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FORESTRY PAMPHLETS

COLORADO
Vol. II

Evergreens of Colorado. By Burton 0.

Longyear, State Forester. 1914*
First Biennial Report of the State

Forester of the State of Colarado.

1912.
Second Biennial Report of the State

Forester of the ttate of Colorado.

1914.

" D

Lib.

forestry

V

The
Evergreens of Colorado

By BURTON O. LONGYEAR
STATE FORESTER

p*of*e*inr opoiviSioN of

i ITKY

COLLEGE OF A. AGRICULTURE

OFCAU

PUBLICATION NO. 1

FORT COLLINS, COLORADO

1914

338446

THE EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

By BURTON O. LONGYEAR

HEN the first settlers in Colorado staked their claims along
the streams that issue from the canyons in the foothills or
penetrated the mountain fastnesses in search of grazing land,
they found vast forests of evergreen trees clothing the rugged
mountain sides and reaching down the gulches to the very
border of the plains. The development of this country during
the past fifty years, however, has worked great changes in
these forests. The laying of railways, the construction of bridges, the
development of mining and the building of houses, fences and telephone
lines, have all made their legitimate demands upon them. But other
forces of purely destructive character have also been at work. Insect
pests have killed a great many trees and led the way for the attacks of
such fungi as bring about the decay of timber. Storms of wind, wet
snow or sleet have sometimes uprooted the trees or crushed them to
the earth.

The heaviest toll, however, that has been levied upon our forests in
Colorado has been here, as elsewhere, by forest fires. These have either
consumed the timber, often laying bare the very rock, or licked the
foliage from the trees and left their naked trunks to slowly whiten in
the sunshine and storms of the years that have followed. Some of the
older residents of our state tell of forest fires that burned for forty days
without any attempt being made to check them. Forest fires in the
mountains were to be expected with the coming of dry weather and as
timber was more plentiful than labor, these fires were free to burn them-
selves out. Today much of the magnificence of our mountin scenery is
sadly marred by the ghastly pole patches which mark the location of
these fires where the bare rocks often show like tombstones to com-
memorate the disaster.

In spite of all these drains upon our forest resources, the forests of
pine and cedar, of spruce and fir which remain are still the glory of our
mountains in Colorado. New generations of trees, moreover, are coming
up in many cases to take the place of those that have disappeared and
some future period will see again perhaps the evergreen mantle spread
over the scars that now appear. Moreover, the real worth of our forests
in this country is now being recognized as never before and State and
Nation are uniting their efforts to protect and to utilize in more con-
servative ways the timber that yet remains. No more are fires allowed
to burn and spread through the forests, that have required centuries to
grow, without heroic efforts being made to check them. Throughout
every part of our forest lands today are men whose duties are concerned
with the control of the worst enemy of the forest, the fires. The people
who visit the mountains for pleasure and recreation, too, are becoming
imbued with the true sentiment of forestry so that the menace to our
woodlands from this source is being lessened year by year. It is now

< ' , • « * * • • •

J EVERbVcEENS 'OF COLORADO

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO 5

common knowledge that campfires should be put out instead of being left
to jeopardise the timber and every true sportsman and woodsman can
but take pride in practicing such methods in the mountains as shall not
endanger the forests, in whose shelter lie the pleasures that he seeks.

There are richer pastures, however, to be gained from contact with
the forests than to make them merely a place in which to hunt or fish
or camp. The trees which compose the forests are themselves worthy of
our acquaintance. To know the different species by sight or to be able
to identify them through careful study is an accomplishment that can
but deepen the joy of an outing in the forests of our mountains through
the feeling of intimacy and friendliness which comes to us from the trees.

In the following pages such descriptions of our native evergreens
are given as should enable almost anyone to learn their names and char-
acteristics. This work is not prepared as a scientific treatise of the
subject, but is intended primarily to enable the person without a technical
knowledge of botany to become familiar with our trees and thus gain
that sympathetic attitude toward them which usually accompanies such
knowledge.

THE EVERGREENS

Our true forests in Colorado are composed entirely of trees com-
monly called Evergreens. By this term we are accustomed to think of
such trees as the pines, spruces, cedars, firs, and other of similar botanical
characters, but in the southern and tropical forests are to be found trees
of widely different characters from these except that they also retain
green foliage the year around and in this respect they too are Evergreens.
The native evergreen trees of our state, however, all belong to one great
and important family, the Coniferae or Pine Family. Most of the mem-
bers of this family are trees in stature, comparatively few being shrubs.
Among lumbermen they are classed as soft woods, although the hardest
woods among them are much harder than some of the so-called hard-
woods among the broad-leaf trees. With very few exceptions, the foliage
of the trees in the Pine family consists of needle, or awl, or scale-shaped
leaves which remain on the twigs during several years, so that the trees
are never without living foliage. Exceptions to this rule are found in
the bald cypress of the southern states, in the larches of the north and
in the Ginkgo or maidenhair fern tree of Japan. But as none of these
trees are native to Colorado, all of our trees of the Pine family are true
evergreens.

Another characteristic of the trees in this family is the resinous
juice or sap which they possess, and which exudes especially from
wounds made in the bark and sap wood of the branches or trunks. This
is well illustrated in the blazing of pine or spruce trees in which case
the pitch which oozes out, gradually hardens on exposure to the air and
forms the material sometimes used as chewing gum.

The process of turpentine orcharding as practiced in the southern
states consists in cutting box-like cavities into the sides of the trunks
of certain species of pines and wounding the bark and sapwood for

i-:vi-:iMJiiKENs or COLORADO

FiK. 2. I'.ristlc coin- I'inc. ii. (Ii-ovc on Pike's IV;ik. 1>. Small
showing the whitish h;ii'k. «•. Ti'uiik of an old tree. «|. ("ones and
-s, \ i...

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO 7

some distance above them. The crude turpentine or pitch runs down
into these cups from which it is dipped out when a sufficient quantity
has collected. By a process of distillation, this pitch gives off the spirits
of turpentine, which is volatile, while the common resin or rosin of
commerce is left behind as a solid residue. The wood of some of our
pines often becomes nearly or quite saturated with its own pitch and in
this condition possesses great durability. The so-called pitch posts are
formed in this way and command a high price as compared with the
common type of fence posts.

The most distinctive characters of the members of the Coniferae,
however, are found in the flowers and fruits which they bear. The
flowers are of two kinds, staminate and pistillate. The staminate flowers
are those which produce the pollen. They appear in spring^ aboul the
time that the new foliage pushes out, and are borne in small catkins or
cone-like clusters near the ends of the twigs. Each cluster of stamen-
flowers usually consists of numerous small stamens crowded together
upon a short axis which they completely hide. 'In some species these
staminate cones are about one-half or two-thirds of an inch long and
contain a hundred or more stamens, while in others they are much
smaller and have but few stamens. Each stamen of the cluster con-
sists of a minute double sac filled with the pollen in the form of a yellow-
ish powder. As the tree comes into bloom each little stamen sac splits
open in such a way that the pollen is allowed to sift out into the air.
When in this condition, a light breeze is sufficient to waft the pollen
powder away continuously, while a sudden gust of wind will shake it
out in visible quantity in appearance like sulphur dust. In regions where
large forests of pine occur, this pollen dust is often so abundant, during
the blossoming period, as to lend the impression that a shower of sulphur
has occurred. When seen under the high power of a microscope, the
pollen is found to consist of little grains each of which is composed of
three rounded cells. Two of these cells are air sacs and serve to buoy up
the grains in the air, while they are being wafted along. The shedding
of pollen usually lasts but a few days after which the staminate flower
clusters dry up and fall off, hence are not commonly noticed except bj
the unusually observant person.

The pistillate cones, which are later to bear the seeds, are usually
produced at the ends of very short lateral branches in the upper part of
the tree. Each cone consists of a little axis covered with flattened scales.
These little scales differ in shape considerably in different species, es-
pecially when the cone is mature, and furnish some of the characters by
which the species may be distinguished. Each scale represents a pistil,
that part of a flower which bears the seed. At the base of each pistil,
upon its upper side, are two minute rounded bodies called ovules. These
are the rudimentary seeds and instead of being enclosed by the pistil, as
in most other families of plants, in the Coniferae or pine family, they
are naked or exposed while the tree is in bloom. During the period of
blooming, the pistillate flower-cones stand erect upon the twigs which
bear them, with the tips of the scales spread outward. Some of the

: v KI:< ; KKKNS <>r COLOIIADO

nk,

'•i1 1'iin-. n. Tn-c with n i n.--i in-h li'inik. l>. An old
•I iHM-illcs, \'._.. il. Muturc. opfii coiK1. ••. Si'cds.

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO 9

pollen grains, with which the air is at this time filled, are caught upon
these scales and slip downward, thus coming in contact with the ovules
at the base. This constitutes the process of pollination. Soon after
the pistillate cones have been pollinated, the pistil scales close together
tightly to await the process of fertilization. Fertilization in the mem-
bers of the pine family is similar to that in other plants, except that it
is much slower in some of them. During this process, the pollen grains
that have come in contact with the ovules each send out a microscopic
tube which finds its way through a minute opening in the coat of the
ovule. In this way the cell contents of the pollen grain is enabled to
unite with the contents of an egg cell within the ovule. From this union
an embryo plant is formed, and the ovule develops into a seed.

In the spruces and firs the cones are full grown and their seeds are
mature at the end of the first season after blooming. But in the pines
the cones make but little growth during the first season, but grow
rapidly during the second summer and mature their seeds at the close of
the second season after blooming.

In the junipers the pistillate scales, which are few in number, be-
come fleshy and grown together as they mature and thus form the berry-
like fruits characteristic of these plants.

The pine family in Colorado contains at least thirteen species which
grow to the stature of trees, while two more are merely shrubs. These
are grouped into five subdivisions or genera which may be distinguished
from each other by the characters given in the following key.

Coniferae— PINE FAMILY.
Key to the Genera Found in Colorado

I. Foliage leaves needle-shaped, single or in bundles of two to five; fruit
a dry, scaly cone; seeds usually furnished with a thin wing.

1. Needles (leaves) in tufts or bundles of two to five, surrounded at
the base by a small sheath of thin scales and placed just above a
little scale-like leaf or bract; scales of the mature cones thick,
hard and woody.

1. Genus Pinus — The Pines.

2. Needles (leaves) single, without a sheath at the base, not seated
just above a bract; scales of the mature cones thin, leathery or
papery.

A. Needles (leaves) in our species stiff and four-angled, each
one jointed to a small, hard, brownish, stem-like base;
branchlets from which the leaves have fallen rough with the
leaf-bases which remain after the upper part has fallen off;
mature cones hanging or pendulous, the scales persistent.

2. Genus Picea — The Spruces.

B. Needles (leaves) flat, falling entirely away and leaving
small rounded scars on the branchlets, which are quite

smooth after the needles have fallen.

a Needles \\iih narrowed stalk-like bast', needle-sears
small ami elliptical across tlie branchlets; mature cones
hanging or pendulous. 1'eathered with three-pointed,
projecting bracts, the scales persistent.

::. (Ji nils I'xi-mlntxitiitt Tin- hou.iilas Firs.

Needles not much narrowed at the base, sears quite
large, circular in outline: mature cones erect, green,
dark purple or blackish, the scales falling separately
fr< >ni the axis.

C.i-iius Ahirn Tlif Malsani Firs.

II. Foliage l»a\es a u 1-sha ped or scale-shaped, in the latter case entirely
covering the twigs; fruit berry-like, more or less juicy; seeds hard
and bony, without a thin wing.

7,. (J.'inis .1, ',,;/>• r«.x The .Junipers jiinl CVdars.

i. <;I:M s /'/////* TIII: PINKS.

The pint's form the most important group among the lumber produc-
ing trees. As indicated in the key, they are most easily recogni/ed among
the other members of the Cnnifi rd< by ha\ ing their needles in bundles of
to Ihe with a short sheath at the base. This sheath is composed of
a number of thin, translucent scales attached to a very short stem. This
littb- stem represents a very short branch which bears the bundle of
needles at its apex. This can be easily seen by pulling one of the
bundles of needles from a twig of a pine tree when the little stem,
together with the sheath, comes off with it. Kach of these little branches,
moreover, grows in the angle or axil of a small bract or scale-like leal'
on the twig, which is the normal place for a branch to stand. The
nes of staminate (lowers grow in crowded clusters around the base
ew growth of the season and after they have dried up and fallen
hey leave a bare space on this part of the branch. The pistillate
ones occur singly or in whorls of two to three around the base
present season's growth. They are small and inconspicuous at
d are easily overlooked. After the blossoming period, they de-
very slowly and ha\e only about doubled in size by the end of the
I'urin:,' the second spring, however, they grow rapidly and
sixe i y midsummer, although they retain their green color until
. Toward the close of autumn the color has changed to a
nd the cone scales begin to dry and spread apart. The
are now mature, loosen and begin to drop out. the wind
for many rods from the parent tree. It is possible in some
ns oi three different ages upon the same twig: first those
wering stage, second those which are maturing the seeds,
v, hicli ha\e lost their seeds but still cling to the branch.
of all the pines are thick, hard and woody and in some
ipped with a sharp, curved prickle or spine. Two seeds are
at the base of each scale. The wing of the seed is not
the seed, hut is derived from the upper part of the scale

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

to which the seeds are attached. When the seeds reach the ground and
become wet with dew or rain, the wings readily separate from them and
leave them to germinate quietly as conditions may favor. Five species
of pines are native to the foothills and mountains of Colorado.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OP PINUS IN COLORADO

I. Needles, five in a bundle.

A. Scales of the cones tipped with curved prickles.

1. Pinus aristata.

B. Scales of the cones without prickles.

2. Pinus flcxilis.

II. Needles, two or three in a bundle.

A. Needles two and three in a bundle, 3 to 6 inches long.

3. Pinus ponderosa scopulorum.

B. Needles usually two in a bundle, seldom over 2 y2 inches long.

a. Needles 1^4 to 2% inches long; seeds small, winged.

4. Pinus contorta murrayana.

b. Needles % to 1% inches long; seeds large, apparently
wingless.

5. Pinus editUs.

BRISTLE-CONE PINE, HICKORY PINE, FOXTAIL PINE

Pinus aristata Kiigelm.

The bristle-cone pine is a tree of the high altitudes in the mountains
of Central and Southern Colorado, in Utah, Nevada, and in Southern
California and Arizona. It is a small or medium sized tree of rather
bushy habit, which seldom reaches a height of fifty feet, and with a short,
branched trunk one to three feet in thickness. The bark on young trees
is smooth and greyish white, but on old trunks it becomes broken into
flat ridges covered with small scales of a dark brownish grey color. The
needles are short and are borne in bundles of five. They are crowded
along the branchlets in such a manner as to produce an elongated brush-
like appearance, from which is derived the common name of ''foxtail
pine." The cones are about three inches long and each scale is tipped
with a slender, curved bristle. The wood, which is soft and light with
brownish colored heart wood, is possessed of but little strength and is
seldom used except occasionally for mine timbers and fuel.

In Colorado this tree is only occasionally met with. It grows in
somewhat open groves of rather limited extent and is of but little im-
portance either as a lumber tree or for planting. Above Manitou, on the
slopes of Pikes Peak, are to be found a few small groves of this pine.
In the San Juan Forest of Southern Colorado it occurs in sufficiently large
areas to be cut for railway ties to a limited extent.

Tin- limner pin*- occurs almost throughout the Rocky .Mountain

-ion in ill.- higher elevations, also in Western California on the western

op.~ ot til.- Sierre \e\ada raime. In Colorado it commonly i;rows

t -.\ceii Mi" elevations of 7, .".on and 1 l,u<io feet. It is the piiu1 which one

mmonly mi'.'is w}i«-n approaching timber line and is almost sure

IK- found upon exposed, wind-swept slopes and ridges at !),()()() to

It dci-ivcs its name from the lon^ lateral branches whicth

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO 13

are so flexible as to enable them to bend readily without breaking. In
general it closely resembles the bristle-cone pine, both in its altitudinal
range and in habit of growth. It commonly possesses the same bushy
form and branching trunk as the foregoing species, although occasional
specimens may be found which possess a tall, straight, unbranched trunk.
It is much more abundant in this state and reaches a greater size than
the bristle-cone pine. The needles of this pine are also borne in bundles
of five, but are about one-half longer than those of the bristle-cone pine
and instead of remaining on the branchlet for twelve to fifteen years as
in that species, in the limber pine they remain only from three to five
years. This gives the branches the appearance of being covered with
short tufts of needles at the ends of the twigs.

In this pine the sheath of each bundle of needles is composed of long,
thin scales which fall away almost before the foliage has reached full
size. Thus in looking at the bundles of needles, the sheath is apparently
wanting except during the early part of the season, when the new growth
is just coming out. The cones are commonly three to five inches in
length, although in some parts of the range of this tree, they are much
larger than this. The cone scales are broadly oval and are entirely des-
titute of prickles. This feature readily distinguishes the limber pine
from the bristle-cone pine. The seeds are about one-third of an inch in
length and ordinarily are wingless.

The bark of young stems and branches is light grey or silvery white.
On old trunks it reaches a thickness of one to two inches and is of a
blackish brown color. In such cases, it is broken into broad ridges by
deep fissures which are often crossed by smaller fissures which separate
the ridges into rectangular plates covered by small scales. The wood is
rather light, soft, fine grained, with pale yellow sap wood and reddish
heart wood. Commercially this tree is of relatively little importance in
this state. It is occasionally used in the manufacture of lumber, mine
posts, railway ties and for fuel. Occasional specimens may be found which
possess straight, unbranched trunks, suitable for posts or for sawn lumber.

3. ROCK PINE, ROCKY MOUNTAIN YELLOW PINE, BULL PINE
Pin us pondcrosa scorpulorum Engelm.

This is the Rocky Mountain form of Pinus ponderosa, commonly
known as bull pine and western yellow pine, a tree which extends from
the western Rocky Mountain region to the Pacific slope and from British
Columbia to western Texas and Mexico. It is the common pine of the
foothills and lower mountain slopes in Eastern Colorado. In some places,
for example along the Divide which extends eastward for many miles
between Denver and Colorado Springs, this pine reaches well into the
plains region. West of the Continental Divide the yellow pine occurs
principally in the southwestern quarter of the State, where it reaches its
best development as a lumber tree. Among the mountains, the rock pine
commonly leaves off at an altitude of about 8,500 feet, although occasional

14

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

Fig-. 5. Yellow Pine. Mature tree, open-grown type, 50 feet tall, trunk
25 inches in diameter.

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO 15

specimens may be found much higher than this. It is capable of growing
in drier situations than most of our other conifers, and is therefore the
common type of tree found upon southern and western slopes. Upon dry
and rocky ridges this pine grows in low rounded form with short, stocky
trunk, but when more favorably situated as to soil and moisture, it
reaches a height of 80 to 100 feet and a trunk diameter of two to four
feet. In such cases, the trunk loses its lower limbs in early age and
forms clear trunks adapted to the better class of lumber. The needles
are dark green in color and are borne in bundles of two to three on the
same twig. Their length is from three to six inches.

The bark on trees of moderate age is broken into rounded ridges,
covered with small brownish or nearly black scales. In this condition,
the tree is often known as Black Jack among lumbermen. In trees that
have reached two feet in diameter, the bark usually divides into broad
plates which extend up and down the trunk and are covered with cinna-
mon red scales, due to the disappearing of the outermost layers. Under
such conditions, the bark acquires a thickness of from one to three inches.
The sap wood is nearly white, while the heart wood takes on a light red
color. It is heavy and strong, but differs much in quality and is apt to
be quite knotty unless sawn from very large clear trunks. The botanical
name, ponderosa, refers to the great size and heavy weight of this timber.

The cones in our region are usually 2 % to 3 inches in length and
the thick, hard scales are tipped with slender prickles, which become
easily broken off after the cones have opened to discharge the seeds.
The seeds are about one-quarter inch long with wings about one inch in
length. The seeds germinate readily and the seedlings are able to with-
stand the direct sunlight, making this one of the easiest of our native
evergreens to raise from seed. This is our most important native lumber
tree in Colorado and produces the best quality of lumber in the matter
of strength and durability. While it is still common throughout the
eastern foothills of the state, the most extensive forests of this tree were
at one time to be found in the southwestern portion of the state in the
Mesa Verde region where extensive lumbering operations have been
carried on. Much of this cut-over land is now being reforested, however,
by a natural growth of this tree.

4. LODGE POLE PINE, WHITE PINE.
contort a mnrrat/an(t Engelm.

The lodge pole pine, also improperly called white pine, derives its
name from the use which has been made of it by the Indians in the build-
ing of their tepees. Its distribution is quite general throughout the
Rocky Mountain region from Northern British Columbia to Northern
Arizona and New Mexico and westward to the mountains of Oregon and
Northern California. In Colorado, north of the San Luis Valley, it is
very generally distributed throughout the Rocky Mountains at elevations
between 8,500 and 10,000 feet altitude. It usually begins a little lower
down than where the Rock Pine leaves off, so that in ascending the

16

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

Fig. 6. Yellow Pine. a. Immature fourteen-inch trunk, "blackjack"
type. b. Cones and needles, x%. c. Mature, open cone, x%. d.
Dwarfed specimen, 40 years old, growing from crack in rock.

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

17

mountain slopes these two species are
often found in mixed growths. At
9,000 to 9,500 feet, however, the lodge
pole pine is usually found in nearly
pure stands and in such cases forms
the densest forests to be found in our
mountains. The young growth of lodge
pole pine is often so dense that it is
almost impossible for a person to crowd
his way through.

This tree is less able to stand
drought conditions than the Rock Pine
and is consequently found in its most
vigorous growth on northern and east-
ern slopes where the moisture condi-
tions are more favorable. It is charac-
terized by tall, slender, straight trunks
with the crown of foliage carried main-
ly at the top. In our region, the lodge
pole pine seldom grows to a height of
more than 70 or 80 feet with a trunk
diameter of from 12 to 20 inches.

The needles are commonly 2 to
2 1/2 inches in length and are borne in
bundles of two. They are a lighter
green than those of tne rock pine, so
that forests of this tree present yellow-
ish green masses of foliage. The bark
on young specimens is thin and covered
with small, greyish scales. As the tree
becomes older, these scales disappear,
leaving the bark of a light orange or
reddish brown color. Tlie bark even
on large trees is seldom over a quarter
inch in thickness, although on veteran
trees of great age, it may become some-
what ridged and from a third to half
an inch in thickness at the base. It is
always much thinner than that in the
rock pine. The wood is light, soft,
light yellow or nearly white in color,
and lacking in durability. The cones
are usually a little shorter than the

7*38-]h1acthrteruYnek!OW Pine' needles and are borne in clusters of 2
or 3 surrounding the 'branch. Many of the cones remain closed and at-
tached to the limbs for many years, so that they occasionally become
entirely overgrown by the enlarging of the stem. Sometimes these cones
are exposed when the trunk is split or sawn, 75 or 100 years after they
were produced. These closed cones are usually somewhat curved and

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

Fig. 8. Yellow Pine. a. Bundles of needles, two and three in bundle.
b. Cross-section of needles, xlO. c. Seeds, xl.

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO 19

are more composed of numerous thick, hard scales each tipped with a
slender prickle. A strong heat, such as that produced by a light forest
fire, will cause these "tight cones" to open and allow the seeds to fall
out. As the seeds may retain their vitality in these cones sometimes
for 20 years, a quick forest fire often brings about a generous reseeding
of the burned area by causing these closed cones to open.

While the wood of the lodge pole pine is of inferior quality, it is
quite extensively used for railway ties, mine timbers, telephone poles,
fence posts and to some extent for sawn lumber. Its durability can be
greatly increased by treating with some timber preservative and its use-
fulness extended for all purposes where it is used in contact with the soil.

5. THE PINYON PINE.
/'in us editlis Engelm.

The pinyon pine occurs chiefly at moderate elevations, forming scat-
tered groves or open forests, frequently mixed with Western Red Cedar
among the eastern and western foothills of the Rocky Mountains of Colo-
rado, in southwestern Wyoming and western Texas and Arizona. It may
be looked for between elevations of 4,000 and 9,000 feet, but is most com-
mon at altitudes of about 5,000 to 7,000 feet. It is a tree of small or
medium size with compact rounded crown, which extends nearly to the
base of the trunk. It rarely exceeds 20 to 30 feet in height, with a trunk
diameter of 1 to 2 feet. The needles are in bundles of 2, occasionally
3, and are about 1 inch in length. The trunk usually tapers rapidly up-
ward and is frequently branched. The bark is from a half to three-
quarters of an inch in thickness on old trees and is irregularly divided
into ridges covered with small, blackish brown scales.

The wood is light, soft, brittle and light brown in color. The
cones are nearly spherical in form and about equal in length to the
needles. The few scales of which they are composed are without
prickles. The seeds are larger than those of any other of our pines.
They are usually about half an inch in length or the size of ordinary
field teans and are wingless when separated from the scales of the cone.
The wood of the pinyon pine is seldom used for lumber on account of
the short, knotty trunks. It has been extensively used, however, for
fuel and the manufacture of charcoal and to some extent for fence posts.
The seeds have been extensively collected by the Indians who made use
of them for food, and they are still a common article to be found at
confectioners' stands.

