
Classes of trees 158
Dominant trees . . .^ , 15.
Intermediate trees 15-
Suppressed trees 16«
How heavily to thin '. 16.
What to remove in thinning 17
Acceleration in growth from thinning 17
Method of thinning 18
Sapling stands (younger than 20 years) 18>
Small pole stands (from 20 to 30 years old) 18
Large pole stands (from 30 to 40 years old) 19
Mature stands (from 40 to 50 years old) 19
Typical stands 20
Production of cordwood from thinned and unthinned stands 23,
Maximum yield of cordwood 24
Cost of growing cordwood 26
Production of saw timber 26-
Influence of density of stand upon yield of saw timber at
different ages 26
Age of cutting for maximum yield 28
Cost of growing saw timber 29
Value of trees and stands 32
Waste in cutting small trees 35-
Lumbering and restocking 35
Isolated seed trees 36
Cutting in strips 37
Cutting unthinned stands 37
Planting waste land 3H
Returns from plantations 39
The protection of stands '. 41
Fires 41
Insects 43
Fungus diseases 44
ILLUSTRATIONS
Plate I. — Crowded small pole stands of shortleaf pine about 30 years old in need of thinning. The trees are slender and clean stemmed, but irregular in size. A large number of the smaller trees should be removed Frontispiece.
-Plate II. — A dense sapling stand of shortleaf pine 15 to 18 years old, but too small to be profitably thinned. While the clean condition of the floor is good, fire could do great damage to such a stand
Plate III. — Understocked large pole stand of shortleaf pine 30 years old. The trees are short-bodied and knotty and will yield only low grade lumber. The best that can be done with such a stand is to cut it, leaving the most slender, clean-bodied trees for seed-trees
Plate IV. — Crowded, large pole stand of shortleaf pine 40 years old, badly in need of thinning by removing the smaller pines and many of the hardwoods. Condition of larger trees, with long, smooth bodies, excellent
Plate V. — Mature stand of shortleaf pine. Trees nearly uniform in size and ready to be cut for lumber. Groups of slender, wind- firm trees can be left for seed trees,
Plate VI. — Figure 1. — A typical case of sustained rapid diameter growth, resulting from repeated thinnings, in a tree of short- leaf pine which was overcrowded for many years. Wood of such a tree is free from large knots, and its stumpage is worth $8 a 1,000 board feet under a cost of operating of $12
Figure 2. — Stem of a small sprout sapling of shortleaf pine, crooked and scarred at the neck as a result of the original seedling having been killed to the ground by fire. Stump and root rots gain entrance through such scars.
L=a U U U=J
UU 0
DEC 2 8 1914
Division of Forestry University of California
Shortleaf Pine in Virginia
The study upon which this report is based was undertaken by the Forest Service in co-operation with the State of ^Virginia, the work being done under the direction of the officer in charge of State Co-operation in the Forest Service. By the terms of the co-operative agreement, the State is authorized to publish the find- ings of the investigation.
PURPOSES AND RESULTS.
At the request of Hon. C. A. Swanson, Governor of Virginia, the Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture, in the autumn of 1909, made an examination of the second-growth shortleaf pine in old fields in the middle portion of Virginia. The cost of this work was borne jointly by the State of Virginia and the Forest Service.
The examination included a detailed investigation of stands of pine in old fields in Mecklenburg, Lunenburg, Brunswick, and Hanover counties, which was supplemented by a general examina- tion of the stands in other counties in the middle part of the State. Its scope was :
(1) To ascertain the condition of the old-field stands and the value of their timber for lumber uses;
(2) To determine the effect of lumbering on the future yields of the stands and to ascertain whether conservative methods of cutting could be employed profitably ;
(3) To determine the yield of stands of different ages;
(4) To recommend methods of thinning and cutting to ac- celerate growth ;
(5) To devise methods of protection for young growth.
The conclusions reached as a result of the investigation can be summarized as follows:
Shortleaf pine is the most important tree in twenty south- central counties, but the yield from the pine lands is low because there is neither protection nor a definite system of cutting. The yield can be greatly increased and the quality of timber improved by a regular system of management.
'(1) Better protection against fires and insects is required in most stands. Young stands, especially while in process of stocking.
6 SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA
suffer most from fires. Older stands are most endangered by in- serts. Protection against fire may be secured by means of fire lanes, posted warnings, restriction of night hunting, and patrol during dry seasons when neighboring lands are afire. The danger of loss from insects may be reduced by making frequent thinnings and by removing or by cutting infested trees.
(2) The average stand of pine is far too thinly stocked. This is due to insufficient natural seeding and to the thinning of young stands by fire and of older stands by insects. The yield of such thinly-stocked stands is considerably less, and the grade and value of the timber is lower, than from thickly stocked stands.
(3) Crowded areas occur in nearly all stands, and some stands are crowded throughout. Such crowded plots can be greatly im- proved by thinnings. The effect of thinnings is to accelerate growth, hasten maturity, and produce a superior quality of timber. The beneficial results of thinnings decrease with the age of the stand, but stands as old as forty-five years respond to them well.
(4) Where natural seeding has not formed dense stands with- in ten years, the stocking can be completed by the planting of seed; and, where natural seeding does not take place, whole areas may be seeded. Stands restocked in these ways can be expected to yield fully as well as the best natural stands and to return a fair rate of interest on their cost.
If management is applied, that is, if young stands are pro- tected, full stocking secured, and the stands subsequently thinned, the yield of saw timber from a 40-year-old stand can be more than doubled and its value greatly increased. Shortleaf pine is already one of the chief sources of building material on the farms. Fur- thermore, the farms have more timber than is required for their own support, so that as the general demand for coarse lumber in- creases and its price rises, shortleaf pine in farm woodlots can be made an important source of commercial timber and a means of permanent income.
DISTRIBUTION AND IMPORTANCE
Second-growth or old-field shortleaf pine is the most important tree of middle Virginia and the Piedmont, south of the Rappa- hannock, in which region it probably occupies more than one-half of the total forest area and more than three-fourths of the farm forest area. It forms the dominant growth on more than 3,000,000 acres, on which it occurs either in pure stands or, more commonly,
SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA 7
with a slight mixture of other pines and of seedling and sprout hardwoods. It meets with least competition and forms the purest second-growth stands in the tier of southern counties west of Lun- enburg county. It is not common north of the Rappahannock river, and is infrequent on the Blue Ridge mountains and in the Great Valley, while in Tidewater Virginia it grows only on the best drained clay soils, and in these sections, on account of the com- petition of other species, its second growth seldom occurs in pure stands.
NAMES AND DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS
pine is also and more generally known as rosemary pine, spruce pine, and yellow pine. The original growth is fre- quently distinguished from the second growth in old fields under the names of forest or woods pine.
This tree is not to he confused with scrub or jack pine, which is also called spruce pine. Scrub pine is a smaller and in- ferior tree with a limby stem, and smooth, scaly bark. It is largely replacing shortleaf pine in old fields in the northern portion of the State and in the upper edge of the Piedmont in and near the mountains, and is occasionally found mixed with shortleaf pine southeastward as far as Brunswick county. Nor is it to be con- fused with loblolly pine, which is known in extreme southern Vir- ginia as .shortleaf pine and, where it occurs near the coast, as long- leaf, swamp, foxtail, or slash pine. Loblolly pine is the common pine on sandy soils in Tidewater Virginia, but it extends westward in association with shortleaf pine to Brunswick, Chesterfield and Louisa counties. The northern pitch, bull, or black pine of the mountains, which is yet another tree, seldom forms second growth in old fields.
The cone and leaf differences of these trees will be a further help in separating them :
Shortleaf pine has cones (burrs) seldom more than 1 1-2 inches long, and slender, straight needles, two or three together, twice as long as the cones.
Scrub pine has cones of about the same length as those of shortleaf pine (1 1-2 inches) but they are relatively broader. The needles are stout and twisted, with never more than two together, and are about the same length as the cones. Frequently the cones of scrub pine and shortleaf pine remain on the trees for many years after opening.
8 SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA
Loblolly pine has large cones, from 3 to 4 inches long. Its needles are borne in threes and are about twice as long as the cones. The cones of this species usually fall during the second summer, but sometimes they persist for several years.
USES OF WOOD
The timber of second-growth shortleaf pine is largely sap- wood. The formation of heartwood does not begin until the trees are about twenty-five years old. For many years thereafter the heartwc&Kl is limited to a small core, and more than two-thirds of the volume of trees fifty years old is still sapwood. The most im- portant uses for the wood of the shortleaf pine are for building lumber, fuel, slack cooperage, box lumber, headings, and crates. The wood contains too much resin to be a desirable material for paper pulp stock without special treatment, although it is used to some extent for this purpose. On account of its softness it is not suited for railroad ties if the traffic is heavy, and, when used for this purpose should be made more durable by preservative treat- ment.
The large proportion of sapwood in the second- growth tim- ber renders it undesirable for shingles, for which the durable heart- wood of the old growth was extensively employed ; and unfits it for other uses requiring exposure to the weather, unless it is thoroughly kiln-dried and painted. Logs more than fourteen inches in dia- meter from trees with clear boles yield lumber suitable for ceiling styles and panels of doors, sashes, window frames, interior wood- work, and also for flooring if rift sawed. Timber suitable for such uses must come not only from comparatively large trees, but from trees which early cleaned their stems and formed wood in the lower two-thirds of the trunk free of knots. That part of the tree which can be converted into lumber of this kind should command, on the basis of $25 for the finished lumber, a stum page price of not less than $10 a thousand board feet.
Unless the price of cordwood stumpage is proportionately much higher than that of saw timber stumpage, the greatest profit from a crowded stand will be secured by reserving the larger trees for saw timber, and in the meantime thinning or culling the small- est trees for cordwood, stave stock, box boards, bolts, and similar purposes, for which small material is suited. If only selected trees are retained for saw timber they should be allowed to attain a large size in order to produce timber of high quality.
PLATE II.
A dense sapling stand of shortleaf pine 15 to 18 years old, but too small to be profitably thinned. While the clean condition of the floor is good, flre could do great damage in such a stand.
SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA 9
CONDITION AND COMPOSITION OF OLD-FIELrD
STANDS
As early as 1735 it had become a fixed part of the farming system of middle Virginia to clear new ground each year and to abandon to lallow a parcel of the oldest and most worn farming land. The land thus turned out was rapidly colonized with pines through seed blown by the wind from old trees nearb/! When these pines had become large enough and the humus had been re- stored to the soil through them, the land was usually cleared again. Such a system of rotation of timber and cultivated crops was pos- sible only in a region where land was abundant and cheap. It was due in part to the lack of local markets, which made it necessary to export a large portion of the crops and therefore to produce them as cheaply as possible, regardless of the effect upon the soil; and in part to the fact that these soils were not natural grazing lands, and the depleted humus could be renewed naturally and cheaply by the replacement of the native pines. Some of the existing groves of old-held pine thus originated before the Revolutionary War. Most of them, however, are younger, having originated dur- ing and just after the Civil War or in the subsequent periods of agricultural depression about 1880 and 1892. These stands are consequently of all ages; from the youngest, just in process of stocking land which has been turned out during the past decade, to those more than 100 years old. Stands between fifteen and forty-five years old are, however, the most numerous.
Such old-field stands were thus established naturally, and_no efforts were made by the owners to increase their density when they were too open or to protect them, while young, from fire. They have seldom been thinned judiciously for improvement. As a result, they vary widely in density. Small tracts 3re usually well-stocked, since, if seed-bearing trees were nearby while stocking was taking place, seeds were in a few years scattered uniformly over the entire tract and such small tracts were often protected from fire by fences, or by adjacent cultivated fields. The trees in such well-stocked stands are slender and clean-bodied, with small crowns. The average tract, however, is poorly stocked. The trees are isolated, individually, or in irregular groups, and consequently short-bodied, knotty, and coarse-grained. This open condition of many of the stands is due to the fact that seed trees were too few or too distant while the stocking was in progress, or to the fact that the fields became grassy and the seedlings were killed by
10 SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA
tires that burned the grass. Scattered advance growth frequently has borne seed and so stocked the gaps. Such stands are irregular in age and size.
Many of the older stands have been irregularly and often heav- ily cut for poles, cordwood, and even sawlogs. Most stands of sap- ling or larger size are too open for the best growth of the trees and for the highest financial returns.
The proportion of shortleaf pine in the old-field stands varies. North of the Kappahannock river the proportion of scrub pine mixed with the shortleaf increases, until in Fairfax county and the lower end of Prince William county it largely replaces shortleaf pine. It is also largely mixed with shortleaf pine in stands near the mountains. In the shortleaf pine stands in the eastern ends of Hanover, Chesterfield and Brunswick counties, there is a large proportion of loblolly pine, which entirely supplants the shortleaf farther eastward. South and southwest of Hanover county the only pine in the field stands is the shortleaf, but species other than pine form part of the mixture in a varying proportion, though they seldom make up more than ten per cent, in stands younger than thirty-five years old. In young stands these associated species vary with the kinds of seed-trees nearby. On lower slopes they are usually maple, poplar, sweet gum, and the oaks; on hilltops they are red cedar, oaks, hickory, black gum, persimmon, cherry, thorn, sassafras, and dogwood.
PERMANENCY or OLD-FIELD PINE STANDS
As ,the field pine stands become older, especially after they have passed the thirty-fifth year, their crown cover tends to thin, and this favors the growth of the oaks and hickories, which come in from seed dropped by squirrels, crows, jays, etc., and are better able to grow beneath the cover than are young pines. Even after the pine in the stand begins to seed the proportion of these broad- leaf species continues to increase, since the young pines can come in only when an extensive opening is made by the death of a large pine. There is thus a tendency toward a gradual re-establishment of the original forest type which prevailed before the land was cleared, namely, a mixture of oak, hickory, black gum, and pine, with pine forming a small proportion on the best soil and a large proportion — frequently more than half the number of trees — on the poor, dry or sandy soils. The pure pine stands are, therefore, a temporary type, which in time will be replaced by the permanent mixed-growth type.
SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA 11
It is not an invariable rule that uhardwoods follow pine" after cutting or that "pine follows hardwoods" after cutting or clearing. But pure pine usually forms the second growth if there is no shade or cover, as in old fields or on hardwood land which has been cut clear in late summer or early autumn, when the sprouting power of the hardwoods is low. If seed-bearing trees are near, such open land, whether in field or forest, is captured in a few years by pine, by means of its abundant, light seeds which are widely scat- tered by the wind. The heavy seeds of oak, hickory and black gum, which are carried largely by birds and squirrels, are dis- seminated too slowly and irregularly to enable such species to compete successfully with pine in stocking nearby open lands. Un- der these conditions, pine usually follows oak.
On the other hand,. pine is unable to establish itself beneath dense shade, whether of pine or of hardwoods. For this reason young pine growth is seldom found under the trees except in older open pine stands. The seeds of hardwroods, however, are dropped from year to year in such stands and germinate; and the seedlings, through their persistency and ability to endure shade, will survive in shade in which a young pine can not live, although their growth in this case is extremely slow. When the large pines are cut, these stunted hardwoods, responding to improved conditions of light and root space, grow rapidly and if they are numerous they form the larger part of the growth which follows the pine.
In those portions of the State in which it occurs, scrub pine affects the permanence of the shortleaf pine stand on medium soils even more than do the hardwoods. Scrub pine seeds prolificacy , when much younger and smaller than shortleaf pine, and the seed- lings are tolerant of far more shade than those of the shortleaf. For these reasons, it not only excludes the shortleaf from old fields which are in process of stocking, but it successfully competes with the young hardwoods in occupying openings in stands ot shortleaf pine in which the cover is too heavy for shortleaf seed- lings to exist, and thus in part succeeds tfte shortleaf in shortleaf stands.
By reason of this aggressiveness, scrub pine is so completely replacing shortleaf pine over large areas in the northeastern part of the State and near the Blue Ridge that the economic range of shortleaf pine is being restricted.
12 SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA
MANAGEMENT
Forest management as applied to old-field stands may be sum- marized as the use of any methods of restocking, cutting, or thin- ning which will reduce the cost of growing timber or add to the value of the timber grown.
Natural stands are usually either understocked, at least in certain phases or during certain periods of growth, or else over- crowded.
The maximum growth is obtained by maintaining such a mum-* ber of trees to the acre as will utilize the full capacity of the soil and at the same time secure the best development of the individual trees. Understocked stands do not use the full capacity of the soil and must be filled out to the required density by planting in the thin places. In crowded stands, on the other hand, the indi- vidual trees are retarded; they must be thinned in order to make them grow at their best rate. These requirements of the stand are discussed in connection with the subjects of thinnings and planting.
Another phase of management is cutting at the period of ma- turity as determined by either maximum yield or value. The rate of growth or accretion of a stand is not the same at all ages. The yearly growth rapidly increases from nearly nothing to a maxi- mum, then slowly declines. When the rate of annual growth be- gins to decline, a loss in yield is entailed if cutting is deferred. The time at which the maximum of the average annual yield is obtained varies with the size of the timber which is desired; it would not be the same for lumber, which requires large timber, as for cordwood, for which small timber can be used. But while it is desirable to obtain the maximum annual yield from a stand, the cost of production is a factor which cannot be neglected.
The cost of production embraces the interesjt on the investment, the taxes, superintendence, protection, and the making of improve- ment cuttings and thinnings. As far as the needs of owners and the market conditions allow, a stand should be cut at financial maturity, that is, when it yields the best returns on the investment. These phases of management are considered in connection with yields of stands at different ages, and with the cost of growing timber. One of the most important considerations in manage- ment is the method employed for obtaining a prompt renewal of the stand in order to prevent the loss of interest on the investment by the idleness of the land.
8HORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA 13
Protection of stands from fire, from insects, and from fungus diseases is necessary to insure fully stocked stands and sound timber.
The figures relating to the growth and yield of shortleaf pine are based on stands which are growing on soil formerly covered with forests of shortleaf pine mixed with white oak, southern red oak (Quercus digitata), black oak, and white hickory. The rate of growth on such sites is regarded as the average or usual rate. Where the pine now grows on soils which were formerly covered with forests of shortleaf pine mixed with post oak, with black-jack oak, or with Spanish oak (Quercus coccinea), or with a large propor- tion of these oaks together with other oaks, the rate of growth and the yield of the stands will be considerably lower than that given.
FULLY STOCKED AND CROWDED STANDS
A stand is fully stocked when it contains all the well-grown, vigorous trees which the soil can support. This number decreases with the age of the stand and the consequent increase in the size of the trees. In a natural twenty-year-old stand of shortleaf pine the number to the acre should exceed 1,500; at forty years it has decreased to about 750 ; at sixty years it has fallen to less than 450. This reduction of the number of trees in a stand progresses nat- urally. As the trees become older and larger, their crowns spread and their roots extend in search of food and moisture. Competi- tion for light, food and moisture ensues, and this in turn results in the dying of the smaller and weaker trees, which are overtopped and crowded out by the more vigorous ones.
A fully-stocked stand, in which natural thinning is taking place rapidly, is crowded (plates I, II and IV). At any age the fact that a stand is crowded is indicated by a close crown cover and the presence of many dead trees and slender live trees with narrow •crowns. In a young stand of this character less than thirty-five years old the crowding is so great that the crown of each tree al- most touches the crowns of its neighbors and direct sunlight hardly reaches the soil. The shade is sufficient to prevent the start of young trees and most shrubs beneath the pines and the carpet of pine needles is so thick as to exclude grass, while small dead trees are numerous. In stands more than thirty-five or forty years old there is a wider distance between adjacent crowns, due to the rapid dying of the larger of the slender narrow-crowned trees. This opening of the stand admits more sunlight, and young oaks, hick-
14 SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA
ories, and other trees, as well as many shrubs, begin to grow be- neath the pines. Dead trees and live trees with narrow crowns are not so numerous as in younger stands. The mat of pine needles is thinner in the older stands and grass is able to spring up.
A fully-stocked young stand of short leaf pine has, therefore, a dense crown cover. In both young and old stands, if they are fully stocked, there are slender trees with narrow, spry crowns and dead trees which have been crowded out, though the latter are more abundant in the young stands. Whether a stand is crowded and in need of thinning may be determined by the greater or less abund- ance of crowded and dead trees, considered in connection with the age of the stand and the normal density of the crown canopy at a given age.
UNDERSTOCKED STANDS
The average stand of short-leaf pine in middle and Piedmont Virginia, however, instead of being too densely stocked, is too thinly stocked. When the crowns do not interfere, or are round- topped with practically horizontal lower branches, the stand is too open for best growth.
Young and even middle-aged stands are frequently open, but their wide-spreading crowns eventually close and form a dense crown cover like that of a fully-stocked stand. But in this case dead trees and slender overtopped trees are- absent; the crowns of the trees are too round and wide- spreading; the steins are too short and limby ; and the number of trees to the acre is much less than in fully-stocked stands of the same height. (Table 9). Under- stocked stands of this kind do not require thinning. Moderately understocked young stands usually become crowded early enough to reduce some of the evils of understocking, but the stems of the trees are never so tall and free from limbs and knots as those which develop when there is crowding all through the life of the stand and their total yield is usually less than that of a fully- stocked stancl. (Plate III). Young understocked stands should • be filled out by planting.
In nearly every stand, however, there will be found at least groups of trees which will be benefited by thinning. The presence in the stand of numerous small dead trees and slender trees with spiry crowns is a clear indication that thinning is needed1.
SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA ) 5
THINNINGS
The objects of thinnings are, first, to accelerate the growth and shorten the time necessary to bring the stand to maturity, and, second, by removing defective trees to produce a mature stand formed of perfect specimens and so increase the yield of lumber. The elimination of the weaker specimens by natural process takes place too slowly for the best development, because the growth of the trees which are ultimately to survive is retarded by the pro- longation of the struggle for light and food. Yet limited crowd- ing is necessary at certain periods to force height growth and to develop long, straight stems, reasonably free from limbs. More- over, the number of trees to the acre largely determines the volume of the yield and has an important bearing on the value of the trees. Usually the crowded stands produce the greatest volume of wood at all ages; but when the size or diameter of the individual trees is of primary importance, as in the production of saw logs, less crowding is desirable. By means of judicious periodic thin- nings, it is possible both to favor competition and to relieve over- crowding and in this way greatly to accelerate the growth of the remaining trees. Such thinnings reduce the number of trees, but they produce equally tall trees of much larger diameter, with straight, clean stems and but little taper. It is commonly held that if the larger trees are removed as they come to merchantable size the smaller trees will make accelerated growth. This is un- questionably true of many species and it is true also of short- leaf pine under thirty years old, but in pure old stands of short- leaf pine in Virginia the crowded and suppressed trees recuperate so slowly that it is not profitable to thin the stands in this way after they have passed the age of thirty-five years.
CLASSES OF TREES
Before thinnings can be intelligently made, the classes of trees in a stand must be known and their relation to the growth of the stand understood. The live trees in a second-growth pine stand can be separated easily into three classes:
Dominant Trees. — These are the tallest and thriftiest speci- mens with the largest crowns. Their growth is rapid, both in height and in diameter.
Intermediate Trees.— These are the slender, clean-bodied trees, with narrow, compressed crowns which are nearly as tall as the
lt$ SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA
dominant trees. Their height growth is rapid, but, on account of their small crowns, their diameter growth is slow. Besides be- ing unable to make good volume growth themselves, they retard the growth of the dominant trees.
Suppressed Trees. — These have fallen behind in height and are so much lower than the other trees that direct sunlight is largely excluded from them. They interfere very little with the growth of the larger trees.
When overshadowing and suppression pass a certain point the trees die. Three-fourths of the dead trees are in the sup- pressed class, but intermediate trees also die from overcrowding. Dead trees exert no influence upon the growth of the stand. When .possible, however, they should be removed, since they contribute to the clanger of disease, insects, and fire.
HOW HEAVILY TO THIN
Thinnings must be heavy enough to provide more light and crown space, and more root space and soil moisture for the trees that are left, yet they must never be heavy enough at one time to admit too much sunlight and cause the crowns to spread unduly, with a sacrifice in the rate of height growth. Too heavy a thin- ning results in temporary understocking and produces the oppo- site of the result desired.
To be most effective, thinnings should begin when a stand is twenty years old, and should be light and frequent. Early thin- nings prevent the crowns from crowding before their symmetry is destroyed, and yet" maintain sufficient crown rivalry to secure continuous height growth and promote the rapid shedding of the lower limbs. Before removing any tree, it is necessary to con- sider how its removal will affect the remaining trees, not only un- til the next thinning, but until the stand is mature and the trees are merchantable.
Thinnings should be made not less often than once every ten years. Even with ten-year intervals cuttings have to be too heavy for the best interest of the stand and excessive crowding takes place before a thinning is repeated. An interval of five years is recommended as the most desirable. This develops the full value of the stand, and also allows the cutting of enough cordwood from the thinnings to pay for the work. A careful observer will be able to lengthen the interval if the cost of thin- nings requires it.
PLATE III.
Understocked large pole stand of shortleaf pine 80 years old. The trees are short-bodied and knotty and will yield only low grade lumber. The best that can be done with such a stand is to cut it, leaving slender, clean-bodied trees for seed trees.
SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA 17
WHAT TO REMOVE IN THINNING
% /
Thinnings should remove such suppressed trees as are not necessary to complete the crown cover, since they have made their growth and exert little or no influence on the growth of the large trees. Species of lower value, like gums, post oak, maple, sassa- fras, and scrub pine, should also be cut, unless they are needed to keep the crown cover complete. Punky or diseased trees should be removed from stands of all ages. Short-bodied, crooked, knotty, forked, or otherwise defective pine trees should be cut from younger stands, but should be left in old stands when their removal would make openings which would not be filled by the spread of the surrounding crowns. P^nough of the intermediate class should be removed to provide growing space for the trees that are left. The trees which are removed should be selected evenly through the stand. If several adjoining trees are removed, an opening is left which will be too long in closing. If trees are left in groups, excessive crowding in the interior of the groups will follow, and this will result in the loss by shading of the in- terior branches and unsymmetrical development of the trees. When there is a choice the trees which are left for permanent growth should have well- developed and symmetrical crowns.
ACCELERATION IN GROWTH FROM THINNING
Until they are thirty or even thirty-five years old, the inter- mediate as well as the dominant trees of shortleaf pine stands re- spond vigorously and rapidly to thinnings by accelerated growth. In older stands, the recuperative power of the intermediate trees declines and the recovery from the effects of overcrowding is slow. The recuperative power of the dominant class, however, is main- tained until the trees are sixty years old, when the period of rapid height growth is well past and crown isolation has taken place. The ability of the intermediate trees in young stands to recover rapidly from the effects of close crowding, permits the cutting of the largest trees in such stands and the leaving of the slender, clear-stemmed intermediate trees to form the mature stand.
In Plate VI, fig. 1, which shows the cross section of a stem of shortleaf pine, is to be seen the results of accelerated and sus- tained growth which are due to repeated light thinnings. The crowded condition of the inner rings of growth show that the tree was a slender, intermediate tree before its crown was freed by the
18 SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA
original thinning, made, as shown by the number of wide rings, forty-seven years before the tree was cut. Several thinAings, made since the original thinning, have prevented any marked decline in the comparatively rapid rate of growth which took place after the crown of the tree was originally freed of overcroAvding. The rate of growth is one inch of radius every eleven years, or about one inch in diameter every five years '(the bark thickening as well as the wood), — an excellent average rate of growth to seek to main- tain in the trees of a stand. It produces timber suitable for the highest classes of uses.
METHOD OF THINNING
The several thinnings are for the benefit of the final cutting and unless the thinnings are made at a profit, the yield of the final cutting must be far heavier as a result of the thinnings in order to make them worth while. In young stands then, it is possible to distribute a portion of the thinnings in the dominant class; in old stands, thinnings must be largely restricted to the suppressed and intermediate classes. Stands more than twenty years old, which have never been thinned, require heavier thin- nings than stands of the same age which have been thinned pre- viously.
Sapling Stands (Younger than Tweny Years}. — Thinnings ol sapling stands are seldom possible on account of the expense of making them and the small amount and poor character of the wood obtained. Under average conditions of growth, the wood which could be cut in a thinning in such a young stand would be from two to four inches in diameter and would make only a poor quality of fuel. Thinnings at this age are not recommended unless the wood can be used. (Plate II).
Small Pole Stands (From Twenty to Thirty Years Old). — A crowded stand twenty-five years old contains a number of large trees eight or nine inches in diameter breasthigh; and a few even ten inches ; many of which are in the advance growth, two or more years older than the average age of the stand. Such trees are fre- quently bushy and very limby, with wide-spreading crowns. Usu- ally all of the nine and ten-inch trees in such a stand and many of the eight-inch trees can be cut. These will furnish a small quan- tity of saw timber. In addition to the large trees, all of the trees below four inches, and usually about one-half of the five-inch trees can be removed. If no previous thinning has been made, about
SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA 19
200 trees five inches and larger could be cut to the acre. These should yield about ten cords of wood, of which the material above nine inches might be sawed into about 500 board feet of lumber. About 900 trees should be left to the acre. A thinning in a twenty- year-old stand should yield much less, and one in a stand more tnan twenty-five years old should yield more and leave fewer trees, per acre. At these ages trees are making very rapid growth, and the branches of the crowns are sharpiy ascending, so that com- paratively large openings are more quickly covered than in older stands. For this reason thinnings at this period present no seri- our difficulties, but it is desirable even in making a thinning at this age to have in view the trees which are to form the final stand and these should be the tree with very slender and clean stems, that will yield several logs, and from which lumber can be sawed free or nearly free from any except small knots. For the relative value of these trees compared with the larger dominant trees in a stand, see table 16. (Plate I).
Large Pole Stands (From Thirty to Forty Years Old). — All trees below six inches, most of the six-inch trees, and some of the seven and eight-inch trees, should be removed from a normal thirty-five-year-old stand. If no previous thinning has been made,, not less than 200 trees could be cut, many of which would, how- ever, be five inches or less in diameter. If a thinning has previ- ously been made, there would be. few«r trees to come out. A first thinning at this time should yield from fourteen to seventeen cords to the acre. Fewer trees are removed than in thinnings in ycunger stands, and greater judgment must be used in making selections. The method of cutting in strips can be economically used only by farmers who either do their own logging or who can personally superintend it. (Plate IV).
Mature Stands (From Forty to Fifty Years Old].—\i a stand of this age has been previously thinned, about ninety trees to the acre would be available for removal, comprising a few six-inch trees which could not have been removed earlier without making undue openings in the crown cover, many seven-inch and eight- inch trees, and some nine-inch trees. If it were a crowded stand, not previously thinned, from 100 to 200 trees to the acre might be taken out, with a yield of not less than ten cords of wood per acre. However, unless the stumpage value of trees from fourteen to sixteen inches in diameter is greater than that of trees from twelve to fourteen inches, a size which the trees reach when about
20
SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA
forty-five years old, timber is produced at the lowest cost by cut- ting when the stand is about this age (see tables 12 and 17). Under ordinary conditions, the stand would be cut for lumber, and not thinned, at this period. (Plate V).
This method of thinning crowded stands is based on the average crowded stand.
Typical Stands. — Table I shows approximately the average number of trees of each diameter from four inches up, which were found in irregularly thinned stands growing under average condi- tions. This table is approximately correct for the average of a number of stands, but any individual stand at a given age will probably show considerable variation from it, both in the total number of trees per acre and in the number of trees in each class, since slight differences in the quality of the soil affect the number of trees to the acre at any age, and the degree of thinning in- fluences both the number of trees and their size. It shows, how- ever, the rapid elimination of the smaller trees, which are the ones which should be chiefly removed in the thinnings, and it will serve as a guide to indicate about the number of trees of each size which should be taken out at each thinning. The stands which have been grouped as thinned stands in some cases were undoubtedly natur- ally thinly stocked and their density has been further affected by artificial thinnings. For this reason the favorable conditions of these stands can not be entirely ascribed to thinnings.
TABLE 1.
Approximate number of trees four inches and over in diameter to the acre in unsystematically thinned stands of shortleaf pine (the twenty-year- old stand is unthinned}.
Age of stand Years |
DIAMETKB BRKAST HIGH— INCHES |
|||||||||||||||
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
8 |
9 |
10 |
11 |
12 |
13 |
14 |
15 |
16 |
17 |
I 18 |
Total |
|
20 "25 30 35 40 45 50 55 30 65 70 |
600 203 70 2 |
400 278 170 76 8 |
300 228 176 121 84 28 6 |
50 154 136 111 91 63 34 12 2 |
10 92 106 118 115 97 70 34 18 10 3 |
1,360 970 765 615 505 420 355 289 250 218 195 |
||||||||||
10 69 87 83 74 63 48 33 17 11 |
5 25 46 58 64 63 53 42 30 21 |
. . |
• ' |
. . |
. |
|||||||||||
10 23 37 46 50 52 42 36 27 |
1 9 20 30 37 41 42 3^ 31 |
2 8 13 21 26 83 35 32 |
||||||||||||||
1 4 9 15 21 26 28 |
1 2 7 12 16 20 |
1 5 9 14 |
3 7 |
1 |
||||||||||||
SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA
21
Table 2 shows for two stands about forty-five years old the effect of thinning in increased board yield and in the distribu- tion of diameter classes. One is a crowded stand which has never been thinned; the other has been thinned for fifteen years in a desultory manner. Had the thinnings been systematically made, better results would have followed. The large number of trees between ten and fifteen inches in diameter in the thinned stand is noteworthy.
TABLE 2.
Effect of thinning on board-foot yield of shortleaf pine and the distribit- tion of diameter classes (two stands about forty-five years old).
NUMBER OF TREES OF EACH |
||
DIAMETER TO THB ACRE |
||
DIAMETER OF TREES BREAST HIGH |
Unthinned |
Thinned |
stand |
stand |
|
4 |
16 |
8 |
5 |
52 |
10 |
6 |
168 |
32 |
7 |
124 • |
38 |
8 |
112 |
32 |
9 |
84 |
74 |
10-12 |
56 |
132 |
13-15 |
8 |
18 |
Total live trees |
620 |
344 |
Dead trees (all diameters) |
176 |
16 |
Yield in board feet from trees 9 inches and |
||
over in diameter .... |
12,740 |
18,770 |
Cords of stem wood with bark to the acre . . . |
61 |
50 |
Table 3 shows the average height of the trees in stands at different ages, and the average diameter of all trees in unthinned and irregularly thinned stands:
22 SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA
TABLE 3.
Average height and average diameter of all trees in fully-stocked stands of
shortleaf vine.
! |
|||
AVERAGE DIAMETER OF ALL TREES |
|||
Age of stand |
Avprage Height of Merchantable stand |
||
Unthlnned crowded |
Thinned stands |
||
stands |
|||
Years |
Feet |
Inches |
Inches |
20 |
32 |
4.0 |
4.0 |
25 |
37 |
4.8 |
6.3 |
30 |
42 |
6.5 |
6.4 |
^35 |
47 |
6.2 |
7.3 |
40 |
61 |
6.7 |
8.2 |
45 |
55 |
7.3 |
8.9 |
60 |
58 |
7.7 |
9.6 |
55 |
«1 |
8.1 |
10.1 |
60 |
63 |
8.5 |
10.7 |
Table 4 shows the number of trees nine inches and over in diameter breast high in unthinned and irregularly thinned stands, and the average diameter of such trees.
TABLE 4.
Average diameter and number of trees nine inches and over in fully-stocked thinned and unthinned stands of shortleaf pine of different ages.
CROWDED UNTHIWMED STANDS |
THINNED STANDS |
|||
Age of |
Number of Trees per |
Average Diameter of |
Number of Trees per |
Average Diameter of |
stand |
Acre |
Trees |
Acre |
Trees |
Years |
Inches |
Inches |
||
] |
||||
20 |
||||
25 |
1 |
9.1 |
15 |
9.3 |
30 |
7 |
9.3 |
105 |
9.6 |
35 |
47 |
95 |
167 |
10.0 |
40 |
88 |
96 |
207 |
10.4 |
45 |
125 |
98 |
232 |
10.8 |
50 |
156 |
9.9 |
245 |
11 1 |
55 |
182 |
10.1 |
243 |
114 |
60 |
200 |
10.3 |
230 |
11.7 |
65 |
213 |
10.5 |
208 |
120 |
70 |
210 |
10.7 |
192 |
12.8 |
SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA
PKODUCTION OF CORDWOOD FROM THINNED AND UNTHINNED STANDS
The yield of cordwood* is determined rather by the number of trees than by the size of the individual trees. The most crowded stands usually yield most heavily, and the yield appre- ciably declines as the stands become more open. This has a great influence upon the yield of old stands, since after the thirty-fifth year there is practically no increase in the yield in cords of un- thinned stands, on account of the rapid dying of the smaller trees. For this reason, thinnings are not so profitable for the production of cordwood as for the production of saw timber; though the trees which would die are saved, and some additional growth is secured. If regular thinnings are made at intervals of five years, then at the age of forty-five years the increased yield, including the thin- nings, is only thirty-three per cent., as against an eighty per cent.