2. GENUS Picea— THE SPRUCES.

The spruces are mostly tall growing trees with conical or pyramidal
crowns and tapering trunks when grown in the open. They are most
readily distinguished from the pines by the needles, which are single and
possessed of a very short, stalk-like portion at the base. In the case of
needles which are one year old, this stalk-like base is brown in color
and is apparently jointed to the green upper part of the needle. These

I:VI-:I:C,KI-:I-:XS OF COI.OILXDO

little stalks remain on the branches for several years after the green
portion of the needle has fallen off. This gives the branchlets a very
rough appearance after the needles have fallen, which readily serves to
distinguish the spruces from the firs. In our species, the needles are
four-angled in cross section and end in sharp pointed tips. The pistillate
tiower cones are produced at the ends of small lateral branches. They
are usually somewhat larger than in the pines and are dark brownish
purple. The staminate flower cones, instead of being crowded together

in dense masses around
the new growth, are scat-
tered along the branchlets
and are usually somewhat
larger and looser than
those of the pines. The
seed-bearing cones of the
spruces require but one
season in which to mature
their seeds. During the
blossoming period t h e y
point upward, but after
being pollinated and fer-
tilized, the cones become
pendulous or hanging and
remain in this position as
long as they are attached
to the tree. In some cases,
as in the E n g e 1 m a n n
spruce, the cones may be
borne in sue h crowded
clusters that some of them
are forced to point up-
ward. They usually open
in late autumn or early

I'ino. Douse growth fol-
lowing ;i lores? tiro. winter tor the discharge

of the seeds. The seeds are much smaller than in any of the pines and
each one is furnished with a long thin wing. The spruces occur mostly
in moist soil, either along streams and gulches or on the northern and
eastern mountain slopes. They furnish some of our most ornamental
evergreen trees and are useful in the formation of hedges, wind breaks
and shelter belts. There are but two species of spruces native to the
mountains of Colorado.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF PICEA IN COLORADO

I. Needles very stiff and sharp pointed; surface of the twig among the

needles of the new growth smooth and free from fine hairs; mature
cones L' to '.', inches long. 1. /'/«;<•«, i>an-i/<i>t<t.

II. Needles less rigid and sharply pointed; surface of the twig among

the needles of the new growth finely pubescent or hairy; cones 1 to
2 inches long. 2. I'icca Enwlmanni.

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

21

BLUE SPRUCE, COLORADO BLUE
SPRUCE, SILVER SPRUCE.

Picca parry ana (Andree) Sarg.

This is one of the most admired
and widely known evergreens in the
world and is sometimes called the
most beautiful of the evergreens. It
is somewhat limited in range, being
found in Colorado and Eastern Utah
and extending northward into Wyo-
ming. It seldom forms a forest, but
commonly grows as scattered indi-
viduals in groups or small groves
along the streams in the mountains.
It is most commonly found between
altitudes of 7,000 and 9,000 feet. Ma-
ture trees may reach a height of 75
to 100 feet with a trunk 1 to 2 feet
in diameter. The young trees are
often very symmetrical in form, es-
pecially when growing in the open
and it is during this period that they
are most beautiful and desirable for
landscape gardening. The crowns of
very old trees frequently become
quite ragged and open and the color
of the foliage less pleasing than in
youth. The needles on different in-
dividual trees may vary widely in
color from clear, bright green to sil-
very greenish blue. The new growth
is more distinctly bluisn or silvery
than in the older foliage, so that this
tree is most striking in appearance
just after the new foliage has reach-
ed its full growth in midsummer.
This silvery appearance is due to a
fine, powdery substance which is
produced on the surface of the
needles and which may be largely
removed by rubbing them between the
fingers. The branches of the blue
spruce commonly grow with a slight
upward angle, although occasional
specimens may be found in which the
branches have a drooping or weeping
character. The bark on young trees
soon becomes rough and broken into

Fig-. 10.

Lodgepole Pine,
mature tree.

small oblong scales and on old trunks it is divided into lengthwise
ridgt . s. a character which enables a person to distinguish this tree from
the Kngelmann spruce.

The wood is soft, nearly white, weak and of light weight and is
only occasionally used for lumber and fuel. The mature cones of the
blue spruce are usually about three inches in length and of a pale
brownish or whitish tan color. The scales are numerous and each one
is somewhat prolonged into a narrowed tip. The blue spruce is extensive-
ly planted for ornament. Well grown specimens, especially when twenty-
five or thirty years of age, are beautiful treees. but in older age, there is
a tendency for the lower branches to die off and leave this part of the
tree somewhat ragged. For landscape gardening purposes, the bluest
specimens are selected by the nurserymen, as the price which this tree
commands is largely in proportion to the blueness of the foliage. Seed
of this species has been introduced into Europe and some of the finest

immature trunk, h. TV
I \vo ;i n<l t li !•<•(• VCM rs old.

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

23

specimens are now
grown in the nur-
series of Holland.
Roster's blue
spruce is a partic-
ularly fine form
with strongly sil-
vered foliage ob-
tained by selection
from among a
large number of
seedlings. This
form of the blue
spruce is propa-
gated by grafting
upon the seedlings
of the ordinary
type. The blue
spruce is well
adapted to the for-
mation of hedges
and wind breaks
and when used for
the former pur-
pose, it makes a
practically impas-
sable hedge even
for smaller ani-
mals on account
of the stiff, ex-
tremely sharp
needles. The blue
spruce is at its
Fig-. 12. Lodg-epole pine. a. Needles, two in each best onlv w h p n

bundle, x2. b. Cross- section of needle, xlO. c. Mature,

open cone. d. Closed or "tight" cone. e. Seeds, x 1. grown in a moist,

fertile soil and in full sunlight. When clothed in the new growth, some
of the well developed trees have the appearance of being frosted \yith
pale blue, at which season they are unexcelled in beauty among evergreen
trees.

2. THE ENGELMANN SPRUCE.
Picca cngelmnnni (Parry) Engelm.

This tree has a general range from the mountains of British Columbia
southward through the interior mountain ranges of the continent to
Northern New Mexico and Arizona. It reaches its greatest size and
beauty in the northern part of its range. In Colorado, it is the most
abundant of the true spruces and forms extensive forests on the upper

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

Fig. 13. Lodgepole Pine. Showing- a cone imbedded in log over sixty

years old.

slopes and along mountain streams between the altitudes of 8,500 to
timber line. At the upper limits of tree growth, the Engelmann spruce
sometimes forms spreading masses of scrubby growth, scarcely reaching
the height of an ordinary man. In form and general appearance, it
greatly resembles the blue spruce and in many specimens the foliage pos-
sesses the silvered appearance of that tree, especially in early age. In
very old trees, the crowns are apt to be somewhat less symmetrical than
in the blue spruce, although occasional forms are found which are nearly
perfect cones. Many of the so-called perfect trees to be found in the
canyons and different parts of the state are of this species. One partic-
ularly fine specimen which has usually been mistaken for the blue spruce
is to be found in Boulder Canyon. The needles are somewhat shorter as
a rule than those of the blue spruce and when grasped in the hand do not
present such intolerably sharp points as those of the blue spruce. This
is a common method of recognizing the two species in the nursery.

While the surface of young twigs in the blue spruce is always
entirely glabrous or free from hairs, the Engelmann spruce has the sur-
face of the young twigs covered with a very fine pubescence or growth
of minute hairs. This is one of the characters commonly used by the
botanist in recognizing the Engelmann spruce, although in some of the
higji altitude forms of this tree this character is greatly diminished or
nearly wanting. Usually, however, a hand lens will enable a person to
see a few hairs at the bases of the needles, especially near the terminal
buds.

The Engelmann spruce reaches a much larger size than the blue
spruce and under favorable conditions produces clean trunks three or
four feet in diameter. The bark on such trunks is dark reddish brown
and separates in the form of small rounded scales. In young trees these
scales are usually greyish in color externally and often separate from the
trunk in ragged patches. The bark seldom if ever becomes ridged or
furrowed as it does in the blue spruce and this is one of the most valuable
characters by which to distinguish large specimens of these two species.

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

25

The cones of the Engelraann spruce are usually about one and one-half
inches in length and composed of red-brown scales somewhat broader and
more rounded than those of the blue spruce. This is one of our most
valuable native lumber trees in Colorado. The wood is light, soft and
nearly white in color and while not very strong, it is extensively manu-
factured into native lumber, mine timbers and is used to some extent for
poles, posts and fuel. The bark is sometimes used in the tanning of
leather.

While this tree is not often planted for ornament, it is well adapted
to such use in this state and well selected specimens are nearly equal in
beauty to the blue spruce. It is not adapted, however, to dry situations,
for under such circumstances, the foliage is apt to take on a yellowish
color, which detracts much from its appearance.

3. GENUS Pseudotsuga — DOUGLAS FIR, DOUGLAS SPRUCE.

The name of this genus means "false hemlock," which is taken from
the partial resemblance which these trees bear to the hemlocks. They
are nearly intermediate, however, between the true spruces and the firs.
They are tall, stately evergreens with much the same form as the spruces,

Fig-. 14. Pinyon Pine. Aged tree 15 feet tall. Owl Canyon.

se trees in the fact that the needles, which are
1 apex, fall entirely from the branchlets and leave
small oval scars. In the
latter character they re-
semble the balsam firs,
although the leaf scars
are usually smaller and are
oval in shape across the
b r a n e h 1 e t . The cones
resemble those of the
spi uces in that they are
pendulous or hanging and
that they do not break up
when mature as in the firs.
The Douglas fir cones differ
from those of the spruces in
the presence of slender,
toothed bracts which project
from between the scales
giving the cones a feathered
appearance. This character
is so prominent that these
trees can be quite easily
recognized as far as the de-
tails of the cones are visible.
Only two species in this
genus occur in North Amer-
ica, one of which occurs in

Colorado.

(1 cone.

DOIXJLAS SPRTCK;, DOTGLAS FIR, RED FIR.

/'.vr udntxitfiti 111 iicroiKi Id (Kaf. ) Sndw.

This tree is known by a number of common names throughout its
range. It is a common tree in the hills and mountains of the greater
portion of the North west, from liritish Columbia and Alberta on the
north to Northern Mexico and Texas on the south. When young, it is a
tree of conical form with bright green foliage in which condition it re-
sembles the gn < n forms of the blue spruce. In age, the crown becomes
quite ragged and open and the branches have a tendency to droop some-
v. hat. It nadirs its greatest si/e in the moist climate near the coast of
the Pacific Northw<st and in the western foothills of the Cascade Moun-
tains, where it not infrequently reaches a height of 200 feet or more
\\itli a t ru nl-; sometimes ten to twelve feet in diameter. In that region
it grows remarkably straight and witli clear trunks suitable for masts and
spars of sailing vessels and for tall ilagstaffs. In the drier inland regions
it is seldom found growing to a height of more than 100 feet and with a
diameter of two or three feet.

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

27

The needles are usually about
one inch in length, flattened and
slightly grooved above and with
a prominent midrib on the under
surface. On lateral branchlets,
they have a tendency to spread
horizontally in such a way as to
form flattened masses of foliage.
The needles are narrowed at the
base in the form of a short stalk
which falls away with the upper
part of the needle, a character
which readily distinguishes this
tree from the spruces.

The bark on the trunks of
young trees is smooth and grey in
color. In older trees it becomes
broken into strong ridges, which
in large specimens may reach a
thickness of several inches. In
the Rocky Mountain form of this
tree, the bark on old trees is
deeply furrowed and of a light
brownish grey color. The sap
wood is yellowish in color, with
heart wood of a light red or some
times reddish yellow. It is vari-
able in density and quality in dif-
ferent trees and to some extent in
different parts of the same tree.

In the Pacific Coast range of
this tree, two varieties are distin-
guished by lumbermen: the red
fir and the yellow fir, depending
somewhat upon the quality of the
timber. In the former the wood
is coarse grained, dark colored
and is not considered as valuable
as in the yellow variety.

The cones of the Rocky Moun-
tain form of this tree are usually
about two or two and one-half
inches in length and are made up
of rather large broad scales, each
one accompanied by a projecting
three-pronged bract. The pres-
ence of these cones is one of the
easiest characters by which to dis-
tinguish this tree from the balsam

Fig-. 16.

Blue Spruce, 19-inch trunk
60 feet tall.

and the true spruces. The Douglas lir is quite extensively planted as

ornamental tree in the Kastern Tinted States and numerous forms or

ieties are in cultivation. It is a tree of rapid growth, especially when

ited in fertile, moist soil. It appears to be adapted, however, to

,\v in rather dry alkaline soils, but in such situations the growth is

lath rly slow. It is quite readily grown from seeds which are of good

winged and nearly triangular in form.

The Douglas lir is extensively used in this state under the name of

spruce and when obtained from
the foothills, it is largely used
for telephone poles, fence posts
mine props and the young
trees are gathered in winter
for Christmas trees. Most of
the lumber sold on the markets
under the name of Oregon pine is
of this species. It is one of our
most valuable structural timbers as
the wood is exceedingly strong as
compared with its weight, while
it possesses a good degree of dur-
ability in contact with the soil.
In the matter of strength and
Ktiffneso, it stands second only to
Southern long-leaf pine and is
adapted to a great variety of pur-
poses from that of heavy frame-
work to the manufacture of floor-
ing and interior finish.

i. (IKNTS

THE HAL-SAM FIRS, BALSAMS, FIRS.

Tin- balsam firs are tall-growing, conical trees, often of great
symmetry, which resemble in general appearance the spruces. They are
fond of the higher altitudes where the cold air and the moisture of
frequent storms bring them to their greatest perfection.

Tin- needles, lik«> those of the spruce and the Douglas fir, are single
and grow from all sides of tin; branchlets. Those on the lower sides of
the t \\igs, however, turn upward in such a way as to form flattened masses
of foliage of frond-like appearance. The needles are flattened, usually
grooved on the upper side with a slightly projecting midrib below. Those
on the loucr branches and on young trees are often slightly notched at
the tip. \shile those on cone-bearing twigs are usually somewhat pointed.
The branches arise in whorls from the sides of the main trunk so that
•/.lien \jewed from the side, such trees often appear to have the foliage
arranged in circular terraces of great beauty.

The bark on young trunks is smooth, but marked for some time with
the needle seal's. Numerous resin blisters, containing liquid pitch are

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

29

scattered freely over the surface, from which character is derived the
common name, balsam, often applied to the trees of this genus. The
bark on old trunks usually becomes roughened and more or less broken
into longitudinal ridges.

The wood is mostly very soft, light and brittle and is not esteemed
by lumbermen. The cones occur only in the topmost parts of the trees
and stand erect on the upper side of the branches until mature, in which
respect these trees differ from the spruces and the Douglas fir. When
mature, the cones break up by the falling away of the scales and leave
the central axis of the cone in the form of a spike, which may remain
attached to the twig for some time. Complete cones of the firs are
consequently never found beneath the trees, unless they have been pre-
maturely removed by some accidental cause.

The seeds are of fair size, nearly triangular in shape, and attached

Fig. 18. Blue Spruce. Young pistillate cones pointing up-
ward, and mature cones hanging downward, x1^.

to broad, thin wings. They are scattered by the breaking up of the cones.
The balsam fir of the Northeastern states and Canada (Abies
balsamea) furnishes the substance known in commerce as Canada Balsam,
which is derived from the balsam blisters in the bark of this tree. Two
species of balsam firs are found growing in the mountains of Colorado.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF ABIES IN COLORADO.

Needles (leaves) of vigorous lower branches one to one and three-
fourths inches long; the two resin tubes, as seen in cross section
under hand lens, deeply imbedded within the leaf tissue. Cones
purple or nearly black.

1. Abies lasiocarpa.

30

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

II. Needles (leaves) of vigorous lower branches one and three-fourths
to three inches long. The two resin tubes close to the lower sur-
face. Cones green, yellow or purple.

2- Abies concolor.

Fig. 19. Blue Spruce, a. Stalk-like bases on twig after needles
have fallen, x2. b. Twig with needles attached, x2. c. Cross-section of
needle, xlO.

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

31

1. BALSAM FIR, ALPINE FIR.
Abies lasiocarpa. Nutt.

This tree, which occurs throughout the mountainous parts of west-
ern North America, in Colorado frequents the high mountain slopes and
summits and appears to some extent along the streams which flow
through the mountain parks. While it may occasionally be found as low
down as 9,000 feet, it is most common between 10,000 and 11,000 feet
and from there in scattered growth
to timber-line. It is a common ad-
mixture with Bngelmann spruce
and forms one of the weed trees in
Engelmann forests. In Colorado
it is a medium sized tree, seldom
over 100 feet tall and one to two
feet in diameter. In shape, it is
narrowly conical and occasional
specimens are found which are
nearly perfect in form.

The needles on the lower
branches and on young trees are
usually blunt or sometimes slightly
notched at the tip, while on fruit-
ing branches they are short, pointed
and curved upward. They often
possess a whitish or silvery bloom
much like that of the blue spruce.
When cut across, each needle shows
two minute ducts or tubes full of
resinous juice, situated about mid-
way between the upper and lower
surfaces near the margins of the
needle. While these tubes can be
distinguished with the naked eye,
it is necessary to examine them
with a hand lens in order to note
their position with any degree of
accuracy. It is often sufficient to
break the leaf across in order to
bring them to view.

The trunks of young trees retain
the old needle scars for many years
on account of the smooth bark.
The resin blisters are numerous and
appear like slight scattered swell-
ings just under the outer baric and when cut into, the pitch or resinous
juice which they contain readily oozes out.

Fig. 20.

Eng-elmann Spruce, grow-
ing in the open.

32

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

Fig. 21. Engelmann Spruce. Heavy stand of large specimens. Look-
out station, college forest.

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO 33

The wood is nearly white in color and only about three-fourths as
heavy as that of yellow pine. It is so soft and brittle as to be of but
little use where strength is necessary.

The cones are usually about three or three and one-half inches in
length and of a dark purple or nearly black color and are usually more
or less coated with balsam. The wood of this tree is considered as of
such little value by lumbermen that it is often cut and left on the ground
instead of being utilized. At present it is being used for the coarsest,
poorest grades of lumber where durability and strength are not im-
portant. It is sometimes removed from the Engelmann spruce forests
where it occurs, to give room for the more valuable species with which
it is growing. The symmetrical form and handsome foliage of this tree
would seem to mark it as a desirable ornamental tree and it is sometimes
planted for this purpose in the Northern United States and Europe. In
the forests of this state, however, it appears to be rather short-lived and
is seldom found planted except in tree collections.

2. WHITE FIR, CONCOLOR FIR.
Abies concolor. Lindl.

This is the only true fir to be found within the arid regions of the
Great Basin and in Southern New Mexico and Arizona. In this state the
concolor fir occurs not farther north than the region of Pike's Peak, at
which point it seems to replace the Alpine Fir from the northern parts
of the state. When fully grown, it is a much larger tree than the
preceding species. Some very good specimens of moderate size are to
be seen in North Cheyenne Canyon, near Colorado Springs. Considerable
tracts of it are to be found in the San Juan forests of Southern Colorado,
where it is lumbered to a moderate extent. During the first year or two,
the foliage is similar in color to that of the Silver Spruce, and this, to-
gether with its regular whorls of frond-like foliage masses, makes this a
very handsome tree.

The needles are usually about one-fourth to one-third longer than
those of the Alpine Fir and when examined with a hand lens in cross
section, the two resin ducts are found to be very close to the lower sur-
face of the leaf, a character which serves to distinguish this tree in all
cases from the Alpine Fir. The trunk of the young tree resembles to
some extent that of the preceding species, but the bark soon becomes
quite deeply cracked and strongly ridged, so that in trunks of the same
diameter, that of the concolor fir is much rougher than that of the
Alpine Fir.

The wood is similar in quality to that of the Alpine Fir and is used
for much the same purposes where it occurs in abundance. The cones
are considerably larger than those of the foregoing species and are often
pale green in color until nearly mature, when they take on a light
brownish color before breaking up. In some specimens, the cones acquire
a purple tint usually lighter in color, however, than that of the Balsam
Fir cone.

34 EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

This tree is planted to some extent for ornamental purposes and
when well grown is worthy a place in any grounds. It may be expected
to thrive better in the southern portions of the state and at lower altitudes
than the preceding species.

5. GENUS Juniperus. THE JUNIPERS, RED CEDARS, SAVINS.

The members of this genus are readily distinguished from the other

members of the pine
family in Colorado,
first, by the needles
which are either scale-
shaped or awl-shaped
and are usually borne
in pairs on opposite
sides of the twigs or in
whorls of three; sec-
ond, by the fruit,
which instead of ripen-
ing into a dry cone
composed of woody or
papery scales, forms a
berry-like fruit with
but few seeds. Also the
staminate and pistillate
flowers occur on sepa-
rate individual trees
of the same species,
instead of being on the
same individual tree,
as in the other mem-
bers of the pine fam-
ily. The staminate
flowers are produced
in tiny cone-like clus-
ters, composed of ten
or a dozen scales, each
bearing two to six
pollen sacs. These may
frequently be found
fully developed in
autumn, ready to dis-
charge the pollen in
early spring. The pis-
tillate cones are like-
Fig. 22. Engelmann Spruce. 39-inch mature trunk, wise formed during the
preceding summer and autumn and occur at the tips of very short lateral
branchlets. Each consists of two to six scales, standing opposite in
pairs and when in bloom, the tips of the two ovules may be distinguished

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO 35

at the base of each scale by means of a hand lens. After being pollinated
and fertilized, the scales rapidly grow in size and unite to form the so-
called juniper berry. Careful examination will reveal the marks upon
its surface of the original scales which compose the berry. This berry
may require from one to three years to mature the hard-shelled seeds
which it contains, depending upon the species. When ripe, the juniper
berry is usually more or less juicy and sweet-flavored with a pronounced
resinous taste and contains from one to three or more bony-shelled seeds
without wings. The berries of certain species of junipers are used in
the manufacture of the distilled liquor known as gin, which owes its
particular qualities to the presence of the aromatic volatile oils contained
in the juniper berries. The hard, thick coat of the juniper seeds enables
them to pass unharmed through the digestive apparatus of birds which
sometimes feed upon them, and in this way they are widely distributed
to new locations. The berries of some red cedars have been largely
used by the Indians for food, after being ground and baked into cakes.
The large, smooth seeds of one species are not uncommonly used for
stringing as beads for various ornamental purposes among primitive
peoples.

The wood of the juniper and red cedars is fine, close grained, uniform
in texture, not hard but exceedingly durable. The characteristic odor
possessed by the red cedar wood is due to a volatile aromatic oil which
may be obtained by distillation as a very dark reddish brown oil, pos-
sessed of the odor of the wood. This oil is used to some extent in the
manufacture of perfumes and for scenting inferior woods of other species.
Probably the most extensive use that is made of red cedar wood is in the
manufacture of lead pencils. Its fine, soft grain of even texture, the
attractive color and the pleasing odor of the wood fits it pre-eminently
for this purpose so that no other has been found as a perfect substitute.
The wood with its characteristic odor, which is repellant to most insects,
also greatly favors its use in the making of chests and boxes used for
the storage of garments and furs. Some of the junipers form scrubby
spreading plants which are not adapted to the production of lumber,
while others form trees of moderate size, the trunks of which are exten-
sively used for fence posts on account of the great durability of the
wood. Some botanists separate the junipers into two genera, depending
upon the way in which the needles are produced and the fruit borne.
All of those which occur in Colorado, however, have been included in one
genus. There are only three species commonly found within our border
which reach the stature of trees.

On account of the fact that the leaves on seedling or immature
specimens of the junipers are so much alike, it is necessary in using the
foliage for identifying the species, to make examination of leaves from
fully developed or mature plants, those which are at least two feet
in height.

36

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

Fig". 23.

Englemann Spruce, a. Twig showing fine hairy covering among
the needle bases, x3. b. Cross-section of a needle, xlO.

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

Fig". 24.

Enjvelmann
cones, x%.

Spruce, a. Twig with
b. Seeds, natural size.

mature

KEY TO THE SPECIES OP Juniperus IN COLORADO.

I. Leaves on mature branches in whorls of three, awl-shaped, spreading,
three-eighths to one-half inch long, deeply grooved or trough-
shaped and whitened on the upper surface, convex and green on the
lower surface; buds scaly. Low spreading shrub.

1. Juniperus communis, var. sibirica.

II. Leaves on mature branches opposite in pairs, scale-like and flattened

against the branchlets, to which they are usully grown fast through
about half their length; about one-eighth inch long; on young trees
and vigorous shoots, slender pointed and somewhat spreading, one-
fourth to one-half inch in length; buds naked. Small or medium
sized trees (except No. 2).

1. Low-spreading or prostrate shrub.

2. Juniperus prostrata.

2. Trees or tree-like, six to fifty feet high.

A. Fruit large, one-fourth to one-third inch long; reddish
brown or copper-color with a bluish bloom; cotyledons of
the seed, 4-6.

3. Juniperus Utahcnsis.

B. Fruit small, usually less than one-fourth inch long; coty-
ledons of the seed, 2.

a. Leaves slightly spreading at the tips, yellowish green;
fruit mostly one-seeded; seed thin-shelled.

4. Juniperus monosperma.

b. Leaves closely flattened against the branchlets, bluish
green; fruit, 1-4 seeded; seed thick shelled.

5. Juniperus scopulorum.

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

Fig. 25.

1. LOW JUNIPER, MOUNTAIN JUNIPER.
Juniperus communis, var. sibirica (Burgsd.) Rydb.

The low juniper is a spread-
ing shrub usually less than a
yard tall, but which sometimes
covers several square yards in
width. It commonly occurs in
rocky places in the foothills and
mountains up to 10,000 feet
altitude. The stems are slender,
branched and covered with a
thin, reddish brown bark which
separates into thin papery scales
upon the older stems.

The needles are single, but
produced in whorls of three and
point upward and outward from
the twigs. They are sharply
pointed, rounded below and
grooved above and join the stem
with an abrupt bend.

The berries are about one-
fourth inch in diameter, nearly
smooth or with faint marks of the
pistil scales and bluish in color.
They require three seasons in
which to mature and contain
from one to three bony seeds.

The principal use to which this
juniper is put is for planting in
shrubbery borders. It is well
adapted to planting against foun-
dation walls, in rockeries and
about rustic work, where a low
evergreen is desired. The berries
are sometimes employed in medi-
cine, and are used extensively to
give their characteristic flavor to
gin.

The common juniper, of which
this is a variety, grows to the
stature of a tree in this country
only on the limestone hills of

Douglas Fir.
young tree.

Vigorous

southern Illinois, where it sometimes reaches a height of twenty-five feet.

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

39

2.

SHRUBBY JUNIPER, CREEP-
ING JUNIPER.

Juniperus prostrata (Per?.) Antoine.

This plant, while merely a low
spreading shrub seldom more than
a yard high, closely resembles the
red cedars in everything except
stature. It may be infrequently
found upon rocky, exposed ridges
and dry slopes throughout a large
portion of the Northern United
States and Canada. It is of un-
common occurrence in Colorado
and has been recorded principally
from the eastern slopes of the
Rocky Mountains in this State.
Its stems are slender, much
branched and often prostrate, in
which case they may strike root.
The foliage consists mainly of very
small, scale-like leaves in four
ranks upon the twigs and is of a
yellowish green color. The berries
are usually under one-fourth inch
in diameter, of a light bluish color,
and contain from one to four bony
seeds.

This juniper from its scarcity
and small size is of little im-
portance except for its possible use
as a very low, slow-growing ever-
green. Its ability to withstand
exposure and drought may fit it for
certain rustic effects about cabins
and summer homes in the moun-
tains.

3. UTAH JUNIPER, DESERT
JUNIPER.

Juniperus Utahensis (Engelm) Rydg.

The Utah juniper occurs quite
extensively on dry slopes and table
lands of limestone formation, from
Western Colorado to Nevada, south-
eastern California and Arizona,
principally at elevations below
8,000 feet. It is a rather low

Pig. 26.

Douglas Fir.
trunk.

Bark of old

40 EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

branching tree of rounded form, and with a short, stocky trunk which is
commonly forked at or near the ground. Well developed specimens such
as occur in canyons may occasionally reach a height of thirty-five feet,
with a crown diameter of nearly equal extent, while on drier exposed
situations it is considerably lower, and is frequently broader than tall.
The trunk and main branches are very crooked, with but little clear
length available for use. The thin, greyish bark separates from the
branches in long, fibrous shreds.

The branches are quite stiff, and are covered with short, closely over-
lapping, scale-like leaves arranged in four, or occasionally in six, ranks,
and of a pale yellowish green color.

Fig. 27. Douglas Fir. a. Staminate and pistillate flower cones and two
mature cones, xU,. b. Mature cone, x%. e. Seeds, x%.

The fruit is somewhat larger than that of the other cedars found in
our State, the berries sometimes reaching nearly one-half inch in
diameter. In color, they are a reddish or copper brown, covered with a
bluish bloom which is easily rubbed off. The berries require two seasons
in which to mature, and each contains usually but one seed of good size,
imbedded in the dry, fibrous flesh.

This tree is of but little commercial importance in Colorado, but is
not uncommonly employed as fuel in its more western and southern range,
where it reaches its best development.

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO 41

4. THE ONE-SEEDED RED CEDAR.
Juniper us monosperma Sarg.

This red cedar has a more southern range than the Rocky Mountain
red cedar, from which it is often with difficulty distinguished. In Colo-
rado it occupies the dry foothills and mesas in the southern and western
portions of the State, where it occasionally forms the principal tree of the
genus. In stature it equals the following species but commonly divides
at or near the ground into several trunks of about equal size. The
smaller, scale-like leaves are usually less than one-eighth inch in length,
while those on vigorous shoots are sometimes one-half inch long. They
are thickened on the back, and the tips usually project slightly in the
form of a small pointed tooth, a character which helps to distinguish this
species. The foliage is yellowish green in color.

The bark on old trunks remains rather thin, but divides into flat,
connected ridges which are broken into long shreds of a greyish color.
The wood is firm, heavy, with nearly white sapwood and brownish colored
heartwood, in which it differs from that of the following species which
possesses reddish heartwood.

The fruit of the one-seeded red cedar is commonly less than one-
fourth inch in diameter, and in color is reddish brown or copper color,
covered with a bluish bloom. The seeds are usually one or sometimes two
in number, and are covered with a rather thin brittle shell. They are
only about one-half as large as those of the Utah Juniper.

This tree has been extensively used for fencing, wherever it occurs,
while the thin, shreddy bark has furnished the Indians with a coarse
textile material for the making of rough garments and sleeping mats.

5. ROCKY MOUNTAIN RED CEDAR.
Juniperus Scopulorum Sarg.

This is the common red cedar of the Rocky Mountains, with a range
from Alberta and British Columbia to Arizona and Texas. In Colorado,
it is found principally along the eastern slopes of the Continental Divide,
from the easternmost ranges of foothills to elevations of 8,500 feet. It
is one of the tallest of our red cedars in this state, although it rarely
exceeds a height of thirty to forty feet.

Young trees usually grow in a pyramidal form, which in old speci-
mens, may widen to a rounded or spreading crown of irregularly open
character. It is to be found growing in gulches and canyons, upon the
southern exposures, where it endures well the drying effects of the direct
sunlight, upon the drier foothill slopes, or it may be seen perched upon
the bluffs, along ravines, or clinging to exposed rocky points where most
trees are unable to exist. It seems to thrive well either in moist and
fertile soils, in apparently barren adobe, or the limestone soils of certain
foothill sections, where it is a common accompaniment of the pinyon pine.
The trunk of this cedar is commonly single, but in dry situations and in

42

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

Fig. 28. Douglas Fir. a. Twig showing needle scars, b. Cross-section
of needle, xlO. e. Twig with buds and needles, x2.

old specimens, occasionally is found considerably branched, or even
divided toward the base. It usually tapers rapidly upward, so that trunks
of clear length are not easily found. The bark in old age becomes
divided into narrow, flat ridges one-half inch thick, with a light grey
color upon the surface and reddish or brownish beneath. The wood is
fine-grained, firm, with whitish sapwood and reddish heartwood, which

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO 43

possesses the characteristic odor of the eastern red cedar. It is very
durable in contact with the soil. The foliage of the Rocky Mountain red
cedar is usually bluish green in color or silvered, a character which helps
to distinguish it from the one-seeded red cedar, which has yellowish green
foliage. The scale-like leaves are very small, short, and closely flattened
against the twig, while those upon the strong-growing shoots are slender
tipped, and often reach one-half inch in length.

The fruit requires two seasons for ripening. Mature berries are
usually about one-fourth inch in diameter, bluish or black, covered with
a heavy bloom. The seeds are commonly one or two in number, and are
covered with a hard, bony shell with several ridges extending lengthwise.

This tree has been so diligently sought out and cut for fence posts,
wherever it occurs, that it is now difficult to find specimens of large or
medium size. It is one of our most easily transplanted evergreens, when
handled in moderate size, and is well adapted to the formation of low
hedges in dry situations, as it stands shearing well. Like the other red
cedars, it is difficult to grow from seeds, which require careful cleaning
and stratifying. Germination requires two seasons, as a rule.

TREE ZONES IN COLORADO.

In passing from the Great Plains to the top of the Continental Divide
or to the summit of one of the peaks where snowbanks lie throughout the
year in Colorado, an observant person is impressed with the changes that
take place in the character of the vegetation at different altitudes. As the
climate changes at the different levels, so the plant life also varies, not
abruptly, to be sure, but yet in fairly well marked belts or zones. Upon
the plains before irrigation was practiced, there were no trees except
cottonwoods and willows along streams and draws or occasionally in de-
pressions that caught the surface run off of surrounding slopes. This
may be called the Plains Zone.

At the lowest and outermost range of foothills one meets the van-
guard of the great forests of evergreen trees that lie higher up. This
second or foothill zone lies mainly between the altitudes of 6,000 and
8,000 feet. The most characteristic tree of this zone is the yellow or
rock pine, which forms open groves of dwarfed and round topped trees
upon the driest ridges and among the rock piles of the outer hills or grows
in closer stands of well developed specimens on the gentler and moister
slopes higher up. In some portions of the state this zone is quite
largely occupied by pinyon pine and red cedar with Douglas fir crowding
into gulches and sheltered depressions upon northern and eastern slopes.

Above this zone lies the montaine zone with the lodgepole pine as
the characteristic tree. This species often forms a dense, unbroken forest
cover, on northern and eastern slopes, mixed at the lower borders with
rock pine, especially on southern and western exposures. The Silver
Spruces appear in limited numbers along the streams, and in Southern
Colorado the Douglas fir and white fir also occupy a prominent place in
this zone.

The fourth zone, known as the sub-alpine zone, extends approximately
between the altitudes of 10,000 and timberline or the level at which tree

44

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

growth ceases. In this state timberline lies commonly at about 11,500
feet elevation, although this varies to quite an extent with the exposure,
in some sheltered places the occurrence of stunted timber being found one
thousand feet higher up.

The characteristic tree of the sub-alpine zone is the Engelmann spruce
which forms great forests of splendid specimens in the more favored sit-
uations, with balsam fir as a frequent admixture. As timberline is ap-
proached, the limber pine and foxtail pine may be expected to appear
upon the exposed slopes or clinging to the crests of wind swept ridges as if
to defy the elements.

The growth of trees at timberline often presents a weird sight. Here
the struggle of the trees for a bare existence is shown in their stunted,

Fig. 29.

Douglas Fir. b. Blue Spruce. Showing- different behavior
of their bud scales in spring.

grotesque forms which frequently hug the very earth as if to escape the
wrath of the elements with which they must contend.

The fifth or alpine zone extends from timberline to the summits of
the higher mountain peaks and, like the first or plains zone, is treeless but
not for the same reason. Thus upon the plains it is a matter principally
of soil moisture and when this is supplied by irrigation, many species of
trees can be made to thrive. In the alpine zone, however, it is largely
the very short growing season, together with high wind velocity and low
temperature of the soil, which prohibits the growth of trees.

USES OF OUR EVERGREENS.

Evergreens for Ornamental Planting. — Among the evergreen trees of
Colorado are to be found some of the most ornamental trees for landscape
gardening purposes. On the home grounds, if rightly placed and properly
cared for so as to secure a healthy growth, they are capable of adding
much to the foliage effects of summer and of lending a pleasing touch of

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO 45

green to the winter landscape when other trees are naked. Evergreens
are best situated when they are planted along the borders of the grounds
or at the sides or rear of buildings, where they may form a background
for shrubs and flowering plants and a setting for the buildings them-
selves. The presence of evergreens in the front lawn where they will
obstruct the view from the windows of the dwelling and where they cast a
dense shade throughout the year, is decidedly against the best principles
of landscape gardening. Specimen trees as a rule should not be freely
used except on large grounds where they can be given plenty of room
for perfect development and where they will not interfere with the view
nor fill up the spaces which should be devoted to open stretches of lawn.
They should be placed at a sufficient distance from other trees so that
they can spread out naturally and should not be pruned except occasion-
ally to remove any great irregularities that might develop. On extensive
grounds, the evergreens appear to best advantage when planted in groups
or massed in situations where it is desirable to divide the area or to hide
objects from view. If planted in sodded ground, the sod should be re-
moved and the soil deeply spaded and a circle of bare earth four or five
feet from the trees should be kept well cultivated during several years.

A great many evergreen trees, as well as other kinds, are lost every
year by planting them in small holes cut in the sod where they must com-
pete at once with the grass.

It is usually undesirable to plant evergreens close to the south side
of the dwelling, for, on account of the fact that they retain their foliage
throughout the winter season, they cut off the sunlight during that por-
tion of the year when it is most desired in the rooms of the home. It is
not uncommon to see evergreens planted in the front yard of a small
place, directly in front of the windows in such a way that the view from
and toward the house is almost entirely cut off when the trees reach any
considerable size. A common practice in such cases, in order to restore
the view, is for the owner to prune off the lower branches and thus
produce an unnatural effect in the trees themselves. As the beauty of
an evergreen consists in securing the most natural and characteristic
growth of which it is capable, the pruning which is often given such trees
approaches mutilation.

While there are many different ideas concerning the planting of
private grounds, the most pleasing and restful effects are those which
approach as closely as possible the most characteristic growth of the trees
and shrubs which are used as seen in the way Nature handles them. For
this reason, sheared and clipped evergreens, except when used in the form
of hedges, are more suited to the formal treatment in public parks and
extensive grounds where this style of treatment harmonizes with the type
of architecture usually employed in such places. It is advisable, there^
fore, to plan well in advance the position of each tree about the home
grounds and to take into account the crowding which may result from
future growth.

Where privacy and seclusion are sought, evergreens are well suited
to such purposes. Thus they are excellently adapted to form a screen to

46 EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

hide unsightly places or objects, such as ashpits, outbuildings and stock
and poultry corrals, and in the latter situations they may often furnish
excellent protection from the cold winds of winter.

Evergreens for Wind Breaks. — On account of the perpetual presence
of foliage, the evergreens are among our most effective trees for wind
breaks. They are especially desirable for planting about the sheds, barns
and yards used for stock and when properly situated are capable of adding

Fig.

White Fir. a. Tree 30 feet tall. b. 18-inch trunk.

much to the comfort of the animals during winter. Evergreens may be
effectively used for increasing the wind break character of shelter belts
in combination with broad leaf trees and are desirable when planted
around the windward side of the timber plantation, where they serve to
check the sweep of winds which carry away the snow and fallen leaves.
When planted along' drives or places which must be utilized in winter,
they should be set several rods away in order to avoid the formation of
snowbanks which may form close along the leaward side.

For the driest situations, the native red cedars may be used, as they
are capable of growing with the minimum water supply. The yellow pine

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO 47

is likewise adapted to such use, but is more difficult to transplant and has
a tendency to lose the lower branches after it acquires considerable size.
The red cedar is objectionable in some cases on account of a parasitic
fungus which it harbors and which works upon the pear and the quince.
On this account it is unwise to use the red cedar along orchards where
these fruits are grown. The Douglas fir and the blue spruce are desirable
for such purposes where a moderate amount of irrigation can be given

a

Fig. 31. White Fir. a. Twig showing circular needle-scars, xl .%. b.
Cross-section of a needle, x8.

them. They should be planted at least eight or ten feet apart, which will
give them room in which to develop. If a denser growth is desired, two
rows, with the trees alternating in each row, may be planted, with the rows
from eight to twelve feet apart. Where a low hedge or hedge-like effect
is desired, much closer planting should be done. Thus little trees may be
set one or two feet apart and cut back or sheared each season, which will
soon establish a dense and uniform wall of evergreen foliage.

As most of our native evergreens require plenty of sunlight in order
to retain their vigor and health, it is nearly useless to try to form good
hedges in the shade of large trees. Thorough cultivation is as desirable
in securing a vigorous, healthy growth of these trees as in that of other
plants, at least until they are well established, which may require a num-
ber of years.

FOREST PRODUCTS.

While Colorado is not ordinarily classed with the heavy lumber pro-
ducing states, still the amount of such material which is annually taken
from the mountain forests of this state has a value of several million
dollars. The principal timber products are sawn lumber, railway ties,
mine props, telephone and telegraph poles, fence posts and fuel. The total
production of such material for the year 1911, as shown by the reports of
the national forest officers, amounted to 222,808,000 board feet, worth in
round numbers, $5,000,000. Of this amount the yellow and lodgepole
pine lead, with spruce second, and Douglas fir third.

The two trees which furnish the largest proportion of sawed timber
are yellow pine and Engelmann spruce. On account of its straight, slender
trunks, lodgepole pine is extensively used for mine props, poles and posts,

48 EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

while railway ties are made from the largest trees of this species. In the
lower foothills region, Douglas fir is extensively used for fence posts, for
which purpose its greater durability than some of the other of the native
species makes it well fitted. Limber pine and bristle-cone pine are used
to some extent for mine timbers, where these species occur in any con-
siderable quantity. Balsam fir, blue spruce and white fir are utilized to a
much less degree for the same purpose, the lack of durability of the fir
being one of the factors which has much to do with the slight use
made of it.

Fig-. 32. White Fir. Portion of branch bearing nearly mature cones, x%.

In the production of the so-called pitch pine fence posts, yellow pine
is practically the only species concerned. Pitch pine in this connection
has reference to the trunks of trees which have in some way become
heavily impregnated with the resinous juice from their own wood. Just
how this has been brought about is a matter of considerable uncertainty,
as it seems to be confined largely to individual trees and is not necessarily
a characteristic of the species. It has been commonly observed that any
wounds in the bark of trees which do not kill the tree at once, tend to
produce a strong flow of the resinous sap, which may be absorbed grad-
ually by the. wood itself and thereby greatly increase its durability. Some
persons claim to be able to produce pitch pine at will by peeling the Irve
trees and allowing them to stand for one or more seasons. In this way
the pitch which is freely produced on the surface, is reabsorbed in a large
measure and gives the timber its desired quality. The writer is unable to
substantiate such claims through any personal experiments or from sources
of reliable information. Such experiments, however, are being conducted

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO 49

by the Forest Service and this data will be forthcoming doubtless at a
near date in the future.

Our native red cedar has a deserved reputation, where it is known,
for its great durability in contact with the soil. This durability is confined
almost entirely to the heart wood and doubtless varies in considerable
degree with the rapidity with which the tree has grown. Fence posts
of this tree have been known to last for a period of thirty-five years in
actual service, although this should not be considered as the usual length
of time. Twenty to twenty-five years for the medium sized posts is
probably a safer average length of service to count upon. Red cedar is
becoming so scarce at the present time that very high prices are asked
for even small, crooked posts. An examination of the native red cedar
posts and stakes on the market will show that in many cases from twenty-
five to fifty years has been required to produce one inch of diameter
growth. This slow rate of growth and the relatively small number of
these trees now available, means that in comparatively few years almost
no red cedar fence posts of native growth will be obtainable.

PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT OF TIMBERS.

The present and increasing scarcity of our most durable timbers, such
as pitch pine and red cedar, is helping to impress the need for some process
of making our cheaper but less durable timbers more lasting. A number
of preservative treatments have been employed for this purpose for many
years in Europe and are being more extensively used every year in this
country. One of the easiest and most effective treatments consists in im-
pregnating the wood of the least durable and cheaper species with some
antiseptic fluid which will prevent the growth of organisms which produce
decay in the wood. For this purpose, the commercial article known as gas
tar creosote, which is a by-product in the manufacture of illuminating gas
from coal and crude petroleum, has been found especially effective. For
small farm operations, involving the treatment of from fifty to two or
three hundred posts, the material is most effectively used by placing the
butt ends of the seasoned posts into a metal tank or other container deep
enough to allow the creosote to reach a point at least six inches above
the depth to which the posts will be planted in the ground. The creosote
is then heated either by a coil of steam pipes or by a fire underneath
to a temperature several degrees above that of boiling water. When
allowed to cool down during a period of from six to twelve hours, the
creosote is forced into the pores of the wood by atmospheric pressure.
Posts treated in this way can be expected to last two or three times as
long as the untreated wood and where the treatment has been especially
thorough, from four to five times the ordinary length of life of the un-
treated timber.

One of the tree products which was at one time of considerable im-
portance is tan bark, obtained from the Douglas fir. Since the disappear-
ance of the buffalo, however, from this region and the use of tannin
extracts together with the diminishing of the supply of this species in this
state, the tan bark industry in Colorado is at a very low ebb.

50

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

FOREST BY-PRODUCTS.

Among the secondary tree products which
have been or may be developed from the
forests in Colorado, are charcoal, resin, tur-
pentine, essential oils, and seeds. The pinyon
pine at one time was extensively employed
in the production of charcoal which was
largely used in the iron smelters before the
introduction of the Bessemer steel process.
At the present time the production of char-
coal is not an important industry in this
state.

Experiments which have been carried on
by the Forest Service during the past three
years have shown that western yellow pine
is capable of producing resin and turpentine
of equal quality with that now largely ob-
tained from the long leaf pine of the south-
eastern states. The experiments in Arizona
have shown a total yield of resin from yel-
low pine about four-fifths as great as that
obtained from the southern pines. The lower
rate, however, can be ascribed in all prob-
ability to the shorter season of production
under western climatic conditions. While
the season in Colorado during which tur-
pentine production could be worked is con-
siderably shorter than that in Arizona, still
it is possible that in time this industry may
be developed within our borders.

A note from an Eastern Forestry period-
ical of the present year states that the
volatile oils distilled from the needles of
spruce and fir trees are being used to scent
petroleum floor oils, which may be objec-
tionable on account of their odor. The
abundance of these species in Colorado
should make it possible to utilize this by-
product which is wasted in our lumbering
operations as now carried on.
For many centuries, doubtless, the use of the seeds of certain pines
has been made by the Indians of this region for food. This is particu-
larly true of the pinyon or nut pine, the seeds of which are of large
size, rich in oil and of excellent flavor. These seeds can be found in
almost any confectioner's stand where fruits and nuts are for sale. These

Fig. 33. Alpine Fir.
Perfect form.

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

51

seeds are usually gathered by the Indians in the southern parts of our
state, in New Mexico and northern Arizona, where the pinyon pine is
abundant.

REARING EVERGREENS FROM
SEED.

In most cases this is work
which is successfully undertaken
only by nurserymen or other per-
sons of experience. However, for
those who have time and the
necessary patience to wait for sev-
eral years while the seedlings are
growing, this is a cheap way to
secure a large amount of stock
and is also very interesting work.
Seeds of most evergreens can be
purchased from the larger seeds-
men, but 'where possible it is desir-
able to secure them from local
growing, native trees which show
the best color, form and hardiness.
The proper time to collect the
seeds is a little while before the
cones open. If this is done too
early the seeds may be immature
and will not germinate, while if
left until the cone scales have
spread open, a large part of the
seeds will have escaped, while
those which remain will be some-
what difficult to secure without
further loss. The time at which
the cones of our native evergreens
mature varies somewhat with the
altitude and the locality. At lower
elevations, seed collecting can be-
gin often as early as the first week
in September, while at higher ele-
vations the middle of September
is not too late.

In order to test the condition of
the seeds, some of the cones should
be cut open in such a way as to
pass through the seeds. If they
appear milky and soft, they are too

immature, but if the kernel of the seed appears firm, they are ready
for harvesting. In harvesting large quantities of seeds, the practice is

Fig. 34. Alpine Fir, 12-inch trunk.

often made of gathering the cones at a point where extensive lumbering
operations are in progress. This is one of the most economical ways of
securing them, as it does not require climbing the trees. As most of
the cones are produced near the topmost parts of the trees, especially in
the cases of spruces and firs, it is often necessary to climb them in order

to reach the crop.
A small hook at
at the end of a
pole is sometimes
employed for pull-
ing off the cones
from trees which
are not too tall
and to assist in
reaching those in
the tops of trees
which must be
climbed.

Probably the
easiest and at the
same time most
interesting method
of seed gathering
is that of securing
them from squirrel
hoards. .Most of
our native rodents,
particularly t h e
squirrels, gather
and store large
quantities of cones
from coniferous
trees. These are
commonly hoarded
in moist places at
the roots of fallen
trees, beside half
decayed logs or
stumps or beneath
overhanging rocks
and similar places.
The presence of
these hoards is

usually indicated by the finding of gnawed cones in quantity. The hoards
are sometimes exposed to view and are then easily located, while at
other times they are partly or wholly concealed with a covering of leaves,
rubbish or humus. The moisture to which the cones are subjected in
these caches keeps the scales from opening so that the seeds are retained
by the cones until opened by the squirrels. While this method of seed

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

53

gathering may seem piratical from the squirrels' standpoint, it is not
necessarily so serious a matter for them as might at first appear, due to
their habit of storing much larger quantities, as a rule, than they require.
Of course, the thorough despoiling of all squirrel hoards in a locality
would mean serious deprivation for these animals during the following
winter.

After gathering the cones, they should be spread out in a single layer
on canvass and exposed to the direct rays of the sun. This will usually
cause them to open in a short time, after which the seeds may be threshed

Fig. 36. Alpine Fir. Mature cones breaking up,

out by pounding the cones with a stick or flail. In large operations, as
carried on by the Forest Service, the cones after being dried in this man-
ner are passed through a long screen formed by nailing a coarse meshed
wire sieve around a rectangular frame, one end of which is slightly
elevated. The cones are run into the upper end of this screen and as
it is revolved slowly, the seeds are extracted and pass through the meshes

r,4

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

of the screen and on to a canvass beneath. The wings of such seeds as
bear them may be easily removed by wetting the seeds for a few minutes
and then spreading them out to dry, after which the seeds readily separate
from the wings and may be cleaned by winnowing in a breeze or by
passing them through a fanning mill.