TABLE 5.
Yield of thinned and unthinned stands in cords — Trees three inches and
over in diameter.
UNTHINNED STANDS |
THINNED STANDS -YIELD OF THINNINGS |
||||||
Age of stand |
Volume at Different Ages |
Volume of stand be fore each Thinning |
N um be r o f Trees which can be remov • en In each Thinning |
A p proxi- mate a v erage diameter of Trees removed |
Volume of Trees removed In each Thinning |
Total of all previous , Total Thinnings i of Thin- atany* Din8« Cutting *nd,* period Stand* |
|
Years |
Cords |
Cords |
Inches |
Cor |
Cords Cords |
||
(1) |
(2) |
til |
(4) |
(5) |
(6) |
(7) |
(8) |
20 |
47 |
47.0 |
930 |
3.3 |
6 1 |
47.0 |
|
26 |
57 |
52.0 |
205 |
4.5 |
5.1 |
6.1 |
58.1 |
30 |
62 |
570 |
150 |
5.0 |
5.0 |
11.2 |
68.2 |
85 |
64 |
60.0 |
110 |
5.5 |
48 |
162 |
76.2 |
40 |
6* |
60.0 |
85 |
6.0 |
4.3 |
21 0 |
81.0 |
45 |
64 |
59.0 |
68 |
fi.5 |
40 |
25.3 |
84.3 |
50 |
63 |
570 |
55 |
7.0 |
36 |
293 |
863 |
55 |
61 |
54.5 |
45 |
7.6 |
32.9 |
87.4 |
*Column 8 Is the sum of columns 3 and 7.
*Unless otherwise stated, all references to cords are to standard cords of 128 cubic feet, and the corded wood is measured with the bark on. Standard cords can be converted into long cords of 160 cubic feet by dividing by 1.25 or by multiplying by 4-5. Either standard or long cords with bark can be converted into cords without bark by multiplying by .77, if the wood comes from trees which average less than 7 inches in diameter, or multiplying by .82 if the trees average a larger diameter.
24
SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA
increase obtained at the same age by the thinning for lumber. Unless the value of cordwood increases with the diameter of the wood (as it should if the wood is used for heading or stave bolts) no added value per cord is secured by thinnings.
The yield in standard cords, stem wood with' bark, of thinned and. tfn thin ried stands of shortleaf pine of different ages is shown in Table 5.
Table 6 shows the approximate number of trees to the acre in crowded stands of different ages, and in thinned stands. The dif- ference between the number of trees in an unthinned stand and in the same stand five years after it has been thinned indicates approximately the number of trees which should be removed from the unthinned stand. In practice, it probably would be best to make two or more thinnings before reducing the number of trees in an old, crowded sfand to the number in a normal, thinned stand.
TABLE 6.
Approximate number of trees of shortleaf pine to the acre in crowded and
thinned stands.
TOTAL NUMBER OF TREES PER ACRE |
|||
Age of stand |
Crowded Unthinned stand' |
Thinned stands |
Number which can be removed from a previously Unthinned stand |
Years |
|||
20 |
1,950 |
1,250 |
980 |
25 |
1,440 |
970 |
675 |
30 |
1,235 |
765 |
620 |
35 |
1,030 |
615 |
525 |
40 |
860 |
505 |
440 |
45 |
710 |
420 |
355 |
50 |
535 |
355 |
|
Maximum Yield of Cordwood. — The maximum yield in cords is obtained earlier than the maximum yield in board feet. The best stands more than fifty years old give no heavier yield in cords than younger stands, because they have few trees to the acre, while neglected stands in which disintegregation is taking place show even a decline in the volume.
PLATE IV.
A crowded, large pole stand of shortleaf pine 40 years old, badly In need of thinning by removing the smaller pines and many of the hardwoods. Condition of larger trees, with Jong, smooth bodies, excellent.
SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA TABLE 7.
25
Yearly increment of. shortleaf pine in cords (stem-wood and bark) of all trees three inches and over in diameter, breasthigh.
UNTHINNBJ |
> STANDS |
THINNED |
STANDS |
|
Age of |
Average Annual |
Periodic Annual Increment for each |
Average Annual increment in- |
Periodic Annual Increment for each |
stand |
Increment |
5-year Period |
cluding Thinnings |
5-year Period |
Years |
Cords |
Cords |
Cords |
Cords |
20 |
2 3 |
2.3 |
||
25 |
2.2 |
2. |
2.3 |
2.2 |
30 |
2.1 |
1. |
2.3 |
2.0 |
35 |
1.9 |
.5 |
2.2 |
1.6 |
40 |
1.7 |
.4 |
2. |
decrease |
45 |
1.3 |
decrease |
1.8 |
M |
50 |
1.2 |
1 1 |
1.7 |
« |
55 |
1.1 |
M |
1.6 |
i< |
60 |
.8 |
" |
• • . |
*' |
In both thinned and unthinned stands on average sites the maximum yield in cords per acre is obtained by cutting between the. ages of twenty and twenty-five years, at which time a yield of fifty-seven cords per acre can be secured, or an average of 2.2 cords an acre a year. The size of the wood which is obtained at that time is, however, much smaller than that from older stands, and this fact affects its value.
SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA
TABLE 8.
Cost per cord of growing shortleaf pine cordwood, stemwood with bark, in unthinned and thinned stands; including thinnings, land value $5.00 an acre, interest rate five per cent, and one per cent yearly in addition for taxes and protection.
THINNBD STANDS |
|||||||||
Accumulated |
UNTHINNKD STANDS |
||||||||
Cost of Land, |
THINNINGS |
Net |
|||||||
Age |
at $5 per Acre, |
cost |
Cost |
||||||
stand |
5 per cent, in- terest, 1 per cent, added for taxes, less val- ue of land* |
Final yield |
Cost of grow- ing per cordf |
Amount |
Assumed value per cord |
Accu- mula- ted value! |
per Acre of pro- ducing |
Final yield |
of grow- ing cor' |
Crop§ |
|||||||||
Years |
Cords |
Cords |
Cords |
||||||
(1) |
(2) |
(3) |
(4) |
(5) |
( |
(7) |
(8) |
(9) |
(10) |
20 |
$11.04 |
47 |
$ .23 |
6.1 |
$ .10 |
$11.04 |
47 |
$.23 |
|
25 |
1646 |
57 |
.28 1 |
5.1 |
.15 |
$ .78 |
1568 |
52 |
.30 |
30 |
9372 |
62 |
.38 |
5.0 |
.20 |
1.97 |
21.75 |
57 |
.38 |
35 |
33.43 |
64 |
.52 |
4.8 |
.25 |
3.79 |
29.64 |
60 |
.49 |
40 |
46.43 |
65 |
.81 |
4.3 |
25 |
6.37 |
40.06 |
60 |
.66 |
45 |
63.82 |
64 |
.99 |
4.0 |
.25 |
9.50 |
54.33 |
59 |
.92 |
. 50 |
87.10 |
63 |
1.38 |
'R 40 |
7370 |
57 |
1.30 |
||
* Column 2 i< obtained by calculating the Interest at 5 per cent, plus l per cent, for taxes, making a total of 6 per cent., compounded annually on a land value of $5 per acre. Since tue land will remain after the timber is sold, its value is not included in the cost oi growing.
t Column 4 is obtained by dividing column 2 by column 3.
j Column 7 is the product of columns 5 and 6 compounded at 5 per cent every 5-year period. Tha value of wood removed in thinnings (column 6) is only nominal on ac- count of its small size and the difficulty of making thlnnings-
§ Column 8 is the remainder after deducting column 7 from column 2.
$ Column 10 is obtained from dividing column 8 by column 9.
Cost of Growing Cordwood. — Table 8 shows the cost of growing cordwood in both thinned and unthinned stands at a five per cent, interest rate.
PRODUCTION OF SAW TIMBER
Influence of Density of Stand Upon Yield of Saw Timber at
Different Ages.
Maximum yield in lumber is obtained neither from stands which are continuously very crowded nor from understocked stands, but from stands which are periodically and lightly thinned after having been crowded.
The most marked effect of thinnings in crowded stands is 111 the amount and quality of the yield in board feet. The stands which were measured to determine the effects of thinnings had been thinned in no definite manner; in some cases only the smaller trees, in other cases also some of the larger ones, had been cut out.
SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA
27
as farm needs required. Some of these thinned stands were evi- dently somewhat understocked; some were still too crowded; and others, at the time the measurements were made, had not had time to respond fully to the thinnings. It is probable that by sys- tematic thinnings of the kind recommended the yield shown in the tables could be further increased ten or even twenty per cent.
Table 9 shows the yield of stands which have different numbers of trees to the acre; in other words the yield is of under- stocked, thinned, and crowded stands. The yield is based on cut- ting to nine inches in diameter breasthigh, which is equivalent to about eleven inches on the stump. In the understocked stands the crown cover is practically as complete as in the thinned and crowded ones, but all the trees are low and short-bodied and few slender or dead trees are present. (Plate III).
TABLE 9.
Yield of stands of shortleaf pine having different numbers of trees per acre, (influence of density of stands upon yield of saw timber).
AVERAGE UNDBRSTOCKED STANDS |
FULLY STOCKED STANDS WHICH HAVE BEEN THINNED |
CROWDED STANDS, UNTHINNED |
||||
Age Years |
Number of Trees to the Acre |
Yield in Board Feet |
Number of Trees to the Acre |
Yield in Board Feet |
Number of Trees to the Acre |
Yield in Board Feet |
30 40 50 60 |
350 300 150 100 |
3,800 5,700 6,900 7,800 |
765 505 355 255 |
8,400 16,400 20,400 23,000 |
1,235 860 535 395 |
200 6.000 13,100 16,800 |
The yield of an understocked stand when more than thirty years old is only about one-half of that obtainable from a fully stocked stand of the same age, after thinning. Many of the trees in open, understocked stands attain a diameter of nine or more inches sooner than do trees in crowded stands, for in crowded stands the continued competition retards the diameter growth of the individual trees. This explains why crowded stands thirty years old are not producing merchantable timber.
In the average understocked stand the cost of growing the timber is far in excess of its present stumpage price. This is largely due to the small yield. If sold at $2 per thousand board feet, timber from understocked stands pays less than two per cent, on the assumed investment of $5 an acre.
28
SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA
Table 10 shows the influence of density upon the cost per 1,000 board feet of growing shortleaf pine stumpage in old-field stands, based on net returns at five per cent., taxes one per cent, in addition, land value $5 an acre.
TABLE 10.
Influence of number" of trees, or of density of stand on cost of growing 1,000 board feet in old-field stands of shortleaf pine.
Age |
Accumulated Cost of the |
AVERAGE UNDER- STOCKED STANDS |
CROWDED, UN- THINNED STANDS |
THINNED STANDS NEG- LKCTING VALUE OF THINNINGS |
|||
of |
Investment |
||||||
stand |
per Acre |
Yield |
Cost |
Yield |
Cost |
Yield |
Cost |
less the Value of the |
per Acre |
per Mft |
per Acre |
MP6frt. |
per Acre |
per M ft. |
|
Land |
|||||||
Years |
Bd. ft. |
Bd. ft. |
Bd ft. |
||||
30 |
$ 23.72 |
3,800 |
$ 630 |
8,400 |
$ 2.82 |
||
40 |
46.43 |
5,700 |
8.10 |
6,000 j $ 7,73 |
16,400 |
2.83 |
|
50 |
87.10 |
6,900 |
1260 |
13,100 |
6.65 |
20,400 |
4.27 |
60 |
159.90 |
7,800 |
20.51 |
15,000 |
10.66 |
23000 |
6 82 |
At every age if thinnings are made without loss, the cost of growing stumpage in fully stocked thinned stands is less than the cost of growing it either in crowded or understocked stands. If thinnings do not pay lor themselves the cost is higher, and if they pay a profit, the cost is lower.
Age of Cutting for Maximum Yield. — The maximum annual yield in board feet from trees nine inches and over in diameter breasthigh is obtained from thinned stands when they are cut at forty-eight years of age. At that time in such a stand, the aver- age annual yield per acre is about 410 board feet, and the diameter of the average-sized tree is about 9.5 inches breasthigh, or 11.5 inches on the stump.
For unthinned stands, the maximum anrm-al yield is obtained by cutting when about fifty-seven years old. The average dia- meter of the trees in such a stand is about 8 . 2 inches at breast- height or 9.8 inches on the stump. Table 11 shows the yearly increment in board feet of trees nine incnes and over in diameter breasthigh.
SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA TABLE 11.
29
Annual increment per acre in board feet of trees of shortleaf pine nine inches and over in diameter breasthigh.
THINNNED STAND (THINNINGS NEGLECTED) |
UNTHINNED STAND |
|||
Age of stand |
Average Annual |
Periodic Annual Increment for |
Average Annual |
Periodic Annual Increment for |
Increment |
each Decade |
Increment |
each Decade |
|
Years |
Board feet |
Board feet |
Board feet |
Board feet |
30 |
280 |
|||
40 |
410 |
800 |
150 |
|
50 |
408 |
400 |
268 |
710 |
60 |
383 |
260 |
250 |
190 |
70 |
357 |
200 |
238 |
170 |
Cost af Growing Saw Timber. — If only the maximum annual yield were to be considered in growing, timber it would undoubt- edly be advisable in all cases to hold timber until this could be secured. The cost of carrying the investment, however, is a factor which cannot be overlooked. The land has a sale value, and taxes are paid upon it yearly. In addition, the cost of protection, such as maintaining fences, extinguishing fires, etc., must often be borne.
In making a calculation of the cost of growing timber it is necessary to determine, from the time stocking took place to the time when the timber is out, the accumulated taxes paid on the land and the interest compounded annually on the investment represented by the value of the land and the cost of stocking it. In making this calculation, both the actual and tax assessment value of the land has been assumed to be $5 an acre for the entire period of growth. The tax rate and other expenses are assumed to be one per cent, on this valuation. If the owner is content with a gross interest of six per cent, on his investment, then the net rate, after deducting taxes and other expenses, will be five per cent, a year.
In the old-field stands there is no cost of stocking to consider. The profits of thinnings are supposed to be the same as those given in column 7, Table 8, for cordwood.
In order to obtain a six per cent, investment which, after allowing one per cent, per annum for taxes and protection, will yield five per cent, net, the following yields and prices must be secured. The value of the land is placed at $5 an acre. If stump-
30
SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA
age is sold at less than the cost of growing 1,000 board feet, or if the stands cut less than the amounts given at the different ages, less than five per cent, net is obtained on the investment. If stumpage is sola at a higher price and the value of the land is not more than $5 an acre, then the investment will yield more than five per cent.
TABLE 12.
Cost of growing shortleaf pine saw-timber in unthinned and thinned stands, including thinnings. Land value $5 an acre; interest rate five per cent; one per cent in addition allowed for taxes.
UNTHINNKD STAND |
THINNED STAND |
|||||
Age |
||||||
of stand |
Accumulated Cost of In- vestment Land at So an acre, 5# interest, \<£ added for taxes, less cost of land |
Yield Bd. ft. |
Cost of growing per M bd. ft. |
Net Cost per acre of producing crop* |
Final yield |
Cost of growing per M bd.ft. |
Years |
Bd. ft. |
|||||
20 |
$11.04 |
$11.04 |
||||
25 |
16.46 |
15.68 |
900 |
$17.00 |
||
30 |
23.72 |
200 |
21.75 |
8,400 |
2.59 |
|
35 |
33.43 |
1,400 |
$23.80 |
29.64 |
13.400 |
2.21 |
40 |
46.43 |
6000 |
7.64 |
40.06 |
16,400 |
2.44 |
45 |
63.82 |
10,200 |
6.25 |
54.33 |
18,700 |
2.90 |
50 |
87.10 |
13,106 |
6.70 |
73.70 |
20,400 |
3.61 |
* After deducting value of thinnings as shown in Table 8.
The cheapest cost of production, with interest at five per cent, and taxes at one per cent., or six per cent, for both is $6.25 a thousand board feet from unthinned stands and $2.21 from thinned stands.
The period when the cost of growing the timber is the lowest is known as the financial maturity. If timber is held longer than the period of financial maturity, there must be a considerable ad- vance in its value to cover the cost of carrying it, 'that is, the accumulated interest and taxes, and this is particularly true of old stands the volume of which is increasing very slowly or per- haps actually declining.
The owner of timberland is interested in knowing the rate of iiiterest he may expect from his investment when the product sells at a give price. Tables 13 and 14 show the interest yielded by stands of old-field pine at different ages, with the land worth $5 an acre and with stumpage selling at $2 a thousand feet and cordwood at twentv-five cents a cord. In table 14
SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA
31
for cordwood from a thinned stand, it is assumed that thinnings produce the returns allowed in column 7, Table 8.
In the table for board feet from a thinned stand, thinnings are supposed to be made without either profit or loss. The inter- est yielded is gross, and includes taxes and the cost of protection — items which would usually amount to about one per cent, of the land value and would correspondingly reduce the returns.
TABLE 13. SAW TIMBER STUMPAGE AT $2 A THOUSAND BOARD FEET.
Gross rate per cent yielded by stands of old-field pine on a land value of
$5 on acre.*
THINNED STAND |
UNTHINNKD STAND |
|||||
Age of •tand |
Yield per Acre |
Value of stand neglecting Thinnings |
Gross rate per cent. Yielded on Land Value |
Yield per Acre |
Value of stand |
Gross rate per cent. Yielded on Laud Value |
Years |
Bi. ft. |
Per cent. |
Bd. ft. |
Per cent. |
||
30 |
8,400 |
$16.80 |
4.3 |
|||
35 |
13 400 |
26 80 |
5 0 |
|||
40 |
16,400 |
32.80 |
50 |
6,000 |
$12.00 |
2.5 |
45 |
18,700 |
37.40 |
4.5 |
10,200 |
20.40 |
3.2 |
50 |
20,400 |
40.80 |
4.0 |
13,100 |
26.20 |
3.3 |
TABLE 14. CORDWOOD STUMPAGE OF FINAL YIELD AT 25 CENTS A CORD.
Gross rate per cent yielded by stands of shortleaf pine in old-field with a land value of $5 an acre.*
THINNED STAND |
UNTHINNED STAND |
|||||
Age of stand |
Final yield |
Total Value, per Acre, including Ac- cumulated Value of Thinnings at 4£ |
Gross rate per cent, Yielded on Land Value |
Yield per Acre |
Value of stand |
Gross rate yer cent. Yielded on Land Value |
Years |
Cords |
compound interest |
Per cent. |
Cords |
Per cent. |
|
20 |
47 |
49 |
$11.75 |
4 3 |
||
25 |
52 |
$13.74 |
4.0 |
57 |
1425 |
4.2 |
30 |
57 |
16.08 |
4.0 |
62 |
15.50 |
3.8 |
35 |
60 |
18.44 |
3.8 |
64 |
16.00 |
3.5 |
4o |
60 |
19.65 |
3.6 |
65 |
16.25 |
3.0 |
45 |
59 |
23.94 |
3.5 |
64 |
16.00 |
28 |
50 |
57 |
26.43 |
3.2 |
63 |
15.75 |
2.5 |
Gross rate per cent, includes taxes and cost of protection as well as the Interest on the investment.
32
SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA
VALUE OF TREES AND STANDS
The lumber from second-growth stands of shortleaf pine, when , awed into boards one inch thick and graded according to the rules of the North Carolina Pine Association, sells for a high- er price than if it is sold ungraded, or than if it is sold in the form of framing. The lumber which is sawed from young stands less than 35 years old is as a rule too narrow, and that from stands in which the trees have not been crowded, is too knotty to justify grading. The older the stand the more valuable becomes the lum- ber which can be cut from it not only on account of greater widths but also a larger proportion of the high grade.,. If the trees of different diameters in a crowded stand which is about 50 years old (the age of maturity) are carefully sawed into boards of even width and uniform thickness, they will yield approximately the amounts of the different grades of lumber which are given in Table 15. The figures in this table are based on actual measure- ments of grades which were made at a mill where trees of these sizes and age were being cut.
TABLE 15.
Total volumes in board feet, and the amount of the grades of lumber in trees of different diameters and heights in dense stands of short- leaf pine 45 to 60 years old.
Diameter breast- high Inches |
Total height Feet |
N u m ber of 16 foot logs |
Diameter inside bark at the top Inches |
AMOUNTS OF THB DIFFKRKNT GKADES SAWED FROM TREES |
Total volume 1-4 inch 8aw kerf Bd. ft. |
|||||
No. 1. |
No. 2. B o |
No. 3. a r d |
Box or frm'g F e |
Other grades e t |
||||||
7 |
48 |
ft |
5.0 |
4 |
12 |
6 |
22 |
|||
8 |
53 |
il |
6.0 |
2 |
6 |
14 |
6 |
28 |
||
9 |
57 |
2 |
6.5 |
4 |
13 |
15 |
6 |
38 |
||
10 |
62 |
2* |
6.5 |
4 |
8 |
18 |
•19 |
6 |
55 |
|
11 |
66 |
2* |
6.5 |
8 |
12 |
25 |
28 |
6 |
79 |
|
12 |
70 |
3 |
7.0 |
18 |
23 |
27 |
35 |
6 |
109 |
|
13 |
75 |
3 |
7.0 |
26 |
33 |
37 |
40 |
6 |
142 |
|
14 |
78 |
3 |
7.5 |
32 |
38 |
48 |
56 |
7 |
J81 |
|
15 |
80 |
a |
7.5 |
47 |
40 |
63 |
67 |
9 |
228 |
|
16 |
80 |
3; |
8.0 |
70 |
48 |
75 |
/H |
U |
280 |
|
17 |
10 |
3, |
8.0 |
74 |
60 |
104 |
87 |
13 |
338 |
|
18 |
81 |
3j |
8.0 |
83 |
76 |
120 |
103 |
16 |
398 |
|
19 |
81 |
3; |
8.5 |
92 |
92 |
143 |
115 |
18 |
400 |
|
20 |
81 |
3^ |
90 |
105 |
115 |
167 |
122 |
18 |
527 |
|
21 |
81 |
3i |
9.0 |
120 |
J3S |
197 |
125 |
18 |
598 |
|
22 |
81 |
3| |
9.0 |
136 |
163 |
230 |
129 |
20 |
678 |
The smaller trees in stands of this age are long-bodied and clear stemmed, have very little taper and thin bark, and, although
OF VIRGINIA 15
the Pacific Coast States were called on to meet uses in Virginia in competition with the eastern woods. They were Douglas fir, West- ern red cedar, and sugar pine. Eleven foreign woods were reported, some of them at high prices. The uses of these foreign and all of the domestic woods will be referred to later on in this report, under the discussions of individual industries.
Nearly 45 per cent of the wood used by the Virginia manufac- turers was cut from the forests of other States. The principal States and their products are as follows :
Loblolly Pine North Carolina.
Shortleaf Pine North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia.
Longleaf Pine North Carolina, South Carolina, Florida, Ala- bama and Georgia.
Red Gum North Carolina and South Carolina.
Yellow Poplar North Carolina, West Virginia and Tennessee.
Red Oak North Carolina, West Virginia and Tennessee.
Cotton Gum (Tupelo) North Carolina and South Carolina.
Hickory North Carolina and West Virginia.
Chestnut North Carolina and West Virginia.
Black Gum North Carolina.
Southern White Cedar. .. .North Carolina, South Carolina and Florida.
Cypress North Carolina, South Carolina and Florida.
Ash Morth Carolina, West Virginia and Tennessee.
White Pine North Carolina, West Virginia, Tennessee and
Lake States.
Locust North Carolina and West Virginia.
Sugar Maple Pennsylvania and Lake States.
Beech West Virginia.
Sycamore West Virginia, Indiana and North Carolina.
Sweet Birch West Virginia and Lake States.
Spruce West Virginia and North Carolina.
Cottonwood Ohio and Indiana.
Hemlock West Virginia.
Dogwood North Carolina.
Cherry was the most expensive domestic wood, with an average price of $97.40 per thousand board feet. The Pacific Coast woods had the next highest prices and sugar pine led. It was purchased for $68.38. Of the Eastern woods the most expensive was red cedar at $36.48. The price shown for black walnut is surprising. It follows red cedar at an average of $35.85. The cheapest wood was cotton gum, costing $9.65. There is $1.82 difference in the price of cotton gum and black gum. Hemlock is the lowest priced conifer, and white elm next to cotton gum the cheapest hardwood.
STATE GROWN WOODS.
Only a little more than one-ihalf of the material used by the Virginia manufacturers was State grown. This does mot mean that the State forests were incapable of furnishing more, because the lumber cut of the Virginia sawmills for 1909 was considerably more than five
1 6 WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES
times that consumed by the wood users. Several conditions, however, favor the use of shipped-in material. Industries near the borders draw their raw material from nearby localities, irrespective of State boundaries. The railroads entering the large consuming centers of Eastern Virginia from the South, facilitate the use of lumber from Southern States rather than material shipped from the far western part of the State. Virginia sawmills probably secured better mar- kets for their rough lumber in the Northern States than at home,, while manufacturers on the other hand purchased more advantageous- ly from sawmills farther South.
Virginia is divided naturally into three well-recognized regions, according to the chacteristic growth of the timber and to soil and surface conditions. They are the Tidewater Region, the Piedmont Region and the Mountain Region. The Tidewater Region is the noted pine section of Virginia, where the first exploitation of the forest be- gan, and from where the largest portion of the lumber credited to Virginia has always been manufactured. Loblolly and shortleaf ex- tensively, and scrub and long-leaf pines in infrequent stands; are native of this part of the State, On the lower lands mixed with the pine are gums, water oak, hickory, and in the swamp and inundated areas, willows, cypress and Southern white cedar (juniper) grow. The Piedmont Region presents frequent areas of shortleaf pine standing on the old fields, and in the northern part of this section the scrub pine (Finns virginiana) prevails. Red cedar, oaks, yellow poplar, chest- nut, ashes, and! hickories, and otiher miscellaneous hardwoods abound. This region is the principal farming center and the tree stands are con- fined entirely to farm forests. The Mountain region is mainly a hard- wood section and furnishes a large part of the virgin growths still standing in Virginia. The white pine stands belong to this region of the State ; but scrub pine is scattered throughout the hardwoods. Red spruce, extending its range from West Virginia, is cut in large quanti- ties in several localities of this region. Table 2 gives the kinds and the amounts in board feet, of the home grown woods, and furnishes a com- parison with the woods grown outside of the State as reported by the manufacturers.
ILLUSTRATION II. VIRGINIA LOBLOLLY PINE: CUT IN THE COASTAL REGION, SHOWING THE; AMOUNT OF SAPWOOD.
14
. -.. . ' , "' «/"_' " ; •
ILLUSTRATION III. A SPECIMEN WHITE OAK IN THE HARDWOOD FOREST off THE MOUNTAIN REGION.
PLATE V.
Mature stand of shortleaf pine. Trees nearly uniform in size and ready to be cut for lumber. Groups of slender, \vindfirm trees can be left for seed trees.
SHORTLEAF PINE IX VIRGINIA
33
the boards which can be sawed from such trees are narrow, they are comparatively free from knots and will justify grading if handled in connection with the wider boards from the larger trees. Trees of the same size in younger stands are more tapering and more knotty, and the lumber is of lower grade.
Air-dried lumber of the different grades, consisting of mix- ed width, but less than 12 inches wide, is quoted (November, 1912) at the following prices per 1,000 board feet, delivered at Norfolk, Eichmond, Petersburg, Lynchburg, and Roanoke: No. 1, $26; No. 2, $24; No. 3, $20; Box, $18; Eed heart and cull, $16; Bark strip, Nos. 1 & 2, $20; Bark strip, box $12. In Table 16 these values have been applied to the amount of different diameters delivered at Norfolk and the other points named above.
TABLE 16.
Value delivered at Norfolk, Richmond, Petersburg Roanoke, and Lynchburg, of the graded lumber cut from trees of different diameters and heights* grouing in crowded second-growth stands 45 to 60 years old and the value of single trees and their stump- age per 1,000 board feet under different costs of sawing and delivery at thtse points.
Diameter |
Value of lumber de- livered at Norfolk, Rich- mond, etc. |
Stumpage value per tree with expenses of sawing and delivery per 1,000 board ft. at |
|||
brGfist-liIgn. |
From each tree |
Per 1,000 board ft. |
$10 |
$12 |
$14 |
7 |
$ .35 |
$1595 |
1 .13 t |
$ .08 |
$ .40 |
8 |
.47 |
16.40 |
.18 |
.12 |
.06 |
9 |
.66 |
17.40 |
.28 |
.21 |
.13 |
10 |
1.01 |
1835 |
.46 |
.35 |
.24 |
11 |
1 53 |
19.30 |
.74 |
.58 |
.42 |
12 |
2.16 |
19.80 |
1.06 |
.85 |
.63 |
13 |
2.86 |
20.1? |
1.44 1.16 |
.87 |
|
14 |
3.79 |
20.95 |
1.98 1.62 |
1.26 |
|
15 |
4.75 |
21.40 |
2.58 2.12 |
1.67 |
|
16 |
' 6.80 |
22., 50 |
3.58 3.02 2.46 |
||
17 ' |
7.60 |
22.55 |
4.23 3.56 2.89 |
||
18 |
8.95 |
2250 |
4.79 |
4.18 |
3.38 |
19 |
10.40 |
22.45 |
5.73 |
4.81 |
3.89 |
20 |
11.80 |
22.40 |
6.53 |
548 |
4.42 |
21 |
13.40 |
22.40 |
7.41 |
6.22 |
5.02 |
22 |
15.17 |
22.35 |
8.37 |
6.01 |
5.65 |
*Height« which are given in table 15.
tpbtalned by deducting the cost ofsawing and delivery per 1,000 board feet from the de- livered value per 1,000 board feet, reducing the remainder to the value of one board foot and multiplying by the number of board feet per tree as ehown in table 15; thus, $15.95 less 810.00 equal to $5.95— 15.95 divided by 10JO and multiplied by 22 is equal to $.13.
In table 15 the expenses of sawing and delivery, $10; $12; and $14 per 1,000 board feet are supposed to represent a low,
SHORTLEAF PINE IK V1K(J1M.\
a medium, and a high cost of operation, and are made up of the cost of logging, felling, sawing, grading, interest on the investment and carrying charges, cost of selling, delivery at market and load- ing, drying, and profit of the operator. A profit of from $2 to $3 a thousand feet should be allowed in portable mill operations, the profit varying according to the size and length of the oper- ation. It is noteworthy that while the value of the lumber per 1,000 board feet which is yielded by trees of different diameters increases rapidly up to 16 inches in diameter, there is a decline in the value per 1,000 feet of the lumber which is sawed from trees of diameter above 17 inches. This is due to the fact that the largest trees in these stands have larger and more numerous knots in their stems and yield a lower proportion of the high grades of lumber than do the slender, more clean stemmed, intermediate, and suppressed trees.
If the number of trees, of each diameter per acre in a 45- year old stand (see Table 2) be multiplied by the value per tree of each respective diameter, the sum of these amounts will give the total value of the stand per acre, and from this the value per 1,000 feet of the stand. A similar set of values can be determined for trees in younger and older stands. These are given in Table IT.
TABLE 17.
Value per 1,000 board feet of the lumber which can be sawed from dense unthinned stands of short-leaf pine under different costs of manufacture and delivery.
Value per 1,000 board feet under a coat |
|||
Age of stand |
of operation and delivery of |
||
years |
|||
$10 |
$12 |
$14 |
|
30 |
$ 5.40 |
$ 3.40 |
$ 1 40 |
40 |
6.00 |
4.00 |
2.00 |
50 |
7.05 |
5.05 |
3.\)5 |
60 |
8.60 |
6.60 |
4.40 |
70 |
10.05 |
805 |
6.05 |
If the values in Table IT are compared with the cos.t per 1,000 board feet of growing timber, shown in Table 10, it will be seen that the investment, if the stand is unthinned, does not yield five per cent, net, except under a logging cost of $10 and when the stand is cut at the age of 50 years.
In a regularly thinned stand from which the very knotty trees have been systematically removed when the stand was young.
SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA
35
leaving- only the longest-bodied and clearest stemmed trees at each cutting and in which the trees have been forced to large diameters by isolation after the clear stem-length is 50 feet in length, it is believed that the stumpage value can be forced to a value of $8 a 1,000 feet under a logging cost of $12 when 50 years old. This would yield about $250 per acre.
WASTE IN CUTTING SMALL TREES
The following table shows the actual volume in board feet of trees of different diameters and heights when cut with a saw taking a kerf of one-fourth inch; the volume in board feet when scaled by Doyle-Scribner log rule ; the volume of stem, wood only, in cubic feet; the number of board feet, Doyle-Scribner rule, per cubic foot of volume; and the percentage of waste.
TABLE 18..
Volume in board feet and in cubic feet and per cent of waste in sawing trees of shortleaf pine of different diameters.
Volume |
||||||
Diame- ter Breast- high |
Total Height |
Actual as scaled Volume : bv Doyles % inch Scribner Saw Kerf | rule |
Volume of Stem Wood only |
Actual number of Board feet, per Cubic foot |
Per cent, of waste In Stump, Tops, Slabs |
|
Cubic |
and Kerf |
|||||
Inches |
Feet |
Board feet |
Board feet |
feet |
||
7 |
50 |
22 |
8 |
7 |
3. |
75 |
8 |
55 |
28 |
16 |
10 |
3 |
75 |
9 |
60 |
38 |
25 |
13 |
0 |
75 |
10 |
64 |
55 3S |
17 |
3.3 |
72 |
|
11 |
68 |
79 56 |
20 |
4. |
66 |
|
12 |
72 |
109 80 |
24 |
4.5 |
62 |
|
13 |
76 |
142 111 |
29 |
4.9 |
59 |
|
14 |
79 |
181 |
134 |
36 |
5. |
58 |
15 |
82 |
226 |
170 |
45 |
5. |
58 |
i |
The loss in scaling by Doyle- Scriber rule exceeds seventy-five per cent, of the total cubic volume of the stem until the tree reaches a diameter of thirteen inches, breasthigh. This large proportion of waste is an excellent reason for not cutting young stands for saw timber or for not cutting the small trees in old stands unless they are suppressed trees.
LUMBERING AND RESTOCKING
Simultaneously with lumbering comes the subject of securing ri second stand of young pine to replace the one which is cut.
36
SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA
After ordinary culling, such as is practiced for farm use, or in clear cutting stands of pine for lumber or for fuel, hardwoods generally form the main part of the young stand. The reasons for this are explained under the heading "Permanency of Old- Field Pine Stands." To obtain reproduction of pine, it is neces- sary: (1) To cut nearly clean, that there may be abundant light; (2) To leave seed-bearing pine trees scattered over the area or standing nearby; (3) To cut out the large trees of such hard- woods as dogwood, post oak, hickory, persimmon, etc., which have sprung up beneath the pines, and which would suppress many pine seedlings by their shade; (4) To bring as much of the min- eral soil to the surface as possible. The hardwoods should be cut in September, when their sprouting capacity is lowest.
Two methods of cutting are suggested. One method, leaving isolated seed trees, is for use where the entire stand must be cut at one time. The other, cutting in strips, or groups, can be applied when there is a steady market for saAv logs, as when there is a nearby permanent sawmill, or logs can be shipped to such a mill, and when it is possible to make two or more cuttings, not less than five years apart, in a stand, always having in view, however. the development of the valuable long-bodied and clean-stemmed trees (table 16) which are to form the mature stand.
Isolated Seed Trees. — When the saw-timber must be removed at one cutting it is advisable to prepare for the final cutting at the time of the last thinning by developing seed trees. At forty-five years of age, the production of seed by shortleaf pine is still ex- tremely light, particularly in dense stands. If there are no old forest pines which will serve for seed trees within 100 yards of the tract, one object of the last thinning should be to select and develop trees for seed trees.