In the case of lodgepole pine, many of the cones do not open unless
heated to a higher temperature than that usually secured by the open
air process. In such cases these tight cones may be caused to open by
placing them on a wire screen suspended two or three feet above a stove
or by placing them in an oven with the door left open. The seeds of
juniper and red cedars may be removed from the berries by soaking them
in a strong lye made from wood ashes, after which they are rubbed on a
fine sieve to remove the pulp. They should then be stratified. This
consists in mixing them with moist sand which is to be kept in a box
or other receptacle exposed to the frosts of winter. Seeds of the other

Conifers may be stored by placing
them in cloth or paper bags and
hanging them in a cold but fairly
dry room or building where they
can be protected from the ravages
of mice.

Where only a few dozen or two
or three hundred trees are desired,
they may be grown in a box of soil
about two by three feet and one
foot in depth, filled two-thirds its
height with sandy loam soil. This
may be set in the shade of a build-
ing or trees and will make a suit-
able place for the growing of the
seedlings. In larger operations,
seed beds should be laid off about
four feet wide and from six to
twelve feet long. These beds
should be surrounded with eight
inch boards, placed on edge, in
order to protect the seed beds from dry winds and to support the screens
which are necessary if the seed beds are placed in direct sunlight. The
soil for the seed beds should be a light sandy loam with good drainage
but which can be kept from drying out.

The proper time to plant the seeds is in spring as soon as the soil
can be worked or about the time that early gardening operations can be
carried on. The soil should be levelled off and should be worked into as
fine and good a condition as for planting radish or onion seeds. The
seeds may be sown in rows about eight or ten inches apart across the seed
beds. A very satisfactory way is to press the edge of a board into the
soil to the proper depth, depending upon the kind of seeds to be planted,
and the seeds are then scattered in the groove thus made, about as thickly

Fig. 37. Alpine Fir. Axis of cone
after scales have fallen, x1/^.

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

Fig. 38. Flowers and fruit of a Juniper, a. Staminate flower cones,
x2. b. Stamen flowers, xlO. c. Pistillate flower cones, x2. d. Pistil-
late flower cone showing- spreading scales and tips of ovules, xlO. e.
Mature fruit, x2. f. A seed, x2.

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

Fig. 39. Low Juniper, showing: habit of growth.

Fig. 40. Low Juniper. Twig showing needles and fruit; natural size.

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

57

as in the growing of radishes. Fine soil may then be sifted over the
seeds and the bed watered with a watering pot, care being taken not to
wash the soil nor disturb the seeds. The seeds of limber pine, yellow
pine and pinyon pine may be planted from three-fourths to one inch in
depth, while for lodgepole pine and Engelmann and blue spruces, one-
third to one-half inch in depth is ample.

After the seeds are planted, it is well to sprinkle about 1 or 2
inches of fine chaff over the beds which will help to retain the moisture

but will not prevent the
young seedlings from
pushing up to the light. A
very satisfactory way is
to cover the seed beds
with burlap fastened
down with pegs which
will allow watering the
surface of the beds with-
out danger of disturbing
the seeds. The burlap or
chaff must be removed
as soon as the seeds be-
gin to break the soil.
Germination of the Coni-
fers is apt to be rather
slow in most cases, at
least two weeks being
required for the seed-
lings to appear. In the
case of red cedars and
junipers, the seeds will
often lie dormant in the
ground during the first
year after planting and
will not germinate until
the second spring.

Most of the' Conifers
require partial shade
during the first year or
two. An exception to
this is found in our yellow pine, which is one of the few evergreens which
can be grown from seed without protection from direct sunlight. Even
this species can be more surely grown, however, by some shading during
the first season. Suitable screens are made from lath spaced equal to
their own width apart and nailed to frames which may be laid over the
seed bed. These screens should be removed, however, during very cloudy,
damp weather unless the rainfall is heavy, when they may be tilted to
one side in such a way as to partially shelter the little seedlings.

Fig. 41. Utah Juniper, a. Branch with fruit.
b. A berry, c. Seeds; all natural size.

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

Fig-. 42. Trailing Juniper. Six feet across. Owl Canyon.

One of the greatest obstacles in the successful raising of evergreen
seedlings is the danger from damping off. This is a disease of the seed-
lings due to the growth of certain fungi in the soil which causes the
roots of the little trees to decay and the seedlings to wilt and die. This
trouble usually is most severe during spells of damp, cloudy weather,
when the surface of the soil in the seed beds is continually moist. For

this reason the practice
is sometimes made of
covering the surface of
the soil with one-fourth
to one-half inch of sand
and of keeping the seed
beds well aired during
cloudy, rainy weather.
Over-watering of the seed
beds may also have a
tendency to bring about
conditions for the devel-
opment of this disease
and this should be
avoided at all times.

Fig-. 43.

One-seeded Juniper. Portion of a fruit-
ing branch; natural size.

Upon the approach of winter a mulch of chaff or chopped straw
should be scattered among the seedlings, so as to cover them to a depth
of three or four inches and the screens may be left on. This will pre-
vent heaving of the little trees by frost. This mulch should be removed
in spring as soon as the frost is out of the ground, otherwise the young

EVERGREENS OP COLORADO 59

trees may be smothered. A good deal of damage is sometimes done in
the seed beds by birds and rodents of various kinds. In order to insure
the safety of the seedlings at all times, it is well to cover the beds im-
mediately after planting the seed, with a wire netting nailed to a frame,
so that none of these intruders can gain access to the beds.

The seedlings should be left in the seed beds usually during at
least two years and during this time should be given the best of care
as to keeping them free from weeds and sufficiently watered. Cultiva-
tion between the rows is as desirable in growing such plants as in the
vegetable garden, in order to secure the best results. The seedlings of

Fig-. 44.

Rocky Mountain Red Cedar. Aged tree 12 feet
trunk, growing- on dry rocky ridge.

tall, 8-inch

most Conifers are very small and at the end of the second season will
be not more than two to three inches in height, except in the case of the
yellow pine and the Douglas fir. In the spring of the third year, the
seedlings should be transplanted to nursery rows, an operation which
encourages the development of a more compact root system and enables
the little trees to be spaced far enough apart for vigorous development.
For this purpose the little trees are usually planted four to six inches
apart in rows twelve to eighteen inches apart in the form of beds simi-
lar to those in which the seeds were planted, except that they do not
require surrounding with boards.

UGUKKNS OF COLORADO

For lodgepole pine, spruces and firs, some shading is desirable dur-
ing the next two years. This may be secured by using screens similar to
those employed on the seed beds raised about one foot above the sur-
face of the ground on poles fastened to stakes. In the absence of screens,
suitable shade may be secured by brush laid across the poles supported
the same height as the screens. Cultivation and irrigation should be
carefully attended to throughout the growing season and the little
trees should be given some protection in the form of a mulch during the
winter. In most cases, the seedlings will be too small to transplant into
permanent quarters before the end of the fourth year and where espe-
cially strong stock is desired,
they may be kept in nursery
rows for five or six years.
In the latter case, however,
they should be transplanted
a second time when four
years old in order to secure
increased room for develop-
ment and to still further con-
dense the root system.

TRANSPLANTING EVER-
GREENS.

The transplanting of ever-
greens, whether grown in the
seed bed or taken from the
mountains where they have
come from natural seeding,
is usually attended with
more difficulties than with
broad leafed trees. This is
partly due to the resinous sap
of the Conifers which pre-
vents the roots from absorb-
ing moisture when they once'
become thoroughly dried out.
Transplanting should always
be done if possible during

Ito«'ky .Mountain lied Cedar.
Tl.riftv tree 1 1> feet tall.

cloudy o
pose the
the seedl
in moist,
out. In
with th
boxes

r moist weather and particular care should be taken not to ex-
roots to the air for more than a few moments at a time. When

ings are being dug they should at once be placed with the roots
burlap, straw, moss or similar material to prevent their drying

transporting them for considerable distances, they may be packed
roots in moist chaff, moss or grass and enclosed in wooden

They should never be given a chance to become dried out, for

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

61

while they may appear to be in a living condition at the end of the jour-
ney, they are practically already dead as soon as the roots are once thor-
oughly dry.

The proper time to transplant ever-
greens in our climate is during
spring, just when the buds are be-
ginning to swell, but before the new
growth has put forth. Pall planting,
while claimed to be satisfactory in
some parts of the country, is not
apt to prove successful under our
conditions. This is usually due to
the dry winds of winter which take
the moisture from the young trees
before they have an established root
system in the soil and while they
are still unable to take up soil mois-
ture. In some cases, transplanting
which has been done early in au-
tumn and under exceptionally fa-
vorable conditions, may succeed, but
as a rule is to be considered as a
hazardous undertaking.

USE OF WILD OR FOREST-GROWN
SEEDLINGS.

Persons who attempt to transplant
our native evergreens from the foot-
hills and mountains to new quar-
ters, usually in lawns, commonly
experience a great deal of difficulty
in making them succeed. This is
largely due to the fact that most
persons attempt to transplant as
large trees as possible and in so
doing only a small part of the root
system can be secured without a
great deal of labor. The roots of
most evergreens are slender and
extend to considerable distances
without much branching as they
grow in the mountains. This is par-
ticularly true of yellow pine, which
is one of our most difficult trees to

Fig-. 46. Rocky Mountain Red
Cedar. Thrifty tree, 6-inch
trunk.

successfully transplant from its natural location. The roots in this
tree often extend deeply into the crevices of rocks where it is impossible

to dig them out. In all cases, it is best to transplant only the smaller

specimens, such as are not more than ten inches or a foot in height.

Only such trees as show a rapid annual growth should be chosen for

transplanting. Yellow pines can often be found in rocky situations which

are only a foot or two in height,
but which are from 25 to 50 years
of age. The transplanting of such
specimens is almost sure to result
in failure. Specimens of blue
spruce and Douglas fir which are
growing in moist soil of good qual-
ity, can usually be transplanted
when of larger size than those
mentioned. In such cases a ball
of earth which shall enclose as
much of the root system as possi-
ble- should be dug up with the tree
and tied up with burlap to pre-
vent its being separated from the
roots. Trees three or four feet in
height may sometimes be success-
fully moved in this way. Another
method occasionally employed is
that of digging the trees in win-
ter when the soil is frozen and
when it can be moved in a solid
mass attached to the roots.

In all cases where the expense
is not prohibitive, nursery stock
is much to be preferred to wild
trees. Properly grown nursery
trees have had the root system
condensed by transplanting and
the trees are usually more stocky
and vigorous than the wild ones
and can be moved with a great
deal more certainty of success.
The same care should be exercised
in transplanting evergreens that
is necessary in the successful
transplanting of orchard trees
and they will respond in the same
\ray to care in the matter of cul-
tivation and proper watering.
Excessive watering should be

for most of our native evergreens require a soil of only moder-

urc in which to thrive.

ky .Moiint;t in K»-<1 ("Vdur.

bni rich, M;I t n r;i 1 six*-.

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

63

Fig". 48.

Three stages in the germination of a pine seed (from right to
left). Natural size.

Fig-. 49. Seedling Yellow Pines, four years old. n. Transplanted at
two years of age. b. Left in seed bed. c. One year old, showing root
twelve times as long as stem.

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

Fig-. 50. A cheap but efficient form of seed bed for raising- evergreen
seedlings. Each bed, 4 by 12 feet, has room for raising 2,000 two-year-
old seedlings.

Fig. 51. Evergreens in the front door yard hide a small place.

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO 65

PRUNING.

It is seldom necessary to prune carefully dug nursery grown ever-
greens when they are transplanted, unless it is desired to change their
shape and the same is true of those taken from the mountains when a
ball of earth has been taken with the roots. A partial thinning of the
branches of forest grown trees may sometimes be desirable to reduce the
loss of moisture from the leaves and compensate in part for the reduced
root system. The terminal bud, which gives rise to the leader or main
stem, sometimes becomes injured or destroyed, and in such a case two
or three of the lower buds may push up equally strong shoots. In this
case all but one shoot should be removed and this one may be tied erect
to the stub of the original leader so as to eventually take its place.

INSECT PESTS AND DISEASES OP EVERGREEN TREES.
The trees of the pine family are subject to numerous disorders due
principally to insects and to parasitic plants. Insects of certain species
often cause enormous destruction of living timber and the trees thus
killed are apt to be consumed by fires when dry. Probably the most de-
structive of the insects which attack the evergreen forest trees in Colo-
rado are those known as the pine bark beetles, which belong to the genus
Dendroctonus. The most common of these beetles is one which attacks
principally the yellow pine, although the lodgepole pine, limber pine and
Englemann spruce are also subject to it. This insect deposits its eggs
in burrows which it makes in the bark of the host trees in such a way
that the larvae which hatch from them are enabled to live upon the inner
bark. In this stage of its life history, the insect forms burrows through
the living bark, often in such numbers and extent as to entirely girdle
the tree and thus cut off the circulation of food material in the vital part
of the trunk. Trees which are badly infested usually show signs of the
trouble by the dying of the tops, while exudations of resin often appear
from the bark where the insects are at work. In case of slight injury,
which is sometimes limited to any small part of the trunk, the tree may
recover from the attack, but will eventually lose the bark over the af-
fected part of the tree. When the foliage of a tree turns yellowish or
brown in color, however, it is an indication that the attack is too severe
for the tree to recover. The most effective remedy on a large scale has
been found to consist in the cutting and burning of infested trees. Some-
times merely the bark is removed, which exposes the larvae of the in-
sect so that birds can get at them, or the bark is burned and thus all of
the insects are destroyed.

During the latter half of summer, the blue spruces often show dead
tips to the twigs which, upon close examination, appear in the form of
galls or swellings thickly covered with short needles. These dead tips,
which are sometimes mistaken for the real cones of the tree, consist of
the season's growth which has lengthened but little, while the needles
which they bear have become greatly enlarged at the base and each con-
tains a small cavity. Earlier in the season these swollen leaf bases are

66 EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

inhabited by a species of plant louse, belonging to the genus Chermes,
which lives upon the juices of the tree and produces the gall-like en-
largements at the ends of the twigs. About midsummer the insects have
reached maturity, when they pass to the needles of the Douglas fir which
may be in the vicinity and upon which they deposit their eggs. This sec-
ond generation of the insect passes the remainder of the season upon the
Douglas fir. Early in the second summer certain individuals of the insect
develop wings and reach the blue spruces, upon which they deposit their
eggs. The young lice which hatch from these eggs then attack the needles
of the terminal buds and produce a new crop of the abnormal tips. While

Fig. 52. Front yard over-planted with blue spruce. The owner must
prune away the lower branches, or have the view shut off.

this insect seldom causes much injury to the blue spruce or to the Doug-
las fir under forest conditions, it is a rather serious pest upon these trees
in parks and upon lawns. It is apt to be most troublesome where the
blue spruce and the Douglas fir are growing near together, a condition
which favors the insect in its peculiar life history.

Among the diseases due to parasitic plants are certain malformations
known as witches' brooms. These appear as dense, matted growths of
twigs upon which the needles are usually somewhat stunted. These
witches' brooms sometimes appear in the topmost part or at other times
are found hanging against the side of the affected tree. A careful ex-

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

67

animation of one of these matted growths of twigs will usually reveal
the presence of numerous greenish yellow stems growing from the sur-
face of the twigs or of the branch to which they are attached. These
little stems belong to one of the small species of mistletoe which infest
the different members of the pine family. These are small, leafless plants
which produce minute flowers and later give rise to small whitish berries
containing seeds covered with a sticky substance. When the berries are
mature toward autumn they burst and expel the seeds to a distance of
several yards. On account of the sticky covering, the seeds may lodge
upon the twigs and branches of nearby trees and start the growth of the
plant in a new location during the following spring. In some cases a

badly diseased branch may die
and fall away, leaving a canker-
like wound in the side of the tree
trunk. Badly infested trees,
however, may be entirely killed
by this parasite. While the mis-
tletoe disease of our ever-
greens is seldom so severe as to
warrant any radical measures in
its extermination, wherever it at-
tacks trees which are especially
desired for their proximity to
summer resorts or mountain
homes it may be necessary to
combat this trouble by cutting
off and burning all of the dis-
eased growths as soon as they
appear.

Our native cedars are subject
to certain rust fungi which pro-
duce little galls known as cedar
apples upon the newer growths.
These appear in spring during
moist weather in the form of
slight enlargements or swellings
covered with gelatinous out-
growths from which the spores

Fig. 53. Engelmann Spruce, near tim-
ber-line, showing effects of wind.

of the disease are given off. These spores which are microscopic in size
readily float in the air. When these spores come in contact with the
new foliage of certain plants of the apple family such as the service
berry, hawthorn, quince and pear, they are capable of setting up a dis-
ease known as the cluster cup fungus. This may be recognized by the
formation of swellings of a yellowish or orange color which are produced
on the leaves and sometimes upon the fruit of the affected host plant.
These swollen, discolored portions contain numerous minute spore pro-
ducing cavities from which spores are given off, capable of re-infecting
the cedars which may be near at hand. For this reason, it is unwise to

68

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

plant our native red cedars in close proximity to orchards of pear and
quince. This disease has been known to appear in orchards some distance
from the wild cedars in the nearby foothills. The apple, however, is
seldom attacked by the fungus from the cedar apple disease which oc-
curs upon the cedars native to this state.

FORESTS AND IRRIGATION.

The influence of our forests in Colorado upon the flow of the streams
which furnish water for irrigation, while still a matter frequently brought
under discussion, is generally conceded to be of the greatest importance.

Fig". 54.

Wind-beaten, distorted, grotesque, pitiable
James Peak.

'wind timber," on

In spring these streams are fed largely from the melting of the snows
at the lower levels. Wherever the snow is exposed to the direct rays of
the sun and to the milder winds, it is more rapidly melted than where
it is protected in ravines and by living trees. For this reason, a wooded
mountain side will furnish a slower but more prolonged flow of water
into the streams, early in the season, than one which is bare or denuded
of forest growth.

Careful studies in the conservation of snow by forests in mountain
regions have been made upon the Sierra Nevada range in Nevada during
the past four years. The results of extensive measurements show a very
positive retarding influence upon the melting of the snows that have ac-

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO 69

cumulated in the shelter of evergreen forests due to shading and dimin-
ished air currents. It has been found that those forests which contain
numerous open spaces or glades of small area into which the snow readily
finds its way, give the maximum protection to the snow, while the
densest forest cover, which tends to keep some of the snow from reaching
the ground beneath, falls considerably behind. Much of the benefit due
to forest growth upon the higher and more exposed levels was found
to be in the catching of the
snow which would otherwise
be blown off to lower levels
where earlier melting occurs.*
Another condition which is
brought about by the presence
of forests is that due to the
deposits of decaying organic
matter from the trees them-
selves. This duff or humus,
consisting of the cast-off
leaves, shreds of bark, twigs
and branches, withered flow-
ers and fallen cones, accumu-
lates very slowly during the
years that a forest is growing
to maturity. The soil also is
completely filled with a net-
work of fine rootlets within
a fairly dense stand of tim-
ber, so that it is held in place
and prevented from washing
under the impact of heavy
rainfalls. Under such condi-
tions, the forest floor tends to
readily absorb water and to
allow it to percolate into the
underground channels of
springs instead of rushing
over the surface to the near-
est water course.

Fig".

Water and trees
spot attractive.

make this

A forested mountain slope, therefore, tends to regulate and prolong
the stream flow and favors the better utilization of the water during the
entire growing season in the valleys below. While the value of a forest
cover upon mountain slopes has been a well established fact in the
countries of Europe, where forestry has been carried on for many years,
it has been particularly emphasized in our own country during the past

* Recent Studies of Snow in the United States, by J. B. Church, Jr.,
from the Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meterological Society, Vol XL,
No. 169, 1914.

70

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

four years. Thus the great forest fires which devastated the mountain
forests in Northern Idaho did more than to destroy millions of dollars'
worth of timber and hundreds of human lives. A recent news item states
that the flow from a burned over watershed, which furnishes the city of
Wallace, Idaho, has been very evidently changed since the great fire of
1910. Thus the minimum flow of the stream, which was formerly not
less than one thousand miner's inches, has, since the forest fire, fallen to
about 250 miner's inches at the minimum flow. The weather records at
Wallace show that the precipitation, however, has been about normal for
the region during the time since the fire. This change in the regularity
of the stream flow which also furnishes water power for the development
of electricity, has made it necessary to expend money in the development
of steam power to furnish light and for the pumping of water, a matter
not heretofore required.

P'ig. 56. Tree-clothed mountain slopes offer the chief attraction hert.
The light-colored foliage in the left foreground belongs to aspens in
golden autumn colors.

FORESTS AND SCENERY.

Not the least important office of the evergreen forests in Colorado is
the part which they play in making our mountain scenery attractive and
beautiful. There are few sights more ugly and depressing than great
wastes of jagged, naked mountain sides with no foliage of shrub or tree
to soften their rugged barrenness. The mighty cliffs and vast gorges of
our mountains are awe-inspiring in themsehes, but without the presence
of trees clinging in their shelter or of forests sweeping up their very bases,
our mountains can hardly be called attractive or beautiful. The loveliness
of those mountain parks which have been spared from the devastating
effects of forest fires is due in large measure to the tree growths which
they harbor. Trees, alone, in their variety of form, texture of leaf, color
of foliage and character of bark, can supply the necessary setting of a fine

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO 71

picture. They constitute the very essence of the soothing, restful quality
of every delightful mountain retreat where worn and tired humanity longs
to retire. Just how much our state owes to her mountain forests of ever-
green trees in attracting and holding the tourists which come within our
borders for recreation, cannot be definitely known. Many, doubtless, would
pass on to more pleasing scenes were these forests entirely destroyed or
their charm removed. Thus for their scenic effects, alone, the state of
Colorado may well afford such protection to her mountain forests as shall
insure their perpetuation and thrifty growth.

FORESTS AND GAME.

Another important role played by the forests is in the harboring of
game and in the clarifying effects which they have upon the streams where
fish abound. Streams which have their sources protected by forest cover
are seldom or never as turbid with silt and other foreign matter as those
which catch the run-off from denuded areas. Such streams are therefore
better suited for our gamiest and choicest fish which do not thrive in
water charged with impurities of any kind. Then, too, there is a charm
which appeals strongly to the true sportsman in following the chase
among the wooded hills or luring the finny tribe along tree-bordered
streams. If Colorado is famous as a region where human kind may dis-
port itself amid the most healthful and enjoyable surroundings to be
found anywhere upon our continent, it is due in no small measure to the
beneficent presence of our forests of evergreen trees.

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

Fig. 57.

The gruesome desolation which follows a forest fire,
may elapse before this area becomes reforested.

Centuries

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO 73

ILLUSTRATIONS

Frontispiece (Blue Spruce in Color).

Fig. 1. Flowers and fruit of a pine, (Pinna cnntorta murrayana) , on new growth.

a. Staminate flower cones, natural size.

b. Pistillate flower cones, natural size.

c. A staminate flower cone, enlarged twice.

d. A pistillate flower cone, enlarged twice.

e. Three stamen flowers, enlarged ten times.

f. A pistil scale, showing two ovules at base, enlarged ten times.

g. A mature cone scale showing lower side with spine near the tip, en-

larged twice.

h. A mature cone scale showing upper side and the two seeds with
wings separating from it.

Fig. 2. Bristle cone Pine, Pinus aristata.

a. Grove of trees on slope of Pikes Peak.

b. Two small trees showing the whitish bark of young specimens. Moun-

tains above Manitou.

c. Trunk of an old tree fifteen inches in diameter. Mountains above

Manitou.

d. Portion of branch with cones and needles, one-half natural size.

Fig. 3. Limber Pine, Pinus flexilis.

a. Tree with trunk nine inches in diameter. Mountains above Manitou.

b. Trunk of an old tree twenty inches in diameter. Mountains above

Manitou.

c. Portion of branches with cones and needles. One-half natural size.

d. Mature, open cone.

e. Seeds, both three-fourths natural size.

Fig. 4. Limber Pine, Pinus flexilis. Bundle of needles.

a. Just unfolding from within the sheath of thin scales.

b. Scales of the sheath ready to fall away.

c. The sheath-scales fallen. (Enlarged twice).

Fig. 5. Yellow Pine, Pinus ponderosa scupulorum. Mature tree, open-grown type,

50 feet tall, trunk 25 inches in diameter. Foothills near Fort Collins.
Fig. 6. Yellow Pine, Pinus ponderosa scopulorum.

a. Trunk of immature tree, fourteen inches in diameter, showing black-

ish scaly bark, known among lumbermen as "blackjack" pine.

b. Portion of a branch showing cones and needles, one-half natural size.

c. Mature, open cone, one-half natural size.

d. Dwarfed specimen growing from a crack in a large rock. This tree,

at least 40 years old, as shown by the annual growth rings upon
its stem, illustrates the tenacity of the species.

Fig. 7. Yellow Pine, Pinus ponderosa scopulorum. Trunk of a mature tree 38 inches
in diameter, showing thick bark, divided into broad ridges or plates of a
cinnamon red color. Estes Park.

Fig. 8. Yellow Pine, Pinus ponderosa scopulorum.

a. Short portion of twig with bundles of needles showing two and three

needles in a bundle, enlarged one and three-fourths times.

b. Cross-section of needles, enlarged ten times.

c. Seeds, natural size.

74

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

Fig. 58. Common Ailments of Evergreen Trees, a. Douglas Fir
and Blue Spruce affected by a plant louse, xl/2. b. Red Cedar, showing-
galls caused by fungous parasite, x ?-,. c. Witches broom of Lodgepole
Pine caused by a mistletoe, x%. d. A mistletoe on Yellow Pine.

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

Fig. 9. Lodgepole Pine, Pinus contorta murrayana. Dense forest of young trees fol-
lowing a forest fire 45 years before. These trees are 40 to 43 years old,
and 10 to 20 feet tall. Mountain slope, Estes Park.

Fig. 10. Lodgepole Pine, Pinus contorta murrayana. A mature tree on mountain side,
near Pingree Park.

Fig. 11. Lodgepole Pine, Pinus contorta murrayana.

a. Trunk of immature tree 9 inches in diameter. Pingree Park.

b. Terminal portion of branch with cones and needles. Near the tip are

young cones which were in bloom last spring. Farther
down are nearly mature cones in their second season. Near the
base are cones three years old which have shed their seeds.

Taken in August. One-half natural size.

•

Fig. 12. Lodgepole Pine, Pinus contorta murrayana.

a. Needles, two in each bundle, enlarged twice.

b. Cross-section of a needle enlarged ten times.

c. Mature, open cone.

d. Closed or "tight" cone.

e. Seeds, natural size.

Fig. 13.

Lodgepole Pine, Pinus ponderosa scopulorum. Mature tree, open-grown type,
bedded within an eight-inch log over sixty years old.

Fig. 14. Pinyon Pine, Pinus edulis. Aged tree 15 feet tall. Owl Canyon.

Fig. 15. Pinyon Pine, Pinus edulis.

a. Portion of branch with needles and opening cones. Two seeds are

exposed in the upper part of the left-hand cone.

b. Mature closed cone.

c. Seeds. All three-fourths natural size.

Fig. 16. Blue Spruce, Picea parryana. Trunk of tree 19 inches in diameter and 60
feet tall. Along Buckhorn Creek.

Fig. 17. Blue Spruce, Picea parryana. Twigs showing staminate flower cones. About
two-thirds natural size.

Fig. 18. Blue Spruce, Picea parryana. Portion of branch showing two young pistillate
cones pointing upward, and two mature cones of last season hanging down-
ward. About one-half natural size. „

Fig. 19. Blue Spruce, Picea parryana.

a. Portion of twig from which the needles have largely fallen, leaving

the small stalk-like bases.

b. Portion of twig with needles attached. Enlarged twice.

c. Cross-section of a needle enlarged ten times.

Fig. 20. Engelmann Spruce, Picea engelmanni. Two trees growing in the open, height
45 to 50 feet ; trunks 11 and 14 inches in diameter. Dense clusters of cones
appear in the tops of the crowns. Buckhorn Creek.

Fig. 21. Engelmann Spruce, Picea engelmanni. Heavy stand of large specimens. Look-
out station, college forest.

Fig. 22. Engelmann Spruce, Picea engelmanni. Near view of 39-inch trunk, show-
ing character of bark on mature trees.

76 EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

Fig. 23. Engelmann Spruce, Picea engelmanni.

a. Terminal portion of twig showing fine hairy covering of surface among

the needle bases, enlarged three times.

b. Cross-section of a needle, enlarged ten times.

Fig. 24. Engelmann Spruce, Picea engelmanni.

a. Twig with mature cones, three-fourths natural size.

b. Seeds, natural size.

Fig. 25. Douglas Fir, Pseudotsuga mucronata. Vigorous young tree 40 feet tall and
trunk 11 inches in diameter. North Cheyenne Canyon.

Fig. 26. Douglas Fir, Pseudotsuga mucronata. Showing rough, coarsely ridged bark of
old tree. Estes Park.

•
Fig. 27. Douglas Fir, Pseudotsuga mucronata.

a. Portion of branch bearing staminate flower cones among the needles,

and two pistillate flower cones at the tips of twigs. Two mature
cones of last season are seen hanging from the lower part. About
one-half natural size.

b. Mature cone.

c. Seeds, two-thirds natural size.

Fig. 28. Douglas Fir, Pseudotsuga mucronata.

a. Portion of twigs from which the needles have fallen, leaving small

oval scars. Enlarged twice.

b. Cross-section of a leaf enlarged ten times.

c. Terminal part of twig showing needles attached. Enlarged twice.

Fig. 29. Douglas Fir (a) and Blue Spruce (b) differ in the behavior of their bud
scales in spring. In the first the bud scales remain at the base of the new
growth for a time ; in the second they are pushed off on the tips of the new
growth.

Fig. 30. White Fir, Abies concolor.

a. Tree 30 feet tall with trunk 12 inches in diameter.

b. Tree trunk of moderate age, 18 inches in diameter. North Cheyenne

Canyon.

Fig. 31. White Fir, Abies concolor.

a. Small portion of twig showing needles and circular needle-scars, en-

larged one and one-half times.

b. Cross-section of a needle showing two resin tubes close to the lower

surface, enlarged eight times.

Fig. 32. White Fir, Abies concolor. Portion of branch bearing nearly mature cones,
one-half natural size.

Fig. 33. Alpine Fir, Abies lasiocarpa. Unusually perfect form of this tree with trunk 9
inches in diameter. Pennock Creek.

Fig. 34. Alpine Fir, Abies lasiocarpa. Trunk of vigorous tree 12 inches in diameter.

Fig. 35. Alpine Fir, Abies lasiocarpa.

a. Terminal shoot of young tree bearing full grown cones ; about one-

half natural size.

b. Section of a needle showing two resin tubes midway between upper

and lower surfaces of the leaf, enlarged about ten times.

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO 77

Pig. 36. Alpine Fir, Abies lasiocarpa. Two mature cones showing the scales breaking
away from the central axis of the cone, thus liberating the seeds. About
one-half natural size.

Fig. 37. Alpine Fir, Abies lasiocarpa. The spike-like axis of the cone after the scales
have fallen. One-half natural size.

Fig. 38. Flowers and fruit of a Juniper (Juniperus scopulorum).

a. Small portion of branch bearing staminate flower cones, enlarged twice.

b. Upper and lower views of stamen flowers, enlarged ten times.

c. Portion of branch bearing pistillate flower cones, enlarged twice.

d. Pistillate flower cone showing four spreading scales and the tips of

two ovules ; enlarged ten times.

e. Mature fruit ; enlarged twice.

f. A seed ; enlarged twice.

Fig. 39. Low Juniper, Juniperus communis sibirica. Showing habit of growth.

Fig. 40. Low Juniper, Juniperus communis sibirica. Twig showing needles and fruit ;
natural size.

Fig. 41. Utah Juniper, Juniperus titahensis.

a. Portion of a branch with fruit.

b. A berry.

c. Seeds ; all natural size.

Fig. 42. Trailing Juniper, Juniperus prostrata. Six feet across. Owl Canyon.

Fig. 43. One-seeded Juniper, Juniperus monosperma. Portion of a fruiting branch ;
natural size.

Fig. 44. Rocky Mountain Red Cedar, Juniperus scopulorum. Aged tree 12 feet tall,
trunk 8 inches in diameter, growing on dry rocky ridge. Owl Canyon.

Fig. 45. Rocky Mountain Red Cedar, Juniperus scopulorum. Showing form of a thrifty
tree 12 feet tall. Owl Canyon.

Fig. 46. Rocky Mountain Red Cedar, Juniperus scopulorum. Trunk of thrifty tree 6
inches in diameter, showing scaly bark of young trees.

Fig. 47. Rocky Mountain Red Cedar, Juniperus scopulorum. Portion of fruiting
branch ; about natural size.

Fig. 48. Three stages in the germination of a pine seed (from right to left), Pinus
edulis. Natural size.

Fig. 49. Seedling yellow pines, four years old.

I

a. Transplanted at two years of age.

b. Left in seed bed. Note difference in vigor.

c. One "year old, showing the root twelve times as long as the stem.

(Pinus ponderosa scopulorum).

Fig. 50. A cheap but efficient form of seed bed for raising evergreen seedlings. Bach
bed, 4 by 12 feet, has room for raising 2,000 two-year-old seedlings.

Fig. 51. Evergreens are poorly suited to planting in the front door yard of a small
place, unless the owner desires to hide. These trees, however, were allowed
to grow in natural form.

78 EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

Fig. 52. Front yard over-planted with blue spruces. The owner must prune away the
lower branches, thus injuring the natural beauty of them, or have the view
shut off.

Fig. 53. Near timber-line. Engelmann Spruce tree showing effects of wind. Near
Dixie Lake.

Fig. 54. At timber-line. Wind-beaten, distorted, grotesque, pitiable "wind timber."
(Picea engelmanni.) On James Peak.

Fig. 55. The two factors which make this spot attractive are water and trees.

Fig. 56. Tree-clothed mountain slopes offer the chief attraction here. The light-colored
foliage in the left foreground belongs to aspens in golden autumn colors. In
one of the most noted tourist regions of the state.

Fig. 57. The gruesome desolation which follows a forest fire. Centuries may elapse
before this area becomes reforested.

Fig. 58. Some common ailments of evergreen trees.

a. Twigs of Douglas Fir and Blue Spruce affected by a plant louse

(Chermes). The insect is on the needles in the first, while it
causes the cone-like galls to form on the latter. One-half
natural size.

b. Twigs of red cedar showing a small and a large gall caused by a

fungous parasite (Gymnosporangium). Two-thirds natural size.

c. Twigs from witches broom of lodgepole pine caused by a mistletoe.

One-half natural size.

d. Portion of branch of yellow pine attacked by mistletoe.

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

7»J

INDEX

Abies concolor 33

Abies lasiocarpa 31

Abies, Key to Colorado species 29

Balsam firs 29

Bark beetles, of pines 65

Blue spruce 21

Bristlecone pine 11

Bull pine 13

Cedar apple fungus 67

Cedar, one-seeded, red 41

Cedar, Rocky Mountain, red 41

Charcoal 50

Chermes on blue spruce and Douglas fir. 65

Cluster cup fungus 67

Cones, origin and structure 7, 8

Coniferae, Key to Genera found in Colo-
rado 9

Denflroctoniis beetle 65

Diseases of evergreens 65

Douglas fir 25

Douglas spruce 25

Duff 69

Engelmann spruce 23

Evergreens, descriptions of the 5

Evergreens, Insect pests and diseases of. 65
Evergreens, Ornamental planting of . . . .44

Evergreens, Pruning of 65

Evergreens, Rearing from seed 51

Evergreens, Transplanting of 60

Evergreens, Uses of 44

Evergreens, Windbreaks of 46

Fence posts, pitch pine 7, 48

Fence posts, Preservative treatment of. .49

Fir, Alpine 31

Fir, balsam 28, 31

Fir, concolor 33

Fir, red 25

Fir, white 33

Fires and forests 3

Forest products 47

Forests and game 71

Forests and irrigation 68

Forests and scenery 70

Forests and streamflow 69

Foxtail pine 11

Game, Forests and 71

Hawthorn . . 67

Humus 69

Insect pests of evergreens 65

Irrigation, Forests and 68

Juniper, Creeping 39

Juniper, Desert 39

Juniper, Low 38

Juniper, Mountain 38

Juniper, Shrubby 39

Juniper, Utah 39

Junipers 34

Juniperus communis sibirica 38

Juniperus, Key to Colorado species. ... 37

Juniperus monosperma 41

Juniperus prostrata 39

Juniperus scopulorum 41

Juniperus utahensis . . 39

Limber pine .
Lodgepole pine

Mistletoe

.12

.15

.67

Nut pine 50

Oils, Volatile 50

Pear 67

Picea engelmanni 23

Picea, Key to Colorado species 20

Picea parryana 21

Pine bark beetles 65

Pine, Bristlecone 11

Pine, Bull 13

Pine family, Key to Genera found in

Colorado 9

Pine, Foxtail 11

Pine, Lodgepole 15

Pine, Nut 50

Pine, Pinyon 19

Pine, Rock 13

Pine, Rocky Mountain yellow 13

Pine, Limber 12

Pine, White 15

Pines, Key to Colorado species 11

Pinus aristata 11

Pinus contorta murrayana 15

Pinus edulis 19

Pinus flaxilis 12

Pinus ponderosa scopulorum 13

Pitch pine fence posts,

Pollen

Pruning evergreens . .

.7, 48

7

. 65

go

EVERGREENS OF COLORADO

Pseudotsuga, Colorado species 25

Pinyon pine 19

Quince 67

Resin • 50

Resinous sap 5

Rocky Mountain yellow pine 13

Rock pine 13

Savins 34

Scenery, Forests and 70

Seed gathering 51

Seedlings, Forest grown 61

Service berry 67

Silver spruce 21

Snow, Conservation of by forests 68

Spruce, Blue 21

Spruce, Douglas 25

Spruce, Silver 21

Streamflow, Forests and 69

Tanbark 49

Timber, Preservative treatment of 49

Tourists, Forests and 71

Tree zones in Colorado 43

Turpentine 6, 50

Volatile oils 50

White pine 15

Windbreaks of evergreens 46

Witches brooms 66

Yellow pine, Rocky Mountain 13

FIRST BIENNIAL REPORT

OF THE

STATE FORESTER

OF THE

State of Colorado

Fort Collins, Colorado
1912

Fort Collins, Colo., Nov. 30, 1912.

To His Excellency, Honorable John P. Shafroth, Governor of

Colorado
Sir:

I have the honor to transmit to you this first public re-
port reviewing the transactions of the office of State Forester
under the Act approved May 27, 1911 said Act being herein re-
printed in full.

Respectfully submitted,

B. O. LONGY^AR,

State Forester.

FORESTRY IN COLORADO

The existence of a forestry problem in this state was recognized
at a comparatively early date. The first steps taken in a legislative
way were those to encourage the planting of trees for protection
from wind, and for shade and timber on our western prairies. The
so-called "timber culture act," passed by the United States Con-
gress in March, 1873, was the first of those laws enacted for the
purpose of inducing homesteaders to take an interest in the great
work of aforestation of our vast wind-swept, semi-arid plains.

Under the provisions, of this act, the settler by planting forty
acres of timber trees could secure title to 160 acres of land. In the
following year, this act was amended, making it somewhat more
favorable by allowing a person to plant a smaller area and secure a
proportionate number of acres of the public domain. Whatever
may have been the hopes of the promoters of this act, it is certain
that it did not yield the results which might have been expected.
Among the things which worked adversely to this law were un-
favorable climate, lack of suitable nursery stock, and lack of knowl-
edge as to the proper methods of planting and care of the trees.

In some cases, railroad companies planted timber groves along
their rights of way, for the sake of demonstrating that the growing
of timber trees on the treeless prairies was practicable. A consider-
able number of windbreaks and groves were planted at about this
time on homesteads in the eastern, or plains, portion of the state.
Some of these old timber claim plantations have persisted in spite
of adverse conditions, depending largely upon the species of trees
originally used and the care which was given them during the
earlier years of their growth. It was thought at one time
that if plantations of this kind became sufficiently numerous certain
climatic changes might be brought about through the influence of
these trees. Whatever the possibilities are along this line, however,
it is evident that the plantings of this nature were infinitesimal as
compared with those necessary to appreciably affect our climatic
conditions. The failure of this law to bring about extensive planting
of trees in this portion of the country led to the repeal of this act
in 1891. This was partly due to the lack of proper supervision
through which abuses arose and frauds were perpetrated in obtain-
ing title to lands under false pretenses.

INCEPTION OF ARBOR DAY. — At about this time an effort was
made to bring about a greater interest in tree planting generally
throughout the country by the setting aside of one day in the year
which should be recognized by the public schools as a day for tree
planting. While the establishment of Arbor Day has become wide-
spread and is observed in nearly every state in the union, in a great

4 FORESTRY IN COLORADO

many cases it has degenerated into a mere program in which trees
are the subject for recitations, essays, or other subjects of like
nature. It is doubtful if at the present time the observance of this
day is doing what it ought in the stimulation of an interest in the
economic side of the question for which it was originated.

Further recognition of a forestry problem in Colorado is
shown by the provisions in our State constitution : ( i ) for the pro-
tection of the forests upon state lands; and (2) the encouraging of
tree planting on private lands through tax exemption laws.

1. PRESERVATION OF FORESTS. — The general assembly shall
enact laws in order to prevent the destruction of, and to keep in
good preservation, the forests upon the lands of the state, or upon
lands of the public domain, the control of which shall be conferred
by congress upon the state. (Constitution, Art. XVIII., Sec. 6).

2. LAND EXEMPT FROM INCREASE TAX. — The general assem-
bly may provide that the increase in the value of private lands caused
by the planting of hedges, orchards and forests thereon, shall not,
for a limited time to be fixed by law, be taken into account in
assessing such lands for taxation. (Constitution, Art. XVIIL, Sec.

STATE FORESTRY ASSOCIATION ORGANIZED. — The importance
of the forests at the head waters of our mountain streams in conserv-
ing and regulating the stream flow and the bearing which this was
believed to have upon the supply of water for irrigation was rec-
ognized at an early date. Serious inroads had already been made
upon the forest resources of the state through the practice of de-
structive lumbering and especially by the ravages of fire. Not only
were the forests themselves in grave danger of extermination, but
it seemed that one of the most important and rapidly growing in-
dustries of the state, that of agriculture by irrigation, was likely
to suffer from the destruction of these forests.

In the fall of 1884 The State Forestry Association was organ-
ized, composed of men who were not merely interested in the pres-
ent welfare of the state, but were looking forward to the perpet-
uation of our native resources. This Association at once became
active in securing State Legislation for the care and protection of
the forests growing on State lands. It was largely, if not wholly,
due to the efforts of this organization that the following law was
enacted :

On April 4, 1885, a law was enacted creating the office of
State Forest Commissioner. Under the provisions of this act all
lands which were covered with forest growth or in any way de-
voted to forest uses belonging to or controlled by the state were
declared to be woodlands. A Forest Commissioner who should have

FORESTRY IN COLORADO 5

the supervision and care of such woodlands was also provided for.
This officer was appointed by the Governor of the State and an
appropriation was made for a nominal salary and the traveling ex-
penses of the Commissioner while engaged in his official duties.
This act provided that the County Commissioners and road over-
seers in each county were to act as conservators of woodlands in
their respective localities, under the direction of the State Forest
Commissioner. These officers were delegated with the power to
enforce the laws and regulations for the protection of such wood-
lands and were also enjoined to encourage tree planting along
water courses and irrigating ditches to the extent of their power.
One of the most important duties devolving upon these forest offi-
cers was the prevention and control of forest fires which were rec-
ognized then, as now, the greatest enemy of the forests.

In the same year, another act was passed, which provided for
the punishing of persons guilty of setting forest fires, either wil-
fully or negligently. Camp fires left burning were considered a
special menace to the conservation of the forests and this matter
was particularly dealt with in this act. Enactment was also made
concerning the posting along public highways of fire notices con-
taining a warning as to the extinguishing of all camp fires before
breaking camp. In these notices we see the fore-runner of our pres-
ent forest fire warnings used by the Government Forest Service on
the National Reserves. Mr. Edgar T. Ensign was the first ap-
pointee to the office of State Forest Commissioner of this state.
Considering the undeveloped state of forestry as a profession in
this country, at that time, the work which Mr. Ensign did in the
matter of securing data, publishing valuable information about our
forests, and lending encouragement to the progress of tree planting
and of conservative forestry is indeed surprising. During the
year 1888, The State Forestry Association was combined with The
State Horticultural Society and this union continued for about three
years and was then dissolved. While The State Forestry Associa-
tion is still continued as a separate organization no other person has
occupied the office of State Forest Commissioner since its occu-
pancy by Mr. Ensign, who resigned the. office due to lack of finan-
cial support by the state.

Under an act of 1897 the office of the Forest Commissioner
was combined with that of the State Commissioner of Fish and
Game. This arrangement lasted but two years, after which the for-
estry part seems to have been lost sight of entirely, as a separate de-
partment, by being transferred to the jurisdiction of the State Board
of Land Commissioners. The State Board of Land Commissioners
was given charge of all matters relating to the sale and cutting of
timber, the posting of fire notices and the control of forest fires.

6 FORESTRY IN COLORADO

In JQ03 an act was passed making the sheriff and his deputies in
each county forest fire wardens, in addition to their other duties.
During the early period of Mr. Ensign's incumbency to the office
of State Forest Commissioner it is interesting to learn that recom-
mendations from the Commissioners of the General Land Office,
supplemented by those from California, Colorado, and several other
states, were made toward the segregation of all exclusively timber
lands belonging to the general government and the formation of
permanent forest reservations. A bill was introduced into the
United States Congress which provided for the withdrawal from
sale or entry of the public forest lands and their classification. It
instituted in the Department of the Interior the offices of Commis-
sioner of Forests and four assistant commissioners, authorized the
appointment of necessary forest inspectors and rangers, and sought
to establish an effective and reasonably complete forest administra-
tion. By a system of licenses for the cutting of public timber it
provided for the needs of settlers and others. Five hundred thou-
sand dollars was named as the amount necessary to carry out the
provisions of the act. This bill, which was introduced in both
branches of the 1887-8 Congress, seems to have made but little, if
any, progress, beyond the committees to which it was referred.

In commenting on this bill, Mr. Ensign further states that a
new bill "differing in some important particulars from the old one
will be prepared and introduced at the next session of Congress."
Just what was the fate of this second bill, however, has not been
learned. In this bill is foreshadowed the later enactments by the
general government creating our present forest reserves and the Or-
ganization of the National Forest Service to care for and manage
them. In 1891 the timber culture act was repealed and in the same
enactment a clause was inserted giving authority to the President
of the United States to set aside forest areas from the public do-
main to serve as forest reservations. Acting under this authority,
Presidents Cleveland and Harrison had, previous to 1894, pro-
claimed seventeen forest reservations with a total estimated area of
17,500,000 acres in the whole United States.

Since that year, additional forest areas have been reserved
until at the present time Colorado stands fifth in the area of its
forest reserves, with a total area of 14,761,900 acres.

Each forest is under the supervision of a forest supervisor
who has under him a force of forest rangers who police the timber
lands for the purpose of fire protection, prevention of timber thiev-
ing, and who also look after the issuing of grazing and timber
cutting permits. The rules and regulations governing the conduct
of all forest officers are fully outlined in the Use Book, published
by the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

FORESTRY IN COLORADO 7

STATE; CONSERVATION COMMISSION APPOINTED. — In 1908,
during the administration of President Roosevelt, Governor Buchtel
was directed to appoint a commission on the conservation of natural
resources in Colorado. The forestry problem constituted one of the
most important matters considered by this body.

A NEW FOREST LAW. — Through the efforts of the Colorado
Conservation Commission and the officers of The State Forestry
Association, a bill creating the office of State Forester was passed
by the last general assembly, 1910-11 of this state. This act in full
reads as follows :

1. BOARD OF AGRICULTURE BE BOARD OF FORESTRY — AP-
POINT STATE FORESTER. — That the State Board of Agriculture shall
have, and hereby is vested with authority, in addition to and in
connection with its duties heretofore provided, as a State Board of
Forestry, and the said The State Board of Agriculture is hereby
given authority to appoint an officer to be known as the State For-
ester. The incumbent in said office to be the professor or instructor
of forestry at The State Agricultural College, said State Forester
to hold office at the will of the State Board of Agriculture and ex-
cept as hereinafter provided, to be under the control of The State
Board of Agriculture. The State Board of Agriculture is further
hereby authorized to furnish the necessary office, furniture, office
supplies, stamps and postage, and office and field equipment, and
such necessary assistance as may be required for the proper conduct
of the office of the State Forester. (Laws 1911, page 419, Sec. i).

2. SALARY OF STATE FORESTER. — The State Forester shall
reeceive a reasonable salary, to be fixed by The Stale Board of
Agriculture, not to exceed $2,500 per year, which sum shall include
his salary as professor or instructor of Forestry at the State Agri-
cultural College, and shall be paid out of the money hereby appro-
priated. (Laws 1911, page 420, Sec. 2,)

3. STATE FORESTER — GENERAL DUTIES. — It shall be the
duty of the State Forester to direct the management of State Forest
Reserves, if any; to collect and publish all data relative to the for-
ests and other timber growing in the State, to co-operate, so far as
is practical, with the Department of Forestry of the United States
Government ; to promulgate and publish rules for the prevention of
forest fires and to cause the same to be posted in the forests upon
State lands ; to study the best conditions for preserving and growing
of trees and forests. (Laws 1911, page 420, Sec. 3.)

4. STATE FORESTER CO-OPERATE WITH LAND COMMISSION-
ERS.— The State Forester shall co-operate with the State Board of

FORESTRY IN COLORADO

Land Commissioners in the matter of granting1 of permits for cut-
ting timber upon State lands, giving them data concerning the
proper timber to be cut and the proper method of cutting and re-
moving the timber and the removal of the stoppings and advising
the State Board of Land Commissioners concerning any matters of
importance relative to the removal of the timber and the replanting
and reforestation of State lands, but nothing herein contained shall
be construed as amending the law at present existing giving the
State Board of Land Commissioners authority in said matter.
(Laws 1911, page 420, Sec. 4.)

5. STATE FORESTER AID IN EXTINGUISHING FOREST FIRES.—
The State Forester shall advise, aid and assist in preventing and
extinguishing forest fires on State lands and private lands and in
the National Forests in the State, but nothing herein contained
shall be construed as amending the law making it the duty of the
Sheriffs of the various Counties of the State to prevent and exting-
uish forest fires. (Laws 1911, page 420, Sec. 5.)