Vigorous, lasge-crowned trees should be selected for this pur- pose. They should be not less than four to the acre, and should be evenly distributed or else located on the tops of hills or knolls. Their crowns should be entirely freed by heavy thinnings on all sides. This should lead to the production of a heavy crop of cones and fertile seed within five years. If the crowns again crowd be- fore lumbering, they should again be freed by further thinning.
When lumbering takes place, all merchantable trees should be cut except these seed trees, which should be able to produce enough seed in a few years to restock the land. (Plate V). If the seed trees are windfirm they can go over until the next stand is cut;
.
2 it
5 *
SIIORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA &7
if they fall, they can be used without breaking down too many of the small trees in the young stand. Since the period of restock- ing by this method would probably occupy from four to six years, the soil would not be fully used during this time.
Cutting in Strips. — Complete and rapid stocking is better as- sured by cutting in strips, but this method presupposes a continu- ous market for saw logs. The area should be clear-cut over strips not exceeding 200 feet in width, alternating with strips of equal width which are only culled of the smaller trees. On level ground these strips should be at right angles to the roads; on hilly land they should lie up and down the slopes. The wooded strips should be heavily thinned by the removal of all except the largest trees, which should not exceed twenty to the acre, and should be left well isolated. These trees will serve as seed trees, and on account of their large number they should seed the entire area heavily within five to ten years. As soon as a thorough restocking is assured they can be cut. Some of the young trees will be broken down, but the loss will not be serious. The diameter growth of the seed trees after the thinning will be large because of this isola- tion. Blanks ten or more feet square left after the seed trees are cut should be planted by seed spotting as described under the di- rections for planting. The t\vo loggings will increase the danger from fire, requiring additional precautionary measures to be taken.
This method can be varied by leaving the seed trees in groups.
Cutting Unthinned Stands. — Both of the above methods pre- suppose that the stand which is being cut has been thinned, and consequently is formed entirely or largely of trees of merchantable size.
An understocked stand, similar to that shown in plate III, and in which the trees are largely of merchantable size, can be cut so as to secure a restocking, by leaving some of the more slender but well crowned trees for seed trees.
The problem of cutting a crowded stand to the best advantage and in a manner to secure a restocking is more difficult. The trees in such a stand have a much greater range of diameter than those ii> a thinned stand. There is a large number of small suppressed and intermediate trees which may be too small to be cut eco- nomically for saw timber '(see "Waste in cutting small trees," page 35). In such a case it may be desirable to remove the stand in two ^r more cuttings, made at intervals of five or more years. At the first cutting only the largest trees should be cut, particularly
38 SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA
those which have short and knotty stems. Such as have very slender clean stems and good crowns should be left, but enough of the largest trees should be taken to open the crown cover one- third. Such a cutting might remove one-tenth of the total num- ber of trees but more than one-half of the saw log volume of the stand. At the second cutting not only should most of the trees which have grown to merchantable size be removed, but also such of the smaller stunted trees as have shown no indication of thrift since the first cutting. The trees which are left should be choice clean-stemmed specimens with medium sized, but thrifty crowns. They can be left at the rate of ten to twenty to the acre. Such trees as have weak stems which would be likely to be bowed or broken by wind or sleet should not be left. Thickets of high shrubs and broadleaf trees should be cut. It is probable that by the time of the second cutting groups of young seedlings, about one foot in height, will have appeared beneath the openings made by the first cutting. Seed from the trees which are left after the second cutting will complete the restocking. Two courses can be followed in regard to the trees which are left after the second cutting. Either they can be removed after thorough seedling es- tablishment is assured, or they can be held over and cut at some thinning period of the young stand. If trees with fifty feet of clear length and diameters of from ten to twelve inches are left after the second cutting and are held until they are twenty to twenty-four inches in diameter their stumpage value will increase from three to five times. This increase in value will be due en- tirely to the greater size of the logs, which will yield a high grade of lumber and can be sawn with small waste. (See Tables 16 and 18 and Plate II, Fig. 1).
No method of cutting a crowded unthinned stand, however, will give as great a yield in board feet per acre, or will produce logs of as high a grade, as can be obtained from a well-thinned stand.
PLANTING WASTE LAND
On many farms in middle Virginia there are tracts of gullied, or shallow soiled or rocky, or other poor or waste land which are either without a growth of pine or are stocking extremely slowly and irregularly. Shortleaf pine could be planted profitably on such tracts. The sound seed of this pine sprout so freely, and the growth of the young seedling is so rapid, that direct seeding ran
SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA. 39
be made in place of using young plants. Seed should be planted in spots six feet apart in well loosened soil and lightly covered, not deeper than one-half inch with earth. One of the two follow- ing methods can be used. If the tract can be plowed, shallow furrows can be laid off at intervals of six feet with a shovel plow or small turning plow, and the seed dropped at six-foot intervals in the furrows and lightly covered with a weeding hoe. If a plow cannot be used, the earth can be loosened with a light grub hoe over a spot six or eight inches square, and the seed planted and lightly covered in the middle of this spot. If the soil is either dry or light and sandy the planter should step on the spot after covering to bring the earth in close contact- with the seed and in- sure germination. Set poles should be used to keep the rows straight.
The seed of shortleaf pine has a low germinating percentage, seldom more than forty-five per cent., and a number of seed, twelve or fifteen, should therefore be dropped in a hole. As many as can easily be held between the thumb, index finger and second finger will insure a stand. There are about 50,000 seed to a pound, so that a pound, if carefully handled, will plant an acre. The smallness of the seeds, however, makes them difficult to handle, and an inexperienced planter will usually drop more than are necessary for obtaining a stand. -Planting should be done at any time between the middle of February and the first of April, whenever the soil is in suitable condition. Protection from fire and cattle is absolutely necessary until the trees are three or four inches in diameter and the bark thick enough to afford reasonable protection, which will require from ten to fifteen years.
Returns from Plantations. — If such plantations are carefully thinned their yield should greatly exceed that of natural stands.
The cost of planting an acre and of carrying the investment is calculated on the basis of a land value of $10 an acre, with five per cent, compound interest, which includes an allowance of one per cent, an acre a year for taxes and protection. This land value is low for soils which will produce good shortleaf pine. The prices at which stumpage must be sold to net four per cent, on the in- vestment are shown in Table 19.
Cost of land $10 00
Cost of seed one pound per acre 2 50
Cost of planting per acre 1 50
Total initial cost of investment $14 00
40
gHO-RTLEAF PINE IX VIRGINIA.
TABLE 19.
Cost of producing shortleaf pine stumpage in plantations with five per cent gross interest on investment.
g|a|3
*rt fl QO ••* 5 IjSJlyS
jflli
^%Z«. 52252
pRISJ
tM
0009
O o
•gi ^ro
<P be
Is
OM
20 30 40 50
$ 27.10
40.20
78.56
150.58
$ 7.00 20.80 4028
5,800 14800 19,300
5 55 3.83 5.69
21 51 60 60
1.28 .65 .96
1 84
* On account of the small amount of the thinnings and the short periods duiing which the money from them would be invested, only 4 per cent, is allowed on them.
Thinnings made at middle of decades yield about eleven cords at twenty-five years, fifteen cords at thirty-five years, and ten cords at forty-five years per acre.
The minimum cost of producing lumber would be about $3.83 per 1,000 board feet, when a stand is about forty years old.
The minimum cost of producing cordwood would be about sixty-five cents a cord at an age of thirty years.
These figures, which are conservative, indicate that planta- tions can be expected to yield at least five per cent, gross or four per cent, net after allowing one per cent, or ten cents an acre a year, for taxes and protection. With regularly made and care- fully executed thinnings, the yield would probably exceed that of the irregularly Chinned stands on which the calculations are based and the cost of production would be lowered: in other words a higher interest rate would be obtained.
In order for a plantation to yield five per cent, net or six per cent, gross, allowing one per cent, an acre a year for taxes and fire protection, the following returns, which are fair and reasonable, must be obtained from stands of ditt'erent ages.
SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA.
41
TABLE 20.
Cost of producing shortleaf pine stum-page in plantations with six per cent gross interest on investment.
1 •3 & < Years |
Accumulated Cost of Investment, per A ere, Interest com- pounded at 6 per cent., less Initial Value of Land |
Credit of Thinnings made in middle of i Decade at 50 rents a Cord, standing with accumulated ! interest at 4 per ! cent net* 1 |
Yield in Board feet 1 of Trees 9" and over in Diameter Breast high. |
1 Cost per 1 000 feet of growing Timber |
Final Yield In Cords of Trees 5" and over In Diameter ! Breast high |
Cost per Cord of growing Cord wood |
20 |
$ 34.80 |
21 |
$ 1.66 |
|||
30 |
70.36 |
$ 7 00 |
5,800 |
$ 10.91 |
51 |
1.23 |
40 |
134.06 |
20.10 |
14,800 |
770 |
60 |
1.88 |
50 |
247.88 |
40.28 |
19,300 |
10.77 |
60 |
3.30 |
* On account of the small amount of the thinnings and the short period during which tha money from them would be invested only 4 per cent, net is allowed on them.
In neither of the foregoing calculations is any allowance made for superintendence, and possible losses from insects, sleet and snow breakage, and windstorm damage, but it must also be re- membered that the constant increase in the price of timber is like- wise neglected.
THjE PROTECTION OF STANDS
The two important dangers to pine stands, fire and insects. are in a measure interrelated. Those trees which have been weak- ened or injured by fires invite insects, while stands which are lit- tered by the wood which has died from insect depredations, and which have become grassy on account of openings made in the crown cover where trees have been killed by insects are particularly exposed to serious damage from fire. With both dangers, pre- vention is the most effective means of control.
Fires. — While the danger of fire is always present, it is far more serious in connection with young stands and particularly those in process of stocking, such as fields which have recently been turned out, or newly cut or lumbered land. Fires injure such young stands at any season of the year in which they may occur. Although many individuals of shortleaf pine between one and two feet high, when killed by an early spring fire, will sprout., the sprouting capacity is irregular and unreliable (Plate VI, fig. 2). Moreover, most of such sprouts die in a few years, while many of the survivors are forked. After the tenth year, the heavy shade of
42 SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA.
crowded stands and the thickened bark greatly reduce the danger of fire, but even the heavy bark of old trees does not afford com- plete protection from hot spring fires when these are driven by a strong wind. Thickly stocked shortleaf pine stands do not, as a rule, become grassy or foul with shrubs and herbage, and conse- quently do not require periodic winter burning for the purpose of protection, such as may often be necessary for pole stands and mature stands of loblolly and longleaf pines. Although no visible damage may be done to older trees by such burnings, the rate of growth is reduced by the destruction of the pine straw and the humus, while even the slight scorching of trees may lead to the entrance of insects or fungi.
Young stands and areas which are in process of stocking are most effectively protected from fire by establishing and maintain- ing open fire lanes, free from straw and litter, completely around them or on the exposed sides. A shallow furrow can be plowed every year on both sides of the laiies, and the intervening strip can be raked clear, or it can be burned during damp, quiet weather. In older stands the straw and litter can be raked off the lanes each autumn and used for stable beddings. Well established lanes, if they are free from stumps and shrubs, may conveniently be raked with a side delivery rake. By locating lanes at intervals through a large tract, as well as around it, it is separated into blocks which are individually protected. Where possible, roads and paths should be used for lanes. Since there is great danger of a serious fire during and immediately after lumbering, extra protective pre- caution should be taken at that -time. A fire that occurs at that time will frequently destroy the pine seedlings, but the replace- ment of the hardwoods and shrubs takes place at once by sprout- ing. Repeated fires eliminate the pines. When timber is sold or when logging is done by contract, an enforceable fire penalty clause should be inserted in the contract, in order to obtain the necessary protection.
The Federal Government under the terms of section 2 of the Weeks Law extends its co-operation to States in assisting them to protect the forested water-sheds of navigable streams from fire. In order to secure assistance of this kind a State must have provided by law for a system of forest fire protection and must have appropriated funds for the purpose. Scarcely a more im- portant step could be taken by the State of Virginia towards the conservation of its forests than the establishment of a fire pro-
SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA. ' '', , 43
tective system. The readiness of the Federal Government to co- operate under the terms of this law as soon as the State itself makes a start is an incentive to immediate action. In the short- leaf pine area of Virginia the water-sheds of the Appomattox, James, Roanoke and Eapidan rivers could be protected by such co-operation.
Insects. — The danger of fire is greatest to seedling stands, but the possibility of insect damage, although it is always present, increases after the trees are twenty years old. One of the most pernicious insects is the pine bark beetle, Dendroctonm frontalis, Zimmt which devastated the coniferous forest of middle and west- ern Virginia between 1888 and 1892. This species channels the inner bark in the middle part of the stem and eventually girdles the trees, thus killing them. Other beetles infest the wood of the living tree, and yet others attack only dead or dying trees. The fecundity of the pine bark beetle is so great that several large broods are produced in a single summer, and when conditions are favorable they propagate in enormous numbers and cause serious depredations. Pure stands in old fields invite destructive attacks, since in them the insects can readily spread from tree to tree.
The best way to hold this insect in check is to keep the trees in thrifty condition by preventing overcrowding, by removing wood which would serve as breeding places, and by cutting out in- fested trees. It is particularly desirable to maKe these protective cuttings before the spring and early summer broods of the insects come out and spread. Infested trees should be promptly removed as soon as noticed. The removal of weak trees in thinning elimi- nates them as sources of breeding, while cutting low stumps and close utilization, or the piling and burning of tops — operations which are sometimes advisable for other reasons — remove much other wood. The cutting of live trees should be limited as far as possible to the winter, but dead trees can be cut at any time. Special care should be used in summer cutting not to leave freshly- cut tops touching live trees, and to remove promptly trees that have been killed by lightning. When cord wood or logs which are spring or summer cut cannot be promptly removed, they should be peeled or racked in the sun, that they may dry. Detailed infor- mation in regard to protection against this beetle is contained in Farmers' Bulletin, No. 47.6.
Fungus Diseases. — The most important known fungus which attacks shortleaf pine is Trametes pini, the cause of redheart.
44 sHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA.
This is a dark brown snuff-colored "punk" which gains entrance into the heartwood of the upper part of the stem through knot holes, and into the lower part by wounds caused by falling trees, fire scars, '(Plate VI, fig. 2), and insects. Trees which show the "punk" should be promptly cut.
Pine stands are also exposed to damage from windstorms, and from sleet and wet snow. The damage by wind cannot be pre- vented. Fortunately, short-leaf pine, when it grows on deep soils, is anchored by a long, strong taproot, and is very windfirm. On shallow soils, particularly a hard-pan near the surface which checks the descent of the taproot, it windfalls badly. Slender trees are occasionally bent or even broken by wind. Frequent light thin- nings' render the trees in such stands more windfirm.
Sleet and wet snow are dangers against which there is no ade- quate protection. The weight of sleet and wet snow frequently breaks the leaders, and in crowded stands may bend many stems beyond recovery, break them, or even uproot them. The only pre- cautionary measure is to strengthen the resisting power of limbs and stems by thinning. Trees in young stands less than twenty years old are the most likely to be broken and bent, while trees in older stands, in which isolation is taking place, are the most apt to be overturned. Frequently, insect depredations followr this kind of damage.
PLATE VI.
A culled stand of mixed pine and hardwoods. The defective oak In the left foreground is partially shading groups of thrifty pine seedlings and should be removed. The large pines In the background serve a.s seed trees. The seedlings are greatly exposed to fire.
FORESTRY
C0UL£GE OF A AGKICULTUI?!
(IMIVCRSITY
COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND IMMIGRATION
G. W. KOINER, Commissioner
IN COOPERATION WITH THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FOREST SERVICE, HENRY S. GRAVES, FORESTER
WOOD -USING INDUSTRIES
OF VIRGINIA
By
ROGER E. SIMMONS Statistician in Forest Products
DEC 2 8 1914
Division of Foresti University of Califon
Printed under the direction of the
AMERICAN FORESTRY ASSOCIATION
1912
CONTENTS,
PAGE.
PREFACE 7
Scope and Purpose of Study 8
An Important Point • 10
SPECIES 12
State Grown Woods 15
Loblolly 17
Shortleaf Pine 18
Longleaf Pine 19
Scrub Pine . • 19
White Oak 20
Red Gum 20
Yellow Poplar 21
Gums 22
Red Oak 22
White Pine 23
Cypress 23
Southern White Cedar 24
Hickory 24
Chestnut 25
Ash 25
Black or Yellow Locust 26
Maple 26
Beech 27
Sycamore 27
Basswood 27
Birch 28
Spruce '28
Cottonwood . . 29
Hemlock 29
Dogwood 29
Elm 30
Walnuts 30
Cucumber . . 31
Red Cedar 31
Pacific Coast Woods 31
Other Woods 32
Foreign WToods 32
INDUSTRIES 33
Boxes '. 35
Planing-Mill Products 39
Cars and Locomotives 41
Sash, Doors, and General Millwork , 42
Wood-Paving Blocks and Conduits 44
Furniture 45
Baskets, Fruit and Vegetable Packages 48
CONTENTS
PAGE
Vehicle and Vehicle Parts 50 .
Trunks • • 52
Ship and Boat Building 53
Woodenware, Novelties, and Matches 54
Excelsior • • 55
Fencing and Gates 56
Insulator Pins, Brackets, and Cross Arms 57
Fixatures '. • • 58
Handles 59
Agricultural Implements 6a
Caskets and Coffins • • 61
Chairs 62
Dairy, Poultry, and Apiarist Supplies 63
Shuttle Blocks 64
Tobacco Boxes 65
Patterns 66
Miscellaneous 67
The Uses of Wood by Virginia Manufacturers 69
Directory of the Manufacturers Furnishing the Information for this Report 74
SUPPLEMENT 82
Slack Cooperage 82
Tight Cooperage Stock 83
Pulpwood -. 83
The Aggregate Consumption of Wood 84
APPENDIX 85
Production of Forest Products 87
Lumber 87
Veneer 87
Laths and Shingles 8&
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
PLATE. PAGE.
I A Band Mill Sawing in the Tidewater Region 8
II Virginia Loblolly Pine Cut in the Costal Region. Showing the
Amount of Sapwood • • 17
III A Specimen of White Oak in the Hardwood Forest of the Mountain
Region - - 17
IV A Raft of Longleaf Pine Logs Waiting to he Sawed and Worked
Into Planing Mill Products 39
V Inside View of a Virginia Table Factory 47
VI A Mud Scow Ready to Launch on Ways of a Norfolk Ship Yard 53
VII Cylinder in Which Cross Anns Were Treated 58
VIII A Load of Treated Cross Arms Being Removed from the Cylinder... 58
NOTICE
The investigation upon which this report is based was undertaken by the Forest Service in co-operation with the Commonwealth of Vir- ginia, the work being done under the direction of O. T. Swan, Engi- neer in Forest Products, Chief of the Office of Wood Utilization, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. The statistics were compiled from data collected in 1911, covering a period of one year.
UU \\JJ
DEC 2 8 1914
Division of Forestry University of California
WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES OF VIRGINIA.
PREFACE
Virginia, the oldest State in the Union, is probably the oldest lumbering region. Since colonial days the forests have been meeting a large demand in lumber and logs for export to European and West Indian ports, besides supplying the home needs of a well-populated and a rapidly growing State. With the early commercial development of the nation, bcause the Virginia forests were closer than those of any other yellow-pine States to the large consuming centers and lumber markets of Boston, New York, Philadelphia and Baltimore, they naturally were among the first to be exploited; since then they have been sending forth increasing annual supplies. This exportation was made possible before the advent of railroads by the easy navigation ot the large rivers, with their many branches which traverse the State, and by the excellent deep harbors with which the coast is indented.
For more than sixty years lumbering has been actively carried on in Virginia, and for the past twenty-five years on an extensive scale. It could hardly be expected, therefore, that forests which have been for so long a time subject to an increasing drain, would still be able to compete in production with those States in which lumbering started many years afterward. The statistics of the Bureau of the Census for 1909 showed, however, that only five other States exceeded the lumber cut of Virginia. Four of these were yellow-pine States, the other was Washington, holding the lead through its Douglas fir, while the other Eastern, New England, and Ohio Valley States whose cut m the late years, according to statistics, has been showing a gradual decrease, this oldest lumber State has been constantly moving upward in its maximum yield and in 1909 produced over two billion feet. This was 119 per cent, more than the quantity of lumber cut ten years before, and no other yellow pine State, except Louisiana, showed so large a relative gain. The increase from 1890 to 1900 was a little more than 200 per cent, while the gain from 1880 to 1890 was approximately 76 per cent.
Owing to the diversified soil and surface conditions of Virginia in the gradual transition from the tidewater section to the high moun- tain ranges in the western part of the State, the forested area is com- posed of many kinds of merchantable timber. It is natural, therefore, that Virginia should take a prominent stand, not only in the supply of
8 WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES
softwoods, such as the pines — including white pine — the cedar, cy- press, hemlock and spruce, but also in the production of hardwoods, such as oak, hickory, ash, yellow poplar, gum and chestnut.
Except on the mountain sides, Virginia forests are not large unbroken areas of timbered land as in the more Southern and far Western States. Farm forests and cultivated fields checker the 'sur- face. These farm forests comprise two thirds of the fifteen million acres which is the estimated forest area of the State. In many Eastern States the forests have been so often culled and cut over that the re- maining wood lots are merely a forest cover of young growth with a few larger trees capable of supplying only the needs of the) farm for hre wood and material for fence repair. This is not the case in Vir- ginia. According to a silvicultural study recently made by the Forest Service, a large proportion of these farm lots are well wooded with merchantable trees, and if given proper care and protection, it is pointed out, will be capable of sustaining Virginia's maximum lumber yield. The standing timber, according to a rough estimate by the Forest Service in 1909, amounted to thirty billion feet. With the ex- ception of two and one-half billion owned by lumber companies, all of the remainder is included in the area covered by farm forests.
In the pine region in the Southeastern part of the State there are extensive modern sawmill plants which manufacture a large portion of the lumber produced in Virginia. Besides these there are numerous small sawmills and portable mills operating on wood lots and cutting the hardwoods in the foothills and mountain regions. The census re- port for 1909 showed Virginia had in active operation 3,511 mills, which was a greater number than that shown by any of the other forty-eight States; Louisiana, for instance, produced 1,400,000 feet more than Virginia and had in operation only 656 mills. In Arkansas, where the cut was almost equal to that of Virginia, there were 1,500 fewer mills.
Resides these 3,511 sawmills in Virginia, there are a number of subordinate wood using industries. A large portion of these take the lumber from the sawmills and convert it into such finished products as furniture, boxes, vehicles, cars and ships. Other mills take wood in the form of bolts or logs and make them direct into finished products like insulator pins, excelsior, hubs, spokes, handles, etc. It is with the raw material of all these industries that this report is solely concerned.
SCOPE AND PURPOSE OF STUDY
An annual record of the output of the State's sawmills is being kept; but what becomes of this lumber? Into what channels of use-
ILLUSTRATION I. A BAND MILL SAWING PINE IN TIDEWATER REGION.
OF VIRGINIA
fulness it goes has not been shown by any report prior to this. It is interesting and instructive to ascertain what part of the rough lumber is being kept at home and manufactured into finished commodities, and what part is shipped out of the State in the rough. With Virginia's rich and varied forest resources, is any part of the manufacturer's needs for raw material met by wood grown outside of. the State; and, :'f so, what are the principal kinds and their qualities? While the general and most important uses of various woods are known, this report goes further and points out specific uses and tells the properties of the wood which commend it for these uses. However, it is not the purpose of this study to show what becomes of the entire lumber cut. The portion being sent elsewhere is not taken into consideration here, since its manufacture in other States belongs to studies similar to this, which have been, or will be, made in those States.
Much of the lumber remaining at home is used in its rough form with no further change than mere trimming and mortising to fit it for the place desired, as in the construction of houses, bridges, tunnel linings, forms, scaffolding, fencing, and walks. This material is not taken into account in this study; nor is any wood not used as raw ma- terial in wood-using factories; hence products such as railroad ties, wire poles, mine props, firewood, piling, fence posts, shingles and laths are excluded. No space is given to commodities shipped into Vir- ginia already manufactured, as, for example, flooring and inside finish from the longleaf-pine States, the Lake States, and West Vir- ginia, vehicles and graphophones from New jersey, white-pine freezers from New England, pianos, from Maryland and Illinois, organs from Massachusetts and Maryland and Vermont, sewing machines from New Jersey and Connecticut, and tanks and farm machinery from various other States. In some instances these ready-made commod- ities may have been made wholly or in part from lumber cut from Vir- ginia forests and shipped out as rough lumber and then brought back after being further manufactured to be sold to the consumer. Ex- amples of this were noted in parquetry flooring, furniture, caskets, coffins, agricultural implements and vehicles.
The investigative work of this study was done by the Forest Ser- vice, U. S. Department of Agriculture in co-operation with the Com- missioner of Agriculture and Immigration of the State of Virginia. Many of the reports which furnished the data were forwarded by manufacturers directly to the Forest Service in response to inquiries made by mail. The field work consisted in the collection of information by special agents. This required visits to factories throughout the State where not only was sought information as to output but as to
IO WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES
methods of manufacture and uses of wood. The information sought was : kinds of wood used ; the quantity required annually ; the cost at the factory : the specific uses of each kind ; size and grade of lumber ; whether the raw material was grown in Virginia, or States nearby, or at a distance, and what efforts had been made to utilize waste material. Aside from the general interest which naturally pertains to a study of this character, supplying, as it -does, information which no other report has given, it will prove practical and valuable in many ways. It should stimulate trade by bringing together buyer and seller, as it shows the kinds of wood the manufacturers desire to buy and offers valuable suggestions to the large timber owners, to the farmers with a few scattered trees, and to the sawmill men where to sell their ma- terial. Mention is made also of the many advantages which the State offers wood-using industries to locate within her borders. The uses of woods which heretofore have been of little commercial value are pointed out and the qualities which commend them for other uses are discussed. To the manufacturer who finds home-grown material difficult to secure, this report points out other States whose forests will most likely sup- ply his need. The merchant's attention is called to products which wood-using industries of Virginia have to sell and the people of the State are shown the necessity of Virginia taking steps looking to the improvement and perpetuation of her forests by adopting an intelli- gent forest policy.
AN IMPORTANT POINT
Forest policies do no t receive the popular support they should because the results are not immediate. State legislatures are prone to regard recommendations for adopting forestry as academic instead of practical. This report brings the subject close to the business men- of the State, and points out conditions, which, if taken advantage of, will secure greater industrial prosperity, and if neglected, will probably result in loss and commercial depression.
Virginia's sawmills produced, according to the last decennial census, more than 2,100,000,000 feet of lumber. The figures of this report show (see Table No. 2) that the wood using ^industries further manufactured about 450,000,000 feet of homegrown wood, or only a little more than one-quarter of the cut. This means that the difference, 1,550,000,000 feet, except for the rough lumber needed to supply the State, is shipped away to meet the demands of, and to be manufactured by, the industries of other States. If the industries of Virginia are not taking advantage bf the excellent geographical location of their State in being close to markets and of their valuable
OF VIRGINIA
forest and water transportation resources in further manufacturing as much of their rough lumber as they might, it would be well to recognize the fact and to take measures to profit by it.
Besides the 2,100,000,000 feet which Virginia's sawmills produce annually, and 20,000,000 feet cut into veneer, it requires 257,000,000 feet of forest material for the makers of slack staves and heading, and 13,000,000 feet for the manufacturers of tight cooperage stock. The aggregate amounts to nearly 2,390,000,000 feet, which does not include the drain on the forests for such products as cross-ties, pulp- wood, mining props, and telegraph poles. Arbitrarily fixing the quantity for these at 300,000,000 feet, the total amount of wood contrib- uted annually by Virginia's forests would aggregate approximately 2,690,000,000, feet. Expressed in dollars and cents this amounts to more than $25,500,000, making the value of the annual timber crop to exceed the combined values of the tobacco and wheat crops, and equal to considerably more than two-thirds of the corn crop as re- ported by the Department of Agriculture for 1910. With agriculture, therefore, Virginia's forests are one of her greatest sources of wealth.
The following' pages show that the wood-using industries take a part of this lumber after the saw mills lay it down, and by additional manufacture further add to the commercial activity and prosperity of the State by making commodities of greatly increased value. This added value is estimated to be more than $10,000,000, making the forest products worth over $35,000,000. In 1911 wood-using fac- tories paid over $20,000,000 alone for their raw material, and according to the last Census 'their total capitalization, together witih the sawmills, amounted approximately to $25,000,000. If the timber is allowed to disappear, the life of these industries, and of the sawmills which are dependent upon the forests for their raw material, is limited ; and if measures are not taken to insure the continued growth and pro- tection of the forests, the industries will ultimately have to shut down, and the State will suffer-from the consequent loss of business. Nearly every year fire rages in Virginia's forests and the annual loss to the State is not less than $350,000. The forests cover an area of 15 mil- lion acres or equal to one-half of that of the State and are estimated to be worth over $100,000,000.
A large part of these areas are better suited for growing harwood or softwood tirrtber than for farm crops. The State, therefore, can profitably grow as well as manufacture timber. Virginia can maintain its present lumber yield and at the same time furnish cheap raw material to factories. This will not only insure a continuance of the present industrial activity, but an even
12 WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES
greater prosperity than that which the Virginia sawmills and the wood- using industries at this time are responsible for. The State, there- fore, should promptly recognize, not only the great value of its forests, but enact legislation to establish an adequate forest policy. Such a policy should include:
(1) The establishment of a non-partisan forest department whose majority membership will include such officials as the State Geologist, the Commissioner of Agriculture, the Director of the Agricultural Ex- periment Station, and the President of the State University;
(2) The appointment of a technically trained forester to take charge of all forest work in the State subject to the supervision of the Department ;
(3) A fire protective system having adequate funds at its dis- posal, which would bring Virginia under the provisions of Section 2 of the Weeks Law and provide Federal aid in protecting from fire the forested watersheds of its navigable streams.
SPECIES.
Varying quantities from fifty-two species made up the 894,000,- ooo feet of lumber used by the Virginia wood users. These species are listed in Table I, which gives the common English name as well as the proper 'botanacal name, according to the Check List of the For- est Service.
An earnest effort was made to differentiate all the separate species, because this enables one more easily to study uses according to inherent properties. It is of far greater value to know the exact woods as loblolly pine and Cuban or "slash" pine, white oak or yellow oak, red cedar or white cedar, than to have merely the generic name as pine, oak or cedar. This effort was only partially successful, since the task was very difficult for several reasons: First, from the con- fusion of the vernacular or common names of woods; a manufac- turer in Virginia orders pitch pine, meaning longleaf ; the mill man in Florida fills the order by sending Cuban or "slash" pine, as this pine is sometimes called pitch pine in Florida. In some localities Vir- ginia pine means shortleaf pine; in others loblolly pine; but on the market it may include both shortleaf and loblolly; whitewood in New Hampshire is yellow popular but tulip-tree wood in Virginia, and similar confusions exist with very many other woods. Second, it is difficult for tihe layman to always correctly identify wood in the form of lumber. While timbermen can differentiate trees in the field, when the tree is cut into lumber and sent to the manufacturer it is a different matter. White oak, chestnut or "rock" oak, and bur oak are sold
Otf VIRGINIA 13
mixed together and accepted by the manufacturer as white oak; scarlet oak and Spanish oak, in trade, are not distinguishable from red oak. Third, in a number of instances the manufacturer finds the kind of wood, independent of the species, suitable for his needs and therefore is indifferent to the species he uses. Examples of this are found in the reports of the users of thje elms, (hickories and ashes.
In this study, therefore, the effort made to separate the species was carried out only so far as the separation was practical in accord- ance with wood uses. In Table I, all kinds of wood used by the Vir- ginia manufacturers have been brought together; some are listed according to the generic name only, but many according to species. The quantity shown for each is not exact because of the difficulties named above. In a number of cases the determination of a species was made more or less arbitrary. The particular use of the wood, the location where it was cut, information gathered in the field from timbermen and others better versed than the manufacturer, and identification by men gathering the information were the principal factors governing the decisions. The results, therefore, as shovn in the table may be accepted as approximately correct.
Seven species of yellow pine are cut for lumber in the United States. The statistics of the Bureau of the Census grouped them as yellow pine. Of these, four are native to Virginia and appear in Table I in quantity, ahead of all other kinds of wood. They are lob- lolly pine, shortleaf pine, longleaf pine and scrub pine.
WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES
TABLE 1.— SUMMARY, KINDS OF WOOD USED IN VIRGINIA.
KIND OF WOOD. |
Quantity used annually |
Average cost per 1,000 ft. |
Total cost f. o. b. factory |
||
Feet B. M. |
Per cent |
||||
Common Name. |
Botanical Name. |
||||
Loblolly pine : |
(Pinus taeda) |
389,257,088 182,369,615 74,762,206 44,243,500 35,467,028 31,594,290 27,848,547 19,934,500 14,951,000 13,954,529 8,985,518 8,290,113 7,666.245 7,115,896 6,444,190 4,182,403 2,279,000 2,236,350 1,946,000 1,769,000 1,591,900 1,065,000 986,000 952,025 754,026 734,000 733,400 609,736 426,358 292,581 277,300 162,000 140,000 100,326 80,000 68,000 46,000 44,059 17,923 15,000 13,000 12,000 10,000 5,000 5,000 1,400 1,100 1,000 350 200 100 100 |
43.50 20.40 8.40 4.90 4.00 3.50 3.10 2.20 1.70 1.60 1.10 .90 .90 .80 .70 .50 .20 .30 .20 .20 .20 .10 .10 .10 100.00 |
$ 12.77 13.26 20.26 10.99 22.05 13.31 18.58 20.75 9.65 27.00 26.07 18.68 31.38 13.43 11.47 24.30 22.90 20.62 17.98 24.83 18.80 19.18 32.28 24.07 22.62 11.63 14.18 58.08 146.86 33.23 35.85 17.40 10.14 97.40 13.15 68.38 36.48 199.09 51.07 14.00 48.00 32.00 30.00 120.00 50.00 531.00 138.00 100.00 190.60 200.00 100.00 100.00 |
$ 4,961,017.96 2,417,980.10 1,515,553.23 486,526.86 782,144.11 420,462.58 517,294.25 413,284.50 144,927.50 376,403.04 234,275.24 154,916.15 240,612.80 95,576.95 81,27r.75 101,628.93 52,200.00 46,107.25 34,995.50 50,580,00 29,93450 20.430.00 31,826.00 22,922.65 17,161.04 8,535.00 10,392.40 35,427.87 62.364.00 9,704.28 9,930.00 2,820.00 1,420.00 9,740.86 1,050.00 4,660.00 1,678.00 8,771.80 914.30 210.00 624.00 384.00 300.00 600.00 250.00 708.00 151.80 100.00 66.75 40.00 20.00 20.00 |
(Pinus echinata) (Pinus palustris) (Pinus virginiana) |
|||||
Scrub pine White Oak |
|||||
(Liquidambar styraciflua) . . (Liriodendron tulipifera) . . . (Quercus rubra) (Nyssa aquatica) |
|||||
Red Oak Cotton gum (tupelo) . . . |
|||||
(Pinus strobus) (Taxodium distichum) ... (Chamaecyparis thyoides) . . . (Hicoria alba) |
|||||
Hickory |
|||||
Chestnut |
(Castanea dentata) (Nyssa sylvatica) |
||||
Ash |
(Fraxinus Americana) (Robinia pseudacacia) |
||||
Beech |
|||||
(Platanus occidentalis) |
|||||
(Quercus velutina) (Betula lenta) |
|||||
(Picea rubens) (Populus deltoides) |
|||||
(Tsuga canadensis) |
|||||
Douglas fir |
(Pseudotsuga taxifolia) ... (Swietenia mahagoni) (Ulnuis pubescens) |
||||
Slippery (rock) elm |
|||||
(Magnolia acuminata) (Ulmus amcricana) |
|||||
White (soft) elm |
|||||
Buckeye |
(Aesculus glabra) (Pinus lambertiana) (Junerperius virginiana) .. |
||||
(Diospyros virginiana) (Toxylon pomiferum) (Sassafras sassafras) (Acer saccharinum) (Cedrela odorata) (Thuja occidentalis) (Dalbergia) (Btfswellia klaineana) |
|||||
Western red cedar. |
|||||
Rosewood |
|||||
Silver ava Circassian walnut |
|||||
(Eucalyptus marginata) ... (Tabebuia donnell smith!!) (Albizzia procera) |
|||||
Philadelphia walnut Total |
|||||
894,441,902 |
$15.00 |
$13,420,921.95 |
|||
* Less than one tenth of one per cent.