6. STATE FORESTER ASSIST IN TREE CULTURE. — The State
Forester may advise or assist any individual, individuals, association
or corporations, towns or cities, and examine any tract of land that
it may be desired to devote to the growing of trees or forests, to
advise as to the planting thereof and the protection, preservation
or reforestation of any private lands under an agreement with the
owners of such land, whereby the owner or owners of such land'
shall pay to the State Board of Agriculture a sum equal to the to-
tal expense of the State Forester or such assistants as may be ap-
pointed for said purpose. (Laws 1911, page 420, Sec. 6.)

7. SHERIFFS REPORT FOREST FIRES. — It shall be the duty of
the Sheriffs of the various Counties of the State to report as soon
as practical the occurrence of any fire in any forest or forests in
the State, either on private or public lands, and upon receiving
notice from any source of a fire or fires in any forest, it shall be
the duty of the State Forester to aid and assist in extinguishing the
same. (Laws 1911, page 421, Sec. 7.)

S. STATE FORESTER LEARN CAUSE OF FOREST FIRES. — It
shall be the duty of the State Forester to examine and inquire into
the cause of fires occurring in the forests of the State, either on pri-
vate or public lands, to prosecute violation of all laws pertaining to
fires or the cutting or destruction of timber in the State, and report
to the proper authority, any violation or dereliction on the part of
any officer or officers of the State with relation to fires and in rela-
tion to the timber or forests in the State. (Laws 1911, page 421,
Sec. 8.)

FORESTRY IN COLORADO 9

9. COMMISSIONER OF GAME AND FISH POST NOTICES. — It
shall be the duty of the Commissioner of Game and Fish to have
posted, in manner as required by the State Forester all notices pre-
pared by the State Forester concerning the prevention and exting-
uishing of forest fires. (Laws 1911, page 421, Sec. 9.)

10. PENALTY FOR REMOVING NOTICES. — Any person who re-
moves, injures or defaces any sign or signs placed or maintained in
pursuance of Section 9, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor,
and upon conviction, shall be fined not to exceed $25.00 and costs
of prosecution, or imprisonment, not to exceed thirty days in the
county jail, or both, at the discretion of Court. (Laws 1911, page
421, Sec. 10.)

11. STATE FORESTER REPORT TO GOVERNOR. — Said State
Forester shall, biennially, make to the Governor, a report of the
transactions of his office, and shall make such recommendations as
he shall deem necessary with a view toward prescribing laws neces-
sary to make his office an effective factor for the purposes for
which it is created. (Laws 1911, page 421, Sec. n).

12. There is hereby appropriated, for the biennial period of
1911 and 1912, out of any funds in the State Treasury not other-
wise appropriated, the sum of Ten Thousand Dollars ($10,000.00)
for the purpose of carrying into effect the provisions of this act,
and there is hereby appropriated, for each successive biennial period,
the said sum of Ten Thousand Dollars ($10,000.00) for such pur-
poses, and the Auditor of State is hereby authorized to draw his
warrants upon said funds, upon the order of The State Board of
Agriculture, signed by its President and countersigned by its Sec-
retary. (Laws 1911, page 421, Sec. 12.)

This act, which makes the Professor of Forestry of the State
Agricultural College ex-officio State Forester, resembles in this
respect the previous enactments concerning the officers of State
Entomologist, State Geologist, State. Mining Engineer, and State
Chemist, in the fact that this officer is, like the others, connected
with one of the various state institutions.

While this is not a complete record of the forestry legislation
in Colorado, it traces the main features of the matter up to the pres-
ent time. The problem which now confronts the official in this new
office of State Forester is hardly less difficult than that with which
the earlier Forest Commissioner had to contend with this excep-
tion, that the forest areas belonging to the state are much smaller
than the timbered lands under the supervision of the Forest Com-
missioner. Then, too, the work which the National Forest Service
has inaugurated upon government lands has helped to educate the
people to the idea of forest conservation. The example set by other

io ORGANIZATION

states in the handling- of their forest resources has also furnished
examples which may prove suggestive of the work which Colorado
should undertake.

Organization and Lines of Work Followed Since the

New Law

Following' the passage of this law and the coming
into office of the present incumbent, Mr. \Y. W. Robbins, instruct-
or of Botany and Forestry, was appointed deputy. The first ap-
portionment of the appropriation for carrying on the work of this
office was not received until during January, 1912. Believing that
the protection of our forests from fires was the most important
thing to be taken up, work was at once started in the organizing
of the county officers concerned in the control of forest fires under
previous enactment. The services of two special deputies, who were
men of wide acquaintance and considerable experience in public
affairs, were secured as special deputies. Mr. I. W. Bennett, of Fort
Collins, and Mr. James F. Kyle, of Montrose, were appointed to
assist in this work. The matter was first taken up with the County
Commissioners and the sheriff of Larimer County and the follow-
ing set of resolutions was duly passed by the Board of County Com-
missioners :

Fort Collins, Colo., Apr. 15, 1912.
Tt) JJ7Jio)ii It May Concern :

This is to certify that the foregoing resolution was adopted
by the Board of County Commissioners of Larimer County, Colo-
rado, in regular session on the I2th day of April, 1912.

A. P. GREENACRE, County Clerk.

By T. H. GARRETT, Deputy Clerk.
(Seal)

Whereas, on the loth day of April, 1912, the Board of County
Commissioners of Larimer County met in consultation with a com-
mittee from the State Board of Agriculture, consisting of A. A.
Edwards, President of the Board; B. O. Longyear, State Forester;
J. W. Bennett, and J. F. Farrar, Attorney for the Board of Agri-
culture, together with Harold A. K. Marshall, Supervisor of the
Colorado National Forest, for the discussion of a plan for the pre-
vention and control of forest fires; and

Whereas, the law of the State of Colorado, Revised Statutes of
1908. Sec. 1280 and 1281. provides that the Sheriffs of the respec-
tive Counties of the State shall act as fire wardens in cases of prairie
or forest fires, and authorizes the sheriff, under-sheriff or deputies,

ORGANIZATION 1 1

to require the aid of such persons of their respective counties as may
be necessary for controlling and extinguishing any forest or prairie
fire, the expense thereof to be borne by the County of Larimer ; and

Whereas, The Statutes of the State of Colorado further vest
in the Board of Agriculture, authority as a Forestry Board, Laws
of 1911, Chapter 138, pursuant to which authority the said State
Board of Agriculture has appointed B. O. Longyear as State For-
ester; and

Whereas, the State Board of Agriculture, through its depart-
ment of forestry, is desirous of securing a definite agreement be-
tween the boards of county commissioners of the various counties
of the State of Colorado, and the Forest Service of the United
States Government, wherein the Counties and the Forest Service,
through its various officials, may act in harmony in the matter of
the prevention and control of forest fires, with a definite agreement
as to the payment of any expense incurred; and

Whereas, the Supervisor of the Colorado National Forest has
heretofore cooperated with the officials of Larimer County in the
matter of forest fires, and the present supervisor, Harold A. E.
Marshall, expressly states that in-so-far as he has jurisdiction, he
will co-operate with the authorities of the State where any fire
occurs in or threatens any portion of the Colorado National Forest;
and

Whereas, the State Forester of Colorado is endeavoring to
secure a general agreement with the Forest Service of the United
States Government which will cover the question of the prevention
and control of forest fires throughout the whole state of Colorado;
and

Whereas, this Board realizes the necessity of the people of this
County in the preservation of the timber upon the water-sheds trib-
utary to the streams which supply water for irrigation and the ne-
cessity of thorough organization of all persons or institutions inter-
ested, and recognizes the duty of the officials of this County for
that reason, to prevent and control any forest fires which may occur
within the County :

Now therefore, Be It Resolved: — That the Board of County
Commissioners of Larimer County desires to encourage the pre-
vention and control of forest fires, and it hereby heartily recom-
mends unto the Sheriff of this County, the exercise of all reasonable
care and diligence in the prevention and control of forest fires, and
hereby agrees that any and all legitimate expense incurred by the
sheriff, under-sheriff, or deputies, pursuant to the laws of the State
of Colorado, will be properly allowed, if presented in due time, as
a bill or bills against the County; nothing herein contained to be
understood that this Board will waive its duty of properly investi-

12 ORGANIZATION

gating the necessity, reasonableness and legality of such bills.

Resolved further, That this Board desires to co-operate, in-so-
far as it legally can do so, with the officers of the United States
Government in the control of fires upon the Colorado National For-
est, in-so-far as that forest lies within Larimer County, Colorado,
and will be glad to receive the aid and assistance, financially and
otherwise, of said United States Government officials.

Resolved, further, That if a definite agreement can be reached
by the State Forester with the Forest Service of the United States
Government this Board will enter into such agreement in-so-far as
their jurisdiction lies, provided the same be equitable and in accord-
ance with law.

The counties of the state which contain forest lands, forty-two
in number, were equally divided between these two deputies. The
principal work of these deputies consists in visiting the county seats
of the counties, placing the matter before the sheriff and County
Commissioners, and securing, if possible, a favorable set of resolu-
tion^ concerning the financing of the work of fire control. In most
cases, no active opposition to the carrying out of the law has been
met after its meaning was made clear and in the majority of cases
where resolutions have been passed they are the same as those
passed by the County Commissioners of Larimer county.

The counties in which this organization work is being carried
on are given in the following list which also shows the number of
deputy sheriffs that have been named for appointment. Those coun-
ties in which the boards of commissioners have, up to this time,
passed resolutions favoring forest fire control by the county fire
wardens are marked with an * :

Name of County. Number of Deputies Named

Archuleta

Boulder* 1 1

Chaffee 18

Clear Creek 17

Conejos

Costilla

Custer

Delta 7

Dolores

Douglas* 13

Eagle

El Paso

Fremont 9

Garfield* . 21

ORGANIZATION

Gilpin 7

Grand 1 5

Gunnison i 16

Hinsdale 12

Huerfano* 25

Jackson

Jefferson* 3

Larimer* 23

Lake 18

La Plata

Las Animas 23

Mesa 8

Mineral

Mof f at „ 1 7

Montrose , 10

Montezuma

Ouray 1 5

Park 18

Pitkin* ! 23

Pueblo* _ 5

Rio Blanca 16

Rio Grande ,

Routt 1 6

Saguache

San Miguel

Summit 7

Teller 19

392

APPOINTMENT o$ SPECIAL FOREST FIRE WARDENS. — After
several conferences with the State Fish and Game Commissioner,
197 special forest fire wardens were commissioned from the list of
special deputy game wardens. These wardens were selected on
account of their location and other desirable qualities to serve in
such a capacity. These appointments were made on a blank
form, which was accompanied in each case with a copy of
the compiled forest laws of the state and a set of special instructions.
These appointments expire March 31, 1913.

BADGES OF DEPUTY FIRE WARDENS. — It was believed desirable
to furnish a badge to each deputy selected by the sheriff to serve as
a deputy fire warden. These badges are in the form of a nickel
star and bear the following inscription :

14 ORGAN I/ATIOX AND COOPERATION

COLORADO
FOREST SERVICE
DEPUTY SHERIFF

They are supplied to the sheriffs of those counties where for-
ests exist, and a receipt is taken by the State Forester for the num-
ber of badges, which remain the property of the Department of State
Forestry.

FIRIC REPORTS. — Special fire report blanks are furnished to the
chief fire warden of each county with the request that they be used
in reporting the occurrence of fires. These blanks call for data as
to location and extent of the fire; cause of the fire; estimated dam-
age, and the cost of fighting' the fire. During the past season the
moisture conditions generally have been such as to reduce the fire
danger to a great degree, and only a few fires have been reported
Of those reported, one was apparently started by fishermen, while
the other four were started in the dry grass along a railroad, evident-
ly from locomotives. The first fire was reported to this department
by the Forest Service. It burned over about seven acres in a timber
slash following a timber sale on state lands. The latter fires were
all put out before any timber was burned.

COMPILATION OF STATE FORESTRY LAWS. — The large number
of laws dealing with forestry which have been enacted in the State
of Colorado made it desirable to have these laws compiled in a con-
venient form for use and for distribution among persons concerned
in the carrying out of these laws. In a number of cases these laws
appear to cover much the same ground and in others apparent con-
flicts appear. All the laws concerning forestry, however, have been
included in this compilation, which has been issued in the form of
a bulletin of twenty-four pages. A 2,000 edition has been issued.
It is expected that wide use will be made of this publication and
numerous calls have been made for it by people living outside our
own state.

CO-OPERATIVE AGREEMENT WITH FOREST SERVICE. — Early in
tlie work of organizing county fire wardens it was found desirable
to have some definite understanding with the officers of the Forest
Service in order to avoid possible conflicts of authority and to fur-
ther the work of controlling forest fires. After numerous confer-
ences with the District Forester, an agreement was drawn up which
seemed to cover the ground in a manner satisfactory to both the
forest service and State. 'Phis agreement, when finally submitted
to the Bureau of Forestry at Washington, was found to be accept-
able in the main and after some minor chancres, the execution of

ORGANIZATION AND COOPERATION 15

the contract was closed by the signature of the Secretary of Agri-
culture.
Co-operative Agreement Between Colorado State Board of Forestry

and the Forest Service of the United States Department of

Agriculture :

This agreement, entered into this seventh day of October, 1912,
by and between the State of Colorado, by and through the State
Board of Agriculture, party of the first part, and the United States
of America, by and through the Secretary of Agriculture, party of
the second part, WITNESSETH :

WHEREAS, It is believed that a more efficient protection of
public, State, and private property against forest fires can be had
through co-operation by the State and Federal governments,

Now, THEREFORE, in order that a plan of co-operation between
the officers of the State and the officers of the United States Forest
Service may be more clearly outlined and defined, it is hereby
mutually agreed as follows :

FIRST. — That this agreement is in no way intended to restrict
the officers of the State or of the Forest Service in, or relieve them
of, the performance of any of their duties imposed upon them by
law with respect to the prevention and extinguishment of forest
fires.

SECOND. — That this agreement relates to all lands within the
State of Colorado, including lands held in private ownership, lands
owned by the State, and lands of the United States, both reserved
and unreserved.

THIRD. — The use of the term "fire warden" throughout this
•agreement is for the sake of convenience in designating the officers
of the State, and includes county sheriffs, under-sherif fs, and depu-
ties, and all other state and county officers whose duty it is under
the laws of the State of Colorado, to prevent and extinguish forest
fires.

FOURTH. — Whenever any fire warden discovers a forest fire,
he shall, if possible, proceed at once to extinguish it, and shall, there-
after, as soon as possible, report the occurence of the fire to the
nearest officer of the Forest Service and to the State Forester. If,
however, he is unable to control the fife without assistance he shall
immediately report the fact to the nearest officer of the Forest Serv-
ice and to the county sheriff. In like manner any officer of the
Forest Service discovering a fire, whether on National Forest land
or not, shall extinguish it, if possible, and thereafter, as soon as poss-
ible, report the occurrence of the fire to the county sheriff. If he be
unable, however, to control the fire without assistance, he shall
immediately report the fact to the sheriff of the County where the
fire occurs.

1 6 ORGANIZATION AND COOPERATION

FIFTH. — Whenever a forest fire is discovered by a fire warden
upon National Forest land, the extinguishment of such fire shall be
in charge of the fire warden until an officer of the Forest Service
arrives, whereupon the said Forest officer shall assume charge and
may call on the fire warden for assistance, and in such case the fire
warden shall render all assistance possible to the said officers of the
Forest Service, and a like procedure shall be followed where the fire
is upon lands other than National Forest land and threatens National
Forest land. The officers of the Forest Service shall determine
whether or not the fire threatens National Forest land.

SIXTH. — All forest fires upon lands other than National Forest
land shall be in charge of the fire wardens except as provided in
the preceding paragraph. However, whenever a fire is discovered
by a Forest Officer on lands other than Forest lands which does not
threaten National Forest land, he shall assume charge of such fire
tin Jii! the arrival of the fire warden, whereupon said fire warden shall
assume charge, and thereafter Forest officers shall render no fur-
ther assistance unless in the opinion of the Forest officer his assist-
ance is necessary, and whenever such fires are discovered by a fire
warden the officers of the Forest Service shall upon request of the
fire warden render assistance whenever the performance of their offi-
cial duties will permit; Provided, whenever such assistance is ren-
dered by Forest officers the expenses, exclusive of salary, incurred
by them, shall be defrayed by the county or counties in which the
fire is located.

SEVENTH. — Whenever fire wardens aid or assist in the exting-
uishment of fires upon a National Forest, they shall be paid di-
rectly by the Forest Service at the rate of not less than 35 cents per
hour, except the County Sheriff, who shall be paid at the rate of 50
cents per hour, for such time as they may be engaged in fighting
said fires.

EIGHTH. — Whenever fire wardens aid or assist the officers of
the Forest Service in the control or extinguishment of fires upon land
other than National Forest lands, and which threaten National
Forest lands, they shall be paid by the Forest Service at the rate pre-
scribed in the preceding paragraph, unless the fire is located upon
the unreserved public domain and arrangements can be made with
the United Stales General Land Office to defray the expenses, or
unless such fire is located upon state or private lands and arrange-
ments can be made witli the proper officials of the state or of the
county or counties within which the fire is located, or the private
owner or owners of said lands, to defray the expenses or any part
thereof.

NINTH. — Whenever a fire on National Forest land or threat-
ening National Forest land is discovered by a fire warden he shall,

ORGANIZATION AND COOPERATION 17

before incurring any expense to be paid by the United States for
the purpose of extinguishing the fire, report the fire to a properly
authorized Forest officer, who will authorize such expenditure as
is necessary to control the fire ; not exceeding, however, the amount
which may be available from any appropriation then subsisting
made by Congress for that purpose.

TENTH. — It is further agreed and understood that for the pur-
pose of this agreement all Forest officers who have been or may
hereafter be appointed fire wardens by the Governor of the State of
Colorado, as provided for in the laws of 1909, Section i, page 394,
shall be considered officers of the Forest Service and not officers
of the State of Colorado, and all provisions of this agreement apply-
ing to other Forest officers shall apply equally to them.

ELEVENTH. — It is further understood and agreed that the re-
sponsibility of the respective parties hereto shall not in any wise be
extended beyond the express or necessarily implied provisions of the
laws of the State of Colorado and of the United States of America,
and the respective rules and regulations made pursuant thereto.

IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the hand and seal of the party of the
first part, on the date first hereinbefore written, and the signature
and seal of the Secretary of Agriculture, are hereunto affixed this,
the 1 2th day of November, 1912.

STATE OF COLORADO,

By B. O. LONGYEAR,
State Forester and State Board of Agriculture.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,
By JAMES WII^ON.

Secretary of Agriculture.

The securing of this agreement is considered as one of the most
important results of the work in this office during the year. It
is believed that it will not only facilitate the matter of protecting
our forests from fires by establishing a basis for harmonious work-
ing of the Forest Service and the county wardens, but will also
greatly increase the interest in forest fire protection among all the
county authorities.

A four-page pamphlet of instructions for county and state fire
wardens has been compiled. This pamplet includes the co-opera-
tive agreement with the Government Forest Service, together with
some special instructions.

An effort has been made to secure a similar agreement with
the Department of the Interior concerning the public lands in this
state, but such an agreement has not yet been reached. An arrange-
ment has been made, however, with the Denver office whereby the

1 8 COOPERATIVE PROJECT

following form of telegram may be sent to the Chief Field Division
at Denver in case of forest fires on such lands :
Vacant public lands.

Telegram, Govt. Rates.

, Colorado.

P.O.

Date

U. S. General Land Office,

Ernest and Cranmer Building,
Denver, Colorado.

Forest fire burning on Section , Township

Range , * miles distant from

railroad station. Origin of fire area

burned over ... ... acres. Remarks :

.Signature.

CO-OPERATIVE TIMBER PRESERVING PLANT.

During October, 1911, the Forest Service, through its officers
of District No. 2, decided to establish a co-operative timber pre-
serving plant at the State Agricultural College. Later in the same
year, The State Board of Agriculture and Forestry placed the
matter in the hands of the State Forester to carry out the arrange-
ments relative to the establishment of this work. A very complete
timber preserving plant is now in use under the direction of the
State Forester. It consists of a separate building containing one
7-horse power upright boiler, a creosote pump operated by steam,
one receiving tank, one dipping tank, one storage tank. These tanks
are so arranged that the preservative material can be heated by
means of steam from the boiler which is passed through coils of
pipe in the bottom of each tank. The preservative fluid is first
drawn from the storage tank into the dipping tank, where the
posts, shingles, or other timbers are placed for treatment. Here
the temperature is raised to the desired point for a specified length
of time, after which it is drawn off into the receiving tank which
is situated below the floor for this purpose. From this tank the
material is then pumped back into the storage tank by means of
the steam pump.

This plant is adapted to the open tank process of treating such
timbers as fence posts, shingles, and other small pieces of timber.
Under the agreement, the Forest Service supplied the boiler and

COOPERATIVE PROJECT 19

two tanks and the rest of the equipment was purchased from State
Forestry funds. The understanding between the Forest Service
and the State Forester allows the Forest Service to make use of
this plant whenever it will not interfere with its use by the depart-
ment. Results of co-operative experiments shall be published only
by mutual consent of both parties.

The following project has been outlined by the Forest Service :

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

FOREST SERVICE

Forest Products Laboratory

Rocky Mountain Division

Project L-39
In Co-operation with the Colorado State Forestry Department,

Fort Collins

Experiments with Engelmann Spruce, Lodge-pole Pine, and Alpine

Fir Fence Posts.

WORKING PLAN

PURPOSE. — Reliable data are lacking concerning the durability,
both treated and untreated, of the timbers of the Rocky Mountain
legion suitable for posts when set under conditions of actual serv-
ice in the farming districts. Furthermore, there are no experi-
ments now under way which will yield the data needed for the
Plains region where nearly all the farming is carried on. Ma-
terial is now needed for a few trial runs at the plant erected at the
Agricultural College at Fort Collins as a co-operative undertaking
between the College and the Forest Service. The opportunity of
making the trial runs on material secured on the National Forests
under conditions that allow full information as to its origin, and
placed so as to afford means for careful future inspections, is thus
presented. The purpose in making the experiments will be :

(1) To determine the relative absorption of creosote in an
open tank treatment of Englemann spruce, lodgepole
pine, and alpine fir in the round form.

(2) To determine a definite time of treatment that can be
recommended for lodgepole pine posts for use with a

single treating tank.

(3) To determine the absorption of Engelmann spruce,
lodgepole pine, and alpine fir when given a brush treat-
ment of creosote and of crude oil.

(4) To determine the life of untreated, brush-treated, and
open tank treated fence posts of Engelmann spruce,
lodgepole pine, and alpine fir, when set in the Plains re-
gion under typical farm conditions.

20 COOPERATIVE PROJECT

(5) To determine the value of beveling the tops of fence
posts in a dry climate.

MATERIAL. — The material will consist of sound fire-killed
posts approximately 7~ft. long and with 5-in tops. They will be
cut on the Colorado National Forest near Ward, and shipped to the
plant at Fort Collins on Government bill of lading. They will con-
sist of approximately the following number by species :

120 Lodgepole pine.

1 20 Engelmann spruce.
50 Alpine fir.

The cost of the posts will be a little more than twenty cents
apiece at the plant (10 cents apiece for cutting and delivering on
car at Ward, and from 10 to 12 cents for freight).

The preservative will be furnished by the College and also any
labor necessary in treating the posts.

METHODS

DIVISION OF MATERIAL. — The material will be carefully in-
spected at the plant and numbered with brass tags, and in addition
stamped with steel dies. A card form will be numbered to corre-
spond with each post and its complete history will be kept on that
card which will be filed at the State Forester's office, and consti-
tute the permanent record for the Agricultural College. The For-
est Service will keep its records on the standard forms for experi-
mental post records.

One-half of the material for each type of treatment will be
beveled in order that the value of this practice in a dry climate may
be determined.

The material will be divided as follows for treatment :

J20 posts lodgepole pine

— ---------- ................ , 20 posts Engelmann spruce

(^ 15 posts Alpine fir

Set after brush treating with ( 20 posts lodgepole pine

"creosote" ................ 1 20 posts Engelmann spruce

( 15 posts Alpine fir

Set after brush treating with J 20 posts lodgepole pine

crude oil .................. |^ 20 posts Engelmann spruce

Set after open tank treatment ( 20 posts lodgepole pine

No. 1 .................... ./ 20 posts Engelmann spruce

(20 posts Alpine fir

Set after open tank treatment J 20 posts lodgepole pine

No. 2 .................... \ 20 posts Engelmann spruce

Set after open tank treatment f 20 posts lodgepole pine

No. 3 .................... \ 20 posts Engelmann spruce

COOPERATIVE; PROJECT 21

TREATMENT. — In the brush treatments two coats will be applied
at periods at least twenty-four hours apart. The oil will be applied
at a temperature as close to 200° F as possible with wire-bound
brushes. The weight of each post will be taken before and after
treatment to determine the absorption. The total amount of oil
used will also be obtained from the weights of the vessel used to
hold the preservative, the latter figure including the losses due to
evaporation and dripping. The creosote used will be furnished by
the College and will be obtained from a local water-gas plant. (A
sample from this concern has already been submitted to the Forest
Products Laboratory for examination.) The crude oil will be ob-
tained from the Boulder oil fields. Samples of both oils used will
be taken at the time of the experiments.

In the open tank treatments, three runs will be made. The
principal objects in these runs will be, ( I ) to determine the relative
absorption of the different species when given the same treatment
in the round form; (2) to determine a definite time of treatment
for lodgepole pine and if possible for Engelmann spruce that can
be recommended as efficient (without change of oil bath) for say
a five-pound per post absorption; and (3) to furnish posts with a
thorough butt treatment of some preservative available for future
use for comparison in durability with untreated and brush-treated
posts. The preservative will be furnished by the College and will
be the same as that used in the brush treatments. The runs will be
approximately as follows, though the length of time may be varied
during the tests if necessary to obtain the results desired :
No. i 2 hours hot o hours cooling
No. 2 i hour hot o hours cooling
No. 3 i hour hot 6 hours cooling to about 100° F.

FUTURE WORK. — The posts will be set on the College farm by
the College authorities in the regular course of their operations.
Reasonable care will be taken to see that the posts treated in differ-
ent ways shall be set in comparable sites and none should be placed
near pig styes, chicken yards, barn yards, etc., where they would
be subjected to abnormal conditions as compared with the posts set
in the open fields.

Inspections will be made by representatives of the Forest Serv-
ice. Notice of the time when the inspection will be made will be
sent to the Fofestry Department of the Agricultural College. Also,
should the Forestry Department desire to make an inspection of
the posts, notice should be sent to the Director of the Forest Prod-
ucts Laboratory at Madison, Wisconsin. A copy of the results of
an inspection by either party should be sent to the co-operator not
present.

In accordance with the regular policy of the Forest Service

22 STATE FORESTRY PROJECTS

in its co-operative agreements of this kind, the right to first publi-
cation of data resulting from the posts described in this working
plan is reserved to the United States Department of Agriculture.
This right may be waived by the Director of the Forest Products
Laboratory if the Forestry Department of the State Agricultural
College desires to use the data before the U. S. Forest Service has
published the results.

During August of the present year the first experimental post
treating was done, in which 270 posts of the three species men-
tioned were treated, some with coal tar, some with creosote oil, by
the open tank process, while others were given brush treatment with
these two materials. A number of posts were left without treat-
ment to be set in that condition as checks upon the effects of the
preservative treatment. These posts are now being set upon the
college farm and will be inspected at intervals during their life.

STATE FORESTRY PROJECTS.

Several line^ of work concerning the growing of trees for
timber, and other purposes apart from fruit growing, which seem
to call for study and investigation have been outlined as projects
to be carried on as time and money permit. The following proj-
ects have been outlined in detail and some work has been done in
connection with each of them.

PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT OF FENCE POSTS.

(State Forestry Investigation).

PROJECT I.

The co-operative timber treating plant, which is now installed
on the College grounds and which has been put in charge of the
State Forester, makes it possible to take up the investigation of
treating cheap and rapid growing species of timber for fence posts.
The office of the Forest Products Laboratory, at Boulder, has of-
fered a suggestive outline for carrying on this work on which the
following is based :

SCOPE OF THE WORK. — This investigation is undertaken pri-
marily to demonstrate ways and secure data on prolonging the serv-
ice period of fence posts by means of one or more principal methods
of preservative treatment. The cheap and rapid growing species
such as can be readily grown on the farms of Colorado are to be
most extensively used.

The investigation should extend over a period of twenty-five

STATS FORESTRY PROJECTS 23

years, or longer, if necessary, in order to furnish the required in-
formation.

Most of the posts used in this work are to be set on the Col-
lege farm or other lands under the control of the State Board of
Agriculture.

Co-operative work with farmers and corporations in the treat-
ment and setting of posts and the preservative treating of shingles
may also be undertaken. In such cases, the proper records should
be made and data secured as in the other work.

The results are to form the basis for reports and recommenda-
tions in regard to fence post preservation.

A. GATHERING STATISTICS ON PRESENT CONDITIONS. — Make
a study of typical fencing conditions in the following districts of
the State:

a. South Platte district;

b. Arkansas Valley district;

c. Western Slope Fruit District;

d. Plains district.

Gather statistics on the following points:

1. Amount of fencing, number of posts used annually, total
cost of posts and of setting ;

2. Present source of fence posts ;

3. Kind of posts: — species, size, length of service, cost of
posts and of setting

total
annual

4. Means of lengthening the life of posts commonly used ;

B. WORKING PLAN. — A working plan in sufficient detail to
enable different men to carry on the work to its completion is
necessary. This in order to perpetuate the results of the in-
vestigation should any change in its supervision occur.

TREATMENT OF POSTS. — In order to secure reliable data for
comparison with treated posts, the usual methods of setting posts
without any preservative treatment are to be used. The different
species of timber commonly used for posts in this state are to be
tried in the various ways mentioned, except perhaps in the case of
long-lived timbers, such as cedar, catalpa, and Black-locust. In
such cases, the preservative treatment alone may be omitted.

TREATMENT. — The following methods of treatment are to be
followed with a sufficient number of posts, not less than ten, to give
reliable results.

1. Set green, with bark on; not treated.

2. Set green, peeled; not treated.

3. Set green, with bark on ; butts treated.

4. Set green, peeled; butts treated.

24 STATE FORESTRY PROJECTS

5. Seasoned, not treated.

6. Green, butts charred.

7. Seasoned, butts charred.

8. Seasoned, butts brush treated with creosote.

9. Seasoned, butts treated with creosote, open tank.

10. Other preservative treatments, crude oil, copper sulphate,
Etc.

SOURCE AND COST OF PRESERVATIVES. — In connection with the
matter of treating the posts, some study should be given to the se-
curing of creosote at the lowest possible cost.

By products of this nature, produced by our local gas plants in
the state, should therefore be given a thorough trial.

RECORDS. — Carefully kept records form an essential part of
this work and make it possible to continue it without confusion or
loss of information. The card-filing system of keeping all records
of treating, setting and inspecting the posts, will be used.

Each method of treatment used shall be described on a num-
bered card, with date ; kind of material used ; source of material ;
cost of material; a detailed description of the process, length of
time, amount of material used, penetration and absorption per post,
and any other information of importance.

Each post is to be numbered in such a way as to be easily
identified any time during its period of service.

A record card is to be kept for each individual post. This
card shall bear the following data :

Xumber of post; species of timber; size and form; source of
the timber; date when cut; number of the treatment given; condi-
tion of the timber when treated; date of setting the post; locality
where set ; soil conditions where set ; itemized costs of post ; treat-
ment, setting, total cost of post set. The card shall also bear an
inspection record showing each inspection period, and the estimated
condition of the post at each inspection.

Inspection of the post should be made each year, for untreated
posts, and for treated posts as often as necessary to know their con-
dition. As decay is usually most rapid close to the ground sur-
face, the post may be examined quite readily by removing the soil
to a depth of four or five inches at one side.

C. GROWING CHEAP EENCE POST TIMBER ON COLORADO
EARMS. — A study should be made of the production of cheap tim-
ber suited for fence posts, to be treated with some inexpensive and
efficient preservative.

a. Study the trees now growing on the farms, along ditch
banks, in timber plantations, and the native second growth along
rivers and streams ;

b. Determine the rate of growth of each species under the

STATE FORESTRY PROJECTS 25

different conditions; the length of time required to produce post-
size trees, and the number of posts produced per acre.

c. Estimate the cost of production and determine which spe-
cies lead in cheapness under various conditions.

d. Plant various species experimentally on the College farm,
and on co-operative land in other districts, for the purpose of de-
termining the best system of management under average conditions.

SHADE AND TIMBER TREE SURVEY OF COLORADO
STATE FORESTRY PROJECT II.

For more than thirty years, tree planting for shade and timber
purposes has been carried on in Colorado, both on private and on
municipal lands. At first, our native cottonwoods were used for
planting on account of their being most available and because they
were known to be adapted to the soil and the climatic conditions.
Numerous other species of trees, however, have been introduced
during this period and many of these are now growing in door-
yards, along the streets of the older towns and cities or in planta-
tions upon the farms of our State.

The results of these efforts in tree planting, which were some-
times failures as well as successes, have been in a measure experi-
mental. The varied conditions of soil and climate which are to be
met with in this State call for a study of the species best suited to
each principal region. The trees now growing here offer valuable
data for prospective tree planting and this information should be
made available to any who desire it.

OBJECT OF SURVEY. — This survey contemplates the securing
of all such data from the trees now growing within our borders,
and which have been planted for shade, ornament or timber pur-
poses, as will enable the office of State Forester to make recom-
mendations along these and similar lines.

DISTRICTS COVERED. — The various districts covered by this
survey may be the same as outlined in the Fence Post Investigation
and include the following:

a. South Platte district ;

b. Arkansas Valley district;

c. Western Slope Fruit district ;

d. Plains district.

The shade tree surveys are to be confined to the principal cities
and towns of each district, providing they offer some considerable
data.

The timber claim plantings, which are to be found in each re-
gion visited, should be surveyed for such data as they may offer
along these lines.

26 STATE P\>RESTRY PROJECTS

WORKING PLANS.

A. Shade and ornamental trees.

1. Make a census of the species of trees on at least the prin-

cipal streets where planting has been done over a suffi-
cient period of time to furnish reliable data.

2. Adaptability to soil conditions, such as kind of soil, mois-

ture in soil alkaline soils.

3. Xote the degree of adaptability to the climatic conditions,

such as relation to early and late frosts, winds, hail,
sleet and snow, and sunburn.

4. Liability to injuries from insects, fungi, smelter fumes

and other gases.

5. Rate of growth and period of maturity.

6. Objectionable features in habit of growth, tendency to

litter, and unpleasing esthetic qualities.

7. General observations concerning the planting methods em-

ployed; spacing of trees, pruning, beheading or other
form of mutilation and other features, desirable and
undesirable.

8. Photographs should be taken of the best types of trees

and the best planted streets and private places, together
with pictures illustrating the common mistakes in plant-
ing, pruning, lack of care, or other features.

B. Timber and Windbreak Plantings.

A careful study should be made of the principal timber planta-
tions in each district, especially where these are of considerable age,
as follows :

1. Species of trees planted; purpose of plantation; form and

area of plantation ; soil conditions.

2. History of planting: — Date of planting, source of the

stock; how planted: care as to cultivation, irrigation,
pruning, protection from stock and fire.

3. Measurements : — These should comprise the height, trunk

diameters, rate of growth ; present volume per acre
in cordwood, posts, poles, and lumber.

4. Financial estimates, expenses : — Cost of land, taxes,
nursery stock, labor, interest.

Revenues : — Fuel or other timber, nuts or other tree prod-
ucts; windbreak service; present value of stand.
RECORDS. — Permanent records should be compiled in a form
suitable for filing.

In the Shade Tree Survey, the town or city may constitute the
filing unit. Each record should bear the altitude, range of tem-
perature, and other features affecting the climate, together with
the other data given under each topic of study.

EXPERIMENTS. EXTENSION 27

The Timber Planting records should show the full history of
each plantation examined, as far as obtainable. In addition to the
data secured under each head, may be added remarks concerning
improved methods of management, suggested by present condi-
tions, which might be used to advantage.

EXPERIMENTAL TREE PLANTING.

During the spring of 1912, 45 species of trees, mostly foreign
to the state, were planted experimentally in the College nursery.
The stock consisted mainly of seedlings and comprised over 1,500
individual trees. Additional" nursery stock has been purchased for
further planting and consists mainly of such conifers as it is be-
lieved may prove valuable for ornamental and forest plantations
in this state. These trees are to be watched carefully during sev-
eral years to determine their hardiness and adaptability to this
climate. Observations will also be made concerning the best meth-
ods of cultivation, irrigation, and pruning of trees.

CO-OPERATIVE BASKET WILLOW PLANTING.

Basket willow growing in this country is becoming a matter
of considerable interest and several inquiries from persons living
in this state have been received concerning the possibilities of carry-
ing on this industry here. To test out this matter on a small scale,
the Forest Service has supplied a number of varieties of the com-
moner species of basket willows for experimental planting. These
have been set on the College land and certain varieties are already
showing excellent growth. It is believed that it will be possible
in another season to supply enough cuttings from our own holt to
establish a few small experimental plats on river bottom or other
wet land, in co-operation with farmers.

EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION WORK.

The lines of work of an educational nature that have been
carried on have consisted in the answering of correspondence in
relation to tree planting and other forestry matters.

Several addresses have been delivered at farmers' institutes,
teachers' associations, and women's clubs upon various subjects
that pertain to forestry.

The following is part of an address delivered before the An-
nual Meeting of The Colorado State Forestry Association in Den-
ver, February 15, 1912.

28 EXTENSION

THE NEW FORESTRY LAW.

In discussing the new forestry law it may not be out of place
to briefly review the enactments that have gone before this and
which sought to deal with the forestry problem in our State.

Our State constitution is unique in that it calls for the enact-
ment of laws to conserve the forests.

In 1884 The State Forestry Association was organized.

In 1885 a Forest Commissioner "soon without a salary," Mr.
E. T. Ensign, was the first and only person to fill this position.
The reports which he made while acting in the capacity of Forest
Commissioner were equal to any and superior to many that are
now being published in other states. Had Mr. Ensign received
the financial support in his work which its importance warranted,
the history of forestry in Colorado would certainly read differently
from what it now does. Under this law, the Count}' Commission-
ers and the road overseers were to act as conservators of woodlands
in their respective localities.

In 1897, State forests placed under supervision of a department
of Forestry, Fish, and Game. Inside of two years, the forestry
part of this arrangement had been lost from view.

In 1901 a law was passed relative to campers' and hunters'
licenses, for all persons outside their home county.

In 1903, an Act was passed making the sheriffs and deputies
forest fire wardens in each respective county.

In 1904, two political platforms are said to have contained
planks on State Forestry.

In 1905, The State Board of Land Commissioners was en-
trusted with the sale of timber from State lands.

In 1908, the Governor, upon request of the President of the
United States, appointed the members of the Colorado Conserva-
tion Commission.

It has been largely through the efforts of this Commission that
the present forestry bill has been framed and enacted. This in
itself is, I feel, a sufficient guarantee that the men who are truly
concerned with conservation in our State are behind the matter
and will not see it come to naught.

( Mrief Abstract of the Law — See p^gc /).

THE WORK AT PRESEXT OUTLINED.

A. FIRE CONTROL. — Pre-eminent among the duties imposed
upon tin- State Forester by this Act is the protection of the State's
forests from the fire menace.

Although the law of 1903 makes it the duty of the sheriffs
of each county to fight the forest fires within their jurisdiction,

EXTENSION 29

there has never been any organized effort to carry on this work.
The Federal Forest Service will undoubtedly welcome any serious
efforts on the part of the State to control the fires that start upon
its own lands. The prime consideration, therefore, is the organ-
izing of this fire control force so as to make it as effective as pos-
sible.

B. TREE STUDIES. — Shade and Timber Tree Surveys. See
page 25.

Co-operative Timber Preserving Project. See page 22.

MATTERS FOR POSSIBLE FUTURE CONSIDERATION

STATE FORESTRY NURSERY. — Several states have established
forest nurseries which supply trees at cost or even donate them in
some cases to parties who show sufficient interest and appreciation.
This could be made a valuable means of encouraging not only
more extensive tree planting, but the planting of the best adapted
species and those which have been grown from seed within our
own state.

SOME ADVANTAGES OF THE PRESENT
ARRANGEMENT.

Every system is apt to have some disadvantages which hamper
the efficiency of its workings. Possibly the present case is no ex-
ception.

Other methods which have been tried in this state have appar-

The following states have state foresters or forest commission-
ers:— Alabama, California, Connecticut, Indiana, Kansas, Ken-
tucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan,
Minnesota, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Caro-
lina, Rhode Island, Vermont, Wisconsin. In some of the states
not named the forestry problem has been turned over to a Commis-
ently not been so successful as their promoters desired and expected.
But should this fact be a sufficient reason why the State of Colorado
should let her hands hang in helpless dejection by her sides while
the forest lands of the State are being left unguarded from the fire
menace ?

The Federal Forest Service has its hands full to overflowing
with its own problems and the indications at present are not such
that we can expect much aid from an already heavily worked force
of men..

The present arrangement, as provided for in the new Forestry
bill, is not new to this country as a whole nor even to this State.

3Q EXTENSION

sion or State board of Forestry, but without a state official in full
charge.

In at least the States of Connecticut, Kansas, Massachusetts,
and Vermont, the State Forester is connected with the State Agri-
cultural Colleges or both.

In Colorado, we have a State Entomologist who is also Direct-
or of. the State Agricultural Experiment Station and a Professor
in charge of a Department in the State College of Agriculture.

We have a State. Geologist who is also a member of the State
University faculty and in charge of a Department, while the State
Chemist is in like relation to the same institution.

If precedent is needed to justify the placing of the Office of
State Forester in that State institution with which its work is most
closely affiliated, such precedent is not wanting. The handling of
the forests is akin to that of other crops. The conserving influ-
ences of the forests upon our water supply directly affect the great
agricultural interests of the state, which are coming more and more
to look to the Agricultural College and the State Experiment Station
for inspiration and guidance in their industries.

Our College and Experiment Station are well equipped to
offer their aid in this work, not alone with tools and apparatus,
but with men who possess the agricultural instinct and training.
We have splendid opportunity, moreover, to come into touch with
the farming communities, the schools, and the towns of the State
through our Extension Department.

By this means, the findings which are made, the results of
experiments, the teaching of principles, the education in forest con-
servation and extension can be taken directly to the people of the
State as in no other way.

We have the necessary laws to carry on State Forest Con-
servation; the system is apparently adapted to the case; the carrying
out of the policy as outlined now devolves upon the machinery of
the organization.

While the quality of the work ultimately produced by this
plant will depend upon the excellence of the tools, the work itself
can progress only while the power is on.

No matter how good and complete may be the organization,
there must also be a steady and sufficient supply of financial energy
to produce results.

A need has been recognized and provision made to meet it.
But something further is required for the greatest success of this
work — that is the whole-hearted support of the State Forestry Asso-
ciation.

There may be those who sincerely believe in some other policy
than the one which this law provides. Even so, they will not, I

FINANCES, RECOMMENDATIONS 31

trust, withdraw their support but will help in making it more effec-
tive. A policy that is deficient may sometimes accomplish much
good when it is wisely carried out and consistently maintained. The
best policy is already a failure when deserted by those who should
be the first to lend aid toward making its workings efficient.

The Spruce and the Pine, the Cedar and Fir, which still re-
main upon the lands belonging to the State are looking to us for
protection and care. This is not a one-man proposition. The whole
people of the State are interested in this work, or should be. May
we, then, not as self-seeking individuals, but as patriotic conserva-
tors of the great natural resources of our State, do our plain duty
by this cause.

FINANCIAL STATEMENT.
STATE FORESTER.

Apparatus and supplies for timber treating plant $647.34
Repairs for timber treating plant 31.50

$678.84

Freight and express 164.44

Furniture and fixtures 123.20

Labor 9 1 1 .02

Permanent Improvements - > 141-38

Postage and stationery I55-4I

Publications 285.62

Salaries - 1,715.96

Seeds and plants 268.98

Telephone and telegraph '. 10.85

Tools, implements and machinery 47-45

Traveling expense 486.85

Contingent expense 10.00

$5,000.00

RECOMMENDATIONS.

In this first biennial report of the State Forester under the
new law, I have no special recommendations to make calling for
any new legislation. I feel that it is still too early in the work of
the department to offer any such recommendations, and believe
that the law needs to be tried out first during at least two biennial
periods. This should enable us to see where improvements are
needed, but for the present the main thing seems to me to be the

30 EXTENSION

sion or State board of Forestry, but without a state official in full
charge.

In at least the States of Connecticut, Kansas, Massachusetts,
and Vermont, the State Forester is connected with the State Agri-
cultural Colleges or both.

In Colorado, we have a State Entomologist who is also Direct-
or of. the State Agricultural Experiment Station and a Professor
in charge of a Department in the State College of Agriculture.

We have a State Geologist who is also a member of the State
University faculty and in charge of a Department, while the State
Chemist is in like relation to the same institution.

If precedent is needed to justify the placing of the Office of
State Forester in that State institution with which its work is most
closely affiliated, such precedent is not wanting. The handling of
the forests is akin to that of other crops. The conserving influ-
ences of the forests upon our water supply directly affect the great
agricultural interests of the state, which are coming more and more
to look to the Agricultural College and the State Experiment Station
for inspiration and guidance in their industries.

Our College and Experiment Station are well equipped to
offer their aid in this work, not alone with tools and apparatus,
but with men who possess the agricultural instinct and training.
We have splendid opportunity, moreover, to come into touch with
the farming communities, the schools, and the towns of the State
through our Extension Department.

By this means, the findings which are made, the results of
experiments, the teaching of principles, the education in forest con-
servation and extension can be taken directly to the people of the
State as in no other way.

We have the necessary laws to carry on State Forest Con-
servation; the system is apparently adapted to the case; the carrying
out of the policy as outlined now devolves upon the machinery of
the organization.

While the quality of the work ultimately produced by this
plant will depend upon the excellence of the tools, the work itself
can progress only while the power is on.

No matter how good and complete may be the organization,
there must also be a steady and sufficient supply of financial energy
to produce results.

A need has been recognized and provision made to meet it.
But something further is required for the greatest success of this
work — that is the whole-hearted support of the State Forestry Asso-
ciation.

There may be those who sincerely believe in some other policy
than the one which this law provides. Even so, they will not, I

FINANCES, RECOMMENDATIONS 31

trust, withdraw their support but will help in making it more effec-
tive. A policy that is deficient may sometimes accomplish much
good when it is wisely carried out and consistently maintained. The
best policy is already a failure when deserted by those who should
be the first to lend aid toward making its workings efficient.

The Spruce and the Pine, the Cedar and Fir, which still re-
main upon the lands belonging to the State are looking to us for
protection and care. This is not a one-man proposition. The whole
people of the State are interested in this work, or. should be. May
we, then, not as self-seeking individuals, but as patriotic conserva-
tors of the great natural resources of our State, do our plain duty
by this cause.

FINANCIAL STATEMENT.
STATE FORESTER.

Apparatus and supplies for timber treating plant $647.34
Repairs for timber treating plant ^-S0

$678.84

Freight and express 164.44

Furniture and fixtures 123.20

Labor _ 9 1 1 .02

Permanent Improvements - 141 .38

Postage and stationery I55-4I

Publications 285.62

Salaries '. 1,715.96

Seeds and plants 268.98

Telephone and telegraph 10.85

Tools, implements and machinery 47-45

Traveling expense 486.85

Contingent expense 10.00

$5,000.00

RECOMMENDATIONS.

In this first biennial report of the State Forester under the
new law, I have no special recommendations to make calling for
any new legislation. I feel that it is still too early in the work of
the department to offer any such recommendations, and believe
that the law needs to be tried out first during at least two biennial
periods. This should enable us to see where improvements are
needed, but for the present the main thing seems to me to be the

32 FINANCES, RECOMMENDATIONS

carrying into effect of the laws we now have. It is hoped that the
appropriation for this line of work during the coming biennial
period will be available much earlier than it has been in the one
just closed. This would enable the State Forester to make some
headway in the projects now outlined besides completing the work
among the county officers. The latter work will undoubtedly need
to be followed up in many portions of the state each year until the
organization is thoroughly understood among those who have to do
with carrying out the provisions of the law.

Second Biennial Report

OF THE

STATE FORESTER

OF THE

State of Colorado

Fort Collins, Colorado
1 914

Fort Collins, Colo., Nov. 30, 1914.

To His Excellency, Honorable Elias M. Ammons, Governor of
Colorado :

Sir:

I have the honor to transmit to you the Second Biennial
Report, covering the transactions of the office of State Forester
under the act approved May 27th, 1911.

Respectfully submitted,

B. O. LONGYEAR,

State Forester.

FORESTRY IN COLORADO

ORGANIZATION OF COUNTY FIRE WARDENS.

The work of visiting the county seats of the forty-two counties
in the state which contain forested lands so as to acquaint the
county officers concerned in the control of forest fires with the law,
as specified in Sections 1280 and 1281, the Revised Statutes of 1908,
was not completed at the end of the first biennial period ending
November 3Oth, 1912. In order to complete this work, Special Dep-
uty I. W. Bennett was retained by contract for this purpose.

In all, forty-two counties were visited and lists of deputy
sheriffs appointed and to be appointed were obtained from thirty-
eight counties. The Boards of County Commissioners of fourteen
counties passed resolutions agreeing to co-operate with the National
Forest Service and do their part, financially and otherwise, to assist
in forest fire control. The total list of deputies, including the sher-
iffs, is 550. Copies of State Forestry Laws and Instructions for
County and State Fire Wardens have been distributed in all these
counties. Deputy Sheriff Forest Service badges have been distribu-
uted to the number of 340.

Following the close of the biennial period 1910-12, none of the
appropriation for carrying on the State Forestry work was available
during the first fifteen months. This made it impossible to continue
the work of organization except through correspondence. This has
been found at best rather unsatisfactory.

The duties of Chief Fire Warden in each county are merely
incidental to the regular duties of the sheriffs of these counties.
This makes it difficult to sustain a good degree of intrest in forest
fire control through correspondence only, and this part of our work
can be made effective only through continuous personal conference
with these officials. It is honed that during succeeding years our
appropriation will be regularly available, for in this way it will be
possible to keep in touch with the situation in each county and en-
courage in every way possible the carrying out of the law by those
who are committed to this work.