Of the woods used by the manufacturers only seven were re- ported as coming entirely from Virginia forests. They were scrub pine, yellow or black oak, white (soft) elm, yellow buckeye, persim- mon, sassafras, and silver maple. On the other hand, the entire sup- plies of rock elm, butternut, and osage orange come from other States. These woods are cut in Virginia in quantities more than suf- ficient to meet the local demands, but the manufacturers evidently found shipped-in woods more convenient. It is significant of the growing scarcity of native, eastern softwoods that three species from
j -0UCUZJ '
OF VIRGINIA
TABLE 2.— SUMMARY, STATE— GROWN AND IMPORTED WOODS.
Grown in Virginia. |
Grown out of Virginia. |
Total quantity used annually |
||||
KIND OF WOOD |
Feet B. M. |
Per cent |
Feet B. M. |
Per cent |
Feet B. M |
Per cent 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 |
Ash |
3.020,500 889,000 812,700 250,000 80,000 VT'.OOO 2,668,000 5,000 6,102,264 50,000 87,000 3,141,700 |
72.05 57.02 51.02 25.68 100.00 "53.63 32.18 2.07 85.76 6.68 53.70 34.98 |
1,161,903 1,057,000 779,200 736,000 17,923 19,000 5,622,113 95,326 1,013,632 704,026 75,000 5,843,818 609,736 30,000 292,581 3,098,664 4,108,000 2,000 2,463,000 779,000 426,358 |
27.95 42.98 48.98 74.32 100.00 46.37 67.82 97.93 14.24 93.32 46.30 65.02 100.00 4.50 100.00 45.62 27.75 .10 31.79 39.80 100.00 34.38 33.02 33.82 100.00 37.81 99.78 59.68 100.00 50.77 45.73 7*o! 51 54.36 100.00 17.74 100.00 29.30 100.00 45.81 |
4,182,403 1,946,000 1,591,900 986,000 80,000 17,923 46,000 8,290,113 100,326 7,115,896 754,026 162,000 8,985,518 609,736 733,400 140,000 292,581 6,444,190 14,951,000 734.000 7,666.245 2,279,000 426,358 10,000 2,236,350 1,065,000 19,934,500 35,467,028 13,000 15,000 389,257,088 74,762,206 44,243,500 182,369,615 68,000 13,954,529 31,594,290 12,000 952,025 1,769,000 44,059 277,300 5,000 27,848,547 9,250 |
|
Beech Basswood (linn) Birch, sweet |
||||||
Butternut (white walnut).. Cedar red |
||||||
Cedar, Southern white |
||||||
Cottonwood |
||||||
]3°U£aS| r |
703,400 140,000 |
95.50 100.00 |
||||
Gum, black Gum, cotton (Tupelo) Hemlock |
3,345,526 10,843,000 732,000 5,203,245 1,500,000 |
54.38 72.25 99.90 68.21 60.20 |
||||
10,000 1,315,000 1,065,000 13,330,000 23,505,037 |
100.00 65.62 100.00 66.98 66.18 |
|||||
921,350 |
||||||
Oak black |
||||||
Oak, red Oak white |
6,604,500 11,961,991 13,000 146,285,562 74,592,206 108,779,000 68,000 7,104,064 14,310,533 ' 672',025 1,662,000 44,059 48,600 5,000 8,158,514 9,250 |
|||||
15,000 242,971,526 170,000 44,243,500 73,590,615 |
100.00 62.19 .22 100.00 40.32 |
|||||
Pine, loblolly |
||||||
Pine, scrub |
||||||
Pine =hortleaf . ... |
||||||
Pine white |
6,850,465 17,283,757 12,000 280,000 107,000 |
49.23 54.27 100.00 29.49 45.64 |
||||
Bed gum |
||||||
Sassafras |
||||||
Sycamore |
||||||
Walnut, black |
228,700 19,690',033 |
82.26 '70'. 70 |
||||
Western red cedar Yellow poplar |
||||||
Foreign woods Totals |
||||||
484,267,968 |
54.19 |
410,173,934 |
894,441,902 |
A brief account of somie of the woods manufactured into com- modities in Virginia in the order of the quantity used follows :
LOBLOLLY
More loblolly was reported than the combined amounts of any other five species listed ; nearly two-thirds of it was cut in Virginia. This tree grows as far north as Delaware and from there southward it appears in all the Atlantic and Gulf Coast States. In southern and southeast Virginia and northeast North Carolina the original growth of loblolly reaches its maximum development in belts of pure stands. Out- side of these belts it is mixed more or less with shortleaf pine. The ex- tent of the loblolly range in Virginia is within sixty miles of the coast. Original growths have in a great measure disappeared, and the second
1 8 WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES
and third growths now furnish the principal source of lumber. Lands once cultivated and then abandoned by the planters of several genera- tions ago now afford merchantable trees. In the more southern States, where longleaf pine and Cuban "slash" pine are still being cut, lob- lolly is held in low esteem. Pine marketed and known as North Caro- lina pine or Virginia pine is composed of nearly 80 per cent loblolly. Of the wood reported for further manufacture, loblolly represented nearly 45 per cent of the total as shown by this report.
[~ SHORTLEAF PINE
In importance to the lumber industry, and in value of its lumber, shortleaf pine it is said is the most valuable softwood in Virginia. The place which this species is taking among the second growth in Virginia marks it as one of the most important timber trees of the future, while original growth is rapidly disappearing large areas of exhausted lands abandoned by farmers have been taken possession of by this tree, and this second growth is the source of most of the shortleaf pine now cut in Virginia. In quantity used1 by ifoe Virginia (manufacturers iti stands second. Shortleaf grows sparingly as far north as Staten Island, New York, and once abounded in southern New Jersey. Delaware, and Mary- land. It has since practically disappeared in all these States except Maryland, and is now cut for lumber no farther north than Virginia. West of the Mississippi River in northern Louisiana and Arkansas and In Missouri shortleaf reaches its best development and is the most plenti- ful. The needles of shortleaf are generally much shorter and the cones smaller than those of loblolly pine, and as trees, therefore, they are readily distinguished. It is far different with the wood. The two spe- cies closely resemble each other and are difficult to identify. In some grades of their wood they are closely alike in respect to weight, strength, structure, and usefulness.
South of the York River and as far west as Richmond and Peters- burg is the zone in Virginia where loblolly pine generally predominates. Narrow belts of shortleaf pine are here also, and in lower lands these p-ines are associated with hardwoods. North of the York River and throughout the Piedmont region, shortleaf is the ruling conifer. It is most abundant on old fields. Virginia shortleaf pine was probably the first timber made an article of commerce from this country. In colo- nial days we read of it being shipped to England and West Indies in large consignments.
OF VIRGINIA
LONGLEAF PINE
Not much of the yellow pine lumber cut in Virginia is longleaf. as the remaining stand is limited and very scattered. Only 170,000 feet was reported by the manufacturers as home grown, though suffi- ciently large quantities of it were demanded from other States to give longleaf the rank (see Table I) of third important wood used by the manufacturer. Virginia marks the most northerly limits of the range. Its heaviest stands are found in Louisiana and east Texas where virgin forests are now being cut. It has the longest needles of any of the pines which give the tree its name. Next to white pine its lumber brings the highest average price of any of the conifers.
SCRUB PINE
The superior reproductive power of scrub pine is its most impor- tant characteristic. It occurs in original growths on clay ridges some- times with other yellow pine trees, and is scattered in hardwood for- ests of the Piedmont and mountain regions. It readily seeds itself and grows on tihe most isterile soils. On cut over areas it spi ings up rapidly, with a decided increase but it reproduces best on old fields where it forms thick stands. .The common names in different localities are "niger" pine, Jersey pine, bastard pine, river pine and poverty pine, but scrub pine is the name now most widely used. It grows more slowly than loblolly pine or shortleaf pine and in dense stands, only a small portion of the trees reach a size large enough for lumber. It can be readily identified from other yellow pine trees. Cones remain on the tree several years after they drop their seed. It has two slightly twisted needles in a Sheath. Loblolly pine has three needles twice as long and shortleaf pine has two and three needles to a sheath but they are straight and slightly longer than scrub pine. In the wood this species is more difficult to distinguish, as in appearance it often resembles the loblolly and shortleaf pine. Usually its many tight knots identify it. Wherever convenient the principal use of scrub pine is for fuel and fence rails. When the trees reach a size large enough for the sawmills the lumber is considered by builders in some localities preferable for structural work like house sills to oldfield loblolly. In Delaware treated scrub pine wood has been used successfully for rail- road ties ; in Maryland the box makers consume large amounts ; while in Virginia, next to the box industry, the excelsior manufacturers consume the most.
2O WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES
WHITE OAK
Oak is aibundant in tihe three regions of Virginia and, according to the botanist, twelve different species are cut for lumber. The manufacturers, however, divide them usually into two groups, white oak and red oak, and this broad classification accounts for not more of the species being shown in the tables of this report. The former class includes the true white oak (Quercus alba), chestnut oak, (in some parts of the State called rock oak) bur oak,, live oak, cow oak, and post oak. The second group is led by the true red oak(Qnercus rubra) from which the group gets its name, followed by Spanish oak, scarlet oak, pin oak, black or yellow oak, willow oak, and water and laurel oaks.
The white oak class is more widely demanded by Virginia manufacturers than any of the hardwoods and follows the pines in quantity purchased. The average price was greater than that shown for any of the species of yellow pine and1 $1.30 more than tjhe red oak class. The forests of the State furnished over 66 per cent of the total. The imported white oak was grown principally in North Carolina and West Virginia, but Indiana and Kentucky sent quantities of high grades, mostly quarter-sawed.
The true white oak tree is the most abundant of Virginia's oak trees. The upper Piedmont and Mountain regions is where the greatest number of stands are found. Chestnut oak, growing chiefly in the mountains, like white oak is one of the most durable of the oaks and for structural purposes is in great demand. The tanners pay high prices for the bark of this tree. The Virginia post oak does not grow to large size and only a small per cent of the stiand is cut into lumber. lit serves its greatest use as railroad ties. Cow (or basloet) oak and live oak which rarely appears are found in eastern Virginia, the cow oaks in swamps with the gums and the live oak on high ground. They form only a small part of the white oak lumber cut and are seldom used by the manufacturers. The wood of these trees being exceedingly durable they are highly desired for structural purposes in exposed and damp situations.
RED GUM
Red gum or sweet gum is most abundant in the Southeastern part of Virginia as it thrives best on the rioh soil of bottom landte aid swamps. It is not related as the common name indicates t'o the other gums, black grim, water gum, and cotton gum, though it often associates with them in the forest. The red gum has a starlike leaf and bears its
OF VIRGINIA 21
seeds in rough round balls. The black gum has an oval leaf and bears a small bluish-black fruit containing a single seed. Not many years ago red gum had little value as lumber owing to its tendency to twist and warp when seasoned in the ordinary way. Its first ex- tensive use was for slack-barrel staves and heading. With the intro- duction of rotary-cut veneer machines it jumped into prominence as an excellent veneer wood and in 1909 red gum furnished nearly three limes as much veneer material as any other wood. Improved methods of kiln-drying were afterwards inaugurated and the lumbermen were not long learning to market the lumber successfully and it is now in great demand for a number of uses. The sapwood of red gum is almost white. Commercially it is called sap gum and is usually sold separately from the heartwood to meet different uses. Some trees have a large per cent of sapwood. The heartwood is usually a reddish light brown but in some trees the heartwood is dark brown, attractively mottled, and in color and figure resembles Circassian walnut. When such trees are quarter-sawed, and made into high grade furniture, piano cases, and Venetian blinds, their wood often appears in the market under the names Hazel wood, satin walnut, and California red gum. This wood readily absorbs stain and takes on a high polish. In consequence it is made to imitate mahogany, cherry and oak. The Virginia manufacturers use more red gum than any other <hardwood except white oak. Nearly 55 per cent of it is grown in the State.
YELLOW POPLAR
The yellow poplar tree has a tulip-shaped flower which gives it the name of tulip-tree, in many localites. In some localities the wood is known commercially as white wood, notwithstanding a large pro- portion of the lumber cut from this tree has a greenish-yellow color. The light colored wood of the tree is often sold on the markets as white poplar and -the darker as yellow poplar. Botanically it is Lirio- dendron tulipifera. It is in a class by itself having in this country no surviving related species. Its range extends from southern New York to Florida and from the Atlantic Coast to the Mississippi River, with a very small area in southeastern Missouri and adjacent Arkansas. In Virginia it is one of the largest and most valuable trees of the forest and reaches its best development on the mountain slopes where trees have been reported to be from 150 to 190 feet high and from 8 to 10 feet in diameter. It is also cut for lumber in the farm forests of the Piedmont Region, and less frequently in the coastal plains. The Vir- ginia saw-mills reported sawing 114,000,000 feet in 1909 and the wood users consumed in further manufacture less than 27,000,000 feet.
22 WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES
T'he wood of the tulip tree and of the cucumber so closely resemble each other that they are sold together on the market. Cucumber, however, composes only a small proportion of the lumber, because its stand compared with that of yellow poplar is small. Cucumber possesses the same soft, fine, easily workable qualities that fit yellow poplar to meet more uses in Virginia than any other hardwood ex- cept white oak. Manufacturers in sixteen of the- twenty- four indus- tries use yellow poplar.
GUMS
The gums of Virginia are cotton gum, water gum, and black gum. They ane members of the dogwood family, and are not related to the red gum. The cotton gum and water gum inhabit the wet lowlands and swamps of tine Tidewater Region in company with the cypress and the southern white cedar (juniper). Black gum grows in this section but distant from the others and only on well-drained elevations. Un- like the others black gum ranges westward and northward through the Piedmont Region to the slopes of the Allegfaanies. The cotton gum and w^ter gum trees grow side by side and in appearance are easily identified by the thickness of the bark. Cotton gum (Nyssa aquatica) has bark one inch or more in thickness, while the bark of water gum (Nyssa biflora) seldom exceeds one-fourth inch. Tables I and II show that only two species were reported by the Virginia manufacturers; black gum and cotton gum, the former in greater quantities. Owing to the confusion of common names this classification is not reliable be- cause some call these trees black gum, others call them tupelo, which is cotton gum, while others endeavor to separate them. In Virginia the upland gum (Nyssa sylvatica) is seldom cut and delivered to the manufacturers, but what is called "black gum" of the market is water gum. In the wood the three species of gums so closely resemble each other that they are difficult to distinguish from external appearance. Cotton gum wood splits straight and fairly easily, but the wood of water gum and black gum has closely interlaced fibres and is exceed- ingly difficult to split. Water gum wood has a yellowish hue and is darker than the wood of the black gum. Cotton gum is softer and more easily worked than water gum or black gum.
RED OAK
The true red oak (Qitercus rnbra) reaches large proportions in western and southwestern Virginia and poduces high grades of lumber. Spanish oak is locally called "red oak." It is found in the hill country of the Tidewater section of the State, south (and east) of Richmond.
OF VIRGINIA
Scarlet oak grows in the Piedmont and Mountain Regions, but though fairly abundant it seldom grows to a size sufficient to be cut into lum- ber. Locally it is frequently called Spanish oak. Black or yellow oak ranges throughout the State but mostly in parts closely associated with the scarlet oak. This tree reaches large proportions in Virginia, but its lumber has not been in great demand. Not many years ago this tree was felled only to procure its bark, and the logs frequently left in the woods to decay, having little commercial value. With the in- creasing scarcity of other and more valuable oaks it is gradually coming into general use. Willow oak is so called because its leaves resemble those of a willow. It does not grow large in Virginia though it is quite abundant along the coast. The manufacturers do not purchase it to any extent except for slack cooperage stock. Laurel and water oak grow only in the Dismal Swamp. Neither of them being important lumber trees were not reported by the manufacturers.
WHITE PINE
The sawmills of Virginia cut 96,000,000 feet of white pine ac- cording to the decennial census. That the manufacturers used less than one-fifteenth of this amount and bought over one-half of their needs from supplies cut in other States is quite surprising. North Carolina and Tennessee contributed the largest part of the white pine from the outside but the Lake States shipped in the remainder and usually in the highest grades. None of the New England white pine reached the Virginia wrood users and none from the Rocky Mountain States. Sugar pine, however, came in from California. In appearance it resembles white pine and has similar qualities and uses. Only small quantities of it were reported, which is surprising, since the manu- facturers paid less for it than for some of the white pine bought from the Lake States. The heaviest stands of Virginia white pine are in the coves in the Appalachian Mountains but it also appears on the foot- hills associated with the oaks and yellow poplars. Its principal uses in Virginia are for patterns, sash and doors and ship building.
CYPRESS
In Virginia cypress grows only in the southeastern coastal part of Virginia and is available now mainly on nearly submerged lands in the Dismal Swamp. Though sixty-one mills report cutting this tree in 1909, the wood users procured nearly 68 per cent of their requirements from other States. South Carolina and Florida furnished the most, and North Carolina and Louisiana the remainder. In Louisiana the
24 WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES
•cypress is found in the greatest profusion, exclusive forests of it oc- cupying large areas in swamps along the Mississippi. It is sometimes called bald cypress, owing- to its 'bald appearance when it loses its leaves in winter, and it is the only deciduous coniferous tree which grows in Virginia that is reported in the lumber cut. Cypress is a slow grower. The varied shades of color in cypress wood accounts for the names "red cypress", "yellow cypress" and "black cypress" referred to in different localities. The great durability of cypress and its ten- dency not to shrink or warp makes it one of the most valuable woods. It is, therefore, preferred for v;ood work exposed to the weather and submerged at intervals under water. It is the foremost tank wood and is growing in favor witih the coopers for making containers of liquors. As cooperage stock or a package for food stuffs it does not impart a flavor nor give coloring to the ingredients.
SOUTHERN WHITE CEDAR
Southern white cedar (Chamaecypayis thy aides) is an important Virginia wood for further manufacture. More of it is used than in any otiher State so far studied. It grows in swamps of the Tidewater section with the cypress, cotton gum, water gum, and red gum, and h^re it is said to reach its best development. The tree grows along the Atlantic Coast as far north as New England, but it is of little commer- cial importance above Maryland and southern Delaware. The wood is durable when exposed, especially in damp locations and climates, which accounts for the popularity of white cedar shingles for covering seaside cottages and houses.
HICKORY
Eight species of hickory grow in Virginia and five of these are cut in commercial quantities. Mockernut is probably most common, and grows in all regions, while bitternut, shagbark anfd small fruited hickories are found in the upper Piedmont and Mountain Regions. Bitfternut hickory is the most abundant; the nuts are too bitter to be edible, hence the name. It is probably the most widely distributed mem- ber of the hickory family. Shagfoark is so named from the tree's bark, which in the older trees hangs down in long strips. This tree yields the best flavored nut of any of the hickories, and its fruit is commonly seen in the markets. The small fruited hickory is far less frequent in Virginia than the other species, and the nuts are too small for commerce but are sweet and delicately flavored. Pignut is the most abundant hickory tree in the northern States; in Virginia it grows in the moun-
OF VIRGINIA
tains, seeking "higher altitudes than any of the other 'hickories. Hickory, independent of species, combines more than any other wood, the qualities of strength, elasticity, and toughness. It is, therefore, demanded where these properties are essential, as in vehicle stock, axe, hammer, and pick handles, and sucker rod's. Though siome species of hickory are more easily identified than those of other trees, the manufacturer and the lumberman rarely makes any distinction.
The young sapling hickories are in almost as great demand as the grown trees. They are cut and sold for hoop poles. It is this cutting of the young growth which if not checked will bring about the early exhaustion of the hickory tree.
CHESTNUT
Virginia is one of the five principal States in the production of •chestnut lumber. In 1909 the total cut was 68 million feet though the amount the manufacturers used was only 7 million. Ten per cent of this was shipped in from other States. Only in comparatively recent years has chestunt had 'high value as lumber ; before that it had been used as a substitute for higher priced woods. In the interior trim of houses the conspicuous handsome figure of the chestnut has grown in favor, and to a large degree, supplanted the oak finish. Chestnut lumber is very durable especially in contact with the soil. It is this property which favors its use above other woods for making burial caskets.
Tthe tannin in chestnut wood is extracted and used in tanning. The demand of tanneries operating in Virginia make the production of tannin an important industry.
The chestnut tree grows throughout all the hill and high valley regions of Virginia, but more abundantly in the mountain sections.
ASH
White ash, red ash, Biltmore ash, green ash, black ash and water ash, are the six species composing the ash family in Virginia. White and red, in the order named, constitute a very large proportion of the stand. Biltmore ash is a species recently discovered by botanists con- nected with the Biltmore forest estate in North Carolina. It is a com- mon tree growing along streams in the mountains and is indigenous only to the southern Appalachian states. Green ash grows in western Virginia, but not in commercial quantities ; its most abundant stand is in the lower Mississippi Valley. As with hickory, the manufacturers do not distinguish species of ash lumber for particular uses, nor do lumbermen generally speak of these except by one name, because of
26 WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES
the difficulty of identifying the separate trees. The Virginia sawmills cut 5,500,000 and 3,000,000 went to the manufacturers. The largest quantity consumed was by the handle makers. Ash is probably the most widely distributed of the North American trees. It ranges from the Rocky Mountain States east through every State except Maine.
BLACK OR YELLOW LOCUST
In the rich valleys of Virginia, and on up to the mountainous slopes black locust reaches its best development. Its first and native home is thought to have been limited to the sides and foothills of the Southern Appalachians, but owing to its hardiness and to the ease with which it adapts itself to other soils and climes, it has been planted extensively both in this country and Europe. Locust develops rapidly when young and is growing in favor for planting in farm wood-lots. Locust plantations are growing satisfactorily on the Coastal Plains as well as in the other regions of Virginia. The wood is tough, strong, very durable and unequalled it is claimed for torsional strength and resiliency. It is durable when exposed and very lasting in contact with the ground. In Virginia it is highly valued for shipbuilding, fence posts, insulator pins, and to a less degree than in other States for vehicle stock, principally wagon hubs.
MAPLE
Sugar, red and black maple can be readily identified in the tree, but in the form of lumber all1 three generally go under the name of sugar maple. In Virginia only a few manufacturers distinguish it in their reports, and only those who require it separately for making com- modities for which both species are not used indiscriminately. It is claimed that sugar maple is the most valuable hardwood tree in this country, taking into consideration its production of maple sugar and the fact that next to oak its wood meets the greatest number of uses. Choice figured lumlber from this tree brings exceedingly high prices in the market. Sugar maple's and silver maple's range of growth parallel each other, in general extending over much of the same territory east of the looth meridian. Sugar maple is more abundant in the Northern States, while the silver maple takes precedence usually in the Southern States south of the Ohio River. Virginia wood users use a much larger per cent of the sugar maple. Its stands in the mountains and foothills is scattered, but frequent, while in the lowlands the black and red maples probably outnumber considerably the stand of silver maple. The largest general use of silver maple
OF VIRGINIA 27
is in furniture making for drawer sides and bottoms, mirror backing and table slides.
BEECH
The beech tree is most abundant in the Northern States, wheie it grows on the slopes and well-drained uplands. In the Gulf States it occurs less abundantly, but it is found on lowlands and borders of streams and swamps. In Virginia its best development is in the mountain region where it is more common than in the lowlands of the Coastal Plains. Beech is held in high favor as turning wood and there- fore is in great demand for chair stock and novelties: its most ex- acting demand is for plane -stocks. Vast quantities of beech wood are used by the wood distillation plants, and in this use it leads in quantity all other woods. In Virginia its chief use is for flooring. Though manufacturers often report the use of both white and red beech, botani- cally there is but one species. These two names arise from the dif- ferent color of the heartwood and sapwood, the former being reddish and the latter white. The beech tree is easily identified in the forests by its smooth and light colored bark. Its trunk is symmetrical, of large proportions and the contour of the tree attractive.
SYCAMORE
Virginia saw-mills cut nine times as much sycamore as is purchased by the manufacturers in the State itself ; but the quantity of sycamore sent in from other States exceeds the lumber cut more than 50 per cent. Makers of tobacco boxes and packing boxes use almost all that is manufactured in Virginia. When quarter-cut, it makes a handsome appearance in furniture and cabinet work. Sycamore is the easiest distinguished of the American trees; the white and mottled bark is very noticeable, as are the rough balls it bears, which remain hanging on the tree throughout the winter. The sycamore grows in all parts of Virginia from the submerged lands of the Tidewater and swamp regions, high into the Mountain region, where it occurs mostly along streams.
BASSWOOD
Basswood is fairly abundant and is one of the most useful trees of the eastern United States and Canada. In Virginia it appears most abundantly in the mountain region. The Virginia sawmills cut nearly nine times more than the manufacturers of the State require, and yet nearly 50 per cent of the manufacturer's demand was met from wood grown in other States. The wood is light, soft and easily worked, and in many of its uses becomes a competitor of yellow poplar. It
28 WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES
is a favorite veneer wood and northern states meets a demand for mak- ing the best grades of excelsior. Manufacturers of paper-pulp and slack barrel heading favor it. The inner bark, called "bast" gives the tree its name. This bast is valuable and largely used for making cords and ropes, and door mats.
BIRCH
There are two species of birch in Virginia. The river (black) birch, sometimes called red birch, grows in the Coastal and Lower Piedimont Regions, on lands subject to overflow and along the banks of streams. Although no manufacturers in Virginia report using it, its properties fit it for many common uses. The furniture manufac- turers do not want it because they use birch for outside work and bkck birch possesses no figure. In Pennsylvania it is extensively used for vehicle hubs and generally it goes into chairs, small handles, and other turned material.
Sweet birch ranges in scattered stands over the mountains of western and southwestern Virginia. Fifty-one State mills report cut- ting it into lumber but the quantities produced were small. The manu- facturers go to other States to buy 75 per cent of their material, which amount to nearly three-quarters of a million feet. The bark of the sweet birch resembles that of black cherry ; for this reason the tree is frequently called cherry birch. The sweet aromatic flavor of the bark gives the tree its most common name, sweet birch. The wood serves as a common imitation of mahogany. The lumber in its natural color is beautiful and is used as the decorative wood in cabinet work, interior house finish, and furniture.
SPRUCE
Spruce seeks a cool climate. It is, therefore, one of the most abundant trees of New England and the Northern States. In the Southern Appalachian Region it grows only at comparatively high altitudes. Its range extends to the Georgia line but the farther south it goes the higher the elevation it occupies. Two species grow in the Alleghanies, the red and black spruce. The latter seldom reaches a size large enough for lumber, but this tree in the northeast meets a demand of the wood-pulp manufacturers. Red spruce is the im- portant lumber tree both in the New England and the Appalachian States. In Virginia it appears in the far western section and here the sawmills cut nearly 80,000,000 feet in 10,09. The resin of the red and black spruce known as spruce gum is used for confections. The wood is light, soft and elastic. Its most general use in New England is
OF VIRGINIA
for rough construction work, but in Virginia ship building consumed a larger quantity than any other industry, the largest part of which came from other States, principally West Virginia.
COTTONWOOD
Ten times more cottonwood is consumed by the manufacturers in Virginia than is cut by the sawmills. The State has a considerable stand of cottonwood, especially in the western part, but it is quite scat- tered and the wood is not held in high favor by the sawmills. Cotton- wood belongs to the poplar family as do the aspens, balm of Gilead, and the black cottonwood of the western Coast. It is commonly known in Virginia as Carolina poplar. Yellow poplar, which properly is called tulip tree, does not belong to this family, the true poplars, but in the uses of the wood they are closely related, especially the cotton- wood which often serves as a substitute for yellow poplar. Cotton- wood is soft, has little figure, and is easily worked, and these qualities together with its white color makes it suitable for many uses.
HEMLOCK
Hemlock had the fifth largest cut of the woods of the United States and Virgina ranked tenth among the hemlock producing States. Next to yellow pine there was more hemlock lumber sawed in Virginia than any of the softwoods, but less than one-fortieth of it was required by the State's manufacurers. In company with white pine 'and red spruce, hemlock in Virginia is confined to the slopes and ravines of the mountains. Its best development is at high altitudes and in cool climes. The lake States are the regions of its heaviest stand, although the New England forests at one time contained much hem'lock. Not many years ago hemlock had little value as lumber. Wood users referred to it as a forest weed, possessing none of the qualifications of first class lumber. This accounts for millions of feet being cut down only to furnish bark, while the peeled logs were left to rot in the woods. Now, however, the prejudice against hemlock has been practically dissipated, and today it is one of the principal woods for general construction. Many architects specify it in preference to white pine, spruce and second growth yellow pine. The lower grades are held in high favor by the box makers and from the upper grades, siding, flooring, casing, and interior trim are milled.
DOGWOOD
The "flowering" dogwood, so called because of the conspicuous white tracts surrounding its flowers, is the only species in Virginia
30 WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES
supplying wood of commercial value. Its attractive flower distinguishes it in the spring, and in the autumn it can be identified at once by the clusters of shining scarlet berries and the rich purple color of its leaves. It ranges throughout Virginia in scattered stands along banks of streams but most profusely in the western and southwestern part, in vales and mountain ravines. The wood is in great demand because it is heavy, hard, strong, and close-grained, and the supply is insuffi- cient to meet the demand. For special uses, suitable substitutes have been found in persimmon wood and great laurel. Its most exacting demand comes from the manufacturers of shuttles.
ELM
There are four or more species of elm growing in the eastern United States, but only two, in scattered stands, are of commercial importance in Virginia. They are white elm, and slippery elm. The trees are easily distinguished at sight in the forest, for when the leaves of the two are compared the difference is apparent. The easiest iden- tification is by removing a piece of bark. The slippery elm's inner bark as the name suggests, is mucilaginous and fragrant, while that of the white elm is not. Elm is an unimportant lumber tree in Virginia, only thirty-one mills cut it last year and the combined quanitity of them all was almost insignificant. The manufacturers used more than 'three times as much as the sawmills produced. All of the rock or slippery elm reported was shipped in from other States, while the white elm was entirely home-grown.
WALNUTS
With one exception, the black walnut yields the most valuable cabinet wood of the North American trees. It was once quite plentiful from the eastern foothills of the Appalachians and the Adirondacks to Nebraska and Kansas. It is now very scarce. It is a slow grower but its increasing value has encouraged effort looking to its propa- gation on a commercial scale. Early in the I7th century the forests of Virginia began to contribute black walnut logs for export to England and since then this wood has been a valuable article of commerce. In 1909, 210 sawmills cut 2 1-3 million feet. The dark brown heartwood which was a rich color and takes an attractive finish, is prized for furniture, fixtures, gun stocks, sewing machines and cabinet work.
Butternut is a species of "walnut" sometimes called white walnut. Its eastern range limit ends in the miountans of western Virginia. The difference in the size and shape of the rough shelled nuts from those
OF VIRGINIA
of the black walnut will easily distinguish the tree. The butternut is elongated and smaller than the round black walnut. In the wood, color of the heartweed differentiates the two. The white walnut heartwood is light gray-brown.
CUCUMBER
Virginia and West Virginia together cut a very large per cent of the cucum'ber timber reported in 1909. This tree frequents the moun- tain slopes and grows to large and symmetrical proportion and is of handsome appearance. It is a member of the magnolia family and its fruit is somewhat similar in form and appearance to cucumbers. The appearance and physical qualities of the wood so resemble yellow poplar that the uses of the two are nearly identical, and as a rule in commerce no distinction is made. Owing to this it is probable that the manu- factures used more cucumber than the table shows and reported it as yellow poplar.
RED CEDAR
Red cedar is a widely distributed tree growing in practically all of the States north of the Gulf State region. In Virginia it is found throughout the State. Large matured trees are most abundant, but scattered, in the western part. Although other juniper woods are used, red cedar meets almost the entire demand for lead pencil material and for this purpose much of it is shipped abroad, the demand for such wood greatly exceeding the supply. Furniture, mothproof chests, and woodenware, are other commodities manufactured from this wood in Virginia. The wood is very desirabh and finds its greatest demands for fence posts.
PACIFIC COAST WOODS
Douglas fir is often spoken of in the Eastern States as Oregon spruce or western fir. It is neither a true spruce nor fir, as the tree is more nearly related to the hemlocks. The wood resembles yellow pine and is a competitor of it, especially for rough construction. Its presence, therefore so far from home, in a principal yellow pine State is quite indicative of the future of the wood in the eastern markets. Three-quarters of a million feet of Douglas fir come to the manufac- turers of Virginia annually from the Oregon and Washington forests, but according to reports of the wood-using industries of those States, the Oregon and Washington manufacturers do not report using any yellow pine. The cut of yellow pine in the country at large is the only one which exceeds Douglas fir. The yellow pine production, however, is the combined cut of seven species, but the yield of Douglas fir is
32 WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES
from a single species. Douglas fir trees are noted for their great size and from them timbers of exceptional width and length are sawed. Ship builders use the most in Virginia.
Sugar pine resembles white pine and to meet the same uses as the upper grades of white pine it was brought to Virginia from the Pacific Coast Region. The range of this tree is confined almost to one State. Tt extends but a short distance beyond the northern boundary of Cali- fornia, in Oregon.
The western red cedar is indigenous to our northwest adjacent continental territory and Alaska, and is the third Pacific Coast wood according to quantity shown in this report.
OTHER WOODS
Cherry is very scattered over the western part of Virginia and only 21 sawmills reported cutting small quantities in 1909. The Virginia manufacturers purchased little of the State's cut, as 97 per cent of the cherry used came from Maryland and West Virginia. Next to walnut it is the highest priced domestic wood reported in Virginia.
The yellow or sweet buckeye tree, a native of the mountains, is the species most commonly cut as lumber in Virginia, although the Ohio buckeye is also found growing in this State in comparatively small quantities. These trees while of the same family as the horse chest- nut so commonly seen as a shade tree are a different species.
Sassafras is noted as the tree having leaves of many shapes and sizes. It bears clusters of blue berries which ripen in Virginia, in August. In Virginia, North Carolina, Kentucky and Tennessee and further south it reaches proportions of from three to occasionally five feet in diameter. The stand is infrequent and not over one-half mil- lion feet was sawed into lumber last year. Sassafras wood is verv durable.
FOREIGN WOODS
Some foreign woods are purchased by Virginia manufacturers. Mahogany leads, with nearly one-half million feet. Teak wood comes next in quantity and surpasses in amount that used by Illinois wood users, or by the manufacturers of any of the twelve States for which reports similar to this has been completed. It was imported from Cey- lon, India, and Siam. Spanish cedar is not a coniferous tree like the native cedars nor is it related. It has broad leaves and grows in tropi- cal countries. The small quanity of this wood used by the cigar box makers in Virginia was reported as shipped from the West Indies. The highest price was paid for rosewood sent from Central America.
OF VIRGINIA 33
Walnut from the Philippine Islands, white mahogany from the west Coast of Mexico, and silver ava, unidentified as to species and origin, are species which so far have not appeared in any other wood using industry report.
INDUSTRIES
An industry as considered in this report embraces all the factories in the State which make similar or closely related wooden commodities. For example, while 472 manufacturers furnished the information for this report, they have been grouped into twenty-three Industries or classes. The same headings which group the Virginia manufacturers have been, and will continue to be, used in preparing similar reports for other States. Where the making of a product for a specific use is a distinct business, though the classification of it would be permissible under a more general heading, a separate division or industry was re- cognized. For instance, cigar boxes and veneer fruit and vegetable baskets, or packages, can properly be classified under box making; but in Virginia a number of manufacturers specialize in making one or the other commodity and in consequence the data concerning the material used will be presented in separate industry tables. For the same reason the chair factories have been classified separately from the furniture factories.
In collecting the data for this report, the Forest Service assured Virginia manufacturers that in the compilation of the report informia- tion on individual concerns would not be revealed. To make this rule effective, where there were less than three manufacturers making the same products, they were not grouped into a separate industry as was the case where more than three reported. Instead of discarding the data in these cases the reports were grouped together and indiscrim- inately' compiled under a general heading, Miscellaneous.
Table 3 sets forth the comparative quantities and value of the wood independent of kind used by the twenty-three industries and gives the amounts and prices of the material grown at home and that shipped in from other lumber producing regions.
34
WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES
TABLE 3.— SUMMARY BY INDUSTRIES OF WOOD USED IN VIRGINIA.
Quantity used annually.
INDUSTRIES |
Total Feet B. M. |
Per cent |
Average cost per 1,000 feet f . o. b. factory |
Total cost f. o. b. factory |
Grown in Va. Per cent |
Grown out of Va. Per cent |
Boxes |
413 371 667 |
46.22 |
$11 96 |
$ 4 944 636 33 |
60 50 |
39 50 |
Planing-mill products... Cars and locomotives Sash, doors and general mill work |
223.337,762 51,293,031 44,295 940 |
24.97 5.73 4.95 |
14.71 17.96 24 27 |
3,232,026.75 921.168.25 1 075 293 32 |
49.70 16.29 55 06 |
50.30 83.71 44 94 |
Paring wood blocks and |
27,552,000 |
3.08 |
17 56 |
486 585 00 |
22 20 |
77 80 |
20 207 800 |
2 26 |
22 15 |
447 244 90 |
70 50 |
29 50 |
|
Baskets and fruit and vegetable pkgs Vehicles and vehicle parts |
19,657,330 17,487,150 15 364 661 |
2.20 1.96 1 72 |
13.01 27.30 14 34 |
255,713.97 477,340.63 220 232 21 |
47.95 71.37 . 90 03 |
52.05 28.63 9 97 |
Ship and boat bldg Woodenware, novelties, matches Excelsior |
11,138,497 10,545,000 6 032 000 |
1.25 1.18 67 |
40.46 16.93 8 48 |
449,691.78 178,575.00 51 159 50 |
10.26 39.06 100 00 |
89.74 60.94 |
Fencing and gates . . . Insulator pins, etc Fixtures |
6,925,000 5,875,218 3,068,650 |
.77 .66 .34 |
12.72 21.06 37.30 |
75,492.50 123,730.36 114,352.75 |
91.84 51.42 34 12 |
8.16 48.58 65 88 |
Handles |
2 993 000 |
33 |
21 75 |
65 093 50 |
96 66 |
3 34 |
Agricultural implements Caskets and coffins Poulterers' supplies . . . Chairs |
2,404,000 1,566,346 647,400 f 70 000 |
.27 .18 .07 09 |
22.18 17.08 18.34 17 44 |
53.414.50 26,534.64 14,120.00 11,282 75 |
89.06 82.59 79.22 45 94 |
10.94 17.41 20.78 54 06 |
Shuttles |
631 400 |
07 |
13 71 |
g 647 40 |
100 00 |
|
454,550 |
.05 |
21 93 |
9 992 55 |
66 00 |
34 00 |
|
Patterns |
130 800 |
01 |
82 74 |
10 840 00 |
16 82 |
83 18 |
3Iiscellaneous |
8,692,700 |
.97 |
19.36 |
167,753.40 |
51.02 |
48.98 |
Totals |
894,441,902 |
100.00 |
$15 00 |
$13,420,921 99 |
54.14 |
45 86 |
Only two industries, the shuttle block makers and the excelsior factories, procured all their wood from Virginia forests. Seven report using more imported than home-grown lumber. The average cost of material coming from outside in every industry amounted to more than wood purchased from the Virginia sawmills.
The material whicK went into boxes cost less than that for any other industry except excelsior. The highest average price was paid for lumber used for "patterns" by founclrymen. The ship and boat building material and the lumber going to the makers of store and office fixtures, were the next highest-priced material reported in the order named. The total amount of money paid for raw material by all the industries was more than $15,000,000.
OF VIRGINIA
Virginia's importance as a wood-consuming State, compared with the other States so far studied by the Forest Service, is as follows :
State Feet B. M.
Illinois 1,781,536,000
Arkansas ' 1,361,300,000
Ivouisiana i,354>954,ooo
Michigan 1,282,561,200
Wisconsin 930,382,000
VIRGINIA 894,441,000
Texas 762,336,112
Alabama 726,816,900
North Carolina 676,166,000
Mississippi 618,270,000
Massachusetts 549,320,000
Missouri 443,273,600
New Hampshire 422,904,000
Tennessee 413,878,167
Kentucky 409,634,000
Washington 337>555>ooo
Oregon . '. 296,792,000
Maryland 284,347,000
Vermont 206,078,000
Connecticut 1 10,051,000
BOXES
There has been quite an evolution in box making. Not long ago little attention was paid to the character of packages and crates, so long as the wood used was sufficiently strong and cheap. That boxes were made from rough lumber and of material, often unnecessarily thick and heavy, was a matter of little concern. Various widths and several kinds of lumber independent of color often went into the same crate. To-day manufacturers and merchants use care and attempt to show as much character in their packages as they do in other details connected witH business. Woods of uniform color and width, of proper thickness, weight and strength, easily nailed, are selected and made into symmetrical attractive looking packages. By the characteristic .appearance of their box or crate they purpose that the passer may recognize the brand or make of goods contained in it, without further identification.
There are three clases of box makers. The first class buy rough lumber and manufacture boxes complete ready for use. These are sold
36 WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES
usually to meet the local demand. In Virginia, this demand is exten- sive, owing to the large and varied manufacturing enterprises and many wholesale jobbing concerns and distributing houses located in the several large cities. This class also make packages of special design which are sold and shipped out of the State already assembled. The lock cornered, wire-bound, dovetailed, re-shippers, and the veneer boxes are examples. The second class are those who purchase shocks in stock sizes and make boxes for local demand by merely assembling and nailing the shocks together without changing the form of the wood by any further process of manufacture. These were not asked for information as they do not come within the scope of this study. Fac- tories manufacturing only box shocks make up the third class. From the standpoint cf the quantity of material consumed, the size of the factories, and! tlhe capital invested, this class of 'box makers in Vir- ginia are the most important. They probably produce more shocks than similar manufacturers in other States. The shocks are carefully made so they readily and neatly fit when nailed together, and to facil- itate assembling the box they are systematically bundled. The Vir- ginia shook makers most often purchase their raw material in log form, but some of them buy the low grades of lumber from sawmills. This material if not serviceable for boxes would likely be a total loss and consigned to the burner.
Virginia leads all other States so far as studied in the amount of wood used for boxes. Seventeen important lumber consuming States, have been studied by the Forest Service, and the following tabulation shows their comparative standing and the three principal woods used for boxes according to quantity.
{Yellow poplar |
||
Virginia |
-.413,371,576 feet |
Yellow pine |
Red gum |
||
{White pine |
||
Illinois |
. . 372,025,000 " |
Red gum |
Cottonwood |
||
{White pine |
||
Massachusetts |
...351,941,350 " |
Spruce |
Hemlock |
||
! White pine |
||
Michigan |
..232,111,486 " |
Beech Hemlock |
4 White pine |
||
New Hampshire.., |
,..199,075,000 " |
•) Spruce |
( Norway pine |
||
{Yellow pine |
||
Maryland |
,..136,273,000 " |
Cotton gum |
White pine |
||
{White pine |
||
Wisconsin |
..119,267,000 " |
Basswood |
Hemlock |
OF VIRGINIA |
37 |
||
Missouri |
111,664,699 feet |
( Red gum |
|
Kentucky .... |
109,567,000 " |
( Yellow pine i Yellow poplar |
|
Arkansas |
105,552,000 " |
Cottonwood !Red gum |
|
Red oak |
,.T . f Sitka spruce
\Y ashmgton 95,036,500 " 4 Western hemlock
I Western yellow pii ( Sitka spruce
Oregon 77,946,000 " -j Western white pine
( Western hemlock ( Yellow pine
North Carolina 68,064,000 " J Red gum
( Tupelo
( Cottonwood
Louisiana 56,004,500 " -{ Red gum
Birch willow White pine
Vermont 40,249,000
Mississippi 39,295,093
Spruce Balsam fir Cottonwood Red gum
Yellow pine ( Red gum
Alabama 22,442,000 " ^ 1 Longleaf pine
( Tupelo
Box makers do not demand one kind of wood greatly in excess of others. It will be seen that the predominating species used differs in different regions, usually according to the abundant local stand of suitable woods. All States within reach of the white pine country work up most of their boxes from this wood. The cottonwood in the southern Mississippi Valley, Sitka spruce on the Pacific Coast and red gum in Missouri, Arkansas, Alabama, and Kentucky lead in their re- spective regions.
In Virginia and North Carolina yellow pine meets the greatest de- mand. Nearly 87 per cent of the total is of this wood divided among four species, loblolly pine, shortleaf pine, scrub pine and longleaf pine. Except the longleaf shipped in from Georgia and South Carolina, a large portion of the supply of the yellow pines is furnished by second growth timber on old field stands. These trees owing to their rapid growth have a large per cent of sapwood. This timber is light in color, soft and strong and generally a most satisfactory' box material. Scrub pine is growing in favor with the box makers on account of its abund- ance, cheapness, and suitable properties. It is used for only low-grade boxes. In Maryland, Delaware, and New Jersey, like Virginia, more of this timber is worked into boxes than for any other purpose in manu- facture.
WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES
Red gum timber is plentiful in and near Virginia, and in price is approximately as reasonable >as for loblolly and shortleaf pine. The merits of red gum, as material for boxes, has been recognized by the box makers, and in Virginia next to yellow pine they use it more than any other wood. The heart wood is often laid aside and used for packages for exporting goods. Being the principal troe for the rotary veneer cutting machines, red gum furnishes much of the material go- ing into veneer boxes.
When provisions are shipped in containers in contact with the wood they are made from lumber which does not have a tendency to impart a taste or odor. The resinous properties of the yellow pine and the gums do not fit them for this use, but, instead, the yellow poplar, cy- press, spruce, and sycamore meet the demand. Chestnut too was called on for this purpose. It was used for meat and cheese boxes. Spruce and yellow poplar in the order named were the principal material for butter boxes, while fresh fish and oysters were packed in boxes made principally from yellow poplar and cypress.
Reshippers are extensively manufactured in Virginia. They are a strong constructed high-grade box crate used for carrying glass bottles, principally soda water, beer, table water and milk bottles. Reshippers have to stand much wear and rough handling and must be made from a strong compact wood. Tupelo has proven most serviceable and was most extensively used. Red gum, cypress, chestnut, and yellow poplar were also worked into reshippers. White pine, sap gum (red gum) and tupelo were reported as the leading woods for interlocking and dovetailed boxes. Strong packages in which projectiles are shipped were made exclusively of longleaf pine.
TABLE 4.— BOXES.
Total quantity used annually. |
|||||
KIND OF WOOD. |
Feet B. M. |
Average cost per 1,000 ft. f . o. b. factory |
Total cost f. o. b. factory |
Grown in Va. Feet B. M. |
Grown out of Va. Feet B. M. |
215.743,667 96,336,000 37,549,500 15,786.000 14,431,000 10,550,000 8,924,500 4,156.000 3,816,000 3,634.000 1,510.000 500,000 250,000 100,000 60,000 15,000 10,000 413,371,667 |
$11.94 12.09 11.27 11.65 13.26 8.33 13.08 10.21 15.70 11.80 29.81 10.20 17.00 9.00 12.41 14.00 17.00 $11.96 |
$2,574,672.28 1,165,258.84 423,177.23 183,915.00 191,318.18 87,900.00 116,672.00 42,415.50 59.923.50 42,899.00 45,110.00 5,100.00 4,250.00 900.00 745.00 210.00 170.00 |
132,300,667 40,708,000 37,549,500 10,487,000 10,029,000 9,300,000 'sie^ooo 2,529,000 2,854,000 |
83,443,000 55,628,000 |
|
Shortleaf pine |
|||||
Red gum |
5,299,000 4,402,000 1,250,000 8,924,500 514,000 1,287,000 780,000 1,510,000 250,000 |
||||
Yellow poplar |
|||||
Cotton gum (Tupelo) |
|||||
Longleaf pine » . . . . |
|||||
Chestnut |
|||||
Cypress |
|||||
Black gum |
250,000 250,000 100,000 60,000 15,000 10,000 |
||||
Hemlock |
|||||
Red oak |
|||||
Basswood (linn) |
|||||
Ash |
|||||
Totals |
|||||
$4,944,636.33 |
250,084,167 |
163,287,500 |
|||
ILLUSTRATION IV. A RAFT OF LONG LEAF PINE LOGS WAITING TO BE SAWED AND WORKED INTO RLANING MILL PRODUCTS.
OF VIRGINIA
39
PLANING MILL PRODUCTS
A large part of the lumber, before leaving the region where it is cut, is further manufactured into flooring, ceiling, siding, stock mould- ing, base-boards, roofers, and other matched boards. It is the material consumed for making these planing-mill products in Virginia which the statistics in Table 5 represent. Many large sawmills in this State have planing-mill departments. These and independent planing-mills using bought lumber are the factories which contributed the information of this industry.
Based on the quantity of wood used, this class of manufacturers is the second largest in Virginia. The box makers reported nearly 47 per cent of the total further manufactured as compared with a little over 20 per cent by the planing mills. In North Carolina the adjoining State, the situation is reversed; the planing mills used four times the quantity consumed by the box makers. ,
Eighteen kinds of wood were required to make the products of this industry. Loblolly pine heads the list as to quantity and cost. This was also the principal planing-mill wood as shown by the Maryland and North Carolina reports. Shortleaf pine is the second wood in Virginia in importance, and, with loblolly, comprises more than four- fifths of the total Longleaf pine and scrub pine are the other species of yellow pine reported. The former, cut almost entirely in other States, was extensively used by Virginia planing-mills and the price paid for it was the highest of any woods except walnut. The latter grew altogether in Virginia and was next to the cheapest wood.
The kinds of lumber used for flooring were loblolly, longleaf and Shortleaf pine, oak, beech, sugar maple, sweet birch, and chestnut. Of the yellow pines, longleaf pine is the superior floor wood, being stronger, harder, and more resinous. It goes into flooring for public buildings where it is subject to excessive wear. It also serves as an ornamental flooring. Waxed and polished, it presents an attractive appearance and is used exposed like hardwood floors. Cheaper grades of flooring are generally made from loblolly and shortleaf pine, al- though commodities made from the old growths of these wods, es- pecially the edge grained flooring, wear well and meet a wide demand.
Next to yellow pine more oak finds its ultimate form in planing- mill products than any other wood, and flooring is the chief commodity made from it. Its qualities of hardness, strength, and beauty of grain admirably fit it for this use. Oak flooring was quite extensively made from quarter-sawed lumber. Manufacturers in other States use it with birch, maple, black walnut, mahogany, and red gum to form
4O WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES
fancy designs known as parquetry flooring. More oak is used for parquetry floors than any other wood.
In Virginia, as in the" northeastern States, beech flooring is growing in popularity. Large quantities of the mountain trees were cut for this use, but most of the supply came from from -outside the State, mostly from West Virginia, The large amounts of 'home-grown birch and maple going into flooring was quite surprising. Chestnut flooring is recommended for porch floors owing to its durability when exposed to the elements.
The properties of absorbing and holding paint better than any other wood makes yellow poplar especially serviceable for siding. Nearly two million feet were converted into this commodity. Based on the quantity used, loblolly pine was the leading wood for siding in Virginia. It is cheaper than yellow poplar, more convenient, and made as most of it is from the sapwood of old-field growths, it readily takes and holds paint. White pine, cypress, hemlock, scrub pine, and small quantities of basswood and buckeye also served in Virginia for siding. Scrub pine lumber has many tight knots. The use of this wood by the planing-mills was mostly for making cheap barn siding.
For interior trim, such as door and window mouldings, baseboards, and quarter-sawed stuff, the variety of figure of the loblolly or Virginia pine makes it preferable to longleaf, besides being easier for the car- penter to fit and nail. Yellow poplar and basswood are the woods worked into these commodities for painted work. Of the hardwoods chestnut, red oak, and white oak lead the moulding woods in quantity. Ash, cypress, walnut, and birch were the other woods serving for in- terior trim. Like flooring and siding, finish is worked up into stock patterns and bundled ready for the market. It will be noted no red gum in Virginia was so used, although the Missouri and Mississippi reports show that this wood was in large demand for this purpose. In Louisiana, large quantities of tupelo served for making finish. The Pacific Coast States have still different woods for meeting the demands for interior work. Douglas fir, western hemlock (a species different from the eastern hemlock), and western yellow pine were the leaders. ' These are the cheap softwoods because very abundant, but they possess an attractive grain. Sitka spruce and western reJ cedar are other conifers answering for this use, while the hardwoods most extensively used are Oregon maple, western birch, and red alder.
Roofers in Virginia were manufactured exclusively from yellow pine. Loblolly, shortleaf, and scrub pine were the species meeting the demand. These sheeting boards are made only from low grades of lumber.
OF VIRGINIA
TABLE 5.— PLAN ING- MILL PRODUCT.
Total quantity used annually. |
|||||
KIND OF WOOD. |
Feet B. M. |
Average cost per 1,000 ft. f. o. b. factory |
Total cost f. o. b. factory |
Grown in Va. Feet B. M. |
Grown out of Va. Feet B. M. |
Loblolly pine |
113,656,762 62,038,000 8,505,000 4,930,000 4 845,000 1,985,000 1,831,000 1,690,000 397,000 1,233.000 1,175,000 519,000 204,000 147,000 97,000 40,000 25,000 20,000 |
$13.24 13.64 18.51 33.96 18.01 21.98 17.51 23.21 9.27 18.86 10.55 19.07 10.20 15.58 27.99 18.12 14.00 43.75 |
$1,767,264.25 846.310.00 157,464.50 167,425.00 87,245.50 43,633.50 32,058.00 39,225.00 36,820.00 23,249.00 12,400.00 9,897.00 2,080.00 2,290.00 2,715.00 725.00 350.00 875.00 |
76,474,000 20,118.000 4,851,000 40,000 3,234,000 1,485,000 824,000 1,410,000 172,000 508,000 1,175,000 216,000 202,000 147,000 62,000 40,000 25,000 10,000 |
57,182,762 41,920,000 3,654.000 4,890.000 1,611,000 5,000,000 1.007,000 280,000 225.000 725.000 |
Jted oak |
|||||
Beech |
|||||
Sweet birch |
303.000 2.000 |
||||
Ash |
35,000 |
||||
Walnut |
10.000 |
||||
223,337,762 |
$14.71 |
$3,232,026.75 |
110,993,000 |
112,344,762 |
|
CARS AND LOCOMOTIVES
The building and repair of cars in Virgnia is a most important enterprise. The quantity and cost of the lumber required made it the third largest of industries. Besides freight cars of all kinds, passen- ger and baggage cars, cabooses, and contractors, and mining dump cars, Virginia manufacturers use part of the material listed in Table 6 for constructing locomotive cabs and for other parts of locomotives where wood is essential. Lumber is used by railroads for grade crossings, bridges, depot platforms, trestles, cattle guards, and many other purposes, but this wood was not included in this table nor in this report. It serves for these uses as rough lumber without any necessary change in its form other than trimming and fitting by hand.
Longleaf pine, loblolly, and shortleaf, together furnished more than four-fifths of the total requirements of the car makers. Longleaf, according to amount used, was the most important wood. In many caises its uses for framing were similar to those of oak. It went into sills, body bolsters, and side plates. Besides this, it was used for ridge poles, car lining, belt rails, and body posts, and with loblolly and short - leaf pine, for siding, flooring or decking, roof boards, and linings.
The strength of white oak and red oak makes these woods almost indispensable for car building, white oak being the more favored and used to a greater extent than red. Both of them went in the frame work of passenger and freight cars. The principal uses were for draft timbers, engine beams, tie beams, platforms, truck bolsters, and parts
WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES
of the truck. Sidings or side panels of passenger cars were made of yellow poplar, though ash, too, answered for this purpose. Plain and quartered oak and ash were the principal woods for inside finish, yel- low poplar, cherry, white pine, and mahogany, walnut and birch were the other woods contributing to the cabinet work.
Ash, poplar, and Douglas fir were the woods used in building the principal parts of locomotive cabs. The floors of the cabs were m-ade of maple, and the bumpers, pilots, and other wood parts of engines were made from oak, principally white oak.
TABLE 6.— CAR AND LOCOMOTIVE CONSTRUCTION.
Total quantity used annually. |
|||||
KIND OF WOOD. |
Feet B. M. |
Average cost per 1.000 ft. f. o. b. factory |
Total cost f. o. b. factory |
Va. Grown in Feet B. M. |
of Va. Grown out Feet B. M. |
35,832,521 5,953.039 4,457,500 2,682,371 1,084,000 1,026,800 102,500 90,000 35,000 24,700 4,000 600 51,293,031 |
$16.45 19.70 17.79 16.22 18.39 46.45 144.23 56.40 115.00 63.20 40.00 70.00 |
$589,714.25 117,148.00 77,675.00 43,453.00 19,938.00 47,714.00 14,695.00 5,075.00 4,025.00 1,529.00 160.00 42.00 |
35,832,521 3,148,03ft 2,083,500 802,300 104,000 711,800 102,500 90,000 35.000 24,700 4,000 600 |
||
White oak |
2,805',000 2,374,000 1,880,071 980,000 315,000 |
||||
Bed oak |
|||||
Loblolly pine |
|||||
Shortleaf pine |
|||||
Yellow poplar |
|||||
Ash |
|||||
White pine |
|||||
Walnut |
|||||
Totals . . . t |
|||||
$17.96 |
$921,168.25 |
8,354,071 |
42,938,960 |
||
SASH, DOORS, AND GENERAL MILLWORK
Information of material classified under Table 7 was reported by manufacturers making sash, doors, blinds, window and door frames, and general millwork such as is needed for porches, cornices, stairwork, specially designed interior trini, mantels, and grills. The line sepa- rating these factories from those described under Table 5, doing only general planing-mill business is clearly drawn as long as these special lines are adhered to. But when considering information furnished by factories which make all or a part of the products grouped under both industries, as in the case of small planing mills which supply local demand, it was difficult to correctly separate the information. In these instances arbitrary action was necessary and was exercised by those who did the field work guided by approximations gained from practical men.
More than 55 per cent of all the wood used by the factories grouped under this industry was grown in Virginia. Loblolly pine furnisheJ the largest portion of the home-grown wood, and was first in quantity
OF VIRGINIA 43
of the 27 different species demanded. More white pine, cucumber, and buckeye was reported by this industry than any other, and the second largest amount of all the cypress, sweet birch and basswood, used in the State went to these factories. It is logical that sash and doors should be extensively manufactured in Virginia as suitable woods for making them grow plentifully in this and adjacent States. For doors, loblolly and shortleaf pine, longleaf pine, cypress, red oak, and white oak, chestnut, white pine and mahogany were most largely demanded. The North Carolina door as it is called by the trade is made from loblolly and shortleaf pine cut in Virginia and North Carolina. It forms commercially one of the most important articles of commerce produced by Virginia factories. These doors find a market in many States besides supplying a large foreign demand. The prin- cipal sash woods, both for stock sash and for specially designed work, such as store fronts, were white and loblolly pine. Much of the white pine: was State grown and only a small part of the imported wood came from the white pine regions of the Lake States. Other species, including hardwoods, also served for making sash, and among them sugar pine grown in California. Sugar pine resembles white pine and has many uses in common with it.
Outside finish was extensively worked from loblolly and shortleaf pine because most convenient. These pines, especially the second growth, have less resin and are therefore better for holding paint. Yellow poplar, cypress, white pine, cucumber, and basswood were also contributors in this line and possibly are the best qualified of all eastern woods for exterior work. Douglas fir, the second Pacific Coast wood appearing in this industry, also served for outside work, but was re- ported in only small quantities. Its suitability for this purpose is shown by the quantity of it going into exterior building construction in the western and central States.
The hardwoods met a large demand for interior trim, such as mouldings, wainscoting, stairways, mantels, and colonnades. As would naturally be supposed, the Virginia oaks contributed the largest part of the material, with chestnut second. Sweet birch was the third important hardwood and all but a very limited quantity came from the Lake States. The other cabinet woods were red gum, sugar maple, mahogany, sycamore, ash, walnut, and cherry. For painted work in- side, yellow poplar was probably most generally used, though buck- eye in the western part of the State served with it. Loblolly pine and cypress constituted the largest supply of the softwoods for interior trim. The prominent attractive grain of these woods allows them to be used, varnished and finished in the natural. The largest part of
44
WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES
the supply of the cypress was imported from South Carolina and Florida.
TABLE 7.— SASH. DOORS, BLINDS, AND GENERAL MILL WORK.
Total quantity used annually. |
|||||
KIND OF WOOD. |
Feet B. M. |
Average cost per 1.000 ft. f. o. b. factory |
Total cost f. o. b. factory |
Grown in Va. Feet B. M. |
Grown out of Va. Feet B. M. |
Loblolly pine |
14,308,500 6,859,440 5.435,000 5,015,000 4,067,500 2.525,000 1,312,000 1,208,000 995,000 369,000 320 000 271 0(.0 179 000 155,000 150,000 130.000 130,000 115,000 68,000 55,000 22,500 27,000 25,000 25,000 10,500 9,500 5,000 4,000 |
$20.99 25.43 26.04 21.59 26.17 38.40 23.83 31.87 12.64 20.28 17.89 45.69 31.90 26.48 18.00 13.69 17.35 25.54 68.53 12.73 167.20 19.35 17.50 48.50 54.00 23.68 18.00 37.00 |
$ 298,617.00 174,452.42 141,532.50 108,268.00 106.475.00 96,062.40 31,250.00 38,716.00 12,580.00 17,619.00 5,725.00 12,383.00 5,710.00 4,005.00 2,700.00 1,780.00 2,255.00 2,937.50 4,660.00 700.00 3,690.00 522.50 437.50 1,212.50 540.00 225.00 90.00 148.00 |
11,455,000 2,711,465 50,000 2,863,000 2,803,500 115,000 1,111,000 740,000 995,000 711,000 220,000 14,000 42,000 105,000 75,000 60,000 130,000 65,000 55,000 |
2,853,500 4,147,975 5,385,000 2,152,000 1,264,000 2,410,000 201,000 468,000 '"iss'.ooo 100.000 257,000 137,000 50,000 75,000 70,000 |
White pine |
|||||
Longleaf pine |
|||||
Shortleaf pine |
|||||
Yellow poplar |
|||||
Cypress |
|||||
Red oak |
|||||
White oak |
|||||
Scrub pine |
|||||
Basswood (linn) |
|||||
Sweet birch |
|||||
Maple |
|||||
Ash |
|||||
Cucumber |
|||||
Hemlock |
|||||
Beech |
50,000 68,000 '"22,500 |
||||
Sugar pine |
|||||
Buckeye |
|||||
Sycamore |
27,000 25,000 '"7^500 9,500 |
||||
Douglas fir |
25,000 3,000 |
||||
Walnut |
|||||
Hickory |
|||||
Cherry |
5,000 4,000 19,905,975 |
||||
Bed cedar |
|||||
Totals |
|||||
$44,295,940 |
$24.27 |
$1,075,293.32 |
24,389,965 |
||
WOOD-PAVING BLOCKS AND CONDUITS
The articles belonging to this industry are used for municipal improvements. Conduits are used in underground construction for the distribution of electric power and telephone service. .The terra cotta conduits have until within recent years met the entire demand as wood ducts were not practical owing to their being subject to decay when in contact with the ground. The development of successful methods for the prevention of decay by impregnation of the wood with creosote and other antiseptic solutions has increased the life of woods as much as double its natural life. This has led to the adoption of wood conduits. The demand for them is growing, and owing to their being more moderate in price, lighter in weight, more economical to lay, and less liable to break, they have entered into active competi- tion with the clay conduit. The underground telegraph line recently completed from Boston to Washington, D. C., at a cost of three and one-quarter million dollars is laid in wood ducts the entire distance.
OF VIRGINIA
45
These ducts are usually 4^ inches square, random lengths, and have a 3 inch hole bored through. Large conduits with three and four openings are also made and used for underground municipal distribution. Loblolly pine and shortleaf pine were the woods reported for making conduits. These woods being soft and porous are especially desirable for their easy impregnation with creosote.
Wood blocks for paving city streets are gaining in favor. In 1910 the Census figures show that 770 miles of street in this country were wood paved. This is an increase in two years of more than 15 per cent. Prevention of decay by creosoting has also been the chief factor in stimulating the demand for wood pavement. Longleaf yellow pine shipped in from Georgia, Florida, and Alabama was the prin- cipal species reported, and until lately has been considered the most practical wood for successfully meeting this use. Water or black gum (Nyssa bifora) is the other paving wood mentioned. The table shows that over a million feet was used last year. Being a cheap hard- wood of compact structure with adaptability for absorbing preserva- tives, water gum blocks are destined to grow in popularity. Creo- soted railroad ties made from this wood were used in the new tunnel recently built by the Pennsylvania Railroad Company under the Hud- son River in preference to ties made from other more expensive woods.
The manufacture of creosoted paving blocks and conduits is a most important industry in Virginia. In quantity of wood consumed it stood third in the list of the industries and its products were widely distributed over many States. The conduits for the underground line from Boston to New York to Washington, D. C., mentioned above, were made by Virginia factories.
TABLE 8.— PAVING WOOD BLOCKS AND CONDUITS.
Total qua |
ntity used |
annually. |
|||
KIND OF WOOD |
Feet B. M. |
Average cost per 1,000 ft. f. o. b. factory |
Total cost f. o. b. factory |
Grown In Va. Feet B. M. |
Grown out ofVa. Feet B. M. |
11 700 000 |
$21 18 |
$ 247,700 00 |
11,700 000 |
||
Shortleaf pine |
11,302,000 |
14.82 |
166,960.00 |
3,767,000 |
7,535,000 |
3 500 000 |
15 00 |
52,500.00 |
2,000,000 |
1,500,000 |
|
Black gum |
1,050,000 |
18.50 |
19.425.00 |
350,000 |
700,000 |
Totals |
27,552.000 |
$17.66 |
$ 486,585.00 |
6,117,000 |
21,435,000 |
FURNITURE
Table 9 shows the kinds of woods consumed for furniture in 1911, their quantities and prices. According to the total amount of these woods, this industry holds sixth place among the industries
46
WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES
treated in this report. These statistics include products of factories making all kinds of furniture except chairs and to a limited extent those making furniture parts, as built-up dresser, chiffonier, and table tops, pianels, bed slats, and drawer sides.
A number of Virginia manufacturers make only a distinct line of goods like kitchen safes, tables, wardrobes, or couches and lounges. This tendency to specialization in furniture making is becoming more widespread, it makes for economy and benefits both consumer and manufacturer. However, the number of concerns making single lines of goods in Virginia was not large enough to permit the grouping of them into separate and distinct industries.
The following (tabulation shows the quantities of the principal woods used by the manufacturers of furniture in each of sixteen States studied by the Forest Service :
Oak M ft. |
Maple Mft. |
Birch Mft. |
R. gum Mft. |
Yellow Poplar Mft. |
D. fir Mft. |
Chestnut Mft |
|
North Carolina Illinois |
134,500 58 490 |
16 886 |
16 444 |
14,500 i 22,500 |
[ |
4,500 |
|
Michigan |
30,883 |
9,095 |
|||||
21 720 |
26 532 |
||||||
Massachusetts |
16,722 |
8,563 |
|||||
Virginia |
13 878 |
2,729 |
|||||
13 358 |
4 181 |
||||||
11*644 |
1 441 |
||||||
8,146 |
12,740 |
||||||
5 586 |
9 061 |
||||||
1 300 |
600 |
||||||
1 040 |
* |
3 415 |
|||||
2,414 |
4,862 |
||||||
Washington |
2 869 |
1 072 |
|||||
687 |
525 |
||||||
340 |
|||||||
1 |
Merely a glance at the above figures shows that oak is preemi- nently the furniture wood in this country. Even in States where its stands are not plentiful it leads all other woods. Massachusetts, Illi- nois, Maryland, and Wisconsin, are examples. In Missouri, Arkansas, and Louisiana where red gum takes the lead, it stands second in quan- tity used. Maple, birch, red gum, and yellow poplar, are the other woods, probably in the order named, which, after oak, are called on in the greatest quantities by the furniture makers.
Trees producing furniture lumber are plentiful in Virginia and the sawmills of this State not only have more than they need for home consumption but send away a large part of their cut to factories in other States. In the case of oak for example, the sawmills produced
OF VIRGINIA
47
nearly 388 million feet but the wood using industries consumed less than 10 per cent, and the furniture makers less than one per cent. Compared with other States not only do the many kinds of hardwood stands favor the Virginia manufacturers, but also the prices of lumber. White oak cost the Massachusetts furniture makers an average of $34-59 J tn€ Maryland report gives $31.86; the Illinois report $45.59; the Wisconsin report $34.44.
The advancement made in gluing woods has brought about a con- siderable change in the methods of furniture making Formerly, nearly all parts of chiffoniers, tables, wardrobes, bureaus, sideboards, etc., were made from solid lumber. Today these parts, by the use of the glue pot, are frequently made from built-up lumber. Furniture tops, for instance, are strips of various woods suitable for coring, glued and jointed together and upon them is stuck an overlay of at- tractively figured veneer. Door and drawer fronts are similarly made. The sides are three-ply panels and the backs frequently two-layer stock.
In three-ply lumber the inside layer is usually a wood which takes stain well and can be made to imitate the color of the outside wood. Birch, red gum, maple, yellow poplar, are largely used. The outside sheet is mahogany, oak, walnut, sycamore, tupeilo, birch, ash, red gum, sassafras or cherry. The middle sheet, the thickest, transverse to the grains of the other two, is a soft porous wood, such as yellow poplar, white pine, cottonwood, basswood, cucumber, or loblolly pine, selected for its quality to absorb and hold strongly to glue. Furniture backs are usually made of a number of thin narrow boards neatly nailed to the frame, and over them is stuck a thin sheet of yellow poplar, cotton- gum, or cottonwood, which gives the appearance of a solid back. This two-ply work is in high favor with manufacturers making moderate- priced and high grades of furniture and is taking the place of the old method of paneling the backs.
White oak and red oak, chestnut, loblolly and shortleaf pine and cypress were the woods used for furniture frames. Sugar maple and ash supplied the drawer sides and the extension table slides because these woods have the quality of wearing smooth. Chestnut, yellow poplar, and loblolly pine were the principal core woods. White and red oak, ash, maple, birch, red gum, and cherry were the principal exterior woods. White pine, yellow poplar, basswood, cotton gum, and red gum met the demand for drawer bottoms, partitions, shelving and other inside work.
Kitchen safes and cabinets were made from yellow poplar, tupelo, and the low grades of oak. Ditty boxes used on board of battleships as a place for sailors to keep their personal effects were made exclu-
48
WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES
sively from ash. More than 20 million feet of all kinds of wood went into furniture in Virginia in 1911 and over 70 percent of it was from State-grown material.
TABLE 9.— FURNITURE.
Total quantity used annually. |
|||||
KIND OF WOOD |
Feet B. M. |
Average cost per 1,000 ft. f. o. b. factory |
Total cost f. o. b. factory |
Grown in Va. Feet B. M. |
Grown out of Va. Feet B. M. |
Red oak |
6,313,500 5,884,600 2,729,100 1,065,000 830,000 745,000 603,000 578,000 520,000 239,000 234,000 107.000 96,800 84,700 75,000 30,000 25,000 22,000 13,000 12,000 1,000 100 |
$22.56 21.34 18.01 19.18 23.15 17.47 15.49 21.50 15.00 58.57 11.18 56.13 157.21 28.20 56.30 35.00 22.50 24.09 67.00 32.00 50.00 200.00 |
$142,430.00 125,504.90 49,044.50 20,430.00 19,175.00 13,015.00 9,338.00 12,419.00 7,800.00 14,070.00 2,617.00 6,026.00 15,318.00 2,369.00 4,221.00 1,050.00 562.50 530.00 871.00 384.00 50.00 20.00 |
4,234,000 4,595,500 2,331,533 1,065,000 '"eioiooo 528,000 553,000 '20,'000 234,000 '"is'.oo'o |
2,079,000 1,289,100 297,567 |
White oak |
|||||
Yellow poplar |
|||||
Black oak |
|||||
Red gum |
830,000 135.000 75,000 25,000 520,000 219,000 107.000 96,800 69,700 75,000 30,000 |
||||
Chestnut |
|||||
Loblolly pine |
|||||
Cotton gum (Tupelo) White pine |
|||||
Shortleaf pine |
|||||
Ash |
|||||
Mahogany |
|||||
Sweet birch |
|||||
Sycamore |
25,000 22,000 |
||||
Cherry |
13,000 |
||||
12,000 1,000 |
|||||
Walnut |
100 |
||||
Totals |
|||||
20,207,800 |
$22.13 |
$447,244.90 |
14,246,033 |
5,961,767 |
|
BASKETS, FRUIT, AND VEGETABLE PACKAGES
In a number of the States for which wood-using industry reports have been written/ information of woods used for making baskets, fruit and vegetable packages was included in the industry for box mak- ing. In Virginia as in North Carolina and Ketucky the factories making these commodities are distinct from the box manufacturers. The number of them justifies their grouping into a separate class. They comprise an important industry fand according to the quantity of wood used they are one of the seven principal groups of manufacturers operating in the State.