Counties that have adopted resolutions concerning the work of
county forest fire control: (See First Biennial Report, page 10.)

Larimer Pitkin Mineral San Juan

Pueblo Bould'er Garfield Jackson

Jefferson Huerfano Ouray Montrose

Douglas Custer Montezuma Hinsdale

4 FORESTRY IN COLORADO

Forest Badges delivered to —

Gunnison 16 Hinsdale 12

Ouray 20 Montrose 18

Delta 6 Mesa 12

Jackson 25 Custer 12

Saguache 20 'Rio Grande _i_ 12

Mineral 12 Conejos 20

Costilla 6 Larimer 30

San Juan 6 La Plata 20

Montezuma 20 Dolores 12

San Miguel 20 Eagle : 12

FOREST FIRE REPORTS.

In the Autumn of 1913 and the early Summer of 1914, the fol-
lowing fire report blanks were sent to the sheriffs of the counties
concerned with the control of forest fires :

STATE OF COLORADO
DEPARTMENT OF FORESTRY

Forest Fire Report No. by the Sheriff or other fire warden

of the County of , to the State Forester.

I report as follows on a forest fire which occurred in this

County, , 19

Discovered or reported by

Starting point of fire

Length of time fire burned

| Timb'r'd
Area Burned Over I (acres)

Open Estimated
(acres) Damage

Public Lands
Forest Reserves -
Private Lands - -

$.

Total - -I | 1$.

Cause of fire :

Total cost of fighting the fire, $.

Remarks :

FORESTRY IN COLORADO 5

The sheriffs of the following counties have filled out and re-
turned a report :

Archuleta Fremont Lake Rio Blanca

Boulder Garfield Las Animas Rio Grande

Chaffee Gilpin Mesa Routt

Clear Creek Grand Mineral Saguache

Conejos Gunnison Montrose San Miguel

Costilla Hinsdale Montezuma Summit

Custer Huerfano Ouray Teller

Delta Jackson Park

Douglas Jefferson Pitkin

El Paso Larimer Pueblo

Only forest fires outside of the National Forests have been re-
ported on in this way. All of the other fires occurring within the
state are mainly within the National Forests where they are handled
and reported upon by the Forest Service.

The following fires in Larimer County have been reported
through Forest Supervisor H. N. Wheeler: During 1913 there
were twelve fires outside of the National Forest, the largest one
being in the vicinity of Rist Canyon which the sheriff believes
burned over about one section (640 acres) and cost the county
between $200. and $300. to suppress. In Boulder County only thnee
fires of any consequence occurred, one in Boulder Canyon which
burned 15 or 20 acres, cost $25, to suppress; another near Allen's
Park burned about 40 acres ; the third one on trie north side of the
middle St. Vrain burned 15 to 20 acres.

Another fire in this County has been reported through Forest
Supervisor Simpson as having occurred on November I2th along
the right of way of the Rocky Mountain Railroad between Fraser
and Stephens' Mill. It was caused by sparks from a logging engine.
This fire was brought under control through the combined efforts
of the County Fire Warden with a crew of three men and the For-
est Service with eight men. In addition to this, Mr. J. B. Stephens'
mill and logging crew of about 35 men helped in the puting out
of this fire. The total cost to the County Fire Warden, $3.15. No
estimates of the damage caused by this fire have been submitted.
In Grand County, the following fire was reported through
Forest Supervisor Alva A. Simpson. This fire occurred upon
private lands, two and one-half miles south of Fraser outside the
National Forest. It burned over about 80 acres of slash left by the
logging operations of Mr. Fred Feltch of the Fraser River Timber
Company. No costs in the control of this fire were submitted.

In Rio Grande County, three fires were reported for 1913 by
Sheriff J. Frank Goad. Two of these occurred on National Forest

6 FORESTRY IN COLORADO

land, and were handled by National Forest officers at a total cost
of $9.86. In neither case was the cause definitely known. The
third fire occurred partly on National Forest land and partly on
private land, and burned 3,800 feet of timber and 80 acres of grass
land. Cost of extinguishing this fire, $80.31, the whole of which
was paid by the Forest Service.

In Gilpin County, one fire was reported for 1913 by Sheriff A.
S. Gundy. This fire was extinguished by Forest Ranger Ray Clark,
and the cause and estimated damage is not given.

In Montezuma County three or four small fires were reported
by Sheriff G. Sam. Todd. These were along the railroad, started
by sparks from the engine, and extinguished at a cost of $15.

In Gunnison County one fire was reported by Sheriff Pat
Hanlon for 1913. This started in Stubbs Gulch and burned over
about one acre, and was probably caused by campers. The cost to
extinguish the fire was $3.50.

In Douglas County Sheriff George Nickson reported on<e fire
six miles south of Castle Rock which was caused by the railroad,
and was extinguished at a cost of $16.50.

In Teller County one fire was reported by Sheriff Henry von
Phnl. Two acres of privately owned timber in Eclipse Gulch were
burned, the fire caused by sparks from a locomotive. The damage
was slight.

CO-OPERATIVE PROJECT WITH FOREST SERVICE
FOREST SERVICE PROJECT

Experiments With Engelmann Spruce, Lodgepole Pine and Alpine

Fir Fence Posts

This project which was concerned with the preservative treat-
ment of th* above species of timber, was fully outlined in the First
Biennial Repor^, Page 19.

According to that project, the 270 posts employed in this ex-
periment were set upon the college farm and put into actual serv-
ice. The first lot of these posts consisting of 109 pieces, was set
two years ago. An inspection was made of these posts at the end
of the second year. Although the time has been relatively short for
decay to make n rch progress, still there is a marked difference
already evident between the treated and the untreated posts. Those
which were treated with crude oil, however, show, if anything, a

FORESTRY IN COLORADO 7

greater rate of decay than those which were set without any treat-
ment. Only about 4 per cent of the treated posts show any decay.
In such cases, it is mostly confined to one side of the post and
apparently has started from a deep crack or other defect.

That any decay whatever should appear in the treated posts is
evidently due to the character of the preservative used. This was
gas tar from one of the local gas factories, and although a good
timber preservative in itself, yet it was of such thick consistency
that but little penetration could be secured by the open tank method.
Although diecay has made considerable progress in a number of the
untreated posts, it is still too early to determine exactly the com-
parison between the treated and the untreated posts. No exact
data can therefore be published concerning this experiment as to
the merits of the treatment given. In a general way, however, it is
safe to state that the treatment as given will be effective in prolong-
ing the life of posts from 50 to 100 per cent.

STATE FORESTRY PROJECT

PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT OF FENCE POSTS

STATE FORESTRY INVESTIGATION

PROJECT NO. i.

On account of the lack of funds during the first half of the bien-
nial period just closed, and the uncertainty of the finances for this
work, the carrying on of this project has been greatly interfered with
as originally planned. A considerable number of posts from elm, ash,
soft maple, box lelder and cot^onwood trees growing on the College
Campus, however, have been prepared for treatment, and will be
handled under this project.

A light portable saw mill has been purchased for working up
material too large for round posts. In this way it will be possible
to utilize the trunks of large cotonwoods up to 30 inches in diame-
ter by sawing them into square posts with a two-inch taper toward
the top. This mill has just been recently installed on the college
farm, and in connection with the treating plant which was erected
three years ago, will enable us to do effective work upon this pro-
ject.

During the winter of 1913 and 1914, the farm department of
the College purchased 1.200 split Idaho Cedar posts which were
treated in the timber-treating plant under the direction of the State
Forester. These posts have also been included under this project
and records are being kept upon these posts for this purpose. In a
few cases local parties have been permitted to use the treating plant
for small lots of posts which they have furnished. These posts

8 FORESTRY IN COLORADO

have likewise been tagged and recorded upon the same filing cards
as those used under this project, of which they are to form a part.

SHADE AND TIMBER TREE SURVEY OF COLORADO
STATE FORESTRY PROJECT NO. 2

Work upon this project has been greatly hampered for the
same reasons mentioned in connection with Project No. I, and
practically no progress has been made except to complete the shade
tree survey of the city of Fort Collins, which was begun during the
first biennial period. It is particularly desirable that this project
should be carried on for the reason that some of the oldest timber
plantations in the state are being cut and worked up into lumber,
fuel and posts, and the data which these plantations offer should
be secured and recorded.

STATE FORESTRY PROJECT NO. 3

NAME OP PROJECT. — Demonstrations in Timber Preservation.

OBJECT. — To teach fanners and other interested persons how
to prolong the period of use of fence posts by preservative treat-
ment.

LOCATION. — The work to be carried on at the State and County
Fairs and similar gatherings throughout the principal farming sec-
tions of the State.

METHOD OF PROCEDURE. — The person in charge of this work
shall visit such fairs or similar gatherings of farmers and persons
directly interested in agriculture as the time will permit and show
by actual operation the process of fence post preservation adapted
to the ordinary farm.

(a) For this work a suitable portable outfit shall be obtained
which can be shipped to the places of demonstration and quickly
set up and put into operation. This outfit should consist of a riveted
sheet iron tank of one-eighth-inch black iron ; 30 inches in diameter
and 44 inches in height, and a sheet iron fire box with smoke pipe
for the heating of same. A chemical thermometer registering to
250 degrees Fahrenheit should be used in regulating1 the tempera-
ture of the preservative.

(b) The preservative used may be one of the standard gas
tar creosotes or any of the local gas tars or gas tar products most
readily and cheaply obtainable.

(c) The process employed shall be the open tank process as
described in Farmers' Bulletin No. 382 of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture, title : "The Preservative Treatment of Farm
Timbers."

FORESTRY IN COLORADO 9

(d) The posts employed in the demonstrations may be such
as are available — cottonwood, poplar, aspen, lodgepole pine, Doug-
las fir, or other cheap woods, if possible. They should be round in
form, free from bark and seasoned for at least five weeks.

(e) Illustrative material showing how and where a post de-
cays and the effect of the preservative should be exhibited. A
fence post nearly rotted off and shown in lengthwise sections to-
gether with one that has been treated, may be used.

(f) Brush treatment of posts should also be demonstrated.
The outfit may consist of a wire-bound roofing brush, a galvanized
iron bucket and a suitable trough for holding the post and catching
the excess creosote during application. Hot creosote should be
painted upon the butt end of the post to a height of 30 inches and
after this has penetrated, a second coat is to be applied.

The top end of each post should be cut sloping and creosote
applied in both processes of treating.

During the autumn of 1914, Mr. J. R. Wheeler was put in
charge of this work. His report in part is as follows :

"The following towns were visited during agricultural fairs :
Loveland, Greeley, Grange Hall, Pueblo, Montrose and Kremmling.

"A banner was displayed reading as follows:

" 'Farm Forestry Demonstration in Timber Preservation

" 'Under Direction of The State Forester,
" 'State Agricultural College, Fort Collins, Colorado/

"Cheap, quick-growing timber, such as cottonwood and poplar,
can be made to last 15 or 20 years. Lodgepole pine, Engelmann
spruce, and balsam fir can be made to last equally well in this way.

"Comparative cost of Lodgepole pine in Idaho :

First cost of post .06 .06

Cost of treatment .00 .15

Cost of setting post .12 .12

Total cost of set post .18 .33

Estimated length of service 4 years 20 years

'Annual cost of post, approximately

(allowing 6% on investment) ___ .05 .03

Annual saving per post .00 .02

"The object of the demonstration, to show people how to make
use of their cheap, home-grown timber, such as cottonwood and
willow, was somewhat thwarted in my not being able to get this
kind of timber to demonstrate with.

"In some instances split cedar was used. This post proves to
be a very poor one according to the experience of many farmers,

io FORESTRY IN COLORADO

who say from two to four years is as long as they will last without
treatment.

"At one place cottonwood was used, but I found spots in the
post which were not thoroughly seasoned because the bark had not
been peeled off, though they had been cut eight months or more.

"At another place lodgepole pine was secured. These posts
were seven or eight inches in diameter and the absorption made the
treatment rather expensive: 21/48 barrel for fifteen posts.

"In the case of the split cedar, the cost of the treatment is lit-
tle, considerably less than one-half gallon of oil to the post being
absorbed.

"I had many inquiries with reference to the heating tanks we
were using. They were especially admired by many men who had
had experinence with cookers and heaters of various kinds. Per-
sonally, I think they could not be improved upon. They are so
constructed as to use a minimum of fuel, securing a maximum
amount of heat.

"My experience at these fairs shows the small gatherings to
be the most appreciative, although at the shorter meetings, people
have so little time they are inclined to hurry around and do not get
hold of the details of the process of treatment unless especially
interested. Many who were especially interested, I found, were
about to build or rebuild fences, or owned timber claims from
which they intended to take posts.

"Loveland, Greeley and Kremmling were very satisfactory on
account of the numbers interested and the many questions asked,
which resulted in their finding out about the use of creosote oil.

"At Montrose a great deal of Carolina poplar is growing up
and I had a good chance to talk and show figures to individuals,
but they have access to native cedar as yet, as have also the people
at Kremmling.

"While it would be expensive to maintain a complete bureau of
information at the fairs, I have wondered if it would not be a
profitable investment to maintain a booth where a full directory
of Agricultural College departments could be found.

"I find that I have covered about as many dates as it is possi-
ble for one man to cover. Each demonstrator should have at least
two outfits, and a careful plan of campaign should be outlined for
shipping the outfits to give plenty of time for transportation and to
save delay and anxiety at the place where the demonstration is to
be made.

"I think this is a very important demonstration to the farmer
in helping him to conserve his farm timber products ; also there is
a feeling among farmers that their interests are being looked after.

FORESTRY LN COLORADO

1 1

I find, too, the people in the newer and more distant places seem
to need help and they also feel that they are just as worthy of con-
sideration as those who live nearer to the College. At Kremmling
there was an especial satisfaction expressed because of the interest
taken in them.

"Reports sent from the field gave the disposition made of the
posts after treating, except in cases cited below. These posts were
distributed to men who will set them for experimental purposes
and who will make a report when asked for it.
"Respectfully submitted,

"(Signed) JOHN R. WHALER,"

Fort Collins, Colorado,
Ooctober 9, 1914.

Most of the post-treating work was done with Denver gas
tar creosote, which is a by-product in the manufacture of illumi-
nating gas from coal. This material can be purchased F. O. B.
Denver for 2oc per 'gallon. It is a rather thin, sirupy liquid, having
the odor of illuminating gas and a rapid penetration when applied
to an absorbing surface. Similar creosote may be obtained from
the Omaha Gas Works, Omaha, Nebraska; the International Creo-
soting and Construction Company, Galveston, Texas ; or Barrett
Manufacturing Company, Chicago.

In most cases the cost of the treatment was about IDC per post.
The cost of the treating tank and heating jacket combined was $45.
These tanks were made especially heavy on account of the severe
treatment they were expected to receive in shipment from one point
to another.

In making the treatment, the tank was first filled with posts
and then the creosote was added to a height of at least 30 inches.
A fire was then built under the tank and the temperature raised to
about the point of boiling water. The fire was then removed and
the creosote allowed to cool to its original temperature while the
posts were left in. The heating causes the air within the pores of
the wood to expand and escape, and the subsequent cooling forces
the creosote into the pores of the wood by atmospheric pressure
aided by the capillary attraction.

A CHEAP OUTFIT FOR THE PRESERVATIVE TREAT-
MENT OF FENCE POSTS ON THE FARM

A smaller but much cheaper treating tank than the one pre-
viously described can be made from one of the galvanized steel
barrels used for shipping oil and gasoline. These barrels, which can
be bought for about $6 or $7 are 36 inches high by 22 inches in

12 FORESTRY IN COLORADO

diameter, and by removing one of the heads by means of a cold
chisel or otherwise, a tank 34 inches deep remains. This tank,
which is heavy enough to serve the purpose of post treating, may
be supported upon two iron cross-bars built into the sides of a
brick or stonework fire place. Such a tank will hold about 10 or 12
posts of ordinary size at one time.

Perhaps the most convenient way of using such a small outfit
without much attention is to1 fill it with posts and creosote either at
night or in the morning and heat it to the required temperature
with a small fire. The posts may be left in until the end of 24 hours
and another lot put in. In this way the posts are 'given an excel-
lent opportunity to absorb creosote while but little time will be
taken from other work.

Whenever it is desired to make continuous treatment, the most
effective method is to keep the creosote and treating tank heated to
the temperature of boling water, continuously, while a barrel of
cold creosote, open at one end, is kept at hand. The treating tank
is filled with posts which are kept in the hot liquid for about an hour,
after which they should be removed and at once plunged into the
cold creosote, where they are to remain an equal length of time.
In this way the process can be made nearly continuous and a large
number of posts may be treated in one day. When the posts are
removed from the cold creosote, they should be placed with the butt
ends in an inclined trough with a pail at the lower end to catch the
excess oil which may cling to them.

Care should be taken not to heat the creosote much above the
temperature of boiling water, otherwise considerable of it will be
lost by evaporation. The temperature may be determined roughly
without a thermometer by hanging a small tin can containing a lit-
tle water into the top of the treating tank. When the water in the
can begins to boil, the creosote has reached the desired temperature.

While most any species of timber may be profitable treated in
this way, it is particularly useful in treating the rapidly growing,
cheap timbers which can be readily grown on many Colorado farm.s
It is equally useful in the treatment of the cheaper imported tim-
bers, and when properly performed will lengthen their ordinary
period of usefulness from two to four times.

FOREST STATIONS TO BE USED AS STATE FOREST

RESERVES

Under a special Act of Congress two years ago, the State
Agricultural College of Colorado was granted the privilege of se-
lecting certain tracts of forest land lying either within the national
forest or the public domain for use in carrying on the work of

FORESTRY IN COLORADO 13

the course in Forestry at this institution. This land is selected in
areas of not less than forty nor more than one hundred and sixty
acres each, and includes all conditions from timber-line to the
lower foothills.

The State Forester was one member of the party entrusted
with the selection of these tracts of land, which was done during
the month of August, 1914. Twelve tracts, with a total area of
1,280 acres, have thus far been selected and each has been named
according to some characteristic local feature. These twelve sta-
tions, as they will be known, are to be handled as State Forest
Reserves, under the direction of this office. They are all situated
in Township 7 North, Ranges 73 and 74 West, and vary in alti-
tude from about 8,000 to 11,500 feet.

ERECTION OF FOREST LODGE

In order to more effectively carry on the work to be done upon
these stations, a forest lodge has been erected upon the Pingree
Station, to serve as a base of operations. This lodge has been con-
structed of native lumber in the rough, and is well equipped with
plumbing, supplied with water from a nearby spring. It is well
suited in other respects for a summer camp building, and its loca-
tion in Pingree Park upon the Little South Poudre gives it an ideal
situation for administrative purposes.

The great variety of forestal conditions which are to be found
in easy reach from this Station should enable this department to
carry on studies and experiments in the field under exceptionally
favorable conditions.

FREE DISTRIBUTION OF SEEDS, CUTTINGS
AND TREES

Several calls have been received for tree seeds, cuttings and
seedling trees. Wherever possible these requests have been sup-
plied to a moderate extent. Seeds of black and honey locust have
been furnished for planting in small lots upon prepayment of post-
age. The same has been followed in the matter of furnishing cut-
tings of cottonwoods and willows. About 600 cuttings have been
sent out during the past two seasons to various parts of this state,
and in some cases to neighboring states where parties desired speci-
mens of our native species. In a few cases small lots of seedling
honey locust trees have been furnished for experimental planting,
with the understanding that the parties to whom they are furnished
should report upon their success with the same. During the past
summer an active campaign has been carried on by some of the
residents in Cheyenne County for the securing of a considerable

14 FORESTRY ix COLORADO

• [imntity of free nursery stock suitable for planting on unirrigated
land. This matter has been strongly urged before the State Board
of Forestry through the Arapahoe local number of the Farmers'
I nion and through the State Forestry Association. In order to
supply at least in part this demand as well as to encourage settlers
on the eastern plains of Colorado in the planting of trees, 25,000
^cedHng trees adapted to this purpose have been purchased from a
middle western nursery for spring delivery. These trees are one-
year-old seedlings and have been secured for a lower price than they
could be grown in our own nursery under present conditions. The
officers of the I nion Pacific Railway Company have agreed to
transport this nursery stock free of freight charges to the stations
where it is to be distributed. While it will be impossible to supply
all of the demands that may be made of this nature throughout the
state, it seems especially desirable that some portion of the appro-
priation for our work be set aside each year for encouragement of
tree plan: ing in the eastern plains region. The only way in which
this can be successfully handled, however, will be under the supcr-
visi* n of a field man who can give his whole time to the distribution
of tlrs stock during the planting season. X<> small effort will bt
required to see that it is placed in the best hands for effective use.
In "hi- connection it seems unwise at the present time to undertake
the establishing of a State Forest nursery on a large scale which
can supply the state with nursery stock, as is done in some of the
neighboring states. Good stock can be purchased from the larger
nurseries farther east at as low or lower prices than they can be
grown in a Slate Forest nursery, unless it is conducted on an
enuallv large scale.

CO-OPERATTYE TIMBER PLANTING AT AKRON

In the spring of JO/KJ, nine species of broad-leaf trees were
planted upon the Government substation farm at Akron, Colorado,
in c ^-operation with the Agricultural Experiment Station of the
college. Thi< includes the following species: black locust, honey
1'icu-t, black" cherry, cottonwood, ash, elm, osage orange. Russian
mull erry. Rn-sian olive. These trees were furnished in small sixes
by the Korcsl Service and planted in a wide belt extending around
two ^idcs oi the ^ubstation farm. In 10,11 the following conifers
were added to thi^ plantation: European larch. Scotch pine, Aus-
trian pine. lack" pine, western yellow pine, Douglas fir. P>lack Hills
-nnice. This work ha< now been placed under :he direction of the
State Forester and will be used in making a study of best methods
ot timber culture under conditions like those in that region. The

FORESTRY IN COLORADO 15

work of cultivation, pruning and other requirements of the planta-
tion are being handled by the substation force at the present time.
Tfiis station offers a good opportunity for the testing of various
species which may promise well for unirrigated land. It is too
early at the present time to offer a detailed report upon this work,
as the trees will require longer time in which to show their fitness
for such conditions.

BASKET WILLOW PLANTING

A fair crop of basket willow rods was harvested during the
past season from the small willow holt now growing in our forest
nursery. These rods have been placed in the hands of an expe-
rienced basket maker who is testing them for their basket-weaving
qualifies. The following varieties appear to be well suited to this
purpose as grown here: Purple, American Green, Vinalic, Ameri-
can. Further tests, however, are necessary with these varieties,
which tests will be made in coming seasons.

PUBLICATION: "THE NATIVE EVERGREEN TREES
AND SHRUBS OF COLORADO."

This publication in bulletin form contains illustrations and
descriptions of all of our native species of coniferous evergreen
trees and shrubs in Colorado. It has been published with the idea
of familiarizing persons more generally with them, and of creating
a more favorable sentiment toward forest conservation. This bulle-
tin contains directions for the growing of evergreens from seed,
the transplanting and care of such trees, and the various uses to
which they are adapted. The illustrations and descriptions are
suited to the use of teachers and pupils in our public schools and
also to Forest Service officers and others who desire to recognize
our native trees. The preparation of this publication has consumed
the larger portion of the Si-ate Forester's time since our appropria-
tion became available. It is believed that the demand for this bul-
letin will be very large as soon as it is in print.

RECOMMENDATIONS

There is little to recommend from this office in the way of
additional legislation, except in the matter of lending encourage-
ment in the planting and culture of timber, espec:ally in the eastern
plains region of the state. This matter is now being urged through
the activities of the State Forestry Association through a proposed

1 6 FORESTRY IN COLORADO

act along the lines of a tax exemption law similar to that which
is now in existence for irrigated land. (Laws '81, page 250, Sec. i ;
G. S. '83, Sec. 3425; Mills Ann. Stats., Sec. 2006.) The present
law exempts land planted to trees from any added increase in valu-
ation in the assessment of said land during a period of ten years.
A similar law should be enacted for tree planting on unirrrgated
land, except that the exemption limit should be extended to a period
of at least twenty or more years on account of the greater difficulty
of getting trees established and because of their slower growth
under such conditions.

The present law concerned with the control of forest fires
through the sheriffs of the various counties where forests occur
seems well suited to our needs in this state. The greatest difficulty
thus far met with in carrying on the work of forest fire protection
under this law has been the lack of a regular deputy, one-half of
whose time could be given to this work. This will be possible only
when the appropriations for our work are regularly paid or other-
wise made available for our use throughout the biennial period. It
is impossible to do satisfactory work along any line without a more
regular and systematic program, backed by a regular income for
carrying it on. While it may be possible to spend an appropriation
in three months' time which should have been spread over a period
of two years, yet it is impossible to do so with any considerable
degree of efficiency and economy.

FINANCIAL STATEMENT
STATE FORESTER

Apparatus . --$ 28278

Freight and Express 106.44

Furniture and Fixtures 396.80

Labor — . 49372

Laboratory Supplies 100.12

Permanent Improvements - 2,363.85

Postage and Stationery 7°-°9

Publications 632.04

Repairs i-i<>

Salaries - 2,545.26

Seeds and Plants fc>-°°

Telephone and Telegraph 16.90

Tools, Implements and Machinery 5IO-^3

Traveling Expenses -- 4T°-92

Recorder's Fee T-T5

$8,000.00

14 DAY USE

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