The products of this industry are made almost exclusively of veneer. The tops and bottoms of baskets and veneer barrels have to be thicker material and are made from thin lumber which is often sawed from cores, that part of tlhe log left after the verueer has been removed, wood waste or made from low grades. The principal woods reported for making veneeer packages were red gum, tupelo, and black gum. These trees abound in the southeastern and southern part of the State in North Carolina near Virginia's southern line.
OF VIRGINIA
49
Their stumpage value is lower than any other Virginia timber and the cost of cutting them into veneer by a rotary process is the most economical and entails less waste, it is claimed, than the manufacture of logs in any other form]. The products of tihis industry, therefore, can be sold at a very moderate cost, and accounts for the rapidly growing custom of marketing provisions in individual packages.
A large amount of the wood consumed in this industry is for making veneer barrels. In Virginia, they are used principally for trunk and oyster barrels, though the manufacturers made them to sell out of the State where they are used as lime barrels and for packing and shipping queensware, glassware, and other fragile goods. The Bureau of the Census mentions in their discussion of the statis- tics of slack cooperage production for 1910, that the noted decline in the quantity of staves and heading manufactured was probably largely due to the competition of the veneer barrel, which, being cheaper, has. taken the place of the slack barrel for many uses. Other commodi- ties made by this industry include baskets of all kinds, crates, cups, tills, hoppers, and venders' trays.
Red gum was the principal wood reported. More of it was used than the combined amounts of the other six species. Black gum, next in importance in the table, was composed both of the water gum and the upland black gum. Owing to the confusion in the local names of gum and the difficulty in distinguishing them from tupelo, the figures shown in the table for black gum may include a portion of tupelo. The quantities of tupelo reported were one-third less than black gum. Soft elm was used for hoops on veneer barrels and small quantities of chestnut cut thin were called on to serve as bottoms of cabbage crates.
TABLE 10.— BASKETS AND FRUIT AND VEGETABLE PACKAGES.
Total quantity used annually. |
|||||
KIND OF WOOD |
Feet B. M. |
Average cost per 1,000 ft. f. o. b. factory |
Total cost f. o. b. factory |
Grown in Va. Feet B. M. |
Grown out ofVa. Feet B. M. |
13,812,000 3,490,000 1,380,000 650,330 180,000 140,000 5 000 |
$13.97 11.13 10.44 9.12 14.00 10.14 9 00 |
$192,756.00 38,648.00 14,400.00 5,924.97 2,520.00 1,420.00 45 00 |
6,397,667 1,507,336 546,000 650,330 180,000 140,000 5,000 |
7,414,333 1,982,664 834,000 |
|
White elm |
|||||
Totals |
19,657,330 |
$13.01 |
$255,713.97 |
9,426,333 |
10,230,597 |
WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES
VEHICLE AND VEHICLE PARTS
Table n relates to the manufacturing of vehicles and vehicle parts. It .does not include all material going into wagons in Virginia, as wheelwrights in nearly every city, town, and postoffice throughout the State build a few handmade vehicles each year and to locate and gather information from all was found impracticable. Factories rarely make all of the component parts from rough lumber and turn out the vehicle complete. Some buy spokes, rims, and hubs separately, but manufacture all the rest of the vehicle. Others purchase wheels com- plete, axles skeined and gear parts ironed and assembled, poles and shafts ready for use, and make only bodies. Another class procure all parts complete even the bodies and the tops and merely assemble them.
In no other industry is specialization in manufacturing better illustrated than in the making of vehicles. This can be accounted for in part by the fact that vehicle parts are made from the choicest .grades of wood and the timber most suitable for each part is often found in widely separated localities. For instance the pole and shaft makers find the supplies of hickory best suited for their needs in Kentucky, Missouri, and Arkansas. The hub makers use the largest •quantity of soft elm and cork elm in the northern States and Canada, while the spoke manufacturer and the rim manufacturer are widely distributed and operate extensively in Virginia, West Virginia, Ken- tucky, Tennessee, and Missouri. Further, in the making of vehicle parts, there is a great amount of waste, and to have the factories making distinct parts located near to the source of the timber supply makes for economy and lower prices as well as for greater efficiency in manufacturing.
Care was exercised not to get information concerning the same material twice. If a manufacturer bought parts of the vehicle ready made he was asked to give data only of those parts which he actually manufactured from rough lumber. If he operated merely to assemble the vehicle and had only to paint and put on finishing touches, a report was not requested, but if he was a manufacturer of vehicle parts, special effort was made to secure the information of the material used.
The kinds of vehicles manufactured in Virginia are buggies, carriages, and other light personal conveyances, besides wagons for city and country use, trucks, drays, carts, log wagons, tobacco ware- house trucks and wheelbarrows.
This industry is of much importance in Virginia. It consumes over seventeen million feet of wood annually and paid close to a half
OF VIRGINIA
million dollars for it. Similar industries in Kentucky, Illinois, Mis- souri, and Wisconsin show the use of greater quantities of vehicle wood than the Virginia manufacturers report, but of eight of the eastern States so far studied, Virginia vehicle makers lead, followed by North Carolina. In all the States for which reports similar to this have been prepared, even in the Pacific Coast States, where no hickory grows, hickory and white oak in quantity are the principal woods used by the vehicle industries. They constitute over 76 per cent of the total.
The hickory went into shafts, tongues, spokes, rims, axles, bol- sters, other gear parts and whiffle-trees, and the white oak into frames for bodies, spokes, hounds, rims, tongues, bolsters, spring bars and hubs. Red oak's uses were similar to white oak's even to the extent of being turned into hubs and bent into rims. Ash found its most important service for tobacco trucks but served besides as body frames, spring bars, tongues and ladders. Osage orange, called "bodoc" was used for hounds. It appears in no other industry of this report.
The body woods were loblolly pine, longleaf pine, yellow poplar, ash, red gum, cotton wood, white pine, and cottongum, basswood, and sugar maple. Longleaf pine, sugar maple and the oaks went for the floorings or bottoms of bodies ; the panels were made of yellow poplar, red (sap) gum, ash, white pine and basswood, and the linings were of loblolly pine, longleaf pine, red gum, tupelo, cypress and cotton - wood ; ash, hickory, tupelo and poplar were reported for tops.
TABLE II.— VEHICLES AND VEHICLE PARTS.
Total quantity used annually. |
|||||
KIND OF WOOD |
Feet B. M. |
Average cost per 1,000 ft. f. o. b. factory |
Total cost f. o. b. factory |
Grown in Va. Feet B. M. ' |
Grown out of Va. Feet B. M. |
White oak . . |
6,904,200 6,530.850 1,089,250 878,000 669,500 577,750 253,500 247,000 212.000 50,000 47,500 13,000 7,500 4,000 2,400 700 |
$25.80 31.53 14.04 22.34 31.32 29.70 21.15 12.74 12.74 20.00 62.12 48.00 40.13 25.50 41.80 42.00 |
$178,395.50 205,879.13 15,284.35 19,610.50 20,884.00 17,226.75 5,358.50 3,148.00 3.148.00 1,000.00 2,949.00 624.00 301.00 102.00 100.50 29.40 |
5,874,700 4,122,850 720,250 771,000 368.000 308,500 247,000 247,000 50,000 17,000 |
1,029,500 2,408,000 369,000 107,000 301,500 269,250 253,500 |
Hickory |
|||||
Red oak |
|||||
Yellow poplar |
|||||
Ash |
|||||
White pine |
30,500 13,000 7.500 4,000 2,400 |
||||
700 12,480,000 |
|||||
Totals |
|||||
17,487,150 |
$27.30 |
$477,340.63 |
5,007,150 |
||
WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES
TRUNKS
In the quantity of material entering into the manufacture- of trunks, Virginia holds a most important rank among all the States. Seventeen States so far have been studied for wood consumption and among these the Virginia trunk makers stand first.
A number of manufacturers do all the work from the arrival of the rough timber to the covering, lining and varnishing of the com- pleted trunk, but others make only the trunk boxes, and others trunk slats, and ship their products to manufacturers in other States who put on only the finishing touches. Loblolly and shortleaf pine being a soft light wood and easily worked accounts for their being the principal woods used in Virginia for trunk boxes. Yellow poplar also exten- sively meets this use and is the favorite wood for trays and compart- ments. These three woods compose 80 per cent of the total amount shown in the table.
Boxes made of panels built up of three-ply veneer are rapidly gaining favor with the trunk makers. Sheets'of red gum with a filling or a middle transverse sheet of yellow poplar or cottonwood are the veneers used for panels. Soft elm met the greatest part of the demand for trunk slats, though cypress and hickory also served in this capa- city. Eighty per cent of the wood used by this industry was home- grown.
The Wisconsin, Illinois, and Michigan trunk makers use bass- wood and white pine principally for trunk boxes. Much of the bass- wood used is three-ply veneer. Slats are of white and cork elm,, ash, and hickory. In Kentucky and Missouri, yellow pine, cypress, buckeye, cottonwood, and red gum are extensively used for boxes and white (soft) elm, ash, and silver maple for slats.
TABLE 12.— TRUNKS.
Total quantity used annually. |
|||||
KIND OF WOOD |
Feet B. M. |
Average cost per 1,000 ft. f. o. b. factory |
Total cost f. o. b. factory |
Grown in Va. Feet B. M. |
Grown out ofVa. Feet B. M. |
10,324,990 2,151,000 1,215,000 700,000 576,090 292,581 100,000 5,000 |
$15.34 15.45 18.00 22.85 12.50 32.11 21.00 70.00 |
$126,799.88 32,989.97 21,225.00 16,000.00 11,063.08 9,704.28 2,100.00 350.00 |
10,324,990 2,151,000 1,215,000 136,090 '"5,000 |
|
|
700,000 440,000 292,581 100,000 |
|||||
White elm (soft) |
|||||
Totals |
|||||
j 15,364,661 |
$14.34 |
$220,232.21 |
13,832,080 |
1,532,581 |
|
OF VIRGINIA 53
SHIP AND BOAT BUILDING
A number of deep navigable rivers and their branches, Chesa- peake Bay, Hampton Roads, and the Atlantic Ocean, give Virginia many miles of water front. -Large areas of the State, rich agricul- turally and well populated, depend entirely upon boat service for their principal means of transportation and commerce with different parts of Virginia and with markets in other States. Virginia has a num- ber of deep harbors. Norfolk and Newport News especially afford natural advantages and depths, which put them in line with the fore- most ports on the Atlantic Coast. The largest ocean vessels and men- of-war land at their docks. It is not surprising, therefore, with such facilities that Virginia is an important ship-building State and that this industry is one of the principal ones. Boats of all kinds, from the battleship and the finest oceanic liners, down to the launch and row boat, are made by Virginia builders. In building the large seafaring vessels steel construction has to such a large extent taken the place of wood that lumber is now only incidental, wrhen less than a century ago it was the most essential and in value the most important of the materials used. Wood is still largely employed in construction of smaller boats, for instance, for building the superstructures of river and inland-water boats and tugs, also for scows, barges, launches, sail boats, row boats, and canoes.
Many kinds of lumber are demanded by boat builders as the large number of uses they serve often require woods of special quali- ties. Table 13 shows 19 species were reported. For the keelsons, long lengths are necessary combined with strength and elasticity. Longleaf pine has long served this use but in recent years Douglas fir has been growing in favor. The Oregon timber is purchased more extensively by the boat builders than by any other Virginia wooJ- using industry. Besides keelsons, Douglas fir is used for spars and decking. White oak, and red oak, on account of their strength, went into keels, keel blocks, railte, strakes, guards, and head logs.
Longleaf yellow pine, in quantity the leading wood bought by the boat builders, meets the demand for many uses. The principal ones are for spars, decking, deck beams, keelsons, head logs, bulk heads, and general ship work.
Cypress is not as important a species for ship building as may be supposed. It answers for ceiling, decking and inside finish, but is not indispensable. Other woods, red oak, Douglas fir, spruce, shotrleaf pine, white pine, and longleaf pine are reported for the same uses. These woods and ash also were employed in many other parts of the
WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES
superstructure. West Virginia spruce was called on for spars, water, or black gum occasionally for keels, cottonwood and shortleaf pine for templets, and white cedar or juniper for siding of small pleasure boats. Hickory's only demand was for handles, and locust went into spokes and trurmels.
White and red oak, quartered and plain, -ash, cherry, mahogany, yellow poplar, red gum, and teakwood are the cabinet woods used for the boat's interior finish. Teakwood served for parts of the pilot house and for armor backing. It was shipped from India. The boat builders consume the largest quantity of mahogany of any of the in- dustries in Virginia. It was imported from the west Coast of Africa and from Mexico.
TABLE 13.— SHIP AND BOAT BUILDING.
Total aua |
ntity used |
annually. |
|||
KIND OF WOOD |
Feet B. M. |
Average cost per 1,000 ft. f. o. b. factory |
Total cost f. o. b. factory |
Grown in Va. Feet B. M. |
Grown out of Va. Feet B. M. |
6 Oil 685 |
$34 04 |
$204 630 98 |
6 Oil 685 |
||
Shortleaf pine |
1,176,165 |
24.10 |
28 327 30 |
536 165 |
640 000 |
White oak |
874 689 |
34 34 |
30 016 21 |
491 837 |
382 852 |
White pine |
805,489 |
80 05 |
64 439 12 |
805 489 |
|
Spruce |
672,025 |
26.00 |
17,472.65 |
672,025 |
|
584 736 |
58 60 |
34 215 37 |
584 736 |
||
432 818 |
52 25 |
22 574 54 |
432 818 |
||
145 558 |
130 50 |
18 922 54 |
145 558 |
||
Red oak |
132,000 |
31.90 |
4,210.00 |
102,000 |
30,000 |
Ash |
102 653 |
60 00 |
6 159 18 |
102 653 |
|
Southern white cedar |
98,113 |
51.71 |
5,068.15 |
98,113 |
|
42 059 |
200 00 |
8 411 80 |
42 059 |
||
Cherry |
39,926 |
110 00 |
4,391 86 |
39,926 |
|
5 000 |
25 00 |
125 00 |
5 000 |
||
Black gum |
4,190 |
25 00 |
104 75 |
4,190 |
|
4 026 |
40 00 |
161 04 |
4 026 |
||
Hickory |
3 195 |
47 00 |
150 17 |
3 195 |
|
2 647 |
60 00 |
158 82 |
2 647 |
||
1 523 |
100 00 |
152 30 |
1,523 |
||
Totals . . |
11 138 497 |
$40 46 |
$449 691 78 |
1 142 387 |
9 996 110 |
WOODENWARE, NOVELTIES, AND MATCHES Pails, freezers, buckets, step ladders, lard trays, butter dishes, calendar strips, and matches are the commodities covered by Table 14. White cedar, juniper, and the light wood of cypress met the prin- cipal demand for pails and ice-cream freezers. A large number of the pails were intended for candy packing and these woods were selected in preference to any because the source of supply is near at hand and they have the necessary quality of imparting no taste to the goods con- tained within them. More white cedar goes into pails than into any other products made by Virginia factories. Horse buckets and well
OF VIRGINIA
55
buckets were made from white oak with bottom's of ash, while the veneer cut from tupelo and black gum served as the material from which butter trays, lard dishes, and wooden plates were made. More than two-thirds of all the basswood used in the State went to factories listed under this industry and was made into calendar strips. Of all the American woods, white pine meets the largest demand for matches. It is significant therefore, that the match manufacturers in Virginia use no white pine but instead consume large quantities of basswood and the white wood of yellow poplar.
TABLE 14.— WOODENWARE AND MATCHES.
Total quantity used annually. |
|||||
KIND OF WOOD |
Feet B. M. |
Average cost per 1.000 ft. t. o. b. factory |
Total cost f. o. 0. factory |
Grown in Va. Feet B. M. |
Grown out of Va. Feet B. M. |
White cedar |
3,400.000 2,400,000 1,750,000 1.075,000 550,000 500,000 400,000 350,000 120,000 |
$16.68 14.00 20.57 19.04 18.00 18.00 15.00 18.00 10.00 |
$56,700.00 33,600.00 36,000.00 19,875.00 9,900.00 9,000.00 6,000.00 6,300.00 1,200.00 |
1.100,000 900,000 750,000 475,000 "'250', coo 234,000 350,000 60,000 |
2,300,000 1,500,000 1,000,000 600,000 550,000 250,000 166,000 |
White oak |
|||||
Cypress |
|||||
Ash |
|||||
60,000 |
|||||
Totals |
|||||
10,545,000 |
$16.93 |
$178,575.00 |
4,119,000 |
6,426.000 |
|
EXCELSIOR
Excelsior makers in Virginia used only two species of wood and they both belong to the same family, they were scrub pine and loblolly pine. Except for boxes, this was the principal use accorded to scrub pine and ten per cent of the total used for manufacture in the State went into this commodity. The raw material was purchased in the form of bolts and reported in terms of cords. To make this table com- parable with the others, and to enable the statistician to include it and the items of it in the summary tables, the cords were reduced to board feet measure and the prices changed to correspond. The price paid for wood demanded by the excelsior makers was the lowest average cost of any of the material delivered to any other of the industries.
The manufacture of excelsior in Virginia is confined to the section in the northeastern part of the State. Here the stands of scrub pine and young second growth loblolly are quite abundant. It may be that some old-field shortleaf pine is included in these figures reported for scrub pine, as in this section of the State the three species are found growing associated, but the shortleaf appears only in scattered stands.
In the take States and the New England States, aspen, or popple,
WOOD- USING INDUSTRIES
and basswood are the woods used for excelsior. The best grades of •excelsior, chiefly for upholstering are made from them. In Missouri and Kentucky, cottonwood, buckeye, willow, and oottongum were the principal woods serving for this purpose. The North Carolina ex- celsior cutters preferred white pine and yellow poplar, but used large quantities of loblolly pme. In the Pacific Coast States black cotton- wood, western red cedar, and Sitka spruce were the favorite excelsior woods. .' ".
TABLE 15.— EXCELSIOR.
. Total quantity used annually. |
|||||
KIND OF WOOD |
Feet B. M. |
Average cost per 1,000 ft. f. o. b. factory |
Total cost f. o. b. factory |
Grown in Va. Feet B. M. |
Grown out of Va. Feet B. M. |
Scrub pine |
4,524,000 1,508,000 |
$ 8.48 8.48 |
$38,369.63 12,789,87 |
4,524,000 1.508,000 |
|
|
|||||
Totals |
|||||
6,032,000 |
$"8.48 |
$51,159.50 |
6,032,000 |
||
FENCING AND GATES
Table 16 lists the woods used in Virginia for making fence pickets and for constructing wire reels. The loblolly pine and the shortleaf pine contributed all of the reel material and over six and a quarter million feet of Virginia forests is required annually to meet the demand. The durable properties of cypress when exposed, together with its strength, favors it preeminently as the principal wood for pickets. Many times more of it was used for this purpose than all the other woods combined. The other picket woods reported were white oak, red oak, and chestnut. The wood parts of patent fencing made of woven wire and small pieces of wood called stubs were reported made from cypress and chestnut. The latter being cheaper and fairly lasting is growing in favor with the patent fence makers.
TABLE 16.— FENCING AND GATES.
Total quantity used annually. |
|||||
KIND OF WOOD |
Feet B. M. |
Average cost per 1,000 ft. f. o. b. factory |
Total cost f. o. b. factory |
Grown in Va. Feet B. M. |
Grown out of Va. Feet B. M. |
Loblolly pine |
5,020,000 1,255,000 565,000 50,000 25,000 10 000 |
$10.44 10.60 15.09 15.00 13.00 16 50 |
$52,420.00 13,305.00 8,527.50 750.00 325.00 165 00 |
5,020,060 1.255,000 "'50', GOO 25,000 10,000 |
|
Shortleaf pine |
565,000 |
||||
Red oak |
|||||
Totals |
6,925,000 |
$12.72 |
$75,492.50 |
6,360,000 |
565,000 |
OF VIRGINIA 57
INSULATOR PINS, BRACKETS, AND CROSS ARMS
Under Table 8 was discussed the kinds of wood used in under- ground construction for the distribution of telephone, telegraph, and electric power, but in Table 17 the statistics represent woods used for the construction and manufacture of over head lines. The commodi- ties which make up the table are cross-arms, insulator pins, and brackets, pole steps, and tree blocks. . Telephone and telegraph poles are not included because they do not come within the range of this study. ^Statistics concerning these products are given in Circular 9 issued by the Bureau of the Census.
The raw material for making insulator pins and brackets was purchased in the form of bolts and reported in terms of cords. For convenience in tabulation the number of cords were reduced to board feet. Locust, white oak, and hickory were the woods used, the first named greatly exceeding in quantity the other two. The most ex- acting demand for locust is for these commodities. Its durability in exposed positions recommends it probably above all other woods for this use, though white oak, owing to the scarcity of locust, is meeting a growing demand for pin wood. In North Carolina the quantity consumed exceeded the quantity of locust. White oak is not con- sidered as durable an outdoor wood as locust, and for that reason white oak pins are usually dipped in paint or in other preservative solutions like zinc chloride or creosote oil. White oak alone was re- ported for pole steps and tree block. Hickory pins on account of their superior strength were used for holding the heavy porcelain insulators used on high-tension lines.
Longleaf pine and shortleaf pine were the only woods reported for cross-arms. Excepting a small per cent of Virginia-grown shortleaf pine all of the cross-arm wood came from the sawmills operating in States further South. It was purchased in the form of squares and the operations of shaping the arms by machinery and boring holes for the insulator pins and for the bolts holding them to the poles was simple and rapid. All the cross-arms produced in Virginia in 1911 were im- pregnated with the oil of creosote before they were marketed. In other States, important woods for cross-arms are Douglas fir, cypress, spruce, and loblolly pine.
WOOD-USING INDUvSTRlES
TABLE 17.— INSULATOR PINS, BRACKETS, AND CROSS-ARMS.
Total quantity used annually. |
|||||
KIND OF WOOD |
Feet B. M. |
Average cost per 1.000 ft. f. o. b. factory |
Total cost f. o. b. factory |
Grown in Va. Feet B. M. |
Grown out of Va. Feet B. M. |
2,279,000* 1,500,000 1,321,000 750,000 25,000 218 5,875,218 |
$22.86 25.00 25.00 20.00 20.00 40.00 |
$52,200.00 37,500.00 18,026.00 15,000.00 1,000.00 4.36 |
1,500,000 ':U246,000 250,000 25,000 218 |
779.000 1,500.000 75,000 500,000 |
|
White oak |
|||||
Shortleaf pine |
|||||
Loblolly pine |
|||||
Totals |
|||||
$21.06 |
$123,730.36 |
3,021,218 |
2,854,000 |
||
FIXTURES
Material used in Virginia for making furnishings of fixtures for stores, offices, bar rooms, banks, and churches has been grouped under Table 18. Owing to the close relation of the products of this'industry with high grade interior finish, grills, and mantels made by sash and door factories, a number of manufacturers submitted reports covering the manufacture of commodities belonging to both industries. The separation of the* data proved not only very difficult but the division was more or less inaccurate in a number of cases because estimates had lo be depended upon.
Fixtures consist of counters, show cases, soda fountains, bar buffets, display racks, partitions, shelving, cabinets, church altars, chancel furnishings, pews, etc. The woods used are of many varieties chosen for their handsome figure and their quality to take a high polish and to present an attractive finish. The average price paid for this material was above that for any other industry except for lumber going into ships and boats, and that used for patterns in iron foundries.
White and red oak, chestnut, sweet birch, s'hortleaf pine, ash, black walnut, red gum, and butternut were the domestic woods; and rosewood, mahogany, Circassian walnut and jarra the foreign woods, used for the exterior work. They have been named in the order of their importance as to quality, and some of them were in the form of veneer. The interior or hidden work was served by cheaper woods. Yellow poplar, longleaf pine, cypress, and basswood were important ones. Western red cedar was the only Pacific Coast wood made into fixtures and this industry the only one in Virginia reporting its use. Jarra, a (Eucalyptus marginatn} imported from Australia, was used for the bottom of show cases and display windows.
ILLUSTRATION VII. CYLINDER IN WHICH CROSS ARMS
TREATED.
ILLUSTRATION VIII. A LOAD OF TREATED CROSS ARMS BEING
OF VIRGINIA
59
TABLE 18.— FIXTURES.
Total quantity used annually. , |
|||||
KIND OF WOOD |
Feet B. M. |
Average cost per 1.000 ft. f. o. b. factory |
Total cost f. o. b. factory |
Grown in Va. Feet B. M. |
Grown out of Va. Feet B. M |
White oak |
717.500 669,500 712,000 286,000 130,000 110,000 97,000 85,000 80,000 36,000 39,000 22,000 15,000 40,000 12,500 11,400 5.000 400 250 100 |
$44.33 40.30 20.44 37.10 28.10 41.25 49.33 37.09 28.00 32.99 165.10 62.23 15.00 42.50 23.04 41.80 50.00 270.00 187.00 200.00 |
$31.787.50 26,933.50 14,556.00 10,611.00 3,650.00 4,550.00 4,785.00 3,150.00 2,240.00 1,187.00 6,439.00 1.369.00 225.00 1 700.00 283.00 462.00 250.00 108.00 46.75 20.00 |
91,000 227,000 ' 412.000 54.000 70,000 |
626,500 442.500 300,000 232,000 60,000 110.000 97.000 35,000 '"39,000 22.000 |
Red oak |
|||||
Shortleaf pine |
|||||
Yellow poplar , |
|||||
Sweet birch |
|||||
50,000 80,000 36,000 |
|||||
Ash . ... |
|||||
is'.ooo |
|||||
40.000 500 11,400 5,000 400 250 100 |
|||||
12,000 |
|||||
|
|||||
Totals ... |
|||||
3,068.650 |
$37.30 |
$114,352.75 |
1,047,000 |
2,021.650 |
|
HANDLES
More than 96 per cent of the nearly three million feet of wood used in 1911 for making handles in Virginia comes from trees grown in the State. Ash, based on the amount used, was the principal wood. Most of it was reported as white ash and served for turning long tool -handles such as are used for hoes, garden rakes, hay forks, and long handled shovels. Quantities of it also went into short handled railroad shovels, spades, etc.
The toughness, strength, and resiliency of hickory makes it dis- tinctively the best suited wood for axe, pick, hammer and sledge handles, "fto satisfactory substitute has as yet been found to compete with it White oak is used to a limited extent, but more on account of hickory's scarcity and high price than owing to white oak's special qualification. The choicest butt cuts of hickory are desired by the handle makers and rarely does any but the white or sap wood of the tree find its way into these finished commodities. Specifications of purchasers of large quantities of hickory handles like railroad and mining corpo- rations seldom admit handles made wholly or in part from the heart- wood which is most often spoken of as red hickory. Experiments made by the Forest Service, however, show red hickory equally as strong, weight for weight, as white hickory and highly suitable for handles. Mallet, maul, and other small tool handles were turned both from ash and hickory, the quantity of hickory exceeding the quantity
6o
WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES
of ash. TDoubtless much waste material resulting from the manufacture of longer handles was utilized in making these short ones, commer- cially spoken of as edge-tool handles.
Red gum and sycamore met uses similar to the ash for the long handles of garden tools. These woods were also demanded with white oak, sugar maple, and sweet birch for saw handles of many and various designs. Dogwood went into mallet handles but the particular use of basswood handles was not mentioned. Except small quantities of hickory and dogwood, all of the handle material grew in the State.
TABLE 19.— HANDLES.
Total quantity used annually. |
|||||
KIND OF WOOD |
Feet B. M. |
Average cost per 1,000 ft. f. o. b. factory |
Total cost f. o. b. factory |
Grown in Va. Feet B. M. |
Grown out of Va. Feet 33. M. |
Ash |
1 718,000 992,500 80,000 55,000 50,000 40,000 25,000 20,000 12,500 |
$17.34 30.34 13.00 14.09 19.00 31.25 25.00 19.00 13.00 |
$29,781.00 30,130.00 1,040.00 775.00 950.00 1,250.00 625.00 380.00 162.50 |
1,718,000 942,500 80,000 5,000 50,000 40,000 25,000 20,000 12,500 |
'so.'ooo |
H'ckory . . . |
|||||
Red gum |
|||||
50000 |
|||||
White oak |
|
||||
Sugar maple |
|||||
Tota1"? |
100,000 |
||||
2,993,000 |
$21.75 |
$65,093.50 |
2,893,000 |
||
AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS
The manufacture of plow beams, rungs, and plow handles re- quired the largest part of the wood represented in Table 20. White oak and red oak were the woods used, but nearly three times as much of the former was reported as of the latter. Not all of the beamis and plow handles made in the State are used by the Virginia plow manu- facturers. Many are sent bundled together into other States and there assembled with the iron parts of the plow into the finished product. White oak supplied the largest part of the material for making whirBe- trees and singletrees. The rest of the demand was met by hickory.
Peanut pickers, tobacco machinery, fertilizer distributors, corn, cotton, and peanut planters and grain cradles were the other agricul- tural implements made in Virginia which were grouped under this in- dustry. Longleaf pine and white oak in quantity were the woods prin- cipally employed for the peanut pickers, though the ash, and yellow poplar having the particular qualifications for the parts for which they were used were equally essential. Implements for tilling, harvesting, and curing of tobacco crops possessing a few wooden parts were made
OF VIRGINIA
6l
principally from longleaf pine, red oak, sugar maple, and cypress. The manufacturers of fertilizer distributors and planters reported only white oak and ash. The handles of these implements made of red gum and ash were purchased from the plow handle makers, ready for use. Grain cradles are manufactured from hickory and ash. The braces and fingers were of hickory, the snathes of white ash. Ash is also suitable for fingers and a small quantity of it was reported as so used. Nearly two and a half million feet of lumber was the total re- quired for making the products of this industry. Eighty-nine per cent of it was cut from Virginia forests.
TABLE 20.— AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS.
Total quantity used annually. |
|||||
KIND OF WOOD |
Feet B. M. |
Average cost per 1,000 ft. f . o. b. factory |
Total cost f. o. b. factory |
Grown In Va. Feet B. M. |
Grown out ofVa. Feet B. M. |
White oak |
1,464,000 i 437.000 331,000 65,000 50,000 42,000 8.000 6.000 1.000 |
$22.10 20.56 22.38 24.31 13.00 40.95 65.00 22.00 60.00 |
$32,357.50 8,985.00 7,410.00 1.580.00 650.00 1.720.00 520.00 132.00 60.00 |
1.400.000 437.000 211.000 5b'.000 37.000 |
64.000 |
Bed oak |
|||||
Ash |
120.000 65,000 '5.060 8.000 |
||||
Hickory |
|||||
6.000 |
|||||
1,000 |
|||||
Totals |
|||||
2,404,000 |
$22.18 |
$53.414.50 |
2,141,00 |
263,000 |
|
CASKETS AND COFFINS
Only a portion of the coffins and caskets uSed in Virginia are made in the State. Many are manufactured elsewhere and shipped in ready for use but they are not taken into account in this report. The rest of the demand is met by local cabinet makers who manufacture a few hand- made coffins each year. The quantity of wood used by the cabinet makers is very slight and as they are so widely distributed through- out !tne State, the gathering of information from them was not at- tempted. A few large manufacturing plants making burial cases from a high-grade mahogany casket down to a cheap yellow poplar coffin are the ones who consumed the largest portion of the material shown in Table 21.
The popularity of caskets has greatly lessened the demand for coffins. Before the time of the factory-made caskets, the coffin was the burial case most frequently used. Black walnut served as the principal wood for the better grades; while the cheaper coffins were,
62
WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES
as they are to-day, made from soft woods which when stained, grained and varnished, imitate hardwoods. Coffins are irregular in shape. They are widest near one end, corresponding to the shoulders of a person, and from there slope towards each end. Yellow poplar is the principal coffin wood, which with black walnut met the entire demand in Virginia.
Caskets are rectangular. Some of them have rounded corners, and in others, the corners are cut off and squared, giving the casket something of an octagonal appearance. Nearly all caskets are cloth covered, and this permits the use of low grades of lumber. Chestnut, based on the quantity used, is the most important American casket wood- Other caskets, usually the high-priced ones, are richly carved and finished in the natural wood. White oak, mahogany, and walnut, selected for their beauty of grain, served for making these. Over three-fourths of the total reported by the Virginia casket makers was chestnut. Red cedar, white oak, and mahogany consituted the rest. Virginia manufacturers did not report buying cypress which is the piincipal casket wood used in Missouri and the southern Mississippi Valley States. In Oregon and Washington, western red cedar has proved a most valuable wood for casket making and is used in large quantities. Sitka spruce is also employed.
Lumber consumed for making outer cases, sometimes called rough boxes, is included in the statistics of this industry. The woods reported for this use by the Virginia manufacturers were chestnut, yellow poplar, hemlock, shortleaf pine, white pine, and red cedar,.
TABLE 21.— CASKETS AND COFFINS.
•-••* • •" |
Total quantity used annually. |
||||
KIND OF WOOD |
Feet B. M. |
Average cost per 1,000 ft. f. o. b. factory |
Total cost f. o. b. factory |
Grown in Va. Feet B. M. |
Grown out of Va. Feet B. M. |
Chestnut |
719,896 355,000 300,000 69,450 60,000 21,000 16,000 15,000 10,000 |
$14.99 18.10 11.00 18.75 17.50 39.95 30.00 50.00 160.00 |
$10,797.45 6,425.00 3,300.00 1,302.19 1,050.00 830.00 480.00 750.00 1,600.00 |
583,264 305,000 300,000 69,450 10,000 10,000 16,000 |
136,632 50,000 50,000 11,000 i'o'.OOO 10,000 272,632 |
Hemlock |
|||||
Shortleaf pine |
|||||
White pine |
|||||
Walnut |
|||||
White oak |
|||||
Mahogany |
|||||
Totals |
|||||
1.566,346 |
$17.08 |
26,534.64 |
1,293,714 |
||
CHAIRS
White oak and red oak constituted nearly six-seventJhs of the ma- terial demanded by the Virginia chair makers. The prices paid for
OF VIRGINIA
these woods were over $5 and $3, respectively, less than the white and red oak reported by the furniture manufacturers. Dining-room chairs, rockers, and liglht bed-room chairs finished natural with wax or varnish, constituted the principal commodities made. The increasing popu- larity of Mission furniture in recent years, has favored the makers of oak chairs by increasing the demand. Oak is the principal wood used for Mission designs and a fairly large per cent of the products of the Virginia chair factories were made after these patterns. Sugar maple was made into turned chair stock and the ash reported went into mess benches used on board of large vessels.
TABLE 22.— CHAIRS.
Total Quantity used annually. |
|||||
KIND OF WOOD |
Feet B. M. |
Average cost per 1,000 ft. f . o. b. factory |
Total cost f. o. b. factory |
Grown in Va. Feet B. M. |
Grown out of Va. Feet B. M. |
White oak |
410.000 205,000 120,000 30,000 5,000 |
$16.92 18.30 11.50 58.00 160.00 |
$6,725.00 3,475.00 1,380.00 1,740.00 800.00 |
285,000 205,000 120,000 |
125,000 |
Red oak . . . |
|||||
so'.ooo 5,000 |
|||||
Ash |
|||||
Total |
|||||
770,000 |
$18.34 |
$14,120.00 |
610,000 |
160,000 |
|
DAIRY, POULTRY, AND APIARIST SUPPLIES
Various commodities made of wood are used by the dairyman, the poultry raiser, and the apiarist. Churns, firkins, and butter moulds are examples of the first named; incubators, coops, and nest boxes of the second, and beehives, their compartments, and honey shipping cases of the third.
The only dairyman's articles manufactured in Virginia are butter churns. Ash is the wood used; and in all of the States so far studied for wood utilization, this kind of wood constitutes the principal churn material. Most of the ash delivered to the Virginia factories comes from without the State, North Carolina furnishing the largest part.
Beehives being placed in the open, exposed to the elements, are in situations which favor decay. They are therefore usually well painted with oil and leads before leaving the factory, which preserves the outside, but to retard decay from the inside moisture, the natural decay-resisting properties of the lumber used are depended upon. Woods are selected with this point in view. Like the makers of apiarist supplies in Wisconsin and Michigan, where probably the largest number of beehives are made, the Virginia manufacturers use white
WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES
pine. It went into the hive proper, while basswood was used for the honey sections. Cypress and redwood, like white pine, are favorite out-door woods and are called on extensively in other States to meet the demands of the beehive makers.
All of the incubators, brooders, and other apparatus, except coops, used in Virginia by poultry raisers are shipped in from other States. Chicken coops of many kinds, and especially crate coops for shipping live poultry, are home made and large quantities of material annually are required for making them. They are constructed with a view of being as light as is consistent with the rough treatment they receive and as strong as possible. The frames of -the coops are mostly chestnut, the rods or rungs of hickory and the bottoms of some wood light in weight, usually poplar, basswood and cucumber. Another design of crates and coops growing in favor is the woven bottom coops. These have poultry wire stretched over bent hickory ribs. The bottoms are made of thin strips, split or shaved from white oak, black oak, white ash, and probably cottongum. They are woven together in the same fashion as the common splint basket. All of the material used for coops was from Virginia grown timber.
TABLE 23.— DAIRY, POULTERERS AND APIARIST SUPPLIES.
Total quantity used annually. |
|||||
KIND OF WOOD |
Feet B. M. |
Average cost per 1,000 ft. f. o. b. factory |
Total cost f. o. b. factory |
Grown in Va. Feet B. M. |
Grown out of Va. Feet B. M. |
Ash |
360,000 135,000 58,200 26,000 24,000 20,200 12,000 10,000 2.000 |
$19.30 13.62 19.97 18.00 14.17 12.90 10.00 13.00 10.00 |
$6,950.00 1,838.25 1,158.50 468.00 340.00 258.00 120.00 130.00 20.00 |
10,000 135,000 58,200 26,000 24,000 20,200 12,000 10.000 2,000 |
350,000 |
Hickory |
|||||
Cotton gum (Tupelo) |
|||||
Totals |
|||||
647,400 |
$17.44 |
$11,282.75 |
297,400 |
350,000 |
|
SHUTTLE BLOCKS.
This industry concerns the manufacturing of rough shuttles which afterwards are sent to other facto res to be finished and polished. Bob- bins are usually made by the same concerns, but in Virginia none of the shuttle makers reported turning them. Dogwood and persimmon are the principal woods the country over for shuttle making, and for this purpose they both meet their most exacting demand. Persimmon is probably used in the larger quantities. In Virginia, however, the
OF VIRGINIA
case is reversed. Here the stand of dogwood is more plentiful and the quantity of it going into the rough shuttle manufacture naturally ex- ceeds the amount of persimmbn. Table No. 24, giving the available statistics, shows that this industry and the excelsior makers were the only ones securing all of their raw material from Virginia grown tim- ber.
TABLE 24.— SHUTTLE BLOCKS.
Total qua |
ntity used |
innually. |
|||
KIND OF WOOD |
Feet B. M. |
Average cost per 1.000 ft. f. o. b. factory |
Total cost f. o. b. factory |
Grown in Va. Feet B. M. |
Grown out ofVa. Feet B. M. |
616,400 |
$13 70 |
$8,437 40 |
616 400 |
||
15 000 |
14 00 |
210 00 |
15 000 |
||
Totals |
631 400 |
$13 71 |
$8 647 40 |
631 400 |
|
TOBACCO BOXES
Tobacco-box manufacture being a distinct industry from box mak- ing, the material used for making them is presented in separate sta- tistics. Plug tobacco boxes, cigar boxes, and tobacco retainers were the commodities made in Virginia and included in Table 25. Red oak, white oak, sycamore, and red gum were the woods used for plug to- bacco boxes. The sugar maple alone served as material for retainer sides, and yellow poplar and red gum with Spanish cedar and African cedar met the demand of the cigar-box makers.
Cigar-box material is bought in the form of thin lumber and veneer, the former usually 5-32 of an inch in thickness. This ma- terial as is customary was purchased and reported by superficial meas- ure. To make it comparable with the other tables of this report it was reduced to board measure and the prices correspondingly raised. Ac- cording to square measure the prices ranged from $20 to $30 for Spanish cedar and African cedar, $14 to $16 for yellow poplar and $12 to $14 for red gum. Many of the cigar boxes were made of two- ply veneer. Spanish cedar served as the exterior layer glued! to the cheaper domestic veneers like yellow poplar or red gum.
Plug tobacco boxes are lock-cornered, and like all lock^cornered boxes they demand gluing. "The bevel-locked''', although not as much as formerly, still remains in use. The bottoms of plug tobacco boxes are often made of three-ply veneer, and sycamore and red gum are favorite woods for this use. Solid bottoms and tops are also used, and Mke the sides are made principally of white oak and red oak.
66
WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES
TABLE 25.— TOBACCO BOXES.
Total Quantity used annually. |
|||||
KIND OF WOOD |
Feet B. M. |
Average cost per 1,000 ft. f . o. b. factory |
Total cost f. o. b. factory |
Grown In Va. Feet B. M. |
Grown out of Va. Feet B. M. |
Bed oak . . |
175,000 125,000 100,000 23,450 20,000 5,000 5,000 1,100 |
$13.43 13.52 27.50 35.00 68.00 52.00 120.00 138.00 |
$2,350.00 1,700.00 2,750.00 820.75 1,360.00 260.00 600.00 151.80 |
175,000 125.000 |
|
White oak |
iob',000 23,450 20,000 5,000 5,000 1,100 154,550 |
||||
Sugar maple |
|||||
Bed gum |
......._. |
||||
African cedar |
|||||
Totals |
|||||
454,550 |
$21.92 |
$9,992.55 |
300,000 |
||
PATTERNS
Table 26 shows the kinds of woods purchased and used for foun- dry flasks and patterns. There are manufacturers in Virginia who specialize in pattern making and sell their products to foundry men, while a number of foundries have pattern departments in connection and merely manufacture (heir own requirements. Foundry flasks are frames holding the sand which is worked into relief shape ready to receive the molten metal. The flask woods are not of high grades like the pattern woods. Patterns are carefully cut from lumber into the exact form of the article to be cast. White pine in all States is the principal pattern wood and much of it shown in the table, especially the 'high grades, went for this use. A large part of the white pine was shipped from the Lake States. Close-grained woods, with incon- spicuous figure and without resin, are the kinds the pattern makers de- mand. Besides white pine, cherry and yellow poplar were used, while the other wood shown in the table and yellow poplar went into the foundry flasks. The average price of the woods grouped under this industry exceeded twofold the cost of the same woods reported by another class of manufacturers shown in this report. This high price is because only the highest grades of expensive woods are used for the •commodities mentioned. Only one-sixth of the material made into flasks and patterns came from forests of the State.
TABLE 26.— PATTERNS.
Total quantity used annually. |
|||||
KIND OF WOOD |
Feet B. M. |
Average cost per 1.000 ft. f. o. b. factory |
Total cost f. o. b. factory |
Grown in Va. ' Feet B. M. |
Grown out of Va. Feet B. M. |
White pine |
Ill-, 400 12,000 5,400 2,000 |
$91.24 30.00 43.80 42.00 |
$10.177.00 360.00 219.00 84.00 |
7,000 10,000 5,000 |
104,400 2,000 400 2,000 |
Cherry |
|||||
Totals |
|||||
130,800 |
$82.74 |
$10.840.00 |
22,000 |
108,800 |
|
OF VIRGINIA 67
MISCELLANEOUS
The products of those factories which could not be Hsted as separate industries without revealing the identity of the informant are grouped under Table 27. The twenty-two woods shown in the list aggregate over eight and three-fourths million feet. Fifty-one per cent of it was grown in Virginia and it was bought at a price $2.31 less than the cost of woods shipped in from other States. The demands of two establishments making plumbers' woodwork like ex- terior tank linings and closet seats accounts for a large part of the white oak and red oak shown in the table. This line of manufacture is of considerable importance in Virginia
The makers of washing machines for domestic uses call on the cypresses and the juniper (white cedar) to serve as raw material, while for wash tubs and portable wood bath tubs, juniper alone met the demand. Drugget and rug poles were made from the black gum and red gum and clothes pins were turned from cotton gum. The success of gum clothes pins calls attention to a new wood for a use long held by beech, maple, and birch.
Dogwood croquet and duckpin balls and white ash baseball bats were made in Virginia; the quantity of these woods as they appear in Table 27 were for these uses. White and red oak , black walnut, and red gum served for the exterior work of reed organs. The action and many interior parts were made from sugar maple, yellow poplar, sycamore, red gum, and white pine.
Silo makers reported only two woods for silo staves, longleaf yellow pine, and white pine. Sugar maple alone went into the wood parts of cider and wine presses.
Virginia consumes more wood than any other State for the manufacturing of porch and Venetian blinds. From the standpoint of wood utilization this is a most important industry. Twenty-four woods were used of which all but the White pine, spruce, yellow poplar, and silverleaf maple were high-grade expensive cabinet woods. A number of them were foreign woods including silver ava and Philip- pine walnut which so far have appeared in the wood-using report of no other State
68
WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES
TABLE 27.— MISCELLANEOUS.
Total quantity used annually. |
|||||
KIND OF WOOD |
Feet B. M. |
Average cost per 1,000 ft. f. o. b. factory |
Total cost f. o. b. factory |
Grown in Va. Feet B. M. |
Grown out of Va. Feet B. M. |
4,792,000 1,000,000 640,000 425,000 310,000 242,000 228,000 218,000 202,200 190,000 68,200 67,000 62,000 55,000 52,000 50,000 30,000 30,000 10,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 2,000 2,000 1,000 1,000 100 100 100 8,692,700 |
$19.40 12.00 15.25 18.94 16.90 23.53 21.11 31.60 30.80 26.19 22.79 15.00 9.00 18.19 16.52 15.00 40.00 40.00 30.00 180.00 60.00 50.00 72.00 180.00 600.00 100.00 200.00 200.00 200.00 |
$93,148.00 12,000.00 9,702.40 8,050.00 5,240.00 5,803.00 4,595.00 6,884.00 6,224.00 4,970.00 1,550.00 1,005.00 558.00 1,000.00 860.00 750.00 1,200.00 1,200.00 300.00 900.00 300.00 250.00 144.00 360.00 600.00 100.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 |
1,568,000 1,000,000 |
3,224,000 640,000 50,000 10,000 100,000 25,000 8,000 2,000 120,000 200 30,000 |
|
Black gum |
|||||
Bed oak |
375,000 300,000 142,000 203,000 210,000 200,200 70,000 68,000 37,000 62,000 55,000 50,000 50,000 |
||||
White oak |
|||||
Ash • |
|||||
White pine |
|||||
Dogwood |
|||||
2,000 '"30.000 |
|||||
30,000 10,000 |
|||||
Silver maple (soft) |
|||||
5,000 5,000 '"2,000 2,000 1,000 1,000 100 100 100 |
|||||
Butternut |
|||||
5,000 |
|||||
White mahogany |
|||||
Philippine walnut |
|||||
Totals |
|||||
$19.36 |
$167.753.40 |
4.435,200 |
4,257,500 |
||
OF VIRGINIA
THE USES OF WOOD BY VIRGINIA MANUFACTURERS.
ASH
Baseball Bats
Buggy Poles
Butter Churns
Cabinet Work (Boats)
Cabinet Work (Houses)
Cabinet Work (Passenger Cars)
Cotton Planter Parts
Ditty Boxes
Drays
Fertilizer Distributor Parts
Fingers (Grain Cradles)
Fixtures (Exterior Work)
Frames (Buggy)
Frames (Carriage Bodies)
Frames (Drays)
Frames (Wagon Bodies)
Gear Parts (Vehicle)
Handles
Handles (Contractor's Shovels)
Handles (Grubbing Hoes)
Handles (Hay Fork)
Handles (Hoe)
Handles (Long Shovel)
Handles (Mallet)
Handles (Pitchfork)
Handles (Rake)
Handles (Small Tools)
Handles (Spade)
Head Blocks (Wagon)
Interior Finish (Houses)
Furniture (Case Good's)
Hay Ladders (Farm Wagons)
Locomotive Cabs
Mess Benches (Boats)
Mess Tables (Vessels)
Moulding (Window)
Panels (Wagon Bodies)
Partitions (Store and Office;
Peanut Picker Parts
Peanut Planter Parts
Poultry Coop Bottoms
Sanitary Wardrobes
Snathes (Grain Cradles)
Stools
Tables (Kitchen)
Trucks (Tobacco)
Trucks (Factory)
Trucks (Warehouse^
Venetian Blinds
Wainscoting
Wagon Tongues
Wardrobes
BASSWOOD
Balusters Beehive Sections Cabinet Drawers Casing Ceiling
Drawer Sides (Furniture) Dust Guards (Cars) Furniture (Hidden Work) Handles
Mirror Backing Partitions
Passenger Cars (Interior Work) Porch Columns Poultry Coop Bottoms Siding
Store and Office Fixtures (In- terior Work)
BEECH
Flooring
BIRCH (SWEET)
Cabinets
Cabinet Work (Passenger Cars) Couches Davenports Ditty Boxes Doors Fixtures Flooring
Furniture (Case Goods) Handles (Saw) Handles (Rake) Handles (Hoe) Interior Finish (House) Lounges Panels
Partitions (Office) Parlor Furniture (Frames) Sash
Stair Balusters Stair Rails Stair Rises Stair Treads "
Store and Office Fixtures (Ex- terior) Wardrobes Wainscoting
BUCKEYE
Casing
Ceiling
Cornice
Door Frames
Partition
Sash
Siding
Window Frames
BUTTERNUT
Cabinet Work (Boats) Cabinet Work (Cars) Store and Office Fixtures (Ex- terior) Venetian Blinds
CEDAR (AFRICAN) Cigar Boxes
CEDAR (RED)
Casket Shells
Cedar Chests
Furniture
Outer Boxes (Caskets)
Venetian Blinds
CEDAR (SPANISH) Cigar Boxes
CEDAR (WHITE)
Boat Boards
Boat Siding
Boats (Superstructure)
Buckets
Candy Pails
Lard Buckets
Pails
Tubs (Bath)
Tubs (Washing)
CHERRY
Boat Linings Cabinet Work (Boats) Cabinet Work (Passenger Cars) Furniture (Case Goods) Interior Trim (House) Molds (Foundry) Patterns (Foundry) Store anil Office Fixtures (Ex- terior) Venetian Blinds
CHESTNUT
Boxes (Cheese)
Boxes (Glass Bottles)
Boxes (Handle)
Boxes (Meat)
Cabbage Crates
Casing
Casket Moulding
Casket Shells
Casket Tops
Church Pews
Cores (Veneer)
Crating
Doors
Fence Pickets
Fence Stubs
Flooring
Furniture (Backs)
Furniture Frames (Case Goods)
Furniture (Kitchen)
Interior Finish (House)
Outer Cases (Caskets)
Panel Work (House)
Pool Table Sides
Ribs (Poultry Coops)
Sash
Siding
Stair Balusters
Stair Rises
Stair Rails
Store and Office Partitions
Wardrobes
COTTONWOOD
Panels 3-ply (Trunks) Sample Cases Templets (Boats) Trunk Boxes
CUCUMBER
Bottoms Poultry Coops
Ceiling
Partition
Porch Columns
Siding
CYPRESS
Blinds
Boat Bottoms Boat Sides
Boat Construction (Superstruc- ture)
Box Cleats Box Shooks Candy Pails Casing Cornice
Decking (Boats) Doors
Door Frames Fence Pickets
70
WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES
Fence Stubs |
Hoppers |
Davenports |
Fixtures (Interior Work) |
Lard Dishes |
Doors |
Flooring (Porch) |
Beshippers (Beer) |
Furniture (Exterior Work) |
Interior Trim |
Sample Cases |
Interior Finish (House) |
Lard Buckets |
Table Legs |
Landing Posts |
Moulding |
Tills |
Newel Posts |
Pails |
Traveling Cases |
Patterns (Foundry) |
Partition |
Truck Barrels (Veneer) |
Pool Tables Sides |
Porch Blinds |
Trunk Boxes |
Stair Rails |
Porch Columns |
Wooden Dishes |
Stair Bises |
Sash |
Stair Treads |
|
Siding |
HEMLOCK |
Store and Office Fixtures (Ex- |
Staging (Boat) |
"terior) |
|
Stepping |
Baseboards |
Table Leaves |
Store Fronts |
Boxes |
Table Tops |
Tanks |
Box Shooks |
|
Tobacco Machinery Parts |
Crates |
MAHOGANY (WHITE) |
Trunk Slats |
Flooring (Sub) |
|
Wagon Top Strips |
Interior Trim (House) |
Venetian Blinds |
Wardrobes |
Moulding (Window) |
|
Window Frames |
Outer Cases (Casket) |
MAPLE (SOFT) SILVER |
Window Sills |
Sheathing |
|
Venetian Blinds |
Siding |
Kitchen Tables |
Porch Blinds |
||
DOGWOOD |
HICKORY |
Venetian Blinds |
Bowling Balls |
Axles |
MAPLE (SUGAB) |
Croquet Balls |
Braces (Grain Cradles) |
|
Shuttle Blocks |
Buggy (Gear Parts) |
Bedsteads |
Spools |
Drays |
Bed Slats |
Fingers (Grain Cradles) |
Chairs |
|
DOUGLAS FIB |
Handles (Ax) |
Chairs (Porch) |
Handles (Boats) |
Chiffoniers (Exterior Work) |
|
Barges |
Handles (Chisel) |
Drawer Sides |
Cabinet Work (Boats) |
Handles (Hammer) |
Display Backs |
Casing |
Handles (Mall) |
Flooring |
Cornice |
Handles (Mallet) |
Furniture (Exterior) |
Decking (Boats) |
Handles (Mattock) |
Handles (Saw) |
Kelsons |
Handles (Pick) |
Kitchen Tables |
Locomotive Cabs |
Handles (Small Tool) |
Locomotive Cabs (Floors) |
Porch Work |
Handles (Saw) |
Parlor Furniture (Frames) |
Spars |
Hounds (Wagon) |
Pipe Organs (Interior Work) |
Scows |
Insulator Pins |
Pool Table Sides |
Perches (Wagon) |
Beed Organs (Interior Parts) |
|
ELM (BOCK) SLIPPEBY) |
Poles (Buggy) |
Table Slides |
Posts (Wagon Bodies) |
Tobacco Machinery Parts |
|
Basket Bims |
Beaches (Vehicle) |
Tobacco Betainer Sides |
Hoops (Veneer Barrels) |
Bims |
Stands (B'edroom) |
Boad Carts |
Wagon Bodies (Bottoms) |
|
ELM (SOFT) WHITE |
Bods (Poultry Crates) |
|
Bungs (Poultry Coops) |
OAK (BLACK) |
|
Bands (Baskets) |
Shafts (Vehicle) |
|
Hoops (Veneer Barrels) |
Single Trees |
Bedsteads |
Trunk Slats |
Spring Bars |
Box Shooks |
Spokes |
Buffets |
|
GUM (BLACK) |
Tobacco Machinery Parts |
Dressers (Exterior Parts) |
Tobacco Truck Parts |
Flooring |
|
Baskets |
Trunk Slats |
Furniture (Case Goods) |
Berry Cups |
Vehicle Stock |
Interior Finish (House) |
Boxes |
Wagon Tongues |
Plug Tobacco Boxes |
Box Shocks |
Wheels (Vehicle) |
Sideboards (Exterior Work) |
Hoppers |
Whiffle Trees |
Washstands |
Hubs |
||
Keels |
JABBA (AUSTBALIAN |
OAK (BED) |
Lard Dishes |
EUCALYPTUS) |
|
Malls |
Baseboards |
|
Paving Blocks |
Wardrobes (Flooring) |
Bedposts |
Reshippers (Bottle Crates) |
Show Window Displays |
Bedrails |
Boilers (Boats) |
Bedsteads |
|
Bug Poles |
LOCUST |
B'oat Construction |
Table Legs |
Boxes |
|
Veneer Barrels |
Insulator Brackets |
Box Shooks |
Insulator Pins |
Buffets |
|
GUM (COTTON) |
Trunnels (Boats) |
Buggy Bodies (Bottoms) |
Spokes (Boat Wheels) |
Bureaus |
|
Baskets |
Cabinets (Boat) |
|
Berry Cups |
MAHOGANY |
Cabinets (Passenger Cars) |
Boxes (Cracker) |
Casing |
|
Boxes (Dovetail) |
Cabinet Work (Boats) |
Caskets |
Boxes (Interlocking) |
Cabinet Work (Passenger Cars) |
Ceiling (Boats) |
Clothes Pins |
Caskets |
Ceiling (House) |
Coop Bottoms (Poultry) |
Casket Shells |
Chairs |
Crates (Roshippers) |
Chairs |
Chairs (Dining) |
Crating |
Couch Frames |
Chairs (Bocking) |
OF VIRGINIA
Chairs (Mission) |
Buffers (Cars) |
Sills (Wagon Bodies) |
Chiffoniers (Exterior Work) |
Buffets |
Single Trees |
China Closets |
Buggy Bottoms |
Spokes |
Church Altars |
Bureaus |
Spring Bars (Buggy) |
Coffins |
Cabinets |
Stands (Bedroom) |
Commodes |
Cabinet Work (Boats) |
Stair Balusters |
Couch Frames |
Capping (Boats) |
vStair Rails |
Davenport Frames |
Casing |
Stair Rises |
Desks (Office) |
Caskets |
Stair Treads |
Doors |
Ceiling (Boats) |
Stairwork |
Drays |
Ceiling (House) |
Sterns |
Dressers |
Chairs |
Stretchers (Table) |
Felloes (Wagon) |
Chairs (Dining) |
Surgical Splints |
Fence Pickets |
Chairs (Mission) |
Tables |
Fixtures (Exterior) |
Chairs (Rocking) |
Tables (Extension) |
Flooring |
Chiffoniers (Exterior Work) |
Table Leaves |
Furniture (Case Goods) |
China Closets |
Tables (Library) |
Handles (Saw) |
Church Pews |
Table Slides |
Hounds (Wagon) |
Chute Boards (Cars) |
Table Tops |
Insulator Brackets |
Cider Presses |
Telephone Boxes |
Interior Finish (House) |
Coffins |
Tie Beams (Cars) |
Kitchen Cabinets |
Commodes |
Thresholds |
Landing Posts |
Couch Frames |
Tobacco Truck Frames |
Lounge Frames |
Cotton Planters |
Toilet Seats |
Mantels |
Davenports |
Tree Blocks |
Newel Posts |
Desks (Office) |
Truck Bolsters (Freight Cars) |
Panels (Furniture Sides) |
Doors |
Truck (Freight Cars) |
Pilasters (Furniture) |
Draft Timber (Freight Cars) |
Venetian Blinds |
Pilasters (Mantels) |
Drays |
Wagon Bodies (Bottoms) |
Pilots (Locomotive) |
Dressers |
Wagon Gear Parts |
Pipe Organs (Exterior) |
Dump Carts (Bodies) |
Wagon Tongues |
Platforms (Cars) |
End Sills (Freight Cars) |
Wagon Tops (Ribs) |
Plow Beams |
Engine Beams (Freight Cars) |
Wardrobes |
Plow Handles |
Felloes (Wagon) |
Washstands |
Plow Bungs |
Fence Pickets |
Whiffle Trees |
Plug Tobacco B'oxes |
Fertilizer Distributors |
Window Sills |
Pole Steps (Telephone) |
Fixtures (Exterior Work) |
|
Beading Desk (Church) |
Flooring |
OSAGE ORANGE |
Beed Organs (Exterior Work) |
Flooring (Boats) |
|
Kims (Wagon) |
Frames (Wagon Bodies) |
Hounds (Vehicle) |
Koad Carts |
Furniture (Case Goods) |
|
Sash |
Guards (Boats) |
PERSIMMON |
Sheathing |
Handles |
|
Sideboards |
Handles (Saw) |
Shuttle Blocks |
Spokes |
Hounds (Wagon) |
|
Stair Balusters |
Hubs |
PINE (LOBLOLLY) |
Stair Bails |
Insulator Brackets |
|
Stair Bises |
Insulator Pins |
Balusters |
Stair Treads |
Interior Finish (Horse) |
Baseboards |
Stairwork |
Keel Blocks (Boats) |
Basket Bottoms |
Stands (Bedroom) |
Kelsons (Boats) |
Blinds |
Stretchers (Table) |
Kitchen Cabinets |
Boat. Construction |
Tables (Extension) |
Log Trucks (Freight Cars) |
Boxes |
Tables (Library) |
Lounges |
Boxes (Coffee) |
Table Leaves |
Locomotive Bumpers |
Boxes (Dry Goods) |
Table Slides |
Mantels |
Box Shooks |
Table Tops |
Panels |
Cabbage Crates |
Telephone Boxes |
Partitions |
Cabinets |
Thresholds |
Peanut Pickers |
Car Decking |
Tobacco Machinery Parts |
Peanut Planters |
Car Siding |
Toilet Seats |
Pilasters (Furniture) |
Casing |
Tree Blocks |
Pilasters (Mantels) |
Ceiling |
Truck Parts (Cars) |
Pilots (Locomotive) |
Clapboards |
Venetian Blinds |
Pipe Organs (Exterior Parts) |
Coffins |
Wagon Bodies (Framework) |
Pool Table Rails |
Conduits |
Wardrobes |
Pool Table Sides |
Cornices |
Washstands |
Pole Steps |
Crating |
Window Sills |
Planking (Motor Boats) |
Decking (Freight Cars) |
Platforms (Cars) |
Doors |
|
OAK (WHITE) |
Plow Beams |
Door Frames |
Plow Handles |
Dunnage (Freight Cars) |
|
Altars (Church) |
Plow Rungs |
Excelsior |
Altars (Lodge Boom) |
Plug Tobacco Boxes |
Fixtures |
Baseboards |
Rails (Boats) |
Furniture Backs |
Barge Construction |
Reed Organs (Exterior Work) |
Furniture (Veneer Cores) |
Bedposts |
Reading Desks (Church) |
Flooring |
Bedrails |
Rims |
Flooring (Factory) |
Bed Slats |
Road Carts |
Flooring (Freight Car) |
Bedsteads |
Rungs (Poultry Coops) |
Grain Doors |
Bitts (Boat) |
Sash |
Insulator Pins |
Boat Construction |
Scows |
Interior Trim (House) |
Body Bolsters (Freight Cars) Bolsters (Freight Cars) Box Shocks |
Shafts (Dump Cart) Sheathing Sideboards |
Kitchen Safes Landing Posts Lining (Freight Cars) |
WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES
Mouldings |
Casing |
Poultry Coops (Bottoms) |
Newel Posts |
Crating |
Reed Organs (Interior) |
Outer Cases (Casket) |
Door Frames |
Reshippers |
Panels (Furniture Sides) |
Excelsior |
Screens (Doors) |
Partition |
Flooring |
Screens (Windows) |
Pilasters |
Packing Cases |
Siding |
Poultry Coop (Bottoms) |
Roofers |
Silo Staves |
Roofers |
Thresholds |
Spars (Boats) |
Sample Cases |
Window Frames |
Storefronts |
Sash |
Trunk Boxes |
|
Screens (Door) . |
PINE (SHORTLEAF |
Wardrobes |
Screens (Window) |
Window Frames |
|
Siding |
Barges |
|
Siding (Freight Cars) Stair Rails |
Boat Construction Boat Ceiling |
RED GUM |
Stairways Store Fronts |
Boxes Boxes (Dry Goods) |
Barrel Veneer |
Trunk Boxes |
Box Shooks |
Baskets |
Wagon Panels Wardrobes Window Frames |
Boats (Superstructure) Cabin Work (Boats) Ceiling |
Bedsteads Boxes (Cracker) Boxes (Veneer) |
Wire Reels |
Conduits |
Box Shooks Cabinets |
PINE (LONGLEAF) |
Crating |
Chiffoniers (Exterior Work) |
Balusters Barge Construction |
Decking (Cars) Doors |
Commodes Couches |
Boxes Boxes (Projectile) Braces (Freight Car) Bridge Poles (Cars) |
Door Frames Fixtures (Store and Office) Flooring Flooring (Factory) |
Crating Davenports Dressers (Exterior Work) Drugget Poles |
Cabbage Crates Car Decking Carline Car Lining Car Siding Car Sills |
Furniture Backs Interior Trim Lining (Cars) Outer Cases (Caskets) Partitions Pilasters |
Flooring Hoppers (Fruit) Lids (Fruit Baskets) Panels (Furniture Sides) Planter Handles Plug Tobacco Boxes |
Car Flooring Corner Post (Freight Cars) Cross-arms Cross-tie Timber (Gondola Cars) |
Roofers Sash Siding (Freight Cars) Siding (House) |
Reed Organs Reshippers (Beer) Store and Office Fixtures (Ex- terior Work) |
Deck Beams (Boats) Decking (Boats) Doors Dump Cart Bottoms Fixtures (Store and Office) Flooring |
Staging (Boats) Stepping Trunk Boxes Window Frames Wire Reels |
Tills Tobacco Truck Bottoms Trunk Boxes (3-ply) Venetian Blinds Wagon Panels Washstands (Exterior Work) |
Frames (Freight Cars) Grain Doors |
PINE (SUGAR) |
ROSEWOOD |
Head Blocks (Boats) Hopper Siding (Freight Cars) Interior Trim (Houses) |
Blinds (Window) Doors Sash |
Pool Table Rails Venetian Blinds |
Lining (Cars) Lining Stud (Freight Cars) |
Storefronts |
SASSAFRAS |
Locomotive Parts Moulding |
PINE (WHITE) |
Furniture (Case Goods) |
Paving Blocks Peanut Pickers |
Beehives Blinds |
SILVER AVA |
Planking (Boats) Plates (Cars) |
Boxes (Axle) Boxes (Dovetail) |
Venetian Blinds |
Ridge Pole (Freight Cars) Roof Ribs (Freight Cars) |
Boxes (Interlocking) Box Shooks |
SPRUCE |
Scows |
Cabinet Work (Passenger Cars) |
|
Shelves |
Casings |
Boxes |
Siding (Cars) Side Planks (Gondola Cars) Side Plates (Freight Cars) Sills (Cars) Silo Staves |
Ceiling (Boats) Ceiling (House) Crating Decking (Boats) Doors |
Boxes (Butter) Box Shooks Clapboards Flooring Spars (Boats) |
Stair Rails |
Door Frames |
|
Stair Rises |
Oresser Backs |
SYCAMORE |
Stair Treads |
Flasks |
|
Stairways |
Furniture Parts |
Boxes |
Stakes (Gondola Cars) |
Interior Finish (House) |
Boxes (Veneer) |
Stepping |
Locomotive Cab Parts |
Box Shook |
Thresholds |
Mantels |
Filling (Furniture Panels) |
Tobacco Machinery Parts |
Molds (Foundry) |
Furniture (Case Goods) |
Upper Belt Rails (Freight Cars) |
Moulding |
Handles (Hoe) |
Wagon Bodies (Bottoms) |
Outer Cases (Coffin) |
Handles (Rake) |
Window Sills |
Outer Cases (Casket) |
Handles (Saw) |
Panels (Wagon Tops) |
Plug Tobacco Boxes |
|
PINE (SCRUB) |
Patterns (Foundry) |
Reed Organs (Exterior Parts) |
Barn Siding |
Pipe Organs (Interior Work) |
Reed Organs (Interior Parts) |
Boxes |
Porch Columns |
Store and Office Fixtures (Int.) |
Box Shooks |
Porch Flooring |
Venetian Blinds |
OF VIRGINIA
73
TEAKWOOD
Armor Tacking (Boats) Pilothouse Work (Boats) Venetian Blinds
WALNUT (BLACK)
Cabinet Work (Passenger Cars)
Caskets
Coffins
Gun Stocks
Furniture (Case Goods)
Interior Finish (House)
Newel Posts
Pipe Organs (Exterior)
Reed Organs (Exterior Work)
Store and Office Fixtures (Exter.)
Venetian Blinds
WALNUT (CIRCASSIAN) Fixtures (Exterior Work) Venetian Blinds
WALNUT (PHILIPPINE) Venetian Blinds
YELLOW POPLAR Balusters Backs (Dresser) Bands (Berry Baskets) Bedsteads
Berry Baskets
Blinds
Boxes
Boxes (Axle)
Boxes (Butter)
Boxes (Insulator Pins)
Cabinets
Casings
Casket Shells
Ceiling
Ceiling (Boats)
Cigar Boxes
Clapboards
Coffins
Crating
Doors
Doors (Poultry Coops)
Drawer Bottoms
Drawer Sides
Flasks
Filling (Furniture Panels)
Handles
Interior Finish (House)
Kitchen Cabinets
Kitchen Safes
Kitchen Tables
Locomotive Cab Parts
Lounge Frames
Mantels
Mirror Backing
Moulding
Packing Cases
Panels (Delivery Wagon Tops)
Panels (Furniture Sides)
Panels (Interior House Trim)
Panel Sides (Passenger Cars)
Partition
Peanut Pickers Parts
Pilasters (Mantels)
Plug Tobacco Boxes (3-ply)
Pool Table Sides
Porch Blinds
Porch Columns
Porch Posts
Poultry Coop (Bottoms)
Poultry Coops (Frames)
Reed Organ (Interior Parts)
Sample Cases
Sash
Shelves
Siding
Siding (Passenger Cars)
Staging (Boats)
Stair Rises
Spars (Boats)
Traveling Cases
Trunk Boxes
Trunk Compartments
Trunk Trays
Wagon Bodies
Wagon ^Boxes
Wardrobes
Window Frames
74
WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES
MANUFACTURERS.
AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS. Clarksville Plow Works, .. Clarksville, Va. Cumberland Planing Mills, Cumber-
land, V.a
Buffalo Manufacturing Co., Farmville, Va. Farmville Manufacturing Co., Farm-.
ville, Va.
The Chas. E. Hunter, F. F. Plow
Works, Fredericksburg Va,
P. Bradley & Sons, Harrisonburg, Va.
Lynchburg Foundry Co.. ..Lynchburg, Va.
Look & Lincoln, Marion, Va.
C. Billings Son & Co Norfolk, Va.
R. W. Whitehurst, Norfolk, Va.
Phenix Planing Mill, Phenix, Va.
E. C. Brinser & Sons, Richmond, Va.
The Cardwell Machine Co., Richmond, Va. Starke's Dixie Plow Works, Inc., Rich-
mond, Va.
R. B. Hedrick r. Rural Retreat, Va.
Benthall Machine Co Suffolk, Va.
Vesuvius Plow Works, Vesuvius, Va.
BASKETS, FRUIT AND VEGETABLE
PACKAGES.
Chesapeake Barrel Co., ..Chesapeake, Va. Greenbush Manufacturing Co.,..Green-
bush. Va.
M. J. Kelly, Groseclose, Va.
The Peninsula Barrel and Package Co.,
Hampton, Va.
A. J. Payne, Keokee, Va.
Farmers Manufacturing Co., Norfolk, Va. Planters Manufacturing Co., ..Port
Norfolk, Va.
Planters Manufacturing Co., Pughs,
Va.
Kellman & Watson, Shady Side, Va.
Nansemond Truck Package Co., Suffolk, Va. The Toano Truck Package Co., Toano, Va.
BOXES
J. K. Buckley & Sons Abingdon, Va.
Atkins Bros., Attoway, Va.
J. E. Stiveley, Bealton, Va.
Blackstone Lumber & Manufacturing Co.,
Blackstone, Va.
J. Thuma & Son, Bridgewater, Va.
G. W. Truitt & Co., Capron, Va.
W. H. Vincent, Capron, Va.
Jeffreys Spaulding Mfg. Co., Inc.,
Chase City, Va.
Claremont Lumber & Box Co., Clare-
mont, Va.
Franklin Bros Colonial Beach, Va.
Wood & Harvey, Concord, Va.
F. W. Thayer Co., Damascus, Va.
Heidelbach Lumber Co., ....Danville, Va. The Baker-Minter Lumber Co., Inc.,
Delaware, Va.
Surry Lumber Co., Dendron, Va.
Emporia Manufacturing Co., Emporia, Va. Greensville Manufacturing Co.,
Emporia, Va.
Virginia Buggy Co., Franklin, Va.
The Locust & Pin Co., Front Royal, Va.
Carl Stossel & Co., Front Royal, Va.
Greenbush Manufacturing Co.,
Greenbush, Va.
Truitt- Vincent Co., Jarratt, Va.
Hassinger Lumber Co., ..Konnarock, Va. F. J. Kress Box Co., Va. Corp.,
Kress, Va.
American Box Co Lynchburg, Va.
Hughes Buggy Co., Lynchburg, Va.
American Furniture Co.. Martinsville, Va. Meherrin Planing Mill Co., Meherrin, Va.
Bellows & Squires, Inc., Ocran, Va.
Appomattox Box Shook Co., Inc.,
Petersburg, Ya.
Petersburg Wood Supply Co., Petersourg,
Va.
South Side Manufacturing Co.,
Petersburg Va.
Virginia Lumber & Box Co.,
Petersburg, Va.
Old Dominion Table Works, Port Nor-
folk, Va.
The Allegheny Box Co., ..Richmond, Va.
J. F. Biggs Richmond, Va.
The Cardwell Machine Co., Richmond, Va. Crescent Box & Lumber Co., Roanoke, Va.
David M. Lea & Co., Richmond, Va.
Miller Manufacturing Co., Richmord, Va.
E. H. Barnes Co., Norfolk, Va.
Berkley Box & Lumber Co., Norfolk, Va.
C. W. Cake, Norfolk, Va.
The Dickson Lumber Co., ..Norfolk, Va.
Fosburg Lumber Co., Norfolk, Va.
Henry Mayo Box Co., Norfolk, Va.
Peart, Nields & McCormick Co., North
Emporia, Va.
Surry Lumber Co., ...'.... .Norfolk, Va.
Tunnis Lumber Co., Norfolk, Va.
Sitterding-Carneal-Davis Co.,
Richmond, Va.
The Tredegar Co Richmond, Va.
South Hill Manufacturing Co., Inc.
South Hill, Va.
A. L. Matthews, Spring Grove. Va.
Montgomery Lumber Co., .... Suffolk, Va.
R. E. Richardson Tunstall, Va.
Winn & Coleman, Warfield, Va.
CAR AND LOCOMOTIVE CON- STRUCTION.
Virginia Iron & Coal Co., Fosters Falls, Va.
OF VIRGINIA
75
Chesapeake & Ohio R. R. Co.,
Newport News, Va.
Norfolk & Southern R. R. Co., Norfolk,
Va.
Norton Car & Foundry Co. Norton, Va. Seaboard Air Line R. R., Portsmouth, Va. American locomotive Co., Richmond, Va.
Chesapeake R. R. Co., Richmond, Va.
Richmond, Fredericksburg & Potomac R. R.
..Co., (Hermitage) Richmond, Va. Sitterding Carneal Davis Co., Rich-
mond, Va.
Southern Railway, Richmond, Va.
The Tredegar Co., Richmond, Va.
Washington Southern Railroad Co.,
Richmond, Va.
Norfolk & Western Railway, Roanoke, Va.
CASKETS AND COFFINS.
L. A. Hylton Floyd, Va.
J. A. Willis, Keysville, Va.
Newport News, Casket Co., Newport
News Va.
Virginia Coffin & Casket Co., Norton, Va. Richmond Wood Working Co., Richmond,
Va.
J. C. Close, Zeus, Va.
CHAIRS.
Piedmont Chair Co., Bassetts, Va.
Close & Hawkins, Brightwood, Va.
Wm. H. Kephart Herndon, Va.
U. S. Navy Yard, Norfolk, Va.
Troutdale Chair Mfg. Co., Troutdale, Va. C. W. Alexander & Bros., Waynesboro, Va. Jas. C. Close, Zeus, Va.
EXCELSIOR.
Dillard & Chewning, Chilesburg, Va.
Golansville Excelsior Co., Golansville, Va.
W. N. Blatt & Co., Milford, Va.
Gray Bros., Ruther Glen, Va.
Geo. P. Lyon Excelsior Co. Woodford, Va.
FENCING.
Charlottesville Lumber Co.. Charlottes-
ville, Va.
King Lumber Co., Charlottesville, Va.
Tunis Lumber Co Norfolk, Va.
Hobbs-Hoy Co., Petersburg, Va.
Port Norfolk Supply Co., Port Norfolk, Va.
Gray-Lattimer Co., Waverly, Va.
The Gray Lumber Co., Waverly, Va.
Valley Builders Supply Co., Woodstock,
Va.
FURNITURE.
M. L. Risheill Alexandria, Va.
Consolidated Furniture Works, Inc.,
. Altavista, Va.
Basic Furniture Co., Basic City, Va.
Bassett Furniture Co., Main St.,
Bassett, Va.
Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg,
Va.
Phoenix Furniture Corp., . . Cambria, Va. Nicholson Furniture Co., Chase City, Va.
L. A. Hylton Floyd, Va.
The Galax Furniture Co., Galax, Va.
Hampton Normal & Agricultural Institute,
Hampton, Va.
Wm. H. Kephart Herndon, Va.
Lewis Creek Planing Mill Co., Honaker,
Va.
Toler & Sons Manchester, Va.
W. C. Seaver & Sons, Marion, Va.
Virginia Table Co Marion, Va.
American Furniture Co., Martinsville, Va.
Jas. G. Wilson Mfg. Co Norfolk, Va.
U. S. Navy Yard, '. Norfolk, Va.
Air Line Mfg. Co.,.. Port Norfolk Sta.,
Norfolk, Va.
Old Dominion Table Works, Inc.,
Port Norfolk, Va.
J. B. Lacy Pratts, Va.
J. F. Biggs, 521 E. Main St. Richmond, Va. James River Furniture & Mat. Co.,
Richmond, Va.
C. W. Montgomery Richmond, Va.
Richmond W. W. Co., Richmond, Va.
Toler & Sons Richmond, Va.
Central Mfg. Co., Roanoke, Va.
Bald Knob Furniture Co., Rocky Mount,
Va.
T. W. Heath Scottsville, Va.
A. J. Livick, Staunton, Va.
C. W. Alexander & Bro., Waynesboro, Va.
Lambert Mfg. Co., Waynesboro, Va.
West Point Panel Co., ..West Point. Va. Valley Builders Supply Co., Woodstock,
. Va.
Wytheville Mfg. Co., . . . .Wytheville, Va.
FIXTURES.
F. A. Rauch & Sons, ..Eagle Rock, Va.
Chesapeake Mill Co., Hampton, Va.
James G. Wilson Mfg. Co., Norfolk, Va.
White Lumber Co., Norfolk, Va.
American Furniture & Fixture Co.,
Richmond, Va.
C. P. Dean Corporation, Richmond, Va.
J. C. Fletcher, Richmond, Va
C. W. Montgomery, Richmond, Va.
Thos. E. Stagg, Richmond, Va.
Central Mfg. Co., Roanoke, Va.
T. W. Heath, Scottsville, Va.
G. W. Fretwell, Stauntor, Va.
C. W. Alexander & Bro., Waynesboro, Va.
HANDLES.
Atkins Bros., Attoway, Va.
H. P. Baker & Co ..Columbia, Va.
76
WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES
H. W. & W. W. Beaty, Front Royal, Va. Carl Stossel & Co., ..Front Royal, Va. Kenbridge Handle & Spoke Co., Ken-
bridge, Va.
Hardwood Novelty Co., . . Powhatan, Va.
M. W. Nicholls Powhatan, Va.
W. E. Dillard Mfg. Co., Petersburg, Va.
E. C. Bruiser & Sons, Richmond, Va.
Baldwin Tool Works, Richmond, Va.
Blue Ridge Handle Co., . . Round Hill, Va.
J. L. Marcus Round Hill, Va.
Rural Retreat Handle Co., Rural Retreat,
Va.
West Point Handle Co., Inc., West
Point, Va.
INSULATOR PINS. BRACKETS AND CROSS-ARMS.
American Cross Arm Co., Buell, Va.
Brodie Bros. Co Figsboro, Va.
Rappahannock Locust Pin Co., Flint Hill,
Va.
The Locust Pin Co., ..Front Royal, Va.
B. F. & R. P. Gravely, Martinsville, Va.
Norfolk Creosoting Co., Norfolk, Va.
D. L. Moatz, Round Hill, Va.
MISCELLANEOUS.
Broadway Hardwood Mfg. Co.,
Broadway, Va.
Carl Stossel & Co., Front Royal, Va.
American Mfg. Co., Grottoes, Va.
Wm. H. Kephart, Herndon, Va.
R. Whitehurst Co., Norfolk, Va.
Jas. G. Wilson Mfg. Co., ..Norfolk, Va.
L. D. George Penola, Va.
M. W. Nicholls, Powhatan, Va.
The Cardwell Machine Co., Richmond, Va. Richmond Cedar Works, . . Richmond, Va. Richmond Woodworking Co., Richmond,
Va.
E. C. Brinser & Sons, South Richmond, Va. W. W. Putnam & Co Staunton, Va.
PATTERNS.
Lynchburg Foundry Co., Lynchburg, Va. Newport News Ship Building & Dry Dock
Co., Newport News, Va.
Atlantic Iron Works, Norfolk, Va.
Donahue & Marsden Norfolk, Va.
Eagle Iron Works Norfolk, Va.
Elizabeth Iron Works Norfolk, Va.
Etna Iron Works, Norfolk, Va.
Norfolk Iron Works, Norfolk, Va.
Norfolk & Southern R. R., Norfolk, Va.
The Norfolk Foundry, Norfolk, Va.
Union Iron Works, Norfolk, Va.
Virginia Iron Works, Norfolk, Va.
R. W. Whitehurst, Norfolk, Va.
Norton Car & Foundry Co., Norton, Va. The Cardwell Machine Co., Richmond, Va.
Seaboard Air Line R. R., Richmond, Va.
The Tredegar Co., Richmond, Va.
Vesuvius Plow Works, .... Vesuvius, Va.
PAVING BLOCKS AND CONDUITS.
American Cross Arm Co., ..Norfolk, Va.
Norfolk Creosoting Co Norfolk, Va.
United States Wood Preserving Co.,
Norfolk, Va.
The Wyckoff Pipe & Creisoting Co.,
Portsmouth, Va.
PLANING MILL PRODUCTS.
J. K. Buckley & Son, Abingdon, Va.
Whiting Manufacturing Co., Abingdon, Va.
S. R. Gobble, Abingdon, Va.
Jno. A. Ternell, Auburn Mills, Va.
G. A. Glenn Lbr. Co., ..Basic City, Va.
F. Preston Jones Basic City, Va.
Chas. Hardenburgh & Son, Beaver Dam,
Va.
W. C. Harris, Beaver Dam, Va.
D. W. Raper & Son, Berkeley, Va.
Wm. Eugene Brace, Blacksburg, Va.
Gordy & Chandler Bloxom, Va.
I. M. Hite Bowmans, Va.
Gleck Bros., Bridgewater, Va.
J. Thuma & Son Bridgewater, Va.
J. A. Riddle, Bridgewater, Va.
Deer Creek Lumber Co., ..Cambria, Va.
H. A. Wells, Centralia, Va.
A. A. Overbey, Ceres, Va.
L. A. Marston, Charles City, Va.
Charlottesville Lumber Co., . . . Charlottes-
ville, Va.
King Lumber Co., Charlottesville, Va.
R. E. Baker, Chester, Va.
Flanagan Furniture Co., Christiansburg,
Va.
Claremont Lumber & Box Co., Claremont,
Va.
Mathews Curtis Co., Inc., Clifton Forge,
Va.
Cumberland Planing Mill, Cumberland, Va. Danville Lumber & Mfg. Co., Danville, Va.
Heidelbach Lumber Co., Danville, Va.
Phoenix Lumber Co., Danville, Va.
C. T. Ellis Dooley, Va.
E. G. Flaherty, Eagle Rock, Va.
F. A. Rauch & Sons, Eagle Rock, Va.
W. A. Fisher Emmerton, Va.
F. P. Caldwell Fincastle, Va.
Va. Iron, Coal & Coke Co., Fosters Falls,
Va.
Camp Manufacturing Co., ..Franklin, Va. Fredericksburg Lumber Co., Inc.,
Fredericksburg, Va.
J. W. Masters, Fredericksburg, Va.
J. C. Reavis, Galax, Va.
W. H. Tayloe, Galax, Va.
I. B. Weaver, Gloucester, Va.
OF VIRGINIA
77
Keys Planing Mill Co Graham, Va.
E. H. Ritter Planing Mill Co., Graham, Va.
Eutsler Bros., Grottoes, Va.
The Grow Biggs Co., Inc., Buena Vista,
Va.
Hampton Normal & Agricultural Institute,
Hampton, Va.
The Heffelfinger Co Hampton, Va.
J. S. Dovel & Co., . . . .Harrisonburg, Va. Lewis Creek Planing Mill Co., Honaker,
Va.
R. J. Baber Howardsville, Va.
Jarvis & Abdell Jamesville, Va.
J. H. Willis Keysville, Va.
Geo. W. Cooke King & Queen, Va.
Hassinger Lumber Co., . . Konnarock, Va.
Cohansey Lbr. Co Lanexa, Va.
Woodson & Graves Lynchburg, Va.
H. L. Smyth, Meadow View, Va.
Weaver Bros Newport News, Va.
Meherrin Planing Mill Co., Mehein, Va. Atlantic Coast Dumber Corp., Norfolk, Va.
C. W. Cake Norfolk, Va.
Fosburgh Lumber Co Norfolk, Va.
Goffigan Carper, Simpson Co., Norfolk, Va. Portsmouth Building Corp., Portsmouth
Sta Norfolk, Va.
Port Norfolk Supply Co., ..Norfolk, Va. Roanoke R. R. & Lbr. Co.. ..Norfolk, Va. John L. Roper Lbr. Co., ....Norfolk, Va. Sawyer Walker Lbr. Co.. ..Norfolk, Va. Surrey Lbr. Co., Planing Mill, Norfolk, Va.
The Tunis Lbr. Co., Norfolk, Va.
H. L. Wats, Norfolk, Va.
White Lbr. Co., Norfolk, Va.
Peart, Nields & McCormick Co., North
Emporia, Va.
Norton Lbr. & Planing Mill Co.,
Norton, Va.
Bellows & Squires, Inc., ....Ocran, Va.
C. M. Hailey, Ontario, Va.
H. E. Grasty & Bros., Orange, Va.
R. N. Earman Penn Laird, Va.
L. D. George Lbr. Co Penola, Va.
Hobs-Hoy Co., Petersburg, Va.
Jacob Swage, Petersburg, Va.
Petersburg Wood Supply Co., Petersburg,
Va.
Petersburg Woodworking Co., Petersburg,
Va.
Fosburg Lbr. Co., Inc., Petersburg, Va. Phenix Planing Mill Co.,.. Phenix, Va. Intermont Planing Mill, ..Phlegar, Va.
R. F. Slaughter, Phoebus, Va.
John N. Hart Lbr. Co.,« Inc., Portsmouth,
Va.
Phillips Mahoney Co., Inc., Portsmouth,
Va.
M. W. Nichols, . .Powhatan, Va.
J. B. Lacey, Pratts, Va.
Oscar Laughon, Pulaski, Va.
Chas. W. Hardwicke Richmond, Va.
Jos. Heppert Richmond, Va.
W. D. Newsome Richmond, Va.
Sitterding-Carneal-Davis Co., Richmond,
Va.
Ide Lumber Co Roanoke, Va.
Va. Lbr. & Mfg. Co Roanoke, Va.
Purdue & Stone Rocky Mount, Va.
E. S. Adkins Wardtown, Va.
T. W. Heath Scottsville, Va.
A. G. Wallace Sebrell, Va.
Jno. H. Blackburn & Son, Staunton, Va.
G. W. Fretwell, Staunton, Va.
Jas. L. Gardner Stephens City, Va.
A. M. Jenkins Strasburg, Va.
E. L. Griner Stuarts Draft, Va.
Montgomery Lbr. Co Suffolk, Va.
J. B. Philhower & Sons Suffolk, Va.
R. E. Richardson Tunstall, Va.
C. B. & S. D. Mangus, Vesuvius, Va.
Banks & Donaldson Victoria, Va.
J. A. Glenn Lbr. Co., . .Waynesboro, Va.
Winn & Coleman, Warfield. Va.
Valley Builders Supply Co., Woodstock,
Va.
Wytheville Mfg. Co., Wytheville, Va.
POULTERERS SUPPLIES.
/. K. Buckley & Son, Abingdop, Va.
J. A. Riddle Bridgewater, Va.
W. J. Carpenter, Brightwood, Va.
J. S. Dovel & Co., ....Harrisonburg, Va.
G. E. Funkhouser, Jerome, Va.
Richmond Cedar Works, . . Richmond, Va.
W. L. Smith, Richmond, Va.
E. W. Miller Rochelle, Va.
E. C. Brinser S. Richmond, Va.
J. H. Chandler & Son, Stuarts Draft, Va. Geo. F. Bull & Son, Timberville, Va.
SASH, DOORS, BLINDS AND GEN- ERAL MILL WORK.
Abingdon Column & Lbr. Co.. Inc.,
Abingdon, Va.
J. K. Buckley & Son Abingdon, Va.
S. R. Gobble, Abingdon, Va.
Henry K. Field & Co., Alexandria, Va.
M. L. Risheill, Alexandria, Va.
W. H. Perrin, Ashland, Va.
F. Preston Jones Basic City, Va.
J. E. Stiveley, Bealeton, Va.
W. C. Harris, Beaver Dam, Va.
D. W. Raper & Son, Berkeley, Va.
Goodloe Bros Big Stone Gap, Va.
Wm. Eugene Brace, Blacksburg, Va.
Gordy & Chandler Bloxom, Va.
S. W. Broaddus, ....Bowling Green, Va.
I. M. Kite, Bowmans, Va.
J. A. Rddle, Bridgewater, Va.
J. Thuma & Son, Bridgewater, Va.
Broadway Hardwood Mfg. Co., Broadway,
. . Va.
WOOD- USING INDUSTRIES
The Grow, Biggs Co., Inc., Buena Vista, Va.
A. A. Overboy, Ceres, Va.
Charlottesville Lbr. Co., . . Charlottesville, Va.
King Lbr. Co., Charlottesville, Va.
R. E. Baker, Chester, Va.
Childress Mills, Childress, Va.
Kemerer & Costenboder, . . Claremont, Va.
Wood & Harvey, Concord, Va.
F. W. Thayer Co., Damascus, Va.
The Danville Lbr. & Mfg. Co., Danville,
Va.
Heidelbach Lbr. Co., Danville, Va.
Phoenix Lbr. Co., Danville, Va.
G. W. Bryan, Dayton, Va.
C. T. Ellis, Dooley, Va.
Dublin Mfg. Co., Dublin, Va.
F. A. Rauch & Son Eagle Rock, Va.
Buffalo Mfg. Co., Farmville, Va.
Peffer-Cone Lbr. Co., ..Front Royal, Va.
Gillespie Bros., Galax, Va.
J. C. Reavis Galax, Va.
Keys Planing Mill Co., Graham, Va.
Eutsler Bros., Grottoes, Va.
Chesapeake Mill Co., Hampton Va.
The Heffelfinger Co., Inc., Hampton, Va. Hampton Normal & Agricultural Insti-
• tute Hampton, Va.
K. S. Bassford, Harrisonburg, Va.
W. M. Busher & Son, Harrisonburg, Va. J. S. Dovel & Co., ..Harrisonburg, Va.
Hern don Lbr. Co Herndon, Va.
J. W. Crowell., Jonesville, Ya
Kenbiidge Planing Mills, Kenbridge, Ya.
Ncrris Bros., Leesburg, Va.
Tames Bros., Locustville, Vi.
Bailey Bros., Luray, Va.
Lloyd Moore, . . Lynchburg, vi.
C. R. Gregory Martinsville, Va.
H. I,. Smith, Meadow View, Va.
Weaver Bros Newport News, Va.
C. W. Cake, Norfolk, Va.
Goffigon, Carper, Simpson Co., ..Norfolk,
Ya.
Phillips Mahoney, Co., Norfolk, Va.
Portsmouth Building Corp., Norfolk, Va. Tidewater Sash, Door & Blind Co., Inc.,
Norfolk, Va.
White Lbr. Co., Inc Norfolk, Va.
Geo. P. Hall & Co., North Tazewell, Va. Norton Lbr. & Planing Mill Co., Norton,
.Va.
R. N. Earman, Penn Laird, Va.
L. D. George, Lbr. Co., Pehola, Va.
Builders Supply Co., ....Petersburg, Va.
Hobbs-Hoy Co., Petersburg, Va.
Petersburg Woodworking Co., Petersburg,
Va.
R. F. Slaughter, Phoebus, Va.
Port Norfolk Supply Co., Port Norfolk, Va. Hardwood Novelty Co., ..Powhatan, Va.
J. B. Lacey, Pratts, Ya.
Oscar Laughon, Pulaski, Va.
E. H. Hirst Purcellville, Va.
C. W. Davis & Co., Piedmont, Va.
Chas. W. Hardwicke & Co., Richmond, Va.
Jos. Heppert, Richmond, Va.
Miller Mtg. Co., Inc., ..Richmond, Va. Montague Mfg. Co., Richmond, Va.
C. W. Montgomery, Richmond, Va.
W. D. Newsom Richmond, Va.
D. W. Shrecengost, Richmond, Va.
R. A. Siewers Est., Richmond, Va.
Sitterding-Carneal-Davis Co., ..Richmond,
Va.
Thos. E. Stagg, Richmond, Va.
W. J. Whitehurst & Son, Richmond, Va. Adams Payne & Cleaves, Inc., Roanoke,
Va.
Central Mfg. Co., Roanoke, Va.
Va. Lbr. & Mfg. Co., ....Roanoke, Va.
Purdue & Stone Rocky Mount, Va.
T. W. Heath Scottsville, Va.
South Boston Lbr. Co., South Boston, Va.
A. B. Lotts, Spottswood, Va.
Jno. H. Blackburn & Son, Staunton, Va.
G. W. Fretwell, Staunton, Va.
R. J. Livick, Staunton, Va.
L. W. Puffenberger & Co., Staunton, Va. Jas. L. Gardener, .... Stephens City, Va.
A. M. Jenkins, Strasburg, Va.
Crocker Brinkley Lbr. Co., ..Suffolk, Va.
J. E. Banks, Toano, Va.
Toano Truck Package Co., Toano, Va.
R. E. Richardson," Tunstall, Va.
Warrenton Planing Mill Co., Warrenton,
Va.
M. B. Carpenter, Waverly, Va.
Lambert Mfg. Co., Waynesboro, Va.
Wytheville Mfg. Co., . . . .Wytheville, Va.
Valley Builders Supply Co., Woodstock,
..Va.
SHIP AND BOAT BUILDING.
Machine Shop & Railway Co., Irvington,
Va.
Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock
Co., Newport News, Va
Colona Marine Railway Norfolk, Va.
Norfolk Marine Ry.. Berkeley, Norfolk,
Va.
Norfolk & Southern R. R. Co., Norfolk,
Va.
Portsmouth Marine Ry., Portsmouth, Va.
Smith & McCoy,- Norfolk, Va.
W. E. Thomas & Co., Berkeley, Sta.,
Norfolk, Va.
U. S. Navy Yard, Portsmouth, Norfolk,
Va.
Reedville Marine Ry., Reedville, Va.
Owens Marine Railway, Weems, Va.
Rappahannock Marine Ry.. . .Weems, Va.
OF VIRGINIA
79
SHUTTLES.
Austin Lush, Amelia C. H., Va.
Woodward Bros. & Young, Clayville, Va.
Hardwood Novelty Co., ..Powhatan, Va.
M. W. Nicholls, Powhatan, Va.
TOBACCO BOXES.
T. J. Belcher, Crawford, Va.
David M. Lea & Co., Richmond, Va.
Andrew Krouse, Richmond, Va.
Richmond Wooden Ware Co., Richmond,
Va.
T. J. Belcher, Snow Creek, Va.
TRUNKS.
F. J. Kress, Kress, V a.
Petersburg Trunk & Bag Co., Petersburp, Va.
Seward Tiunk & Bag Co., Petersburg, Ya. Virginia Trunk & Bag Co., Petersburg, Va. H. W. Rountree & Bro. Trunk & Bag Co.,
Richmond, >Ta
Union Trunk & Bag Co., Richmond, Va. West Point Panel Co., West Point, Va.
VEHICLE AND VEHICLE PARTS.
Atkins Bros., Atoway, Va.
Gleck Bros., Bridgewater, Va.
Wheel & Wood Bending Co., Burke-
ville, Va.
The Wheel & Wood Bending Co., Burke-
ville, Va.
Chase City Mfg. Co., ..Chase City, Va.
R. E. Baker, Chester, Va.
C. H. Russell & Son, . . Clarksville, Va. James A. Kline, Columbia Furnace, Va. W. P. Homer Wagon Mfg. Co., Danville,
Va.
Va. Buggy Co., Inc., Franklin, V a.
Galox Buggy Co Galox, Va.
Hampton Normal Agricultural Institute,
Hampton, Va.
Bonham Bros., Jonesville, Va.
Kenbridge Handle & Spoke Co., Inc.,
Kenbridge, Va.
Hughes Buggy Co Lynchburg, Va.
A. M. Shaner Co., Inc., Lynchburg, Va.
Thornhill Wagon Co., ..Lynchburg, Va.
Look & Lincoln, Inc Marion, Va.
Virginia Spoke & Bending Co., Martins-
ville, Va.
Va., Wagon Co New Boston, Va.
Allen & Gildersleve Norfolk, Va.
J. W. Borum Son & Co., Norfolk, Va.
W. T. Godfrey & Co Norfolk, Va.
Morgan & Wilbur, Norfolk, \a.
W. J. Scultatus Norfolk, Va.
R. W. Whitehurst, Norfolk, Va.
A. Wrenn & Sons-, Norfolk, Va.
C. E. Wright & Co Norfolk, Va.
W. E. Dilliard Mfg. Co., Petersburg, Va. Petersburg Rim & Veneer Co., Petersburg,
Va.
Hardwood Novelty Co.. ..Powhatan, Va.
M. W. Nichols, Powhatan, Va.
M. W. Nicholls Powhatan, Va.
R. H. Bosher Sons Richmond, Va.
Bartholomew C. Bristol, ..Richmond, Va.
Julius A. Grasberger Richmond, Va.
Conrad Gross, Richmond, Va.
A. Meyers Sons, Richmond, Va.
E. F. Moore, Richmond, Va.
Patterson & Hughes, Richmond, Va.
Richardson & Bros Richmond, Va.
Sitterding-Carneal-Davis Co.,. .Richmond,
Va.
Joseph L. Smith, Richmond, Va.
Va. N. C Wheel Co Richmond, Va.
Va. Carriage Factory, Roanoke, Va.
Blue Ridge Handle Co., Round Hill, Va. Belmead Wagon Works, Rock Castle, Va.
Salem Wagon Works, Salem, Va
C. H. Gentry Somerset, Va.
E. L. Griner, Stuarts Draft, Va.
W. S. ^racy, Toano, Va.
Banks & Donaldson, Victoria, Va.
West Point Handle Co., West Point, Va. Foote & Johnson, Wytheville, Va.
WOODENWARE AND MATCHES.
R. W. Whitehurst Co Norfolk, Va.
Lay & Balcom Mfg. Co., Portsmouth, Va.
Richmond Cedar Works, ..Richmond, Va.
Acme Match Co., Inc., Roanoke, Va.
Central Mfg. Co Roanoke, Va.
SUPPLEMENT.
82
WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES
SUPPLEMENT
The manufacture of slack and tight cooperage stock and paper pulp in Virginia should properly be included in a study of the wood using industries, because staves, hoops and heading, and pulp are commodities in finished form, subject to no further manufacture, and therefore, within the scope of the study. Tables representing these commodities were not presented heretofore, owing to the fact that the Bureau of Census in cooperation with the Forest Service annually collects information concerning their production, and it was deemed inexpedient to solicit similar information twice in the same year. In order not to omit these important industries altogether, data was taken from the Census Bulletin, reduced to the equivalent quantity board measure, of forest material necessary to manufacture them and compiled into tables comparable with those of the foregoing report. The statistics following, therefore, are the result of computation, while the tables of the report are a tabulation of data furnished by manufacturers. The distinction accounts for the separation of the copied information and its presentation in the supplemental chapter.
SLACK COOPERAGE
Table 28 below represents the quantity of material used for the manufacture of staves and headings for slack barrels as reported by the Virginia manufacturers for 1909. The average cost of the raw material does not appear in the Census Bulletin. The prices given were taken from reports of a few Virginia manufacturers incidentally collected by the Forest Service agents during the field work in con- nection with the wood using industry study.
TABLE 28.— SLACK COOPERAGE.
KINDS |
Quantity |
Equivalent total quantity of raw material required Feet B. M. |
Average price per M feet in bolt form |
Total Cost |
Staves |
199 822 000 |
158 400 000 |
||
Heading (sets) . |
9 686 000 |
95 4Qo 000 |
||
Total |
253 800 000 |
$6 95 |
$1 737 500 00 |
|
In comparing the quantity of material used by the slack cooperage manufacturers with the other industries of Virginia listed in Table 3, it stands third in importance. Red gum, loblolly pine, white pine, shortleaf pine, cotton gum, chestnut, oak, cotton wood and yellow pop- lar, were the woods used. It will be noted that the hoop material is not given. The number manufactured, compared
OF VIRGINIA
with other States, was so few, that the Bureau of Census did not list the Virginia hoops separately. Soft elm, slipperv elm, red gum, and white oak, probably in the order named, were the woods which met the small demand of the hoop manufacturers.
TIGHT COOPERAGE STOCK
The Virginia manufacturers reported making only sawed staves and heading for tight barrels in 1909. The 1,899,000 staves and the 445,676 sets of heading which these manufacturers turned out required more than 16,000,000 feet of material purchased in bolt form to make them. Oak, principally wihite oak, met more than three quarters of the demand. Among the other woods used were red gum, ash, and cypress, and a few miscellaneous woods reported only in small quan- tities. Virginia tight staves were reported sold at an average of more than $20.00 per thousand, and heading at a little over 10^ cents per set.
TABLE 29.— TIGHT COOPERAGE.
KINDS |
Quantity |
Equivalent total quantity of raw material required Feet B. M. |
Average price per M feet in bolt form |
Total Cost |
Staves |
1 899 000 |
7,592,400 |
||
Heading (sets) |
445 676 |
8 483 992 |
||
Total |
16 076 392 |
$15 20 |
$244 355 00 |
|
PULPWOOD
The quantity of wood consumed for making paper pulp in Vir- ginia according to 1909 figures makes this industry fifth in importance among the wood using industries of the State. Nearly 89,000,000 feet of wood was required and was purchased in terms of cords. Con- siderably over half of the total consumption was spruce, the next im- portant wood was poplar. Pine and miscellaneous woods were re- ported only in limited quantities.
TABLE 30.— PULPWOOD.
KINDS |
i Quantity Cords |
Equivalent total quantity of raw material required Feet B. M. |
Average price per M feet in bolt form |
Total Cost |
46 089 |
49 776 120 |
|||
30 468 |
32 904 440 |
|||
5 638 |
6 089 040 |
|||
All others |
52 |
56,160 |
||
88,825,760 |
|
$68.880.00 |
||
WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES
THE AGGREGATE CONSUMPTION OF WOOD
The total amount of wood consumed in manufacture by all classes of factories in Virginia is set forth in Table 31. The quantity and cost of material as given in the tables for making tight cooperage slock, slack cooperage stock and paper pulp are added to similar items of Table 3, w.hidi gives the total of the twenty-four industries of the preceding report. The results are as follows:
TABLE 31.— TOTAL CONSUMPTION OF WOOD.
Quantity Feet B. M. |
Average price Feet B. M. |
Total Cost |
|
Total consumption of 24 industries. Table 3 Slack cooperage stock |
894,442,000 253 800 000 |
$15.00 6 95 |
$13,420,921.99 1 737 500 00 |
16 076 000 |
15 20 |
244 355 00 |
|
Pulpwoocl |
88 826 000 |
7 88 |
68 880 00 |
Totals |
1 253 144 000 |
$12 34 |
$15 471 656 99 |
APPENDIX.
0$ VIRGINIA
PRODUCTION OF FOREST PRODUCTS
The foregoing report deals with the quantity of wood from which varions commodities are made. The appendix on the other hand concerns the quantity of rough forest products manufactured in Vir- ginia. The former is based on the consumption of wood, the latter presents information from the view point of production. The figures 'given in the following tables are an exact copy of Bulletin No. 10 of the Bureau of Census to the extent to which it refers to Virginia. They include statistics separately of the production of lumber, veneer, and laths and shingles, and are appended herewith merely for the convenience of the reader who may not have a copy of the Census Bulletin at hand. Tables covering the cross-ties and wire poles were necessarily omitted, because statistics given in the Census Bulletin concerning their production were not presented according to States.
LUMBER
Table A presents statistics for the Virginia lumber cut according to species in quantity and total cost.
TABLE "A"— PRODUCTION OF ROUGH LUMBER.
KINDS OF WOOD |
. Quantity feet B. M. |
Total Cost |
Yellow pine |
1,221,691 |
$14,330,435 |
Oak |
387,937 |
5,698,795 |
Yellow poplar |
114,503 |
2,622,119 |
White pine .... . . |
96,061 |
1,262,242 |
79 672 |
1,097,083 |
|
Chestnut . . . . . |
67,996 |
945,824 |
Hemlock |
42,359 |
551.514 |
Tupelo . |
20,942 |
215,493 |
14,907 |
380,723 |
|
Red gum . . . . |
13,760 |
159,616 |
9,658 |
176.452 |
|
Maple |
6,104 |
73,919 |
Ash |
5,590 |
102,241 |
Hickory |
5 528 |
88,946 |
Walnut |
2,308 |
77,618 |
Beech |
2,238 |
25,357 |
980 |
10.692 |
|
Birch |
843 |
14,862 |
254 |
2,504 |
|
Elm |
244 |
3,177 |
Cherry |
220 |
7,935 |
All others |
2,478 |
68,674 |
Total |
2.096,273 |
$27,916,223 |
VENEER
Table B shows the 1909 output of veneer in Virginia. It was practically all rotary cut, ranging in thickness from 5-16 to 1-20 of an inch. More red gum was used than twice the amount of ten other woods. Cotton gum, yellow pine, and yellow poplar, in the order
WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES OF VIRGINIA
named, were next to red gum, according to quantity. These woods were cut mostly into cheap veneers used for making veneer boxes, baskets, built-up lumber, panels, and hidden work of furniture.
TABLE "B" —PRODUCTION OF VENEER.
KINDS OF WOOD |
Quantity, 1000 Feet Log Scale |
14 339 000 |
|
'J, 786 000 |
|
1 S13 000 |
|
1 412 000 |
|
Red Oak |
1 047 000 |
White Oak |
88 000 |
Chectnut . " |
79 000 |
Ash |
29 000 |
Maple |
10 000 |
Walnut |
6 000 |
Total |
21 609 000 |
LATHS AND SHINGLES
Table C shows the number of laths and shingles produced an- nually in Virginia, and their equivalent in board feet. A list of the woods for making them can not accurately be given as they do not appear in the Census Report. A large per cent of the laths, however, were probably from yellow pine, white pine, spruce, and yellow poplar, while the shingles were cut principally from cypress and white cedar.
TABLE "C"— PRODUCTION OF LATH AND SHINGLES.
PRODUCTS |
Quantity |
Equivalent Total Feet Board Measure |
Average Cost Per 1,000 Feet , |
Total Cost |
Lath |
127 555 000 |
42 449,000 |
$934 365 00 |
|
Shingles |
39 172 000 |
4 230 576 |
165 636 00 |
|
46 679 576 |
f 1 100 001 00 |
|||
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY