. • - FORESTRY PAMPHLETS UTILISATION ~ VOL. Grazing — . Sheep \) "P3 v-3. •** Forestry (Contfd) Grazing — Sfreep Nations for Fattening Western Yearling Sheep. Bui. No. 115, Univ. of Miss- ouri Agricultural Experiment Sta. ^Rations for Breeding Ewes. Bui. No. 120, Univ. of Missouri Agri. Exp. Station. -^Fattening Western Lambs. Bui. No. 162, Purdue University Agricultural Exp. Sta. /Sheep Feeding. V. -Fattening Western lambs, 1914-15. Bui. No. 184, Purdue Univ. Agri. Exp. Sta. Vsheep Feeding. VI-Fattening Western Lambs, 1915-1916. Bui. No. 192 t Purdue Univ. ^ Agri. Exp. Station. k— J 3 =8 — 7- lasted. The demand for cattle was strong; each man bought all he could in order that he might sell twice as many a little later. The range was overstocked, and the grass was rapidly disappearing. The speculative boom continued until there came the inevitable reaction with its enormous losses. The depleted ranges of the Southwest will carry now only two-thirds as many cattle as they could have been made to carry. To a greater or a less degree this is true of the Government lands everywhere. The open ranges, like any range or any pasture, can provide for- age for only a limited number of stock. Every stockman is try- ing to get all the grass he can while it lasts. There are too many cattle on the cattle ranges, too many sheep on the sheep ranges. The cattlemen vary this proposition by saying that there are apt to be too many sheep on the cattle ranges, and the sheepmen have the opposite complaint to make. On sheep ranges rented from the railroad in the Eastern Sierra Nevada, depletion caused by overstocking is not so widespread. As the sheep increase, too many may be put on one section, but in the main the sheepman knows about how many sheep his range will carry without injury, and does not exceed this number greatly. The desire to get rich quickly may lead him to greatly overstock his rented range, and then sell out — a short-sighted policy whose tendency is to force him out of the business. Even on lands actually owned by the stockman destructive overstocking is not uncommon. This arises partly from thought- less ignorance, and in part from lack of prudent foresight. On any range land the number of animals which can safely graze there without permanently injuring the forage is a limited number, much smaller in dry seasons than in those whose rainfall is more abundant. On a pasture too many animals will eat the grass too closely, and soon trample it out. Bitter and thorny weeds will produce seed abundantly, for they will be left un- touched. The disappearance of the grass which occupied the ground and choked out the weeds, changes the pasture into a weed patch. On an overstocked range for sheep or for cattle the forage is permanently injured in much the same way. The good plants are killed out; the bad ones survive because they have more room in which to grow. There is always a sort of warfare, a struggle for existence, going on among all the plants which occupy the land. Remove the good plants, and you give the bitter and thorny kinds an excellent chance to grow and to spread. Thus a depleted range not only produces less good forage, but it is also likely to become overrun with useless weeds and brush, an injury which can scarcely be repaired. There are two great classes of plants — the annuals and the perennials. The annuals come up every year from seed. The perennials come up every }^ear from seed and from the previous year's roots. The nutritious annuals of good flavor on an over- stocked range get little chance to -produce seed. The perennials cannot go to seed either; but this does not matter so much, for the;r roots live through the winter, and, so long as the crown is uninjured and the roots are not torn up, the perennials reappear every summer. The annuals are likely to disappear first on an overstocked sheep range; then the perennials grow dwarfed and stunted, and. slowly die out. All the while bitter and thorny weeds and brush which the sheep have avoided have had a good chance to produce seed, and to spread all over the country. When just about enough sheep, however, are grazing on the range the annuals produce seed enough to keep on growing, and the perennials send more strength into their roots, which grow stronger and deeper, and so can produce a good crop of leaves and stems the next year. Besides being injured by the destruction of nutritious plants, and the consequent increase of the poorer sorts, overstocked ranges are injured by destructive changes in the character of the soil itself. Some soils are so loosened by the trampling hoofs of the stock that on the hillsides the finest part is washed away by the rains. Other soils are hammered down so hard that the rain and the melted snow run off from the surface in the spring floods, and are of little use to the thirsty plants. There is no use in talking about these various ways in which overstocking injures the range unless we are ready to consider some means of bringing back the grass on the depleted ranges. Can the forage on the public lands be improved? Is there any doubt that the public lands do not support as many sheep and cattle now as they did twenty years ago? PL. V. — SUNFLOWHR ( Wvt'thia iiwllis}. —9— Are there not too many sheep and cattle on the government lands even now ? What will this lead to twenty years from now ? How can the past injury be repaired and how can further damage be prevented ? When the open range grows poorer every year, the stockmen are brought face to face with the situation. Perhaps they meet and agree to divide the range, each man to keep his cattle on his own land, the sheepmen to stay in their own division and the cattlemen in theirs. By this unlawful arrangement newr men are to some extent kept out of the business; and just so long as the agreement is held to, there is not so much reason for great over- stocking of the range. A sort of order thus grows out of chaos. A kind of government replaces anarchy; but it is a government by the strongest, and there is sure to be strife among the strong ones. Perhaps one group of men holding one portion of the public range by force of arms or by force of agreement may decide also not to overstock their range and to improve it by sowing the seed of valuable grasses and forage plants. This is not likely to occur, because the reseeding of a large tract is a costly undertaking, and one still so largely an experi- ment whose results cannot clearly be foreseen that no stockman will be likely to undertake the reseeding of lands not his own. How, then, shall the open ranges of the public lands be made fully productive again ? A socialist has suggested that this should be undertaken by the general government as a public work to be paid for by taxa- tion of the whole people; that seed should be collected, enormous grass farms planted, and that the seed raised on these farms should be sown far and wide on the ranges, and that the cost of all this enormous undertaking should be borne by the general government. It has also been suggested that the government should reseed its lands and then rent them or lease them for enough to cover the cost of reseeding. This plan, like the Socialist's dream, is open to many and conclusive objections. In reseeding by the socialistic method, the cost would be so stupendous and the opposition on the part of taxpayers so strong and so well founded — 10 — • that this method is wholly unsound in principle and impossible in application. Again, if the government should reseed its lands and rent them, what guarantee could it exact that the reseeded lands should not once more be greatly overstocked ? By some means, however, the depleted public ranges should be made again highly productive. This is vastly important to the stockmen and the stockraising States. It is indeed of real importance to the entire nation. If the methods suggested are not practical, it remains to find a method which will be just and reasonable, and at the same time really workable. Granted that reseeding is wise and necessary, what class of men is so familiar with the ranges and so well qualified for the work, both by self interest and knowledge of conditions, as the stockmen them- selves? Who can more justly be asked to pay for the reseeding? Now, of course, no* man will scatter much seed over land which he does not own or lawfully control. If then the public ranges are to be made once more fully productive, they should be leased for long terms to the stockmen; for the stockmen should bear the cost of reseeding. and they should reap the profits. The govern- ment should of course help them as much as possible in this difficult and important undertaking. It certainly seems that this leasing method will be the quickest and surest way of bringing the depleted range lands back to their normal productiveness. Should the government lease its lands for long terms to the stockmen it might well spend the money received from leases in helping the stockmen reseed their ranges; this by founding grass farms in the stockraising States where the best native grasses and other forage plants might be tested and where small quantities of seed might be raised for the stockmen to sow at the right time and in the right place. These large grass farms would of course be a part of the Experi- ment Station system. When the average man begins to think about restoring de- pleted ranges, he is apt to imagine that somewhere on earth, in Australia, or in South Africa, or even in Siberia, there must be a wonderful grass or a salt bush, or something else which can be made to grow on his ranges high up on the dry mountains and down in the wooded, shady valleys, furnishing abundant food for PL. VI — BIG SUNFLOWER (Balsamorhiza sagittate?). — II — all his stock. This is just as possible as it is to find a patent medicine at one dollar per bottle which will really cure all diseases. It is almost always true that the plants best suited to any range are the ones which already grow there or which used to grow there. Of course there may be better ones growing in other parts of America, or in other countries in nearly the same kind of soil and climate; but it is usually true that any stock range will be benefited most quickly and most permanently by reseeding it with the best native plants and grasses. This is true because plants which have occupied the same territory for years, perhaps for centuries, have become perfectly adapted to the soil and the climate of the region where they growr. The native plants may be restored in part by resting every year certain parts of the range, thus allowing the forage plants to produce seed. This method could be made far more successful, if on the rested lands seed of the right kind could be sown arti- ficially. The seed, however, is hard to obtain and it is not always easy to decide which plants are really the best ones for this purpose. For artificial sowing a good forage plant should have the following qualities: It should, above all, be hardy and nutri- tious. It should be deep-rooted. It should be well suited to the soil and climate in which it is to grow, and it should produce abundantly seed of such a character that it can be easily collected and sown. The leaves and stems should, of course, be full of those substances which go to make fat, muscle and bone in good sheep and cattle. Out of the hundreds of kinds of plants growing on the ranges, there are only a few which combine all these various qualities of hardiness and nutrition. The experiment stations may very profitably co-operate with the stockmen in hunting for these few good ones and in gathering their seed, testing it and sowing it. Much useful work along these lines has already been done by the experiment stations in several of the western States. In investigations of this kind station men and stockmen can well co-operate under the direction of the Department of Agriculture at Washington. In Nevada these co-operative experiments could best be con- 12 ducted in the following way: Small tracts of natural range land covered with natural plants and grasses should be put under fence. On these fenced areas seed could easily be gathered from the best ones growing there. Seed from other countries could be sown within the fence and tested. These little seed farms would soon yield very valuable information, and on them small quantities of seed could be raised for planting on other parts of the range. When it had been shown in this way that reseeding with some native or foreign forage plant is really practical and successful, the little experimental seed farm could be enlarged and cleared of brush, perhaps even irrigated if the location made this possible; and seed could be raised in larger quantities and scattered more widely. Of course the reseeded tracts would then need a year's rest to give the new grass a start. Such experimental work as this could well be undertaken by any stockman who owns his range or leases it for a long term; but such investigations are more suc- cessful when they are carried on under the direction of the scien- tists employed by the Department of Agriculture. It may be that in time the Nevada Experiment Station will secure sections of range land here and there in the State, where with the help of the stockmen larger seed farms can be established. If we had. in Nevada such a system of experimental grass plats and farms as that described above, the stockmen of the State could make use of it in the following way: By fencing small tracts on the range, they would obtain good specimens of the more valuable forage plants and grasses together with their seed. Any stockman could then send specimens of these plants, cut at the right season, to the Experiment Station, where a chemical analysis would show their relative values as food for stock. The Station men would also test the seed in experimental grass plats and find out whether it could be sown artificially with profit. The Station would then send back to the stockmen a report say- ing that out of the plant samples and seeds sent in, several, per- haps, are nutritious and hardy and easy to sow on the range. The report would also include directions telling as far as posssible the best and most practical methods of gathering the seed and spreading the good plants. PL. VII. — LITTLK SUNFLOWER ( Helianthella californica). —13— As all the experiment stations are, through their bulletins, in close communication with one another and with the Department of Agriculture at Washington, D. C., the Nevada Station might well be able to suggest for Nevada stockmen, plants and grasses very useful in other western States and in foreign countries, that might be equally useful here. There is naturally a great advantage in sowing the seed of grasses and plants common in older and more thickly settled countries, for seed from these countries may usually be obtained in large quantities, while it is still a difficult matter to get the seed of the best of our native forage plants and grasses. In time, however, our enterprising American seedsmen will begin placing on the market the seed of those grasses and forage plants which make our western ranges naturally such excellent grazing lands for sheep and cattle. Some of the foreign grasses and forage plants would undoubtedly be very useful in western America, as useful, perhaps, as the Australian salt bush has been in South Africa. There the salt bush, originally introduced from Aus- tralia, spread far and wide over the sheep ranges until it was thoroughly established and had produced seed abundantly. Mean- while the improvident greed of the Australian sheepmen had led them to overstock their ranges and thus to so destroy their home supply of salt bush that they were obliged to reseed their depleted ranges with Australian salt bush seed imported from South Africa. This salt bush is a hardy annual plant, coarse and weedy in appearance, but nutritious and capable of producing abundant seed. A rancher in Plumas county, California, planted some of the seed recently in a little piece of fenced ground. He didn't know what salt bush should look like and wras soon much annoyed to find his bit of ground covered with great bunches of some new \veed. As he is an industrious man, he pulled up all these weeds, and months afterward found that they were the salt bushes he had been waiting for. There are probably many parts of Nevada where this valuable forage plant can be successfully raised, but it is not yet proven that this is really true. The salt bush is, however, only one of many valuable forage plants and grasses which may prove very useful to western stockmen. s It is the aim of the Nevada Experiment Station to —14— find out which native plants and grasses are the best ones and which ones, native or foreign, can most profitably be sown on Nevada's range lands. In this work we expect the hearty co- operation of sheepmen and cattlemen alike. CHARACTER OF GRAZING LANDS. Nevada sheep for the most part subsist on the natural vege- tation of the country throughout the entire year, there being usu- ally no hay provided for winter use. Hence the general plan is to graze the sheep in the foothills, open forests and high moun- tains during the summer and in the sagebrush country during the winter, driving them further south only as compelled by the snow. This has led to the distinct classification of the range into ' 'sum- mer range" and "winter range." The latter will not be dealt with in this bulletin as it is a subject of such great importance that especial investigation of this part of the problem must be made at some future time. In general the forage of the winter range consists of a number of different species of sage or sage- brush, such as black sage, white sage, salty sage, spring sage- and shad scale. The summer range may be roughly divided into different classes according to the location, altitude, kinds of forage and other vegetation growing upon it, such as, open sagebrush country, open forests, denser forests, high, snow-clad mountains, creeks and valleys. To the herders the plants that the sheep feed on are weeds, brush and grasses. Under the head of " weeds " are placed all the sunflowers, parsleys, tomato plant and plants of a similar character. By "brush" is meant all plants ot a shrubby nature, as the service-berry, snow- berry, buckbrush and willows; and under "grasses" are included the sedges, rushes, reeds and all plants of a grass-like appearance. In an average season the bands of sheep will leave their win- ter quarters about the middle of March, or earlier, and gradually work northward to one of the permanent ranches or camps, where facilities for shearing an,d dipping are to be found. During the PL. VIII. — FREMONT'S DAISY (Aster Frcmontii). PL. VIII. — FREMONT'S DAISY (Aster Fremontii). latter part of March and the beginning ot April, the greatest care must be given the sheep, as it is the time for lambing, which, if not properly attended to, will cause great loss to the sheep owner. OPEN SAGEBRUSH COUNTRY. During the early spring months the sheep are usually in the undulating, open sagebrush country, in the vicinity of a dip and shearing camp, so that the different bands may be easily called on in turn to be sheared and dipped, and then started for the mountains with their lambs. In the middle of summer this region might be called a semi-desert country; but from the winter rains and snow the soil has become thoroughly soaked, so that the roots of the Indian millet grass, dwarf fescue grass, the false tickle grasses and the bunch grasses are well supplied with moisture and are able to produce a short growth of rich, green, tender forage. Following these closely come the lupines, "filaree " and many annual plants which furnish a large portion of the forage at this season of the year.- There is but little doubt that considerable harm is done to the forage on the range at this time, as the close grazing of these grasses, followed by a long period of drought, makes it almost impossible for the plants to produce a good growth again, so that they can bear seed that year. OPEN FORESTS. But little difference is noticed in the character of the vegeta- tion until the timber line is reached. Here may be found open spaces in the forests on which are growing abundantly patches of lupines, sunflowers, tomato plant, members of the parsley family and a number of nutritious, succulent clovers near the springs and creeks. The soil on these lands in the latter part of June is for the most part rather dry on the surface, so that the grasses whose roots do not penetrate the soil to any depth have become dried up and are not eaten to any extent by the sheep. It is on this char- acter of vegetation that the lambs are finished off and made ready for the market. The shipping of the lambs usually begins about the middle of June and continues until about the middle of July, or even later. The ewes and lambs are gathered into corrals, the lambs counted, and then both are driven to the shipping point. —i 6— Here the lambs and the old ewes that are considered of no further service for breeding purposes are shipped, and the stock ewes are driven back again on the range to be held over the winter. DENSER FORESTS. In the region fifteen to twenty miles south of the Central Pacific Railroad, the forests still retain their primitive condition to a considerable extent. No timber has been cut, and deer, bear and other wild animals are met with. Fires, however, have burned deeply into many of the large trees, but rarely were these trees entirely destroyed by fire. The only forage of importance under these conifers was the bearbrush or buckbrush , a consider- able quantity of it being eaten by the sheep. While the fires do but little harm to the large timber, yet they are very destructive to the small, lodge-pole pines which cover extensive areas in the gullies in the lowest parts of the mountains between the ridges. These trees are seldom more than a foot in diameter, with a very thin bark, and as they grow very closely together they are quickly killed. The trees are not burnt up, however, but only killed and are soon blown over in every direction by the winter storms, form- ing an almost impenetrable mass, making it very difficult to herd sheep through them. The wild tansy or yarrow was the only forage plant growing abundantly in these denuded places. It is in the open spaces in these forests and especially in the mountain meadows that the finest feed is to be found. These meadows are of different types, some of them supporting a sod of sedges and grasses, others for the most part of two different species of five fingers (PL XIV), while a large number are composed of blue daisies (see Pis. VIII & IX). Considerable moisture is found on them during the early summer months, but in August they were in fine condition for sheep grazing (PI. I). HIGH SNOW-CLAD MOUNTAINS. On these mountains we found large banks of snow which are never entirely melted. During the month of August the writers had the pleasure of walking on these large banks of perpetual snow. They were from 200 to 300 yards long and from six to twelve feet deep (Pis. II & XXVI). Around the margins of PL. IX. — ROUGH-LKAVKD DAISY (Aster integrifolia). —17— these large patches the snow gradually melts, causing the grasses even at this season of the year to spring up fresh and green and make excellent, nutritious forage. Large patches of service-berry and snow-berry were also found near the summit ot these moun- tains. The grasses on the sides of the mountains were too far removed from the snow to receive any benefit from it and were dried up with an abundance of seed on them. The sheep passed over them without either destroying or eating them. In Aact they aided in the distribution of the ripe seed by scattering it and trampling it into the ground. The most noticeable features on this range were that a dwarf plant with conspicuous yellow flowers, belonging to the sun- flower family, was not touched; the abundance of dried-up grasses, the distorted bushes of the service-berry and the loosening of the soil by driving sheep down the steep mountain sides, ren- dering it more liable to be washed away by the fall rains. CREEKS. Throughout the entire region visited were many creeks, varying greatly in size. These can easily be detected at some distance on the low lands, by the growth of willows, alders and trembling aspen growing along their banks. Skunk cabbage, grasses and clovers are the most important forage plants found in these locations. During the early summer months the sheep do not feed on the vegetative growth on the borders of these streams, as they have a striking distaste for forage on wet lands. But when the creeks dry up in August the sheep readily eat up the skunk cabbage and other forage plants. Some difficulty some- times has to be contended with by the herders in getting the sheep across the larger creeks. The method adopted is usually that of crowding the sheep together from the rear, until the foremost ones are forced over, when the rest follow readily. No particular harm is done to the forage in the vicinity of the creeks, as the plants are not eaten off until late, and the autumn's rains soon come and start them growing again. VALLEYS. The region of the Sierra Nevadas north of the Central Pacific Railroad is intersected by'numerous valleys from one to twenty miles in extent. The only time that the sheep are allowed to graze in these valleys is in the fall of the year, when the sheep- men sometimes rent the third crop of alfalfa from the ranchers for grazing purposes. These valleys are owned and occupied by permanent ranchers, who have lar.^e herds of cattle, both for beef and dairy purposes. The pastures in these valleys are usually well fenced and contain fields of alfalfa, Kentucky blue-grass, or native grasses and sedges. POISONOUS PLANTS. It was a surprising fact that no cases of the poisoning of sheep by plants on the range were met with throughout the entire summer. Past experience in certain canyons, known as "poison canyons," seems to be the foundation on which the sheepmen work. The districts in which large numbers of sheep have been poisoned in past years are now well known and the herders have strict orders to keep away from them. The danger from loss by poisoning is not nearly so great after the month of June, as the tempting spring plants that are poisonous are usually by this time dried up. In many instances when questions in regard to poisonous plants were asked, the reply was that a few years ago in a certain canyon about a mile over the ridge a large, number of sheep were poisoned, but just which plants were the poisonous ones did not seem to be known. The writers wished very much that they could investigate these "poison canyons," but the time at their disposal would not permit of it, so that work in connec- tion with the poisonous plants of . this region still remains to be done. The most practical work that has been done on poisonous plants on the range is that by V. K. Chestnut and E. V. Wilcox, entitled "The Stock-Poisoning Plants of Montana," Bulletin 26, Division of Botany, United States Department of Agriculture, 1901 . A number of plants known to be poisonous were incidentally collected by the writers during the summer, such as blue larkspur, tall larkspur and aconite. The blue larkspur is carefully avoided by sheep; the tall larkspur, although sometimes nibbled, will not poison the sheep Unless large quantities of it have been eaten, or when they have empty stomachs; while the aconite did —19— not occur in sufficient quantities to be considered. For further information in regard to these plants see under head of ' ' Descrip- tion of Plants" (p. 24). SHEEPHERDERS. The sheep are divided into bands of from 2,000 to 3,000 in a band, each band usually being cared for by two men, one the herder, the other the cook and camp-tender. The former has charge of the sheep while grazing, and usually sleeps wherever the sheep camp down for the night, keeping a close watch on them and returning to the cook's camp only for his meals. The latter, the camp-tender, has charge of the cooking and the moving of the camp, which takes place usually about every three days. Where a large number of bands are owned by one man, he usually hires one or two foremen who superintend the work at the time of dipping and shearing, and who go ahead on horseback during the summer, finding out the condition ot the ranges and directing the sheepherders as to where their boundary lines lie and the route they wish them to take. The class of men which were in demand for herding the sheep were known as Basques or "Bascos." They come from the Pyrennees Mountains, and are designated French or Spanish Basques, according to the side of the mountains in which they lived. They naturally take to the life of solitude, as they and their ancestors have been employed in a similar occupation in the Pyrennees Mountains for many years past. The wages paid them are from $30 to $40 a month, with board. Their savings are often spent in a trip to their homes in Europe, where they live a life of ease for one or two years, and then return to America to herd sheep again. Italians, Americans and other nationalities are sometimes employed, but they are rarely as contented and successful as the Basques. An Italian sheepherder at whom the other sheepherders poked a great deal of fun on account of his peculiarities, invari- ably had the best batch of lambs for the market. On asking the —20 — reasons for this we were told that it was due mainly to his methods of herding and knowledge of the food value of the plants, along with many years of experience over the same terri- tory, and conscientious attention to duty. He very seldom put a dog on the sheep, allowing them to spread out as far as reasonable safety from loss would allow, of ten walking considerable distances around the band of ewes and lambs, rather than frighten them and crowd them together with a dog, when the forage could not be so evenly grazed by all, or the sheep so contented as to make the best use of the food eaten. Their knowledge of English is usually very imperfect, so that even when they were willing to give out information they were unable to do so in a satisfactory manner. Some of them were very suspicious in regard to our motives, believing that we were government spies, or that we were trying to find out just what kinds of forage it was that made the mutton from Nevada sheep superior to others. By finding this out we could then introduce those particular forage plants into other States, which would then be able to produce equally as good mutton. PRESENT CONDITIONS. A great difference exists as to the degree to which different parts of the summer range have been injured by sheep-grazing. Some sheep-owners are alive to the fact that judicious and scien- tific methods must be used in grazing on the ranges, while others seem to think that it is impossible for the grasses and forage plants to become exterminated, no matter what the treatment. Because of this condition of things, there can be found some ranges on which the feed is almost as plentiful as it was ten years ago, while others can be found that have been cropped closely several times every year, and now produce a very small quantity of forage to the acre. Good forage plants, like the tomato plant (PI. XII), are so severely grazed during the hot summer that the crown is injured and death results. Brush is so constantly nibbled that the branches become short and distorted; and, unable to produce leaves, they finally succumb. When the plants, with 21 their roots, are gone, then come the fall rains which wash the rich surface soil into the streams and leave behind poor soil, which soon becomes hard, so that succeeding rains rapidly run off. When the roots of the plants are destroyed there is nothing to hold the soil together, hence it is easily washed, forming gullies which in time become creeks during the rainy season. This con- dition of the range can be seen from Webber Lake to Soda Springs Station on the north, and from Summit Soda Springs to Soda Springs Station on the south, where every year numerous bands traverse this region to be shipped on the railroad. Severe trampling must also be considered in regard to its effect on the plants on the range. Owing to the large number of sheep which pass over the land and their habit of feeding in close bunches, makes them more destructive than other kinds of stock. Contrary to our expectations, however, young fir seedlings, from two to six inches high, were not injured by the sheep passing over them. They do not eat them, and the plants seem to be of such a wiry texture that they spring back into place as soon as released by the feet of the sheep. It seems to the writers that with proper care and management the forage on the ranges of the Sierra Nevadas visited by them might be made to produce double the amount now growing on them, as devastation has only just begun. Most of the best forage plants are still there, and all they want is an opportunity to reseed themselves at least every other year. The soil is rich and capable of producing a much larger quantity of forage than is now on them. If the present methods on many ranges are continued, within a few years the number of sheep will have to be greatly decreased, more land will have to be rented, and finally the sheep industry, which adds greatly to the prosperity of the State, will come to a close. CONTROL OF THE RANGES. The area of the State of Nevada is 112,090 square miles, or 71,737,600 acres. According to the report of the Commissioner 22 of the General Land Office, the lands of the State may be classi- fied as follows: ACRES. Grazing 30,000,000 Mineral 15 ,000,000 Agricultural 20,000,000 Forestry 2,000,000 Saline, borax and sulphur deposits, and deserts 3,656,000 Lakes, rivers and sinks 1,081,600 71,737,600 The several land grants irom the General Government to the State of Nevada aggregate 2,732,884.70 acres, of which, approxi- mately, 28,000 have not yet been selected by the State. The railroad of the Southern Pacific Company extends through the State a distance of 448 miles, and has under its control every alternate section for a distance of twenty miles on each side of the track, amounting to about 5,000,000 acres. Adding to these about 3,000,000 acres, the amount of public lands disposed of in the United States Land Office under the Homestead Desert Land Act, and Timber, Stone and Mineral land laws, and it leaves about 61,000,000 acres of free public range, as may be seen in round numbers in the following tabulation: ACRES. Total area of State 71 ,000,000 Grants to State from Gov'ment. 2, 000,000 Railroad land 5 ,000, ooo Homestead Desert Land Act , etc _ 3 , ooo, ooo 10,000,000 Free Government land 6 1 , ooo, ooo It can readily be seen then that the General Government has still under its direct control all but one-seventh of the total area of land in the State. Now a large proportion of this 61,000,000 acres of land is well adapted for grazing purposes, but is becoming less productive every year by the injudicious methods of grazing now being practiced and permitted by the Government. There is a bill before Congress with the object in view of having these PL. XII. — TOMATO PLANT (Hyd) ophyllwu capitatum, var. alpinum.) —23— lands leased on long terms. It should be supported by every one who has an interest in the future welfare of this State and the general prosperity of the country at large. Stockmen are very naturally opposed to the passage of any such legislation, because this large tract of land is now furnishing them a considerable amount of forage free of cost. His profits are consequently larger and his wealth accumulates more rapidly. The question, how- ever, is one for State and national legislation to settle. Not only must the stock-owner of the present day be considered, but the productiveness of the lands must be maintained if the State is to have any permanent prosperity. What will the stockman do twenty years from now when this vast area has been made into a barren wilderness? This condition can be found to-day in Arizona and Texas, and is bound to come to Nevada within a few years unless different methods for grazing on the ranges are adopted. What inducement will we have for capital? Of what use will we have for our woolen mills, stock yards, cold storage, warehouses and other enterprises without cattle and sheep to till them? True enough, large numbers of individuals may by that time have accumulated large fortunes, but these, surrounded by 61,000,000 acres of barren land, can add but little to the general prosperity of the State. The sheepmen purchase, lease or rent from the railroad com- pany, State or private individuals, tracts of land, ranging their sheep on them part of the time and the remainder on the free public range. The general plan is to purchase the land in the vicinity of streams and springs, and in this manner get control of much of the surrounding country for themselves for grazing purposes. Difficulty sometimes arises from traveling bands that belong to sheepmen who own no land anywhere, but move con- tinually on the free government land, and sneak in on land owned by cattlemen and other sheepmen. The better class of sheepmen, however, recognize each others rights to graze over certain parts of the range and often agree among themselves as to division lines. Under no consideration should an owner, leaser or renter of a piece of range allow, even for remuneration, another man's sheep to graze after him with the idea that he has gotten out of it all tie needs this year, and plenty more will grow on it —24— next year. This false idea of economy would very soon lead to the total destruction of the forage plants, as they would be severely trampled on and eaten to such an extent that they wrould be unable to survive. The many millions of free public range are doomed to de- struction if the present methods of control are not changed, and for this reason the 5,000,000 acres controlled by the railroad and the 2,000,000 odd acres purchased from the State by individuals should be judiciously handled. It is to them only that a direct benefit can be derived by following up some of the suggestions in the following section of this bulletin. Much of the material offered in this bulletin can only be of value provided that some legislative action is taken by the Government for the just control of the public range. DESCRIPTION OF PLANTS. PARSLEY FAMILY. (Umbelli ferae.} This interesting family may be best called to mind by such plants as the carrot, parsnip and parsley, in common cultivation in our gardens. It contains about 1,300 species, distributed mainly throughout the temperate regions. The members of this family may generally be recognized by their peculiar smell, which is sometimes quite pleasant. Although a large proportion of them are edible, yet there are a few exceedingly poisonous ones which it would be well for sheep and cattle owners to become acquainted with. The most dangerous, and one which is quite frequently met with in Nevada along the banks of irrigation ditches, is the wild parsnip or water-hemlock. It resembles the common garden parsnip very closely, but differs from it in having white instead of yellow flowers. Believing that the time has come when especial precautions should be taken to eradicate this plant in our State, the following extracts are taken from Bulletin 26, Division of Botany, U. S. Department of Agriculture, entitled PL. XIII. — TOMATO PLANT. — Showing strong roots and what remains of the plant after the sheep have grazed on it. —25— rung Plants of Montana," by V, K. Chestnut : "The number of cattle poisoned by water-hemlock in Mon- luring 190* , so far as conclusive evidence could be obtained, d of these thirty died. About one hundred and e poisoned by it the same year, eighty of which The percentage of fatal cases, therefore, is very large, being 76 per rent with sheep and 83 per cent with cattle. " Permanganate of potash should be promptly administered, as previous!? recommended for poisoning by other plants. " In cv here large quantities of the plant, especially the root, are eaten, death results so quickly .that remedial measures •plied." The herders usually consider all plants belonging to this family as good forage for sheep, and are particularly strong in their praises for some of them. When they are asked whether a certain plant makes good feed, they immediately break off a piece of it. rub it in their fingers, smell it, and then pronounce it good or bad according to its smell, WILD CARAWAY. {Ataenia gairdneri H. & A.) The wild caraway grows from one to three feet high, with a solid, thick, tapering root, about one inch long, a few parted leaves and clusters of white flowers on the ends of the stems. On the hillsides in the region of Webber Lake, this plant was very abundant, sometimes forming large, dense white patches covering the ground. When a band of sheep comes to one of these patches every plant is eaten off clean. The herders con- sider it a valuable plant. LOVAGE — WILD PARSLEY. {Ligusticum apiifolium, (Nutt) Gray.) A rather stout plant, from two to three feet high, with a thick, fibrous growth at the base, and many strong roots. The leaves are plentiful and finely divided, and the white flowers are —26— borne in clusters on the ends of the stems. It was found growing in considerable quantities in moist, rather shady places in the Webber Lake region, where it was greedily eaten by the sheep. The herders consider it one of the best forage plants on the ranges. SIERRA SWEET CICELY. ( Washington! a occid entails, (Nutt) C. & R.) This plant grows from two to three feet high, with many leaflets which are not finely divided into segments. It can be readily recognized by its long, thick, somewhat fleshy roots, which have a strong odor of anise. It was found frequently throughout the mountains on rather moist ground in partly shaded locations. The sheep are exceedingly fond of it, leaving only a very small portion of the stem. BREWER'S ANGELICA. {Angelica Breweri, Gray.) PL. IV. A tall, stout-stemmed plant, with large toothed leaflets and a strong thick taproot. The white flowers are in large, spreading clusters, sometimes six inches across, on the ends of the stems. It was found quite abundantly in the valleys on Talbot's range, between Summit Soda Springs and French Meadows. The entire plant above the ground is readily eaten by sheep, but they are particularly fond of the flowers. The leaders in the band run from plant to plant, biting them off and eating them ravenously. Mr. Talbot considers this plant very good feed, but was inclined to believe that the roots were poisonous. BIG-ROOTED PARSLEY. {Leptotaenia dissecta, Nutt.) A stout, coarse plant, with very thick roots two to three inches in diameter, and finely divided leaves. On the ranges near Webber Lake the sheep were seen to eat this plant down to the ground with much relish. The strong, thick, heavy, oily root, PL. XIV. — FIVE FINGERS (Potentilla gracilis, var. rigida.} —27— which extends deep down into the soil, was, of course, left unin- jured. It was not common enough on the ranges visited, how- ever, to be considered of especial value. cow PARSNIP. {Heracleum lanatum, Michx.) PL. in. This large, coarse plant was without doubt the largest mem- ber of this family met with' throughout the trip. It has large, somewhat woolly leaves and stems, and grows from four to eight feet high. The plant was usually found in rather moist situations in the meadows, among the shrubbery. It was considered a very valuable plant by the sheepherders, who said that the sheep were particularly fond of the juicy stems. They expressed regret that it was not more plentiful. SUNFLOWER FAMILY. (Compositae.} The sunflower family is the largest family of flowering plants, with many thousands of species occurring in all parts of the globe. Sagebrush, thistles, sunflowers, daisies, dandelions and chrysanthemums are common and familiar representatives. Taking the year round this family provides more forage for range sheep than all the other families combined. This can be accounted for by the fact that sheep graze throughout the winter on different kinds of sage, most of which are members of this family. SUNFLOWER. ( Wye this, mo I Us, Gray.) PL. v. This plant is found abundantly on dry hillsides and open places in thd forests. It occurs in large patches, often very dense, — 28— and during the months of June and July produces a large number of large yellow flowers, When a band of sheep comes to a patch of this sunflower the leaders rapidly eat off all the flowers; those following them pick out the young, tender leaves in the center of the plant, while those in the rear bite off the old leaves, eat the stem and then trample on the blade, leaving a very dejected- looking patch. Mr. Van Buren told us that during the month of August, when forage is not so abundant and some of the ranges are being grazed for the third or fourth time, sheep will eat a considerable quantity of the leaves. The herders also said that in the autumn when feed is scarce the sheep eat the dead dry leaves. Prof. Coville* mentions a species of sunflower ( Wyethia) growing in the mountains of Oregon, which is the favorite spring food for sheep. It is unfortunate that the sheep do not care much for this plant, as it occurs in great quantities, and has a very long,, tough root, an inch or more in diameter, which couid not easily be trampled out by continuous grazing. BIG SUNFLOWER — BALSAM ROOT, (Balsantorhiza sagittata, Nutt,) PL, VI. This tall sunflower was found on many parts of the ranges visited, but not so abundantly as the common sunflower just mentioned. It is a perennial plant, with thick, resinous roots, large, somewhat woolly leaves and yellow flowers. The two species, although similar in general appearance, can be readily distinguished by a comparison of the leaves. The big sunflower has two pointed lobes at the base of. the blade of the leaf, while the leaves of the common sunflower merely taper to a point at their junction with the stem. This can readily be seen by a comparison of Pis. V and VI. LITTLE SUNFLOWER. (Helianthella Californica, Gray.) PL. VII. This plant was found to be quite common on dry hillsides on *Bulletin 15, Division of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, p. 25. PL. XV. — BROWN'S P^ONY ( Pey ..43 Poisonous plants .18 Rattle\\ eed 40 Railroad land* 22 Jinn unculacfoe 33 44| Western fescue grass 45 White Willow clover -. 49 fauiilv. 41 Wild tomato . -31 \\'***« —55— ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. The authors of this bulletin are glad to avail themselves of; this opportunity for expressing their thanks to Professor F. Lamson Scribner for his determination of the grasses; to Mrs. Dr. K. Branclegee of San Diego for aid in the determination of many plants, and to Miss Alice Eastwood for courtesies and suggestions, as well as for the use of the library and herbarium of the Cali- fornia Academy of Sciences, and to Professor R. H. McDowell for many helpful suggestions. -56— INDEX. AchilJea millefolia, Linn 29 Aconitu7n Columbianuni, Nutt 36 Aconite 36 Agroatis exerata, Trin. and Agrostis tennis, Vasey -.46 Amelanchier alnifol'm, Nutt Angelica Breweri, Gray 26 A rlem isia, ruigaris, Linn 30 Aster integri folia, Nutt .29 Aster Frcmontii, Gray .29 Atxnia gairdenari, H. & A 2; Australian salt bush Depletion of ranges . T 6-14 Causes . 7 Effects. . . 8-9 Remedies 9-14 F. Iderberry 41 .13 .28 Basques • - - 19 32 Efndimn eircutarium, L'Her 36 En's >>nurn aKperum , I). C 39 Everlasting 31 Experimental grass plots 11-13 False larkspur 36 Feather-grass 45 Five-fingers Figwort family Bear-brush _ _ 41 Beard tongue 38 Big sunflower _ 28 Forest fires Big-rooted parsley 26 Forage Blue-grass -43-44 J&.i-um as marginatus, Nees .46 Brome-grass 46 Botanical outfit ^ 6 Buck-brush .41 1 Buckthorn family 41 Bunch blue-grass 44 Buttercup family. 3; Buckwheat family ..U Caraway _, ? = Camp equipment .4-^ Causes of injury to ranges 8 Canti leia •niittiaia, Dougl 38 Ceantithns curdulatus, Kellog 41 •extnc.a howellii, Hack. 45 fextura microstachys 45 Filaree 36 38 16 Clover family. Conclusions 47 Cow parsnip 27 Condition of ranges 20-21 Control of ranges 21-24 Creeks ..17 Creeping mallow. Cudweed .. 1 i ) of open sagebrush lands 15 (2) of open forests 15 (3 ) of denser forests 16 (4) of high snow-clad mountains. 16 ( 5 ) of creeks 17 (6) of valleys 17 Fremont's daisy 29 Geranium family 36 Giant k hot weed .... 39 Government lands -. 23 'innph'tlium d&cttrrtnSi Ives 31 Grass farms 11-12 Grass family .43 'i'r ' wineae 43 fffraclfitin /an a turn , Michx . 27 Ilel-iti.ntJie.lla Califcrnica , Gray 28 Honeysuckle family '.. . .40 Howell's fescue grass . . 45 [fydrojihyllum capitatum, Dougl 31 Uy(ii'(jp]iyi,laceae .... 31 Indian corn 42 Jacob's ladder 40 32 - 44 Labint >e 37 -37 June-berry. .39'Kentucky blue-grass. 47 Daisy 29 Delphinium andermnii, Gray 35! Larkspur 34~35 Letterman's feather-grass : . 45 Leytdtnenin. dissecta, Nutt 26 glaucum, Watson ^Leguminosac 47 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS Agricultural Experiment Station BULLETIN NO. 129 MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF SHEEP BY W. C. COFPEY URBANA, ILLINOIS, NOVEMBER, 1908 SUMMARY OF BULLETIN 129 1. The market classes of sheep are Mutton, Feeder and Breed- ing sheep. The name of a class indicates the use to which sheep in that class are put. 2. Each class is divided into sub-classes and these again into grades. In general the names of the sub-classes suggest differences of either age or sex between sheep put to the same use. The grades refer to differences between the best and the less desirable animals in the various sub-classes. In the mutton class these dif- ferences are based on quality, condition, weight and form; in the feeder class, on quality, form, constitution, condition and weight; and in the breeding class, on age, constitution, form, breeding, quality and condition. 3. MUTTON SHEEP. — The mutton class includes both native and western sheep. The sub-classes are lambs, yearlings, wethers, ewes, bucks and stags. Page 579. Lambs. — About eighty percent of the sheep sent to slaughter are lambs. The grades are prime, choice, good, medium, and com- mon or culls. Quality, condition, form, and weight are the factors considered in determining the grade to which lambs belong. Both quality and condition are very important and lambs without high development in both are not placed in the higher grades. Form, especially the feature of paunchiness, is significant in grading lambs. Weight is a factor that varies somewhat with the different times in the year, but lambs weighing 80 pounds and prime in quality, condition and form will always grade as prime. Page 580. Yearlings. — Yearlings are used as a substitute for lambs in the meat trade. The grades are prime, choice, good. Prime yearlings are light in weight, immature, and very highly developed in qual- ity and condition. Page 594. Wethers. — Only a small percentage of the sheep sent to market are wethers. This percentage is small because both growers and consumers prefer lambs to older sheep. The grades are prime, choice, good, common. Prime wethers have the same require- ments in quality and condition as prime yearlings. They may be either light, weighing from 95 to no pounds, or heavy, weighing 140 pounds or more. Page 598. Ewes. — Ewes do not sell on a par with wethers because they have proportionately a greater amount of offal and a smaller amount of lean meat. The grades are prime, choice, good, medium and common or culls. The requirements in condition, quality and weight are practically the same as for wethers. Page 604. Bucks and Stags. — Choice bucks are fat and resemble wethers in form and quality. Page 607. 4. FEEDER SHEEP. — Feeder sheep are almost exclusively west- ern sheep. The sub-classes are lambs, yearlings, wethers and ewes. Page 609. Lambs. — The grades are fancy selected, choice, good, medium, common. Choice feeder lambs show thrifty condition, a high de- gree of quality and weigh between 55 and 62 pounds. Page 609. Yearlings. — The grades are choice, good, common. The choice feeder yearling must be of good form, highly developed in quality and light in weight. Page 615. Wethers. — The grades are choice, good, medium, common. In general the requirements are the same as for yearlings. Page 619. Ewes. — The grades are choice, good, medium, and common. Choice feeder ewes are young and choice in quality. Page 624. 5. BREEDING SHEEP. — The sub-classes are bucks and ewes. Page 627. Ewes. — Breeding ewes are selected from both native and west- ern offerings. The grades are fancy selected, choice, good, com- mon. Choice breeding ewes are from two to four years old, sound, well formed and well bred. Page 627. Bucks. — Breeding bucks are not sub-divided into grades. All offerings are natives. Page 630. OUTLINE CLASSES SUB-CLASSES f L,AMBS MUTTON SHEEP (Native and Western Sheep) SHEEP (Western Sheep) BREEDING SHEEP (Native and Western Sheep) MISCELLANEOUS HOT HOUSE L/AMBS EXPORT SHEEP THROW-OUTS DEAD SHEEP GOATS YEARNINGS WETHERS EWES BUCKS AND STAGS LfAMBS YEARLINGS WETHERS EWES EWES BUCKS GRADES PRIME CHOICE GOOD MEDIUM COMMON OR CULLS PRIME CHOICE GOOD PRIME CHOICE GOOD COMMON PRIME CHOICE GOOD MEDIUM ^ COMMON OR CULLS CHOICE GOOD COMMON FANCY SELECTED CHOICE GOOD MEDIUM COMMON r CHOICE GOOD [ COMMON C CHOICE GOOD j MEDIUM ^ COMMON r CHOICE GOOD MEDIUM COMMON FANCY SELECTED CHOICE GOOD I COMMON (Not graded) MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF SHEEP BY W. C. COFFEY, FIRST ASSISTANT IN SHEEP HUSBANDRY INTRODUCTION The purpose of this bulletin is to define and illustrate the vari- ous classes and grades of sheep as recognized on the Chicago and other large markets. It is presented with the hope that it will be of value to those engaged in growing and handling sheep. The grower or feeder offering sheep for sale often forms a very imper- fect estimate of their market value, and chiefly because his contact with the open market has not been sufficient to familiarize him with the factors embodied by the various terms in market reports. If may be that he is ignorant of the meaning of certain terms; he may have a mistaken or hazy notion of others, and both observa- tion and experience show that anything short of a fairly accurate conception of what a certain ^market term stands for is a source of disappointment and annoyance. Because his judgment as to the true market worth of his sheep is uncertain, the owner may suffer a financial loss in dealing with a local buyer by selling under the market value or by missing a sale by asking too much for them. If, at the time of sale, the owner could definitely determine the value of his sheep, he would experience less difficulty in coming to an early understanding with the local buyer, or in case he shipped them direct to the open market, the chances for disappointment and dissatisfaction would be greatly reduced. While it is the privilege of a few to visit the markets often and there learn the requirements and the demands for the different grades in the various classes, the great majority of sheep owners, and many feeders, must depend largely upon the market reports for such information, and the value of these reports to the man who proposes to buy or sell sheep is determined by the extent to which he can apply them to his par- ticular purchase or sale. It is hoped that the descriptions and illustrations herein presented will give the sheep owner an under- standing of the market classes and grades of sheep so that the market reports will not be misapplied by him. It is also hoped that it will have the further influence of leading men to adopt methods of breeding and feeding whereby they will be able to produce ani- mals that will meet with strong demand upon the markets. The task undertaken is not without its difficult phases. The grades in the different classes are more or less variable because of variations in quality, condition, and weight, the apparent supply 577 578 BULLETIN No. 129. [November, of shec;; and the activity of the mutton trade. It is exceedingly difficultfto describe accurately animals typical of the various grades. Photographs are hard to secure because sheep are yarded in cov- ered pens where the nature of the light defeats the most skillful photographer. While photographs are helpful in fixing the differ- ent grades in the mind of the reader it is impossible to present a photograph that is universally typical of a particular grade, because of variations in the markings and wool of sheep coming in that grade. Then, too, photographs of sheep often do not have a de- scriptive effect or the effect of corroborating a description satis- factorily, for the reason that the wool conceals, in a large measure, the condition and many times the form of the animal. In cases where the difference between two adjoining grades in the same class is due to condition alone, photographs are of very little aid in showing this difference. Another difficulty arises from the variation which exists in the use of terms by those engaged in buying, selling and reporting sheep on the market. For example, such words as choice and prime are frequently used interchangeably by the same party, or different parties use unlike terms with reference to the same thing. In submitting the classification given in the following pages, an effort has been made to present the subject true to existing condi- tions, and in such a way that the average reader will understand it. The writer does not wish the foregoing statements to impress the reader with the idea that the classification which follows is other than that actually in use. While it is often imperfectly and loosely quoted, and greatly abridged by buyers and salesmen in everyday practice, it is none the less the true classification. This bulletin is the result of a personal investigation of the subject at the Union Stock Yards, Chicago, where every possible courtesy was extended by the officials of the Union Stock Yards and Transit Company, live stock commission companies, packers, Government inspectors, and by representatives of the live stock journals. The greater number of the photographs from which the engravings were made were taken in the Chicago Union Stock Yards especially for use in this work. NATIVE AND WESTERN SHEEP Native sheep are those produced — ordinarily in small flocks—- on the farms of the central, southern and eastern states. Western sheep are those produced — usually in large bands — on the ranges of the western states. As a rule western sheep have enough Merino MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF SHEEAJ. 579 blood to make them markedly different in appearance from natives which are mostly from mutton-bred parents. But even were they identical in breeding, buyers and salesmen on the market could easily distinguish between them because of differences resulting from the way in which they are fed and managed. On markets where both native and western sheep are received, the daily reports nearly always distinguish between them, but in this bulletin no at- tempt is made to classify them separately where they are both put to the same use. Hence both native and western sheep are placed in the mutton and in the breeding classes, but only western sheep are placed in the feeder class. While thin natives are often bought up in the country and successfully fed, those that reach the market in low condition do not sell as feeders because they are usually in- fested with internal parasites, thus making it difficult and in many instances impossible to fatten them. Upon our larger markets and in daily live stock reports, west- ern sheep and lambs are not infrequently distinguished by the name of the state in which they were supposed to have been produced or fed, as Montanas, Colorados, Mexicans, Idahoes, etc. No attempt has been made, in this bulletin, to attach importance to such terms because the differences between sheep from different western states are many times almost imperceptible and those differences are due to condition, quality, and breeding which must inevitably vary somewhat within a state. In this connection may be mentioned another very common practice which is to prefix the word "fed" before a certain class and grade to distinguish grain from grass-fattened sheep. The term is used for a short time in the autumn and in the spring when both grain and grass-fattened sheep are coming to market, and it signifies so little that it is not given recognition in the outline of this work. MUTTON SHEEP All sheep and lambs sent to market for slaughter, no matter what the condition, age, or weight, are classed as mutton sheep. Of the various sub-classes, the one known as lambs is by far the most important, due to the fact that the producer can most profitably market his sheep as lambs and also that lamb is preferred to mutton by the consumer. However, mature mutton sheep will always be a feature on the market because it is the channel of dis- posal for surplus and spent breeding stock. Mutton sheep- upon the Chicago market are either slaughtered at the Chicago packing houses or reshipped, principally to Phila- 580 BULLETIN No. 129. [November* delphia, New York, Baltimore, Washington and Buffalo. These live shipments are usually made up of choice grades. The sheep slaughtered in Chicago are disposed of locally and by shipments to other consuming centers. The following sub-classes mark the divisions under which mutton sheep are graded: LAMBS, YEAR- LINGS, WETHERS, EWES, BUCKS and STAGS. It is estimated by traders upon the Chicago market that at least eighty percent of the sheep received at that place are lambs. This observation in part confirms the current statement that mutton production has become very largely a lamb proposition. As stated in the discussion under Mutton Sheep, both the producer and the consumer prefer lambs to older sheep. They are preferred by the producer because they make cheaper gains than sheep, and by the consumer because they are more palatable and more convenient to use. At from twelve to fourteen months of age lambs pass into the yearling and ewe classes. But it is the degree of maturity the young animal has attained rather than a set, definite age which determines whether or not it belongs to the lamb class. Native lambs usually reach maturity at an earlier age than western lambs because they receive a greater abundance of feed, and they are gen- erally free from Merino blood. Let it be understood that the above statement is no disparagement to Merino blood. On the other hand it is not difficult to see that the slower approach to maturity, which holds an animal in the lamb class for a longer time, may prove a decided advantage. For example, a feeder may buy light western lambs in October or November and feed them until the following May, at which time they will still be classed as lambs, while native lambs of the same age and similarly treated would be regarded as sheep. Because the term lamb applies to a compara- tively long period in the life of the animal, there comes a time in the year when for several weeks it is necessary to make two sepa- rate quotations on lambs, one of which is designated as spring lambs to distinguish lambs that are born in the year the quotations are made, from those that were born the year previous. These separate quotations first appear about May 20, and continue until July i. After the latter date all offerings born in the spring of the previous year are known as yearlings or ewes. The most important factors in determining the grade to which lambs belong are form, quality, condition and weight, and the grades recognized on the market are : PRIME, CHOICE, GOOD, MEDIUM, COMMON or Cuu,s. MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF SHEEP. 581 PRIME LAMBS It is understood that when lambs are graded as prime they are the very best of the class that may be generally expected on the market. Prime lambs are taken largely for fancy city market, ho- tel and restaurant trade. Such lambs are practically above criticism in quality, condition and weight. They are usually secured by sort- ing the best out of a band. This is especially true of native lambs where the offerings in one shipment are likely to be very uneven. Before a lamb is graded as prime it is determined by sight and touch that it possesses the form, quality, condition and weight de- manded by the dealer in high-class mutton. FORM. — The butcher demands the form that shows the most development in the loin, back, and leg of mutton. He demands development in these regions because they are the parts from which the high-priced cuts are secured. The animal should show a great deal of depth and breadth and no tendency to be paunchy, because paunchiness adds to the percentage of waste in slaughtering. The prime lamb should present a general fullness and smoothness of outline, both of which indicate thickness and evenness of flesh. There should be an absence of roughness because the waste in the dressing of the rough, ungainly lamb is large in proportion to th? carcass, and furthermore, the appearance of the carcass of such a lamb fails in attractiveness when placed on exhibition in the market. It is generally conceded that form is enhanced if the body is supported by short legs. However, many prime lambs have only moderately short legs. Very lono- legs detract from the dressed yield and from the appearance of the carcass, when displayed, and on this account lambs that are decidedly upstanding do not grade as prime. QUALITY AND CONDITION. — fi) General Quality. — The degree of development in this characteristic is one of the most important in determining the value of fat lambs. General quality is indicated by a medium sized, clean cut head, ears of fine texture, and fine, but strong bone, a light pelt, and full, well-rounded outlines. All these suggest a freedom from that coarseness which adds to the waste in dressing, and the unattractiveness which works against the value of the carcass. Of the items of general quality enumer- ated, lightness of pelt is the most essential. By pelt is meant the skin and wool combined. To secure a pelt of light weight, the skin should be comparatively thin and free from folds or wrinkles, and the wool should not be very dense or oily. The only time when the heavier weight of pelt seems to be favored is in the spring when both shorn and unshorn sheep and lambs are being marketed. 582 BULLETIN No. 129. [November, During these months the difference in price between shorn and un- shorn lambs varies from $.75 to $1.25 per hundred weight in favor of the unshorn lambs. The amount of difference depends on the condition of the wool market and the time in the season when the lambs are slaughtered. The difference usually becomes less as the hot weather approaches, because it is claimed the carcasses of un- shorn lambs deteriorate in quality on account of the discomfort the lambs suffer in hot weather from being left in their fleeces. Let it be remembered that the discrimination in favor of the heavier pelt holds only in cases where shorn and unshorn sheep or lambs are compared. Of two lambs in the wool, the one with the lighter pelt is always preferred provided they are otherwise equal. The ques- tion is often asked why sheep or lambs with heavy pelts are dis- criminated against when they carry a greater weight of wool than those with light pelts. This question arises naturally because wool is worth a great deal more per pound than mutton and it would seem that lambs with heavy fleeces should be credited with the greater amount of wool they produce. In a large packing plant the slaughtering department usually delivers pelts haying wool at about the same stage of growth to the wool pullery department at a uniform price. Hence the department buying the lambs does not discriminate in favor of those having heavy fleeces. If the buyer for the packer were required to base his bids upon the wool as well as the mutton yields, his task would be greatly complicated because in estimating the yield of wool he would be obliged to determine how much of the pelt is wool and how much of it is skin. Hence the packer instructs the buyer to be governed chiefly by the per- centage of marketable meat the lamb will yield and not by the combined product of mutton and wool. The weight of pelt may be appreciably influenced by the con- dition of the wool, with reference to foreign material and mois- ture in it. Should lambs be very wet, buyers may refuse to bid on them until they become more nearly dry, and if bids are made on offerings whose wool contains an unusual percentage of moisture, the buyer attempts to allow for it by the price he offers. Foreign material such as mud, sand, or dung, may be lodged in the wool, and the buyer protects himself from loss upon such offerings by bidding less per pound for them than if they were clean. Such bids usually work against the owner, and hence it pays to market lambs in clean condition. Occasionally the general quality of lambs may; be developed to such a marked degree that they will sell as prime even though they be somewhat deficient in form. - A notable ex- ample is the fat Mexican lamb. From the standpoint of form the Mexicans are not especially attractive, since they are upstanding igo8.} MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF SHEEP. 583 and have narrow bodies and long necks, but they are unequaled in the fineness of their features and their lightness of pelt. Without their high development of general quality they would not receive favorable consideration from buyers, but because of it, when fat, they top the market. (2) Quality of Flesh and Condition. — The terms quality and condition are frequently used interchangeably on the market, and chiefly because the quality of flesh is largely dependent upon con- dition. By condition is meant the degree of fatness of a lamb. The reasons why a lamb should be fat are: (a) Other things being equal, there will not be as high a percentage of offal as in the half fat, or the thin lamb; (b) the fat adds to the attractive- ness of the carcass, and thus makes it more inviting to the pur- chaser; (c) the comparatively fat carcass loses less in weight in the process of "cooling out" in the refrigerator and also in cook- ing; (d) some fat on the outside of the lean meat and a consider- able amount deposited through it adds to its palatability by making it more juicy and of better flavor. Desirable quality of flesh is indicated by firmness along the back, at the loins, over the sides and at the leg of mutton. "Hard as a board" is a favorite phrase with many sheepmen to describe a back having desirable quality of flesh, but with this single idea in mind bareness or lack of flesh might be mistaken for firmness of flesh. While the flesh should have that firmness which would im- press an inexperienced man as being hard, it should have just enough springiness to yield slightly to the touch. It is rarely that lambs are made too fat for the prime grade but very often they fail to grade as prime because they are not fat enough. Because lambs are finished for market before they have ceased growing, they do not have the tendency to lay on fat in large, soft bunches at the rump and in rolls at the girth, and hence it is difficult to carry them to the point of excessive fatness. The development of fat essential to the prime lamb is indicated by a thick dock, a full, mellow purse, thickness and smoothness on the back and over the ribs, fullness at the neck and flanks, and a plump, well filled breast. It is impossible to tell with exactness, by merely looking at it, the condition of a lamb in the wool and hence it is necessary to judge condition by placing the hands on the animal. Experts rely upon placing the hand but once, for example, by spreading the hand so that the back and ribs will be touched by one stroke, or by grasp- ing the loin, or by getting the thickness and fullness of the dock, but none risk their judgment upon sight alone. A great deal is 584 BULLETIN No. 129. [November, determined by the stroke that touches the back and ribs because it not only reveals the condition as evidenced by the degree of smoothness present, but also the amount and quality of the flesh by the thickness and firjnness of it. This stroke also aids in de- termining the kind of pelt a lamb may have with respect to thick- ness of skin, density of wool and foreign material in it. PLATE i. — A PRIME LAMB. WEIGHT. — Weight is a factor that varies somewhat with the different seasons in the year, but in general, the lamb of prime quality and condition and weighing 80 pounds sells at the highest price. When spring lambs first appear on the market they weigh little more than 60 pounds, but if they have the quality and finish they easily command top prices. During the summer months con- sumers of mutton desire small cuts because they do not eat large quantities of meat in warm weather, and this gives rise to a strong demand for lambs ranging in weight from 65 to 70 pounds. There never is a time, however, when lambs weighing 80 pounds will not sell as prime provided they are prime in form, quality, and condi- tion. Occasionally native lambs showing the best form, quality, and condition will sell as prime lambs, even though they reach 100 pounds in weight. Such cases are exceptional, and no one could expect to market lambs of this weight regularly and always have them grade as prime. However, a departure of a few pounds from the weight that is most popular does not detract as much from the price received as does an equal departure from the most MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF SHEEP. 585 i i 586 BULLETIN No. 129. [November, desirable quality and condition. Quality and condition are of di- rect interest to the packer in that they influence the percentage of marketable meat secured, but weight is a factor regulated almost entirely by the consumer. It is claimed that in the combination of tenderness, juciness and flavor, the flesh from the lighter lamb is not superior to that of the heavier lamb. But in making selec- tions from the lighter carcass the average consumer feels more fully assured he is getting lamb and not mutton, and the size of the cuts from the smaller carcass is more convenient for his use. What has been said in the above discussion about the form, quality, and condition of the prime lamb is in the main true of any sub-class of mutton sheep. Any animal that is markedly de- ficient in either form, quality, or condition will not meet the de- mands of the dealer in high-class mutton, and hence, cannot grade as prime. See Plates i and 2. CHOICE; LAMBS This is the grade that includes by far the greater number of the better offerings upon the Chicago market. To grade as choice, lambs cannot fall below the requirements for prime lambs to any marked degree. They must have the form, quality, and condition that make them desirable as mutton of a high class. They usually fail to sell as prime lambs because they are not quite up to the standard in quality, condition, or weight. While lambs frequently fail to grade higher than choice because of their quality or their weight, a lack in condition is most often the retarding factor. This may be traceable to one or more of the following causes. A long shipment from the range may cause deterioration in condition to such an extent that lambs, considered strictly prime before ship- ment, do not grade better than choice. Men who are keeping lambs as a feeding proposition are often influenced to market them short of prime finish because of unfavorable conditions, as shortage of feed, the high prices ruling for feeds, or inadequate shelter in sea- sons of unusual rainfall. Men who handle only a few sheep, and men who have newly taken up the practice of feeding are often unable to judge condition, and as a result, market their offerings underfinished. And, finally, men may know that their lambs are not in the most desirable condition yet they may feel that the prob- ability of a decline in market prices for lambs is too great to war- rant holding them until they are finished. See plates 3, 4 and 5. 1908.] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF SHEEP. 587 a 8* Q « 588 BULLETIN No. 129. [November, MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF SHEEP 589 590 BULLETIN No. 129. [November, GOOD LAMBS Upon the market, buyers and salesmen often prefer to speak of a band of lambs as being "good to choice" rather than using either of the terms separately to describe them. This doubtless is partly due to the unevenness in bands of lambs, which suggests two grades rather than one. If there is a pronounced unevenness in an offering, that alone is sufficient to prevent them grading better than good. But the individual lamb must be noticeably deficient in form, quality, condition or weight, or slightly deficient in each, thus making a lower grade through a combination of deficiencies. In discussing the choice grade it was pointed out that condition is the factor in which most lambs in that grade fall short of prime, but in the grade under consideration a lack of quality is almost as fre- quently apparent as lack of condition. No matter how much fat they may have, lambs having heavy pelts, as evidenced by folds or wrinkles over the body, rarely grade higher than ^ood. Very coarse native lambs, especially ram lambs, may be in choice con- dition but out of consideration in that grade through lack of qual- ity. See plate 6. PLATE 6.— GOOD LAMBS. NOTE THE FAULTY FORM AND ESPECIALLY THE UN- DERFINISHED CONDITION. MEDIUM LAMBS Lambs of this grade do not have, by a great deal, the condi- tion and quality necessary in the prime lamb. It is in this grade more than any discussed above that faulty form is apparent. Long, •loosely coupled bodies, with little spring of rib, and rough outlines 1908.] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF SHEEP. • r e A 7 Jv* /Y -f arum SUM %-«* ii'V, 592 BULLETIN No. 129. [November, are frequently seen. Because they are coarse, underfmished, and often paunchy, they do not dress a high percentage, and what they do produce is without sufficient fat to meet favor with dealers who handle high class mutton. Only the coarser, heavier pelted west- ern lambs are found in this grade, as the smoother, tidier range lambs in underfinished condition are sold to go to the country as feeders. Many native lambs, however, come in this grade, because those appearing on the market in low condition or those on the coarse "bucky" order are not sought as feeders. See plates 7 and 8. PLATE 8. — -MEDIUM WESTERN LAMBS. LEGGY AND HEAVY IN PELT AS EVI- DENCED BY FOLDS AND WRINKLES ON THEIR NECKS AND BODIES. COMMON OR CULL, LAMBS Lambs are in this grade chiefly because they are very far below that condition of flesh that would make them desirable for mutton. Coarse, ill-shaped lambs commonly belong to this grade, but not unless they are noticeably lacking in quality of flesh and amount of fat. Offerings in this grade are very light in weight, the range, with the one exception, as noted below, being from 30 to 50 pounds. Occasionally very young native lambs reach the market that have enough quality and condition to place them in a higher grade, but because of their very light weight and tender age they must sell as common lambs. As stated previously, practically all native lambs appearing on the market go to slaughter, while the MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF SHEEP. 593 PLATE 9.— COMMON OR CULL LAMBS. NOTE THE UNTHRIFTY APPEARANCE AND LACK OF SIZE. thinner western lambs are sent to the country as feeders, hence na- tives form the bulk of common or cull lambs. Under present metli- ods of sheep husbandry, it is impossible to send all native lambs to market in desirable condition because growers of natives have not yet learned how to keep them free from infestation by internal par- asites, and when they are infested to any great extent, they do not take on fat. In both the common and medium grades are frequently seen what are known as coarse, "bucky," native lambs. These are the result of careless shepherding on the part of growers. If lambs are left entire they rapidly become coarse when their sex instinct develops, and because of this coarseness and the loss of fat result- ing from a great amount of fretful activity, they are undesirable as mutton. While it is not the purpose to discuss any question of shepherding in this connection, it may be said in passing that grow- ers of natives would save much to themselves annually if they would make it a practice to castrate their ram lambs a few days after they are born. These coarse, "bucky" lambs are heavier than the bulk of common lambs, as they sometimes weigh as much as i oo pounds. The term, "cull," is common parlance in sheep market circles, but it has a double meaning. One applies to the lowest grade un- der a given class, and it is in this sense that the writer uses the 594 BULLETIN No. 129. [November, term; the other, to the number a buyer may have the privilege to reject when purchasing a band of lambs or sheep at a given price. Therefore, in defining the lowest grade of lambs, the term "com- mon," is less confusing than the term, "cull." See plate 9. YEARLINGS Yearlings are used as a substitute for lambs in the meat trade. The ability of the animal to substitute in this way depends upon its weight, quality, condition, and immaturity. An index greatly depended upon for identifying the carcass of a young sheep, or lamb, is what is known as the "break joint," which is found im- mediately above the pastern joint. The leg easily severs at the "break joint," leaving a reddish, porous, indented surface over which there is a slight, viscid like secretion easily noticeable to the touch. The presence of this joint in the live animal is best de- termined by feeling just above the pastern joint for a bony-like prominence, which is a true indication of it. It disappears when the sheep becomes mature, and a sheep that does not have it cannot class as a yearling. The yearling class is composed exclusively of wethers because the "break joint" disappears in ewes at about the time they pass out of the lamb class. Lambs born the year previ- ous to the time they appear on the market pass out of the lamb class about July first, and from that time the wethers are called yearlings until they are too far toward maturity to "break" as the salesmen and buyers familiarly refer to the "break joint." Yearlings are commonly designated upon the market as "lights" and "heavies." These terms, as they would indicate, refer to weights. Thus we frequently hear the phrases "prime lights" and "prime heavies," by which is meant the quality and condition of animals coming within certain limits of weight rather than their desirability as mutton. And hence, it is felt that "lights" and "heavies" are not strictly logical terms upon which to base grada- tions in this class. Since yearlings are used to take the place of lambs, the nearer they approach the quality, condition, and weight of prime lambs, the more satisfactorily will they accomplish the purpose for which they are intended. Any great departure in any of the above char- acteristics as applied to prime lambs will seriously affect the de- sirability of yearlings and if they are low in condition they are practically out of consideration as such. Therefore, the basis upon which yearlings are given a place, surrounds them with so many requirements that it is impossible for them to be included under many different grades. I9o8.} MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF SHEEP. 596 BULLETIN No. 129. [November, In marketing sheep, the tendency to market young animals is becoming more and more prevalent, and some interest attaches to the effect of this tendency upon the number of yearlings coming to market now in comparison with past years. So far as we are able to judge, there is proportionately no abatement in the number and many believe it has increased. It would seem, then, that there are a number of lambs each year that for one or several reasons should not be marketed as lambs and hence a logical place is made for yearlings. The grades are: PRIME, CHOICE, GOOD. PRIME YEARLINGS Yearlings, to grade as prime, must be highly developed in form, quality, and condition, and of a light, handy weight, which ranges from 70 to 90 pounds. The form of the prime yearling embodies symmetry, compactness, roundness, and smoothness with no sug- gestion of uneven lines or prominent parts. Unless such a form is secured, the carcass will appear too great in size to look like a lamb. In general quality the requirements are fine, clean cut features, and a pelt of light weight. As with prime lambs, so with yearlings, a high dressed percentage is demanded, and this is not possible with the animal having very coarse features and a heavy pelt. The most important considerations in placing a yearling in the prime grade are quality of flesh and the amount of fat it carries. Slight concessions may be made to a lack in general quality and form, but none to a lack in fat. Unless fat, the yearling is un- satisfactory, hence buyers discriminate sharply against those riot showing a high finish. See plate 10. Si, CHOICE YEARLINGS >ince it is difficult to secure the most desirable form, quality, condition, and weight combined in one animal, choice yearlings out- number those of the prime grade. Any noticeable departure from what is considered prime in any of the above characteristics is suf- ficient to place a yearling in the choice grade. During the winter season when the offerings of sheep are almost wholly grain fat- tened the greater number of yearlings are in prime condition, but at all times there are offerings that are not of the most desirable form, quality, and weight. Heavy weight yearlings are most in evidence during the winter season and at the period when yearlings 1908.] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF SHEEP. 597 PLATE u. — CHOICE YEARLINGS. pass into the wether class. Those of more than 90 pounds weight, although they may be in prime condition, rarely grade better than choice. If yearlings are graded as choice because of their lack in quality it is usually on account of their heavy pelts rather than coarseness of features, or a combination of the two where the de- ficiency in each is rather slight. There cannot be a great difference between the condition of prime and choice yearlings and, in fact, the total difference between them is not great. See plate n. GOOD YEARLINGS With a few scattered exceptions this is the lowest grade of yearlings offered as mutton. Undesirable quality, weight, or con- dition or a combination of deficiencies in any two or all three of the above will, if readily apparent, place a yearling in the good grade. Yearlings of no pounds and upwards rarely grade better than good, even though they be prime in every other respect. Ill form, general coarseness, and undue weight of pelt are all serious objections and those having such defects are nearly always placed in this grade. A rather frequent combination, placing yearlings in the good grade, is underfinished condition and undesirable quality. If yearlings are assigned to this grade solely because of a want of fat, they are almost on the border line between the mutton and the feeder class and are not much wanted by either packers or feeder buyers. See plate 12. 598 BULLETIN No. 129. [November, PLATE 12.— GOOD YEARLINGS. NOTE THE HEAVY PELTS AND THE DEFICIENCY IN CONDITION. Occasionally either pronounced coarseness, or underfinished condition combined with heavy weight place yearlings in a grade still lower than good, but offerings of this description do not really play the role of yearlings but of wethers, and they usually sell on a par with wethers. WETHERS This sub-class is composed of mature castrated males. Since comparatively few native wethers appear upon the market, this class is looked upon as chiefly a western product. It is claimed that there are fewer wethers reaching the markets each year, and if the demand for dressed lamb continues to grow at its present pace, and if transportation lines are extended through all range districts as present indications would lead us to suppose they will be, it is felt that the proportionate number of wethers will continue to decrease. Just now the rangeman has place for wethers if his location is such that the shipment of animals is difficult and ex- pensive; if he has very cheap grazing lands, and can produce his animals at very low cost; or if he has too few breeding sheep to run his ranch at its full capacity. When high prices are ruling for both mutton and wool, wethers will more than pay their way on almost any range, but when the profit they yield is compared with that from breeding ewes rangemen immediately see that the latter 1908.] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF SHEFP. 599 PLATE 13.— A PRIME NATIVE WETHER IN THE FLEECE. PLATE 14.— THE SAME SHEEP AS IN PLATE 13 OUT OF THE FLEECE. '600 BULLETIN No. 129. [November, are more profitable, hence wethers are being discarded by the more progressive sheepmen. As a mutton product, wethers are desired in hotel, restaurant, dining car, and steamship trade, or in any place where the com- paratively heavier cuts may be used to advantage. The following grades include the offerings appearing on the markets: PRIME, CHOICE, GOOD, COMMON. PRIME WETHERS The same conformation, quality, and condition are demanded in prime wethers that have already been noted as characteristic of prime yearlings. The most desirable weights range from 95 to no pounds, and are popularly known as light, handy weights. However, wethers weighing 140 pounds and upwards frequently grade as prime if their heavy weight is accompanied by desirable conformation, quality and condition. These prime heavy wethers are selected for export and for a limited demand in a few large cities, notably Chicago, New York and Boston. See plates 13, 14 and 15. CHOICE WETHERS Choice wethers must possess quality and condition to a marked degree. Quality in this instance applies more particularly to light- ness of pelt and to freedom from paunchiness than to coarseness of features. Wethers of this grade must also come under the light, handy or the heavy weights. Cho'ce wethers are used in the same way as prime wethers, and both are sought by dealers in high class mutton. The choice wether is usually slightly short of prime in form, quality and condition. See plate 16. GOOD WETHERS Good wethers are characterized by coarseness and lack of prime condition. They do not command the highest prices because they do not dress a high percentage of marketable meat, nor yield a quality of mutton satisfactory to a high class trade. If wethers are pronounced in their weight of pelt, but. covered with thick fat, they will come in this grade unless of undesirable weight. Fre- quently wethers of choice condition and quality, and weighing 120 to 135 pounds, are placed in the good grade because their weight is not adapted to the purpose for which they are desired. They are +00 heavy for light, handy purposes, and too light for heavy carcass purposes. See plate 17. 1908.] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF SHEEP. 601 602 BULLETIN No. 129. [November, 1908.] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF SHEEP. 603 PLATE 17. — GOOD WETHERS. COMMON WETHERS This grade is made up of wethers of inferior quality and in perceptibly underfinished condition. But for their undesirable quality they would sell as feeders. They help to supply a cheap city trade. See plate 18. PLATE 18. — COMMON WETHERS. 604 BULLETIN No. 129. [November, KWES This sub-class is composed of yearling ewes, surplus breeding ewes, and those no longer useful for breeding purposes. As these different sources indicate, there are wide differences in the age, condition, and weight of the various offerings of ewes appearing on the market. Ewes do not sell on a par with wethers because they have, pro- portionately, a greater percentage of offal and a smaller amount of lean meat. Except in times of urgent demand for mutton, prime wethers sell for at least fifty cents per hundred-weight more than prime ewes. However, when the demand for mature mutton is strong the difference is often no more than twenty-five cents. The higher grades of ewes are used by dealers in high-class mutton for hotel and. restaurant trade, but they, of course, are not as desirable as the better grades of wethers. They function somewhat as a supplement to wethers. The lower grades are used in cheap city trade and in districts such as mining camps, where there is a call for cheap mutton. Ewes are graded as follows : PRIME, CHOICE, GOOD, MEDIUM, COMMON or CtltLS. PRIME EWES Smooth, highly finished native and western yearling ewes, and a very small number of well-bred, aged native ewes of prime qual- ity and in prime condition, comprise the offerings in this grade. Since the bulk of yearling ewes are sold for breeding purposes the total offerings of prime ewes are small. Prime yearling ewes may be not entirely above criticism in quality and condition, but be- cause they are light in weight, they meet with ready sale. The strongest demand is for weights not greater than 100 oounds. However, large, smooth, aged ewes in prime condition sell as prime ewes. The supply of such ewes is meager and they go to a trade that could not handle many of them. See plate 19. CHOICE EWES Ewes of this grade must show development to a high degree in form, quality and condition, as they are placed to the same use as prime ewes. They may be slightly faulty in quality, condition or weight, but they are usually criticised for their lack either of quality or condition. Grain-fattened western ewes frequently sell as choice. See plate 20. 1908.] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF SHEEP. 60S 606 BULLETIN No. 129. [November, PLATE 20. — CHOICE EWES. GOOD Ew^s Good ewes are appreciably open to criticism in condition and often in quality. In most seasons of the year, ewes, choice in con- dition and quality but of the unhandy weights, ranging1 from 115 to 130 pounds, are also placed in this grade. See plate 21. MEDIUM EWES Underfinished condition and advanced age are usually evident in this grade. Often ewes and their lambs are sent to market to- gether. Ewes in such shipments are frequently too low in condi- tion to be above the medium grade. The mutton from this grade goes to supply a cheap trade. See plate 22. COMMON OR CULX EWES Offerings of this grade are pronounced in their lack of condi- tion. Toothless old ewes, too decrepit to make use of feed and thus regain desirable condition, are slaughtered for the cheapest class of trade. As the winter season advances a number of ewes appear on the market well advanced in pregnancy. Such ewes, al- though they may be of choice quality and condition, sell as com- mon ewes because of their high .percentage of waste and the ill effects pregnancy is said to have upon the color of the carcass. General quality cuts little figure in this grade, as the generaf un- desirability passes all offerings through at about the same price. See plate 23. 1908.] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF SHEEP. 607 PLATE 21. — GOOD EWES. PLATE 22. — MEDIUM EWES. BUCKS AND STAGS On the market rams are designated as bucks. Stags are males castrated later than the lamb stage of life and they sell on a par with bucks. Strictly speaking, bucks are not graded although the terms choice, good, and common are frequently used. Quotations 608 BULLETIN No. 129. [November. PLATE 23.— COMMON OR CULL EWES. PLATE 24.— CHOICE BUCKS. on bucks do not fluctuate daily as do the 'quotations on the other classes of mutton sheep, but the same quotation runs through a period of days. This practice prevails because of the few sheep offered in this class. Buck carcasses do not go to any special branch of trade, but they are distributed in with heavy wether carcasses, hence the MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF SHEEP. 609 more the carcass of the buck.. resembles that of the wether, the more satisfactorily will it serve its purpose. The smooth buck of tidy form with a light neck, high quality, and thick, firm flesh, sells best. See plate 24. FEEDER SHEEP It must be obvious to everyone that the one thing which de- termines whether a sheep or lamb belongs to the feeder class, is condition. Whenever sheep are too low in condition to suit the needs of the packer they fall into the feeder class, unless they be extremely coarse in quality or weakened in vitality because of dis- ease or advanced age. The heavy run of feeder sheep occurs in the months of Sep- tember, October and November, when rangemen are reducing their flocks and preparing for the winter months. However buy- ers are constantly looking for thrifty, underfinished stuff and a limited number of feeder sheep go out from the markets every week in the year. As the shearing season approaches buyers of feeders from Michigan, Ohio, Indiana and Illinois make strong bids for well wooled lambs. Such lambs usually make large gains immediately after being shorn, and thus are made prime in con- dition in a short period. Practically all the sheep sold as feeders are grown on the west- ern ranges. Occasionally a few natives are taken out as feeders but so rarely and in such small numbers that they cannot be listed as belonging to the feeder class. Experience has taught sheep feed- ers that the thin natives on our large markets are, for reasons al- ready mentioned, rarely profitable in the feed-lot. The following are the recognized sub-classes of feeder sheep: LAMBS, YEARLINGS, WETHERS, EWES. FEEDER LAMBS Feeder lambs are those thin in flesh left after sorting out those in a band in suitable condition for the mutton trade. A great per- centage of the feeder lambs reaching the markets fall into that class because of certain influences under which they have been placed. It may be that they have had an unequal chance with those in highest condition in the band on account of not being so well nour- ished by their dams; they may have been born too late to reach that degree of condition, finish, and weight demanded by the packer ; or, they may have been held too long at the shipping place on the range or on the road by poor train service without the necessary amount of feed, so that the deterioration in condition placed what would have been mutton lambs in the feeder class. The grades recognized on the market are: FANCY SELECTED, Goon. MT^DTTIM. COMMOTST m? 610 BULLETIN No. 129. [November, PLATE 25. — FANCY SELECTED FEEDER LAMBS. FANCY SELECTED FEEDER LAMBS Not many of this grade of feeders are to be found on the mar- kets. They are usually the result of long delay at the point of shipment or in transit. Their quality, breeding, and age would place them on the market for mutton direct from the range but for some deteriorating influence that has reduced them in condi- tion. Fancy selected feeders must not only possess the character- istics of choice feeders as noted in the following pages, but in addition they must be uniform in breeding and markings and show an unusual amount of mutton blood for range lambs. Their qual- ity, as evidenced by clear cut features, clean limbs, light and smooth pelts, must be practically above criticism. They are nearly always slightly higher in condition and heavier than the average run of feeder lambs, ranging in weight from 65 to 70 pounds, and in that state of thrift where gains can be placed on them rapidly. If properly handled they are the grade of feeders that will finish quickly into prime lambs. See plate 25. CHOICE FEEDER LAMBS Choice feeders will develop into choice and prime mutton lambs if properly managed. Of the grades that come to the notice of buyers generally, they are probably more uniform than any other, and in order to get a fixed standard from which to make compari- sons this grade is described in detail. What the buyer expects of choice feeders is the ability to fin- ish into prime or choice mutton lambs, and to produce gains at I9o8.] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF SHEEP. 611 economical figures. The selection of such lambs is based upon form, quality, constitution, condition and weight. FORM. — In general the form should be deep, broad, well knit, of medium length and low set. This conformation indicates early maturity, good constitution, capacity for growth, and a likelihood of finishing into an attractive carcass with a relatively high per- centage of valuable cuts. Very leggy, gaunt, narrow, loosely made lambs usually fatten slowly and lack the ability to make economical gains or to reach choice mutton finish. The choice feeder should be of medium length rather than very long or short. Great length is usually attended with general ungainliness and a tendency to finish slowly. Since lambs of this conformation are usually very long in the coupling, they, when at their best, lack the compact- ness desired in the choice mutton lamb. On the other hand, the unusually short lamb, as a rule, behaves on feed as though it had been stunted. It is often fastidious in its feeding; it frequently presents a paunchy appearance and has the misfortune to improve but slightly during the feeding period. It has been said that choice feeders should be low set but only a comparatively small number of strong, western lambs have what we would term "short legs." In making selections and keeping the other requisites in mind, the less leggy type should be preferred. QUALITY. — Quality is a very important consideration in the selection of feeder lambs, and it is that characteristic which is man- ifested by a medium, sized, fine, clean cut head ; medium sized, and moderately thin ears ; the hair on the face and legs, fine and silky ; bone that is fine, and without coarseness at the joints; skin, thin and without folds or wrinkles. A smooth skin without folds or wrinkles and carrying wool of moderate weight is the most im- portant requirement of desirable quality in feeder lambs. Lambs with heavy pelts are discriminated against because they do not, as a rule, gain as rapidly as lambs with smooth skin? and they never command top prices when returned to the market fat, because, as was stated in the early pages of this bulletin, the excessive weight of pelt materially reduces the percentage of the dressed weight. CONSTITUTION. — The conformation which indicates a strong constitution was described above under form. A wide, deep chest, fullness in the heart-girth, depth and breadth of body indicate suf- ficient space for well developed vital organs, or strong constitution. Another important point, which if not a part of constitution is closely akin to it, is thrift. The intelligent buyer of choice feeders rejects all lambs that appear in the least unthrifty, such as lame ones and those inclined to lag behind when the band is moving. 612 BULLETIN No. 129. [November, CONDITION.— While it is understood that no grade of feeder lambs is in that condition we would call fat, choice lambs should be fairly full in their outlines and without any suggestion of emaci- ation. Such condition is of importance for two reasons. First, the exceedingly thin lamb usually does not finish in- a normal feed- ing period and second, a lamb of this description often fails to make gains as economically as those in higher condition. WEIGHT. — The question of weight should receive considera- tion. Choice feeder lambs range in weight from 55 to 62 pounds. Lambs weighing less than this are regarded as being either too young or too much retarded in growth to °rade as choice. It is expected of choice lambs that they finish into the weights most desirable in a normal feeding period, which is from 90 to 120 days, and hence the initial weight should not be much less than 55 pounds. See plate 26. PLATE 26. — CHOICE FEEDER LAMBS. GOOD FEEDER LAMBS Several things may contribute to make lambs fall into the good grade, such as undesirable condition, weight, conformation and quality. Good lambs are usually more leggy and coarse than those that are considered choice. They often make as good and occa- sionally better gains than choice lambs, but chiefly on account of their lack in quality they do not reach top prices when they are returned to the market as fat lambs. Lambs weighing between 50 and 55 pounds and choice in form, but somewhat, although not MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF SHEEP. 613 excessively heavy in pelt, are placed in the good grade. They al- ways meet with ready demand although they do not bring top prices during the heavy run of feeder lambs. They are taken by men who desire to keep their lambs all winter and shear them be- fore marketing. When relieved of their heavy fleeces and finished to a point where they are very fat. they are not seriously criticised for their lack of quality, and they often sell as choice fat lambs. A few weeks before shearing time when feeder buyers are taking un- finished lambs to shear and to feed for a short period, this type outsells any other. See plate 27. PLATE 27. — GOOD FEEDER LAMBS. LEGGY, COARSE, AND TOO THIN TO BE THE MOST DESIRABLE FEEDERS. MEDIUM FEEDER LAMBS Lambs of this grade often have very heavy pelts and hence lack appreciably in quality. Pronounced legginess and angularity of form are frequently noticeable in bands of lambs grading as medium but the chief discrimination is against their quality because of their thick wrinkled skins, and dense heavy fleeces. While in most cases they are thrifty they are usually below the weight most desirable in feeder lambs and this together with their lack of quality and desirable form places them considerably below the choice feeder. See plate 28. 614 BULLETIN No. 129. [November, PLATE 28. — MEDIUM FEEDER LAMBS. NOTE THE VERY HEAVY PELTS. PLATE 29. — COMMON FEEDER LAMBS. i(?o8.] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF SHEEP. 615 COMMON OR INFERIOR FEEDERS The lambs most common to this grade are little, light, late born, weak lambs. They are known under several appellations, such as "bums," "culls," "pewees" and "peanuts." Their weight may vary anywhere from 25 to 45 pounds and because of their tender age, light weight and weakened condition they require skillful care and a long period of feeding upon nutritious feeds that will produce a large amount of growth as well as fat. Hence the demand for these lambs is limited because none but men of much experience in lamb feeding and with proper equipment and feeds can successfully handle them. Lambs of the above description are not discrim- inated against because of their quality, but entirely because of their lack in size, due either to retarded growth or late birth, or perhaps both, and their lack of thriftiness. They frequently sell as prime lambs after being carefully fed for five or six months. The ex- tremely coarse, heavy pelted lambs lacking uniformity both in weight and conformation are also placed in this grade. The little lambs that form the bulk of the common grade are said to appear in fewer numbers upon the markets each succeeding year, due, perhaps, to improved management of the range flocks, and a realization on the part of the range owners that it does not pay to place them upon the market except under forced circum- stances. It would seem, then, that it will not be many years be- fore the common grade of feeders will be confined chiefly to very coarse, thin and unthrifty lambs. See plate 29. YEARLING FEEDERS This class is made up exclusively from yearling wethers. As previously stated mutton yearlings are substituted for lamb and if they fail to make a desirable substitute they are not wanted, hence quality and weight are of great importance in this class. In re- cent years the number of yearling feeders appearing on the markets has been so few that many orders for them could not be filled, and they do not figure prominently in the feeder trade. The offerings of yearling feeders are graded as follows: CHOICE, GOOD, COMMON. CHOICE YEARLING FEEDERS To grade as choice, yearling feeders must be smooth and sym- metrical in outline, fairly low set and compact, fine in quality and light in weight. They should weigh 70 pounds or less as the most 616 BULLETIN No. 129. [November, 1908.} MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF SHEEP. 617 618 BULLETIN No. 129. [November, MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF SHEEP. 619 desirable weight for grain-fattened yearlings is from 85 to 90 pounds. Choice yearlings are usually in better condition than choice feeder lambs because low condition in yearlings is more objectionable to the packer than the same condition in lambs, and thus yearlings higher in condition than choice feeder lambs are placed on the feeder market. It is one of the objects of the pur- chaser of yearlings to make a profit by increasing the value per pound of the original weight through the process of finishing. If he succeeds in making the spread between the cost and the selling price per pound sufficiently wide he is not so much concerned about keeping them for a long period to secure a large increase in weight. See plate 30. GOOD YEARLING FEEDERS As in the lamb feeder class, so here, unevenness in weight, con- dition, conformation or quality may cause yearlings to be placed in this grade. It is a lack of uniformity in some one or more par- ticulars more than in anything else that causes yearlings to grade as good. As quality is greatly emphasized in the yearling feeder class anything showing coarseness could not grade as choice and would have to fall into the good or a lower grade. See plate 31. COMMON YEARLING FEEDERS Feeders of this grade are deficient in quality and usually heavy in weight. If yearling feeders are heavy in pelt, coarse in bone and weigh 80 to 85 pounds, they will likely sell as sheep when fin- ished and, therefore, the feeder buyer cannot afford to pay as much for yearlings of this description as he can for a lighter, smoother kind. See plate 32. FEEDER WETHERS Of the wethers sold from the range for feeding purposes the greater number is shipped direct to western feed lots, hence the supply on the Chicago market is extremely meager. The grades are as follows: CHOICE, GOOD, MEDIUM, COMMON. CHOICE FEEDER WETHERS To be considered choice feeders, wethers must be of good con- formation, highly developed in quality and uniform in weight and condition. The extremely thin wether is not particularly sought after because it is mainly a question of price with the purchaser of feeder wethers and if wethers of medium condition can be secured 620 BULLETIN No. 129. [November, they are taken more readily than the thinner ones. The choice feeder wether should be of a light, handy weight, which ranges from 80 to 90 pounds. See plate 33. GOOD FEEDER WETHERS Good wethers should be uniform in weight and condition and not open to serious criticism in conformation and quality. As in the choice grade, the extremely thin wether is not sought after. Wethers of this grade are usually inferior to those of the choice grade in quality or condition. See plate 34. MEDIUM FEEDER WETHERS Wethers of this grade are usually criticized for their lack of quality and condition. If wethers are in thin condition it is nec- essary to carry them through a long feeding period and for this reason they are less desirable than if their condition were such that they could be fattened in a short period. More improvement may be made during the feeding period by wethers of this grade than those of any other and when fat they not infrequently grade as choice. Medium feeder wethers are likely to be large of frame and al- though not heavy at the time of purchase because of their thin condition, they are heavy wethers when marketed as mutton. See plate 35. COMMON FEEDER WETHERS Extremely coarse wethers with heavy pelts, stags, the result of castrating mature rams, and very old wethers, are included in this grade. The offerings in common feeder wethers are small, and what few there are do not sell readily. It is not uncommon to see wethers of this grade held over several days in the pens before meeting with a sale. They are unpromising from the feeder's standpoint because they are likely to make gains slowly and at high cost and when finished their lack in quality places them con- siderably below the top of the market. See plate 36. MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF SHEEP. J$ " J *. > m &%%*> X 622 BULLETIN No. 129. [November, J908.] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF SHEEP. 624 BULLETIN No. 129. [November, PLATE 36. — COMMON FEEDER WETHERS. FEEDER EWES During the past few years the demand for breeding ewes has been so strong that the greater number of western yearling ewes too low in condition to sell as mutton have been shipped out of the Chicago market as breeding ewes. When there is a slow demand for breeding ewes, however, the yearling ewe lops off into the feeder class. Of the mature ewes sold as feeders, the larger num- ber are those .that have spent their usefulness as breeders on the range. They, vary considerably in condition, quality and general thrift, and all feeder ewes may be graded as follows: CHOICE, GOOD, MEDIUM, COMMON. CHOICE FEEDER EWES Most of the yearling ewes offered as feeders are placed in this grade. They are of choice quality and in that degree of condition at which gains are put on rapidly and early give a degree of desir- able finish. They weigh from 70 to 80 pounds and when finished yield a neat, handy-weight carcass. Smooth aged ewes of good form and in medium flesh are also placed in this grade. See plate 37. GOOD FEEDER EWES To grade as good, feeder ewes must be smooth and healthy, and their teeth must be sound. Owing to sharp demand in the breeding ewe section during several years past many ewes of the above description have gone to the country as breeders, provided 100*.] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF SHEEP. 625 they were good in fleece and sound in their udders. Good feeding ewes are able to utilize almost any sheep feed without special prep- aration, and also to make good gains during the feeding period. See plate 38. PLATE 37.— CHOICE FEEDER EWES. THIS PLATE is ALSO REPRESENTATIVE OF THE BEST TYPE OF WESTERN EWES SELECTED FOR BREEDING PURPOSES. PLATE 38.— GOOD FEEDER EWES. 626 BULLETIN No. 129. [November, PLATE 39.— MEDIUM FEEDER EWES. PLATE 40.— COMMON FEEDER EWES. . MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF SHEEP. 627 MEDIUM FEEDER EWES Ewes of this grade may be lacking either in quality or thrift. If unthrifty, they are usually broken mouthed and in low condition. Such ewes- are much less desirable than those belonging to the good grade because they are more difficult to start on feed and must re- ceive more careful attention both in preparing the feed and in the method of feeding during the fattening period. See plate 39. COMMON FEEDER EWES Common ewes are very old and so depleted in condition that they approach emaciation. As a rule their front teeth are gone or worn so low that they are of little use. Only the best of care and feed will secure gains on ewes of this grade, hence no one except the most skillful feeders having an abundance of choice feed can afford to handle them. Like common wethers, common ewes are few in number on the market. See plate 40. BREEDING SHEEP This class includes both native and western ewes in about equal proportions. Breeding bucks are exclusively natives. The ewes most sought after are two, three and four-year-old, dark faced natives in ordinary field condition. Dark faced ewes sell better than those that are otherwise their equals, because their lambs, being dark faced sell better than light faced lambs on the eastern markets. Western ewes are very popular for breeding pur- poses in certain localities, as Ohio, Michigan, and western New York, and many engaged in the trade think they should be pre- ferred over natives because they are more hardy and comparatively free from internal parasites. Many of the ewes offered for breed- ing purposes are yearlings, but they are not as desirable as two or three-year-old ewes because they are immature and likely to be un- satisfactory as mothers at their first lambing. The native yearling is heavier and more nearly mature than the western yearling and she meets with a correspondingly better sale. The offerings on the market come under the following grades : FANCY SELECTED, CHOICE, GOOD, COMMON. FANCY SELECTED BREEDING EWES Only a very few of the breeding ewes sold out of the market can be regarded as Fancy Selected. Occasionally an order is placed for a small number of fancy ewes. These are secured by making 628 BULLETIN No. 129. [November, PLATE 41. — FANCY SELECTED BREEDING EWES. Photo by courtesy of American Sheep Breeder. individual selections from different shipments of native ewes com- ing to the market, and it may take several days to get together a shipment. Such ewes are high grades of some of the Down breeds, usually Shropshire, and in addition to being thrifty and sound, they are uniform in quality, conformation, fleece and style. Ewes of this grade are, as a rule, in higher condition than any other offer- ings of breeding ewes because consideration for the requirements demanded makes it necessary to disregard high condition which most purchasers would rather secure through cheap feeding. See plate 41. CHOICE BREEDING EWES Since the greater number of the more desirable breeding ewes are in this grade a detailed description is undertaken. The selec- tion of choice ewes is based upon form, constitution, age, sound- ness, breeding, quality, and condition. AGE AND SOUNDNESS. — As stated above, the most desirable ages are two, three and four years, and more particularly two and three years. When breeding ewes go to the country it is the thought of the purchaser that they are to produce, on the average, three crops of lambs before they are sent back to the market as old mutton ewes ; hence, if the age is anv greater than four years the ability to produce profitably for three years is very doubtful. MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF SHEEP. 629 Soundness refers to the condition of the mouth and udder. A broken mouth, which means missing teeth or teeth worn down short, indicates advanced age and although ewes may otherwise look desirable for breeding purposes they cannot grade as choice if the teeth are not intact. It is necessary that the choice breeding ewe have a sound udder and it is pronounced sound when it is soft and pliable to the touch without abnormal development on either side. Any ewe not having a sound udder should be rejected as a breeder, but in the good and common grades some carelessness is exhibited in this respect. BREEDING. — The breeding most sought after is some one of the Down breeds, chiefly because of the dark color upon the face and legs. Early in the season of the breeding ewe trade, when Kentucky, Tennessee and Virginia are taking large numbers of breeding ewes, color has a pronounced influence upon the desirabil- ity of a ewe. Of two ewes, one with light markings and the other with dark, but equal in all other respects, the one with dark mark- ings is placed a grade higher than the other. It is also desirable that the breeding of choice ewes be such that they have abundant fleeces of medium wool, which means that the wool be of medium fineness and length, dense and evenly covering all parts of the body. Since they are to remain in the country for three seasons the qual- ity and quantity of wool they produce is no inconsiderable item. CONSTITUTION AND FORM. — The smooth, low set, symmetrical ewe is preferred over the angular, upstanding ewe with uneven top and lower lines. Since the breeding ewe is to produce and nourish lambs it is essential that she be deep and wide in the chest, and that she have a roomy middle, all of which indicates that she has a strong constitution and well developed assimilative powers. Choice ewes, unlike fancy selected, do not necessarily have to be of stvlish carriage. From the standpoint of breed type, they are often plain about the head, with rather long necks, and long in the coupling to the extent that they could hardly be regarded as com- pact. QUALITY. — Choice breeding ewes should have smooth, rather refined features and bone of medium size. Ewes of this grade are used t produce choice and prime lambs for the spring and early summer markets, and without a great deal of general quality, they could scarcely fulfill their mission. It is well to distinguish be- tween good general quality and over-refinement, as delicate, over- refined ewes are without sufficient constitution to be profitable pro- ducers. 630 BULLETIN No. 129. [November, CONDITION. — While choice breedine ewes should be thrifty and active, fat is not desirable as the purchasei prefers to place these ewes on pasture and cheap forage feeds, which will secure the con- dition desired at a lower cost than the price demanded on the market. Breeding ewes are somewhat like feeder lambs in that they are the result of a sort where those ewes of desirable form, quality, breeding, age, soundness, and thrift, but somewhat lower than mutton condition are selected cut from those that are fatter and desirable for mutton. See plate 42. GOOD BREEDING EWES Several factors combined cause breeding ewes to grade as good, such as undesirable markings, age, weight, conformation and con- dition. Very often ewes of this grade are shipped from the Chi- cago market to parties in the country who act as dealers, and these dealers divide the shipment into small lots and sell them to the farmers. In this way small uniform lots may be secured and some of these lots may grade as choice, while others would grade as common, and still others would grade as good. See plate 43. COMMON BREEDING EWES The general run of this grade show no single line of breeding. In many instances they are so noticeably advanced in age that it is evident their stay in the country as producers will be short. Per- haps there is no better way to define this grade than to say they are on the border line between breeders and feeders, and fortu- nately they are not sold in any considerable numbers as breeders. See plate 44. BREEDING BUCKS While the rams sold out of Chicago market as breeders vary in age, weight, and markings, there are no recognized grades. Those most sought after are dark faced, smooth, low set, vigorous looking rams of a year or more in age. In times of great scarcity ram lambs are taken out for breeding purposes. Inspection of rams selected for breeding out of the open market reveals the fact that the greater percentage show undesirable form and a mixture of breeding. It is deemed unnecessary for the writer to go beyond the province of this bulletin to point out to intelligent breeders the effects of mating grade ewes with sires of the type generally found on the open market. See plate 45. 1908.} MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF SHEEP. 631 PLATE 42.— CHOICE BREEDING EWES: PLATE 43. — GOOD BREEDING EWES. 632 BULLETIN No. 129. [November, PLATE 44.— COMMON BREEDING EWES. PLATE 45.— BREEDING BUCKS. I9o8.} MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF SHEEP. MISCELLANEOUS 633 Hot House Lambs (Spring Lambs). — The term "hot house lambs" refers to those produced early and marketed before the gen- eral run of spring lambs start to market, which is about May 20. A few shipments of these lambs reach the Chicago market but they are called "spring lambs," not "hot house lambs," and they do not sell as well correspondingly as the same kind of lambs do'on the eastern markets. Those who specialize in producing "hot house lambs" usually contract them to be sent in small shipments of dressed carcasses direct to the retailer. This is probably the most advantageous way to market them because they are slaughtered be- fore they are old enough to ship well alive. PLATE 46.— A HOT HOUSE LAMB. "Hot house lambs" are most in demand from Christmas until Easter. They must be fat and weigh between 40 and 55 pounds. See plate 46. Export Sheep. — Most of the sheep selected for export are the heaviest of their class. They are usually in prime condition and of the choice grade. Wethers are preferred, but ewes, yearlings, and lambs are also taken, hence the term "export" cannot be said to apply to any particular sub-class of mutton sheep. Many buyers use the term freely to designate wethers, yearlings, ewes, and lambs heavy in weight and prime in condition whether they be taken for export or not. - 634 BULLETIN No. 129. [November, THROW-OUTS This is a term applied to lambs rejected as feeders. After a band of lambs has been divided into the mutton and feeder classes, the purchaser of the feeder end usually has the privilege of reject- ing those not suitable for feeding purposes. Lame lambs, those appearing unthrifty, entire males, those large enough to be sus- piciously near the short yearling age, and frequently black lambs, make up the rejections. Black lambs are not always rejected, but a number of Ohio and Michigan feeders object to them because they make the band of lambs less uniform in appearance. Throw-outs sell late when most of the sales for the day have been effected. There are but few of them and these few are not uniform in weight and condition. They are never fat enough to be turned into other than a cheap grade of mutton. All these sur- rounding circumstances make them the quest of small city butchers who cater to a cheap trade. Throw-outs are often called "rejects," but they are never known as culls or by any of the terms which denominate the grades under the regular classification. Sometimes they sell on a basis of cull lamb prices; at other times, upon that for medium lambs. DEAD SHEEP These are sheep that meet with death in transit. Losses are greatest in warm weather when deaths are frequent if close crowd- ing in the car is practiced. Native shippers often experience a loss of sheep in transit by making them part of a mixed load with either swine or cattle. They usually try to guard against such losses by partitioning the sheep off to themselves, but the bumping of the car in switching often breaks down the partition by throwing the animals against it. Dead sheep have a value chiefly for their wool. The best are worth twenty-five cents per head. It is claimed that fifty percent of them are worthless on account of the wool being mangled and trampled off. GOATS Goats are sold for slaughter provided they are in good condi- tion, but they do not sell on a par with sheep. Only a few are sold on the Chicago market, and hence they are not graded. If they are too thin in condition to sell for slaughter, they are sold to go to the country to browse over brush lands. This demand is very uncertain, and offerings for this purpose are frequently held for several days before they can be sold. See plate 47. 1908.] MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF SHEEP. 635 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS gricultural Experiment Station URBANA, DECEMBER, 1908 CIRCULAR NO. 125 VHE SHEEP INDUSTRY FROM THE MARKET STANDPOINT BY W. C. COFFEY, First Assistant in Sheep Husbandry LOCATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRINCIPAL SHEEP MARKETS With two exceptions, the large central sheep markets of the United States are located in the Mississippi and Missouri Valleys. According to the report of the United States Department of Agri- culture, the principal markets with the number of sheep received in 1907 were : Chicago 4,218,115 Omaha 2,038,777 Kansas City 1,582,148 Buffalo 1,206,400 Pittsburg 1,048,479 Denver 828,432 St. Joseph 764,287 St. Paul 568,028 St. Louis , 564,920 - :tor If close proximity to the regions where most of the sheep are produced were the only factor in determining the best location for a market, the largest markets would be still farther west than they are, because nearly seventy-five percent of the sheep in the United States are west of the Mississippi river and fifty-seven percent are in the Rocky Mountain region and west to the Pacific Coast. Shipping facilities for getting the output of the packing hous to the consumer have an important bearing. Still another factc which has a great deal of influence is the fact that many sheep from the west are fattened in the Mississippi and Missouri valleys. Many of these are handled twice by the markets, first as feeders, and again as sheep intended for slaughter. When sold as feeders, they go only a comparatively short distance from the market and this is a factor that equalizes the seeming disparity of the markets being too far removed from the regions of heaviest production, and really makes such places as Chicago and Omaha the actual centers of the sheep trade. The great central sheep markets of today have enjoyed a very large growth during the last twenty years. The total number ol sheep received at Chicago in 1887 was 1,360,862; in 1907, 4,218,- 115. This grow7th is largely traceable to the turning of the sheep husbandry interests in the west from wool production, as a primary object, to the production of both mutton and wool, and to the rise of the sheep feeding industry. By liberal infusions of mutton blood into their flocks, and by marketing their sheep at a younger age than formerly, western flockmasters supplanted a dry, ill-flavored mutton with a wholesome product that met with ready demand. Almost at the same time sheep feeding became popular, and these 3 better bred sheep of the range were also better fed. A further im- petus was thus given to mutton consumption which has now reached the point, in many of our cities at least, where the only check to liberal consumption is the lack of the ability to buy. With this increased activity in the production of better mutton in the west and in feed lot operations, the large markets have not only increased in volume of business but they have also improved in their organization, as may be seen in the review of conditions past and present at the Chicago market. Formerly sheep on this market were not classed and graded, but they were sold in mixed bands just as they were unloaded from the cars. Often these mixed shipments were made up of all ages and sexes, in every degree of quality and condition. The volume of the business was small; mutton was not much sought after and hence the need of careful discrimination was not felt. To the commission man or the buyer this system perhaps did not offer great inconvenience. Perhaps the buyer even counted it to his advantage as he is inclined to measure the value of the whole offering by the inferior individuals in it. But to the shipper who occasionally visited the market, little oppor- tunity was presented by such a system to determine the preference of buyers. This system gave way to one that is more orderly and definite. The clay of the buyer taking "pot luck" on shipments as a whole is over. Now they are sorted into the different classes and grades and thus presented for the inspection of the buyer. The result is an orderly and definite market by which the man who fol- lows his shipments to sale may be enlightened, and from which market quotations may be made that will be of aid to those that have sheep to sell. With respect to control of receipts so that violent fluctuations in prices do not occur within a very short space of time, the Chicago market has greatly improved during the last twenty years. Until the sheepmen of the west became fully recognized as specialists in mutton production, treacherous and violent fluctuations were mat- ters of almost daily occurrence. There are records of declines of fifty cents per hundred weight in prices within an hour. The large western shipper was obliged to forestall such ruinous conditions. This was done by establishing feeding stations on the railway lines tributary to Chicago from the west. Most of these are owned and controlled by the railroad companies, altho a few are owned by private parties. The large shipper consigns his sheep to some one of these feeding stations and then awaits the advice of his commis- sion firm as to the number of sheep and the time he shall send them to market. A shipment of say twenty thousand sheep is thus dis- tributed over a period of a week or ten days instead of all being dumped on the market on the same day. Since from sixty-five to seventy-five percent of the sheep reaching the Chicago market are consigned first to the feeding stations, it can readily be seen how much they aid in preventing market glutting. The record run of sheep on the Chicago market for one day is little less than 60,000 and a run of 40,000 is considered very heavy, but were it not for the feeding stations it is claimed that there would frequently be days when the run would be from 60,000 to 100,000 head. l.— INTERIOR VIEW OF A SECTION OF THE SHEEP FEEDING STATION AT MONTGOMERY, lu,. CAPACITY OF THIS STATION, 75,000 SHEEP THE NATURE OF THE SUPPLY OF SHEEP RECEIVED AT THE CHICAGO MARKET As already intimated, the greater number of sheep reaching the Chicago market are produced in large bands on the western ranges. These are known as western sheep. When these western sheep are fattened on the farms or in the feed lots of the central and eastern states and returned to the market, they are still regarded as western sheep. The sheep produced — usually in small flocks — on the farms of the central and eastern states are called natives. It is difficult to describe all the differences between native and western sheep so the reader may fully understand what they are. Western sheep bear evidence of Merino blood which may be noted in the fineness and compactness of their wool, occasional folds or wrinkles on their necks, and the fine, silky appearance of the hair on their faces and legs. As a rule, Merino blood is less evident in the sheep of the native flocks, hence their wool is more open and they are compara- tively free from folds and wrinkles. However, many producers of natives are purchasing western ewes, and their lambs are almost, if not quite identical in breeding with that of many western lambs, but there are differences due to feed and management which are readily detected by men on the market. The number of lambs received by the large markets greatly ex- ceeds the number of sheep. Before the west turned to mutton pro- luction the reverse was true, but now it is estimated that lambs :onstitute eighty percent of the total receipts of the Chicago larket, and doubtless the same is true of the other large markets. Not only has there been a change in the relative numbers of sheep and lambs marketed, but there has also been a change in the listribution of the lambs thru the different seasons. Formerly rhen the supply was drawn almost exclusively from native flocks, icy were on the market in appreciable numbers during the summer ind early autumn months only, but now they are received every reek in the year. As the large numbers received would indicate, lambs are preferred by the consumer, and this even distribution of them thruout the year has doubtless greatly stimulated consumption. A great deal of interest attaches to the relative merits of west- ern and native sheep and lambs for slaughtering purposes. Buyers for the packers or meat trade state that the best native lamb is bet- ter than the best western, and the particulars in which it excels are the flavor, color and juiciness of its meat. The same is true of sheep altho in lesser degree. The best native lamb is better lan the best western lamb because it is better in breeding and it is usually better fed. The western lamb is forced to take a great leal of exercise over the range in its search for food, and this is >rhaps one of the reasons why its flesh is darker in color and less juicy than that of the native lamb of prime finish that has usually been confined to small pastures. It is claimed that the range grasses do not equal those in the districts where native lambs are grown in imparting desirable flavor to the flesh of lambs. Lambs fattened on the range are often driven long distances to a shipping point, and subjected to several days of scant food and water supply while enroute to market. Al- though these lambs are usually rested a few days at the feeding sta- tions, it is believed, nevertheless, that the hardships undergone in reaching the market are in part responsible for the criticism brought against the flavor, color and juiciness of their meat. The fact that the best native lambs are conceded to be better than the best west- ern lambs for the meat trade should be a matter of great encourage- ment to their producers. However, producers as a whole should be chiefly concerned about the merit of their average product, rather than that of a few exceptional individuals that surpass anything else of their class. Relative to this fact the buyers for the packers as- sert emphatically that the average native lamb is much inferior to the average western lamb. This statement should be seriously con- sidered by producers of natives in general, because when linked with the statement that the best native outclasses the best western, it suggests that the producers of natives are either handicapped by difficulties which they cannot control or are open to criticism in their methods. FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN HANDLING SHEEP AND LAMBS INTENDED FOR MARKET Before proceeding further with this discussion, it is well to con- sider a number of distinctly market requirements which producers of sheep and lambs should constantly bear in mind. Offerings, to sell to best advantage, should be as uniform as possible. A few under-finished lambs scattered in with a band of fat ones gives the buyer an opportunity to discriminate against the condition of the whole band more than the lack of finish of these few would justify. With respect to general quality the same is true. Unevenness in size works against values by making the selection of weights de- sired by the buyer more difficult. Variations in markings and wool lessen uniformity in general appearance and emphasize small dif- ferences in quality, condition and weight. Therefore producers should attempt to handle and market their sheep and lambs so that they will be uniform in quality, condition, weight and general ap- pearance. In this, western sheepmen have several distinct advantages over producers of natives. First of all, the average western producer makes sheep growing his chief business. Because his shipments are large he usually follows his offerings to the open market and be- comes fully acquainted with its requirements. He handles large numbers which allows him to grade his consignment with a view to securing uniformity in his offerings. Conditions on any particular range make it necessary that the lambing period be short, and hence the lambs are uniform in age and fairly uniform in size. Western lambs too low in condition to come within the higher grades for the meat trade sell well as feeders because they are healthy. Infection with parasitic diseases is much more common in na- tive than in western flocks, and this is the one great difficulty that does much toward putting native lambs on unequal terms with western lambs. When sheep or lambs are seriously infected with internal parasites, it is almost impossible to fatten them and hence they are unsuitable as feeders, and the only outlet there is for them is to place them on the market as an inferior product for the meat trade. Whether the common occurrence of internal parasites in native flocks may be traceable in part to faulty methods of flock management cannot be definitely answered in this discussion, be- cause practical methods for preventing infestation have not yet been worked out. Ho\vever, sheepmen believe that in time this difficulty will be largely overcome where careful methods are fol- lowed. But aside from such difficulties as parasitic diseases, growers of lambs, as intimated above, cannot expect to produce a prime product regularly unless they are careful in their methods of breed- ing, shepherding, and marketing. Along some one or more of these lines the average grower of natives is criticised by the market. In the selection of breeding stock, sufficient care is not taken to select rugged, healthy ewes that give promise of producing and properly suckling vigorous lambs. Sufficient care is not exercised in weed- ing out of the flock ewes that breed irregularly and by so doing lessen the uniformity in size of the lamb crop. Too often ewe lambs born late and after the regular lambing season is over are retained for breeding ewes because they are not large enough to market when the lambs born in season are sold. These develop into ewes that are usually under size and late breeders, and hence should not be in the breeding ewe flock. The average grower of natives is inclined to pay too little attention to the ram he selects. The grade ram is retained in many instances and it is common to see, at the head of flocks, rams that are not of the approved market type. Altho producers of native lambs are often criticised by the market for not selecting the right kind of parent stock, they are more often criticised in their methods of shepherding and market- ing. In the estimation of the market they are indifferent to the need of having their lambs fat before sending them to market. The following observations may suggest why the above is true. Many owners of small flocks keep their sheep chiefly to destroy weeds and to utilize what otherwise would be considered waste. Since they handle only a few sheep, they feel it is not worth the effort to make their lambs fat before marketing. Not infrequently owners of a comparatively small number of lambs are unable to determine whether they are in suitable market condition. They are able to distinguish between the fat and the noticeably thin lamb, but not between the fat lamb and the one in medium flesh. Their difficulty arises from the fact that they judge condition by the ex- ternal appearance of the lamb. Often lambs in medium flesh appear to be fat because the wool conceals their lack of finish. The only safe guide in determining condition is to place the hand on the ani- p u .1. ro W 15 10 mal. If the spine and ribs are prominent as revealed by the touch, it is a sure indication that the animal is too low in condition to grade high on the market. In general it does not pay to market healthy lambs until they are at least in choice condition, and those who produce them should realize the importance of this fact fully as well as the growers of pigs realize that it pays to have them fat before marketing. The majority of the growers of native lambs neglect to castrate the ram lambs. The market denounces this neglect in unmistakable terms. Some growers are ignorant of the fact that "buck" lambs are not as desirable as wether lambs; others are afraid to castrate because of probable losses from the operation, and thus thousands of "buck" lambs reach the markets each year. When these lambs are no more than two and one-half months old, they begin to develop a coarseness which increases rapidly with age. As their sex instinct develops they become very active at teasing the females in the flock and at fighting among themselves. By this activity they not only reduce themselves in flesh, but all others in the flock. They become large and coarse in frame and thin in flesh, a combination that places them in the cull grade when they reach the market. In many in- stances they show the breeding and the care, such that, they would have graded as choice had they been castrated early in life. During the latter half of the summer season these "buck" lambs sell for at least one dollar per hundred weight less than choice lambs. On a hundred lambs averaging eighty pounds, this represents a loss of eighty dollars, not taking into account the loss of flesh which results from the fretful activity of ram lambs. Thru the head buyer of a large packing firm in Chicago the writer learned of a firm, Messrs. Hall & Campbell, Shelbyville, Kentucky, that makes a practice of contracting a large number of lambs each season with the privilege of castrating the ram lambs. This firm has built up an enviable rep- utation for the superior quality and finish of the spring lambs it sends to market. The writer sent the following questions to Messrs. Hall & Campbell, and the subjoined letter, which is a reply to these questions, illustrates how well it pays to castrate ram lambs in- tended for the meat trade. The questions follow. First. — How long have you followed the practice of castrating the lambs you contract for early in the season ? •* Second. — At what age do you operate on the lambs ? Third. — How much do you think it improves the quality and value of the lambs? Fourth. — Is this very high quality for which your lambs are known due principally to docking and castrating, or do you see to 11 it that the lambs are given better than usual care in the way of feed- ing, and are they bred directly with a view to producing prime lambs ? Fifth. — Has your practice awakened the growers in your sec- tion to the fact that it is very necessary to castrate ram lambs if they are to be made prime for the market ? SHELBYVILLE, KY., Aug. 22, 1908. W . C. Coffey, Urbana, Illinois. DEAR SIR: — Your letter in regard to the castrating of lambs received through Mr. Embry and we take great pleasure in giving you what information we can. We have been castrating the lambs which \ve contract for early in the spring for fifteen years. We castrated only a few at first as people were afraid it would kill them. We agreed to give them three dollars per head for all lambs we killed by castrating. At the present time the majority of the best farmers in our section castrate their lambs. We sell our lambs from fifty to seventy-five cents per hundred weight higher any year than those who do not practice castrating. As far as quality is concerned there is no comparison. It makes us sick to go among a lot of buck lambs and attempt to select a good load. A lamb should be castrated when he is a few days old ; how- ever, since we have the greater part of it to do, we do not get to many of them until they are two months or more of age. There is no more art in castrating a lamb than there is in castrating a pig or calf : just cut off about one-third of the sack, pull the testicles out and let him go ; the sooner you get through the better. We think the quality is principally due to castration. They are bred and fed the same as other lambs. We would be pleased if you could manage to see a load of them. The best farmers here would castrate their lambs were they to get no more for them than people who do not practice castrating. They would follow the practice because they can keep castrated lambs as long as they please and they will grow and fatten if they are liberally fed. Not so with buck lambs. After a certain time they go backward until they be- come comparatively worthless. If there is any further information we can give you we shall gladly do so. Yours truly, (Signed.) HAIX & CAMPBEU,. Nearly all of the lambs in the locality where Messrs. Hall & Campbell purchase are marketed in the early summer before the lambs are old enough to have the sex instinct developed to the same extent as is characteristic of the general run of native lambs on the market, and yet their letter is strong evidence that it pays well to castrate lambs that are to be marketed at a comparatively young 12 age. Over and over again have the various live stock journals told the public that "buck" lambs are discriminated against on the mar- kets and yet they seem to be as prevalent as ever. Thousands of dol- lars are lost in the flocks of the central states thru their owners neg- lecting to castrate the ram lambs. Each year the market cries out louder than ever before against the cull "buck" lamb, which means that he is more sharply discriminated against as years go by. Hence every producer of native lambs should awaken to the unfavorable standing of the "buck" lamb, and also to the fact that with very little work and small risk this same lamb can be castrated and thus be made much more desirable for the meat trade. SHIPPING SHEEP AND LAMBS TO MARKET In shipping sheep or lambs to market care should be taken to handle them so they will appear to best advantage at the time of sale. The car in which they are shipped should be well bedded with dry straw or some other material which is its equivalent for keeping the animals clean. It is not necessary to give each sheep or lamb in the car more space than enough to stand comfortably, but overcrowding should be avoided. In hot weather especially, overcrowding results in losses. At this time losses are likely to result from mixing lambs in with older sheep, because the lambs often suffocate from being crowded in between animals larger than themselves. At the time of shipment the fleeces of sheep or lambs should be dry. If they are wet it is difficult to keep them clean in appear- ance even though the car be well bedded. If they are very wet when they reach the market buyers do not like to bid on them, and if they do they attempt to allow for the moisture in the wool by offering less for them than if they were dry. If at the time of shipment some of the sheep or lambs are foul behind from dung being lodged in the wool, it is well to clip this soiled wool off before they are loaded. This should be done because the close crowding in the car causes the sheep that are foul to soil the sides of those that are clean. There are also other reasons for clipping away this soiled wool. It detracts from the appearance of the animals and from their value when considerable in amount. Sheep or lambs that are docked are less likely to be foul behind than those that have long tails and hence all sheep growers should prac- tice docking their lambs when they are a few days old. To avoid heavy shrinkage in shipment, sheep or lambs should be either hauled or driven in a slow walk to the shipping point, 13 They should be loaded as late in the day as is possible to get them on the market next morning in good time. The Chicago market is usually at its best between 8:co and n :oo a. m., hence a shipment of sheep or lambs should be ready for the inspection of buyers dur- ing these hours. They will appear to better advantage if they have an opportunity to drink a moderate amount of water and to rest for an hour or two before the market opens. PURCHASING FEEDERS ON THE OPEN MARKET LAMBS It is the object of the purchaser to secure the lambs most suit- able to his method of feeding at the lowest possible cost. Some- times circumstances are such that he can afford to take less desirable lambs on account of their lower cost, but in general it pays to select thrifty lambs that are uniform in quality, condition and weight. So important is this general rule that discriminating buy- ers purchase with the privilege of rejecting the undesirable lambs in a band. First of all, thrift is emphasized. It is manifested by a certain amount of life and spirit and a condition of flesh which suggests health and vigor. Hence the discriminating buyer rejects the extremely thin lambs, the dull, sickly looking ones, those that are lame, and those inclined to cough a great deal and to lag behind when the band is moving. Such lambs are likely to die in transit to the farm or during the feeding period. The feeder usually loses a few lambs during the feeding period, and were these unthrifty lambs purchased the percentage of loss would make profits doubt- ful. Careful buyers examine a band of lambs before purchasing to see if they are infected with ticks or lice. The more open wooled ones are the more likely to be infested and they are the ones ex- amined. This is a matter of small consequence if the lambs are to be dipped, but at the present time the government does not require that sheep and lambs sold on the Chicago market for feeding pur- poses be dipped before leaving the yards. Buyers do not like to have them dipped because it weakens them, causes them to take cold, and for these reasons makes it difficult to secure gains on them, during the early part of the feeding period. In general, however, the writer feels that it would pay to dip lambs after they arrive at the farm to guard against infestation from ticks or an outbreak of scab. Uniformity in quality, condition and weight should be empha- sized, for, select as carefully as he may, the purchaser will not be able to have all of his lambs alike in these particulars at the same time. In cases where several carloads are purchased, some conces- 14 sion may be made because the feeder is not obliged to market all of his lambs at the same time, and he has the opportunity of making uniform shipments by sorting over his lambs and holding those that are not finished. But even the big feeder cannot deal with a great amount of unevenness in quality, condition and weight without suffering inconvenience in handling them during the feeding period Should he select lambs that are very uneven in their general quality it would be difficult for him to make uniform shipments, because this is a fault that feeding does not rectify except in slight degree. The most suitable type of feeder lambs varies somewhat with the length of time they are to be fed and the method of feeding to be followed. In Illinois many lambs are run in the fields and never shedded during the feeding period. This method calls for a strong, rugged lamb with a compact and comparatively heavy fleece to protect it from variations in the weather. If shedding is practiced, the more delicate lambs with less wool may be handled with profit ; for example, Mexican lambs would be unsuitable for feeding out of doors in the state of Illinois where the climate is variable, but under shelter they would be very satisfactory. If the purchaser desires to finish his lambs in a short period of from 70 to 90 days, he would better select large lambs weighing be- tween 60 and 70 pounds and in, higher condition than the average run of feeder lambs. As a rule lambs of this description are in the feeder class only because they have lost in flesh and fat by long de- lay at the point of shipment from the range, or on the road by poor train service. They are strong and thrifty and can take the heavy feeding necessary to finish them in a short period. When a long feed- ing period is practiced, the large lamb in rather high condition is not so desirable because such a lamb is likely to become too heavy to suit the demands of the market. This so-called long feeding period does not involve a long period of feeding directly with a view to preparing the lambs for the market, but it is more like a combi- nation of stocking the lambs for a time and later feeding to finish them. They are usually held from six to nine months and shorn before they are marketed. Hence the heavy fleeced lamb in medium feeder flesh and weighing about 55 pounds is preferred. It is neces- sary that these lambs have enough mutton blood to give them desir- able form and quality, but if they are of pronounced mutton type they are likely to get too heavy for the demands of the meat trade before they are finished. Where shearing before marketing is prac- ticed, a great deal of care should be exercised in selecting lambs that will shear large fleeces of good quality. The kind of fleece that usually gives best results is one that is tlense, compact and of good 15 length. No particular breeding can be pointed out as being superior to all others, but by way of illustration it may be stated that the cross between a range Merino ewe and a long wooled ram of a recognized mutton breed produces the fleece that fills the require- ments. Occasionally late lambs of desirable quality with good fleeces and fat enough but too light for the meat trade can be secured at feeder prices. They weigh about fifty pounds. They are highly satisfactory for keeping thru a long period as they are very thrifty and they gain rapidly in weight. Lambs that are pronouncedly lacking in general quality do not fit in well with any method of feeding. These are Iambs that are heavy in pelt and as a rule do not make satisfactory gains, and when finished they are always discriminated against by buyers for the meat trade. Another kind that does not meet with favor is the very thin lamb. As stated above, such a lamb is unthrifty when found in a band which, as a whole, is in desirable feeder condition. If the whole band is in very low condition it is suspected that they have been badly handled and more or less stunted. Hence they, too, are regarded as unthrifty. They do not start as well on feed as fleshier lambs and the percentage of loss is likely to be great. Oc- casionally such lambs, when bought at low figures, are a profitable investment. Experienced feeders with ample shelter and an abund- ance of feed may handle them with profit, but not unless they are purchased at a low price. YEARUNGS AND WETHERS Feeder yearlings and wethers are usually in higher condition than feeder lambs. Gains on yearlings and wethers usually cost more than they sell for, and for this reason the purchaser of feed- ers buys with the hope of increasing the value of the weight pur- chased thru the process of finishing. He is anxious, therefore, to buy at a low price animals of desirable quality and weight and in good condition. Often wethers are thrifty but in thin condition. These, if purchased right, may be profitably grazed or stocked in the early fall and winter and fed later. The same attention to uni- formity in thrift, quality, condition and weight should be given to the selection of feeder yearlings and wethers as is given to the se- lection of lambs. FEEDER EWES Desirable feeder ewes should be in fairly good condition. Old ewes six and seven years of age form the bulk of the offerings, and the intending purchaser should examine their mouths in making 16 selections. Those that have their teeth can utilize almost any kind of feed, but toothless ewes cannot. If toothless ewes are taken the price paid should be such that the purchaser can afford to pre- pare their feed so they can utilize it to good advantage. PURCHASING BREEDING SHEEP ON THE OPEN MARKET Both rams and ewes are sold on the Chicago market for breed- ing purposes. The rams are natives and mostly grades of the Down breeds. A glance at these rams purchased in the Chicago Yards for breed- ing purposes is sufficient to prove to experienced sheepmen that they should not be selected to sire market lambs. Since they are mostly grades they are practically devoid of breed character; many of them are very deficient in form and quality. A great many of them are sent to market because they have been unsatisfactory as breeders. They are purchased with a view to mating them with grade ewes the history of which the purchaser rarely knows any- thing about except in a most general way. When the purchaser selects a ram indifferently bred to mate with these ewes he cannot reasonably expect to produce high class lambs for the market. Not infrequently the ram selected for breeding comes to market with the ewes he is. to be mated with and it is very likely that he is closely related to them. Matings from selections of this description must be regarded as faulty inbreeding from which maximum results are not likely to be obtained. Of the ewes selected for breeding purposes those give best re- sults that are rugged in constitution, of good form, sound in mouth and udder, and bear abundant fleeces of medium wool. Both native and western ewes are taken from the market for breeding purposes. In some localities the native ewe is preferred over the western ewe because she usually has dark markings about the face and legs. Other localities desire western ewes because it is claimed they shear a greater amount of wool and they are more nearly free from in- festation by internal parasites. If the purchaser of breeding ewes is careful in his selection he is able to secure sheep that will give good results as producers of lambs. The most desirable native ewes are grades of some of the Down breeds — usually Shropshire — and they range in age from two to four years. It is claimed that of the western ewes, those produced by a cross between the long wooled mutton sire and the Merino dam give best results. Those who have selected ewes of this type claim they are excellent shearers and that they produce lambs that sell well upon the market. BULLETIN 223 JUNE 1912 NORTH CAROLINA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND MECHANIC ARTS WEST RALEIGH SHEEP RAISING RALEIGH EDWARDS & BROUGHTON PRINTING COMPANY, STATE PRINTERS 1912 N. C. COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND MECHANIC ARTS THE NORTH CAROLINA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION UNDER THE CONTROL OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE A. & M, COLLEGE GOVERNOR W. W. KITCHIN, ex-officio Chairman, Raleigh C.1W. GOLD Greensboro | M. B. STICKLEY Concord E. M. KOONCE Jacksonville T. T. BALLINGER Tryon T. E. VANN Como N. B. BROUGHTON Raleigh D. A. TOMPKINS Charlotte O. L. CLARK Clarkton J. O. ELLINGTON Fayetteville EVERETT THOMPSON . . .Elizabeth City W. E. DANIEL Weldon R. H. RICKS Rocky Mount W. H. RAGAN High Point O. MAX GARDNER Shelby W. B. COOPER Wilmington M. L. REED Asheville STATION STAFF D. H. HILL, President of the College C. B. WILLIAMS Director and Agronomist W. A. WITHERS Chemist H. R. FULTON Vegetable Pathologist and Bacteriologist T. H. TAYLOR Acting Poultryman J. P. PILLSBURY Horticulturist R. S. CURTIS Animal Husbandman G. A. ROBERTS Veterinarian Z. P. METCALF Entomologist W. C. ETHERIDGE Associate Agronomist B. J. RAY Assistant Chemist A. R. RUSSELL Assistant in Field Experiments L. R. DET.TEN Assistant Horticulturist GUY WEST WILSON Assistant in Vegetable Pathology T. B. STANSEL Assistant Chemist C. E. BELL Assistant in Bacteriology A. F. BOWEN Bursar LOULA V. SHERWOOD Secretary and Stenographer The Bulletins and Reports of this Station will be mailed free to any resident of the State upon request. Visitors are at all times cordially invited to inspect the work of the Station, the office of which is in the new Agricultural Building of the College. Address all communications to N. C. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, WEST RALEIGH, N. C. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE Adaptability of State 5 Condition of Sheep Industry 5 Adaptation to Breeds 7 Sheep as Soil Improvers 7 Important Breeds of Sheep 8 Feeds for Sheep 9 Pasturage and Succulent Feeds 10 Annual Forage Crops for Sheep (Table 1) 11 Shelter for Sheep 11 Starting a Flock 13 Pure Bred Flock 13 For Market Purposes 13 Period of Usefulness 14 Selection of Ram 15 Selection of Ewe 15 Age to Breed Ram 16 Age to Breed Ewe 16 Care and Management of Breeding Flock 17 Period of Gestation and Heat 18 Breeding 18 Flushing Ewes 18 Care of Pregnant Ewes 19 Care of Ewes after Lambing 19 Care of Young Lambs 20 Weaning Lambs 21 Winter and Early Spring Lambs 21 Selection of Feeders 21 Marking 23 Shearing and Tagging 23 Keeping Flock Healthy 25 Dipping Farm Flock 26 Castration and Docking 27 Constipation 28 Stomach Worms 28 Care of Feet 29 Caked Udder 29 Bloat . . 30 SHEEP RAISING. BY R. S. CURTIS. Adaptability of State to Sheep. The sheep industry of jN^orth Carolina as now conducted represents one of the most backward and the least profitable lines of live stock husbandry followed in the State. The eastern portion of the State is not generally well adapted to growing this class of animals, however, on well drained farms under the most favorable conditions, the industry may be followed with quite satisfactory results. In the Piedmont sec- tion there is no doubt but what a large part of its waste land could be used porfitably for grazing sheep. Much of the hill and valley land now covered with coarse grasses and forest undergrowth would all furnish a large amount of pasture, and at the same time the land would be greatly improved in agricultural value. The western portion of the State, including the mountains and the upper Piedmont, are by far the best adapted of any section to sheep farming. This is true for two reasons chiefly: First, because of the high well drained pastures, thus giving comparative freedom from parasites, and second, because of the better natural grazing conditions. While it may be argued by some that the latter is unfortunate from the greater danger of the ravages of the stomach worm, yet from the standpoint of economical grazing this is not true. The stomach worm no doubt does a great deal of injury to sheep grown in this section, yet by proper pasturage methods a large percentage of this loss could be avoided. From the standpoint of soil, climatic and pasturage conditions no section of country could be better adapted to sheep than western Xorth Carolina. While at present con- siderable portions of the rough land are utilized for cattle grazing there is still large areas of the rougher portions entirely unsuited to cattle which could be profitably used for sheep grazing. Even a great deal of that now used by cattle could be more profitably utilized in the produc- tion of sheep. For the amount of money invested and the quantity of feed required it is believed this class of animals will generally return a greater net profit than most any other kind of livestock that may be grown in the State. Condition of Sheep Industry. Two of the chief reasons for the scarcity of sheep are the presence of the cur dog, and the ravages of the stomach worm. There is no doubt but what great benefit would accrue to the farmers of the State if some- thing were done to eliminate sheep-killing dogs, -however, sheep may be raised profitably regardless of these enemies. Extra precaution to guard the flock from dogs, although it increases the cost of keep somewhat, will repay the farmer, providing the flock has been managed properly otherwise. Change of pasture is the most practical means of overcoming the ravages of stomach worms, which are especially dangerous to young lambs. 6 N. C. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. With the exception of a few sheep grazed on mountain pastures the writer is unable to locate any in the State except scattering flocks owned by some of the more progressive farmers in the Coastal Plain and Piedmont sections. Unlike the hog, a few of which are found on almost every farm, sheep are rarely given consideration. There are very few pure bred flocks in the State, the majority of them being crosses of various mongrel types. In the mountain pastures there is a reason for this condition existing since the character of the grazing land makes it impractical in many instances for the sheepman to give his animals daily attention. Even here, however, where pure breeds have been tried, they have proved highly satisfactory. Sufficient evidence has FIG. 1— A flock of Western North Carolina ewes. been obtained to show that many of the reasons given for not raising sheep are not well founded. Fair trials have shown that there is a place for improved sheep in the State. There is no good reason why the farms of the State should not support more than 214,000 sheep as at present, this representing only about one animal to every 146 acres, or an average of less than one sheep to each averaged-sized farm. Briefly stated, the sheep industry is seriously neglected, although it is an occupation with great possibilities when handled properly. Even the use of a purebred ram would soon greatly improve upon the ewes seen in many of the farm flocks. The improvement that can be made upon Ordinary ewes which can he purchased usually for three to four dollars per head would surprise thw beginner and inspire confidence in the pos- sibilities of the sheep business. SHEEP RAISING. i Adaptation of Breeds. Naturally sheep are at home on high, dry and well drained lands. While the traits and characteristics of most breeds differ somewhat, and in some cases quite widely, it may be safely said that as long as sheep are kept on high and dry land, clean and well nourished, there is little likelihood of trouble. As an example of the peculiar traits of dif- ferent breeds the Shropshire might be mentioned as a breed which is peculiarly adapted to the conditions existing on farms where natural pastures abound. The Black Faced Highland sheep are entirely differ- ent, choosing for their home some of the steepest cliffs on the mountain sides where a livelihood would seem well-nigh impossible. The Cheviot, while adapted to mountain conditions, does not choose the steepest and most rugged mountain sides like the Black Faced Highlands, but rather a more moderate condition of hills and cliffs. The Tunis on the other hand is well adapted to the lower and more level lands and to a warm climate, such as exists near the deserts of Africa, the native home of this breed. They can withstand more in this respect possibly than any other breed although like most other breeds they will thrive better under more favorable conditions of soil and climate. Many other breeds might be mentioned, each having their own pe- culiar traits and characteristics. Sheep do not like wet feet, or foul places for feeding and sheltering. Such conditions are sure to bring on trouble and discouragement. Whatever the breed selected the animals should be given the high and well-drained places rather tlian the lower undrained fields. Under the latter condition troubles are likely to mul- tiply either from intestinal worms, from diseases of the feet, or from constitutional ailments. Sheep being ruminating animals can subsist largely on the coarser roughage feeds of the farm. They are great weed destroyers, often gaining a large part of their livelihood thereby, but they can not be grown to the best advantage without the addition of some concentrates during the winter or when on poor pasturage. Sheep as Soil Improvers. It is universally accepted that sheep droppings under like conditions contain a larger amount of fertility than that from either the horse, cow, or hog. One of the desirable features of this product is the uni- form distribution made by the sheep over the land. In the leading European countries, such as England, Scotland, France, and Germany, the value of sheep in improving impoverished or naturally thin soils has been recognized for centuries. It is stated on good authority that many of the soils would be almost worthless but for the fact that they are densely covered with sheep. In these countries flocks of sheep ag- gregating two or three thousand in number are not uncommonly seen. The various breeds which naturally inhabit the rough mountain lands, and the precipitous cliffs of these countries, where only scanty and coarse herbage exists, manifest their great value in making otherwise worthless land bring in profitable returns. Much of the gullied land and waste hillsides of this State could be utilized profitably in the production of sheep. Prominent farmers in the State have proved this to their highest satisfaction. Much of the 8 N. C. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. land which now grows reeds and other coarse herbage can be restored to profitable tillage by the use of sheep. Fortunately the sheep is a rumi- nating animal and with the compound stomach can make use of much of the coarse grass and weeds which thrive on these depleted soils. In European countries where sheep raising is carried on extensively and usually profitably very little concentrated feed is used, except through the flushing and lambing season. During other periods hay, grass and roots form their mainstay. Any farmer who is willing to give to sheep the same amount of intelligent care that he gives to other livestock will find them not only profitable, but good soil improvers, bringing into cultivation large areas of otherwise waste land. Important Breeds of Sheep. Breeds of sheep are very numerous, these being adapted to a wide range of conditions, including the mountains, plateaus, and lowlands, with their varying degrees of moisture, temperature, and pasture con- ditions. The writer will only make mention of the types and important breeds giving a brief note regarding their adaptation. The following outline embraces these breeds showing their classification on a basis of wool and mutton types. 1. Fine Wool Type- Wool Production. American Merino. Delaine Merino. Kambouillet. 2. Medium Wool Type — Mutton Production. Shropshire. Southdown. Hampshire. Oxford. Suffolk. Dorset Horn. Cheviot. Tunis. 3. Long or Coarse Wool Type — Mutton Production. Lincoln. Leicester. Cotswold. Kent or Romney Marsh. While there are a few other breeds of sheep gaining greatly in favor in this country the classification just given embraces those now most universally accepted to be of standard type. The fine wool type is used largely on the range for foundation flocks for lamb and mutton production and in those countries where fine wool growing is made a specialty, notably in Australia. The medium wool class represents the average in length and fineness of wool, and is the type used largely for mutton production on arable SHEEP RAISING. 9 farms, although this does not represent their limit of usefulness. The breeds of this class are generally adapted to the conditions of this State, however, in the mountains Merinos are quite largely used. The long wool type includes the large breeds having long and rather coarse and open fleeces. They have not been used in the south to any considerable extent, as large breeds would not do well either in the rough mountainous section or even on level farms where pasture was not naturally available. FIG. 2 — A Southdown ewe from the mountainous section. Of the breeds mentioned the Shropshires, Southdowns, Hampshires, Dorset Horns and Merinos are most popular in the State. They are all of medium weight and are good mutton producers with the exception of the Merinos which are used somewhat in the mountains of the State where the range conditions makes them of special value owing to the close, compact nature of their wool. Full or half-breeds of this type, especially when bred to rams of the mutton type, produce excellent lambs. This practice is followed very largely on the large sheep ranges of the west. Feeds for Sheep. In England and Scotland, in fact in most foreign countries, the ration of the flock is composed primarily of coarse feeds except during the lambing season and during the latter stages of pregnancy. Many of the rough feeds produced on the farm and the common weeds which infest the fields will be eaten readily by sheep. Hay, especially that made from the legumes, is well suited to them. Leguminous hay with the addition of concentrates in small quantities will carry a flock of ewes through the winter. Corn silage and annual pasture crops are all valuable. The concentrates ordinarily used for sheep are corn, oats, soy beans, wheat bran, linseed meal and cottonseed meal. While the latter feed 10 N. C. AGKICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. has not been used extensively in sheep feeding there are considerable data to show that it is a valuable feed for this purpose. In the South where the grazing season is long and where so many annual crops can be grown and consumed both in the green and mature stage, there are exceptional advantages in sheep farming. Corn silage will take the place of roots, which are used very extensively by the English and Scotch flockmasters. The many weeds and coarse grasses annually growing in this section may be converted into money through sheep, and at the same time add yearly to the value of the land from the manure produced. These rough feeds and grasses should be utilized, and there is nothing more profitable in so doing than by the use of a healthy flock of ewes. Pasturage and Succulent Feeds. During the spring, summer and fall annual grazing crops can be de- pended on largely to furnish green feed for sheep. In the western por- tion of the State where permanent pastures thrive, they will be of great FIG. 3. A field of rye and rape for sheep pasturage. value in the economical production of sheep. During the winter a com- bination of grazing crops, and corn silage on farms where the latter is produced, will materially reduce the cost of maintenance. Rape should be included in the dietary. It is greatly relished by sheep and will furnish an abundance of green feed. However, it can be grown suc- cessfully only on fertile or well manured and carefully prepared land. The following rotation is suggestive of what may be grown for sheep SHEEP RAISING. 11 in this state. The particular crops produced will depend on the sec- tion in which the farmer resides. Some of the crops in the list may be unimportant in some sections, but they are mentioned for those who may be unable to grow the more important ones. ANNUAL FORAGE CROPS FOR SHEEP. Kind of Forage. Amount of Seed per Acre. Date of Seeding. Period of Grazing. Rape 3 pounds drilled 6 pounds broadcast August 15 to May 1 Eight to ten weeks from seeding Cowpeas 1 to \Yz bushels May 15 to July 15 July 10 to October 15 Soy Beans 1 bushel May 15 to July 15 July 15 to October 15 Canada Field Peas and Oats 1 bushel 1 bushel February 15 to March 15 April 20 to June 15 Oats and Vetch \y-i bushels VL bushel August 10 to October 1 November 15 to April 20 Rye and Crimson Clover 1 bushel 15 pounds August 1 to October 1 November 15 to April 25 Oats IH to 2 bushels September 10 to November 15 November 1 to July 15 Wheat \Yz bushels September 15 to December 1 November 20 to July 15 Rye \Yz bushels August 1 to December 1 October 1 to April 20 Alfalfa 30 pounds September 1 to October 15 May 20 to September 20 Red Clover 15 pounds September 10 to October 15 April 1 to June 15 Japan Clover 25 pounds April 1 to May 15 June 1 to September 15 Bermuda Grass Rootstalks every second round of plow March 15 to May 15 June 1 to September 15 Mangels or Stock Beets 6 to 8 pounds April 20 to May 15 October 15 to March 1 Burr Clover 10 pounds clean 40 pounds burr September 1 to October 1 December 1 to March 1 Shelter for Sheep. Ordinarily the wool of sheep is a protection from cold, however, when they become wet through exposure to rain or storms it is likely to cause serious trouble. Aside from this need for shelter sheep could de- pend largely on a hillside or cove for protection. The buildings should be simple, durable and ample means should be provided for ventilation 12 N. C. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. SHEEP RAISING. 13 and cleanliness. Sunshine in the buildings is important in order to keep them dry and thoroughly disinfected. During the lambing season it will be necessary to take extra care with the flock. At this season the quarters should be adequate to provide for every need, although this does not necessitate expensive buildings. Starting a Flock. Pure Bred Flock. — In starting into the breeding of pure bred sheep the prospective breeder should first select the breed best adapted to his conditions, and then make selections from the flock of a breeder who has good stock for sale at reasonable prices. Many buyers make the mis- take of purchasing sheep which are possibly off in type and condition, simply because they are cheap. If the purpose is to work eventually into the breeding of fancy stock the best is none too good. The .writer believes it advisable to purchase a small number and secure animals which are of the best type and breeding. As sheep multiply rapidly, it will only be a short time until the flock will be doubled or trebled in numbers. The thing of most importance is to decide definitely on the breed and then study the best type of that breed thoroughly before purchasing. No more ruinous policy could be followed than to select a flock of sheep off in type and attempt to make a successful show at a fair or exhibi- tion. A few good ones will soon advertise the business until the demand for breeding stock will afford going into it more extensively. Two plans may be followed in purchasing animals as a foundation for a flock. A ram and the unbred ewes may be purchased, or bred ewes may be secured late in the fall, after the breeding season is over. By following the latter plan the ewes will cost more, but if .proper selections are made the buyer will have an opportunity to get in the lambs from the bred ewes some blood of the more noted sires. For Market Purposes. — In purchasing for market purposes the con- ditions will be quite different. It should be decided what kind of sheep is in demand. If winter lambs can be disposed of profitably it may be that this business could be followed to advantage. The most important breeds having the early breeding habit are the Merinos, Hampshires, Dorsets, and Tunis. If it is the intention to breed winter lambs some one of these breeds or their grades should be secured. However, the strictly winter or hot-house lamb business requires greater skill than is required in raising early spring lambs by ordinary methods. No matter what type of lamb is to be produced the sire should be pure-bred and should be of excellent individuality, as an animal of this character will be better able to impress his characteristics on the varying types of ewes selected to form the foundation flock. Quite satisfactory results can be secured in raising market lambs by using grade mountain ewes, but care should be taken in selecting them. Only those which exhibit maternal qualities such as femininity, vigor and capacity should be selected. Upstanding, rangy ewes should be avoided. Those secured should be low-set and of good length and depth. Broken- mouthed ewes should never be purchased for this purpose, as they can not properly nourish themselves or their lambs. Every precaution should be taken to secure clean, healthy ewes which will by the use of a 14 N. C. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. prepotent sire bring strong, healthy lambs. The best ewe lambs may be retained each year, and in this way the breeding flock may be grad- ually raised to a high standard. Period of Usefulness. The period of service of sheep should be governed by the returns from the flock. As long as the ram is active and continues to get a good per- centage of lambs, there is no valid reason for discarding him. The same may be said of the ewes. Tried and proved matrons are always worth more than untried ones. FIG. 5 — A Western North Carolina Hampshire ram in field condition. The loss of teeth and improperly nourished lambs resulting therefrom is one of the first things which will be noticed. When such a condition arises the ewes should be fattened for market. In a small flock the period of service of the ram will be limited to two or three years, be- cause of inbreeding if he is retained longer. In larger flocks this con- dition can be remedied by changing him to a new flock of ewes. The ewes themselves should be retained as long as they are sure and profitable breeders. It is not an uncommon thing to get five or six crops of lambs from a single female. Some breeders follow the practice of breeding the females for about four years, after which they are turned with the ram and sold at the close of the breeding season. While these older ewes may take more care if one crop of lambs can be gotten from them, it will enable the purchaser to get an economical start in pure bred sheep. SHEEP RAISING. !."> Selection of Ram. The ram should be selected with the greatest care. The nearer his individuality is to the recognized standard in type and breed, the more satisfactorily will he overcome any variation in the ewes. This is very important, either with pure-bred females or with the grade flock. The ram should be selected from a flock of high standard. Conform- ity to breed type is always important. In the individual, the mascu- linity, style, vigor, form, quality and wooling should all receive atten- tion. Masculinity should always be evident in a sire, yet coarseness of quality and absence of breeding should not be mistaken for this. The ram should be bold, stylish and vigorous throughout. Style is indi- cated by the bold carriage of head, and spright, vigorous movements of the animal. A dull, sleepy animal should never be considered for the head of a flock. Such would lead generally to weakness in the lambs. Vigor is shown in the bright eye, the robust frame, the strong full head, the full deep chest and capacious barrel. Good digestive powers such as are indicated here bespeak a rather long period of usefulness. The form should be square, the ribs well sprung, the body deep, hav- ing width and length in proportion. Quality or fineness of structure is a very important factor in considering the purchase of a sire. It is probable that no other point is so hard to explain, yet it is easily seen by the experienced eye. The lines of the animal should be clear cut throughout, the skin clean, pink in color, and the wool bright and lustrous. The plain headed ram with coarse features indicates absence of quality and should be avoided as he is sure to transmit the same characteristics to the offspring. Selection of Ewes. The ewes should be selected from a utility standpoint. The show animal which presents the pleasing appearance in the ring will not always do well under field conditions, especially in this State. This type of animal because of the pampered condition will not make the most useful breeder. Ewes which have been reared under natural farm conditions will always be more profitable. This does not mean, how- ever, that the animal of pleasing lines should be disregarded entirely. The ewe should be strikingly feminine in appearance, yet a weak undersized, over-refined animal should not be mistakenly selected for one having this quality. The masculine appearing female should be avoided. A roomy, capacious ewe should never be passed for one with a tucked-in body, as she will seldom prove to be a satisfactory breeder. A low-set ewe having a long, deep and full body with a good leg of mutton, is the desirable type to breed from for the production of field sheep, as a goodly percentage of vigorous lambs is the main object in view with the general farmer. It will depend somewhat on the breed selected as to the size and type of the animal, however, in general the points mentioned will be im- portant no matter what the breed may be. Unless the farmer is grow- ing his own supply of females for replenishing the flock, he will likely find opportunities to purchase grade ewes from farmers discontinuing the business, or from some of the local or central stock markets. Every precaution should be taken to get healthy ewes, well wooled, of good 16 N. C. AGEICULTUKAL EXPERIMENT STATION. form with healthy udders and sound teeth, showing them to be not over two, three, or four years old at most. In the pure-bred business there will be a better opportunity to select choice ewes, although they will cost considerably more than the grades. The breeding flock should be uniform in weight and type, since these qualities transmitted will add greatly to the value of the offspring. If pure-breds are to be used in starting the flock it will be advisable to buy from parties who are conservative in the claims for their ewes. A great many times fancy prices are paid for pure-bred sheep when better ones could have been procured for probably one-half or two- thirds the amount of money. Only strong, healthy, capacious ewes of uniform type and wooling should be selected. A broken-down ewe with a scant milk supply is of no value whatever in the flock. Age to Breed Bam. As a general thing sheep are bred too early in life for the most satis- factory results. The ram is often bred to a flock of ewes in the fall following birth, a practice which should never be followed except by experienced sheep breeders. Under no circumstances should the ram be bred before he is a year old and better still not until the second fall, when he will be from eighteen to twenty months old. Some breeders will not use a ram heavily even at this age. Ram lambs put into service too early can never reach their natural size nor attain their normal thrift and vigor. While the ram has a very strong reproductive system, early abuse will render him impotent and unprofitable. Proper feeding is far more important during the early stage than the production of a crop of lambs. During an emergency a very early lamb may be used in the fall on a few ewes, but the practice generally leads to excessive service and eventually a very unsatisfactory breeder. The ram is nat- urally a vigorous animal but early breeding will be sure to cause a much shorter period of usefulness. Age to Breed Ewe. A great many breeders follow the practice of breeding lambs at eight and ten months of age, but the most successful flock-masters will allow the females to more nearly approach maturity. With the male the service can be regulated, starting with a few services well distributed, but with the female the burden of maternity is thrust upon her at once. For this reason the extra burden of reproduction should not be allowed to hold in check her natural maturity. If the ewe is not bred until after she is a year old the results will generally be more satisfactory. It will depend somewhat on the size and vigor of ewes just what plan will be best to follow, as size and development should be the principal de- termining factors when the ewes should be bred. The practice of breed- ing ewe lambs will steadily and persistently decrease the size of the animals in the flock, which an experienced flock master will not tolerate. The ewe lamb should be fed judiciously and allowed plenty of exercise. By so doing and withholding them from the ram until well matured they will, when placed in the breeding pens, more than make up for the- apparent loss. SHEEP RAISING. 17 If the ewe lambs are bred it will cause them to come in heat later and later each season, thus making a crop of lambs which is very unde- sirable, especially in sections in which the stomach worm is prevalent. The vitality of the ewe will also be prematurely sapped by breeding too young, thereby rendering her much less valuable at maturity. Care and Management of the Breeding Flock. The breeding flock demands close attention, yet not more than any other class of breeding animals should have for the most satisfactory results. Regular care, uniform feeding, abundant exercise, and succu- lent feeds are essential for success. Frequent examinations are advis- able to determine if any of the diseases peculiar to sheep are in evi- dence. Sheep are not heavy feeders, but they should receive their FIG. 6. A flock of ewes on a farm in the Piedmont section. rations regularly, especially when they do not have access to pas- ture. During the summer months after the lambs are weaned, if pas- ture can be provided little else need be given until just prior to the breeding season, when the ewes should be fed grain somewhat heavier than usual. If ewes are gaining in flesh steadily during the breeding season they conceive more readily and have a better opportunity to care for the fretus through the extra flesh which they carry. After the breed- ing season is over pastures will soon begin to deteriorate. If corn silage can be had it will be valuable for keeping the ewes in that vigorous con- dition which fits them for the lambing season. Dry feeds at this time are undesirable, especially if they are inclined to be too carbonaceous in character. 18 N. C. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. If good roughages can be obtained, such as cowpea, clover or oat hay, tlie concentrates may be fed rather sparingly, however, if the roughage is of poor quality more and better concentrates should be given. The English method is to supply roots during the winter season and these, with the dry roughages given, constitute largely the daily ration. How- ever, in this country roots are not extensively grown on account of the extra labor and cost, but corn silage may be very successfully substituted. In the early spring preparation must be made for the lambing sea- son. Feeds of a nitrogenous character and cooling in effect should be given at this time. Dry fattening feeds should be avoided, and those of a succulent character should be given instead largely. The ewes should not be closely coralled, but should be given plenty of range, which will tend to keep the system in a strong healthy condition. The ewe barn should be large and well ventilated. If these things are provided and the health of the flock is looked after properly, there need be little cause for not making the sheep business a success. Period of Gestation and Heat. The period of gestation is about one hundred and fifty days or five months approximately. The time may vary considerably, but on the average the above is correct. Normally ewes breed during the fall months and lamb in the spring. Some breeds, however, will conceive much earlier so that the lambs come during the winter season. During the breeding season the ewe comes in heat every three weeks and remains in this condition for three to four days. Breeding. The breeding season usually begins in July and continues until late in the fall. The Dorsets, Merinos, Tunis and Hampshires breed earlier in the season than most other breeds. The Shropshire and Southdown, for example, conceive somewhat later and the long wool breeds still later, the latter lambing usually in March or April. Ordinarily under the conditions in this State, the lambs can be made to come quite early in the spring. This is most advisable for warding off the ravages of the stomach worm. Two practices may be followed in breeding the ewes. The ram may be put with the flock and allowed to run with them as practiced on the ranges. The best plan, however, is to keep him coralled during the day and turn him with the ewes during the evening or early morning. He will remain more active by handling in this way, and will care for a larger flock of ewes. The time of mating and the cross made will depend on the use or disposition that is to be made of the offspring. Flushing Ewes. It is a practice among some sheepmen to have the ewes in a rapidly gaining condition during the breeding season. Practice has demon- strated that ewes in this condition conceive more readily and drop a greater number of twins than when in a normal or run down condition. After the breeding season they should be kept in good flesh, but should not be made excessively fat. By so doing they will be better fitted to SHEEP RAISING. 19 go through the winter preparatory to lambing and caring for their offspring. Flushing on grain gives them new life and vigor which is important in nourishing a strong, healthy lamb. Care of Pregnant Ewes. One of the common faults in caring for pregnant ewes is to feed them either too sparingly or too heavily without sufficient exercise to foster the best bodily functions for the reproduction of strong, vigorous lambs. As far as possible natural conditions should be provided. The ewe barn should be light and airy and be sufficiently large to accommodate the flock without crowding. They should be sheltered especially from cold, penetrating winds, rain or snow. Care should be taken to avoid misjudgment as to the condition of a ewe. With the long coat of wool it is not so easy to determine a run- down condition as in other farm animals. Ewes should come to the lambing period in the pink of condition, yet not burdened with fat. They should carry just enough flesh to insure the stimulation of a good milk flow on which depends the success of the lamb crop. Thin ewes make very poor mothers, often disowning their lambs. A condition of this kind is sure to result in failure and condemnation of sheep raising. Range ewes having ample exercise seldom if ever give birth to weak lambs if they have been fed properly. Small, cramped barns and lots, lack of exercise and heavy feeding without regular exercise are the bane of the sheep industry. Care of Ewes After Lambing. At the approach of the lambing season it is a good plan to examine the condition of the ewes to see that they are thrifty and to determine if their udders are in good condition. The small locks of wool should be trimmed away from the teats to avoid hair balls which sometimes form from these locks in the stomach of the lambs. After the lambs show their ability to find the teats without aid the success of raising them is well in progress. For a time after birth they should be confined with the mother in a small pen to prevent them from getting lost in the flock. After a few days, however, they can be turned in the lots or pasture with the flock. For a day or so after lambing the ewe will need little to eat except some pure water and bright clean hay. As the lamb develops and grows stronger the mother may be fed a light concentrated ration. Wheat bran is excellent for this purpose and somewhat later some crushed corn, oil meal, linseed meal or cottonseed meal may be added. For the ordi- nary sized ewe a pound per day and for very large ewes from a pound and one-half to two pounds of grain per day is ample for a large milk flow. If this is supplemented liberally with pasturage or silage the quantity may be reduced. The lambs should be kept growing as rapidly as possible without causing digestive troubles. Early lambs, if thrifty and fed properly, may be pushed and placed on the market before warm weather and thus the ravages of parasites will be avoided. If they are to be retained on the farm they should be weaned at three to four months of age, which will make it possible to put them on clean pasture away from the ewes before they have become infected. This will be of great practical aid in carrying the lambs through the summer without 20 N. C. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. becoming infested with parasites. Grazing on annual crops and a change of pasture are the best practical means known of overcoming this trouble. Tobacco dust and salt are used as a preventive or for the de- struction of the worms after the sheep are infected. The use of gasoline is also recommended for this purpose. Medicated salt has been used with considerable satisfaction in treating stomach worms. A box con- taining some worm preventive should be kept in the lots or pasture where the sheep and lambs can have free access to it. When the lambs are weaned the udders of the ewes should be looked after carefully until the milk flow is diverted. The ewes may then be turned on pasture, and there gain the larger part of their livelihood until breeding time in the fall. Care of Young Lambs. The sheep barns and other equipment should be in good repair before the lambing season begins. This is a critical stage with the flock and too much care and forethought can not be taken for the best results. *•*. FIG. 7 — An improvised lamb creep. The ewes heavier in lamb should be separated from the remainder of the flock, so that the closest watch can be kept of the arrival of lambs. In this way any assistance needed in lambing may be given and if the lambs are small and weak they should be thoroughly dried, put in a comfortable place, and given every assistance in getting their first milk. Lambs which are withheld from their first nourishment for any reason stand little chance to survive and make thrifty specimens. Ewes which disown lambs should be given a separate place where they will have an opportunity to get acquainted and possibly later they will claim their young. In the event they should not, after persistent attempts, it will be necessary to raise them by hand. Milk from the cow should be used and diluted about one-third with water. The utensils for feeding should be kept scrupulously clean to avoid scouring. SHEEP RAISINCJ. 21 After the lambs once get well started and take the milk regularly, the feed of the ewe can be increased gradually until at the end of three or four weeks she should receive her full ration. The lambs should be induced to eat as early as possible to avoid a severe shock at weaning time. Ordinarily it will only be a very few days after birth until they will begin to eat grain and nibble at bright clean hay. It is advisable to build a creep in which the lambs can go, but to which the ewes will not have access. This is the English method, and there is no doubt regard- ing the art which they possess in sheep husbandry. >Veaning Lambs. The lambs should be weaned when three to four months old. If they are properly fed in a creep where they alone can have access to grain and forage, there will be 110 further trouble at weaning time. For a time after the lambs are weaned the mothers should be given non-milk producing feeds. The legumes and green grazing crops, especially should be withheld. By withholding these feeds and allowing the lambs to suckle several times there should be no trouble with the udders unless it is with a very heavy milking ewe. If a lamb is allowed to return to a heavy milker she should first be milked out before the lamb is allowed to gorge itself and bring on digestive troubles. Lambs which are to be sent to the market early in the season need not be weaned, but allowed to get every benefit of the mother's milk which will, when it is properly supplemented with grain and forage, give the lambs a full, plump appearance. Winter and Early Spring Lambs. There is no doubt but what a large number of farmers in this State could profit by buying a flock of grade ewes, cross them on a good pure- bred mutton ram and market the lambs during the early spring months. A good grade of ewes may be obtained from the mountains or from Chat- ham or surrounding counties at very reasonable prices. While the supply is limited, especially from the latter source, if more attention were given to sheep raising it would not be long until the supply of breeding females would be materially increased in numbers and in quality. The local markets throughout the State will handle a goodly number of lambs for spring trade. By having the ewes lamb the latter part of February or early in March the lambs can be placed on the market in May, June, and July usually at remunerative prices. The best ewe lambs may be retained and given special attention for the purpose of grading up the ewe flock. The grade ewes necessary for producing spring lambs can usually be purchased for three to five dollars each, depending on their size, breeding and condition. Quite often the lambs will the first year more than pay for the original cost of the ewes and their keep, saying nothing of the value of the wool clip. If the ewes are extra good, they can be used for two or three seasons, after which the higher grade ewe lambs from the pure-bred ram will be coming into active service. The winter lamb is a specialized product and the lambs coming in the middle of winter require much extra care and expense which is not necessary in raising the early spring lamb. Liberal prices must be re- 22 N. C. AGBICULTURAL EXPEEIMENT STATION. ceived for winter lambs to offset the extra cost of production; and usually the farmers of this State are not in a position to handle a specialized business of this kind. The winter or hot-house lamb is also a product of ewes specially adapted for early breeding, and it is not a usual thing for the mongrel ewes of the State to form this very early breeding habit. Until better foundation stock is secured and more specialized sheep farming is followed the writer believes the production of early spring lambs to be the most profitable line of shi p raising. FIG. 8 — Grade Shropshire lambs produced from native ewes crossed on a pure bred Shropshire ram. Selection of Feeders. The selection of feeding sheep at the central markets or from farms for the purpose, of fattening for a later market has not been a common practice in this State, although in Virginia, Kentucky, and some other southern States this plan is followed to a limited extent. In the corn belt States large numbers of sheep are so fattened, often with profitable results. On the western ranges large central fattening plants are main- tained, where sheep are fattened largely on alfalfa and corn. This is a business which it pays to investigate thoroughly before going into it on a large scale. For the beginner it would be far better to maintain a few good grade ewes, cross them on a pure bred mutton ram and dispose of the la:ubs in the early spring, retaining the better females to build up the flock. Experience gained in this way would be very beneficial in getting into the sheep business on a larger scale. For the North Carolina farmer the writer believes it a better and a more con- SHEEP RAISING. 23 servative plan to keep a small farm flock instead of undertaking to buy feeders for subsequent marketing. In the selection of feeders only good thrifty specimens should be pur- chased. They should be from good mutton stock, clear of eye and clean in fleece. A healthy sheep has a pink skin and a bright, lustrous wool. The unhealthy one has a white pale skin, a dead fleece, and the animal lacks in life and in vigor. The form of the feeder should be blocky, low- set, capacious, and not too heavy of wool, which often indicates a light- weight unprofitable feeder. These remarks will apply both to lambs and to wethers. Any one anticipating going into this phase of the sheep business should study thoroughly the demand for the product, the market condition and the grain feed and forage produced on the farm. If plenty of good, clean forage is available at a reasonable price this business may be made a profitable one. It is very likely, however, that this plan of sheep farming will not develop rapidly since the supply of desirable feeders is very small, owing to the small number of sheep of all kinds produced in the State. Marking. There are various methods in use for marking pure-bred sheep. The button or band in the ear bearing the flock number, the breeder's initials and the registry number of the recording association are quite generally used. The objection to this method is that the buttons or bands are often pulled out and the identity of the sheep lost. The notch system, used more frequently in hogs, is sometimes used, but the ear of the sheep being small the marking may disfigure it which makes this system to some very objectionable. Paint used on the wool is injurious and the identity sooner or later becomes lost through fading or shearing of the flock. This method is sometimes used to mark ewes during the breeding season to determine the time when they were bred. The tattoo marker is the most satisfactory. This consists of a hand- pincer with a frame in the jaws of which may be inserted needles from which the initials of the breeder may be made. These needles are cov- ered with a special kind of India or indelible ink, either white or black, which is impressed in the ear. The pincers should be properly adjusted, else the initials will not be clear and perfect. In England this method of marking is used extensively. Shearing and Tagging. Usually sheep are sheared once during the year. Some few breeders ractice shearing both in the spring and early fall, but by so doing the value of the staple is decreased, owing to the shortness of the fiber. Sheep should be relieved of their wool in the spring as soon as weather conditions will permit. If the ewes lamb early it is better to leave the wool on until after lambing; however, a careful flockmaster can shear them earlier without doing them injury. The wool should be clipped close and uniformly, either with hand shears or with a machine. The latter can be used by the beginner to better advantage, however, a large number of sheep, forty to fifty, can be sheared by hand in one day if one is expert at the business. Z4 N. C. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. The shearing should be done in a light, clean place, preferably on a smooth wooden platform, or on a canvas cloth to keep the fleece clean. Sheep should never be tied or held by the horns while being sheared. They should be turned upon the buttocks with the head and shoulders resting against the shearer. The wool should be opened on the belly and clipped away carefully, keeping the skin drawn tightly at all times. By so doing there will be no danger of cutting the skin. FIG. 9— Showing position to hold a sheep to keep the skin drawn tightly while shearing. After the wool is removed all the filth and tags should be removed. The fleece is then rolled up, the loose fibers and ends being turned toward the center, leaving the cut side of the fiber out. If the wool is carefully clipped, wrapped and tied it will add considerably to its appearance and value. Wool should never be tied with anything except the wool itself, or with regular fleece twine, the best of which is made from paper. This latter being light in weight does not add to the weight of the wool. Binder or sisal twine of any kind should never be used, as the fibers of the twine become mixed with the wool and detract from its value. Sometimes a loss of as much as four or five cents per pound in the raw wool is sustained from this cause. Wool coming from certain territories is at times greatly discriminated against because of this condition. SHEEP RAISING. 25 Tagging or removing the particles of manure which collect in the wool should be done often to prevent sheep from getting in a filthy con- dition. Even when properly docked they will often accumulate droppings in the wool which become very offensive and disagreeable. By the use of the hand shears a large number of sheep may be gone over in a short time much to their comfort and appearance. FIG. 10 — A fleece properly tied without the use of binder or sisal twine. Keeping the Flock Healthy. In keeping the flock healthy, the feeding can not be too much empha- sized. Sheep will subsist largely on rough feed, such as leguminous hays and roots. Too much concentrated feed, especially for sheep not in the habit of getting it, may cause serious digestive troubles. Native sheep should be brought gradually to their grain ration, as sudden in- creases are very likely to cause loss in the flock. Lambs especially should be carefully handled to prevent digestive troubles. Although they should be pushed for market they should be brought gradually to their full ration. The pastures should be changed often to prevent infection from stomach worms and succulent feed should be supplied as much of the time as possible. During the winter corn silage and roots should take the place of summer pasture. Dead carcasses should be burned, as they often harbor parasites which pass part of their life in other animals which may visit these places and spread or prolong the trouble. Sheep brought from other flocks should be examined carefully for disease and parasites, as they are likely to infect the entire farm flock if they are diseased. If the ewe lambs retained to replenish the flock have been supplied \vith a rotation of pasture where infected sheep have not been allowed for at least one year or since cultivation for seeding, a healthy flock will be assured. 26 N. C. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. Dipping the Farm Flock. The dipping tank can not only be used for sheep but for hogs and young calves as well, so that the entire outlay need not be charged up against the sheep. Dipping is especially valuable in overcoming the ravages of scab, lice and ticks, but it will also prove beneficial in pre- venting eye, nose and mouth troubles. If regular dipping is practiced it will not only prevent to a large extent may of the ravages common to sheep, but it will maintain the flock in a much better state of general healthfulness. FIG. 11— The Station farm dipping tank in use. There are a number of proprietary dips on the market which can be used successfully and at a moderate cost. Standard dips of this kind are generally used in the proportion of one part of dip to forty parts of water, making a two and one-half per cent solution. The best and most effective time to dip sheep is in the spring, about ten days after shear- ing. It will take much less of the solution and be far more effective. Dipped in this way the sheep can be put through the tank very rapidly, while if they are dipped for scab or while the wool is on they should be immersed several times and held under excepting the head from one and one-half to two minutes. In case of sheep scab the scabs should all be loosened, so that the dip will thoroughly penetrate the exposed parts. The dipping tank can be made of wood, galvanized iron, or concrete. The concrete tank will last indefinitely and is the most economical type SHEEP RAISING. 27 in the end. The galvanized tank can be purchased on the market at a moderate cast. In the actual construction of a dipping tank the aim should be to provide for efficient dipping and still not have the tank so large as to require an excessive amount of dip. If properly constructed the saving of dip will prove to be an item during the season. The ordinary galvanized iron tank is the one in most common use, but it is not as lasting as a tank built of brick and then cemented, or the solid concrete vat built in a mould or form. This latter tank will cost somewhat more, but will last for a lifetime, and there will be no danger of bulging or leaking if the masonry work has been properly done. A tank ten feet long at the top, four feet long at the bottom, twenty inches wide at the top and eight inches wide at the bottom, and four one one- half feet deep will answer every purpose. The tank should be set four to eight inches above the ground to keep out surface drainage and filth, the admission of which would weaken the disinfectant, and make it very disagreeable in dipping sheep. All necessary equipment for dip- ping should be located convenient to the yards or lots where the majority of the stock is kept. This will admit of more frequent dipping and at much less trouble and expense. The animal should be dropped buttock first directly into the disinfecting solution. A draining floor should be provided. If sheep are dipped with the wool on they will carry consid- erable dip from the tank and make the operation more expensive. By building a fence around the drain leading back into the tank the sheep can be held there for a short time and thus save much of the liquid carried out in the wool. Where large flocks are being dipped it will be advantageous to divide the draining pen into two equal parts, having a swinging gate at the end of the partition next to the outlet end of the tank. This gate can be swung to either side, thus closing one of the pens and allowing one side to be filled with sheep to drain while the other side is being filled. .By alternating in this way much greater headway can be made. Castration and Docking. Both of these operations should be performed early in the life of the lamb, as it will not only avoid pain but the wounds will heal quicker. When the lambs get started after these operations there is nothing to prevent their going on rapidly to maturity. It is necessary to dock early in order to avoid the filthy condition in which undocked lambs usually get. It is customary to do the docking first. It may be done most any time, however, after the lambs get well started to growing. Several methods of docking are in use. The simplest one is to draw the skin back close to the root of the tail, tie a string tightly around and sever the tail from the under side with an ordinary knife just below the portion encircled by the string, and where the skin has been drawn back. Another method is to use an ordinary mallet and chisel, severing the tail on a block. With this method also it is best to stop the blood flow by the use of a string just above the part severed or by the use of a searing iron. The safest plan is to use a pair of docking pincers or a docking iron, which can be procured from a sheep supply house, or it can be made by 28 N. C. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. any blacksmith in an emergency. The pincers or docking iron are heated red hot, the tail is run through a hole in a board and then severed by the pincers or iron just below the board which partially pro- tects the remaining portion of the member from the heat of the instru- ment. By this method there is no bleeding and consequently no danger whatever, whereas by other methods a lamb sometimes bleeds profusely. If for any reason a mature sheep is to1 be docked, the docking pincers or searing iron should be used. Some good disinfectant material, such as that used in dipping, should be applied after the tail is severed. In warm weather every precaution should be taken to see that the stump tail does not become infested with maggots. The castration of lambs should likewise be performed early. The operation is simple. The lower end of the scrotum is cut off, the tes- ticles forced down through the openings, after which they are pulled out with a portion of the cords adhering. After the operation a mixture of lard and turpentine or other good disinfectants should be applied to the wound. In castrating old rams the safest way is to use the hot docking iron, severing the entire portion of the scrotum containing the testicles. By this method the arteries are seared by the heat and there is no danger of excessive bleeding. In both castration and docking great care should be taken to use tools which are thoroughly disinfected before use. Constipation. Constipation is usually the result of injudicious feeding or the lack of succulence in the ration. Roots, silage or oil meal are indispensable in preventing this trouble. This trouble in lambs is generally brought on by improper feeding of the ewe. Rations which are inclined to be heating or excessively fattening should be avoided. These troubles are likely to come on during the winter season, when succulent feeds are not available and when heavier grain feeding is practiced. With lambs, constipation may be very detrimental and cause heavy losses in the flock. The symptoms of constipation are dullness, sleepiness and loss of appetite. A rectal injection of raw linseed oil or soapy water will usually relieve the condition. If the lambs are affected the ration of the ewe should be corrected, and the lamb should receive a dose of castor or linseed oil. Stomach Worms. One of the most dreaded diseases of the sheep farmer is the stomach worm, which is very fatal to young lambs. Fortunately the stomach worm thrives only during warm weather and under rather moist soil con- ditions. This fact can be used to advantage by having the lambs come early and sell them before the stomach worm has a chance to thrive. This is one important argument in favor of the early lamb in this State where worms will likely give trouble if proper management and preventives are not used. While these worms are common in mature sheep they do not cause the great emaciation and high mortality here as in young lambs. The worms are matured in the sheep, from which the eggs produced finally pass and are scattered over the pasture. Afterwards they hatch and find their way into the stomach of the lambs. Here they develop and generally cause serious trouble. SHEEP RAISING. 29 One of the most practical methods of overcoming this pest is to have the lambs come early. They should then be weaned before the advent of warm weather, during which the worms will begin to develop. After the lambs are taken from the ewes they should be placed on a non- infected pasture, be well fed and kept until marketed. Frequent change of pasture, even during this short stage of development is effective. Care of Feet Sheep kept on rough rocky soil ordinarily keep their feet in good con- dition. However, on the arable farm where there is nothing to cause a natural wearing, the hoof should be kept trimmed to prevent deformed feet. If the natural wear does not keep the hoof in good condition it will be well to trim the feet before going to pasture in the spring. The hoof can be very greatly softened by allowing the sheep to run through damp grass. When worked on in this condition they will cut much easier than otherwise. The hoof should be kept short and straight, to prevent a crooked foot or leg. One of the most common diseases of the foot is known as foot-rot or foot-scald. Any indication of this trouble should be looked after at once. All the diseased parts should be kept cut away and exposed to the action of a disinfecting solution. This disease in the simpler form can be treated quite successfully by a solution of some coal-tar disin- fectant or with carbolic acid. When the disease has become deep-seated, however, more careful and persistent measures should be used. The diseased parts should be thoroughly exposed by frequently trimming away all such tissue and disinfected with a strong solution of copper sulphate. If the parts have been cut away to any extent the foot should be bound up and the animal kept in a dry, clean place until a cure is effected. Wing recommends the use of a trough, about ten feet long, six inches wide at the bottom, twelve inches wide at the top and six inches deep. This is placed in the passage-way from the barn to the lot in such a way that the sheep are compelled to walk through it in going to and from the barn. The trough should be partly filled with whitewash to which is added copper sulphate solution in liberal amounts. This is an effective remedy, especially if the disease is discovered and treated in the incipient stage. Caked Udder. Caked udder is likely to give trouble in a heavy milking flock of ewes if proper care is not given. This may happen early after the birth of the lamb by too rapid forcing of the ewe or at weaning time when the feed of the ewe is not properly changed or reduced and the excess of milk drawn from the udder. For several days after weaning the ewes should be kept milked out and by properly reducing the feed the milk flow can be checked. In a bad case of caked udder the ewe should be well sheltered, the udder bathed in hot salt water, and a mixture of lard and turpentine applied. In case of garget of the udder, which is sometimes brought on by cold and exposure, purgatives shonld be given, the udder bathed, and cam- phorated oil or lard and turpentine applied. If an abscess forms it should be opened and kept well washed out with a good disinfectant, such as a weak solution of carbolic acid or creolin. 30 N. C. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. Bloat. Sheep should never be allowed to pasture on clover, alfalfa, or rape when they are especially hungry. They should first be given dry rough- age and then be turned on the pasture, but only for a short time each day until they become accustomed to the change. If precaution is not taken in this matter the sheepman will likely have a bad case of bloat on his hands. To relieve this trouble tap the stomach on the left side at the point where the distention is greatest, which will be midway between the backbone, the point of the hip bone, and the last rib. A pocket knife can be used for the purpose, but a trocar is best. This instrument not only makes the incision but the cannula or sheath keeps it open in such a way that the gas can readily escape. Purgatives should be given to otherwise relieve the congested con- dition of the animal. Linseed oil is very desirable for this purpose. In an acute attack of bloat three drams of hyposulphite of soda and one dram of ginger mixed in water will usually prove very helpful. MONTANA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE EXPERIMENT STATION F. B. LINFIELD, DIRECTOR BULLETIN NO. 59 SHEEP FEEDING FOR THE YEARS 19O4 AND 19O5 BY F. B. LINFIELD Animal Industry BOZEMAN, MONTANA NOVEMBER 1905 MONTANA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE EXPERIMENT STATION BOZKMAN, MONTANA STATE BOARD..OF EDUCATION JOSEPH K. TOOLE, Governor \ A. J. GALEN, Attorney- General v Ex-Ojficio W. E. HARMON, Sup't of Public Instruction ) J. M. EVANS ...... C. R. LEONARD ...... N. W. McCONNELL . O. P. CHISHOLM ..... S. D. LARGENT ..... G. T. PAUL ...... E. O. BUSENBURG ..... CHARLES R. KESSLER HELENA MlSSOULA BUTTE HELENA BOZEMAN GREAT FALLS DILLON LEWISTOWN HELENA EXECUTIVE BOARD WALTER S. HARTMAN, President .... BOZEMAN E. B. LAMME, Vice- President ..... BOZEMAN PETER KOCH, Secretary . . . . . BOZEMAN JOHN MAXEY ....... BOZEMAN JOHN ROBINSON ....... BOZEMAN STATION STAFF F. B. LINFIELD, B. S. A., Director and Animal Industry R. A. COOLEY, B. Sc., Entomologist V. K. CHESNUT, B. Sc., Chemist R. W. FISHER, B. S., Horticulturist E. TAPPAN TANNAT, Irrigation Engineer W. J. ELLIOTT, B. S. A., Dairyman ALFRED ATKINSON, B. S. A., Agronomist EDMUND BURKE, Assistant Chemist FRANK HAM, B. S., Assistant Chemist Post Office, Express and Freight Station, Bozeman. All communications to the Experiment Station should be addressed to THE MONTANA EXPERIMENT STATION, Bozeman, Montana. NOTICE. — The Bulletins of the Experiment Station will be mailed free to any citizen of Montana on request. Please state whether all publications are desired as issued or only those specified. Give name and address plainly. SHEEP FEEDING EXPERIMENTS FOI< i9o3=4 INTRODUCTION. The [Montana Experiment Station has fed a car load of sheep each winter since the year 1898, and, up to date, therefore, has fed for seven reasons. The last report published of this work was Bul- letin No. 47. in which, on some points, a summary was given of the work previously done. This work was continued for the season of 1903-4 and 1904-5, and the results of this work will be reported here- with. The experiment for the winter of 1903-4 was a repetition of that of the year before, although with not quite as good a grade of stock. The sheep, both the lambs and the wethers, fed during the winter of 1902-3 were an extra fine lot, containing considerable of mutton blood upon a Merino foundation. They were good, thrifty stock when they arrived on the station farm, and a month's feeding upon the grain and hay fields of the farm put them into the feed lots in extra fine condition. At the end of the season they had, therefore, the size and fatness to command the top price on the market. However, there are many other classes of stock in the state and it is our purpose to learn all we can about these various grades and classes. » NUMBER AND KIND OF SHEEP PURCHASED. The sheep purchased for the experiment of the winter of 1903-4 consisted of 120 lambs, which cost us $1.7.9 3~10 eacri delivered at Bozeman, and 120 two-year-old wethers, which cost us $2.56 each at Bozeman. They were selected and purchased for us by Mr. John M. Robinson, of Bozeman, to whom we are indebted for this favor. No special attempt was made to select any especial grade of stock, but they were taken out of a larger bunch just as they would come. They were delivered at the station farm on the 3rd 86 BULLETIN NO. 59. of November and turned out upon the grain and hay fields. The fall and summer had been quite dry, however, so that there was but little feed upon the fields and in two weeks the sheep were put into the feed lots. When they came upon the station farm the wethers averaged 113 pounds, and two weeks later, when put into the feed lots, they weighed 119^ pounds each, gaining 6l/2 pounds on the pasture. This may have been partly due to a fill-up, as well as to some increase in weight. The lambs weighed 54 pounds each when they arrived on the farm and 57^ pounds when put into the feed lots two weeks later. It will be noted that these weights were con- siderably below the weights of the stock fed the year before, when the wethers weighed 123 pounds at the beginning of the test and the lambs 70 pounds. These weights also show that the lambs were light for the season of the year and they were not equal in quality to those of the year before, but in breeding were somewhat similar, being Merino grades with a greater or less mixture of mutton blood. The wethers were also light in weight but were a little better in condition and quality than the lambs. KIND AND PRICES OF FEED. In this portion of Gallatin Valley the principal hay is red and alsike clover, usually mixed in various proportions. With the sum- mer weather we usually have, this hay may be easily cured, saving a large proportion of the leaves and stems and is thus of very good quality. We usually have considerable new meadow, as we seed about 15 to 20 acres every year in following a systematic rotation on the farm. This leaves quite a large amount of old stubble on the hay field, more or less of which is raked up with the first crop of clover. As the animals refuse to eat those dead stalks, it means considerable waste when feeding this first crop of hay, which was the main crop f"d to those sheep. Again the winter of 1003 4 was quite a sno\vy winter. As we have no place to store our hay under cover it is stored in stacks and the snow and wet interferred con- siderably with the getting of a correct or exact weight of the hay fed. It is believed, however, that the results given are fairly ac- curate and if an error there be, it is on the side of increasing rather than decreasing the cost of the feeding. The grains fed, except the screenings, were grown upon the farm and were fed whole. The SHEEP FEEDING. 87 were purchased from a local grist mill, and consisted of considerable broken wheat, and weed seeds of very many kinds. The pnces allowed for these feeds are the average prices for the winter and were as follows: Clover hay, $5.00 per ton; wheat screenings, 85c. per cwt. ; wheat, $1.25 per cwt. ; oats, $1.00 per cwt. ; barley, Si.oo per cwt. The sheep were fed in yards which, in one end. liad a covered shelter and on the other end running water. The sheep, therefore, were at liberty to seek the shelter whenevei they desired to do- so, which we found to be very seldom. They also had access to water at will. THE WEIGHING OF THE SHEEP. All farm animals vary considerable in weight from day to day depending upon the contents of the digestive organs. To avoid the errors that might arise from this variation, the animals were weighed three days in succession at the beginning of the experiment and again at the end. It is usual, also, to weigh them once or twice every two weeks to note the growth of the animals, so as to keep a careful check on the results while in progress. The weights in this test were taken right after noon, which would be some hours after the morning's feed. PLAN OF THE EXPERIMENT. The purpose of the experiment was similar to that of the year before. In addition to determining the general facts in regard to the value of clover as sheep feed and the gains that might be made upon our range flocks during the feeding period in the winter, it was also desired to find the feeding value of the different kinds of grains and mixtures of grains available to the Montana farmer. The sheep, therefore, were divided into ten lots, 5 lots of lambs and 5 lots of wethers. There were 24 sheep in each lot. The lambs were fed as follows: Lot i, clover hay and wheat screenings ;lot 2 clover hay and wheat; lot 3, clover hay and oats; lot 4, clover hay and barley; lot 5 clover hay and a mixture of grains, made up of equal parts by weight of wheat, oats and bar- ley. The five lots of wethers were numbered correspondingly and led the same as the lambs. The clover was fed ab libitum, our idea being to . feed what the animals would eat up fairly clean. As stated above, the first BULLETIN NO. 59. Aver'ge gain per O O5 TH OS C- t>- CM O t- CO iH O5 OO O LO TH LO CD O t> TF CM TH O 00 Tft CO CD t"- CO LO 00 CD 00 O 00 •* each wether. LO LO LO Tt* LO LO 05 ^Z 10 CO 0 LO ^ CO 00 LO c-q o TH jo t^ CD TH iH c-q O5 CM LO CD CO t^ LO 00 LO O O O CO rf OO O5 CO CO rH CM O CO LO •* TJH CO CM 0 rfi Aver'ge gain per day per wether. 00 r-i CO TH LO CM CM CO O5 TH CM CM CM TH CM CO O CO 00 TH O TH iH TH TH CD LO OO O5 iH CO LO 0 CM 0 CM CM CM CM CM O O5 CM •* f- O5 TH O O 00 rH CM CN CM rH (M Aver'ge gain per OO OO OO O CO rt< O CO CO TH t— O Cvl OO O5 O TH O5 (70 CO OO CO O O HH CD iH O LO CX) OO t- CD TH O LO CM OO O5 LO CM TH day per lot. LO LO LO rfi LO (M ^ CO rj< CO LO CD LO LO •* Tj< LO Tt< •* ^ HH CM Gain in live t- C- (M LO O5 CO CM Tr* iH CM 00 10 0 0 10 IO iH TH (M O5 O O O CM CO LO CM CM t— t— CO IO •^ weight. CM CM oq CM CM •^ LO Tf< "* T^ CM rH Weight at end of period. O - C>v %%£%% 538|1 ^•^iS5 ^^ggg >>>»>»>>>> 05 o3 o3 eS oS ^a ^^,13 ,d -^ i- i_ -^ -^ 0) CD O> O QJ >•>>.>•> 2 5 ° 2 ° OOQOU O 1 o5 03 c3 0) s i 0) >• O •3 cc 03 0) CS 02 0) > O 1 02 oS 0> s OS CC Lot. iH Q5 5 5 5 3 0 C> 03 ^ , Q> ^6 +H d) 0) ^ M) fg -. - V - XJ K5 ^ OS T3 03 13 O5 •g» . . . ££ 0 O [> 1 5 -8 -S « n -iJ 02 ^ ^ ^ Z 1 C*« rtcS TJ^ S ^ w W) ^ cd ^c3 O r» H c- oo Cost per wether per day. Cents. CO CO t- OS 00 *€^3*f:rj-3^ LO -^ OO OO -^ O "* t- LO LO CO CO Food eaten per 1 Ib gain. Lbs grn rH T^T-*1 -f CM OS -5; CO CO CM CM rH O ^O LO CM 01 00 CO OS CO ^t* OS LO CO CM OO O O CO rH rH CO^COcOrt* TfCO^^^ CO CM CO CO CO CO Food eaten per 1 Ib gain. Lbs cl'r LOOOt-O rH t> OS CM CO OS CO LO CO Tt< 00 t- LO OS 00 1— * Io~ CO OO O OO CM O rH CM rH CM CM ^H rH CM rH t^ •^ CO t^ LO 00 cs t- oo oo o F'd eaten per d'y per wether. Gr'n LOLOLOLOLO LO LO LO LO LO CM CM CM CM CM CO CO CO CD CO F'd eaten per d'y per weti^r. Cl'r rH rH -i-H rH rH T*H CO 00 LO O CM 00 CO CO CO CO CO rH t- CO CO CM CO OS § OJ 0 00 00 00 00 OS Clover Waste Lbs. O O LO CO t- LO CO tH OO CO CO LO LO Tfl -^ OOOOCOOOS O500O5OSOS CMrHrHCMO COrHOOOS rHrHrHrHrH CMlMCMCMrH I 00 1 Clover Fed. Lbs. LOLOLOLOLO LOLOLOLOLO rH TH rH rH rH CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO OSOSOOSOS OOOOO rH rH rH rH rH i § 10 g rH cn 13 CO I 5 G9 1 1 Number of Wethers. CM CM CM CM CM 0 o d 09 1 rH CM CO ^ LO 2 8. * oo | "o * 02 G) O ^ £ 13 ^ 13 0^ CD d^ Q) O o o o o o 55555 a> g 5 c6 i e<3 02 0) o e3 s d , Lot. rH CM CO Tj< LO rH(MCO-*LO rHCMcO^LO Period. T— 1 1 B 0 >' 'f-i O CC r>* rH C^ ».7> CM CO rH 1 0 CO Q) . >> CM T3 00 CO CM 2 rH 1! >> co -a t- OS I "o •90 BULLETIN NO. 59. crop of hay, which made a large portion of the feed given, contained considerable stems and, as will be noted in the tables there was some waste. We started feeding grain three weeks after the be- ginning of the experiment. At first but a small grain ration was given, and we had to coax the sheep to eat it, first by reducing slightly on their hay so as to make them a little m«»r:i ninigry, and next by salting the grain slightly. Six pounds were given to each lot per day at the start and one month was taken to get the animals to the maximum ration of one pound per sheep per day. In weigh- ing up the sheep we planned to divide the lots as evenly as possible, both according to weight and quality, so that each might start off on as fair a basis as possible. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS. WEIGHT OF WETHERS. Table No. I gives the weights and gains of the wethers. It will be noticed that they were fed for 97 days, this time being •divided into three periods, first 25, second 28 and the last 44 days. This table also shows the gain for each lot per day and of each animal per day, per week and for the whole time of the test. Comparing, first, by periods, it will be noticed that the wethers made the fastest gains during the first and third periods, though the first may have been somewhat of a "fill-up." This is shown particularly in the average, which was about .22 Ibs. per day for •each lamb. This result is true of practically all the lots. Considering next, the results from the different kinds of grain, it will be noticed that on the wheat ration the wethers gained during the 97 days 21.33 pounds each. The next best returns were from the barley ration, upon which they gained 19.87 pounds. Then follows the oats, screenings, and the mixed grain last. This result is somewhat dif- ferent from the previous year, in which we found the barley to be the best ration, followed by the oats, wheat, screenings and mixed grain. The only difference, however, when we analyze carefully .is the transposition of the wheat and barley. The other results are almost exactly the same as reported in bulletin 47. Taking the two years, therefore, together, it would seem that the barley or wheat proved the most satisfactory ration for feeding wethers, though the oats were very close third. SHEEP FEEDING. 91* Considering the whole time of the test, it will be noticed that the wethers made an average daily gain of only .2 of a pound. This was about .03 of a pound less than the wethers gained the previous year. The average total gain for each wether was J-9-4& pounds, or, in round numbers, 19*^ pounds, which was three pounds less than that gained the year before. AMOUNT OF FOOD EATEN BY WETHERS. Table No. 2 shows the total amount of food eaten, the food eaten per day and the cost of each pound of gain. During the first period, when the sheep had no grain whatever, they ate an average of about 4^4 pound of hay per day. The range was from 4.35 to 4.23 pounds per day. When the grain ration was added the amount of hay eaten fell off from a half to three-fourths of a pound per day, and on a full grain ration they ate fully % pound less hay per day than on hay alone, but the total amount of food eaten was greater as they were at that time eating one pound of grain per day. The average amount of hay eaten per day for the different lots during the 97 days was practically the same, and for all the lots the average was 3.81 pounds per day.The wethers received no grain for the first 25 days of the test and for the next 28 days averaged nearly .6 of a pound per day. The last 44 days of the test they each received i pound of grain per day. The average grain received for the 97 days of the feeding was .625 of a pound, or a little over J/£ pound per day. THE FOOD EATEN FOR EACH POUND OF GAIN BY WETHERS. The food eaten for each pound of gain, gives some very in- teresting facts. For the first period from 18 to 22.7 pounds of clover hay were eaten for each pound of gain made. For the sec- ond period, when the grain ration was added, it required from 21 to 41 pounds of hay in addition to the grain to make one pound gain. The third period, however, this was reduced to from 13.9 to 18 pound of hay for each pound of gain, in addition to the grain. The average for the whole period showed that 18.94, or, in round num- bers, 19 pounds of hay and 3. IT of grain were required for each 92 BULLETIN NO. 59. pound of gain. Comparing the different results it will be noticed that the sheep fed on the wheat ration required the least amount of feed for each pound of gain, viz: 17.4 and 2.84 pounds of grain, The oats and barley rations are practically the same. For the screen- ings ration 19.3 pounds of clover and 3.26 pounds of grain were required for one pound of gain, while for the mixed grain ration, 20.5 pounds of clover and 3.33 pounds of grain were required3 making the mixed grain ration the most expensive. For the third or test period, the wheat returns was the most efficient, requiring 13.9 Ibs, of clover and 3.91 Ibs. of grain for each Ib. of gain. The screen- ings, barley, oats and mixture followed in the order named. COST OF FOOD EATEN BY WETHERS. Because of the variation in the price of both hay and grain during different seasons, and more especially in the different parts of the state, the money cost of the gain is not always a safe point from which the feeders in other valleys might calculate the returns. In consideration of these differences in price, the amount of food ^aten for each pound of gain is a much safer basis upon which to calculate the cost of the gain. From this data each person of every district can figure exactly what it will cost to produce the gain whatever the difference in price in these different districts might be, With the prices given in this bulletin it cost on the average T.6 c^nts per cay to feed each wether. The wheat ration, bccau.se of the cost of the grain, was the most expensive. For the same reason the mixed grain ration was next expensive, while the screen- ings ration was the least expensive. Considering the cost of the feed for 97 days the average shows that it cost close to eight cents (7.92) to produce each pound of gain on these wethers. The range was from 7.49 for the screenings ration to 8.73 for those fed the mixed grain ration. The barley, oats and wheat come be- tween in the order named, the wheat ration being the most expens- ive of the three. For the test period of 44 days the screenings ration produced a pound of gain for the least cost, followed by the barley, wheat, oats and mixture in order named. SHEEP FEEDING. 93 Aver'ge gain per lamb. Lbs. CO O TH TH O • TH co •«•* os tr- X>'OS t- CO O H t- CO CO IO Tt< CO CO O CO LO CO r-i CO CO t- CO 1-1 OS T}< 00 CO OS t- iO OO o eo CO io IO Tt< CO CO X) -^ CO CO IO ro iH co co co ^SS5-^ Av. weekly gain per lamb. Lbs. CO IO CO OS CO >* T* CO o 0 ^ OS 00 IO C- lO iH IO CO CO •* OS CO CO iH H fc» O O> iH OS CO CO CO ^H CO r-l ,H^^^,H rHrHr^THTH CO r-| CO i-l CO 1 .H^^^^j Av. gain per d'y per lamb. Lbs. COOOCOcOOOOOl^t-CO OOC-lO^ CO t- CO CO OS CO CO i— 1 TH T— 1 CO TH CO CO tH o 10 os tr- O CO GO CO CO CO CO OS CO •* r-l LO rH Tf< CO CO (N CO CO CO CO t- CO CO Av. gain per d'y per lot. Lbs. CO -«*-OOOOCOOS.OSOOOCOOO CO CO CO CO CO t- OO 00 CO OS CO CO CO CO CO OS • oo tr- CO LO No. of Lambs. COCOCOCOCO COCOCOCOCO ^333 >1 CO CO CO CO o CO rH 2 0> GO O w Total and average for all lots Average for one lamb hp - . bfl • • . • bfl • • . • bfi • - "g fl 0 M) 02 1 .2 0) «3 02 . § .2 2 2 o bfi 03 g .2 g 1 02^ •^ fl ^ |*s2i 2 G es fl G p3 S C ^ C- pj c3 c^ ™ cS mi! ^ -o-c ^ -o §§§§§ 0) 0>

o o o a> d 1-3 1 08 OS CO o „ , , » §355; a> "3 s-> - - - - 0) a a> G 1— ( CO CO p» BULLETIN NO. 59. ;o Cvq Oi O iH CO - c^ o co 10 CO CO -f ^i CO t- Cf O CO IO CO a> a> a>. > > > > 0 0 0 0 0 oOooo O 42 CJ W5 (S3 S 02 a I cC o3 1 S a> 1 rt o3 1 cti 02 2 ^O CD Lot. ,H 0 CC 1 00 Cvj co~ T— 1 T3 C 0 a3 .,-, (-a Ss 8? (N 0' O a ro & T3 •* «* CD" * "ci . « 8,| |P ? 5 c* p* §^ '' S, -s g, « § I o- ^a §s Lambs 1.85 Wethers.. 3.81 .62 .625 7.62 18.94 2.63 j .237 I 23.08 3.11 | .2 I 19.5 1. 4.61 3.6 7.92 .98 1.54 COMPARISON OF RESULTS WITH LAMBS AND WETHERS. Table No. 5 gives a brief comparison of the results in the feed- ing of the lambs and 'wethers. It will be noticed that the amount of grain eaten per day was practically the same for each, but the wethers ate two pounds more of hay per day than did the lambs. Considering the amount of food eaten for one pound of gain the wethers ate n 1-3 pounds more clover than did the lambs and nearly half a pound of grain more for each pound of gain made. This shows that the lambs were very much more economical feeders. This is, however, not the only factor to be considered, as will be noticed later. Considering the gain per day the lambs gained .237 pounds to .2 pounds gained by the wethers, or, for the total time of the test, 97 days, the lambs gained 23.08 and the wethers 19.5 pounds. The cost of the food per day at Bozeman prices was I cent for each lamb and 1.6 cents for each wether, and the cost of each pound of gain was 4.61 cents for the lambs and 7.92 cents for the wethers, or 3 1-3 cents more. The total cost of the gain put upon the lambs, during the 97 days of the test, was 98 cents, 98 BULLETIN NO. 53, while the total cost of the gain put upon the wethers was $i . 54, a difference of 56 cents in favor of the lambs. When we consider that the lambs gained 3^2 pounds more than the wethers this difference in cost is quite an important one. THE CLOVER WASTE. It should not be overlooked, perhaps, that in extensive feeding there is considerable waste on the roughage fed. As stated in anothei place considerable of the clover fed to these sheep was the first crop. A good deal of it was the first crop after seeding and contained a large amount of old stubble. This would tend to increase the waste as compared to feeding the clover from the second year's meadow. The waste from the wethers was close to 20 per cent of the amount of hay given, and for the lambs it was about 30 per cent of the amount of hay given. It would seem that practicably this waste should be charged to the sheep. However, the most of this was fed to cattle and horses, so that it was not lost, but had a feeding value for other stock which were being carried over and not fattened. In fattening sheep and somewhat forcing the appetite there is sure to be a certain amount of waste, but where it is used for feeding cattle we have not felt that it was necessary to charge this waste against the sheep. However, those who desire to do so can increase the cost of the hay by the figures given. FINANCIAL RESULTS WITH WETHERS. Table No. 6 gives a summary of the financial results in feeding wethers. This table shows the essential facts given in the previous tables, but arranged in a different way. This table will repay care- ful study. It will be noticed that the wethers cost 2.y\ cents per pound when purchased, or put into the feed lots. If sold at 4 cents per pound, which was about the price paid in Bozeman, they would return a profit on the feeding of $158.73, or a profit on each wether of $1.32. The cost of the 120 wethers was $323.75. The cost of the feed at the price given was $185.28, which made a total cost of the fattened wethers of $509.03. The price received for the wethers at 4 cents per pound would be $667.6, the difference as given above represents the profit on the feed and pay for the labor. The largest amount of profit on each wether was on the SHEEP FEEDING. lot fed oil the, screenings — $1.42 each. The lot fed on oats returned a profit of $1.33, and that on barley $1.32; the lot fed on wheat $i .27 and of mixed grain $i .26 for each wether. Total and aver- age. IV Lot III. Lot II. Lot I. r-l M 00 O iH T-l «£> IO COiHLO CO i— 1 ««- r-l T T-| ?0 O «> US ....... Tt< C3s£J t~O5 rH 00 • • • «O t- • • • •<*< T-l if Tt< • -CO • • • Lot V. c^osc^c^rfco^LOcqooc^i ,_, CO CNJ ,-1 G^lt-^ Tf C<1 t- Ol t- ~T ^4- T\T co ' • ' O* *& M ' ' • IjOT/ IV. T— I IO LO O -r-i ^JCOLO Lot III. CO • • • 05 IO ' Tf C^l t- ^ t- Lot II. CO • • • OO -* LO "S iHU5C<100T-l ^OOO CO I- iH ' 03 * ' ' CO 72 « • ; SxE IM -- oo^ 102 BULLETIN NO. 59. and the lambs for $7.25 per hundred pounds, a difference of $1.25 per hundred pounds in favor of the lambs. This is the usual differ- ence when both are equally fat and ready for the market. It will be noticed, also, by comparing the price paid for the lambs, both in the year 1902 and 1903, as well as in the test here reported, that the lambs cost more per pound than the wethers. The difference is greater for this year than for the previous year, when it was but 25 cents per hundred pounds, whereas this year it was a little over one cent per pound different. The lambs fed in this experiment gained as much in proportion to their beginning weight as those of the year before. They were, therefore, just as ecoriorhieal feeders. They also made gains much more economically than did the wethers van.d yet the financial result shows a decided profit for the Wethers • and practically none for the lambs, beyond the labor cost Of feed- ing. To get a full explanation why there was this difference I wrote to Clay, Robinson & Company, the commission" coftipany who -sold the lambs both years, as to the reason for the difference •noted. 1 give herewith this letter from the company, which,, ifl a measure, explains the reason for the difference : MR. F. B. LINFIELD, Montana Experiment Station, Bozeman, Montana . Dear Sir : We are in receipt of your letter of i8th and note ^what . you ^say .-regarding the deck of lambs you had here a short t'irtTe -ago. In 'reply "Will say that in the first place they were not heavy "enough to command the top price, and, in the second place, they were far from 'being ^finished. If you were here and saw the condition good Colorado lambs; were in you would readily agree with us that your lambs are not to be compared wtth them. We also note you were somewhat sur- prised that your wethers sold higher than your lambs. These wethers, the day they were here, sold fully 25c above the market. There wa« ah exporter here who simply had to have these sheep, no matter wliat they cost, and, knowing this, we took advantage of it. In fact $5.00 would have been a good strong price for these wethers the day they were here. We candidly believe that you folks could do better with aged wethers out there than with lambs. We do not believe you can fatten your lambs and get them in condition to sell at the top of the SHEEP FEEDING. 103 market, unless you happened to strike a market when everybody was crazy for lambs, same as you struck last year. The writer remembers distinctly the day your lambs were here. Every buyer was out hunting lambs, and on a market of that kind we can come nearer getting the top than on a market where there are plenty of good lambs to select from, same as we have had here the last six weeks or two months. Yours truly, Clay Robinson & Co. Note — The underlining is mine. — F. B. L. It would seem, therefore, that the real trouble with these lambs was that they were not fat enough, and to get the top prices they must be fat. As these lambs gained as much as those did the year before and were fed the same rations and the same length of time then it would seem that the trouble was not in the method of feeding, but rather the lambs were too small to begin with and the time allowed was not sufficient to get these lambs to the weight and condition which would enable them to command the top price. It has been noticed by observing the market that the lambs which come nearest to supplying the demand range from 85 to 95 pounds in Chicago. This would mean a lamb which would weigh some- thing like 95 to 100 pounds in Montana. These lambs were 13 pounds lighter than those fed the year before. To bring them up this much in weight at shipping time would mean that they should be fed for between 50 and 60 days longer. This would seem to in- dicate that we have to feed larger lambs or else feed them for a longer time if we are to command the best or top price. In com- parison with the wethers the lambs grow considerable in addition to the fattening and so make use of a larger amount of the feed given them but in proportion do not put on as much fat as do the wethers. These latter having had their growth turn most of the feed into fat and so get into condition for the market in a shorter time than do the lambs. Again the wethers are stronger and can keep in better condition upon the range than can the lambs and so usually come into the feeding lots in better condition in the fall. Much better re- sults would be obtained with the lambs if they were gotten upon the farm early in the season and had from 6 weeks to two months on the meadow before being put upon the winter ration for fatten- ing. 104 BULLETIN NO. 59. SHEEP FEEDING TEST FOR WINTER 1904=5. INTRODUCTION. During the winter of 1904-5 there was fed at the Experiment Station three lots of sheep. First, we purchased 100 two-year-old wethers. These sheep were grade Merinos with considerable of mutton blood, particularly the Cotswold, in their make-up. These sheep were purchased from Mr. John M. Robinson, of Bozeman, out of a lot of about 900 obtained near Twin Bridges. They were a fairly good grade of sheep, but were rather light. They averaged no pounds when weighed at the college farm at delivery, which is the lightest wethers we have fed for the past three years They cost laid down, $3.25 each, which at the weights given, made them cost 3 cents per pound live weight. The wethers were put in pens and ied hay as soon as they arrived on the farm, which was on Nov. 6, 1904. No weights of the feed were kept until Nov. 28, when the experiment started. At this time the wethers weighed 115 pounds, having gained 5 pounds in about 20 days. The second lot of sheep handled were 64 head, the remaindei of a lot which our chemist had been working with, during the sum- mer, on the range near Big Timber, testing, in co-operation with the Department of Agriculture, some problems in relation to the effect of loco weed upon the sheep. They were a good band of sheep, but some of them had lost weight during the summer. They weigh- ed on the average 83 pounds at the beginning of the test. They were a mixed lot of ewes, wethers and lambs. These we have designated as the "poison-plant" sheep to distinguish them from the ether lots. The third lot of sheep consisted at the beginning of 42 head, but later were reduced, through killing for post-mortem purposes and some that died, to 29 head. These animals were very badly "locoed", as the symptoms for this trouble are usually described. The SHEEP FEEDING. 105 animals were scarcely strong enough to drive from the railroad station to the college farm. They weighed an average of 42^/2 pounds each and were a mixed lot of ewes and lambs, with Merino blood predominating. These were designated as the "locoed" sheep. These latter two lots were fed in co-operation with the chemical de- partment and in a bulletin, soon to be issued from that department, full details in regard to the study of the individual sheep and the treatment and deductions drawn from the experiment during the summer and winter will be given. Our plan was to find out what results could be obtained from feeding this class of sheep as com- pared to a fairly good class of wethers, using these latter as a basis for comparison. PLAN OF THE EXPERIMENT. The three kinds of sheep were divided into two lots each. The "poison plant" sheep contained 32 in each lot. In lot one was the stronger and heavier sheep and in lot two the lighter and pre- sumably weaker sheep. Lot one received clover hay and one pound of grain per day as a maximum grain ration. Lot two re- ceived clover hay, i pound of grain per day and */2 pound of roots per day as a maximum ration. The "locoed sheep" were also di- vided into two lots. The first called, lot 3, was made up of the stronger sheep, and the second, called lot 2, was made up of the lighter and weaker sheep, our plan being to feed those sheep so as to encourage, if possible, the lighter sheep through our method of feeding. Lot 3 received clover hay, I pound of screenings a day and y2 pound of roots as a maximum ration. Lot 4 received the same ration except that mixed grain was substituted in place of the screenings. The grain for both the ' 'poison-plant" and "locoed" sheep was crushed coarsely. The 100 wethers were also divided into two lots, 50 in a lot, and they were divided as nearly equal as pos- sible, considering the weight and quality of the sheep. The first, known as lot 5, received clover hay and il/> pound of grain per day and the 2d, known as lot 6, received clover hay and i Ib. of grain a day Our purpose in this was to get a comparative test of the effect of the lighter or heavier grain ration. For these sheep the grain was fed whole. The grain fed consisted in every case of a mixture of } _• barley, \/\ oats and l/^ bran, by weight. The clover hay was a 106 IN BULLETIN NO. 59. mixture of first and second crop red and alsike clover. The roots fed were mainly sugar beets, with occasionally some mangolds. The animals were fed all the hay they would eat, which was given them twice a day. For the first five days of the test hay alone was fed, and then the grain was started, giving 1-5 of a pound of grain to each sheep. This was gradually increased until the full amount specified was given. At the beginning the grain was given but once a day, but as the amount was increased it was given twice a day. The roots were given at the same time as the grain. At first the sheep did not take readily to the roots. Later we changed from sliced to pulp roots and the sheep ate the ration very much better. Fresh water was running through the yards at all times so that the sheep had ready access to a water supply. WEIGHING THE SHEEP. The sheep were weighed as in previous tests, each lot being weighed three days in succession at the beginning of the experiment and again when on full feed and once in two weeks thereafter till the close of the test, when they were again weighed three days in succession. They were weighed on Monday, as soon as possible after noon. It will be noted, therefore, that the weights given at the beginning and end of the test are not a single day weighing but the average of three days weighing in succession, which should give very close to a correct average. VALUE OF THE FOOD. The values estimated for the hay and grain fed are given so as to afford a basis of comparison with others, whose prices may be more or less different. The prices are as follows : Clover hay, $5.00 per ton; barley, $1.00 per hundred pounds; oats, $1.00 per hundred pounds; bran, 95c. per hundred pounds; and roots, $4.00 per ton. As the studies of the chemical department had shown that many of these sheep were probably affected with internal parasites, all of the "poison plant" and "locoed" sheep were treated with vermi- fuges. A full account of the methods and results on this point, will be discussed in a later bulletin by that department. SHEEP FEEDING. 107 Aver'gegain for' each sheep. LO CO O O t- CO CO CO CO C~ CO CO Av. weekly gain per sheep. Av'ge gain per day per sheep Av'rge gain per day per lot. Gain in Live Weight. Weight at end of period. Weignt at be- ginn'g of period. No. of Sheep. Lot. CO -f LO CO LO LO rH rH CO CO rH CO LSI LO t~ 00 CO CO O O LO t- LO t- rH o 05 co o co CO CO rH . *M „ o e o I* : 1 °- ° = •* * Q. r^ CM 00 CO ,H U5 ITS 01 Csj (M |^ (M O5 Oi LO -rf 10 CO LQ CXJ t-^ CO OT CO CO O (D >>>>>>. O O O O O O OOOOOO CO -sf CO ^ CO Tf » » cd rt -0 -b O -u 00 — «| CO .0 > IO , -^ Q-o 0^: ,= 0, j ^ S ^ Oi CO CO CO 00 00 CO O H* 00 10 co t- co co •* CO rH CO t- 00 CO Oi rH CO IO TH O TH O C~ -f Tt< CO O t- 00 00 CM IO t- OO -n< O O rH rH CM CO CO CO CD IO CO -* rt< rH Oi I Oi -* 00 LO t- Oi rH ' 00 CO 00 CO t- U5 00 , CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO 00 OO t~ CO •* 00 Tf LO CO 00 00 LO t- l~ O O t- C~ LO LO i^> C^ LO LO o o o a> >. > OO OOOO OOOOOO LO ~ LO CO LO CO •5 w ^ W > r-i 108 BULLETIN NO. 59. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS. WEIGHTS AND GAINS OF SHEEP. Table No. i gives the weights and gains of the sheep feed in this test. It will be noticed that these different lots vary in the number of sheep in each, and so comparisons will have to be based on the daily gain and the average gain for each animal. On the average it will be noticed that the wethers gained .205 pounds per day for the sixty-five days of the test. Compared with the year before this is a very slightly larger daily gain. Each wether of lot 5 gained 13.54 pounds and each one of lot 6 gained 13.18 pounds. The wethers weighed an average of 115 pounds at the beginning of the test and 128^/2 pounds at the close, and thus gained on the average 13.36 pounds. Strange to say the ration of j/2 pound of grain per day gave a little the larger gain. At present I can offer no explanations of this rather unexpected result. Further tests will have to be made before drawing any definite conclusions. If later tests should bear out this result it would have a very important bearing upon the practice of feeding in this state. It will be noticed that during the second period, when the sheep were on a full grain ration, they gained nearly i-io of a pound more per day than during the first period, when the smaller grain ration was fed. However, even for this period the sheep fed the small grain ration made the larger daily gains. Lot I and 2, the "poison plant" sheep, were classified, as stated above, according to the grade of the sheep, the lighter sheep being put into one lot and the larger and heavier in the other. There was a difference of 460 pounds -between the two lots. In the 65 days lot i, the stronger sheep, gained 405 pounds, and lot 2, the weaker sheep, gained 427 pounds, or 22 per cent more than the heavier sheep. The average daily gain per sheep was about .2 of a pound, and the average gain per sheep for the 65 days was 13 pounds. This, it will be noted, is but very little less on the average than the gains made by the wethers in the same time. In this test the addition of roots to the ration of the lighter sheep seemed to have helped them to miake considerably better gains. It will also be noticed that during the second period, when the full grain ration was given, better gains were made than during the first period. Considering, next, the third group, the "locoed" sheep, we find SHEEP FEEDING. 109 that there was a difference of 118 pounds between the two lots. The lighter sheep, in lot 4, weighed 579 pounds and the heavier sheep, in lot 3, weighed 607 pounds. In 65 days lot 3, the heavier sheep gained but .193 pounds per day, but lot 4, the lighter sheep, gained 3 Ibs. per day, or more than 1-3 greater gain. The total gain was 188 pounds for lot 3 in 65 days and 273 pounds for lot 4, a dif- ference of 85 pounds. Each sheep of lot 3 gained 12^ pounds and of lot 4 gained 19^2 Ibs., or 6 Ibs. more. The only difference in the ration was that lot 3 received screenings. Both got the same kind and amount of roots. The average gain for those "locoed" sheep was 16 pounds each for the 65 days. This was considerably more than the gain made by the "poison plant" sheep, and 2.3 pounds more than the average gained by the wethers in the same time. The test would seem to show that the so-called "locoed" sheep, if properly treated, will gain as rapidly as other sheep. This is not the whole story, however,. They gained more, yet they were so thin to begin with, only 42^ pounds each, that the 16 pounds of gain only made them weigh 58^ pounds. They were thus too light and too poor to go into the market when the other sheep were shipped. These two lots (3 and 4) were therefore fed for another 58 days. During this time they each gained .213 pounds per day or 12.3 pounds for the 58 days. During this time they were fed the same as before, namely: clover, grain and roots. This gain was greater than the average gain of wethers or "poison plant" sheep for the first 65 days of the feeding test. Considering the 123 days during which the locoed sheep were fed they made a gain of .229 pounds per day and added 28.2 pounds to the 42.5 pounds original weight. These gains also compare very favorably with the gains made by the sheep the two previous years, as recorded in bulletin 47, and in the first part of this bulletin. 110 BULLETIN NO. 59. Cost of 1 Ib of gain. Cents eg co co •* eo -* os os t- eg eg -rt< t- r^ •^ t~- o oo to co r^^ rt c 'o 7 11 j2 .f •si ci « . J J . ; S J P! J 10 5j -4-3 -t O ( OR -^> O c Q -*• l~ C c m ; t»: ^ ! H^i H 5"j — •- 0 C -£ ^ CC ^N ^- *• c c — — 3 •4- c £^ 2 c c3 t |j N 'uT II — — t-cot-cot-co co co to to co rt< tO LO CO CO 00 t- IO t~ CO t- Cost per day per sheep. Cents. Tt< rH LO os oo t~ eg •* eg os t- cgococococg ocgcgcorHcg CO O Tj< CO rp eg co -f os co -^ F'd eaten per 1 Ib. gain. Roots oo o oo T-H o co >* co eg o os os co eg "* -* os o to to t— to Cg rH rH rHrHrHCOCgCg rH eg eg I'd eaten per 1 Ib gain. Grain. eg to ro os os T-H ooocotocgos co t- -rF t- ^ co co eo oo eg o co -rt< O CO Tf rH OS CO rH rH rH eg eg TF co co co eg (M O co co eg CO CO rH eg rH co T-H eg F'd eaten per 1 Ib. gain. Clover co co "^ os co os osococoocg co o t— co co o eg os t- ^t< oo c~ CO OS CO OO CO LO O rH to to o os -T)H eg oo eg o oo •<*< o to^-^^co-^ co to LO rH CO •"* OO OO Cg OQ ,-H rH rH rH F'd eaten per d'y per sheep. Roots F'd eaten per d'y per sheep. Grain Tt< "* OS •* rH CO O CO IO Tf CO CO OO OS LO CO 00 00 to to toto oooo t- t- totoo •*•* coco co t- oo oo t- oo 00 t- l^ t- os t~ t> t- eg eg co to os co to F'd eaten per d'y per sheep. Clov'r rH r-4 CO OO eg O L" t~- C~-OSCSt- rH rH T-H OS TJH eg OO O CO LO O rH CO -^ to co co eo 00 00 LO rH CO OS OO CO t- t^ 00 CO rH rH CO CO CO CO CO CO Grain eaten Lbs rH rH Tj< rfl ^ ^ eg eg LO LO t~ t- totococor~lTH T-H T—I eg eg co co LO tO OO OO "^ "* Tt< Tfri CO CO t~ t> rH rH LO OS rH 00 CO C- rH eg CO O LO O OO O to t— co co eg t— rH rH rH Roots eaten Lbs co eg °° oo oo "* ^* eg eg to os OO 00 00 LO eg oo eg Tt< Clover eaten Lbs |sll|§ iiiili OJ tO O O OS LO 00 OS t~ rH tO O t- co LO 10 eg eg rH rH Clover Waste Lbs eg T-H eg O LO O LO O O os t- oo eg t-- o CO O 00 OS LO O rH rH Cg Clover Fed. Lbs to o o o ^ ^ to LO o o LO *-^ OS OS OS O O LO OS LO t- t- to co eg o 0 o os c: o o OO 00 tO LO Tt* -* rH T-H No. of Sheep. Lot. eg eg CO LO tO tO LO IO LO LO CO LO CO LO CO Period. 02 O2 05 05 o3 o3 o3 CG 0 O5 OO cd o|| 05 02 00 " t~ " co eg . - co - >^ § • ^ O ^ co ** 0 4-J OO -^ 05 o fl *o 55 HJ 03 B| I 1 0) 5 ^ ^ 5 &s G: ^0; > 03 TJ t> > rH eg {> 00 t- 00 t- co eg co eg d" "/ a " & c3 rj c\3 pj 13 !-> cS *-3 OS . 0 ^ 0 ^ g Q-~^ o "^ ° jj <0 00 -U 00 -^ w +* ° B 6-0 d ^ E *O "2 <" 'O "Q 2 ll « 2 W ft^ ft2 S 2 O PH- a- O - P 05 Id O 03 ^3 J> Q. T-i eg Jl rH eg {> SHEEP FEEDING. Ill AMOUNT AND COST OF FOOD EATEN BY SHEEP. Table No. 2 gives the amount and cost of the food eaten by the sheep in the experiment during the winter 1904-5. The wethers in lot 5 received one-half of a pound of grain per day as a maximum ration, while lot 6 received one pound per day as a maximum. How- ever the two lots were started with the same amount of grain and this amount was gradually increased, at the same proportion for each, from 1-5 of a pound per day to one half of a pound for lot 5 and to i pound for lot 6. The result was that lot 6 ate 492 pounds of grain more than lot 5. It will also be noticed that lot 5 ate 454 pounds of hay more than did lot 6. The difference in the hay eaten, however, is greater in the first period than in the second period, when there was a maximum difference in the grain. On the avei> age for 65 days lot 5, with a light grain ration, required 18.4 pounds of clover and 1.81 pounds of grain for each pound of in- crease in live weight, while lot 6, with a heavier grain ration, re- quired 18.21 pounds of clover and 2.61 pounds of grain for each pound of gain. This shows a saving of .8 pound of grain by feed- ing the light grain ration. Considering the cost of the gain at the prices of feed given the light grain ration saved .8 cents for each pound of gain made. This is certainly a very interesting result, but as this is the first test we 'have made upon this point it would be wise to withhold any definite conclusions until the test has been repeated. Considering, next, the "poison plant" sheep, we find that lot I, the heavier and stronger sheep, ate much more hay, namely, 1,438 pounds, than lot 2 during the first period. The weaker lot did not clean up their hay and there was thus a large amount of waste. For the second period the difference is less. To compensate for 1,628 pounds less of hay eaten by lot 2 during the 65 days they had 848 pounds of roots. Both lots ate the same amount of grain. Lot I ate an average of 2.85 pounds of hay and .68 pounds of grain per day, which was i pound less hay than eaten by the wethers. Lot 2 ate 2.07 pounds of hay per day and .68 pounds of grain. Consider- ing the food eaten for each pound of gain we find that lot i required 14.66 pounds of hay and 3.49 pounds of grain for each pound of increase in live weight, while lot 2, the weaker sheep, required but 10.09 pounds of clover and 3.31 pounds of grain for each pound of 112 BULLETIN NO. 59. increase in live weight. They ate, however, 1.98 or nearly 2 pounds of roots. Thus it would appear that this small amount of roots made a saving of about 4^ pounds of hay. Compared with the wethers which had the full grain ration, lot I, the stronger sheep cost 7.3 cents for each pound of gain, which was exactty the cost for each pound of gain for the wethers fed- the maximum grain ration. Lot 2, the lighter sheep, which had the most roots, cost but 6.4 cents for each pound of gain, which was practically the same as the wethers fed the lighter grain ration. Coming, next, to the "locoed" sheep we have to consider that we are dealing with small animals, weighing only about one-half as much as those in the "poi- son-plant" lot or only about one-third the weight at the beginning* of the test. These small sheep would naturally be small feeders. They ate an average of 1.36 Ibs. of hay per day, which was 2 pounds less than the wethers ate and i pound less than the "poison plant" sheep ate. They ate slightly more grain per day and about .6 of a pound of roots. FOOD EATEN FOR EACH POUND GAIN. Considering, next, the food eaten for each pound of gain it will be noticed that lot 3, the heavier sheep, ate 6.8 pounds of hay, 3.92 pounds of grain and 2.93 pounds of roots for each pound of gain, while the lighter sheep required but 4.72 pounds of hay, 2.69 pounds of grain and 2.02 pounds of roots for each pound of gain. This shows a saving of 2.08 pounds of hay, .2 pounds of grain and .9 pounds of roots, as compared with the "poison plant" sheep and the wethers. It will be noticed that the "locoed sheep required very much less hay for each pound of gain than did the wethers, bxit on the average they required slightly more grain. Considering the prices of the feed, the lightest lot (4) of the "locoed" sheep made the cheap- est gains, namely, 4.4 cents for each pound of gain. Lot 3, the heavier sheep, cost 6.2 cents for each pound of gain, which was about the same as the cost on the light weight "poison plant" sheep. Each pound of gain put upon the wether or "poison plant" sheep cost 6.9 cents, while for the "locoed" sheep this cost was 5.3 cents, or 1.6 cents less, which seems to show that the locoed sheep will gain as econo- mically as the stronger and better sheep if properly fed and treated. SHEEP FEEDING. 11J SECOND PART OF EXPERIMENT WITH LOCOED SHEEP. Considering, next, the continuation of the experiment with locoed sheep; as noted above they were not ready for the market and were thus fed for 58 days longer. They received practically the same amount of feed as for the second period of the first part of the test, though the hay during this time was not weighed. Dur- ing this period of 58 days it required 6.37 pounds of hay, 3.64 pounds of grain and 2.75 pounds of roots for each pound of gain. Each }:ound of gain cost 5.7 cents, which was practically the same as for the first 65 days of the test. For the 123 days, during which these sheep were fed, it required 5.92 pounds of hay, 3.40 pounds of grain and 2.55 pounds of roots to produce each pound of gain put upon the sheep. The average cost of this gain was practically the same as for the previous part of the test. The results which \\ere obtained with these "locoed" sheep were a surprise to the writer, as they probably will be to many other feed- ers, and the question arises, why this difference in the experience noted?" I will not enter into any discussion as to what is the cause of "loco" in sheep as this matter will be fully discussed by Prof. Chesnut in a bulletin soon to be issued. It has been noted above, however, that practically all of those "locoed" sheep were more or less affected with internal parasites, and even if there were no other cause, these parasites, together with hard fare on the range, and es- pecially so with lambs, would give us a starved and very thm animal. Even on very good feed I have known animals to pine and die when affected with internal parasites of various.kinds. How much worse the condition of those animals with the range feed as it frequently is? Attention has been called to the fact that these sheep were treated with vermifuges. These, of necessity, have to be strong medi- ans, and, as was stated before, the "locoed" sheep were very week. Some of them died the first night after they reached the farm from exhaustion and others died a few days later before being treated with vermifuges. A few others died after this treatment. Of the A2. head obtained but 29 survived to the end of the test, though nearly half of those lost were killed for post-mortem examinations. It is probable, however, that the treatment with vermifuges may have en- 114 BULLETIN NO. 59. abled the sheep that survived to make better gains than they would have otherwise have done. There is yet another point to be considered in the feeding of this class of sheep. Although they made as rapid gains and as economic gains, in fact a little better on both points than any of the other sheep, yet they were far from being ready for the market when the other sheep were shipped, and to have sold them at this time would have necessitated selling at a considerable sacrifice, be- cause of the very poor condition at this time. Such sheep must be kept on feed for some time longer than sheep not so affected. Table No. 3. Summary and Financia Results in Feeding Sheep. 1904-5. "N j5 ^ j3" s 1-1 ^ - I a, » & p pi? ^a £& ||g s-i-tH >* ® i. sir w 1 ^ ox? ^c $700.70 138 Lambs (tops), net weight 12570 pounds 22 Lambs (cut outs), net weight 1790 pounds 20 Lambs (cut outs), net weight 1600 pounds @ 6l/2c 102.93 Total .......................................................................... $803.63 Expenditures : Cost of Lambs ........................ . ........................................... $451.75 Cost of grain fed .............................................................. 151.46 Cost of hay fed .................................................................. 79.32 Freight .............................................................................. 100.15 Feed, Umatilla .................................................................... 17.90 Feed, Portland .................................................................. 16.08 Yardage, Portland ............. . .............................................. 6.95 Expense Bill, man in charge ............................................ 4.15 Total .......................................................................... $827.76 Total loss ..................... . .............................................. $ 24.13 Loss per head ................................. . .......................... $ 0.17 15 Lot II. $817.05 92.00 $909.05 $523.25 175.91 88.15 113.85 20.35 18.27 7.90 4.75 $952.43 $ 43.38 •$ 0.28 By shipping both decks full there would have resulted a saving of $53.50. . The excessive delay at Umatilla necessitated three feeds of hay, otherwise unnecessary, totaling 2015 pounds and costing $25.20 also adding $3.00 to the expenses of the man in charge. The total of these unusual items is $81.70. Could they have been eliminated the net profit would have been $14.19 on 297 head, or approximately five cents per head. SHRINKAGE Lot I. Lot II. Average weight per head, Caldwell...: 94.4 Lbs. 96.8 Lbs. Average weight per head, North Portland 90.4 Lbs. 89.7 Lbs. Loss 4.0 Lbs. 7.1 Lbs. Shrinkage, per cent 4.2 7.3 EXPERIMENT OF 1912-13 The 1912-13 experiment was planned with three objects in view : First, to demonstrate the possibility of a desirable market for alfalfa hay by feeding it to lambs; second, to determine the possibility of finishing lambs on native grains without corn ; third, to test the relative feeding value of wheat and barley in lamb feeding. The lambs consisting of 513 head, were purchased of Scott An- derson of Boise, and were weighed up on his ranch north of Boise, October 15th, costing five cents per pound with an allowance of five per cent for shrink. They were driven overland to the Station Farm at Caldwell, arriving late October 16th. After a small feed of hay they were turned on grain and alfalfa stubble and mixed pasture of late seeding. No yards were available for enclosing the band at night until October 29th, and as a result three head were killed by coyotes. One lamb weighing 65 pounds died of pneumonia October 29th. This left 509. The yards were bedded six inches deep with straw from the Station Farm October 29th, and the lambs sorted, divided and weighed. They were found to be a mixed lot cut back from tops sent to eastern mar- kets. In the band were found 25 head of close fleeced, blocky lambs showing a preponderance of Merino blood ; 294 big framed, long wooled lambs of both Lincoln and Cotswold crosses; and 190 Shrop- shire grades. Of the number showing a preponderance of Merino blood, one was found to be two years old and two were yearlings. The fleeces were still damp on the 29th from rains of the 27th and 28th, and second weights were taken October 30th, which are used as initial in the tables. Lot I. consisted of 254 lambs averaging 72.9 pounds per head; Lot II. consisted of 255 lambs averaging 72.2 pounds per 16 head. Losses early in the feeding period reduced Lot I. to 251 and Lot II. to 254 lambs. Both lots were fed as much -as they would eat with a reasonable waste of bright, clean alfalfa hay. The average amount eaten daily per head was 2.4 pounds. First cutting purchased of R. Judd, in addi- tion to that grown on the Station Farm, was fed October 30th to Jan- uary 9th, after which third cutting from the Station was fed) either alone or in combination with first cutting. Accurate records were kept of hay given to each lot. Lot II. at the beginning of the experiment, showing the type of lambs fed in 1912-13. The grain rations were as follows : Lot I., three parts barley and one part oats ; Lot II., three parts wheat and one part oats. The barley and oats were of good quality bought in the surrounding country. The wheat was grown on the Station Farm, and was of excellent quality, but contained five per cent barley. The lambs in each lot were started on one-eighth of a pound per head daily, and were gradually led to the full ration of one and one-half pounds. The lambs started gaining slowly for the reason that they were not a uniform or very thrifty bunch, they had too much room and were infested with ticks. The average daily gains per Jamb were for Lots I. and II. respectively 0.26 and 0.28, or 0.05 pounds in each case under the averages of 1910-11. The wheat fed lot made 2.8 pounds per head more gain during the experiment, required 17 pounds less grain and 53 pounds less hay for 100 pounds of gain and notwithstanding a charge of ten cents per hundred for wheat over barley, made each 100 pounds of gain at a lessened cost of six cents as compared with the 17 barley fed lot. Contrary to the prediction of some sheepmen no dif- ficulty was found in getting the sheep to take the full feed of wheat and no more lambs were "off" feed or had digestive trouble than in the barley fed lot. In the financial statement for this experiment, the wheat fed lambs are found to return a gross of only $22.39 more and to net $9.13 less than the barley lot. The explanation for this slight advantage on gross returns is found in the selections of the buyer of the Carstens Packing Company. In his elimination of 23 inferior lambs, eight were taken from the barley fed lot and fifteen from the wheat lot. These cut outs were sold locally at a considerably decreased price. This elim- ination, together with a little more feed consumed by Lot II. and ten cents per hundredweight higher cost of wheat compared with barley, threw the financial balance to favor the barley fed lambs. This enabled Lot I. to net five cents more per head, or return 33 cents more per ton for hay. It is the common experience of feeders that lambs refuse the coarser and more woody stems of the alfalfa. This waste is most marked in feeding first cutting hay. A careful record was kept of all spoiled hay and stems that were not eaten by the lambs. This amounted to 5.3 tons with Lot I. and 6.6 tons with Lot II. The wheat fed lambs,, though making more rapid and more economical gains, were more fastidious and wasteful in their eating of hay. The total hay con- sumption was 73.54 tons. Of this 11.9 tons, or 16 per cent, was waste. The hay actually eaten by the lambs was 61.64 tons. Could the lambs have been induced to eat this amount up clean and it been made to pro- duce the same results, as were produced by offering the larger amount, by cutting or chopping, 11.9 tons valued at $59.50 would have been saved. The cutting, however, at $1. per ton, the price commonly charg- ed for the same, would have cost $61.64. Grinding would have been much more expensive. The conclusion is obvious, that with alfalfa hay having a farm value of from $3.50 to $6.00 per ton cutting or grinding is inadvisable and unprofitable. Four lambs were lost before grain feeding began, as already indi- cated. Two that had evidently come from the range with enlarged jaws, died soon after starting the experiment. A small lamb died from Lot I. and two medium sized lambs from Lot II. One of the two latter died from pneumonia and the other with diarrhea. The last mentioned is the only loss that might be ascribed to wheat feeding. Just before shipping another lamb was lost from Lot II. These losses account for the decrease of number of lambs in each lot as the feeding period ad- vanced. The lambs were sold to the Carstens Packing Co. of Tacoma at 7 l-2c per pound weighed up at Tacoma after cutting back 23 head as indicated before. The lambs were large and vigorous, averaging 106 18 pounds when driven from the Station Farm March 3d. They were loaded in two double decked cars spotted for the purpose and freshly sanded. Soon after the sheep were loaded evidence was found that the cars had not been properly cleaned before sanding. The lambs kicked the sand to the edge of the cars uncovering a deep ridge of ice mixed with some manure. The warmth of the sheep melted the ice and those that laid down had wet heavy fleeces and after being trampled upon lost strength rapidly. Due to this and combined with unusually warm weather for the time of the year in the valleys of Eastern Oregon 10 lambs valued at $66.20 were lost in transit. The run to Tacoma was made in good time. In the financial statement the lambs are found to have made a reasonable profit above expenses. In this list of expenses are found $90. for labor and $77. for gasoline. The extra labor came from com- bining the labor of the Caldwell Farm with the feeding experiment. The gasoline charge came from the fact that the only engine available for pumping water was several times the necessary horse power. On the farm the manure is worth the labor involved and the farm water supply is ordinarily sufficient to supply a considerable band of lambs. By eliminating these items the alfalfa hay was sold through the lambs for $11.17 per ton in Lot I. and $10.84 per ton in Lot II. Under favorable conditions the losses from coyotes and in shipping might have been avoided, giving the hay an added value in each Lot of approximately $1. per ton. The lambs were kept too long and when sold were too large to suit market conditions. Thomas Carstens of the Carstens Packing Co. wrote as follows : "While the quality of these lambs is first class, still the butchers will kick on account of their size — everybody seems to be in love with 35 to 40 pound lambs (when dressed). In fact the smaller the better they like them, as long as they are fat." The Car- stens Co. buyer pronounced the finish from small grain to be of high quality, making no distinction between the wheat fed and the barley fed results. The question is frequently asked as to whether it will pay to buy corn. The feeding of 1912-13 was successful without the use of a pound of corn. The lambs were fed by Chas. Hampson, superintendent of the Caldwell Station Farm. Mr. Hampson had fed cattle, but had no prev- ious experience with sheep. 19 TABLE III. WEIGHTS AND GAINS OF LAMB FEEDING, 1912-1913. Weighing Periods. Lot I. Lot II. No. Lambs Weight Ibs. Gain Ibs. Gain Per Head, Ibs. No. Lambs Weight Ibs. Gain Ibs. Gain ] Head, *October 15 513 34235 October 30 251 18360 254 18365 November 8 251 19515 1155 4.60 254 19440 1075 4.: November 16 251 19365 —150 0.59 254 19470 30 0.1 November 23 251 19365 00 0.00 254 19475 5 0.( November 30 251 19767 402 1.60 254 19800 325 Ij December 7 251 20136 369 1.47 254 20240 440 u December 14 251 20665 529 2.17 254 20740 500 u December 21 251 20920 255 1.02 254 21130 390 1.J December 27 251 21565 645 2.57 254 21895 765 3.( January m 6 251 21565 00 0.00 254 21950 55 OJ January 14 251 22460 895 3.56 254 22840 890 3.1 January 23 251 23120 660 2.63 253 23565 725 2.\ January 30 251 23515 395 1.57 253 24200 635 2.1 February 8 251 24670 1155 4.60 253 25130 930 3J February 15' 251 24815 145 0.58 253 25405 275 l.C February 22 251 25885 1070 4.26 253 26380 975 3.8 March 1 251 26250 365 1.45 252 26850 470 1.8 *Weighed up at the Scott Anderson Ranch 20 miles from Boise, Idaho, wi 5 per cent allowance for shrink deducted. 20 TABLE IV. SUMMARIZED RESULTS OF LAMB FEEDING, 1912-1913. Information Column Lot 1-251 lambs fed barley three parts, oats one part. Lot 11-254 lambs fed wheat three parts, oats one part. Weights in pounds Weights in pounds Total weight, beginning 18360 18365 Average weight, beginning.... Total final weight 73.2 26250 72.3 26850 Average final weight 104.6 1065 Total gains 7890 8485 Average gain per lamb 31.4 34.2 Days fed 122 122 Average daily gain per lamb Barley fed 0.26 23388 0.28 Wheat fed 23708 Oats fed 7828 7953 Alfalfa hay fed 73095 74090 Grain for 100 Ibs. gain 396 379 Hay for 100 Ibs. gain 926 873 Cost of grain $312.16 $340 32 Cost of hay 182.74 185.23 Total cost of feed 49490 52555 Cost of feed for 100 Ibs. gain 6.27 6.19 FINANCIAL STATEMENT— EXPERIMENT 1912-1913 Cash Receipts: Lot I. Lot II. 238 Lambs, net weight 22645 pounds, 232 Lambs, net weight 22515 pounds, 6 Lambs, net weight 559.5 pounds, 11 Lambs, net weight 1025 pounds, 2 Lambs, net weight 130 pounds, @ 5c 4 Lambs, net weight 260 pounds, @ 5c ........ $1698.37 ST/2c ............ 30.77 6.50 $1688.63 56.40 13.00 Total $1735.64 $1758.03 21 Expenditures : Cost, Lambs $ 855.06 $ 856.69 Cost, driving overland 6.10 6.10 Labor 45.00 45.00 Gasoline for pumping 38.50 38.50 Cost, grain fed October 30-March 1 312.16 312.16 Cost, hay fed October 30-March 1 182.74 185.23 Cost, additional grain 6.50 6.45 Cost, additional hay 5.50 5.50 Cost, feed at LaGrande 2.90 2.90 Cost, feed at North Portland 15.85 15.84 Cost, feed at Tacoma 2.90 2.90 Expense Bill, man in charge 3.00 3.00 Freight .... 117.35 116.65 Total . ....$1593.56 $1625.08 Net Profit $ 142.08 $ 132.95 Net Profit per lamb. 0.57 0.52 Price received per ton for hay 8.89 8.56 Proft per lamb, excluding labor and gasoline charges 0.90 0.85 Price received per ton for hay, excluding labor and gasoline charges 11.17 10.84 SHKINKAGE Shrinkage, Caldwell Station Farm to Tacoma, Washington, counting dead lambs 11.2 per cent Shrinkage on live lambs, Caldwell Station Farm to Tacoma, Washington 9.6 per cent CONCLUSIONS The following are prominent among the conclusions that may be drawn from the two experiments : 1. Idaho lambs, even of the "cut back" type, can in favorable years be used as a means of profitably marketing alfalfa hay, giving it a farm value of from $9. to $15. per ton. 2. The small grains of Idaho can be profitably fed to lambs, pro- ducing a well fattened lamb. 3. Methods of handling and market conditions are a big factor in determining the measure of success in lamb feeding. 4. Cutting or grinding of hay for lambs is not warranted by pre- vailing prices for alfalfa in most sections of the state. 5. Wheat combined with some oats is a safe feed for lambs and produces more rapid gains and requires less pounds for a given amount of gain as compared with barley. 22 6. Lambs should be marketed if possible when comparatively light. Above 95 Ibs. is objectionable. 7. Experiment I. indicates that a somewhat more rapid and a little cheaper gains can be obtained from a preponderance of Shropshire as compared with Lincoln blood. SELECTION OF THE FARM FLOCK GRADES FOR FOUND ATION Those who expect to follow Sheep Husbandry successfully must have as much special knowledge and training as for any other business. Sheep differ decidely in habits and temperament from all other animals, and skill acquired with horses, cattle or hogs is not of much value as applied to sheep. The first problem in successful Sheep Husbandry is the selection of the flock. A great many farmers now have the laudable ambition to handle pure-bred animals. If a beginner or having but limited experience with sheep, it is wisest to select grade ewes for a foundation. A bunch of good grade ewes can ordinarily be bought from the range very rea- sonably. The use of a good ram, of one of the breeds that combines a good fleece with a well developed mutton form, rapidly improves and makes the flock uniform and entirely creditable for farm use. There is a field also for the pure-bred farm flock. As the advantages of sheep on the farm are more thoroughly understood and more widely appreciated there will be calls for both pure-bred ewes and rams, at such prices as will yield the producer a substantial profit. Success with a pure-bred flock requires considerable outlay for foundation stock, some knowledge of the principles of animal breeding and some skill in advertising and disposing of surplus animals. Inferior ewes, such as can be obtained very cheaply and are weeded out because of spoiled bags, broken mouths or infertility, should not be chosen for any part of a breeding flock at any price. These should pass along to the butcher. Unless ewe lambs are dropped in late winter or very early spring and have made good growth they should not be bred until yearlings. Ewes are at their best as producers at from three to five years old. Many retain their breeding powers and their teeth until eight to ten years of age. Some lose or break their teeth, pre- venting proper mastication of food, at five or six years of age and should be discarded from the flock. Five points to be especially sought for in choosing ewes are, deep bodies, wide, level and straight backs, strong legs, fine fleeces covering the body evenly and thoroughly and feminine heads. PURE-BRED RAMS The ram should always be a pure-bred. Neither the range flock- master nor the farmer can make any progress in flock improvement, or even keep the flock up to its normal, when using scrub or grade rams. In addition to being purely bred the ram should be an excellent indi- vidual. The measure of profit in selling lambs is determined by their size for age, conformation and condition. Starting with grade ewes, improvement in size, conformation and early maturity and more desir- able feeders may be secured most cheaply by using a good ram on the ewes already at hand if they are vigorous and good milkers. The desirable ram should be long, deep, thick, lowset, with a straight, strong back, and should be well developed in all the details of mutton conformation. In addition, he should have style, vigor, masculine bearing, and should conform as closely as possible to the standards set for his breed. Since ewe lambs are generally retained to supply losses, and being important to the flock, considerable emphasis must be laid on the ram's fleece. Mutton should be the more important side to sheep raising on the farm, but wool must not be neglected. The farm flock should shear seven to ten pounds per head. MERINO TYPES Sheep are naturally divided into two main classes or divisions, one of them especially adapted for wool and the other best suited for mutton production. The Merino breeds and strains comprise the wool division in which mutton is a minor consideration. These sheep are rather long legged, lack in depth of body, are flat in the rib, sharp of the shoulder and narrow in the back, have comparatively long necks and coarse heads and lack in loin, leg of mutton, and in general fall materially short of the ideals of mutton conformation. These sheep, however, excel in wool, bearing fleeces two and one-half to four inches long, very dense and compact, very fine of fiber, kept moist and made much heavier by a yolk or grease exuded by the skin of the sheep. This kind of wool is the finest and for most purposes the best that comes from any type or breed. The Merino strains are hardy, flock well together on the range, make wonderfully good use of scanty feed and as a rule are good mothers. The common breeds are Spanish Merino, American Merino, Delaine Merino and Rambouillet. As pure-breds, the Rambouillets only are of much importance in Idaho. THE RAMBOUILLET The Rambouillets, frequently designated as French Merino, are of Spanish Merino descent, the original flock having been taken from Spain to France in 1783. They get their name from the Royal Farm at Rambouillet near Paris. Since the establishment of the flock at Ram- bouillet, this sheep has been bred for size and mutton form, at the same time insisting on length and fineness of fiber and weight of fleece. In 24 Idaho the grade ewes, and in many cases, pure-breds not registered, are handled on the range, and are popular for this purpose because of grazing and flocking qualities of the Merino origin. Pure-bred rams are used for crossing on grade ewes that have acquired too high a per- eentage of the blood of mutton breeds to best meet the requirements of the flockmaster. Some farmers find pure-bred Rambouillet flocks profitable, selling the male offspring for use on the range. Rambouillet ram sold during the Butterfield Live Stock Co. Sale, Weis-er, Idaho, September, 1912 for $1000. Courtesy Shepherd's Journal The popular type of Rambouillet today is smooth bodied with the exception of a few folds on the neck, and better developed in mutton qualities than any of the other Merino types. The frame is large, bone heavy, body quite deep, well developed in back, loin and leg of mutton. The legs are rather long and the mutton form is hardly to be com- pared with the special mutton breeds. The average weight .for rams is 185 to 200 pounds, with more growthy ones sometimes making 100 pounds more. Ewes average 150 to 160 pounds. The ewes are polled 25 and practically all rams have large horns with spiral curves. The wool is of medium length and fineness sacrificed in many cases to secure size and smoothness of body. The rams shear 16 to 20 pounds, and the ewes 10 to 14 pounds. Rambouillet ewes are prolific and good mothers. Some authors recommend this breed for fall and early winter lambs. This statement is confirmed by experience with ewes of the breed in the University of Idaho flock. The Rambouillet ewes were with the rams for a short time in early May, 1912, and four ewes dropped six lambs in October. Lambs that are dropped in the fall, if made to grow rapidly and fatten- ed, sell for "hot house" or "Christmas" lambs. These lambs return a big profit if one is located near a city where a satisfactory market for the same can be secured. Southdown ewe owned by the University of Idaho, champion ewe of the breed at the Oregon and Washington State Fairs and the Spokane Inter- state Fair, 1912. MUTTON BREEDS The mutton types are almost entirely of British origin and are divided into "medium wool" or "down breeds" and "long wool breeds." The low hills which are a common feature of the landscape in Sussex, 26 Kent and Hampshire counties, England, and are covered with short, fine grass, and largely underlaid with chalk are called Downs. Hence the designation, "Down breeds," for the dark faced breeds of sheep that have reached high excellence for mutton purposes in those regions. Thirty-nine distinct breeds of sheep are recognized by the Royal Show, the leading live stock exhibition of England, but only five are gen- erally bred and popular in Idaho. These are the Shropshire, Hamp- shire and Oxford, medium wooled or Downs and the Cotswold and Lincoln belonging to the long wool type. Other breeds found in many parts of the West, but not generally popular in Idaho are the South- down and Dorset Horn. The medium wooled breeds are low-set, deep, thick, com- pact sheep, with broad heads, short faces, short necks, deep shoulders, wide sprung ribs, thick loins, full rumps, full legs and deep twists. The vigorous thick meated sheep with little evidence of roughness and waste, adapted to yielding the highest percentage of high priced cuts is the one sought for in the mutton breeds both for the market and for the show ring. Wool is important, but a secondary consideration to meat. THE SHROPSHIRE The Shropshire comes from the Midland counties of England, and is descended from an old very hardy type known as the Morfe Com- mon. The breed is widely distributed over the world and does well under such variety of conditions as to have been designated as the "cosmopolitan breed." Next to the Southdown the Shropshire nearest meets the ideals of the mutton type. Sheep of this breed are medium in size, the rams averaging 225 and the ewes 150 to 160 Ibs. The body is generally and should be long and deep and squarely set on short legs. The head is wide, the ears small, and the face refined in the ewes. The neck is short, blending smoothly into the shoulders. The back and loins are wide and well covered and the leg of mutton thick and plump. Well-bred specimens are wooled to the toes and tip of the nose, and the fleece is compact and of considerable length averaging the best combination of quality and quantity of any of the strictly mutton breeds. Rams shear 12 to 15 pounds and the ewes 8 to 12 pounds. The face and legs are brown and the fleece clear white. Well covered faces and legs are preferred, because they are usually associated with heavy fleeces of fine texture. The Shropshire has a wide reputation as a farmer's sheep. This is due to {he excellent combination of mutton form, fleece and pro- lificacy, the ewes averaging at least one and one-half lambs, and to early maturity. Gains are not so great as with some breeds, but both frame and flesh grow together bringing the lambs to marketable size and condition at an early age. The farmer can hardly go wrong in selecting Shropshire sheep. 27 Yearling Shropshire Ram bred by Knollin and Pinch, Soda Springs, Ida. This ram was first prize for his age and breed at the Utah State Fair, 1912. THE HAMPSHIRE The Hampshire is another breed adapted principally for mutton production. The sheep of this breed are descended from an old type of the same name that existed in Hampshire, England, and have been improved by the infusion of Southdown blood and by feeding and selection. The Hampshire is larger than the Shropshire by 25 to 50 pounds, is more rugged of frame and is a little more upstanding and less compact. The face is quite bare of wool. The ears and face are a characteristic blackish brown. The face is longer than that of the Shropshire. The nose inclines to be Roman and the ears are heavy, carried to the side and facing1 forward. The necks are a trifle longer than the ideal mutton standard would dictate and the shoulder blades average high and prominent. The body is deep, the back strong and broad, the rump long and the leg well developed. The bone is heavy r the entire sheep rugged and vigorous of build. The fleece is lacking 28 in length, density and quality as compared with the Shropshire. The average ewe shears 6 to 9 pounds and the ram 9 to 12. The Hampshire is now one of our most desirable farms breeds. It has popular size and in prolificacy compares well with the Shropshire. The ewes are good mothers excelling the Shropshire. The lambs make Hampshire ewe, Overbrook Honey Girl, owned by Overbrook Farms, Jerome, Ida. This ewe was champion of her breed at the Intermountain Fair, Boise, Idaho, 1911. more rapid gains than some of the smaller breeds, and either as pure- breds or grades make the most desirable kind of feeder lambs. For the last two years in Idaho Hampshire rams have been selling more readily than those of any other breed. THE OXFORD The Oxford Down sheep comes from Oxford county in central England and is the result of a Hampshire-Cotswold cross. In some characteristics the Oxford, as might be inferred from its ancestry, re- sembles the Hampshire. The Oxford, however, is larger, averaging for the rams 275 pounds and 200 pounds for the ewes, is more rangy and bigger framed in every way, the face a lighter brown, the nose with 29 less tendency to Roman and ears smaller and more erect as compared with the Hampshire. The fleece is the longest of the down breeds, covers the body well with a characteristic foretop on the poll of the head. Many of the fleeces are rather coarse and open. Oxford type as shown by prize winning animals at the International Live Stock Show, Chicago. The Oxford has size over the breeds just described, ranks with them in prolificacy and stands a little above the Shropshire in average weight of fleece. The lambs are good feeders, but hardly rank with Hampshire lambs in growthiness and with the Shropshire in early maturity. The breed makes an excellent sheep for the farm but is not as popular in Idaho as the other five mentioned. THE LONG WOOLS The long wool breeds bring size and length and weight of fleece to the farm flock. They are somewhat more leggy and rangy and are larger framed than the down breeds. On account of their size and conformation they are a little later in maturing. The matured animals tend to lay on external fat, and on account of this tendency, the car- cass is not so highly regarded by meat specialists. The wool grades as coarse combing and is long, strong and rather coarse in fiber. In most of the longer wooled breeds the wool hangs in flakes or strands. 30 THE COTSWOLD The Cotswold is one of the most popular breeds of the above described type and one of our oldest breeds of sheep, thought to have existed in England at the time of the Roman conquest. It was so named from "cots" or small houses used to shelter the sheep and "wold" or rolling upland pasture. The improving blood was Leicester. A noted Cotswold Ram, a first prize winner at the Royal Show of England. The modern Cotswold is a massive sheep of impressive bearing. The body is long and deep and the back broad and level. The head is carried stylishly and notwithstanding the size of the sheep the body is smoothly turned. The face is white or gray and the legs of the same color. The wool is long, finer than that carried by most breeds of this type and covers the body well. A marked characteristic is a foretop of spirals, which in well-bred specimens hangs almost to the tip of the nose. This breed ranks high among long wool breeds in grazing, but 31 individuals in it are sometimes found none too vigorous. They stand especially high as milkers and are consequently good mothers. Some of the Idaho sheepmen claim that Cotswolds are the best mothers of. all the breeds. On account of these qualities Cotswold blood is es- pecially desired in the 'ewes. In prolificacy the breed is average. Good flocks should shear an average of 12 to 14 pounds per head. THE LINCOLN The Lincoln is considered by many authorities to be our largest The world's most noted breeder of Lincoln sheep, the late Sir Henry Budding of England, holding one of his first prize Lincoln rams. breed of sheep. It came from the north of England and but little is known of its early history. Improvement was brought about by selec- 32 tion and the use of Leicester blood. The breed is even larger and more rugged of frame than the Cotswold. The head is somewhat coarser, the back broader and the bone heavier than that of the Cots- wold. Likewise the fleece is longer, not infrequently reaching 15 to 18 inches in length, and the fiber is coarser. The rams occasionally weigh 400 pounds and the ewes 300. The extreme weights are often accompanied by coarseness. The average is 300 pounds for mature rams and 250 to 275 for mature ewes. Ram fleeces run 16 to 22 pounds and the ewes fleeces 12 to 15. This breed lacks the spirals hang- ing from the forehead, but has a tuft in their place. Lincolns bring weight and substance and ruggedness to a flock, and are especially well adapted to the farm where plenty of feed is available. They were developed as a breed on some of the richest and best farming land in England. They also bring increased weight of fleece and length of staple. The annual increase from average ewes is 125 per cent to 135 per cent. Both Cotswolds and Lincolns are later in maturing than the .downs. Both, however, are very popular with Idaho sheepmen and have been of great value in giving size, substance and length and weight of fleece to range flocks. Both breeds do well on the farm, the Lincoln excelling in size and weight and length of fleece and Cotswolds standing first as mothers and in quality of fleece. FLOCK MANAGEMENT Iff SUMMER Mid or late summer is a good time to look out for ewes for start- ing a flock. Sheepmen at this time begin to plan for the fall and winter and decide what portion of the flock they can let go. Unthrifty ewes have as a rule not recovered from the effects of the previous winter and barren ewes can at this time be distinguished from those that have borne and are suckling lambs. The keep of the flock in summer is a light charge. They need pasture, enough of it to keep them in thrifty condition, and if suckling lambs, to keep them milking well. Pasture may be provided in waste places as suggested in the early pages of this bulletin. It may be a regular pasture of the common grasses or may be special sowed crops. Rye, peas and oats, rape and kale are examples of forages that can be sowed especially for sheep and made to yield through them excellent returns. Sheep make good use of rough feed and poor pas- tures. In this respect sheep may be easily abused. Some men's inter- pretation of "forcing the flock to rustle" is akin to starvation. When grass is available no other feed is needed or advisable, even when ewes are suckling lambs. When pastures get short and dry in late summer or fall some of the sowed pastures above mentioned or root crops should be provided. The ram in summer should be separated from the ewes and fed similarly. In the irrigated sections alfalfa has been found a dangerous pasture at times on account of causing losses from bloat. When alfalfa and clover are not irrigated they can be pastured safely with sheep if some care is exercised. Reasonable care means that the animals must not be turned into rank growing alfalfa or clover when extremely hungry, and it is safer to keep them off for a while after rains or heavy dews. Sheep can do without water with less inconvenience than any of our common farm animals. They need it, however, and should have it at regular and frequent intervals in summer. Twice per day is suffi- cient. Clean and if possible fresh water pays. The flock, if allowed! a choice, prefers to graze in early morning and late afternoon and evening, spending the heated periods of the day quietly in a shady place. Shade trees or shades permitting free air circulation suffice for this purpose. Some sort of protection from the sun is necessary, if the flock is to do well. AUTUMN PROBLEMS When cool weather comes in the fall, the ewes begin coming in heat. This is the time of all our common Idaho breeds. Dorset Horn ewes take the ram in spring and drop lambs in early fall. This is also true to a certain extent of some. Merino families. In England and some parts of America "flushing" of the ewes is practiced to pre- pare them for mating with the best results. Many ewes are in thin flesh and low in vitality after their lambs have been weaned. Flush- ing is a system of good feeding to get the ewe in vigorous condition before conception. Rape or other rich pasture is used quite widely as a feed for this purpose, and is sufficient without grain. If grain is used a small feed of oats will be found to give satisfactory results. Choice of time for breeding should depend on shelter and facilities for lambing, kinds of feed available in spring and market available or preferred for lambs. Lambing in February or March in most parts of Idaho requires shelter and adequate means of taking care of the lambs and protecting both ewes and lambs from storms. If the ewes suckle their lambs properly they must have grass or other stimulus to milk production within two weeks after lambing. In case of winter lamb- ing grains and root crops must be made to take the place of grass. It is seen, therefore, that early lambing has its undesirable features. If ram lambs are to be sold for fall service they must come early to be big enough for service, and in some communities winter or early spring lambs that can be made to weigh 50 to 60 pounds in May find ready sale at good prices. The ewe's average period of gestation is 34 147 days. The rams should be first used then twenty-one weeks pre- vious to when first lambs are wanted. The ordinary method of breeding is to permit the ram to run with the ewes during the breeding season. This results in favoritism to particular ewes and in unnecessary service. A better system is to keep the ram separate and turn him with the flock for a short time at night and in the morning. As each ewe is served she may be removed from the flock. By this system a single ram may be made to success- fully breed 80 to 100 ewes. Attention must still be paid to ewes served and separated. Some ewes pass through several periods of heat before conceiving. When the ram runs at large 'with the flock not more than 40 to 50 ewes should be allowed to each ram. During the breeding season a ram needs some grain in addition to pasture. WINTER CARE AND FEED The first problem in winter feeding is to start the ewes into the winter period in good flesh and vigorous condition. If this is done hay and various other fodders are sufficient for the greater part of the time. In some sections where corn is one of the leading crops, corn fodder with the ears removed has given quite good results, with- out grain in addition. Clover, alfalfa or other legume hays are very palatable for sheep and are a sufficient feed for the greater portion of the period of pregnancy. Root crops, silage free from mold, both in moderate amounts, give splendid results along with clover or alfalfa hay. Heavy feeding of root crops previous to lambing, it is claimed by some sheepmen, results in flabby lambs of low vitality. One of the problems of the flockmaster is to have his ewes give sufficient milk for the new lambs. Ewes fed the entire winter on dry feed, particularly true of young ewes, frequently have no milk after lambing and refuse to own their lambs. Older ewes take care of their lambs but have an insufficient milk flow. The Idaho Station was recently requested to suggest a ration for 5000 Merino ewes to over- come the trouble mentioned. It can be almost entirely overcome by light grain feeding beginning four to six weeks previous to lambing. Root crops or other succulent feed in addition are very desirable. Oats or bran and oats are to be preferred among the grains, and the daily allowance per head need not exceed one-half pound. Tightly encolsed shelters for sheep in winter are neither necessary nor advisable. The sheds or barns need first of all to be kept dry underfoot and there should be sufficient room under shelter or in out- side yards for exercise. If weather permits, a good plan is to compel the ewes to walk a reasonable distance to a field or another yard for their hay. For shed room some authorities recommend 15 square feet per sheep. The fleece keeps the body warm and the overhead protection needed is such as will keep off storms and prevent drafts. 35 In quite cold weather, if the nights are dry, sheep are found to pre- fer the open air to enclosed sheds. Where the flock varies as to size, and some are much more timid than others, good results follow dividing them into uniform bunches. The rams must be kept separate and kept in no more than good con- dition. Legume hay and one-half pound of bran and oats daily per ram is ordinarily sufficient. LAMBING Management at lambing time generally determines the measure • of success with the flock for the year. The percentage saved .is all- important and runs from 40 per cent to 150 per cent depending on feeding and management of the flock previous to lambing, time of year of lambing, equipment for taking care of the ewes and lambs and faithfulness of the work of the shepherd. In winter or early spring some shelter for night and conveniences for warming chilled and weakened lambs are required. Some ewes, especially young ones, need to be placed by them- selves for from two to four days until ewe and lamb learn to know and be able to find each other. Some lambs are born very weak and need to be rubbed to start the circulation and given warm milk and stimulants to give them a start in life. Saving of such lambs often does much to help the percentage. Orphans are common and must be placed on another ewe or raised by hand. Often by placing the skin of a dead lamb on an orphan, the mother of the former can be induced to take the latter. Other simple devices are made to serve the same end. Many fail in raising orphans by hand. The principal reason is overfeeding. The best method of feeding is with a bottle and rubber nipple. The first two or three days the cows milk should be given every two hours, at first only two or three tablespoonfuls at a feed. Milk from a high testing cow is best. The bottle and nipple must be kept clean and sanitary and the milk warmed for each feeding to about 92 degrees Fahrenheit. After lambing the ewes should have feed ample for making a strong milk flow. Some grain or grain and root crops for a few days and then grass is the common and entirely satisfactory method. If the lambs are expected to make rapid growth they should be taught to eat grain early. After grazing is good the ewes need no grain. Feeding the lambs grain is solved by making them a creep. In a separate enclosure are placed low troughs for the lambs and entrance to this place is gained by openings that admit the lambs but not the ewes. Crushed oats and bran or crushed oats and corn meal are grain combinations suited for offering lambs in a creep. 36 - OTHER SUGGESTIONS Docked lambs keep cleaner .and as fat lambs bring a higher price on the market. Docking should be done at 7 to 14 days of age. The tail should be severed with a knife or docking' pincers at a point jiibottt one and one-half inches from the body. The pincers are used hot to prevent bleeding and are favored by many shepherds of the central states. No ram lambs except pure-bred intended for breeding should be permitted to escape castration. Ram lambs gain slowly and in addition annoy other lambs in the feedlot. A good time for this work is on a bright day when the lambs, are 10 to 14 days of age. The lower third of the scrotum is cut off and the testicles pulled out. The use of one of the many common disinfectants in connection makes the operation safer. The average weaning time is at four months of age. Good pas- ture for the lambs at this time enables them to grow fast and miss their mother's milk but little. Dipping for ticks is advisable once or twice a year, and at any rate once soon after shearing. Ticks become troublesome when the fleeces are long and as soon as the wool is removed go onto the lambs. Dipping of the whole flock at this time as a rule means little trouble from ticks until the next spring. Scab has troubled in Idaho, but is now under control. 37 UNIVERSITY OF WYOMING. Agricultural College Department. WYOMING EXPERIMENT STATION, LARAMIE, WYOMING. * INTO. 73 APRIL, J907 Ration Experiments Vv itn Lambs 1905-06 By G. E. MORTON Bulletins will be sent free upon request. Address: Director Experiment Station, Laramie, Wyo. "VSTY 0 1V1I IM G Agricultural Experiment Station, UNIVERSITY OF WYOMING. BOARD OF TRUSTEES. Hon. OTTO GRAMM, President, Laramie 1909 Hon. HENRY L. STEVENS, M. D., Laramie 1009 Hon. HARRIET KNIGHT, A. B, Cheyenne 1909 Hon. JOHN C. DAVIS, Rawlins 1907 Hon. TIMOTHY F. BURKE, LL. B., Vice President, Cheyenne. . . 1007 Hon. ARTHUR C. JONES, Treasurer, Laramie 1911 Hon. ELIZABETH ARNOLD STONE, A. B., Evanston 1907 Hon. A. J. MOKLER, Casper 1911 Hon. GEORGE ABER, Sheridan 191 1 State Superintendent of Public Instruction A. D. COOK Ex-officio President FREDERICK M. TISDEL, Ph. D Ex-officio GRACE RAYMOND HEBARD, Ph. D Secretary Agricultural Committee of the Board of Trustees. H. L. STEVENS, Chairman Laramie OTTO GRAMM Laramie A. C. JONES Laramie STATION COUNCIL. F. M. TISDEL, Ph. D President B. C. BUFFUM, M. S Director, Agriculturist and Horticulturist A. NELSON, Ph. D Botanist C. B. RIDGAWAY, A. M Physicist and Meteorologist H. G. KNIGHT, A. M Chemist F. E. HEFNER, M. S Assistant Chemist G. R. HEBARD, A. M., Ph. D Secretary G. E. MORTON, M. L., B. S Animal Husbandman H. T. NOWELL, B. S. Irrig. Eng Assistant Irrigation Engineering R. E. HYSLOP, M. S Agronomist M. J. HAMILTON .Clerk and Stenographer RATION EXPERIMENTS WITH LAMBS, 1905-06. G. K. MORTON. For lamb feeding" experiments previously conducted by this Station, see Bulletins Xos. 47, 51, 64, and 68. The following problems are discussed in this bulletin : 1. The comparative feeding values of various grains fed with native hay. 2. The value of field pease grazed off. 3. The comparative feeding value of native hay and alfalfa when fed with corn. Contents. Page Introduction 3 Outline of the Experiment 4 The Lambs 4 Feeds and Feeding .' 4 Feed and Gains . . 5 Cost of 100 Pounds Gain, and Nutritive Ratio 7 Digestible Nutrients for Gain 8 Shrink and Ykld of Lambs . 9 Comparisons arid Conclusions 10 APPENDIX. Table I, Weekly Data, Lot 2 12 Table II, Weekly Data, Lot 4 12 Table III, Weekly Data, Lot 6 13 Table IV, Weekly Data, Lot 8 13 Table V, Weekly Data, Lot 10 14 Table VI, Weekly Data, Lot 12 14 Table VII, Weekly Data, Lot 14 ... 15 Table VIII, Weekly Data, Lot i 15 Table IX, Weekly Data, Lot 16 16 Table X, Feed, All Lots 16 Table XL Weights and Gains, All Lots 17 Table XII, Feed Required for Gain 17 Table XIII, Composition of the Feeding Stuffs 17 Table XIV, Digestibility of the Feeding Stuffs 18 Table XV, Digestibile Nutrients in the Feeding Stuffs. . . 18 Table XVI, Amount of Digestible Nutrients Eaten 18 Table XVII, Digestible Nutrients and Nutritive Ratio 18 LOT 2. LOT 4. LOT 6. Ration Experiments With Lambs, 1905-06. INTRODUCTION. This bulletin tells of experiments aimed to help in the solution of certain definite problems confronting sheep feeders of the State. Fattening lambs is not yet a real industry in Wyoming, although here and there an individual tries it. Feeding grain to stock sheep, however, is a rapidly growing practice, and the question of an economical ration is a very live one. Native hay has been used for so long as a winter feed for sheep that it is difficult to overcome the inertia of settled practices, and introduce the growing and feeding of alfalfa hay. And the thought of corn comes so readily to the mind of a man when he first begins to feed grain with hay, that it is difficult to convince him that home-grown grains may prove more economical than corn when fed with native hay. Every bulletin upon lamb feeding at this Station has shown results pointing to the superior value of alfalfa hay and corn compared with native hay and corn. But the labor and ex- pense of plowing up large areas of native grass sod and seed- ing to alfalfa is so great that as yet few ranchmen having large meadows are willing to do it. Also, many river and creek bottoms which produce a good tonnage of native hay are un- suited to the production of alfalfa. Thus there presents itself the problem of finding what grain ration will best round out, or balance, our native hays. This problem is the chief one considered in this bulletin. In addition to this, field peas, grazed off, are compared with alfalfa and corn in the hope that they might prove to be an economical ration. And inci- dentally, using the alfalfa and corn ration as a basis of com- parison for the other rations, alfalfa is again compared with native hav. 4 Wyoming Experiment Station. OUTLINE OF THE EXPERIMENTS. Two distinct lines of experimentation were carried out, lots 2 to 14 constituting- one group, and lots I and 16 consti- tuting another. Table A shows the plan of the experiment. TABLE A. LOT Number in Lot Average Weight per Head ROUGHAGE GRAIN RATION 2 4 6 8 10 12 5 5 5 5 6 5 63.6 83!fi 63.8 63.6 63.6 63 4 Native Hay Native Hay Native Hay Native Hay Native Hay Native Hay Oats Corn Corn, Oil Meal Oats, Oil Meal . . Barley, Oil Meal . . . Barley 14 1 16 5 100 100 . 63.4 \ f><).0 58.1 Alfalfa . Alfalfa Peas in field Com Cern Peas in field The lambs were all Shropshire-Merino cross-bred lambs, reared on the Laramie Plains. The lots in each experiment were started out on an even basis of weight and thrift. Lots 2 to 14 furnish a comparison of various grain rations fed with native hay, using corn and alfalfa as a basis of comparison. Lots i and 16 furnish a comparison of field pease with corn and alfalfa. FEEDS AND FEEDING. The native hay was from the Little Laramie Valley, and contained several species of grasses ; the following being the chief ones found in the hay :* (The grasses occurring in the greatest quantities are named first, such order following throughout.) 1. Wire grass, J linens Balticits. 2. Sedge, Car ex. 3. Alkali grass, Deschanipsia. 4. Hair grass, Sporobolus dcpaiipcratus and airoides. 5. Bull rush, Seirpns. Through the courtesy of Dr. Aven Nelson, Botanist of the Station. Ration Experiments ll'ith Lambs, 1905-06. 5 6. Horse-tail rush, Eqnisctum. 7. Bunch wheat grass, Agropyron spicatiuii. 8. Plantain, Plantago. 9. Fox-tail grass, Hordeum jubatuni. 10. Blue flag. Iris Missouricnsis. The corn, barley, and oilmeal were shipped in from west- ern Nebraska. The corn was hard and clean; the barley was a hulled variety ; and the oilmeal was old process. The oats were grown on the Laramie Plains. The alfalfa hay was grown on the Station Farm, and was first cutting. The peas were Canadian field peas, and were grown on the Station Farm. They were fed by fencing sniall areas and turning the lambs on them during the day. The feeding of all lots except the pea-fed lot was done in uncovered yards, surrounded by a high board fence. The lambs were fed all they would eat of both hay and grain. FEED AND GAINS. The gain in weight of the lambs, taken in connection with the amount of feed eaten, is the best evidence of the value of a ration. The following table gives the information desired by practical feeders : TABLE B — Feed and Gain per Head, Fourteen Weeks. LOT RATION ill AVERAGE FEED PER HEAD. LBS. 1 ?p- I Peas in field I Z U c 1 1 Oil Meal 4 li II) 1-2 14 1 id Oats and Native Hay .... Corn and Native Hay Corn, Oil Meal, Native Hay. Oats, Oil Meal, Native Hay . Barley, Oil Meal, Native Hay Barley, Native Hay Corn, Alfalfa Corn, Alfalfa Peas in^field 15.0 iji.'ls 17.4 16.8 16.0 28.6 :n.2 20.0 98. 98. 99. 100. 96. 105. . . . '84.' 85. 109. 91. '90.' n. 109. 16.4 15.1 16. :{ 167 6 Wyoming Experiment Station. LOTS 2 TO 14. Three lots were fed oats, corn, and barley, respectively, with native hay, and three others were fed the same with the addition of oilmeal. In only one instance did the oilmeal produce enough gain to pay for itself, and that was when added to the corn and native hay ration. Here four pounds additional gain were produced by the feeding of 16 pounds of oilmeal. Valuing the gain at 7 cents and the meal at 2 cents, the gain almost balances the cost of the meal. The rest of the carcass is made more valuable by the four-pound gain, but this in turn is partly offset by extra trouble in feeding. The results, therefore, do not in- dicate a proift by adding oilmeal to the various rations ; but it may be added to a corn and native hay ration with safety, and probably with a chance of profit. Comparing the gains produced by oats, corn, and barley, fed with native hay, we find that oats produced 15 pounds -gain, barley 15.8 pounds gain, and corn only 12.8 pounds gain. Alfalfa and corn, Lot 14, produced a gain of 28.6 pounds, while the best gain produced by a native hay ration was 17.4 pounds, made by the lot fed native hay, oats, and oilmeal. The alfalfa and corn lot ate two-thirds more hay than native hay lots, and one-fifth to one-fourth more grain, with the exception of the two lots fed oats, and oats and oilmeal, which ate about the same amount of grain. LOTS I AND 1 6. The alfalfa hay used was first cutting, grown on the Sta- tion Farm. The peas also were grown on the Station Farm and were the White Canadian field variety. One hundred lambs were fed for 14 weeks on 12^2 acres of peas, an average of one- eighth acre per head. The corn and alfalfa lot made a gain of 31 pounds per head, while the pea lot made only 20 pounds gain. The only means of a close comparison of the two lots is through a financial statement such as is found in the following table : LOT 8. LOT IO. LOT 12. LOT 14. CUT FROM LOT I BEFORE MARKETING. . ; CUT FROM LOT l6 BEFORE MARKETING. Ration Ii.rpcriincnts ll'ith Lambs, 1905-06. COST OF GAIX. TAP.I.K C — Cost of ioo Pounds Gain, and Xutritirc Ratio. (Compiled from Tables XII and XVII.) LOT •2 4 6 8 10 12 14 1 16 RATION Cost of 100 Ibs Gain Nutritive Ratio Nativ Xativ Nativ Nativ Nativ Nativ Alfalfa, Alfalfa, Peas in Hay, Oats . . Hay, Corn . . Hay, Corn, Oil Hay, Oats, Oil Hay. Barley. O Hay, Barley . Corn Corn . $8.89 8.48 ' 8.60 9.07 8.77 7.38 5.28 4.63 5.00 9.4 11.2 8.3 7.4 7.3 9.3 5.4 5.6 Meal . Meal il Meal field Native Hay and Alfalfa. $5 per ten. Corn, Oats and Barley, $1 per cwt. Oil Meal, $2 per cwt. Peas in field, $8 per acre. It will be seen that the cost of ioo pounds gain produced by each of the native hay rations ranges from $8.48 to $9.07, with the exception of the native hay and barley ration, which produced gain at a cost of only $7.38 for ioo pounds. This lot ate about the same amount of hay as the other lots, but ate less grain than the oats and native hay lots, and made larger gains than the corn and native hay lot. The oilmeal fed in- creased the cost of gain of all lots eating it. All the native hay rations were more costly than the corn and alfalfa, Lot 14 showing a cost for ioo pounds of gain of only $5.28. Peas in the field show a cost approximating that of corn and alfalfa. The valuation of $8.00 per acre put upon field peas is the estimated cost of production. In some localities they cannot be produced for $8.00 per acre, and in such cases the cost of gain upon the lambs would be greater. The amount of gain made by the pea-fed lambs, and the cost of gain, would indicate that peas may be »used in many localities where corn and alfalfa are difficult to get, but where land and labor may be secured at prices that will insure a rea- sonable cost of production for the peas. Wyoming Experiment Station. DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS FOR GAIN. The following table gives information of interest in con- nection with the nutritive ratio : TABLE D — Digestible Nutrients for Gain. (Compiled from Tables XI and XVII.) Lbs. Digestible Nutri- ents lor 100 Ibs. gain _o GAIN •o ^T H */ LOT RATION per Head c * e-i Ibs. * Jsv K _> o "°% *>B ."H •g 2 " o 3 CJ C- iE 2 Native Hay, Oats 15.0 85 804 9.4 4 Native Hay, Corn 12.8 83 923 11.2 6 Native Hay, Corn, Oil Meal 16.6 93 771 8.3 8 Native Hay, Oats, Oil Meal 17.4 98 722 7.4 10 Native Hay, Barley, Oil Meal 16.8 102 739 7.3 12 Native Hay, Barley 16.0 81 754 9.3 14 Alfalfa, Corn 28.fi 100 538 5.4 1 Alfalfa, Corn 31.2 106 588 5.8 Comparing the average gain per head with the nutritive ratio, we see that the gain follows the nutritive ratio very closely, becoming greater as the nutritive ratio becomes nar- rower, with the exception of Lot 12, where we find a widening of the nutritive ratio without a corresponding decrease in the gain. We learn little from the amount of nutrients eaten, save that the alfalfa-corn lot (14) in the test which included Lots 2 to 14, ate less carbohydrates and more protein than any native hay lot excepting the lot on native hay, barley, and oilmeal, which ate slightly more protein, as well as considerably more carbohydrates. Ration Experiments ll'itli Lambs, 1905-06. SHRINK AND YIELD OF LAMBS. TABLE E — Shrink and Yield of Lambs. •O s !l| W 1 '^' 1 n V LOT 55 1 B I ?ii ff .5 Ib. .81b. S, > J 1 7(1.2 Per cent. Dressec 0, C8 1 16 !>0 tops 90 tops HS.8 Ibs. 79.1 Ibs. 9. 8 Ibs. 5.t>lbs. 2.1 Ibs. 3.5 Ibs. 55.45 56.3S $7.10 7.00 ;.">:;s miles; 40; but there were nc only water available from it. ambs were unloaded and fed at North Platte, Neb., 11 hours of the > facilities for feeding; the alfalfa hay was stemmy and bleached and the was in a cattle trough so high that few of the lambs would attempt to drink This table is of considerable interest, because it shows the shrink of lambs shipped by rail. The lambs were shipped from Laramie to Omaha, a distance of 576 miles. They were un- loaded once, as required by the 28-hour law, the unloading point being Grand Island, Nebraska. The lambs were fed there, pea hay having been taken along for the pea-fed lot and alfalfa and corn bought on the ground for the alfalfa and corn- fed lambs. There were no facilities for feeding or watering, the corn being scattered on the ground, and water being sup- plied in a high trough, for which a sloping platform was im- provised, in order that the lambs might reach the water. Although very thirsty, many lambs refused to drink because of their fear for the platform. The best alfalfa hay that could be secured was very coarse stemmed and bleached by rains. The lambs scarcely touched it. Under such circumstances the unloading of the lambs is much more cruel than would be the continuance of the run to a point having proper facilities for their care in the yards. The author of this bulletin accom- panied the lambs to market and took personal charge of them, and does not hesitate to say that unloading lambs at the end of 24 to 36 hours, as required by law, often involves more cruelty to animals than would a continuance of the run. If live stock is to be unloaded at set intervals of time, proper feed yards should be furnished close enough together so that io Wyoming Experiment Station. the stock can be well cared for when they are unloaded. Oth- erwise the law must frequently work hardship. The heavier lot of lambs, fed corn and alfalfa, lost much more weight on the trip than the pea-fed lambs. From Lar- amie to Valley, 538 miles, the corn and alfalfa lambs lost 9.8 pounds each, while the pea-fed lambs lost 5.6 pounds each. The heavy shrink of the corn and alfalfa lot was undoubtedly due to their fat condition, inasmuch as they had gained 11.2 pounds more weight during the experiment than the pea-fed lambs. At Valley, Nebraska, the lambs were again unloaded and fed native hay and wheat screenings. The corn and alfalfa lambs took on, a "fill" of 2.1 pounds, while the pea-fed lambs gained 3.5 pounds. Between Valley and Omaha, a distance of 38 miles, the lambs shrank one-half and four-fifths pound, respectively. The two lots of lambs sold on the market with a spread of io cents per cwt., the pea-fed lambs bringing less than the other lot because they carried less fat. According to the fig- ures furnished by the Cudahy Company, the corn and alfalfa lambs dressed 55.45 per cent, while the pea-fed lambs dressed 55.35 per cent — a very slight difference. The carcasses of the two lots of lambs were inspected on the hooks", and it was very easy to distinguish them. The flesh of the pea-fed lambs was less firm than that of the other lot and the carcasses hung limp on the hooks. They also showed considerable less fat over the loin and ribs, and around the tail and kidneys. SOME COMPARISONS AND CONCLUSIONS. Lot 2 — Native hay, oats. Lot 4 — Native hay, corn. Lot 6 — Native hay, corn, oil meal. Lot 8 — Native hay, oats, oil meal. Lot io — Native hay, barley, oil meal. Lot 12 — Native hay, barley. Lot 14 — Alfalfa, corn. Ration K.vpcriments ll'itfi Lambs, 1905-06. II None of the native hay rations were as satisfactory as corn and alfalfa. Hulled barley and native hay proved to be the most eco- nomical of the native hay rations. Oil meal, feel with native hay and grain, increases the cost of gain, although it produces slightly greater gains than native hay and grain without oil meal. When fed with corn and native hay, it produces enough greater gains to make the ration practically equal in cost to the native hay and corn ration, and the extra degree of fatness in the lambs brings a better price in the market. Xative hay and corn is shown by this test, and by another test published in Bulletin Xo. 68, to be unsatisfactory as a lamb feeding ration. Lot i — Alfalfa, corn. Lot 1 6 — Peas in field. Field peas, grazed off, showed returns approximately equaling the returns from feeding alfalfa and corn, with the pease valued at $8 per acre, alfalfa at $5 per ton, and corn at $i per cwt. ; although the alfalfa and corn lambs gained abQUt one-half more than the pea lambs. The corn and alfalfa lambs, which were n pounds per head heavier than the pea lambs when shipped, shrank 4.2 pounds more than the pea lambs in a railroad run of 538 miles. The law requiring the unloading of live stock at the end of 28 or 36 hours works a hardship in many cases, because the stock is unloaded at stock yards where there are not proper facilities for the care of the stock. This could be remedied by the placing of well equipped fee'ding yards at more fre- quent intervals. 12 Wyoming Experiment Station. TAIH.K 1 — Weekly Data, Lot 2. ( Five lambs in lot.) WEIGHT Ibs. GAIN Ibs. Average Gain per Head Ibs. FEED, LHS. Native Hay Oats Beginning 318 First Week 326 8 1.6 35. 23 75 Second Week 337 11 2.2 37. 32.25 Third Week 351 14 2.8 35. 36. Fourth Week 342 g —1.8 35. 38 . Fifth Week 351 9 1.8 35. 3(5 . 25 Sixth Week 365 14 2.8 39.5 42. Seventh Week .... 367 2 .4 38. 42.5 Eighth Week - 372 5 1. 34.5 45.5 Ninth Week . 382 10 2. 34. 48.5 Tenth Week 380 2 — .4 28.5 43.75 Eleventh Week . . . 381 1 .2 35. 40.5 Twelfth Week 383 •> .4 35. 36. Thirteenth Week .... 388 5 1. 35. 40.5 Fourteenth Week .... 393 5 1. 35. 38.5 75 15 491.5 544.00 TABLE II— Weekly Data, Lot 4. (Five lambs in lot.) WEIGHT Ibs. GAIN Ibs. Av. Gain per Head Ibs. FEED LBS. Native Hay Corn Beginning First week 319 317 -2' — .4 35 21 Second week 328 11 2.2 29 28.75 Third week 333 J> 1 35 24 Fourth week 323 —10 2 35 23.5 Fifth week 320 -3 -.6 35 21 Sixth week 335 5 3 39 5 25 5 Seventh week 344 19 1.8 38 32.5 Eighth week 350 6 1.2 ' 35 35 Ninth week 359 9 1.8 35 35.73 Tenth week 363 4 .8 36 38.5 Eleventh week . . 360 —3 — .6 35 30.5 Twelfth week 372 12 2.4 35 34.5 Thirteenth week ... 378 6 1.2 35 36 Fourteenth week .... 383 5 1 35 35 64 12.8 491.5 420.5 Ration Experiments ll'ith Lambs, 1905-06, TABLE III— Weekly Data, Lot 6. (Five lambs in lot.) WEIGHT Ibs. GAIN ibs. Av. Gain per Head Ibs. FEED, LBS. Native Hay Corn Oil Meal Beginning 319 First week 322 3 .6 35 17.5 1.75 Second week 337 15 3 37 29 4.31 Third week 344 r* 1.4 35 31.5 4.37 Fourth week 337 — 7 —1.4 35 29 4.75 Fifth week 327 -10 -2 32.5 22.5 5.44 Sixth week 351 24 4.8 39.5 27.75 6.13 Seventh week .... 356 5 1 38 27.75 6.13 Eighth week 360 4 .8 35 35 Ninth week 370 10 2 35 35 Tenth week 370 0 0 35 35 Eleventh week 371 1 .2 35 33 Twelfth week 390 19 3.8 35 34.5 Thirteenth week 395 5 1 35 35 Fourteenth week 402 7 1.4 35 35 7 83 16.6 497 427.1 81. HX . TABLE IV— Weekly Data, Lot 8. (Five lambs in lot.) WEIGHT Ibs. GAIN Ibs. Av. Gain per Head Ibs. FEED, LBS. Native Hay Oats Oil Meal Beginning . 318 First week 327 9 1.8 35 21.5 1.75 Secand week 344 17 3.4 37 30 4.00 Third week 346 2 .4 35 32.5 4.37 Fourth week 342 —4 -.8 35 34.5 4.88 Filth week 345 3 .6 35 35 6.13 Sixth week 358 13 • 2.6 39.5 35 6.13 Seventh week 363 5 38 35.25 6.13 Eighth week 365 2 .4 35 38.5 Ninth week 370 :> 1 35 41.5 Tenth week 382 12 2.4 35 42 Eleventh week 382 0 0 35 42 Twelfth week 392 10 2 35 42 Thirteenth week .... 399 7 1.4 35 42 Fourteenth week .... 405 6 1.2 35 42 7 87 17.4 499.5 513.75 75.30 Wyoming Experiment Station. TABLE V— Weekly Data, Lot w. (Five lambs in lot.) WEIGHT Ibs. GAIN Ibs. Av. Gain per Head Ibs. FEED, Lus. Native Hay Barley Oil Meal Beginning .*' . 318 First week 328 10 9 36 20.25 1.75 Second week 332 4 .8 37.5 29 4.:;i Third week 342 10 2 :)5 29.75 4.3S Fourth week 334 —8 -1.6 35 32.5 4.75 Fifth week 348 14 2.8 30 34.5 11.12 Sixth week 365 17 3.4 39.5 35 (1.12 Seventh week . ... 359 —6 -1.2 38 24 5 Eighth week Ninth week 365 376 6 11 1.2 2 2 35 35 35 35 Tenth week :J7S 2 .4 36 35 Eleventh week 375 —3 — .6 35 35 Twelfth week 392 17 3.4 35 35 Thirteenth week .... 395 3 .6 35 36 Fourteenth week 402 7 1.4 35 35 84 16.8 495 450 81 43 TABLE VI— Weekly Data, Lot 12. (Five lambs in lot.) WEIGHT Ibs. GAIN Ibs. Av. Gain per Head Ibs FEED, LBS. Native Hay Barley Beginning 317 First week 328 11 2.2 36 23 337 g I 8 37 3° 25 Third week 342 5 1 :*5 Fourth week 328 —14 -2.8 35 30.5 Fifth week 330 2 .4 35 28.75 Sixth week 349 19 3.8 39.5 32.25 Seventh week 358 9 1.8 41 35 Eighth week 363 5 1 37.5 35 Ninth week 365 2 .4 35 35 Tenth week 355 —10 —2 35 36 Eleventh week 371 16 3.2 36 36 Twelfth week 389 18 3.6 40.5 35 Thirteenth week .... 390 1 .2 41 35 Fourteenth week .... 397 7 1.4 42 36 80 16 523.5 459.75 Ration Experiments ll'ith -Lambs, 1905-06. TABLE VII— Weekly Data, Lot 14. (Five lambs in lot.) WEIGHT GAIN Av. Gain FEED LBS. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Alfalfa Corn 317 First week 812 ,, J 86 21.26 Second week 330 IS 3.6 n 32.5 Third week 336 8 1.2 42 35 Fourth week 342 I 1.2 43 32.75 Fifth week 350 8 1.6 52 37 Sixth week 384 34 8.8 66 38.5 Seventh week 385 1 2 70 38.5 Eighth week 39() • 5 1 70 42 Ninth week 405 15 8 70 42 Tenth week 415 10 2 70 45 Eleventh week 425 10 2 70 45.5 Twelfth week 444 19 3.8 70 4;>.:> Thirteenth week 455 11 2.2 70 4.-).r, Fourteenth week 460 5 1 70 45.5 143 28.6 836 546.5 TABLE VIII— Weekly Data, Lot i. (One hundred lambs in lot.) WEIGHT Ibs. GAIN Ibs. Av. Gain per Head Ibs. FEED, LBS. Alfalfa Corn Beginning 5899 First week 6072 173 1.73 980 320 Second week 6408 336 3.36 1120 513 Third week ... 6727 319 3.19 1195 564 Fourth week 6750 23 .23 1312 (566 Fifth week 6953 203 2.03 1400 730 Sixth week 7275 322 3.22 1490 700 Seventh week 7W5 330 3.30 1540 700 Eighth week 7751 146 1.46 1540 700 Ninth week 7813 62 .62 1670 700 Tenth week 7913 100 1.00 1800 700 Eleventh week Ban tu 2.9« 1820 700 Twelfth week 8673 363 3.63 1820 700 Thirteenth week 8864 292 2 92 1820 724 Fourteenth week 9023 159 1.59 1820 700 3124 31.24 21327 9117 i6 Wyoming Experiment Station. TABLE IX— Weekly Data, Lot 16. (One hundred lambs in lot.) WEIGHT Ibs. GAIN Ibs. Av. Gain per Head Ibs. FEED Beginning First week Second week Third week Fourth week Fifth week Sixth week 5W7 5718 5900 6041 6465 6435 (>496 '-89' 182 141 424 —30 61 — .89 1.82 1.41 4.24 -.30 61 12K acres of Peas. Seventh week Eighth week Ninth week Tenth week Eleventh week Twelfth week 6961 7017 7143 7264 7446 7648 4C>5 56 126 121 182 OQ9 4. (55 .56 1.26 1.21 1.82 •> o? Laramie Plains Thirteenth week Fourteenth week • . . 7749 7805 101 56 1.01 .56 1998 19.98 TABLE X—Feed, All Lots. (Compiled from Tables I to IX.) Total Feed for 14 weeks, Ibs. Average Feed Per Head. 14 weeks, Ibs. 3 1 V >> •= 25 H — a .> « a J « S i= > a - I « ~ 'Jr^ o o IB rt ^ 5 rt — . w rt ^ rt 2 < * o 35 O O < ^ u 25 O I 2 5 491.5 544 98.3 108.8 4 5 491.5 420.5 98.3 84.1 6 5 497 427.1 81.88 99.4 85.4 It) 3S 8 5 499.5 513.75 75.39 99.9 102.75 15.08 10 5 495 450 81 43 99 0 9() 1H 2S 12 5 523.5 459.8 104.7 91.95 14 5 836 546.5 167.2 109.3 1 100 21,327 9,117.0 213.27 91.17 1(5 100 Peas in field, 12^ acres 1 sucrc Ration Experiments ll'ith Lambs, 1905-06. TAP.I.K X\—U'eiglits and Gains. .Ill Lots. (Compiled from Tables I to IX.) LOT No. in Lot Initial Weight Ibs. Closing Wt Ibs. Total Gain Ibs. Average Gain per Head, Ibs. •> .-) 318 393 75 15.0 4 5 • 319 383 64 12.8 6 ."> 319 402 83 16.6 8 5 318 405 87 17.4 10 r> 318 402 S4 16.8 12 :> 317 307 80 16.0 14 5 317 460 143 28.6 1 100 5899 0689 3124 31.24 16 100 5807 7805 1998 19.98 TABLE XII — Feed Required for Gain, All Lots. (Compiled from Tables X and XI.) 2 4 t; x 10 12 14 1 16 RATION GAIN per Head Pounds Feed for 100 pounds Gain -o & c I CU Ha <2 < V i* £* O >-, £ 1 a tt 0 7.25 1 «)1 Oil Meal Oats and Native Hay Corn and Native Hay Corn, Oil Meal, Native Hay . . Oats, Oil Meal, Native Hay . . Barley, Oil Meal, Native Hay . Barley. Native Hav Corn, Alfalfa . . .' Corn, Alfalfa Peas in field 15.0 12.8 16.6 17.4 16.8 16.0 28.6 31.2' °0 0 5s84 6.82 6.55 7.67 5.98 5 74 6.56 5.14 9.8 8.6 9.7 5.89 6.54 3.82 2.92 5.36 5.75 TABLE XIII — Composition of Feeding Stuffs. Crude Protein Crude Fibre N itrogen Free Extract Ether Extract * Alfalfa f Native Hay (mixed grasses) t Corn t Barley t Oats 16.45 3.44 9.25 12.44 9.69 29.78 30.82 2.03 5.80 11.59 35.13 45.95 71.92 66.72 50.96 1.94 2.17 4.33 2.01 6.92 * Bulletin 69, Wyoming Experiment Station. f Analyses by F. E. Hepner, Assistant Chemist, Wyoming Experiment Station. i8 Wyoming Experiment Station. TABLE XIV— Digestibility of the Feeding Stuffs. Crude Crude Nitrogen Ether Protein Fibre Free Extract Extract * Alfalfa 76 44 72 36 * Native Hay (mixed grasses) 56 70 68 42 t Corn 76 58 93 86 \ Barley 70 50 92 89 % Oats 78 20 76 • s:5 * Bulletin 69, Wyoming Experiment Station. t Zusammensetzung der Fuettermittel, Dietrich and Koenig. I Mentzel and Lengerke's Landn. Kalender for 1898, through Henryvs Feeds and Feeding TABLE XV — Digestible Nutrients in the Feeding Stuffs. (Compiled from Tables XIII and XIV.) DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN 100 LBS. Protein Carbohydrates Ether Ext. Alfalfa i]l 12.5 38.4 7 Native Hay (mixed ffrasses) . . 4.7 52 8 9 Corn 7.0 68:1 3". 7 Barley 8.7 64. 3 1 s Oats 7.6 47.9 5.7 * Oil Meal 29. 3 32.7 7.0 * From Henry's Feeds and Feeding. TABLE XVI — Amount of Digestible Nutrients Eaten, Fourteen Weeks. (Compiled from Tables X and XV.) LOT PROTEIN CARBOHYDRATES ETHER EXTRACT 2 64.44 520.09 34.45 4 52.54 545.87 19.00 6 77.25 580.05 25.01 8 84.61 534.47 39.07 10 86.31 577.34 18.05 12 64.60 572.03 12.99 14 142.76 705.45 26.74 f 1 3304.07 15566.24 1167.88 TABLE XVII — Digestible Nutrients and Nutritive Ratio. (Compiled from Table XVI.) LOT PROTEIN CARBOHYDRATES AND FATS (Factor 2.4) NUTRITIVE RATIO 2 64 603 9.4 4 53 591 11.2 6 77 (>40 8.3 8 &5 628 7.4 10 86 621 7.3 12 65 603 9.3 14 143 770 5.4 1 3304 18369 ,5.6 UNIVERSITY OF WYOMING. Agricultural College Department. WYOMING EXPERIMENT STATION, LARAMIE, WYOMING. NO. OO. APRIL, J906. Digestion Experiments With Weth,ers, Alfalfa and Native Hay* BY THE CHEMISTS AND ANIMAL HUSBANDMAN. Bulletins will be sent free upon request. Address: Director Experiment Station, Laramie, Wyo. Agricultural Experiment Station. UNIVERSITY OF WYOMING. BOARD OF TRUSTEES. Hon. OTTO GRAMM, President, Laramie 1909 Hon. HENRY L. STEVENS, M. D., Laramie 1909 Hon. HARRIET KNIGHT, A. B., Cheyenne 1909 Hon. JOHN C. DAVIS, Rawlins _, . .1907 Hon. TIMOTHY F. BURKE, LL. B., Vice President, Cheyenne. . .1907 Hon. ARTHUR C. JONES, Treasurer, Laramie 1905 Hon. ELIZABETH ARNOLD STONE, A. B, Evanston 1905 Hon. A. J. MOKLER, Casper 1905 Hon. GEORGE ABER, Sheridan 1905 Stats Superintendent of Public Instruction T. T. TYNAN Ex-officio President FREDERICK M. TISDEL, Ph. D Ex-officio GRACE RAYMOND HEBARD, Ph. D .Secretary Agricultural Committee of the Board of Trustees. H. L. STEVENS, Chairman Laramie OTTO GRAMM .Laramie A. C. JONES Laramie STATION COUNCIL. F. M. TISDEL, Ph. D President B. C. BUFFUM, M. S Director, Agriculturist and Horticulturist A. NELSON, Ph. D Botanist C. B. RIDGAWAY, A. M Physicist and Meteorologist H. G. KNIGHT, A. M Chemist F. E. HEPNER, M. S Assistant Chemist G. R. HEBARD, A. M, Ph. D Secretary G. E. MORTON, M. L., B. S Animal Husbandman H. T. NOWELL, B. S. Irrig. Eng Assistant Irrigation Engineering E. L. CASE Stenographer Digestion Experiments With Wethers Alfalfa and Native Hay. BY HENRY G. KNIGHT AND FRANK E. HEFNER, CHEMISTS, AND G. E. MORTON, ANIMAL HUSBANDMAN. POPULAR DISCUSSION OF DIGESTION EXPERI- MENTS AND PRACTICAL FEEDING. The value of a feed lies in its composition and in its diges- tibility. Timothy hay contains on the average about six per cent of protein or nitrogen constituents, the protein being used by animals for the formation of the organic part of bones, muscles, internal organs, etc. Eastern and western analyses show that alfalfa hay contains about 14 per cent of protein, or more than twice as much as timothy hay. So far as composi- tion goes, then, alfalfa is in this respect worth twice as much as timothy. But chemical composition is not everything. Oat straw and sawdust both contain cellulose or crude fiber, but the crude fiber of straw is largely digestible, while the crude fiber of sawdust is practically indigestible. In order to know, then, the comparative feeding value of two feeds, we must know their digestibility as well as their composition. NUTRIENTS. Three classes of constituents of a feed are digested by animals and are known as nutrients. These nutrients are : Protein (nitrogen compounds). Carbohydrates (starches, sugars, fiber, etc.). Fats (fats, oils, etc.). Wyoming Experiment Station. The percentages of these nutrients that are digested by an animal are found in the following manner : A weighed amount of feed is given the animal, a sample of the feed being analyzed. The dung voided during the feeding period is also weighed and analyzed, and the difference between the amount of each nutrient fed and the amount voided is necessarily the amount digested. THE NUTRITIVE RATIO. Carbohydrates and fats perform very much the same work in the animal economy, save that a given amount of fat will do about 2.4 times the work that the same amount of carbo- hydrates will do. So the amount of digestible fat in a feed is usually multiplied by 2.4 and added to the digestible carbo- hydrates. The proportion of the digestible protein to the di- gestible carbohydrates and fat is then expressed by a ratio, the amount of digestible protein being taken as a unit. For example, if there is 10 per cent of digestible protein in a feed and 50 per cent of digestible carbohydrates, the nutritive ratio is said to be 1 15. TABLES OP DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS. Enough analyses have been made and enough digestion experiments carried on so that tables have been prepared show- ing the average percentages of digestible nutrients in various feeding stuffs. Such tables may be found in any standard work on the feeding of live stock. These tables appear as follows : NAME OF FEED Dry matter in 100 Ibs. Digestible Nutrients in 100 Ibs. Protein Carbo- hydrates Fats Nutritive ratio Alf ilfa-. 91. 0 11 39.6 1.2 1:3.9 This table indicates that in feeding 100 pounds of alfalfa hay, 92 pounds of dry matter are fed, containing 52 pounds of digestible nutrients, with a nutritive ratio of i 13.9. One thing Digestion Experiments ll'ith I Tethers. more is necessary, however. In addition to knowing the per- centages of digestible nutrients in any feed or ration, we must know the total amount in weight of these nutrients required by the animal for the most economical returns. A great many feeding experiments have been conducted with this end in view, and the results of these experiments have been embodied in tables called Feeding Standards, which show the amount of digestible nutrients to be fed the various classes of domestic animals each day per 1,000 pounds of live weight. An ex- ample of such a feeding standard is given below : FEEDING STANDARD FOR FARM ANIMALS. ( WOLFF-LEHMANN. ) ANIMAL Fattening sheep. Per day per 1,000 pounds live weight Dry matter Digestible nutrients Protein Carbo- hydrates Fats Nutritive ratio 30 3.0 15.0 0.5 1:5.4 Such standards, of course, cannot be taken as absolutely accurate, because individual animals and groups of animals vary in their food requirements and because average analyses of feeds must be used, while the actual feed used will not more than approximate an average analysis. The standards, how- ever, come very near to the needs of most animals, and a ration compounded according to the standard can easily be varied to suit the needs of the animals on feed in any par- ticular instance, while a ration which does not approach the standard in quantity or composition will almost surely fail to produce the best results obtainable. The error due to the use of average analyses in the com- pounding of rations is overcome to some extent for some Wyo- ming fodders in this bulletin. Analyses made at this station of some of our forage plants show that they differ markedly in composition from eastern forage plants. The experiments re- ported in this bulletin give new analyses and percentages of 6 Wyoming Experiment Station. digestibility of Wyoming grown alfalfa and native hays. By using these new results in the compounding of rations, the Wyoming ranchman will come much nearer to supplying the needs of his live stock without waste of nutrients than he could with average analyses heretofore published. This will readily be seen from a comparison of the following tables. The first table gives a ration for a fattening lamb of 100 pounds compounded according to average analyses as compiled in Henry's ''Feeds and Feeding" : • RATION FOR FATTENING LAMB OF IOO POUNDS ACCORDING TO AVERAGE ANALYSES. RATION Dry matter Digestible nutrients Nutritive ratio Protein Carbo- hydrates Fats Alfalfa, 2^4 Ibs Corn 1 Ib 2.06 .89 .25 .08 .89 .67 .03 .04 2.95 .33 1.56 .07 1:5.2 Standard ration . 3.0 .30 1.50 .05 1:5.4 The next table is made up with the figures for alfalfa taken from analyses and digestion coefficients of first cutting alfalfa hay, crop of -1905, as reported in this bulletin. SAME RATION FOR FATTENING LAMB OF IOO POUNDS — WYOMING ANALYSES OF ALFALFA. (Figures for corn taken from Henry's "Feeds and Feeding"; figures for alfalfa taken from this bulletin.) RATION Dry matter Digestible nutrients Nutritive ratio Protein Carbo- hydrates Tats Alfalfa, 2*4 Ibs 2.09 .89 .28 .08 .86 .67 .02 .04 Corn 1 Ib . 2.98 .36 1.53 .06 1:4.7 Standard ration 3.0 .30 1.50 .05 1:5.4 Digestion Experiments With Wethers. 7 The two tables above show how much error is involved in compounding by eastern feeding tables a ration containing Wyoming-grown alfalfa. If an amount of alfalfa is fed that would give a nutritive ratio of 5 :2 according to eastern tables, a nutritive ratio of only 4.7 is secured. A better balanced ration would be as follows : REVISED RATION FOR FATTENING LAMB OF IOO POUNDS — WYO- MING ANALYSES OF ALFALFA. (See previous table for source of figures.) RATION Dry matter Digestible nutrients Nutritive ratio Protein .22 .12 .34 Carbo- hydrates Fats \lfalfa 1% Ibs 1.62 1.34 2.96 .67 1.00 .01 .06 Corn l1/^ Ibs 1.67 .07 1:5.4 Standard ration . 3.0 .30 1.50 .05 1:5.4 It will be seen that this ration much more nearly approx- imates the standard than does the ration compounded from average analyses. It seems necessary, then, that new feeding tables be made for the use of ranchmen in this state, and below will be found such a table for alfalfa and native hays in so far as data has been secured for them : AVERAGE DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN WYOMING FEEDING STUFFS. NAME OF FEED Dry matter in 100 Ibs. Digestible nutrients in 100 pounds Nutritive ratio Protein Carbo- hydrates Fats Alfalfa first cutting1 . . 92.77 93.56 92.90 94.20 12.56 12.01 4.58 3.81 38.43 42.46 49.41 54.01 .68 .70 1.33 1.09 3.2 3.7 11.5 14.9 Alfalfa, second cutting Mixed lowland hay* Western Wheat Grass (ir- rigated) * Water-loving species, called "native hay" elsewhere in this bulletin. Wyoming Experiment Station. INTRODUCTION. REASONS FOR TAKING UP EXPERIMENTS. For a number of years it has been the desire of the direc- tor of this station to have digestion experiments carried on with forage grown in Wyoming, and the need of such data as may be derived from these experiments has been felt more and more as feeding experiments were carried on. It was not until the fall of 1904 that conditions shaped themseh^es in such a way that this class of work could be conducted with any degree of satisfaction. At that time the investigations of the composition of forage plants were begun, the analyses of a number of which have been published in Bul- letin No. 66, "Wyoming Forage Plants and Their Chemical Composition — Studies No. i," and after that work was well started the digestion work was begun. For years it has been confidently asserted that the forage of the arid west is the most nutritious in the world. To prove this, stockmen have pointed to the condition of the animals feeding upon it. Does this assertion rest upon anything more than local pride? Should this opinion be held for all kinds of forage, or merely for a few ? What are the comparative values of rushes, sedges, and grasses? If there is a difference in quality, what is this difference and how will it affect relative values in view of the varying quantities which may be pro- duced of each? Are other classes of forage, such as the legumes and salt-bushes, also to be included in the general commendation? Are these also better in the arid region than in more humid localities? These and numerous other questions are of vital import- ance to those who would conduct farm and ranch operations Digestion Experiments With Wethers. 9 on the most intelligent and economic basis, and they can only be answered by the results of investigation — chemical analysis, digestion experiments, and feeding tests. It has been the practice of many of the farmers and ranchmen throughout the arid regions to flood the meadows during the irrigating season to such an extent that the grasses have been for the most part drowned out and the hays which are put up are composed principally of the rushes and sedges. Continuous flooding is thought to produce a yield of forage more cheaply than does irrigating in such a manner that the true grasses are not drowned out. The question has arisen, does it pay? Are not the grasses more nutritious than the rushes and sedges? If so, is the difference great enough to make it pay from an economic standpoint considering the tonnage of hay obtained? COMPOSITION OF FORAGE PLANTS— THEIR FOOD VALUE. The analyses of our forage plants show them to be rich in nutritive constituents, but the chemical composition alone is not enough to determine the actual food value. Two plants may have practically the same composition, but vary widely in value for feeding purposes. It is generally known that not all of a feed eaten by an animal is digested, nor is it desirable that it should be. The percentage of digestibility and absorp- tion varies for each food and for each constituent of a food. PROCESS OF DIGESTION. As soon as a food is taken into the mouth, digestion be- gins and the process goes on until a part leaves the body as feces. The digestive juices which are secreted bring into solu- tion or emulsion with the aid of certain organized ferments, different constituents of the food which in turn are absorbed by the tissues. It is only such parts of the food as are ren- dered soluble or brought into a state of emulsion during the course through the alimentary canal that can be utilized by the io Wyoming Experiment Station. animal. The rest passes on and out as the undigested portion. The excretions from the lungs, skin, and kidneys are disre- garded, as these are the waste products of the animal met- abolism which have served their purpose in nourishing the animal. DIGESTION COEFFICIENTS— HOW OBTAINED. If, then, we determine the weights of the different con- stituents of a food eaten in a given time and determine the weights of the different constituents of the feces, the dif- ference will represent the weights of the constituents "of the food which have been digested, absorbed, and have become available for nourishing the animal. These results are gen- erally given in percentages of the constituents of the food eaten and are known as digestion coefficients. ERRORS WHICH CANNOT BE AVOIDED. As the digestive fluids which are secreted upon the food are not completely absorbed again, and as the waste from the interior of the alimentary canal is constantly being cast with the feces, there is always a small error entering into the re- sults which cannot be avoided, but this is assumed to be small and is neglected. The real digestion coefficients of some of the constituents of the food, then, are a little higher than those determined by experiment, but the error is too small to ma- terially affect results. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS. As the terms used in this bulletin may not be well under- stood by many who will read it, it may be well to give ex- planations and values of each. WATER. — Although a feed may seem perfectly dry to the touch and even powder easily, some water is always found. In growing fodders, water is by far the greatest constituent by weight. In dry feed it varies, depending upon the manner of curing, the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere, etc. Digestion Experiments With Wethers. n The water in a powdered and air dried material is determined by heating at the temperature of boiling water for several hours in an atmosphere of hydrogen. If the heating in the process of drying was carried on in -the air instead of in hy- drogen, some of the material might possibly be oxidized, giv- ing an incorrect result for the amount of water. ASH. — When plants are burned completely, a portion is left as an ash. It contains the mineral ingredients which are necessary to the animal, such as lime, phosphates, potash, soda, etc. These form an important part of many of the tissues, especially the bones, the mineral portion of which is largely calcium phosphates. With ash is also included the inorganic matter clinging to the immediate surface of the plants. This is considerable where the plant is covered with fine hairs or is sticky. The mineral constituents are not all digested, so a part is always found in the feces. ETHER EXTRACT. — Many chemists designate this as crude fat. It contains besides the fat some of the coloring matter, gums, etc., which are soluble in absolute ether. Roughly, it represents the amount of fat. It is determined by passing ether through the material for several hours. The ether ex- tract is considered to have a value of 2.4 times the carbo- hydrates. Fat is used principally as a fuel to furnish heat to the animal body. When not needed as such, it is stored up in the body. CRUDE: FIBER. — This is the woody portion of the plant found principally in the cell walls. It was once thought to be indigestible, but is now known to be partially digested and has a nutritive value similar to the starches and sugars. It is determined by dissolving out all other constituents of the food with dilute acids and alkalies, drying, weighing, and burning. The residue, being insoluble ash, is subtracted from the pre- ceding weight to obtain the amount of fiber. 12 Wyoming Experiment Station. CRUDE PROTEIN. — This subdivision includes a number of compounds, all of which contain nitrogen. The white of an egg, casein of milk, and gelatine belong to this class of bodies, and are designated as proteids. The proteids are tissue-making foods, and they serve to build up the muscles, ligaments, etc. As the tissues must be in healthy condition before an animal can lay on fat, it is desirable that a food should contain a suf- ficient supply of digestible protein. It is an interesting fact that the natural foods for young animals contain a high per- centage of protein. This favors a rapid and healthy growth. In case an animal is fed an excess of proteids, they may be used as fuel in the body or be converted into fat, taking the place of the heat and fat-producing foods, i. e., the fats, starches, and sugars, but no other constituent of food can be converted into proteids, nor take their place. As the proteids found in most forage contain approximately 16 per cent of nitrogen, crude protein is estimated by multiplying the amount of nitro- gent present by 6.25.* All of the nitrogen in the form of amide nitrogen (compounds related to ammonia) is thus cal- culated as part of the crude protein. This does not, however, introduce a serious error, as it has been quite clearly proven that a majority of amides found in plants are oxidized in the same way as other food constituents and may serve some of the functions of the proteids. It is an established fact that they cause a saving of the proteids in the animal economy. NITROGEN-FREE EXTRACT consists mainly of starches, sugars, and gums. In the animal metabolism it is used as a fuel and to form fats in the body. The percentage of all other constituents is subtracted from 100 per cent, and the remainder is considered nitrogen-free extract. The name is not distinct- ive, but usage has made its meaning quite generally known. *The percentage of nitrogen varies in different proteids and in proteids from different sources, and for this reason quite a serious error may be introduced when the factor 6.25 is used to calculate the proteids from the amount of nitrogen found. This factor is, however, in general use. Digestion Experiments ll'ith iy ethers. 13 DIGESTION COEFFICIENTS are the percentages of each con- stituent of a food which are digested. NUTRITIVE RATIO is the ratio of the amount of digestible protein to all other digestible organic constituents (carbo- hydrates plus fat x 2.4). The nutritive ratio is spoken of as being wide or narrow. The ratio is narrow as the amount of proteids approach the amounts of all other organic constituents (fat x 2.4) ; in the reverse case it is wide. For example, a ratio of I 13, i. e.} one part of protein to three parts of all other organic constituents (fat x 2.4) is termed a narrow ratio, while I 114 is a wide ratio. It is better to have too narrow a ratio than too wide a one, for reasons already given. ORTS is the name given to the portion not eaten. DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENTS. SHEEP USED. The experiments described in this bulletin were con- ducted with two high-grade Rambouillet wethers, range reared. Each was three years of age in the spring of 1905. At the beginning of the experiments in the fall of 1904 one wether, "K," weighed 107 pounds and the other, "KK," 121 pounds. The sheep were obtained from the King Brothers' ranch, near Laramie. APPARATUS. The apparatus used throughout the series of experiments was practically as described in the annual report of the Maine State Agricultural Experiment Station for 1891, pp. 25-28. The sacks were made of canvas, with lining of rubber-coated cloth. The stalls were placed in a room having a cement floor, where there was good drainage. 14 Wyoming Experiment Station. FEEDING. The hay used in each of the experiments was run through a hand feed cutter gauged to cut about one and one-half inch lengths. The cut hay dropped directly from the feed cutter into paper sacks of uniform size and weight and of a capacity somewhat greater than the amount of feed required for one wether at one feeding. The methods of sampling will be taken up under each experiment, since different methods were used. Each experiment was conducted for twelve days, the wethers being fed twice daily during that time, the amount fed for the last ten days of each experiment being equal at each meal. By the end of the second day of the experiment it was determined about what amount of the fodder each wether would eat without leaving much waste, and the contents of twenty sacks were reduced to the required amount. Thus the only work necessary at the feeding hour was the emptying of a sack of feed into the feed box. When edible portions of a previous meal were found in the feed box at feeding time, they were left there for a day or two in order to give opportunity for their consumption later. If there was still waste material in the feed box at the end of a day or two, it was removed, weighed, and analyzed. FECES. At 8 a. m. on the eighth day the feces sacks were attached, and they were removed at 8 a. m. on the thirteenth day. The feces were removed daily and taken to the chemical laboratory, weighed and mixed thoroughly. One-tenth was taken out and dried as quickly as possible to prevent fermentation. After the experiment was finished, a composite sample was prepared by grinding and quartering until the desired amount was ob- tained. This was ground until all would pass a sieve with round openings one millimeter in diameter, bottled in glass- stoppered bottles, and placed in the dark to await analysis. FIG. i. WETHERS USED IN DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS, FIG. 2. WETHERS WITH HARNESS ATT TAG H ED. 16 Wyoming Experiment Station. FIG. 3. DIGESTION STALL — OPEN TO FULL SIZE. FIG. 4. DIGESTION STALL — CLOSED FOR FEEDING. Digestion Experiments With Wethers. 17 EXPERIMENT I. Alfalfa (Second Cutting). As alfalfa is a profitable crop in Wyoming, and as at present a grfcat deal of interest is taken in it as a hay for feeding purposes, it was decided to begin the digestion work at this station with this forage plant. The alfalfa hay used in this experiment was second cutting grown on the experiment farm near Laramie ; cut August 24-27, 1904. It was a good bright colored hay, well cured, and considered a fair sample of second cutting alfalfa grown on the Laramie Plains. The wethers had been fed two weeks upon alfalfa hay only, before the experimetn was begun, as that was the hay used at the time for the flock. January 15, 1905, they were put on the preliminary seven days' feeding of three-fourths pounds twice daily. Sacks were put on January 22 at 3 p. m. and emptied at 8 a. m. each day, except the last, when they were not taken off until 5 p. m. by an oversight, making the run five days and two hours. The feed was chopped as described elsewhere into sacks holding about a pound. About one-fourth pound was taken from every fifth sack, and from this a composite was obtained. This was ground until the whole would pass a sieve having circular openings one millimeter in diameter. This was an- alyzed and taken as the average composition of the hay fed. i8 Wyoming Experiment Station. SHEEP K. Amount fed, 3,400 grams. Amount of orts, 00 grams. Amount of feces (air dry)— First day Second day Third day Fourth day Fifth day 184.9 grams 237.4 grams 230.8 grams 236.2 grams 317.7 grams Feed, ANALYSIS. Ether Crude Water Ash. extract fiber ...5.83 10.28 1.46 29.35 Feces, first day 2.00 11.73 2.67 46.73 Feces, second day 1.61 12.50 2.72 44.48 Feces, third day 1.73 12.63 2.68 44.48 Feces, fourth day 2.01 11.79 2.67 45.89 Feces, fifth day 2.28 12.55 2.63 44.62 Nitrogen- Crude free protein extract 17.32 35.76 9.13 27.74 9.38 29.31 9.51 28.97 9.13 28.51 9.38 28.54 AMOUNTS IN GRAMS. Feed.. Dry matter .3201.8 Feces, first day 181.2 Feces, second day 233.6 Feces, third day 226.8 Feces, fourth day 231.5 Feces, fifth day 310.5 Total 1183.6 *Less 2/122 19.4 Total feces 1164.2 Digested 2037.6 Per cent digested 63.64 *Two hours overrun. Ash 349.7 21.7 29.7 29.1 27.8 39.9 148.2 2.4 145.8 203.9 58.31 Ether extract 49.6 Crude fiber 998.0 4.9 6.4 6.2 6.3 8.3 86.4 105.6 102.6 108.4 141.8 32.1 0.5 54-4.8 8.9 31.6 535.9 18.0 36.29 462.1 46.30 Crude protein 588.8 Nitrogen free extract .1215.7 16.9 22.3 22.0 21.6 29.8 51.3 69.6 66.9 67.4 90.7 112.6 1.9 345.9 5.7 110.7 340.2 478.1 81.20 875.5 72.02 Experiments ll'itli li'ethers. 19 SHEEP KK. Amount fed, 3,400 grams. Amount of orts, 00 grams. Amount of feces (air dry)— First day 167.9 grams Second day 244.3 grams Third day 198.4 grams Fourth day 248.8 grams Fifth day 360.2 grams ANALYSIS. Nitrogen- Ether Crude Crude free Water Ash extract fiber protein extract Feed 5.83 10.28 1.46 29.35 17.32 35.76 Feces, first day... ...2.77 11.85 2.59 44.80 9.38 28.61 Feces, second day 2.48 12.77 2.73 43.83 9.44 28.75 Feces, third day 2.10 13.79 3.00 43.72 9.63 27.76 Feces, fourth day 2.72 13.58 2.67 43.95 9.38 27.70 Feces, fifth day 2.58 13.61 2.71 43.35 9.63 28.12 AMOUNTS IN GRAMS. Nitrogen- Dry Ether Crude Crude free matter Ash extract fiber protein extract Feed 3201.8 349.7 49,6 998.0 588.8 1215.7 Feces, first day 163.2 19.9 4.4 75.2 15.7 48.0 Feces, second day 238.2 31.2 6.7 107.0 23.1 70.2 Feces, third day.'. 191.2 27.4 5.9 86.7 19.1 55.1 Feces, fourth day 242.0 33.8 6.6 109.4 23.3 68.9 Feces, fifth day 350.9 49.0 9.8 156.1 34.7 101.3 Total 1188.5 161.3 33.4 534.4 115.9 343.5 *Less 2/122 19.5 2.6 0.6 8.8 1.9 5.6 Total feces.. 1169.0 15S.7 32.8 525.6 114.0 337.9 Digested 2032.8 191.0 16.8 472.4 474.8 877.8 Per cent digested 63.49 54.62 33.87 47.33 80.64 72.21 *Two hours overrun. Average Digestion Coefficients of Alfalfa Hay (Second Cutting). Nitrogen- Dry Ether Crude Crude free matter Ash extract fiber protein extract Sheep K 63.64 58.31 36.29 46.30 81.20 72.02 Sheep KK 63.49 54.62 33.87 47.33 80.64 72.21 AVERAGE 63.58 56.46 35.O8 46.81 8O.92 72.11 The feces were analyzed each day as a check upon the work and also to determine if there was any appreciable dif- ference in composition. As may be noted, the variation in the percentage composition of the feces from day to day is very small. The first day the sacks were put on in the afternoon and emptied in the morning, and the last day they were not emptied until the afternoon, which accounts for the great varia- tion in the amount of feces on these two days. 2O Wyoming Experiment Station. EXPERIMENT II. Alfalfa Hay (Second Cutting). This alfalfa was practically the same as that used in Ex- periment I. Wethers were fed on alfalfa hay since the preced- ing experiment. Preliminary feeding was begun February 17, 1905. For two days seven-eighths of a pound was fed twice daily, then increased to one pound and preliminary continued for five days. Sacks were put on February 24 at 8 a. m. and experiment closed March i, at 8 a. m. The hay was cut for feeding as in the preceding experi- ment. Sample was taken by removing a little from the top of each sack immediately after cutting. Four samples were made up, each representing a composite sample from ten sacks and analyzed with the following results : Water First 6.45 Second 5.50 Third 6.46 Fourth... ...6.60 Nitrogen- Ether Crude Crude free Ash extract fiber protein extract 7.91 1.44 34.99 13.13 36.08 7.88 1.51 33.71 14.06 37.34 8.50 1.56 31.13 15.13 37.22 8.17 1.42 33.06 14.06 36.69 Average 6.25 8.12 33.22 14.10 The average was taken as the composition of the hay. SHEEP K. Amount fed, 4,535 grams. Amount of orts, 00 grams. Amount o£ feces (air dry), 1,782 grams. ANALYSIS. Water Ash Feed, average four 6.25 8.12 Feces 4.98 9.22 Ether Crude extract fiber 1.48 33.22 1.97 49.90 Nitrogen- Crude free protein extract 14.10 36.83 7.88 26.05 AMOUNTS IN GRAMS. Dry matter Ash Fed and consumed 4251.6 368.2 Feces 1693.3 164.3 Digested 2558.3 Per cent digested-.... 60.17 Ether Crude extract fiber 67.2 1506.8 35.0 889.3 203.9 55.38 32.2 47.92 617.5 40,98 Nitrogen- Crude free protein extract 639.4 1670.0 140.4 464.3 499.0 78.04 1205.7 72.20 Digestion Experiments With Wethers. 21 SHEEP KK. Amount fed, 4,535 grams. Amount of orts, 00 grams. Amount of feces (air dry), 1,795 grams. ANALYSIS. Nitrogen- Ether Crude Crude free Water Ash extract fiber protein extract Feed, average four 6.25 8.12 1.48 33.22 14.10 36.83 Feces 4.79 9.40 2.03 49.90 8.19 25.69 AMOUNTS IN GRAMS. Nitrogen- Dry Ether Crude Crude free matter Ash extract fiber protein extract Fed and consumed 4251.6 368.2 67.2 1506.8 639.4 1670.0 Feces... ...1709.0 168.7 36.4 895.7 147.0 461.2 Digested 2542.6 199.5 30.8 611.1 492.4 1208.8 Per cent digested.... 59.80 54.18 45.83 40.56 77.01 72.38 Average Digestion Coefficients of Alfalfa Hay (Second Cutting). Nitrogen- Dry Ether Crude Crude free matter Ash extract fiber protein extract Sheep K-.- ...60.17 55.38 47.92 40.98 78.04 72.20 Sheep KK 59.80 54.18 45.83 40.56 77.01 72.38 AVERAGE 59.98 54.78 46.87 4O.77 77.52 72.29 The results, as would have been expected, are not mark- edly different from those obtained in "the preceding experiment. The results in the second experiment are lower than in the first, with the exception of the digestibility of the ether extract and nitrogen-free extract. It should be noted, also, that, although the alfalfa used in Experiments I and II was from the same field and cut and cured at practically the same time and under similar conditions of weather, the analysis shows quite a range in composition. 22 Wyoming Experiment Station. EXPERIMENT III. Alfalfa Hay (Second Cutting). The alfalfa for this experiment was grown upon the ranch of Mr. C. P. Arnold, under the Pioneer Canal, near Laramie. It was of the crop of 1904. Time of cutting" unknown, but was well cured and good alfalfa hay. Wethers were on alfalfa since preceding experiment. Preliminary feeding began March 13, 1905. Feed was cut into sacks as already described. Sam- ples were taken by catching a portion from the cutter between each sack. The feed sacks were weighed on the same day as sample. It has been found that this method is the simplest and most satisfactory method of sampling, and all other sam- ples of feed for experiments enumerated in this bulletin have been sampled in this manner. The principle is not a new one, but has been used a great deal for sampling of other material than feed. SHEEP K. Amount fed, 4,535 grams. Amount of orts, 00 grams. Amount of feces (air dry), 1,489 grams. Feed :... Feces ANALYSIS. Nitrogen- Ether Crude Crude free Water Ash extract fiber protein extract ...6.70 8.87 1.69 27.36 15.88 39.50 ...4.98 12.06 3.12 43.74 9.38 26.72 Fed and consumed. Feces. AMOUNTS IN GRAMS. Nitrogen- Dry Ether Crude Crude free matter Ash extract fiber protein extract .4231.2 402.4 76.6 1240.6 720.1 1791.5 .1414.9 179.5 46.4 651.3 139.7 398.0 Digested 2816.3 Per cent digested... 66.56 222.9 55.39 30.2 39.43 589.3 47.50 580.4 1393.5 80.60 77.78 Digestion Experiments 11'ith ll'ctlicrs. SHEEP KK. Amount fed, 4,535 grams. Amount of orts, 00 grams. Amount of feces (air dry), grams. Feed.. Feces. ANALYSIS. Nitrogen- Ether Crude Crude free Water Ash extract fiber protein extract ...6.70 8.87 1.69 27.36 15.88 39.50 ...5.11 11.-07 2.89 44.79 9.44 2670 AMOUNTS IN GRAMS. Nitrogen- Dry Ether Crude Crude free matter Ash extract tiber protein extract Fed and consumed 4231.2 402.4 76.6 1240.6 720.1 17915 Feces 1410.1 164.5 43.0 665.6 140.3 396.7 Digested 2821.1 Per cent digested... 66.67 237.9 59.12 33.6 43.86 575.0 46.35 579.8 80.52 139'4.8 77.86 Average Digestion Coefficients of Alfalfa Hay (Second Cutting). Dry matter Sheep K .................... 66.56 Sheep KK .................. 66.67 Ash 55.39 59.12 Ether Crude extract fiber 39.43 47.50 43.86 46.35 Nitrogen- Crude free protein extract 80.60 77.78 80.52 77.86 AVERAGE 66.61 57.25 41.64 46.93 8O.56 77.83 Average Digestibility of Alfalfa Dry matter Experiment I— Sheep K 63.64 Sheep KK 63.49 Experiment II— Sheep K 60.17 Sheep KK 59.80 Experiment Ill- Sheep K 66.56 Sheep KK 66.67 Ash 58.31 54.62 55.38 54.18 55.39 59.12 Hay (Second Cutting, 1904). Nitrogen- Ether Crude Crude free extract fiber protein extract 36.29 33.87 47.92 45.83 39.43 43.86 46.30 47.33 40.98 40.56 47.50 46.35 81.20 80.64 78.04 77.01 80.52 72.02 72.21 72.20 72.38 77.78 77.86 AVERAGE. 58.17 41.2O 44.84 79.67 74.O8 As we wished to make a comparison between the digesti- bility of first and second cutting, it was decided to carry on the work with alfalfa hay the second year, taking up the ex- periments with first cutting and again with second cutting from the same plot of ground. During the summer an attempt was made to carry on a digestion experiment with green al- falfa to make comparisons between the digestibility of that and the alfalfa hay cut from the same plot of ground at the same time. The forage was cut, placed in cold storage and the ex- periment with the green feed begun, but by the time the pre- liminary feeding was nearly over the fodder had begun heating to such an extent that the experiment had to be abandoned. The cooler was evidently too small to preserve the amount of green fodder necessary for the experiment. 24 Wyoming Experiment Station. ALFALFA— SERIES NO. 2. The alfalfa used in these experiments was cut on the Ex- periment Station farm during the summer of 1905 from the same field as the alfalfa used in Experiments I, II, and III. Both first and second cuttings were fair samples of alfalfa hay grown and cured on the Laramie Plains. The first cutting was taken at the time the forage was- beginning to bloom nicely. The same two sheep were used as in previous experiments. EXPERIMENT VII. Alfalfa Hay (First Cutting). SHEEP K. Amount fed, 5,646 grams. Amount of orts, 00 grams. Amount of feces (air dry), 2,299 grams. Feed.. Feces. ANALYSIS. Ether Crude Water Ash extract fiber ...6.47 9.12 1.81 30.83 ...3.12 12.35 3.07 46.52 AMOUNTS IN GRAMS. Dry Ether Crude matter Ash extract fiber Fed and consumed 5280.7 514.9 102.4 1740.5 Feces 2227.3 284.0 70.6 1069.5 Digested 3053.4 Per cent digested .... 57.82 230.9 44.84 31.8 31.05 671.0 38.55 SHEEP KK. Amount fed, 5,642 grams. Amount of orts, 00 grams. Amount of feces (air dry), 2,231 grams. Feed.. Feces. Water ...6.47 . . .3.20 ANALYSIS. Ether Ash extract 9.12 1.81 12.32 3.01 44.76 Crude fiber AMOUNTS IN GRAMS. Dry Ether Crude matter Ash extract fiber Fed and consumed 5277.0 514.5 102.4 1739.3 Feces 2159.6 274.9 67.2 Digested 3117.4 Per cent digested... 59.08 239.6 46.57 35.2 34.38 740.7 42.59 Nitrogen- Crude free protein extract 16.09 35.68 9.75 25.19 Nitrogen- Crude rree protein extract 908.3 2014.6 224.1 579.1 684.2 1435.5 75.33 71.25 Nitrogen- Crude free protein extract 16.09 35.68 10.44 26.27 Nitrogen- Oude free protein extract 907.6 2013.2 233.0 585.9 674.6 74.33 1427.3 70.90 Average Digestion Coefficients of Alfalfa Hay (First Cutting). Nitrogen- Dry Ether Crude Crude free matter Ash extract fiber protein extract Sheep K... ...57.82 44.84 31.05 38.55 75.33 71.25 Sheep KK 59.08 46.57 34.38 42.59 74.33 70.90 AVERAGE 58.45 45.7O 33.71 4O.57 74.83 71.O7 Digestion li.vpcriincnts ll'ith ll'ethers. EXPERIMENT VIII. Alfalfa Hay (First Cutting). SHEEP K. Amount fed, 5,660 grams. Amount of orts, 201 grams. Amount of feces (air dry), 1,937 grams. ANALYSIS. Feed Water 8 00 Ash 9.81 17.73 13.62 C.7NTS IN Ash 555.1 35.6 Ether extract 2.06 2.41 3.45 GRAMS Ether extract 116.6 4.8 Crude flber 28.73 23.51 43.04 Crude fiber 1626.2 47.3 Crude protein 16.81 17.06 10.13 Crude protein 951.4 34.3 Nitrogen free extract 34.59 32.17 26.81 Nitrogen free extract 1957.9 64.7 Orts ....7.12 Feces 2 95 Feed AMO Dry matter ..5207.2 Orts 186 7 Consumed Feces ..5020.5 1880 0 519.5 263.8 111.8 66.7 1578.9 833.8 917.1 196.3 1893.2 519.4 Digested Per cent digested.. . .3140.5 . . 62.55 255.7 49.20 45.1 40.34 745.1 47.19 720.8 78.60 1373.8 72.55 SHEEP KK. Amount fed, 4530 grams. Amount of orts, 90 grams. Amount of feces (air dry), 1,596 grams. ANALYSIS. Nitrogen- Ether Crude Crude free Water Ash extract fiber protein extract Feed Orts ....8.00 6 17 9.81 18.24 15.35 'NTS IN Ash 444.3 16.4- 2.06 2.67 3.68 GRAMS Ether extract 93.4 2.4 28.73 30.74 40.59 Crude fiber 1301.5 27.7 16.81 12.59 10.78 Crude protein 761.4 11.3 34.59 29.59 26.55 Nitrogen free extract 1567.0 26.6 Feces Feed Orts . . . .3.05 AMOL' Dry matter ..4167.6 84 4 Consumed ..4083.2 427.9 244.9 91.0 58.8 1273.8 647.9 750.1 172.1 1540.4 423.6 Feces Digested ..1547.3 . . 2535 9 183.0 42.77 32.2 35.38 625.9 49.14 578.0 77.06 1116.8 72.50 Per cent digested.. .. 62.11 Average Digestion Coefficients of Alfalfa Hay (First Cutting). Nitrogen- Dry Ether Crude Crude free matter Ash extract fiber protein extract Sheep K 62.55 49.20 40.34 47.19 78.60 72.55 Sheep KK 62.11 42.77 35.38 49.14 77.06 72.50 AVERAGE ..... O2.3.1 45.OS 48.1 « 77.S3 72.52 26 IVyoming Experiment Station. EXPERIMENT IX. Alfalfa Hay (Second Cutting). SHEEP K. Amount fed, 6,620 grams. Amount of orts, 21 grams. Amount of feces (air dry), 2,223 grams. ANALYSTS. Water Feed 6.74 Orts 5.50 Feces 3.12 Ash 9.04 8.60 12.79 Ether extract 1.87 1.24 3.35 Crude fiber 29.17 38.47 44.63 Nitrogen- Crude free protein extract 15.43 37.75 12.02 34.17 9.61 26.50 AMOUNTS IN GRAMS. Feed Dry matter 6173 8 Ash 598 2 Ether extract 124 1 Crude fiber- 1931 2 Crude protein 1021 8 Nitrogen free extract 2498 5 Orts 19 8 1 8 0 2 8 1 2 5 7 9 Consumed Feces ..6154.0 2153 6 596.4 284 3 123.9 74 5 1923.1 992 0 1019.3 *213 g 2491.3 589 2 Digested 4000 4 312 1 49 4 Q31 1 805 7 1902 1 Per cont digested.. . . 65.01 52.33 39.87 48.42 79.04 76.35 SHEEP KK. Amount fed, 5,700 grams. Amount of orts, 309.5 grams. Amount of feces (air dry), 1,717 grams. ANALYSTS. Nitrogen- Ether Crude Crude free Water Ash extract fiber protein extract Feed ....6.74 9.04 8.39 12.77 rNTS 11 Ash 515.1 26.0 1.87 29.17 1.37 34.48 3.12 42.92 * GRAMS. Ether Crude extract fiber 106.8 1662.8 4.2 106.7 15.43 37.75 13.38 37.17 10.47 27.20 Nitrogen- Crude free protein extract 879.8 2151.3 41.4 115.1 Orts 5 21 Feces Feed ....3.52 AMOr Dry matter 5315 8 Orts . 293.4 Consumed , ,.5022.4 489.1 219.3 102.6 1556.1 53.5 737.0 838.4 2036.2 179.8 467.0 Feces Digested Per cent digested... Average Digestion Sheep K .1656.6 .3365.8 . 67.02 Coefficie Dry matter ..65.01 269.8 55.16 snts of Ash 52.33 55.16 49.1 819.1 658.6 1569.2 47.86 5~2.64 78.55 77.07 Alfalfa Hay (Second Cutting). Nitrogen- Ether Crude Crude free extract fiber protein extract 39.87 48.42 79.04 76.35 47.86 52.64 78.55 77.07 Sheep KK ..67.02 AVERAGE OO.01 53.74 43.SO 5O.BB 7S.7!> 7O.71 Digestion Experiments With Wethers. 27 EXPERIMENT X. Alfalfa Hay (Second Cutting). SHEEP K. Amount fed, 6,620 grams. Amount of orts, 00 grams. Amount of feces (air dry), 2,112 grams. Feed.. Feces. ANALYSIS. Nitrogen- Ether Crude Crude free Water Ash extract fiber protein extract ...7.26 8.93 1.99 27.63 15.65 38.54 ...2.82 12.70 3.21 46.63 9.25 25.39 AMOUNTS IN GRAMS. Dry Ether Crude matter Ash extract fiber Fed and consumed 6139.4 591.2 132.0 1829.0 Feces 2052.4 268.3 67.7 984.7 Digested 4087.0 322.9 64.3 844.3 Per cent digested.... 66.57 54.62 48.71 46.16 Nitrogen- Crude free protein extract 1036.3 2550.9 195.4 536.3 840.9 81.14 2014.6 78.98 SHEEP KK. Amount fed, 5,700 grams. Amount of orts, 00 grams. Amount of feces (air dry), 1,856 grams. ANALYSIS. Feed Water ....7.26 3 26 Ash 8,93 12.51 QNTS IN Ash 509.1 232.1 Ether extract 1.99 3.09 GRAMS Ether extract 113.6 57.3 Crude fiber 27.63 45.76 Crude fiber 1574.5 849.3 Crude protein 15.65 9.83 Crude protein 892.3 182.4 Nitrogen- free extract 38.54 25.55 Nitrogen- free extract 2196.4 474.4 Feces Fed and consumed — Feces Digested Per cent digested.. AMO Dry matter ..5286.2 ..1795.5 . .3490.7 .. 66.03 277.0 54.41 56.3 49.56 725.5 46.07 709.9 79.56 1722.0 78.40 Average Digestion Coefficients of Alfalfa Hay (Second Cutting). Dry matter Ash Sheep K 66.57 54.62 Sheep KK 66.03 54.41 Ether extract 48.71 49.56 Crude fiber 46.16 46.07 Nitrogen- Crude free protein extract 81.14 78.98 79.56 78.40 AVERAGE 66.3O 54.51 49.13 46.12 8O.35 78.69 28 Wyoming Experiment Station. Average Digestion Coefficients of First Cutting Alfalfa Hay of Crop of 1905. Dry matter Experiment VII— . Sheep K 57.82 Sheep KK 59.08 Experiment VIII— Sheep K 62.55 Sheep KK 62.11 Ash 44.84 46.57 49.20 42.77 Ether Crude extract fiber Nitrogen- Crude free protein extract 31.05 34.38 40.34 38.55 42.59 47.19 49.14 75.33 74.33 78.60 77.06 71.25 70.90 72.55 72.50 AVERAGE 60.39 45.85 35.29 44.37 76.33 71.8O Average Digestion Coefficients of Second Cutting Alfalfa Hay of Crop of 1905. Nitrogen- Ether Crude Crude free Ash extract fiber protein extract Dry matter Experiment IX— Sheep K 65.01 Sheep KK 67.02 Experiment X— Sheep K 66.57 Sheep KK 66.03 52.33 55.16 54.62 54.41 39.87 47.86 48.71 49.56 48.42 52.64 46.16 46.07 79.04 78.55 81.14 79.56 76.35 77.07 78.98 78.40 AVERAGE 66.16 54.13 46.5O 48.32 79.57 77. 7O Average Digestion Coefficients of Second Cutting Alfalfa, All Experiments. Nitrogen- Dry matter Experiment I— Sheep K 63.64 Sheep KK 63.49 Experiment II— Sheep K 60.17 Sheep KK 59.80 Experiment Ill- Sheep K 66.56 Sheep KK 66.67 Experiment IX— Sheep K 65.01 Sheep KK 67.02 Experiment X— Sheep K 66.57 Sheep KK ...66.03 AVERAGE 64U50 55.35 43.32 46.23 79.63 75.53 The maximum, minimum, and average digestion coef- ficients of alfalfa hay, as given by Jordan and Hall, are as follows : Nitrogen- Ether Crude Crude free extract fiber protein extract 54.0 49.0 77.0 71.8 48.4 43.3 68.8 64.0 Ash Ether extract Crude fiber Crude protein free extract 58.31 54.62 36.29 33.87 46.30 47.33 81.20 80.64 72.02 72.21 55.38 54.18 47.92 45.83 40.98 40.56 78.04 77.01 72.20 72.38 55.39 59.12 39.43 43.86 47.50 46.35 80.60 80.52 77.78 77.86 52.33 55.16 39.87 47.86 48.42 52.64 79.04 78.55 76.35 77.07 54.62 54.41 48.71 49.56 46.16 46.07 81.14 79.56 78.98 78.40 Dry matter Maximum 60.2 Minimum 57.0 Ash 40.9 51.0 46.0 72.0 69.2 Average 58.9 39.5 These figures are based upon the following experiments: One by the New York Experiment Station using a cow; one Digestion Experiments With Wethers. 29 by the Utah Experiment Station using two steers; -and one by the Colorado Experiment Station using two steers. Other experiments which have appeared since the com- pilation of Jordan and Hall are as follows : Kansas Experiment Station, Bulletin 103 — Steers : Nitrogen- Dry Ether Crude Crude free matter Ash extract fiber protein extract First cutting- Plants in bloom 59.40 63.49 60.00 46.10 78.52 75.31 Second cutting — Plants 50% in bloom. 58.29 56.41 30.39 50.44 75.14 71.99 Third cutting- Plants in full bloom. 60.03 60.90 51.65 50.63 76.70 75.24 Minnesota Experiment Station, Bulletin 80 — Steers : Nitrogen- Dry Ether Crude Crude free matter Ash extract fiber protein extract Alfalfa hay 65.84 51.40 55.88 57.57 75.38 71.86 Ontario Agricultural College and Experiment Farm Re- port, 1898 — Sheep: Nitrogen- Dry Ether Crude Crude free matter Ash extract fiber protein extract First cutting 58.6 .... 48.8 39.1 73.4 71.S Second cutting 56.2 .... 50.4 37.7 72.8 70.1 Third cutting 51.3 .... 44.1 37.1 64.4 64.0 Colorado Experiment Station, Bulletin 93 — Sheep : Nitrogen- Dry Ether Crude Crude free matter Ash extract fiber protein extract First cutting Series II... 62.05 57.67 29.86 49.93 72.54 70.78 These give average digestion coefficients as follows : Nitrogen- Dry Ether Crude Crude free matter Ash extract fiber protein extract Alfalfa hay* 60.91 53.36 48.92 46.95 73.16 72.23 Second cuttingf 57.16 47.20 44.93 45.71 74.98 6870 All cuttingsj 58.94 52.68 47.64 46.05 73.18 ' 70.79 *Averages of New York State Station and Utah Station, from Jordan and Hall, "The Digestibility of American Feeding Stuffs," Bulletin No. 77, U. S. Department of Agriculture; Kansas Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 103; Minnesota Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 80; Ontario Agricul- tural College and Experimental Farm Report, 1898; Colorado Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 93, first cutting, Series II. tAverages of Colorado Station, from Jordan and Hall, "The Digesti- bility of American Feeding Stuffs," Bulletin No. 77, U. S. Department of Agriculture; Kansas Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 103; and Ontario Agricultural College and Experimental Farm Report, 1898. JAverages of New York State Station, Utah Station, and Colorado Station, from Jordan and Hall, "The Digestibility of American Feeding Stuffs," Bulletin No. 77. U. S. Department of Agriculture; Kansas Experi- ment Station, Bulletin No. 103; Minnesota Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 80; Ontario Agricultural College and Experimental Farm Report 1898; Colorado Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 93. 30 Wyoming Experiment Station. Our experiments with first cutting alfalfa hay show higher digestion coefficients for the dry matter, crude protein, and nitrogen-free extract than the average found by other Experi- ment Stations for all cuttings ; in fact the last two constituents approach the maximum. The digestion coefficients for the ash, ether extract, and crude fiber are a little low. Although the first cutting alfalfa with which these experiments were carried on was not from appearances as good as what may be consid- ered good alfalfa hay in this region, it compares very favor- ably with the same class of hay cut in humid regions. The average composition of first cutting alfalfa (average of two) is as follows: Nitrogen- Ether Crude Crude free Water Ash extract fiber protein extract Average 7.23 9.47 1.94 29.78 16.45 35.13 This gives a nutritive ratio of i 13.19. Wyoming second cutting alfalfa shows a greater average digestibility throughout than does the first cutting from forage grown on the same plot of ground the same year. The average composition to correspond to the first cutting given is as follows (average of two) : Nitrogen- Ether Crude Crude free Water Ash extract fiber protein extract Average 7.DO 8.98 1.93 28.40 15.54 38.15 Tbis gives a nutritive ratio of i 13. 68. These figures are given that a comparison may easily be made. The average composition of second cutting alfalfa from all experiments is as follows : Nitrogen- Ether Crude Crude free Water Ash extract fiber protein extract Average 6.44 8.70 1.62 30.80 15.08 37.36 This gives a nutritive ratio of i 13.68. Digestion Experiments With W ethers. 31 The per cent of protein in the second cutting is less than in the first cutting, but the digestion coefficient is greater, which tends to balance the actual amount of protein available to the animal. In all Wyoming forage grown at high altitudes, we have found the ether extract abnormally low and the percent- age of crude fiber and protein in general high. This seems to hold true for alfalfa, as may be noted by comparing with the analysis given by Jenkins and Winton, Bulletin II, U. S. De- partment of Agriculture. 32 Wyoming Experiment Station. NATIVE HAY. EXPERIMENT IV. The first experiment with native hay was conducted with some Western Wheat Grass (Agropyron occidentale) from the ranch of Mr. M. A. Crout, under the Pioneer Canal, near Lar- amie. The fodder was comparatively free from foxtail, and contained only now and then a few stems of other native hays. The hay was not a first-class sheep hay, being over ripe and woody. After the experiment was well under way one sheep broke from his stall, ate some other feed, and in a general man- ner carried on the experiment to his own satisfaction, so that the results obtained from one sheep only are given. The sample of feed for analysis was divided into two lots, each thoroughly mixed, and analyzed with the following re- sults : Nitrogen- Ether Crude Crude free Water Ash extract fiber protein extract First 6.05 6.47 2.82 29.70 6.81 48.15 Second 5.84 6.00 2.54 29.26 6.88 49.48 Average 5.94 6.23 2.68 29.48 6.85 48.82 The hay was not eaten well by the wether, many grass heads and much seed being left. SHEEP KK. Amount fed, 4,535 grams. Amount of orts, 402.5 grams. Amount of feces (air dry), 1,491 grams. ANALYSIS. Nitrogen- Ether Crude Crude free Water Ash extract fiber protein extract Feed (average two) 5.94 6.23 2.68 29.48 6.85 48.82 Orts 7.58 6.94 2.42 27.99 7.01 48.06 Feces 4.68 11.73 4.44 26.89 7.81 44.45 AMOUNTS IN GRAMS. Nitrogen- Dry Ether Crude Crude free matter Ash extract fiber protein extract Feed 4265.6 282.8 121.6 1336.8 310.5 2213.9 Orts 372.0 27.9 9.8 112.7 28.2 193.4 Consumed 3893.6 254.9 111.8 1224.1 282.3 2020.5 Feces... ...1421.2 175.0 66.2 400.9 116.4 662.7 Digested 2472.4 79.9 45.6 823.2 165.9 1357.8 Per cent digested.... 63.50 31.35 40.79 67.26 58.77 67.20 Digestion Experiments With Wethers. 33 EXPERIMENT V. Native Hay. This sample was same as described in the preceding ex- periment : SHEEP K. Amount fed, 3,969 grams. Amount of orts, 26.9 grams. Amount of feces (air dry), 1,268 grams. ANALYSIS. Nitrogen- Ether Crude Crude free Water Ash extract fiber protein extract Feed 5.51 6.27 2.52 29.78 6.63 49.29 Orts 6.09 9.38 2.61 26.57 8.32 47.03 Feces... ...3.34 13.17 4.24 24.49 8.94 45.82 AMOUNTS IN GRAMS. Dry matter Feed 3750.3 Orts... . 25.3 Ash Consumed 3725.0 Feces 1225.6 Digested 2499.4 Per cent digested.... 67.10 2.5 246.5 167.0 79.5 32.25 Ether extract 100.1 0.7 99.4 53.8 45.6 45.88 Crude fiber 1182.1 7.2 1174.9 310.6 864.3 73.56 Nitrogen- Crude free protein extract 263.3 1955.8 2.2 12.7 261.1 113.4 147.7 56.57 1943.1 580.8 1362.3 70.11 SHEEP KK. Amount fed, 3,402 grams. Amount of orts, 39.0 grams. Amount of feces (air dry), 1,200 grams. ANALYSIS. Ether Crude Water Ash extract fiber Feed 5.51 6.27 2.52 29.78 Orts 6.24 8.76 2.47 26.53 Feces 2.88 12.55 4.38 25.72 AMOUNTS IN GRAMS. Dry matter Feed 3214.5 Orts... . 36.5 Consumed 3178.0 Feces... ...1165.4 Digested 2012.6 Per cent digested 63.33 Ash 213.4 3.4 210.0 150.6 59.4 28.29 Ether Crude extract fiber 85.8 1013.2 1.0 10.3 84.8 52.5 32.3 38.09 1002.9 69.07 Nitrogen- Crude free protein extract 6.63 49.29 8.19 47.81 8.63 45.84 Nitrogen- Crude free protein extract 225.7 1676.4 3.2 18.6 222.5 103.6 118.9 53.44 1657.8 550.1 1107.7 Average Digestion Coefficients of Native Hay. Dry matter Ash Sheep K 67.10 32.25 Sheep KK 63.33 28.29 Ether Crude extract fiber 45.88 73.56 69.07 Nitrogen- Crude free protein extract 56.57 70.11 53.44 AVERAGE 65.21 3O.27 41.98 71.31 R5.OO OS.46 34 Wyoming Experiment Station. Average Digestion Coefficients of Native Hay (Western Wheat Grass), Experiments IV and V. Nitrogen- Dry Ether Crude Crude free matter Ash extract fiber protein extract Exp. IV, Sheep KK 63.50 31.35 40.79 67.26 58.77 67.20 Exp. V, Sheep K 67.10 32.25 45.88 73.56 56.57 70.11 Exp. V, Sheep KK 63.33 28.29 38.09 69.07 53.44 66.82 « AVERAGE 64.64 3O.63 41.59 69.96 56.26 68.O4 It appears that ours is the only station thus far which has taken up the study of this, one of our Western native hays, to determine its feeding value. The Colorado Experiment Station Bulletin 93 has published results with native hay, which is the Slender Wheat Grass (Agropyron tenerum). The average results are as follows : Nitrogen- Dry Ether Crude Crude free matter Ash extract fiber protein extract Series No. 1 59.78 43.32 47.09 61.36 60.90 62.01 Series No. 2 50.53 42.52 20.55 55.56 62.33 51.30 AVERAGE 55.15 42.92 38.82 58.46 61.61 56.65 The digestion coefficients of the Western Wheat Grass average higher than the average coefficients of the Slender Wheat Grass in all except the crude protein and ash. Practical experience has proven that the Western Wheat Grass is an excellent fodder, and our results show the Western Wheat Grass to be more nutritious, pound for pound, than timothy, which at the present time commands a higher price upon the Utah markets. It has been difficult up to the present time in many parts of the state to produce Western Wheat Grass hay free from foxtail, which of necessity depreciates the value of the crop, because of the deleterious effect of foxtail upon the animals feeding upon it. As the country is farmed to a greater extent, closer cultivation will tend to eliminate this objectional plant, and then the native hay composed of Western Wheat Grass will be of greater value to stock growers and feeders than timothy hay. Digestion Experiments With Wethers. 35 EXPERIMENT VI. The hay with which this experiment was conducted was composed of mixed grasses, principally Juncus (two species), or what is popularly known as wire grass, obtained from Mr. Fee's ranch on the Little Laramie River, northwest of Laramie. Besides the Juncus, which made up a large portion of the hay, there were identified the following plants: Poa Sp? (blue- grass), Scirpus Sp? (Bull Rush), Planta go eripoda (Plantain), Koelera cristata (Prairie Grass), Deschampsia caespitosa (Al- kali Grass). The hay is fairly typical of good sheep hay in this region raised by irrigation through flooding the meadows to such an extent that most of the hay grasses are drowned out. In- creased yields of hay composed of water-loving sedges and rushes is obtained in this manner much more cheaply than the grass hays may be obtained. The rushes and sedges are not valued as hays throughout the humid regions of the east, but stock are wintered on this class of hay quite extensively in the irrigated regions of the state. SHEEP K. Amount fed, 4,535 grams. Amount of orts, 8.5 grams. Amount of feces (air dry), 1,620 grams. ANALYSIS. Nitrogen- Ether Crude Crude free Water Ash extract fiber protein extract Feed 7.10 6.42 2.11 28.91 7.75 47.71 Orts 7.10 11.77 2.82 23.42 10.88 44.01 Feces 6.58 8.10 2.19 27.38 8.69 47.06 AMOUNTS IN GRAMS. Nitrogen- Dry Ether Crude Crude free matter Ash extract fiber protein extract Feed 4213.0 291.1 95.6 1311.1 351.4 2163.8 Orts... 7.9 1.0 0.2 2.0 0.9 3.8 Consumed 4205.1 290.1 95.4 1309.1 350.5 2160.0 Feces... ...1513.4 131.2 35.4 443.6 140.7 762.5 Digested 2691.7 158.9 60.0 865.5 209.8 1397.5 Per cent digested.... 64.01 54.77 62.89 66.11 59.86 64.70 Wyoming Experiment Station, SHEEP KK. Amount fed, 4,535 grams. Amount of orts, 75.2 grams. Amount of feces (air dry), 1,678 grams. ANALYSIS. Feed.. Orts... Feces. Water ...7.10 ...6.81 ...7.21 Ash 6.42 9/01 8.25 Ether Crude extract fiber 2.11 28.91 2.41 26.09 2.07 27.65 AMOUNTS IN GRAMS. Nitrogen- Crude free protein extract 7.75 47.71 8.69 46.99 8.57 46.25 Feed.... Dry matter 4213 0 Ash 291 1 Ether extract 95 6 Crude fiber 1311 1 Crude protein 351 4 Nitrogen- free extract 2163 8 Orts . . 70 1 6.8 1.8 19 6 6 6 35 3 Consumed . .4142 9 284.3 93 8 1291 5 344 8 2128 5 Feces . . 1557 0 138 4 34 7 464 0 143 9 776 0 Digested Per cent digested.. ..2585.9 .. 62.42 145.9 51.32 59.1 62.86 827.5 64.07 200.9 58.27 1352.5 63.54 Average Digestion Coefficients of Native Hay, Principally Juncus (Wire Grass). Dry matter Sheep K 64.01 Sheep KK 62.42 Ash 54.77 51.32 Nitrogen- Ether Crude Crude free extract fiber protein extract 62.89 66.11 59.86 64.70 62.86 64.07 58.27 63.54 AVERAGE 63.21 53.O4 62:87 65.O9 59.O6 64.12 We have been unable to find any data upon wire grass (Juncus Balticus). The digestion coefficients of two samples of Black grass (Juncus bulbosus and Juncus gerardi) are given by Jordan & Hall, Bulletin 77, U. S. Department of Agriculture. These are given below: Dry matter gras bulbosus) 69.5 Black grass (Juncus gerardi) 53.4 Nitrogen- % Ether Crude Crude free Ash extract fiber protein extract 69.0 41.5 45.7 57.4 54.3 57.0 49.0 Juncus gerardi corresponds in general appearance and habits more nearly to our wire grass. These are not given as a comparison, but it shows that the digestion coefficients of the native hay of this class grown here are higher than the coefficients as given for other species of pure Juncus. Digestion Experiments With Wethers. 37 DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN 100 POUNDS OF AIR- DRIED MATERIAL. That the values of the hays taken up in this bulletin may be more easily compared, the following table is given showing the amount in pounds of each constituent which is digested from one hundred pounds of air-dried material — also the nu- tritive ratio : DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN 100 LBS. OF AIR DRIED MATERIAL. Nitrogen- Dry Ether Crude Crude free Nutritive matter extract fiber protein extract ratio Alfalfa, first cutting, 1905.... 56.02 0.68 13.21 12.56 25.22 1:3.19 Alfalfa, second cutting, 1905.. 61.53 0.90 13.72 12.37 29.64 1:3.68 " 1904-05.60.35 0.70 14.24 12.01 28.22 1: 3.6S Western Wheat Grass, 1904.. 60.89 1.09 20.69 3.81 33.32 1:14.86 Native hay, 1904 58.73 1.33 18.82 4.58 30.59 1:11.48 Digestion experiments, aside from being valuable from a scientific standpoint, should be of value to stock feeders, as it enables them to more economically and scientifically make up feeding rations. We have taken up the work with alfalfa. A number of such experiments have been carried on at other sta- tions and we may note the similarity and differences between alfalfa grown at low altitude under humid conditions and at high altitudes under arid conditions such as we have in Wyo- ming. We note that Wyoming alfalfa hay gives a narrower nutritive ratio than that found by other experimenters. Since alfalfa is a staple crop in Wyoming, the nitrogenous constitu- ents in stock foods may be obtained cheaply. We have also taken up the study of two hays peculiar to the Rocky Mountain states which gives us new data of value. 38 Wyoming Experiment Station. WATER EXTRACT. It is often found more difficult to cure alfalfa than some other hays when the haying season is wet, and it was thought that there might be some chemical reason for this. Green alfalfa contains a relatively larger percentage of water than native hay, and the stems are more easily bruised, which would have a great effect upon the curing. Upon wet- ting in the process of curing alfalfa it will tend to discolor and mold more easily than native hay. It is found that the water soluble material in the dry alfalfa hay properly cured is greater than in the native hay used in the experiments already men- tioned, as the following table clearly shows : No 1 alfalfa Total water extract J 28.04 Organic matter from Ash water extract 6.93 21.11 6.69 21.01 5.24 19.68 5.12 19.47 6.04 23.14 5.97 23.37 6.07 20.75 5.90 20.92 5.98 21.13 5.92 20.45 5.41 23.71 5.89 23.27 No 2 alfalfa " / 27.70 j 24.92 No. 3 alfalfa ' * 1 24.59 j 29.18 No. 7 alfalfa ' ' ( 29.34 j 26.82 No. 8 alfalfa •"• | 26.82 J 27.11 No 9 alfalfa '•** I 26.37 j 29.12 " | 29.16 AVERAGE .................. 27.43 5.93 21.5O NTn 4 native bav J 22-36 2-65 19-71 MO. 4 native nay .................... -j 22 5g 2 6Q No ^ native hav 2L95 2-50 19-45 No. 5 native hay .................... - 22 Q6 2 59 19 AVERAGE .................. 22.23 2.58 19.65 No 6 native hay (wire grass) ..... j AVERAGE .................. 18.84 3.79 15.05 Such a large percentage of soluble nutritious material as is present in alfalfa make it an excellent subject for bacterial attack and subsequent fermentation when dampened during the process of drying. This may be one important reason for the ease with which alfalfa discolors and ferments, compared with other well known and much used forage. Digestion Experiments With Wethers. 39 As may be noted, the Native Hay, No. 6, as described in Experiment VI, consisting of a large proportion of wire grass, contains much less water soluble material than does the native hay composed of Western Wheat Grass. The water soluble constituents of the hays were deter- mined by covering the finely ground material with about five times its weight of water in a glass-stoppered bottle and al- lowing to macerate with frequent shaking for twenty-four hours, filtering, washing, and evaporating the filtrate at the temperature of boiling water to a constant weight. Wyoming Experiment Station. SUMMARY. In Experiment I (Alfalfa, Second Cutting) each day's feces were analyzed separately, but no great variation in com- position was noted. In Experiment II (Alfalfa, Second Cutting) four dif- ferent composite samples of the hay were made up and an- alyzed with the following results : First Water 6 45 Ash 7 91 Ether extract 1 44 Crude fiber 34 99 Crude protein 13 13 Nitrogen- free extract 36 08 Second 5.50 7.88 1.51 33.71 14 06 37 34 Third 6 46 8 50 1 56 31 13 15 13 37 22 Fourth . ... 6.60 8.17 1.42 33 06 14 06 36 69 Average 6.25 8.12 1.48 33.22 14.10 36.83 This shows the necessity of extreme care in sampling, if results obtained are to be relied upon, as hay from the same plot of ground varies in composition. The average composition of the alfalfa used in the ex- periments given in this bulletin are as follows : Water Ash Experiment I, second cut- ting alfalfa, 1904 5.83 10.28 Experiment II, second cutting alfalfa, 1904... 6.25 8.12 Experiment III, second cutting alfalfa, 1904... 6.70 8.87 AV. CROP 1904. .6.26 9.O9 Crude protein 17.32 14.10 15.88 AVERAGE. .7.23 9.47 Nitrogen- free extract 35.76 39.50 15.77 37.36 Experiment IX, second cutting alfalfa, 1905... 6.74 Experiment X, second cutting alfalfa, 1905... 7.26 9.04 8.93 1.87 1.99 29.17 27.63 15.43 15.65 37.75 38.54 AV. CROP 19O5..7.OO 8.98 1.93 28.40 15.54 3S.15 AV. BOTH CROPS*. 6.44 S.7O 1.62 30.80 15.08 37.36 Experiment VII, first cut- ting alfalfa, 1905 6.47 ExperimentVIII, first cut- ting alfalfa, 1905 8.00 9.12 9.81 1.81 2.06 30.83 28.73 16.09 16.81 35.68 34.59 16.45 35.13 *Average of eight analyses. Digestion Experiments With Wethers. 41 The average digestion coefficients as found for Wyoming alfalfa havs are as follows : Dry matter Exp. I, second cutting alfalfa, 1904 63.56 Ash 56.46 Ether extract 35.08 Crude fiber 46 81 Crude protein 80 92 Nitrogen- free extract 72 11 Exp. II, second cutting alfalfa, 1904 59.98 54.78 46.87 40.77 77 52 72 29 Exp. Ill, second cutting alfalfa, 1904 66.61 57.25 41.64 46 92 80 56 77 82 Exp. IX, second cutting alfalfa, 1905 66.01 53.74 43.86 50.53 78 79 76 71 Exp. X, second cutting alfalfa, 1905 66.30 Exp. VII, first cutting alfalfa, 1905 58.45 54.51 45.70 49.13 32.71 46.12 40.57 80.35 74 83 78.69 71 07 Exp. VIII, first cutting alfalfa. 1905 62.33 AVERAGE (second cut- ting, 1904) 63.39 AVERAGE (second cut- ting 1905) . . 66.16 45.98 56.17 54.13 37.86 41.20 46.5O 48.16 44.84 48.32 77.83 79.67 79.57 72.52 74.O8 77. 7O AVERAGE (second cut- ting, all experi- ments) 64.5O AVERAGE (first cut- tine. 1905)... ...6O.39 55.35 45.85 43.32 35.29 46.23 44.37 79.63 76.33 75.53 71. 8O Wyoming alfalfa hay runs higher in crude fiber and crude protein than the average. The digestion coefficients of the crude protein is also high. The nutritive ratio of first cutting alfalfa is i 13.19; second cutting for both years, 1 13. 68. Sec- ond cutting alfalfa is apparently a better feed. The native hays gave the following composition : Water Ash Exp. IV, Western Wheat Grass 5.94 6.23 Exp. V, Western Wheat Grass 5.51 6.27 Exp. VI, native hay, mixed sedges, rushes, grasses. See page 35). 7.10 6.42 Ether Crude extract fiber 2.68 2.52 2.11 29.48 29.78 28.91 Nitrogen- Crude free protein extract 6.63 7.75 49.29 47.71 The digestion coefficients were found as follows : Dry matter Exp. IV, native hay (one sheep) 63.50 Exp. V, native hay 65.21 Average (three sheep). ..64.64 Exp. VI, native hay (sedges, rushes, grass- es. See page 35) 63.21 Ash Ether extract Crude fiber Crude protein Nitrogen- free extract 31.35 30.27 30.63 40.79 41.98 41.59 67.26 71.31 69.96 58.77 55.00 56.26 67.20 68.46 68.04 53.04 62.87 59.06 64.12 42 Wyoming Experiment Station. The native hays of Wyoming are better and more nutri- tious than timothy grown in the eastern states. The digestible nutrients in 100 pounds of hay are given below calculated from the experiments described in this bul- letin : DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN 100 POUNDS OF AIR DRIED MATE- RIAL AND NUTRITIVE RATIO. Nitrogen- Dry Ether Crude Crude free Nutritive matter extract fiber protein extract ratio Alfalfa, first cutting, 1905... .56.02 0.68 13.21 12.56 25.22 1: 3.19 Alfalfa, second cutting, 1905.. 61. 53 0.90 13.72 12.37 29.64 1:368 1904.05.60.35 0.70 14.24 12.01 28.22 1: 3.68 Western Wheat Grass, 1904.. 60.89 1.09 20.69 3.81 33.32 1:14.86 Native hay, 1904 58.73 1.33 18.82 4.58 30.59 1:11.48 The water soluble of material was determined in the alfalfa and native hays with the following results : Total water Total organic extract Ash matter Alfalfa, average 27.43 5.93 21.50 Western Wheat Grass 22.23 2.58 19.65 Native hay 18.84 3.79 15.05 Alfalfa gives a larger water soluble extract than either Western Wheat Grass or native hay. This may in part ac- count for the fact that the alfalfa is more susceptible to fer- mentation and decay upon dampening during the process of curing than the other hays experimented with. As is well known, it blackens oftentimes after a heavy dew. UNIVERSITY OF WYOMING, Agricultural College Department. WyomiQg Experiment Statior) LARAMIE, WYOMING. NO. 81 JUNE, J909 LAMB FEEDING FOR 1908-09 A. D. FAVILLE Bulletins will be sent free upon request. Address : DIRECTOR EXPERIMENT STATION, Laramie, Wyo. Agricultural Experiment Station UNIVERSITY OF WYOMING, LARAMIE BOARD OF TRUSTEES. Hon OTTO GRAMM, President, Laramie 1915 Hon. HERBERT A. COFFEEN, Sheridan 1911 Hon. ARTHUR C. JONES, Treasurer, Laramie 1911 Hon. ELIZABETH ARNOLD STONE, A. B., Evanston 1911 Hon. TIMOTHY F. BURKE, LL. B., Vice President, Cheyenne. .1913 Hon. ALFRED J. MOKLER, Casper .. . 1913 Hon. JOHN F. CRAWFORD, Saratoga ....1913 Hon. GIBSON CLARK, Cheyenne 1915 Hon. VOLNEY JEAN TIDE ALL, B. A, LL. B, Laramie 1915 State Supt. of Public Instruction ARCHIBALD D. COOK. .. .Exofficio The President of the University Ex officio F. S. BURRAGE Secretary Agricultural Committee of the Board of Trustees. V. J. TIDBALL ' . Laramie OTTO GRAMM Laramie A. C. JONES Laramie STATION COUNCIL. CHARLES O. MERICA, A. M., LL. D President J. D. TOWAR, M. S Director and Agriculturist A. NELSON. Ph. D Botanist and Horticulturist H. G. KNIGHT, A. M Chemist F. E. HEFNER, M. S Assistant Chemist G. R. HEBARD, A. M., Ph. D., . . .-> Secretary and Librarian L. B. McWETHY, B. S Agronomist A. D. FAVILLE, B. S Animal Husbandman J. C. FITTERER, B. S .Irrigation Engineer J. A. HILL, B. S Wool Expert O. L. PRIEN, M. D. V Veterinarian F. A. SMITH, B. S Assistant Chemist A. E. BELLIS, M. S.. . .Meteorologist RHODA G. HOUTZ. . : .Clerk and Stenographer Lamb Feeding for 1908-09. INTRODUCTION. It was with the idea of testing the value of Wyoming grown grain for fattening purposes that the following experi- ment was undertaken. Corn has long stood as the standard cereal for fat production, and many feeders labor under the impression that without its aid profitable stock feeding is well nigh impossible. Will other grains adapted to Western high altitude conditions yield satisfactory results? Reliable con- clusions can only be arrived at through tests covering a period of years, so it is hoped that this will serve but as an introduc- tion to the subject. Future work will be carried on along similar lines. OUTLINE OF THE EXPERIMENT. Table A will serve to show how the sheep were divided, their weight at the beginning of the experiment, and what feeds were given each lot : TABLE A. — Divisions Made and Pccds Used. LOT No. in Lot Av. Wt. per Head Ibs. FEED USED Roughage Grain 1 II Ill 35 :i5 *35 59. a 60.6 60 .£ Alfalfa Alfalfa Alfalfa Corn Emmer Barley *One in this lot died early in the experiment. It will be observed that Lot III had only 34 animals. This was due to the sudden death of one lamb eight days after the test started. His weight and gain were deducted from the initial weight of the lot, and he was entirely dropped from the experiment. Similarly, Lot II lost one through death, but as it died near the close of the period, its probable gain for the remaining Lamb Feeding for ipo#-'op. time was figured out on the basis of the gain made by the others, and no change was made in the number of animals. Baled alfalfa was largely used. In quality it was decidedly poor, and this fact probably accounts for the rather slow gains shown by all the lots. The barley (Scotch) was grown on the Laramie Plains, the emmer, often called spelt, came from near Pine Bluffs, Wyoming, and the corn was shipped in from Nebraska. The lambs were well housed and had access to yards large enough to furnish all needed exercise. Fresh .water was al- ways kept before them, and salt was supplied "ad libitum." In breeding, type and size, the lambs were anything but uniform. Seventeen in each lot were practically pure bred Rambouillets ; the rest represented the crossing of seven or eight "Down" and long-wooled rams on grade Merino stock. These grades were divided as evenly as possible among the several lots. All the lambs were given similar preliminary feeding for about three weeks, the grain ration consisting of equal parts of corn, barley and emmer. The feeding period covered 91 days, beginning November 23, 1908. Each lot was fed equal amounts of grain and all the alfalfa desired. Only two or three cases were reported of animals being off feed. The feed- ing racks were cleaned each week, and all hay removed was accurately weighed. RESULTS. Taking up first the weights and gain of the various lots, we obtain the following results : / TABLE B. — Average Weights and Gains of Lambs. LOTS Wt. at Beginning Ibs. Wt. at Close Ibs. Gain Ibs. Daily Gain Ibs. I. II. III. Corn Emmer Barley 59.2 60.6 60.5 86.7 81.2 90.1 27.5 20.6 29 6 .30 .23 .33 Wyoming Experiment Station. Slightly the best gains were obtained from barley, with emmer a poor third. This in itself is interesting, but data must be had regarding the feed used and the amount required for 100 pounds gain. Table C gives the total feed consumed per head during the 91 days of the experiment: TABLE C. — Average Feed Consumed per Lamb. (91 days)" LOT Hay offered but not Eaten Ibs. Average Feed Eaten per Head. Alfalfa Ibs. Corn Ibs. Emmer Ibs. Barley Ibs. I. . II. . III. . . 13 12 11 . 235 238 247 74 74 76' Lot III averaged slightly more grain per head, due to the death of one lamb early in the experiment. This extra amount was too small, however, to seriously alter results. It will be seen that the hay eaten by each lot was very nearly the same, while the waste per lamb as shown in column two was small. From this table we get the average daily ration offered each lot : Lot I — Alfalfa, 2.72 Ibs., grain, .81 Ib. Lot II— Alfalfa, 2.71 Ibs., grain, .81 fb. Lot III— Alfalfa, 2.83 Ibs., grain, .83 Ib. The grain allowance was increased from a minimum of about one-half pound per head at the beginning of the trial to a little over a pound at its close. Rations were not heavy at any time, as a good, fair growth was all that was desired. TABLE D. — Feed for TOO Pounds Gain. LOT Alfalfa Ibs. Corn Ibs. Emmer Ibs. Barley Ibs. I 865 2(59 II. . Ill 1141 8:« 359 257 ' Lamb Feeding for 7po#-'op. 7 Lot III not only made the most rapid gains, but made them on the smallest food consumption. Lot I was a close second in every way, and it would be unfair to credit either ration with any distinct superiority. The ration fed Lot II gave much poorer returns. It required 307 Ibs., or 27 per cent. less alfalfa, and1 102 Ibs., or 28 per cent less grain for 100 Ibs. of gain where barley replaced emmer in the ration. THE VALUE OF MUTTON CROSSES FOR FEEDERS. As stated before, seventeen of the lambs in each lot were fine wools of the Rambouillet type, most of them eligible for registry. The remaining eighteen all had mutton sires and grade Merino dams. These two classes may be partially com- pared in gains made. No record was kept of the feed con- sumed by each type. TABLE: E. — Weights of Lambs, LOT Av. Wt. at Beginning Av. Wt. at Close Rambouillets Ibs. Mutton Grades Ibs. Rambouillets Ibs. Mutton Grades Ibs. - I. II. III. 64.1 (>2.4 62.0 54.7 58.9 58.9 88.0 78.3 88.8 85.6 83.9 91.3 Emmer Barley TABLE F. — Gains of Lambs. LOT Av. Gain per day Gain for 91 Days Rambouillets Ibs.. Mutton Grades, Ibs. Rambouiilets Ibs. Mutton Grades Ibs.' I. II. III. Corn . . .26 .17 .29 ;M .35 23.9 16.0 26. S 30.8 25.0 32.3 Emmer Barley The above tables explain themselves. In each lot the mutton grades made the more rapid gains, and in each case barley gave the best and emmer the poorest returns. Assuming that all the lambs in each lot ate practically the same amounts of roughage and grain, the two following tables are submitted without comment. 8 Wyoming Experiment Station. TABLE: G. — Feed for 100 Pounds Gain, Ranibouillets. LOT Alfalfa Ibs. Corn Ibs. Emmer Ibs. Barley Ibs. I 083 310 II Ill 1469 990 463 984 ' TABLE H. — Feed for 100 Pounds Gain, Mutton Grades. LOT Alfalfa Ibs. Corn Ibs. Emmer Ibs. Barley Ibs. I II Ill 763 940 7(55 240 '296" 235 The finished lambs were marketed through local channels, and, while not fancy, were in good condition. CONCLUSIONS. Corn and the bearded or Scotch barley, when fed with alfalfa, were about equal in value for mutton production. Bar- ley in this test proved to be a shade the better. Twenty-seven per cent, less alfalfa and twenty-eight per cent, less grain was required where barley replaced emmer in a ration. Grade lambs with mutton sires made greater gains, con- ditions being similar, than did Rambouillet lambs, though a record of food consumption for each class was not kept. The Western stockman has a feed in barley that is of great value for meat production, and may be used to advan- tage as a corn substitute. UNIVERSITY OF WYOMING Agricultural College Department. WyomiQg Experiment Statior) LARAMIE, WYOMING. NO. Q3 JUNE, 1912 A Comparison of Sheep Branding Paints C. J. OVIATT, Asst. Wool Investigations Bulletins will be sent free upon request. Address : DIRECTOR EXPERIMENT STATION, Laramie, Wyo. Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station UNIVERSITY OF WYOMING LARAMIE. BOARD OF TRUSTEES. Officers. TIMOTHY F. BURKE, LL. B.. ..President J. F. CRAWFORD Vice President ARTHUR C. JONES Treasurer FRANK SUMNER BURRAGE, B. A Secretary Executive Committee. A. B. HAMILTON T. F. BURKE V. J. TIDBALL Members. Term Appointed Expires 1895 HON. TIMOTHY F. BURKE, LL. B 1913 1903 HON. A. J. MOKLER 1913 1907 HON. J. F. CRAWFORD 1913 1911 HON. WILLIAM S. INGHAM, B. A 1913 1908 HON. GIBSON CLARK 1915 1909 HON. V. JEAN TIDBALL, B. A. LL. B 1915 1911 HON. ALEXANDER B. HAMILTON, M. D 1917 1911 HON. LYMAN H. BROOKS 1917 1911 HON. AUGUSTINE KENDALL...: 1917 HON. ROSE A. BIRD, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Ex officio PRES. CHARLES O. MERICA, LL. D .Ex officio STATION COUNCIL. CHARLES O. MERICA, A. M., LL. D. . ..President HENRY G. KNIGHT, A. M Director and Chemist A. NELSON, Ph. D Botanist and Horticulturist F. E. HEPNER, M. S ..Assistant Chemist J. A. HILL, B. S Wool Specialist O. L. PRIEN, M. D. V Veterinarian A. D. FAVILLE, B. S Animal Husbandman J. C. FITTERER, M. S., C. E Irrigation Engineer S. K. LOY, Ph. D Research Chemist T. S. PARSONS, M. S Agronomist L. D. SWINGLE, Ph. D Parasitologist KARL STEIK, M. A Engineering Chemist C. J. OVIATT, B. S Assistant Wool Investigations JAMES McLAY Stock Superintendent H. A. McCRAKEN Clerk F. S. BURRAGE, B. A Secretary Sheep Branding Paints. INTRODUCTION. A continual demand for reliable information concerning sheep branding fluids called for an investigation, the results of which follow. Range conditions in this state are exceed- ingly severe upon paint brands, and experience teaches that but few will last the season. A perfect branding fluid will have two main character- istics, as follows : First, the brand will be permanent enough to withstand range conditions for one year and show with reasonable plainness at the end of that time. Second, its com- position will be such that it can be completely removed by ordinary scouring solutions. These conditions are hard to obtain, but this is the problem of the manufacturer. Under range conditions a permanent brand is an absolute necessity, not only in determining the ownership of stray animals, but also in the customary breeding operations. An indistinct brand ofttimes means much trouble and loss. It is also imperative that the brand be of such material that it will scour readily. Every drop of paint placed upon wool must be removed before the wool can be manufactured into cloth. If the brand will not scour out by the usual methods, then hand labor must be employed to go over every fleece and clip off the brands. This not only means the loss of the wool clipped off, but it means a considerable amount of money expended for labor, all of which eventually comes out of the pockets of the wool grower. In some localities a brand placed upon the ear, nose or forehead where it would not injure the wool would be suf- ficient. In fact, in many cases the entire absence of a brand would serve as the best identification mark. It is the duty of the wool grower to use as little paint as possible, placed where it will be the least injurious to the fleece. When the sheepmen appreciate the decreased price of wool due to ex- travagant use of paint they will exercise more care in the selection and application of their brands. 4 Wyoming Experiment Station. ATTITUDE OF MANUFACTURER. In the big woolen mills the manufacturer of cloth takes no chances with paint brands. The fleeces are worked over by hand labor and the brands clipped off. Brands that will scour and brands that will not are treated alike. This is an exceedingly costly operation and is necessitated only by the too liberal use of undesirable paints. If all wool grower would use a scourable paint the labor would be eliminated and the saving could be added to the price of wool. In order to ascertain the comparative efficiency, durability and scouring out qualities of different paints on the market, the following tests were made: PLATE I. This cut shows the system of marking employed so that all brands would be subjected to similar treatment. Note that, for instance, Paint No. 4 appears on right side of one sheep and on right shoulder of next. This picture was taken immediately after branding. The sheep were dipped July 20th, and were branded five days later. OUTLINE OF EXPERIMENTS. Six different paints were used, the names or descriptions and numbers of which follow : 1. Common Paint, i. e., Venetian red, linseed oil and turpentine. 2. Kemp's Australian Sheep Branding Fluid. A Comparison of Sheep Branding Paints. 5 3. Sheep Branding Fluid, Oregon Wood Distilling Company. 4. Perfect Sheep Branding Fluid, Stockman's Supply House, Chicago. 5. Special Sheep Branding Fluid, Devoe & Raynolds Co. 6. Harmless Sheep Marking Fluid, Sherwin-Williams Company. In all twelve sheep were used, of which six were branded before dipping and six after dipping. In the first lot were two Rambouillets, two Cotswolds and two Shropshires. The second lot, those branded after dipping, was made up entirely of Rambouillets. The brand, which was a capital letter O with the number of the paint directly underneath, was applied with the common branding iron. Each sneep in each lot was branded with six different brands in such a manner that, for instance, Paint No. i appeared on the right shoulder of one sheep, on the right side of the next, on the right hip of the next and so on through the lot. By this method, in each lot, all the paints appeared on each sheep but in a different posi- tion on each sheep. Plate I helps illustrate the method. In this way the brands were subjected to the same treatment and a comparative test could be made. PLATE II. The above cut shows brand on sheep branded before dipping. This brand had been on only four months. Plate III shows the same view of this sheep a little less than two months later. 6 Wyoming Experiment Station. In branding the iron was placed upon a pad of wool satu- rated with the fluid and then applied to the sheep. Common paint, Kemp's, Perfect, Special, and Harmless were very easy to apply, being just thick enough to avoid dripping. The fluid from the Oregon Wood Distilling Company was rather thin and hence hard to apply so as to give a perfect brand. The pigment and base in the Special had precipitated, and this necessitated considerable stirring before the liquid was ready for use. The sheep were allowed range conditions as nearly as possible and notes were taken at regular intervals. As is usu- ally the case, the brands faded rapidly on the coarse and long- wools, remaining visible as a brand only five months. On the medium wooled sheep the brands were more durable, while they reached their maximum on the fine wools. However, none of the prepared paints remained for a full year. Some were indistinct in five months while some persisted during eight months. The Common paint, however, remained for the full year on the downs and fine wools. Similar tests show that lamp black, a little white lead and linseed oil make as durable a paint as the one tested here and known as Common. PLATE III. Same sheep and view as in Plate II about two months later. Brand has been on nearly six months and is fading rapidly. A Comparison of Sheep Branding Paints. 7 Careful examination at regular intervals and at close of test show these paints to have durability ranking as in the following table : On On On PAINT Coarse Medium Fine Wools Wools Wools Common . . MOB. Mos. 12 Mos. 1-2 Devoe & Raynolds "Special" <> 8 8 Oregon Wood Distilling Company's. 5 fc 8 Kemp's Australian . .... Sherwin-Williams' "Harmless" Stockman'* Supply House "Perfect ' 4 4 6 8 fi 1 1 1 SCOURING TESTS. A scouring solution of olive soap, water and soda ash at an average temperature of 130° F. was used in this test. The brands, clipped from the fleeces, were subjected to this treatment for twenty minutes and then cleaned in hot water. It was found that the fineness of wool had little or no effect on the scouring out qualities of the paints. PLATE IV. Picture taken immediately after branding. Note how plainly brand shows in detail on fine wool sheep. Compare with Plate V. Kemp's scoured out perfectly, leaving no trace of paint upon the scoured wool. The fluid from the Oregon Wood Distilling Company did not scour so well and small quantities of paint would cling to the scoured wool. The Perfect was 8 Wyoming Experiment Station. next in rank, but scoured with considerable difficulty. This treatment had but little effect upon the remainder of the paints. Scouring Tests Devoe & Raynold's "Special" Does not scour Oregon Wood Distilling Company's . Fair Scoured perfectly Sherwin-Williams' "Harmless" Stockman's Supply House "Perfect" Fair PLATE V. Picture taken immediately after branding. Note absence of sharp- ness in detail. Brand is .less effective and less desirable on this wool. CONCLUSIONS. A paint made of Venetian red ox lamp black as pigments mixed with linseed oil is much more durable than the prepared paints tested. The right consistency may be obtained by the addition of turpentine. Brands remain a greater length of time on downs and fine-wools than on coarse wools. The fineness of the wool has no effect upon the scouring out qualities of the paints. Kemp's was the only paint to scour perfectly. The fluid from the Oregon Wood Distilling Company scoured fairly well but it was impossible to secure a complete removal by ordinary methods. FATTENING RANGE LAMBS. OHIO Agricultural Experiment Station. WOOSTEK, OHIO, U. S. A., NOVEMBER, 1907. BULLETIN 187. The Bulletins of this Station ate sent free to all residents of the State who request them. Persons who desire their addresses changed should give both old and new address. All correspondence should be addressed to EXPERIMENT STATION, Wooster, Ohio. ORGANIZATION OF THE OHIO AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. BOARD OF CONTROL. T. C. LAYLIN, President Norwalk D. L. SAMPSON, Secretary Cincinnati JOHN COURTRIGHT, Treasurer Ashville D. D. WHITE ' Castalia GARY W. MONTGOMKRY Newark STATION STAFF. DEPARTMENT CHIEFS. DEPARTMENT CHARLES E. THORNE, M. S. A., Director Administration. Soils WILLIAM J. GRKEN Horticulture. Forestry AUGUSTINE D. SELBY, B. S Botany C. G. WILLIAMS Agronomy JOHN W. AMES, M. S Chemistry H. A . GOSS/ARD, M. S Entomology B. E. CARMICHAEL, B. S Animal Husbandry L. H. GODDARD, C. E., Assistant Director Cooperative Experiments E. B. FORBES, B. S Nutrition ASSISTANTS. WILLIAM H. KRAMER, Bursar Administration F. A. WELTON, B. S Agronomy GAIL T. ABBOTT, A. B Agronomy THOMAS F. MANNS, M. S Botany TRUE HOUSER.... Botany W. F. PATE, B. S Chemistry L. L. LASHELL, B. S Chemistry S. S. FAY, B. S Chemistry M. O. BUGBY, B. S Cooperative Experiments W. H. GOODWIN, B. S Entomology EDM UND SECREST, B. S Forestry CLARENCE W. WAID, B. S Horticulture F. H. BALLOU Horticulture H. S. WOODS, A. M Nutrition R. C. E. WALLACE, B. S Soils FOREMEN AND CLERKS. WILLIAM HOLMES, Farm Foreman Agronomy CHARLES A. PATTON, Meteorological Observer Agronomy ORA FLACK, HorticuMiral Forman Horticulture W. E. BONTRAGER, Florist Horticulture CARY WELTY, Mechanic Administration F. W . GLASS, Printer <. Administration FAYE BLAYNEY, Mailing Clerk Administration MARY M. LEE, Stenographer Administration Valaria Riley, Stenographer Forestry IN CHARGE OF TEST FARMS. EDWARD MOHN, Supt. Northeastern Test-farm, Strongsville Administration HENRY M . WACHTER, Supt. Southwestern Test-farm, Germantown Administration LEWIS SCHULTZ, Supt. Southeastern Test-farm, Carpenter Administration The Bulletins of this Station are issued at irregular intervals. They are paged consecutively and an index is included with the Annual Report, which constitutes the final number of each'yearly volume. CONTENTS. Pag-e. Introduction .... 11 Object of the experiment 12 Lambs used in the experiment 12 Treatment previous to experiment 13 Rations > , 13 Feeding 14 Bedding- 14 Salt 15 Quarters..: IS Weight of lambs v 16 Cost of gains , 18 Results from linseed oilmeal and stcck food 19 Heavy and medium corn rations 20 Rate of gains by ewes and wethers 21 Shipping, y arding and sale 21 Expense of shipping , .22 Shrinkage and dressed percentage 22 Loss of lambs 25 Consumption of roughage 25 Manure 26 Financial statement 28 Influence of varying market conditions . . 29 Summary of two years' work 33 ACKNOWLEDGMENT. To Mr. S. J. Fryer, whose cordial cooper- ation has made it possible to conduct the two experiments reported herein, the author is glad to express his thanks for the assistance rendered both in planning" and in executing" the details of the experiments. BULLETIN OF THK 'hio Agricultural Experiment Station . "TT i — . _ . <:R 187. NOVKMBKR, 1907. FATTENING RANGE LAMBS. BY B. E. CARMICHAEL. INTRODUCTION. The sheep industry of Ohio, with her more than 2,000,000 sheep, one of the important branches of agriculture of the state. Indeed, some sections the conditions seem better suited to sheep hus- >andry than to any other kind of stock growing. Whether the prime object of the flock owner is to produce wool or to produce mutton, sooner or later a large number of the sheep or lambs are fattened for market. According to the report of the Secretary of the State Board of Agriculture, under date of August 1, 1907, there were, in April, 1907, 2,017,325 sheep in Ohio. It is not possible to state definitely the number of these sheep that have been fattened for market, or will be fattened during the year, but the number is large. The matter of selecting the ration for sheep that are to be fat- tened is an important one and one upon which, to a marked degree, the profits fromfeeding depend. The Departmentof AnimalHusbandry of thisStationhas undertaken a series of experiments to compare var- ious rations, and the results of the first two years' work show some- thingof the importanceof using rations that have been carefully select- ed. Since it has not been possible to deal with more than one phase of the fattening of sheep, it seems best that lambs have been used, for, as a usual thing, rations that will give good results with lambs should be suitable for older sheep. While, perhaps, this cannot be said to be true in all cases, yet a ration that is markedly extravagant for lambs would probably not be economical for older sheep. It is believed, then, that the results, as secured to date, while secured from work with range lambs, will, in general, apply to native lambs and to mature sheep as well. 11 12 OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION: BULLETIN 187. 'Pursuing1 the line of work in experimental fattening of range lambs that was begun in cooperation with Mr. S. J. Fryer, in Nov- ember, 1905, the experiment reported in this bulletin was conducted at Mr. Fryer's farm in Wayne county during the winter of 1906-07. A part of the experiment is, substantially, a duplication of the work of 1905-06. The results of the work of 1906-07 are presented in the first part of this bulletin, after which a summary of the two years' work is given in a condensed form. OBJECTS. The objects of this experiment were: 1 To secure additional data on the advisability of feeding a proprietary stock food or linseed oilmeal to fattening range lambs in connection with corn and a nitrogenous roughage (clover in this case). 2 To compare heavy feeding of grain with moderate feeding of grain. 3 To compare the rate of gains made by ewe lambs and by wether lambs. 4 To secure additional data on that subject of great and grow- ing importance, the production of manure by farm animals. The experiment of 1905-06 did not deal with the heavy grain ration, nor with the comparative rapidity of gains by ewes and by wethers. In other essentials the two experiments were very similar. In the second experiment only one nitrogenous concentrate- linseed oilmeal— was tested, while in the former, both linseed oil- meal and cottonseed meal were tested. During the first experi- ment the roughage consisted of alfalfa, clover and some bluegrass. During the second experiment only clover hay was fed. LAMBS USED IN THE EXPERIMENT. 176 head of lambs in four lots of 44 each were used in this ex- periment. Three of these four lots contained 22 ewes and 22 wethers; one lot contained 23 ewes and only 21 wethers. They were selected from a lot of about 350 head of Wyoming-bred lambs, purchased for Mr. Fryer by a Chicago commission firm. They were thrifty and vigorous, but not so growthy as the lambs used in the previous test (see Plate I), apparently carrying a much greater percentage of Merino blood than did the lambs fed in 1905- 06. A fair idea of the breeding of the two lots may be gained from the statement that the wool shorn in 1906 graded "one-quarter" to "three-eighths", while that shorn in 1907 graded "medium" as graded by the local buyers. In neither instance were the lambs that were used in the experiment shorn, but other lambs from the same bands that the experimental lambs were selected from were FATTENING RANGE LAMBS 13 TREATMENT PREVIOUS TO EXPERIMENT. The lambs were shipped from Chicago on November 5, 1906, arriving" at the farm the following day, November 6th. They were tllowed to graze upon bluegrass pasture with no grain until Nov- imber 13th, after which time they were put into the barn each night tnd fed a very small amount of shelled corn — only about four quarts the entire flock of about 350 head. The lambs were very slow in learning to eat grain: on November 27, when first shut in the barn permanently, the entire flock received one-half bushel of grain daily. This amount was gradually increased, so that when the experiment ?gan, on December 22, each of Lots 1,2 and 4 received 24 pounds of grain, while Lot 3 received 26 pounds. Hay was kept in the racks before the lambs from the time they were first kept in the barn at night. While on grass during the day they consumed very little hay, but ate it readily after being shut in the barn permanently. • RATIONS. All of the lambs were fed corn and clover hay alike, until the initial weights for the experiment were secured. It was planned to feed grain rations as follows to the four lots of lambs. Lot 1, corn, 5 parts; linseed oilmeal, 1 part. Lot 2, corn, stock food. Lot 3, corn (about one-sixth more than lot 4 received). Lot 4, corn. Lots 1, 2 and 4 received, as a rule, the same amount of grain daily per lot. Table I shows the average amount of the various concentrates consumed daily by each of the four lots of lambs during each of the four four-week periods of the test. All four lots of lambs were fed clover hay in such quan- tities as they would consume without excessive waste. The clover was of good quality. The amount of clover refused by the various lots will show something of its purity. Some coarser parts of the plants were left, but what was left was not very palatable and had little feeding value. All corn used was shelled before weighing and feeding. In this experiment most of the oilmeal used was finely ground. A small amount of the "pea size" was used. At first the lambs did not seem to relish the finely ground meal, but soon came to eat it very well. The stock food was of the same brand and lot that was used in the previous experiment, purchased from a local dealer. The lambs ate it very readily throughout the experiment. 14 OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION: BULLETIN 187. TABLE I — Food consumed daily by each lot at different periods, pounds. Lot Ration First four weeks Second four weeks Third four weeks • Fourth four weeks ( Corn 24.96 40.71 48 57 50 00 ll Oilmeal 4.11 8 14 9.71 10 00 | Clover 59.88 57.26 48.63 42 54 Corn 29 07 48 86 58 29 60 00 Stock food 17 32 32 M Clover 60 52 58 01 47 89 42 01 0 i Corn . 33.18 57.00 57 59 57 01 3i Clover 59 91 52 45 40 51 40 56 . ( Corn , . . . 29 07 48-86 54.02 56 81 4i Clover 61.24 55.79 43.89 40.53 The lambs in Lots 3 and 4 refused some of their grain during part of the experiment, and, on this account, their grain allowance was reduced somewhat, as shown in Table I. Aside from the above, the lambs of all lots ate very well after becoming- accustomed to their ration. As was previously stated, however, they learned very slowly to eat grain. In the former experiment, the same amount of roug-hag-e was allowed each lot. In this experiment, it was desi. ed to feed each lot all the hay that would be eaten, so as to ascertain more concerning- the effect of the stock food and the nitrogenous concentrate — oilmeal in this instance — upon the consumption of roug-hag-e. FEEDING. As in the former experiment, each day's ration was fed in two equal portions: grain was fed at 7 a. m. and 4 p. m. followed by hay in each instance. The lambs soon became accustomed to this regu- larity, and were usually very quiet between feeds. BEDDING. Wheat straw was used for bedding, being supplied at all times in sufficient quantities to keep the pens from becoming- at all filthy. Besides the wheat straw, the refuse hay, consisting- chiefly of the less palatable portions of the cloyer hay, was used as bedding- for the lot which refused it. The average daily amount of bedding (straw and refuse hay) for each of the lots was as follows: Lot 1, 10.74 pounds; Lot 2, 10.50 pounds; Lot 3, 10.70 pounds; Lot 4, 10.93 pounds. During- the later part of the experiment more bedding than usual was used so as to render the manure more easily handled by a manure spreader, as it was found that with the smaller allowance of bedding the manure was too solid to work well in the spreader. FATTENING RANGE L'AMBS. SALT. 15 Each lot of lambs received, twice weekly, until February 26. one and one-fourth pounds of a mixture made up, by weight, of four parts salt to one part sulphur. Beginning- February 26, one and one-half pounds of the mixture was fed to each lot twice weekly. QUARTERS. The lambs were fed in a barn 64 by 100 feet f see Plate I) with hay storage above. A row of 8 pens 12.5 feet wide by 26 feet long (these measurements include the space occupied by feed racks and watering tanks) was on each side of the barn, with a 12-foot drive- way between the two rows of pens. Racks for hay and grain ex- tended along each side of each pen, giving about 50 feet of feeding space for each 44 lambs; water was supplied in automatically regu- lated tanks, one located at the end of each alternate feeding rack, so that one tank furnished water for two lots. The racks and tanks thus arranged formed the partitions between the different pens. II — Showing construction of combined hay and grain rack. Vertical partitions (shown in Plate II) divided the racks for the lots under experiment. Besides the doors (on the east) and windows (on the west) there were large doors at each end of the driveway and a large opening at the center of the barn, into the havmow. 16 OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION: BULLETIN 187 The pens occupied by the four lots used in this experiment were the north four pens east of the alley. Lot 1 was farthest north, the lots being" numbered consecutively towards the south. Throughout the experiment the lambs w*ere taken from the pens once each week to be weighed, but aside from this were seldom out of the pens, which afforded only a trifle over 7 square feet per lamb. Although these range lambs had previously been accustomed to an abundance of outdoor exercise, they seemed to suffer no inconvenience from the close confinement. WEIGHTS OF LAMBS. While all lots were yet receiving corn and clover, each lot of lambs was weighed for three consecutive days at 7 a. m., before food or water had been given. The average of these three weights is considered the initial weight. At the close of the experiment the final weight of each lot was ascertained in the same manner. In all instances the lambs were kept from water after 5 p. m. of the day previous to the weighing. As is usually the case, it was found that the weights of any given lot varied considerably from day to day. The reason for this variation is not apparent, but its occur- rence is a matter of common observation, even when the strictest regularity is observed in feeding and weighing. Throughout the experiment each lot of lambs was weighed once every Friday at 7 a. m., having been kept from water since 5 p. m. of the previous day. TABLE II— Weekly, initial and final weights, and weekly gains. All weights taken at 7 o'clock a. m. Date Lotl Lot 2 Lot 3 Lot 4 Weight ibs. Gain Ibs. Weight Ibs. Gain Ibs. Weight Ibs. Gain Ibs. Weight Ibs. Gain Ibs. Dec. 20 2,145 2,155 2,180 2,145 " 21 2,150 2,175 2,220 2,165 " 22 2,165 2,185 2,210 2,150 Initial average.... 2,153 H 2,171% 2,203H 2,15354 Dec. 28 2.205 51% 2,220 48H 2,280 76% 2,220 66% Jan. 4 2,265 60 2,275 55 2,340 60 2.260 40 ' 11 2.290 25 2.305 30 2,365 25 2.290 30 1 18 2.310 20 2,350 45 2.415 50 2,345 55 ' 25 2,410 100 2,450 100 2,535 120 2.430 80* Feb. 1 2,480 70 2535 85 2635 100 2.530 100 ' 8 2,600 120 2630 95 2,755 120 2,650 120 ' 15 2680 80 2705 75 2.820 65 2,705 55 ' 22 2,720 40 2755 50 2,880 60 2.765 60 Mar. 1 2830 110 2,860 105 2.980 100 2,825 60 ' 8 2,895 65 2:940 80 2,960 -20 2.875 50 ' 15 2 975 80 3015 75 3.065 105 2,950 75 ' 22 3,035 60 3,070 55 3150 85 3,050 100 ' 29 3 105 70 3 130 60 3,175 25 3030 -20 A >r. 5 3,210 105 3,265 135 3.275 100 3,185 155 11 3,310 3,320 3.400 3.290 • 12 3,305 3,315 3,390 3,270 ' 13 3315 3,335 3,405 3,310 Final average. .. . 3,310 100 3,323^1 P8H 3,398H 123% 3.290 105 Total gain, Ibs 1.161%** 1,151% 1,200** 1.136%** FATTENING RANGE LAMBS. 17 Table II gives in detail the initial, weekly and final weights of each lot, together with the gains made by each lot each week and for the entire period. A study of this table will show the variations that were observed. One lamb in each of Lots 1, 3 and 4 lost, from some unknown cause, the most of its wool. Before being marketed these lambs were shorn completely. The weight of their wool was estimated at 5 pounds each, and this amount was added to the final weight and to the Pittsburg weight of each of these 3 lots. This applies to all tables dealing in any way with these weights. TABLE III — Summary of weights and gains. Lot Grain ration Initial weight Final weight Total grain Daily grain per lamb. 1 Corn and oilmeal Ibs. 2,153 3 Ibs. 3,315 Ibs.-. 1 161 7 Ibs. 236 2 Corn and stock food 2,171.7 3,323-3 1,151.7 .234 3 4 Corn (heavy) Corn 2,203 3 2,153 3 3,403 3 3,295 1,200 1 136 7* .244 231 *One ewe lamb died in Lot 4, January 18; weight 60 pounds; replaced by ewe lamb weighing- 65 pounds. Table III shows a summary of weights and gains for the entire period. It will be observed that the daily gains made by Lots 1, 2 and 4 are almost exactly equal, while Lot 3 made somewhat higher gains. Although the rate of gains is approximately equal for Lots 1, 2 and 4, yet Tables IV and V show that quite an appreciable difference exists in the amount and cost of feed required to produce a given gain by the various lots. TABLE IV— Food consumed per 100 pounds gain. Lot Ration Pounds feed consumed per 100 pounds gain. Clover hay Corn Oilmeal (*) Stock food (t) Total 1 Corn, oilmeal and clover... 502-10 395.90 77.04* 975 04 2 Corn, stock food and clover 506.74 477.05 2.78t. 986.57 3 Corn (heavy) and clover . . 451.33 477.81 929.14 4 Corn and clover 496.23 464.98 961.21 It will be seen in Table IV that the two Lots, 3 and 4, (fed corn and clover hay) heavy and medium grain rations, respectively, led in the order mentioned in producing a given gain with low consump- tion of feed. Lot 1, fed corn, linseed oilmeal and clover hay, made higher gains than did Lot 4 and also consumed more feed and re- quired a greater number of pounds of feed for a given gain. Lot 2, fed corn and stock food required more corn than did any other lot save Lot 3 and more hay than did any other lot to produce 100 pounds era in 18 OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION: BULLETIN 187 COST OF GAINS. TABLE V— Food consumed; gains produced; cost of gains. Lot 1 Lot 2 Lot 3 Lo t 4 Kind of feed. Price. A mount Value Amount Value Amount Value A mount Value Corn 40cts. per bu. 82.125bu. $32.85 98.107bu. $39.24 102. 388 bu $40.96 94.379bu. $37.75 Oilmeal $32 per ton Stock "food 5 cts per Ib .4475 ton 14.32 32 Ibs 1 60 Clover hay $12 per ton 2.9164 ton 35.00 29. 18 tons 35.02 2.708 tons 32.50 2.82 tons 33.84 Total value of feed . . W2.17 5 575.86 $73.46 $71.59 Total gain, Ibs 1 ,161.7 1 ,151.7 1,200 1,136-7 Daily gain per head. . . .236 .234 .244 .231 Cost per Ib. gain on basis of above prices 7. 073 cts. 6. 587 cts. ' 6. 122 cts. 6. 298 cts. The cost of one pound gain in live weight by each of the lots is shown in Table V. The figures apply only to the market conditions which prevailed for this test, so are not nearly so widely applicable as are the data concerning the amount of feed consumed by each lot to produce 100 pounds gain. The author is thoroughly convinced that too important a place is often given to the cost of gains when discussing the results of a feeding experiment, thus rendering more probable a wrong understanding by the student, or feeder. When feeders and experimenters think, reckon and write concern- ing feeding experiments with amount of feed and rate and extent of gain in live weight, rather than with cost of feed, animals and gains and net profit from the operation as the factors for comparisons, it will be reasonable to expect more intelligent selection of rations and consequently fewer failures to secure satisfactory returns for feed and labor required to conduct feeding operations. TABLE VI— Cost of gains as affecting cost of fat lambs.* Cost per 100 pounds gain. Corn (heavy) Corn (medium) Corn and stock food Corn and oilmeal $6.12 $6.30 $6.59 $7.07 Assumed home cost of feeder lambs per hundredweight. Prices at which fat lambs in the various lots would need to sell per hundredweight at home to pay for feeder lambs and gains pro- duced on basis of assumed prices of feeder lambs and feeds.** $3.00 4.10 4-16 4.27 4.44 4.00 4 75 4.81 4-91 5.08 5.00 5.40 5.46 5 56 5-73 6.00 6.04 6.11 6.21 6.38 7.00 6 69 6 75 6.86 7.02 - 8.00 7 34 7.40 7.50 7.67 FATTENING RANGE LAMBS. 19 The writer would not be understood as saying that a financial statement is of no value or that nothing- should be said concerning: the cost of gains. On the contrary, each has a value, but it is be. lieved that in either case the value is far less important than is the matter of the amount of feed required to produce a given gain, on account of the sudden and wide variation in price that may occur. Table VI is intended to show the effect that the different costs of gains made by the four lots have upon the prices at which lambs bought at various prices, ranging- from $3.00 to $8.00 per hundred- weight, may be sold without loss. Neither rapid gains nor cheap gains are necessarily the most profitable. Sometimes the most rapid g-ains are so expensive as to do away with all profit. Ag-ain, cheap gains are often so slow as to prevent making- a sufficient num- ber of pounds to provide any considerable profit. It is desirable to secure grains that are both cheap and rapid, and to do this it is nec- essary to find efficient feeds that are not too high in price. The work done by this Station in fattening- lambs indicates that corn and clover or alfalfa constitute such a ration under normal market conditions. Other rations may be used with satisfactory results, but when corn and clover or alfalfa are available at moderate prices, it seems improbable that any other feeds can be used with increased profit, unless unusual prices prevail for feeds. This table is based upon the prevailing- prices of feeds during the experiment, and would, of course, be affected by chang-ed prices, It is assumed, and the calculations for this table are based upon the assumption, that all lots weig-hed the same, 2,203^ pounds, when put on experi- ment, and that all lots made the same g-ain, 1,200 pounds; this is not strictly accurate, but it is impossible to ascertain the real bearing of the cost of gain upon the cost of fat lambs when other factors vary. This, again, emphasizes the fact that financial statements of experimental work in feeding- livestock often fall far short of telling the whole of the facts of the case. RESULTS FROM LINSEED OILMEAL AND STOCK FOOD. Unless linseed oilmeal can be purchased at approximately as low a price as corn per pound no profit from its use- with corn and clover hay for fattening- lambs is to be expected. This discussion applies only to feeding linseed oilmeal with a nitrogenous roughage and should not be understood to mean that linseed oilmeal may never be fed with profit. As regards the use of the stockfood tested in both experiments, little can be said either for or against its use. While the total cost is not great, the results of either test do not show any great ad vantage from its use — neither is any particular disadvantage 20 OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION: BULLETIN 187 shown. With such negative results, no reason is apparent for using stock food, as there is necessarily some added expense and some inconvenience in feeding it. Tests of various proprietary stock foods at other stations and with other kinds of stock have shown no great advantage from them, and evidence is not at hand to warrant any encouragement of their use — on the contrary, the bulk of evi- dence indicates that their use should be discouraged. HEAVY AND MEDIUM CORN RATIONS. As previously stated, the plan of this experiment provided for a comparison of a heavy corn ration with a moderate one. The grain allowance for Lot 3 was increased more rapidly than was that for Lot 4, the purpose being to feed Lot 3 one-sixth more corn than Lot 4 re- ceived. This amount proved to be more than they would eat, and the total grain eaten by Lots 3 and 4 was 5,733.75 pounds and 5,285.25 pounds, respectively; that is, the lambs in Lot 3 ate about one-twelfth more grain than did those in Lot 4. The increased grain consump- tion was, naturally, accompanied by a lower consumption of rough- age, 5,416 pounds by Lot 3, as compared with 5,640.5 pounds by Lot 4. So far as consumption of food for 100 pounds gain is concerned, the results of this comparison show an advantage from the use of the heavier grain ration, as is shown by Table IV, page 17. TABLE VII— Cost per hundred pounds gain for Lots 3 and 4 with feeds at various prices. Hay per ton $6 00 $6.00 $9.00 $12.00 $9.00 $9.00 $6.00 $12.00 Corn per bushel . . . 60 cts. 45 cts. 45 cts. 45 cts. 30 cts. 60 cts. 30 cts. 60 cts. Lot3 $6.588 5.308 6.043 6.776 4.762 7.322 4.028 8.056 Lot 4 6.599' 5.353 6.161 6.970 4.916 7.407 4.108 8.215 Table VII shows the effect of a heavy grain ration as influenced by varying market prices of hay and corn. It will be observed that with clover hay at $6.00 per ton and corn at 60 cents per bushel the cost of gains made under the two systems would be practically equal. With hay higher and corn the same price, or lower, the gains would cost somewhat less with the heavier corn ration. Not only would the gains be cheaper but the feeding period would be shorter, thus decreasing the cost of labor, interest on investment, and in- surance. The feeding of a heavy corn ration requires closer watchfulness on the part of the feeder and is doubtless associated with an added possibility of loss due to over-feeding. The differences which were observed in this test are not particularly large, and may not be FATTENING RANGE LAMBS. 21 borne out by future results; yet it is believed that they are worthy of consideration in relation to the fattening- of lambs under varying market conditions. Further work along- this line is contemplated. It is entirely possible that other problems of farm management would sometimes make the feeding- of a heavy allowance of roughage very desirable, even if a somewhat lower gain by the lambs would result. For instance, feeders often have a proportionately larger amount of roughage than of grain, or a heavy productionof manure may be desirable, without time for feeding two lots of lambs. The inexperienced feeder would doubtless find it best to proceed cautiously and feed a more moderate grain ration until he has become inti- mately acquainted with his work. RATE OF GAIN BY EWES AND WETHERS. TABLE VIII— "Weights and gains of ewes and wethers. Lotl Lot 2 Lot 4. 22 Ewes 22 Wethers 22 Ewes 22 Wethers 22 Ewes 22 Wethers Initial weight Dec. 17th Ibs. 1,070 Ibs. 1,110 Ibs. 1-105 Ibs. 1,120 Ibs. 1,080 Ibs. 1,100 Final weight Gain, 117 days Ave. daily gain . Apr. 13th 1,630 560 .218 1,710 600 .233 1,645 540 .210 1.715 595 .231 1,625 545 .212 1,715 615 .239 Total gains of wethers 1.810 pounds. Total gains of ewes 1,645 pounds. Excess of wethers' jjains over ewes' gains 10-03 percent. Data concerning the rate of gain made by ewes and by wethers were secured with Lots 1, 2 and 4. 22 ewes and 22 wethers were in each of these lots. The ewes and wethers were weighed separately only once, on account of the inconvenience of securing three daily weighings. In each pen the wethers made greater gains than did the ewes. While this difference was not great, yet it was true with all three of the lots. As will be seen, the wethers made approx- imately 10 percent greater gains than did the ewes. Further work along this line is planned, from which it is hoped that data relating to the cost of gains as well as to the rate of gains may be obtained. SHIPPING, YARDING AND SALE. The lambs, with 30 others not in the experiment, were shipped from Big Prairie on April 16, being loaded in the afternoon. They were sold on the regular market at Pittsburg, April 17. All lots were sold together at $8.90 per hundredweight. The 206 head were allowed free access to water and were fed 2 bushels of corn and 350 22 OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION: BULLETIN 187 pounds of hay before they were sold. Before being1 weighed the lambs were separated according- to the rations upon which they had been fattened. The lambs were kept in the yards until Saturday, April 20, when they were slaughtered. EXPENSE OF SHIPPING. TABLE IX— Cost of marketing (apportioned on basis of live weight at Pittsburg.) Lotl Lot 2 Lot 3 Lot 4 Freight for double deck .... ?4.11 ?4 15 $4 21 $4 11 Yardage @ 4 cts. per head 1.76 1*76 1 76 1 76 Hay @ $1 50 per hundredweight Corn @ $1 25 per bu 1.09 .52 1.10 .52 1.12 .53 1.09 52 Commission @ $10 for doubledeck load 2.49 2.51 2.55 2.49 Total 9 97 . 10.04 10.17 9.97 Table IX presents a detailed statement in regard to the cost of marketing these lambs. 206 lambs were included in the shipment, the cost of marketing the 176 head being calculated according to the weight of the lambs at Pittsburg. It will be noted that the shrinkage from shipping was approximately the same per hundred- weight for each of the lots. SHRINKAGE AND DRESSED PERCENTAGES. TABLE X— Shrinkage, expense of marketing, selling price, dressed percentages and home value. Selling Value of Lot Farm weight, April 16 Pittsburg weight, April 17 Shrinkage per cwt. Dressed weight April 20 Dressed percent- ages Expense of marketing exclusive of price per cwt. at Pittsburg lambs per cwt. at farm shrinkage April 17 April 16 1 Ibs. 3,445 Ibs. 3,215 Ibs. 6.68 Ibs. 1,577 #49.05 $9.97 $8.90 $8.02 2 3,470 3,240 6.63 1,555 47 99 10.04 8.90 8.02 3 3:535 3,295 6.79 1,605 48 71 10.17 8.90 8.01 4 3,435 3,215 6.41 1.572 48 90 9 97 8.90 8.04 The shrinkage from shipment and the dressed percentages yielded by the various lots are shown in Table X. No striking dif- ferences in either shrinkage during shipment or in dressed per- centage are apparent; in fact, the range of variation is so slight that it may be said that the four lots shrank and dressed practically the same. Lot 3 fed a heavy corn ration shows a slightly higher shrink- age and a lower dressed percentage than does any other lot save Lot 2. This is hard to account for, since the feeding of a heavy grain ration would be expected to produce more fat, with a consequent lower shrinkage and higher dressed percentage. Since the shrinkage from shipping and the cost of marketing were almost exactly the same and the selling- price was the same, it follows that, as is shown in Table X, the home value per hundred- weight was practically the same for all of the lots. FATTENING RANGE LAMBS. PLATE III. Lambs at market, just previous to slaughter. Lot 1, fed corn; linseed oilmeal and clover hay. PLATE IV. Lambs at market, just previous to slaughter. Lot 2, fed corn, stock food and clover hay. 24 OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION: BULLETIN 187 PLATE V. Lambs at market, just previous to slaughter. Lot 3, fed heavy corn ration and clover hay. PLATE VI. Lambs at market just previous to slaughter. Lot 4, fed medium corn ration and clover hay, FATTENING RANGE LAMBS. 25 LOSS OF LAMBS. The loss of lambs during- the progress of the experiment was :ry light — only one of the 176 head on experiment being1 lost. Dur- the first month after the lambs arrived at the farm the losses :re rather heavy. The entire loss from the time the 361 lambs ire received at the farm on November 6, until the time of the last lipment was 14 hoad. There is likely to be a heavier loss with mng-, small lambs just weaned than with older, strong-er ones, as the weaning, shipping- and complete chang-e of climate and condi- tions in g-eneral subject the lambs to very, trying- circumstances. After these lambs became accustomed to their new environment the loss was very small, indicating- that the sudden change of con- ditions was probably responsible for the loss at first. As was stated in Bulletin 179, the loss of lambs in 1905-06 was very light — probably due in some measure at least to their being: larger and stronger than the lambs fed in 1906-07, and being allowed a longer run on grass. CONSUMPTION OF ROUGHAGE. TABLE XI— Roughage. ? ! Ration Roughage fed, Lbs. Roughage refused, Roughage consumed Corn, oilmeal and clover Corn, stock food and clover Corn and clover (heavy corn) . . Corn and clover 6,296 6,272 5,874 6,125 463.25 436.00 458.00 484.50 5,832.75 5.836.00 5,416.00 5,640.50 The experiment previously conducted indicated that the use of a nitrogenous concentrate or of the stock food slig-htly increased the consumption of roughage. Inasmuch as each lot of lambs received, in the experiment of 1905-06, the same amount of roughag-e, it was not possible to secure as conclusive data on this point as were de- sired. On this account, as previously stated, it was thought advisable to feed the lambs in each lot in this test all the hay they would eat. The data presented in Table XI support the data secured in the first experiment. The increased roughage consumption when oilmeal was fed was in either case very small— in this test slightly over 3.4 percent — in the first test only 2.39 percent. The increase in rough- age consumption when the stock food was fed was almost exactly the same as with oilmeal in 1906-07 and only slightly less in 1905-06. It is not certain that any practical use can be made of this fact, esoecially since the amount of food actually consumed per hundred pounds gain in live weight was greater in both instances than when a grain ration of corn alone was fed. 26 OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION: BULLETIN 187 MANURE. Believing- thalfthe matter of manure production, long- considered merely incidental to the feeding of live stock, but now recognized, even in the western states, as an important phase of live stock management, is deserving- , of thorough and extended study, data concerning the amount and composition of manure produced by each lot of lambs during the experiment were secured. It is be- lieved that these data are of importance in showing something- of the value of this long- neglected and even now not fully appreciated by-product of the live stock industry. Bulletin 183 and Circular 37 of this Station, dealing with manure, its composition, value and methods of handling, may be had upon application. TABLE XII — Amount and percentage composition of manure produced by lambs in 115 1-2 days beginning December 22, 1906. Weight Composition (percent of fresh substance;) Lot manure pounds Water Organic matter Ash Nitrogen Phos. acid Potash Manure 1 5.920 64.00 30.76 5.24 1.513 .516 1 102 removed 2 6,150 66.25 29 27 4.48 1.297 .459 1 032 February 3 5,790 64 88 29 83 5.29 1.425 .529 1 049 15, 1907 4 5,525 63.58 30 93 5.49 1.512 .501 1.254 Manure 1 5,775 60 08 34 60 5.33 1.855 .671 1.395 removed 2 5,095 57.36 36.06 5 55 1 666 .665 . 1 412 after 3 4,640 58.20 36 07 5.73 1.769 .634 1.366 experiment 4 4,310 54.55 39.32 6 13 1.896 .683 1.568 The manure was removed from each pen once during the ex- periment and again after its close. A few days before being re- moved, the manure in each pen was sampled, samples being- taken the entire depth of the manure in several parts of the pen. The samples thus taken were analyzed under the direction of Mr. J. W. Ames, Chemist of this Station, with results as presented in Table XII. When the pens were cleaned for the second time, pens 2, 3 and 4 were noticeably dryer than pen 1. The manure produced during this test was allowed to remain in the pens, unmoved, save for what disturbance was due to the lambs moving- about, so had a greater value than if it had been subjected to the wasting- effect of the weather. As the pens were kept well bedded there was no dis- comfort to the lambs from the accumulation of manure; in fact, this method of handling- the manure is believed to be as satisfactory as any, all things considered. FATTENING RANGE LAMBS. TABLE XIII — Fertilizing constituents in manure* and commercial value of same.31 N itrogen <&12.75e Phos. acid @3c Potash @ 5.25c Total value Value cf manuir per tor Lotl Pounds Value 196.70 $25-08 69-30 $2.08 145 80 $7.65 $34.81 $5.9? Lot 2 Pounds Value 164 65 $20.99 62 11 $1 86 135-41 $7.11 $29-96 $5.32 Lot 3 Pounds Value 164 60 $20.99 60 05 $1.80 124.12 $6.52 $29 31 $5.62 Lot 4 Pounds Value 165.26 $21.07 57.12 $1.71 13686 $7.19 $29.97 $6.09 * See Table XII for amount and percentage composition of manure. **Accordin $6.00 per cwt $129.20 85. 25 bus. corn (d* 40c. per bu 34. 10 .465 tons oil meal @ $32. 00 per ton 14.88 2.994 tons clover hay @ $12. 00 per ton 35.93 Cost of marketing 9.97 $224.08 Cr. 44 lambs, live weight at Pittsburg, 3215 Ibs, @ $8.90 per cwt $286 14 Profit $ 62.06 Lot 2. Dr. 44 lambs, 2171.7 Ibs. @ $6.00 per cwt. $130.30 101.857 bus. corn @ 40c per bu , 40.74 33 Ibs. stock food @ 5c per Ib 1.65 2.997 tons clover hay @ $12.00 per ton 35.96 Cost of marketing- « 10.04 $218.69 Cr. 44 lambs, live weight at Pittsburg, 3240 Ibs. @ $8.90 per cwt $288.36 Profit : $69.67 Lot 3. Lr. 44 lambs, 2203.3 Ibs. @ $6.00 per cwt : $132.20 106 138 bus. corn @ 40c per bu , 42.46 2.786 tons clover hay @ $12.00 per ton 33.44 Cost of marketing 10. 17 $218.27 O. 44 lambs, live weight at Pittsburg, 3295 Ibs. @ $8.90 per cwt $293.26 Profit $ 74.99 Lot 4. Dr. 45* lambs, 221.38 Ibs. @ $6.00 per cwt $133.10 97.846 bvis. corn @ 40c per bu. 39.25 2.898 tons clover hay @ $12.00 per ton : 34.78 Cost of marketing... 7 9.97 $217.10 Cr. 44 lambs, live weight at Pittsburg, 3215 Ibs. @ $8.90 per cwt $286.14 Profit $ 69.04 "One lamb died in this lot January 18, weierht 60 pounds; replaced by another weighing- 65 pounds. 30 OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION: BULLETIN 187 Neither high priced feeder lambs nor high priced feeds, nor even both tog-ether, render it impossible to secure profits from fat- tening lambs. It is equally true that neither low priced feeder lambs nor low priced feeds, nor even both together, insure the feeder against loss from his operations. After the feeder has done all in his power to buy feeds and feeder lambs '-worth the money" and to produce gains and finish economically, the price for which he may sell iris fat lambs finally determines whether his operations shall prove profitable. The influence of varying market conditions as regards both feeder lambs and feeds is a factor in lamb feeding which cannot be controlled by the feeder. Even though it cannot be controlled, it has an important bearing upon the lamb feeding business, and it is highly desirable for the feeder to know ho\v various market prices affect the probability of financial profit from his feeding operations. Since the financial statement applies only to the market conditions which prevailed during,this experiment, Table XVII is presented to show the effect of varying prices of feeder lambs and feeds upon the cost of fat lambs. This table does not, of course, apply to all four of the lots, but, as was previously stated, is computed from the results obtained with Lot 3, fed a heavy ration of corn, with clover hay for roughage. The food consumed for 100 pounds of gain by this lot was 477.81 pounds corn and 451.33 pounds clover hay. The aver- age daily gain per lamb was .244 pounds. It must be understood in connection with this table that a change in the amount of feed con- sumed per hundred pounds gain, in the initial weight of the lambs or in the amount of gain produced would change the home selling price required to prevent loss. The initial weight of Lot 3 was 2203. 3 pounds, the total gain was 1200 pounds. The table is calculated for a wide range of market conditions, and presents some striking facts concerning the results that would be obtained under varying market conditions. To use Table XVII for, say, hay at $8.00 per ton and corn at 45 cents per bushel, with feeder lambs at 7 cents per pound, follow the vertical column which is headed, k'Hay per. ton $8.00, Corn per bushel, 45 cents" to its intersection of the horizontal line beginning "$7.00", which, as is seen immediately above the first vertical column, applies to the home price of feeder lambs. The figure at this inter- section, $6.52 indicates the price per hundredweight at which the lambs in Lot 3 could have been sold at home if they had cost $7.00 per hundredweight at home when put on feed with clover at $8.00 per ton and corn at 45 cents per bushel. The home selling price necessary to prevent loss with Lot 3, when hay and corn are worth the prices indicated at the too of the table and with feeder lambs at anv of the FATTENING RANGE LAMBS. 31 00 OO OC g 8 s •J ^1 -J -4 5! 8 S5 8 O5 O5 O5 O5 SI 8 K 8 en en en en oi 8 K 8 Assumed home price ! per cwt. paid for feeder lambs. Corn per bushel n t I 1 ~J 05 05 8 23 2 os as 05 a; 8! 8 JS 8 01 01 m 01 § is s b en en en S -8! ^ SS 0 P S"P 2. g " 1 f 8? 8 ?0 M S 2 £ is ot S Si SS 2 oi S § 0? g S 1 1 B CA g 0 8 ~j ^i ^i 2 8 £ -] 05 05 05 S o? S 2 OJ O5 O5 en Sg JS § S en en en Cn S! H3 b K •0 "C f« « tr g g § -a «j -a is 5 s 05 05 05 05 & 8 S oi 05 05 en en 8 S 88 Jc en en en en 81 i§ S 3 ,K e ^ B 5 o- II ^ 8 § ?1 22 ft £ 55 8 2S 3 2 gS £ S % S 2 S ?§ s r- D 8. g So S rV *• if* is £ s 2S S 2 S B 8 ® S £3 ^ ES S § 3 5 ^ ar+ g o 8 C3 en c* S 0 i* T3 a 8 8 SS 5S g 8 @ a ss s s 88 J3 8 £ i? 55 vi g 5s 1 Fc 8 r1 ^ r4 So to os ^J 05 05 05 8 32 S§ 3 05 05 05 en is s s 25 en en 01 en S g g B If s £ § ^ i *' § -J -1 05 £ 8 23 05 05 05 05 s a & ts 05 en en en 8 8 S 3 en en en 5S Ss ES S ig r* £T 3 S" g S? 8 ~3 ^J ~J 8 SS 5S •^J 05 05 05 s s s a 05 05 05 Cfl SS 52 8 88 en en en en . » 8 S » s -" > P^ f •— 10:0510 COCCfOC r-~o>o li s .If FATTENING RANGE LAMBS. 33 SUMMARY OF TWO YEARS' WORK. Tables XVIII and XIX present results of the two years' work in condensed form. As all of these data have been discussed in this bulletin or Bulletin 179, extensive comment in this connection is unnecessary. Since many factors such as initial weight of lambs, breeding of lambs, management previous to beginning- of experiments-, roughage fed, length of feeding period, and weather conditions varied, it is not possible to account definitely for the variation in gains during the two years. Other feeders in the vicinity reported lower gains in 1906-7 than were obtained in 1905-6. TABLE XIX — Summary of manure for two years. 1905-6, 40 lambs, 112 days. Grain Ration Manure Pounds Nitrogen Pounds Phos. acid Pounds Potash Pounds 13 170 205 90 65 72 174 40 12.275 165 46 50 96 144 09 Corn and cottonseed oilmeal Corn 12.925 11525 20074 171 85 6942 60 04 159 11 154 52 1906-7, 44 lambs, 115 1-2 days. Corn and linseed oilmeal t. Corn and stock food .... 11,695 11.245 196 70 164 65 6930 62 11 145 80 135 41 Corn (heavy) 10,430 164 60 60 05 124 12 Corn 9,835 165 26 57 12 136 86 RATIONS In no instance did any ration prove of outstanding excellence above the others on the basis, of amount of feed required to produce 100 pounds gain. So far as rations are concerned the chief use to be made of the data obtained is to emphasize the necessity of choos- ing economical as well as efficient feeds. While the food consump- tion per hundred pounds gain varied comparative^ little in either experiment, the cost of 100 pounds gain was widely different in several instances. A consideration of the cost of feeds involves a study of market quotations, and as is shown by the tests reported, is very necessary if the greatest profits are to be realized. A ration might be economical one year and manifestly extravagant another year. NITROGENOUS CONCENTRATES. In general, if the feeding of linseed oilmeal or of cottonseed meal to lambs receiving corn and clover, of corn and alfalfa is to be attended with profit, either of these concentrates should be but little, if any, higher in price per pound than corn. 34 OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION: BULLETIN 187 STOCK FOOD. Since the lot which received stock food made slightly more economical gains from the standpoint of food consumed for a given gain, than the lot which did not receive it in 1905-06, and in 1906-07 made slightly less economical utilization of the food con- sumed, it is not possible, on the basis of these experiments, to say that stock food is either beneficial or harmful. The variation in either case was so slight that it cannot be said that it was due to the stock food used. HEAVY OR MEDIUM GRAIN FEEDING. The results of one experiment indicate that lambs fed upon a heavy grain ration will produce gains with a lower consumption of feed than will lambs fed upon a moderate grain ration. The plan of the test, however, was interfered with somewhat and further work is needed before definite conclusions may safely be drawn. RATE OF GAIN BY EWES AND BY WETHERS. "V^ethers made approximately 10 percent greater gains in live weight than did ewes. These results were very uniform in three different pens, each of which contained 22 ewres and 22 wethers. MANURE. Data secured in both of the tests reported herein show that manure from fattening lambs has a very high fertilizing value, on the basis of its nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash content. The manure from the lots fed cottonseed meal or linseed oil- meal, carried in every instance more nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash than did that from the lots fed a grain ration consisting solely of corn. In both experiments the added value of the manure was more than offset by the increased cost of the linseed oilmeal or cottonseed meal. The increased value of the manure produced from different feeds is worthy of consideration, since market con- ditions might vary sufficiently to justify the feeding of linseed oil- meal or of cottonseed meal from the standpoint of manure pro- duction alone. If sheep manure is to be handled by a manure spreader it is well to supply a fairly liberal amount of bedding. It was found that when only a moderate amount was used, the manure was too solid to be handled well by the spreader. SHRINKAGE IN SHIPPING. In all instances where medium grain rations were fed the lots fed corn alone shrank somewhat less in shipment, but the difference was very slight. FATTENING RANGE LAMBS. 35 DRESSED PERCENTAGE. The percentage of dresseck meat yielded by the various lots cannot be said to have depended in any definite way upon the rations which were fed. The lower percentage yielded in the second test was probably due to the fact that the lambs were not so fat as those fed in 1905-06, and, possibly, to some extent, to some difference in the amount of wool carried by the lambs. PLATE VII. Representative carcasses, not intended to show any difference due to feeding. Dressed percentages given in Table X apply to carcasses dressed as shown in cut. COMMERCIAL CONSIDERATIONS. The cost of feeder lambs and of feeds has a direct and impor- tant bearing upon the fattening of lambs. The feeder of livestock should study market conditions and should know how various changes in them affect his operations. ANNOUNCEMENT. The Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station is organized under an act of the General Assem- bly of Ohio, passed April 17, 1882, and supplemented by an act of Congress, approved March 2, 1887. WHAT THE STATION CAN DO. The Station offers its advice and assistance to the farmers of Ohio along- the following lines: The maintenance of soil fertility, including- the rotation of crops and the selection and use of manures and fertilizing- materials. The selection of varieties of grains, grasses and forage crops and methods of culture. The selection of varieties of fruits and vegetables and the management of orchards. The examination of seeds that are suspected of being unsound or adulterated; the identifi- cation of grasses, weeds and other plants; the prevention of fungous diseases of plants. The identification of insects and the control of such as are injurious. The feeding of animals, including calculation of rations and use of various feeding- stuffs. The planting and care of forest trees and the management of farm woodlots. WHAT THE STATION CANNOT DO. The Station is not prepared to analyze commercial fertilizers and feeding stuffs, as in Ohio that work is placed in charge of the SECRETARY OF THK STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE, at Columbus, to whom all requests for such analyses should be addressed. The Station is not prepared to give advice respecting treatment of contagious diseases of animals, that function naving been transferred to the State Board of A-griculture in its capacity of State Live Stock Commission. Requests for such advice should therefore be ad- dressed to SECRETARY, STATE LIVE STOCK COMMISSION, Department of Agriculture, Colum- bus, Ohio. The Station is not prepared to examine animals suspected of having been poisoned. Such examinations should be referred to the nearest Veterinarian. The Station is not prepared to make official inspection of orchards and nurseries under the law requiring such inspection, that work having been transferred to the STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE to whose SECRETARY, Columbus, requests for such inspection should be addressed. The Station is not prepared to examine foods, drugs and dairy products suspected of adul- teration, as that work is in charge of the OHIO DAIRY AND FOOD COMMISSIONER, whose office is at Columbus. The Station is not prepared to analyze drinking water; requests for such analysis should be addressed to the SECRETARY OF THE STATE BOARD OF HEALTH, Columbus. Visitors to the Station or to its various test farms are welcome at all times during business hours. Persons or parties who contemplate such visits and who desire special attention are requested to write in advance, giving date of proposed visit and probable number of party. Any citizen of Ohio has the right to apply to the Station for such assistance as it can give, and all such requests will receive prompt attention. The Bulletins of this Station are sent free to all residents of the State who request them. Address all communications to &X.PJUUMBNT STATION, Wooster, Ohio. FATTENING RANGE LAMBS A COMPARISON OF RATIONS. OHIO Agricultural Experiment Station. WOOST-K, OHIO, U. S. A. DECEMBER, 1906. BULLETIN 179. The Bulletins cft.'.is Station vie stnf free to all residents of the State who request them Persons ibho desire their addresses changed should give both old wts.} 3930 3940 3935 3881.7 Mar. 12 7 am 3920 • 3930 3910 3860 " 13 (i 3930 3940 3945 3890 " 14 •'• 3940 3950 3950 3895 *A veragre of weights taken Nov. 29. 30 and Dec. 1, is considered the initial weight Nov. 30. tOne lamb died the morninpr of Mar. 1, weisrht 85 Ibs. after dead. i Average of weights taken Mar. 12, 13 and 14 is considered the final weight Mar. 13. FATTENING RANGE LAMBS. 75 LIVE WEIGHTS AND GAINS. Both at the beginning- and close of the experiment, each lot was weighed three consecutive morning's before being- fed or watered, water having- been shut off at 5 p. m. the day previous. The average of each three weights thus obtained was considered the weig-ht on the second day, and these averages were taken as the initial and the final weights respectively. A study of Table 3 will bring to notice the variation in weight of animals from day to day and the great fluctuations in apparent gains made in the intervals between weighing. The gains made by all the lots from January 25 to February 15 were very large, followed by a week of very small gains, with large gains the subse- quent week. The reasons for these variations and fluctuations are not easily determined, since so many factors might be concerned. All weekly weights were taken under as nearly identical conditions as could be secured by regularity of feeding and the withholding of water from 10 a. m. until after weighing at 3:30 p. m. each day, so that the possibility of variations, due to food or water consumed, was reduced to the minimum. In spite of these precautions, however, the variations were very marked in some instances, even on consecutive days. TABLE 4 — SUMMARY OF WEIGHTS AND GAINS. Lot Grain rations •Initial weight fFinal weig-ht Total gain Daily gain per lamb 1 Corn ... 2700 3930 1230 . 298 2 Corn, cottonseed meal ... 2663 3 3940 1276 7 .309 3 Corn linseed oil meal. 2588 3 3935 1246 7 302 4 Corn, Mr. Hess' stock food 2680 J3881 . 7 1286.7 .312 *Averag-e of three weights, Nov. 29, 30, Dec. 1. t Average of three weights, March 12, 13, 14. tOne lamb died March 1, weight 85 Ibs. The total gains and daily gains per lamb for each lot are shown in Table 4. As will be observed, lots 2, 3 and 4 made somewhat larger gains than did lot 1. The differences in favor of lots 2, 3 and 4 are so small, however, that it cannot be said that any of the rations possessed a decided superiority over any other so far as ability to produce gains was concerned. It would not be surprising if the same rations should give opposite results in future trials, and it is safe for us to consider that the rations tested are of practically equal value pound per pound for use in lamb feeding under the con- ditions of this test. Although the gains made may be considered the same for all practical purposes, yet the gains actually obtained in this test will be used as the basis of all comparisons and 76 OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION: BULLETIN 179. a 10 o to •* CJ VO rH 00 T^ / "rt C3 rH VO rH 00 • to § ^ Tf- rH rH 00 * o * m VO rH 3 15 a c 3 ,O 00 fO O | S ^ 3 £ 88. ' " ^ u g C^ vO vO 00 •«*• I> rH OO cd W) C1 vO rH CO rH rH VO s ^. i ro ** vO SH -M 4^ ^^ 3 -g j||| o I i Si J 1 fO * rH rH 1 C. ON rf K! rO rH rH 1> vO ro rH ^ VT5 i> ( Q .+J m s N rH •i 2 p 3 s 1 l| O * 8- -' - rH 1> f<) \O 00 H 2 rH *•*• rH I § rH a rH 1 "S 4-* a s a a O a 3 Q^ -j .y. > g « *~1 °^ 1 •< 88 ^ ^ rt "g , | I * ! § 0! T3 a • a s' 8. ^%8."i *• i ^2 C t M L 2" ft p< 0 \ H §J j{ ' 8 ' v> Cfl 'd "O ta C £O I/) 1u c « "3 "^ ^^ ^^ O ,c bjD 1 *o 1 •H O c u > cj rt > 13 be "3 U|H 1 I 0 3 2 5 ? V --t 5 s I I » I 1 "3 1 73 1 'rt Q r O T5 iJ Q * * FATTENING RANGE LAMBS. 77 While the extent of gains was approximately the same for all of the lots, it is worthy of note that the cost of gains is rather widely different for some of the lots. Lot 4, fed a grain ration of corn and stock food, made slightly cheaper gains than did lot 1, fed a grain ration of corn alone, while the gains made by the lots which received cottonseed meal and linseed oil meal were decidedly more expensive than the gains made by lot 1. The cost of gains, how- ever, depends somewhat upon existing market values of the feeds used, so the cost of gains as given in Table 5 must be understood to apply only to the experiment under discussion. Both cottonseed meal and linseed oilmeal are usually more expensive, pound for pound, than corn, and, since they do not appear to increase gains very markedly, it seems doubtful whether it is good business to feed them to fattening lambs in connection with corn, clover and alfalfa. One lamb in lot 4 was found dead on the morning of March 1. Its weight was obtained and added to the final weight of the lot, so its death did not interfere materially with the test. A reduction in the amount of corn and hay fed to lot 4 was made after the loss of this lamb, in order that the daily amount of feed per lamb might remain the same throughout the test. TABLE 6 — FEED PER 100 LBS. GAIN. Lot Ration Pounds feed* per 100 pounds gain Roughage Corn Total 1 2 Corn 504.06 485.63 402.44 323.65 Cottonseed 64.07 906.50 873.35 Corn, cottonseed meal 3 Corn, oil meal. 497.31 331.43 Oil meal 65.61 894.35 4 Corn, Dr. Hess' stock food 480.57' 383.11 Stock food 2.48 866.16 "Includes all roughage; see table 9 for amount of roughage refused by the different lots. SHRINKAGE AND DRESSED PERCENTAGE. The experiment was ended on March 13 so far as feeds con- sumed and gains produced were concerned. The lambs were, however, fed in the same manner as usual until March 21, when they were shipped to Cleveland. On the afternoon of March 20 the lambs were weighed by lots, water having been shut off just before the weighing began and while the lambs were yet quiet. The lambs were loaded after having received the morning's feed on March 21. Immediately after being unloaded in Cleveland the lambs were weighed without food or wrater. 78 OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION: BULLETIN 179. TABLE 7 — SHRINKAGE, EXPENSE OF MARKETING, SELLING PRICE AND HOME VALUE. Lot Cleveland weight, March 22, pounds Farm weight, March 21, pounds Pounds shrinkage per cwt. Expense of marketing Selling- price per cwt. at Cleveland, March 22 Value of lambs per cwt. at farm March 21 1 3850 4015 4.10 $ 3.40 $ 7.25 $ 6.8(7 2 3820 4025 5.09 3.38 7.25 6.796 3 3830 4020 4.72 3.39 7.25 6.823 4 3780 3965 4.66 3.34 7.25 6.827 The amount of shrinkage of each of the lots, the expense of marketing-, the selling price of each lot and their home values per hundredweight are shown in Table 7. It will be observed that lot 1, fed a grain ration of corn only, shrank less in shipment than did any of the other lots, with lots 4, 3 and 2 following in the order named. The home values per hundredweight range, of course, in the same order, since all lots sold for the same price in Cleveland, lot 1 b'eing highest with a value of $6.86 per hundred weight, and lot 2 lowest with a value of $6.796 per hundredweight. TABLE 8— DRESSED PKRCENT.^GES. Lot Grain ration Date of slaughter Live weight at Cleveland Dressed weight Dressed percentage 1 Corn March 22 3850 2060 53 5 2 3 Corn and cottonseed meal .... Corn and linseed oil meal " 23 " 23 3820 3830 1946 1959 50.9 51 1 4 Corn and Dr. Hess' stock food 22 3780* 1965* 51 9 *39 head. TableS, in which the dressed percentages yielded by the various ots are shown, sets forth the significant fact that the dressed percentages range in the same order as do the shrinkages. That is, the lot which shrank the least yielded the highest dressed percentage, while the highest shrinkage and lowest dressed percentage were associated. This indicates that the increased weight of the lambs in lots 2, 3 and 4, was due more largely to growth, instead of to fattening, than was that of lot 1. FATTENING RANGE LAMBS. 79 The carcasses of the lambs in lots 1 and 4 were considered by experts at the slaughter house heavier in caul-and kidney-fat than were those of lots 2 and 3, In fact, experts pronounced lots 1 and 4 rather too fat to be ideal for the local retail trade. No examination was made of the various cuts of any of the carcasses, owing to the fact that the whole carcasses were sold to retailers. The mere matter of excessive fatness does not affect the lamb feeder's profits so long- as this undesirable quality is not in evidence before slaugh- ter, providing, of course, that this excessive fatness has not inter- fered with economy of gains. From the results of this test it seems probable that lambs fed as were the lambs in lot 1 would be fat enough for market in a shorter time from the beginning of the fattening period than would lambs fed as were lots 2 and 3. It is not thought that the addition of stock food to the ration would cause any marked difference in this respect, although this test indicates a slight advantage in favor of lot 1. PLATE TV— -Representative carcasses. Plate IV is not intended to show any comparison ot carcasses from the different lots but, rather, to show the appearance of average carcasses. 80 OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION: BULLETIN 179. LOSS OF LAMBS. 'O/> f*i " ' The number of lambs that died from any cause while on feed was very s.mall. Only one lamb that was under experiment died \v^lu ring the test. Of the entire 658 head purchased in Chicago, the total number that died on the farm from September 20 to April 2S was 6 head — less than 1 percent. Not all of the lambs were fed during, the entire period mentioned, however, shipments to market having- been made on March 6, March 21, April 21 and April 28. Concerning- the loss by death to be expected in feed- ing range lambs, Mr. J. E. Wing has the following to say:* "There will be a deathless among feeding lambs no matter how carefully they are fed. Care will greatly reduce this loss- however. The write. r has had as low as 2 percent and as high as 8 percent. , If no more than 4 percent loss is sustained no one need shed tears". From the above, the reader will note that the loss by death was much lower during this experiment than usually occurs. REFUSE ROUGHAGE. Table 9 shows the amount of roughage refused by the various lots; each lot having received equal amounts per head of roughage of the same kind and quality. In no instance was any large amount of roughage refused, excepting for two days when the daily allow- ance of hay was increased to 70 pounds per lot. Although the differences are not marked enough to make great variations in total food consumption, nor even to justify any definite conclusions being drawn, yet it is of interest to note that the lots receiving nitrogenous concentrates or Dr. Hess' stock food refused somewhat less of their roughage than did lot 1, fed a grain ration consisting solely of corn. In the light of present evidence it is impossible to say just what bearing the feeding of nitrogenous concentrates may have on the consumption of roughage, although, this, as well as other tests, seems to indicate that the feeding of a nitrogenous concentrate increases, slightly at least, the roughage consumption. Further experimentation is needed along this line. TABLE 9 — ROUGHAGE. Lot Grain ration Roug-hage led, Ibs. Roughage retuscd Lbs. Percent 1 2 3 4 Corn 6200 6200 6200 6183.5 557.5 467.75 422.5 485.0 8.992 7.544 6.815 7.843 Corn, Corn, Corn, cottonseed linseed oil Dr. Hess' meal meal. stock food "Pages 258-259 Sheep Farming in America. wit fro MANURE. The manure was removed from the pens once during- the pro- gress of the experiment, and again after the lambs had been shipped to market. The manure from each pen was weighed separately, and samples were taken for analysis before each removal. The samples were analvzed under the direction of J. W. Ames, the Station Chemist, vith results as shown in Table 10. The water content of the manure m lot 1 was much lower in both instances than of that from the other lots. It is usually considered that animals which are fed a ration rich in protein will consume more water than will other animals of the same kind fed a low protein ration; this might account for the high water content of manure from lots 2 and 3. The stock food which was fed to lot 4 seemed to contain a considerable amount of common salt, which would doubtless cause the lambs in this lot to drink more water than would lot 1, with the consequent higher water content of manure. The high ash content of the first sample from lot 1 is possibly due to the presence of earth which may have been accidentally removed from the earth floor when the sample was taken. TABLE 10 — AMOUNT AND COMPOSITION OF MANURE PRODUCKD BY LAMBS IN 112 DAYS, BEGINNING NOV. 29. Lot Weight manure, pounds Composition (percent of fresh substance) Water Organic matter Ash N itrogen Phos- phoric acid Potash Manure 1 5825 55.49 35.81 8.25 1.502 .564 1.276 removed 2 6510 63.31 21.96 4.72 1.507 .554 1.175 January 3 6620 65.23 30.09 4.68 1.458 .504 1.374 24 and 25 4 6195 67.18 28.45 4.37 1.297 .435 1.159 Manure 1 5700 63.90 31.01 5.09 1.480 .477 1.407 removed 2 6415 68.17 27.32 4.51 1.600 .520 1.288 after ex- 3 6550 67.17 28.56 4.27 1.670 .494 1.274 periment 4 6080 68.65 27.32 4.02 1.400 .395 1.189 Table 11 shows the total fertilizing constituents in the manure from each lot, together with their value at the valuations given in the report of the Secretary of the State Board of Agriculture for 1905. Experiments at this Station indicate that a given number of pounds of fertilizing constituents of manure which has been reinforced with phosphorus and has not been exposed to the weather or allowed to heat will produce at least as great an increase of crop as will the same amounts and combinations of fertilizing1 elements in the form of the commercial fertilizers mentioned in the note below Table 11. With this the case, the manure produced by fattening- lambs is clearly of much more value than many have realized. TABLE 11 — FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS IN MAN URIC* AND COMMERCIAL VALUE OF SAMK.f Lot Nitrogen @ 11. 5c Phosphoric acid @ 3c Potash @ 5.25c Total value Value of manure per ton 1 Pounds Value 171.85 $ 19.76 60.04 $ 1.80 154.52 $ 8.11 $ 29.67 $ 5.15 2 Pounds Value 200 . 74 $ 23.08 69.42 $ 2.08 159.11 $ 8.35 33.51 5.19 3 Pounds Value 205.90 $ 23.67 65.72 $ 1.97 174 40 $ 9.15 34.79 jr 5.28 4 Pounds Value 165.46 $ 19.02 50:96 $ 1.52 144.09 $ 7.56 28.10 4.58 *See table 10 for amount and percentage composi tOfficial Report of the Secretary of the Ohio Sta tion of manure. tate Board of Agriculture on Commercial Fertilizers Licensed. Inspected and Analyzed During- the Year 1905. Valuations used for nitrogen and phos- phoric acid of manure are those given these fertilizing constituents in tankage; valuation used for potash is as given for potash in muriate of potash. It will be observed that the tota* manure from lots 2 and 3 was higher than that of the manure from lots 1 and 4. No reason is apparent for the lower value of the manure from lot 4 as compared with that from lot 1. The difference is so slight, however, that it may safely be considered that the manure from each of the two lots is of equal value. TABLE 12— COST OF FEED CONSUMED, BEDDING USED, AND COMMERCIAL VALUEf OF MANURE PRODUCED.* Lot 1 Lot 2 Lot 3 Lot 4 Cost of feed $ 66.46 $ 72 27 $ 72 82 $ 67 84 Cost of bedding- @ $4 per ton. . 1.51 1.51 1.51 1.51 Total cost of feed and bedding 67.97 73.78 74.33 69.35 f Commercial value of manure. . 29.67 33.51 34.79 28.10 Difference. .... 38 30 40 27 39 54 41 ?5 tSoe tabl» 11. *Lambs were kept in p-ns 112 d iv ; experiment lasted only ]03 days; cost of feed as given in this table is, therefore, h.gher than in table 5. Table 12 shows that the extra value of the manure from lots 2 and 3 is more than offset by the increased cost of the rations fed these lots, due to the comparatively high prices of the nitrogenous con- centrates used. The market conditions which prevailed during- this experiment are not permanent, however, and it is very possible that there may be times when the difference between the two rations as FATTENING RANGE LAMBS. 83 gards cost would be very slight and the increased value of the anure from lambs fed nitrogenous concentrates would more than offset any slight difference in cost that might exist. The feeder who purchases commercial fertilizers can calculate from the data presented in this bulletin, together with the market prices which prevail for the feeds used, whether or not the purchase of nitro- genous concentrates will prove to be a paying proposition, so far as the fertilizing value of the manure produced is concerned. TABLE 13 — POUNDS FEED AND BEDDING USED PER TON OF MANURE PRODUCED.* Lot Concentrates Roughage Bedding- Total 1 950.1 1170.5 131.02 2251.62 2 847.3 1043.7 116.83 2007.73 3 831.1 1024.3 114.65 1970.05 4 836.6 1094.2 123.01 2103.01 *See tatle 10 for composition of manure. Table 13 shows the amount of feed and bedding required by each of the lots to produce one ton of manure under the conditions of this experiment. It will be noted that the amount of feed and bedding used by each lot approximately equaled in weight the amount of manure produced. It must be thoroughly understood in this connection that the manure under discussion was made and kept under cover, the pens having been cleaned once during the experiment and again after its close. Manure subjected to the leaching action of rains or allowed to undergo the wasting chemical action known as "fire fanging" loses much of its value and would be worth less than was the manure pro- duced during this experiment. Furthermore, removing the manure directly from the feeding pen to the field is usually the most economical way of handling it, as well as being the most efficient in preventing losses from leaching or from "fire fanging". For further information relative to manure, its composition, and proper methods of handling it, the reader is referred to Bulletin 134 and Circular 37 of this Station. FINANCIAL STATEMENT. The financial statement, Table 14, covers the time from the beginning of the separate feeding of the four lots used in the exper- iment until the lambs were marketed at Cleveland, hence it does not correspond exactly with the figures given in Table 5 concerning the value of food consumed during the experiment. No account is taken of labor, interest on investment, insurance, manure produced, nor beddinj? used. 84 OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION: BULLETIN 179. TABLE 14. Lot 1, Dr. 40 lambs, 2700 Ibs. @ $ 6.50 per cvvt . , $175.50 97.77 bus. corn @ 48c. per bu 46.93 1.39 tons mixed c'over hay @ $5 50 per tv>n 7.65 1.98 tons mixed alfalfa hay @ $6.00 per ton. . 1..88 Cost of marketing1 3 40 $ 245.36 Cr. 40 lambs, live weight at Cleveland, 3850 Iba. @ $7.25 per cwt § . . . $ 279.13 Profit $ 33.77 Lot 2. Dr. 40 lambs, 2663.3 Ibs. @ $6.50 per cwt $ 173.11 81 61 bus. corn @ *8c. per bu . . 39. 17 .4525 tons cottonseed meal @ $30 00 per ton.. «. . . ,13. 1.39 tons mixed clover hay @ $5.50 per ton . '< '.'..' . . 1.98 tons mixed all alia hay @ $6.00 per ton jll.88 Cost of marketing-. 3 . 3b $ 248.76 Cr. 40 lambs, live weight at Cleveland. 3820 Ibs. @ £7 25 per cwt. . $ 276 95 Profit ..., $ 28 . 19 Lot 3. Dr. 40 lambs. 2688.3 Ibs @ $6.50 per cwt $ 174 74 81.61 bus. corn @ 48c. per bu 39. 17 .4525 tons oil meal (8) $31.20 per t.-n 14 12 1.39 tons mixed clover hay (ct $5 50 per ton 7.65 1.98 mixed alfalfa hay @"$6.00 per ton Cost of marketi ng $ 250.95 Cr. 40 lambs, live weight at Cleveland, 3830 Ibs. @ $7.25 per cwt $ 277.68 Profit $ 26.73 Lot 4. Dr. 40 lambs, 2680 Ibs. @ $6.50 per cwt $ 174.20 97 174 bus. corn @ 48c. per bu 46.64 34 8 Ibs. stock food @ 5c. per -lb 1 . 74 1.385 tons mixed clover hay @ $5 50 per ton 7.62 1.973 tons mixed alfalfa hay @ $6.00 per ton 11.84 Cost of marketing .; 3.34 $245'. 38 Cr. *39 lambs, live weight at Cleveland, 3780 Ibs. .00 per hundredweight. $4.05 Cost of food (155 pounds hay, 123.75 pounds corn) fed to produce 30.75 pounds gain $1.46 FATTENING RANGE LAMBS. Cost of 93.25-pound fat lamb $5 51 Selling- price per hundredweight necessary to pay for feeder lamb and food consumed ^ 60^ Decrease of value per hundredweight which could occur without causing loss ... -392 A study of the figures in relation to the factors upon which they are based will show clearly that neither the price of feeder lambs, nor the price of feeds can control completely the profitable- ness of feeding" operations. The first horizontal row of heavy faced figures shows the different prices «.t which fat lambs bought as feeders at $3.00 per hundredweight would need to sell on account of the different prices of feeds. It is seen when feeder lambs cost $3.00 per hundred- weight, hay $6.00 per ton and corn 45c per bushel, the lambs when fattened would need to sell for $3.546 per hundredweight at home. With hay at $9.00 per ton and corn at 45c per bushel, the fat lambs would need to bring $3.783 per hundredweight at home; with hay at $12.00 and corn at 45c per bushel they would need to sell for $4.02 per hundredweight and so on. It is a well known fact that the higher priced feeds necessitate a higher selling price for the finished lambs; the table shows, howrever, that a 33 YI percent increase in the price of corn will necessitate a higher selling price than will a 33/^ percent increase in the price of hay, on account of the total value of the corn fed being greater than the total value of hay fed. The first column of figures in heavy faced type shows the home prices per hundredweight for which the lambs in lot 1 would have had to sell, with hay at $6.00 per ton, corn at 45c per bushel and feeder lambs at prices ranging from $3. CO to $7.50 per hundred- weight. It will be observed that the cheap feeder lambs must sell for an advance in price per hundredweight greater than is necessary with feeder lambs at a higher price. For instance, with feeder lambs worth $3.00 per hundredweight, hay at $6.00 pei ton, and corn 45c per bushel, fat lambs must sell for $3.546 per hundredweight at home in order to pay for original cost of feeder lambs and the food consumed during fattening; the home selling price necessary to ''pay out" with $3.50 feeder lambs and feeds at the same price as before is $3.89 per hundredweight; writh feeder lambs at $4.00 per hundredweight, $4.234 per hundredweight must be realized at home; with feeder lambs at $4.50 per hundredweight the finished lambs must bring S4.577 per hundredweight, and with feeder lambs at $5.00 per hundredweight they may be sold when fat for $4.921 per hundredweight without loss; in other words, they may be sold for less per pound when fat than thev cost per pound as feeders. OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION: BULLETIN 179. From the above it will be seen that fat lambs may, under some market conditions, that is, when feeding- lambs cost more per pound than it costs to produce one pound of gain, be sold for less per pound than they cost as feeder lambs; and that the higher priced the feeder lambs, the smaller the margin required or the greater the decline in price per pound that may occur without causing an actual loss, providing the cost of producing gains remains the same. In the table all instances in which the selling price per pound may, without loss, be lower than the price paid per pound for feeder lambs, are indicated by heavy lines beneath such selling prices. SUMMARY. The following is a summary of what seem to be the most im- portant results of this test. All lots received the same amount of clover and alfalfa for roughage daily per lamb. Further work along this line is in progress and will be reported later. Lot 1, fed a grain ration of corn, made lower gains in live weight than did any of the other lots. When shipped to market they shrank less in weight than did any of the o'ther lots. This lot led in dressed percentage. Lot 1 required more pounds of food to pro- duce a pound of gain than did any of the other lots, buf produced gains at less cost per pound than did any of the other lots, save lot 4. Lot 2, fed a grain ration of corn, 5 parts, cottonseed meal, 1 part, made higher gains than did any of the other lot's, save lot 4, shrank most during shipment to market, and yielded the lowest total dressed weight and the lowest dressed percentage. The cost of gain was higher for lot 2 than for any other lot, save lot 3. Lot 3, fed a grain ration of corn, 5 parts, linseed oilmeal, 1 part, made lo\ver gains than did any of the other lots, save lot 1. This lot shrank more during shipment and yielded a lower dressed per- centage than did any of the other lots, save lot 2. The cost per pound gain was higher with lot 3 than with any of the other lots. Lot 4, fed a grain ration of corn and Dr. Hess' stock food, made slightly greater gains and cheaper gains than die any of the other lots. They shrank less in shipping and yielded a higher percentage of dressed weight than did any of the other lots, save lot 1. One lamb died in this lot during the experiment. The feeding of cottonseed meal and of linseed oilmeal to lots 2 and 3, respectively, increased the value of the manure produced by these lots. The extra' cost of the rations, however, more than equaled the increased value of the manure. Lots 3, 2, and 4, in the order mentioned, refused less roughage than did lot 1, indicating that the feeding of nitrogenous concen- trates or of Dr. Hess' stock food has a tendency to increase the consumption of roughage. EXPERIMENTS IN WINTER LAMB PRODUCTION OHIO Agricultural Experiment Station WOOSTER, OHIO, U. S. A., FEBRUARY, 1914 BULLETIN 270 The Bulletins of this Station are sent free to all residents of the State who request them. When a change of address is desired, both the old and the new address should be given. All correspondence should be addressed to EXPERIMENT STATION, Wooster, Ohio OHIO AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION GOVERNING BOARD THE AGRICULTURAL COMMISSION OF OHIO A. P. SANDLES, President S. E- STRODE Columbus C. G. WILLIAMS H. C. PRICE B. F. GAYMAN, Secretary STATION STAFF CHARLES E. THORNE, M. S. A., Director DEPARTMENTAL ORGANIZATION ADMINISTRATION THE DIRECTOR, Chief WILLIAM H. KRAMER, Jlnrsar D. W. GALEHOUSE, Assistant DOKA ELLIS, Mailing Cierk GLENN HALL, Engineer W. K. GREENBANK, Librarian W. J. HOLMES, Printer AGRONOMY C. G. WILLIAMS, Chief \ F. A. WELTON, B. S., Associate WILLIAM HOLMES, Farm Manager C. A. PAT TON, Assistant C. A. GEARHART, B. S., Assistant E. C. MORR, Office Assistant C. H. LEBOLD, As ;t. foreman ANIMAL HUSBANDRY B. E. CARMICHAEL, M. S., Chief J. W. HAMMOND, M. S., Associate GEO. R. EASTWOOD, B. S., Assistant DON C. MOTE, M. S., Assistant W. J. Buss, Assistant ANTHONY Rust., Herdsman E. C. SCHW&N, Shepherd (Carpenter) BOTANY A. D. SELBY, B. S., Chief TRUE HOUSER, B. S., Assistant (Germantown) F. K. MATHIS, Office Assistant D. C. BABCOCK, A. B., Assistant RICHARD WALTON, B. S., Assistant ALFRED S. ORCUTT, M. S., Assistant CHEMISTRY J. W. AMES, M. S., Chief E. W. GAITHER, B. S., Assistant GEO. E. BOLTZ, B. S., Assistant J. A. STENIUS, B. S., Assistant C. J. SCHOLLENBEKGEK, Assistant CLIMATOLOGY J. WARREN SMITH, Chief (Columbus)2 C. A. PATTON, Observer COOPERATION THE DIRECTOR, Chief W. L. ELSER, B. S.* Executive Assistant^ C. W. MONTGOMERY, Assistant H. W. HAWTHORNE, Assistant H. P. MILLER, B. S., County Agent ( Ravenna) F. L. ALLF.N, A. B., County Agent (Burtcn) W. M. COOK, A. B., County Agent (Xenia) M. O. BUGBY, 13. S. County Agent (Warren) A. L. HIGGINS, B. S., County Agent (Dayton) F. N. MEEKER, County Agent (Hamilton) DAIRYING C. C. HAYDEN, M. S., Chief A. E. PEKKINS, M. S., Assistant T- R. MIDDAUGH, Office Assistant ENTOMOLOGY H. A. GOSSARD, M. S., Chief J. S. HOUSER, M. S. A., Associate W. H. GOODWIN, B. S., Assistant R. D. WHITMARSH, M. S. Assistant J. L. KING, Assistant FORESTRY EHMUND SEC REST, B. S., Chief J. J. CRUMLEY, Ph. D., Assistant A. E. TAYLOR, B. S., Assistant J. W. CALLAND, B. S., Assistant D. E. SNYDER, Office Assistant HORTICULTURE V,r. J. GREEN, Vice Director, Chief F. H. BALLOU, Assistant, (Newark) E. J. RiGGS, B. S., Assistant, (Columbus) PAUL THAYER, B. S., Assistant C W. ELLEN WOOD, Office Assistant OKA FLACK, Foreman of Orchards W. E. BONTRAOER, Foreman oj Grounds C. G. LAPEK, Fo reman ot Greenhouses NUTRITION E. B. FORBES, Ph. D., Chief M. HELEN KEITH, A. M., Assistant F. M. BEEGLE, B. S., Assistant C. W. KNUDSEN, B. S., Assistant CHARLES M. FRITZ, B. S., Assistant SOILS THE DIRECTOR, Chief C. G. WILLIAMS, Associate in soil fertility investigations J. W. AMES, M. S., Associate in soil chemistry GEOKGE N. COFFEY, Ph. D., Associate in charge of soil survey E. R. ALLEN, Ph. D., Associate in soil biology H. FOLEY TUTTLE, M. S., Assistant A. BONAZZI, B. Agr., Assistant • DIVISION OF EXPERIMENT FARMS District Experiment Farms Northeastern Test-Farm, Strongsville. EDWARD MOHN, Resident Manager Southwestern Test-Farm, Germantown. HENRY M. WACHTER, Resident Manager Southeastern Test-Farm, Carpenter. H. D. LEWIS, Resident Manager LEWIS SCHULTZ, Horticultural Foreman Northwestern Test-Farm, Findlay. JOHN A. SUTTON, Resident Manager County Experiment Farms Miami County Experiment Farm, Troy P. C. HERRON, Agent in Charge Paulding County Experiment Farm, Pauldinjf P. C. HERRON, Agent in Charge HARRY RAY, Rest dent Manager Clermont County Experiment Farm, Owensville VICTOR HERRON, Agent in Charge HOWARD ELLIOTT, Resident Manager Hamilton County Experiment Farm, Mt. Healthy VICTOR HERRON, Agent in Charge iWith leave of absence. 2In cooperation with Weather Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 8In cooperation with Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. BULLETIN OF THE Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station NUMBKK 270 FEBRUARY, 1914 EXPERIMENTS IN WINTER LAMB PRODUCTION PART I: RATIONS FOR EWES AND LAMBS PART II: COST OF PRODUCTION By J. W. HAMMOND INTRODUCTION The hothouse lamb is a special product for which the demand at high prices is rather limited, yet the production of such lambs is an industry which has proved profitable on a number of Ohio farms. Many sections of Ohio not only have access to transportation facili- ties necessary to deliver the lambs to market in good condition, but also possess the sheep from which to raise the lambs, and the feeds to produce lambs of prime quality. The fact that the prices paid for hothouse lambs in the eastern cities the last year or two have been lower than those paid in some preceding- years emphasizes the importance of keeping in mind the possibility of an over-pro- duction of this commodity. However, young lambs during the winter are a delicacy for which there doubtless always will be a good demand in western as well as in eastern cities, and the pro- duction of such lambs offers possibilities even though prices should not be maintained at the level of former years. The term "hothouse lamb" frequently leads to the very erroneous impression that such a lamb is a delicate creature, requir- ing special care and artificially heated buildings. On the contrary, the hothouse lamb is very robust. Artificially heated, or even especially warm, buildings are not at all necessary. The term ""hothouse" has probably been applied to such lambs because they are produced at a season when lambs are not ordinarily produced, and in this respect are comparable to the artificial or out-of-season products of hothouses or green-houses. (199) 200 OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION: BULLETIN 270 The present market for hothouse lambs is confined chiefly to the large eastern cities, principally New York, Boston and Washington, but it seems reasonable that a market for this product could be created in other cities farther west. Hothouse lambs are consumed by high class restaurants, hotels and clubs, and a few by private wealthy families. The eastern market demands that they be "hog dressed," i. e. all the viscera, except the heart, liver and kidneys removed, the feet removed, but the pelt and, frequently, the head left on. In the eastern markets they are usually sold by the carcass rather than by the pound. The season for hothouse lambs is be- tween Thanksgiving and Easter, although the greatest demand does not begin until after New Years, and continues until about April 1, after which the price declines, owing to an increased supply at that time. A prime hothouse lamb must show quality, must be blocky and compactly built and must be fat. The weight demanded varies with the season. In the beginning of the season, 30 pounds dressed is a desirable weight, but as the season advances more weight is permissible, dressed lambs weighing as high as 40 pounds or more being acceptable. There is also an extensive and increasing demand in the eastern and middle western lamb markets for early spring lambs, beginning as early as they can be put upon the market and continuing until the southern grass lambs appear. The demand is usually the greatest during Easter week, and for this reason such lambs are frequently termed "Easter" lambs. Lambs for this trade should be prime in quality and condition, and should weigh from SO to 60 pounds alive. They are sold on the hoof, the price sometimes being as high as 15 to 17 cents per pound at the season of the greatest demand. Group of hothouse lambs, raised from grade Delaine ewes and sired by Southdown ram. EXPERIMENTS IN WINTER LAMB PRODUCTION 201 Since 1911 the Ohio Experiment Station has been conducting some experimental work in the production of hothouse lambs at the Southeastern Test Farm, at Carpenter, and the data already secured are presented in this bulletin. Part I deals with a comparison of different rations for ewes and lambs, and Part II deals with the cost of producing- hothouse lambs. PART I RATIONS FOR THE PRODUCTION OF WINTER LAMBS During- the winter of 1912-13, 122 winter lambs were raised and used in three different experiments to compare different grain rations for ewes and lam DS. rortyofthe oldest lambs were fat- tened and shipped to New York as hothouse lambs. The remain- ing younger lambs were reserved for experimental feeding the fol- lowing summer, and were not fed quite as heavily as if they had been intended for hothouse lambs. The results thus secured from fattening hothouse or winter lambs will doubtless apply, in a measure at least, to the fattening of any kind of lambs. Grade Delaine ewes from which hothouse lambs were raised. RAISING THE LAMBS The ewes from which the lambs were raised were principally grade Delaines averaging about 85 pounds in weight. There were also a few pure bred Delaine ewes in the flock. The lambs were sired by pure bred Southdown rams. Seventy-nine of the ewes were either young ewes or ewes which had raised hothouse lambs the previous winter. They were turned out on bluegrass pasture April 15, 1912, and breeding was begun May 20. The remaining 43 ewes had raised lambs during the spring and summer of 1912. The lambs were weaned July 8, and on July 23, these ewes were put with the breeding lot and bred for late fall and winter lambs. Begin- ning shortly before breeding was started and continuing throughout the breeding season, the ewes were fed about }{ pound of corn per head daily to keep them gaining slightly in flesh. At frequent 202 OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION: BULLETIN 270 intervals during- the summer the ewes which were proved to be with lamb were removed from the flock, after which they received no feed, other than bluegrass pasture, until the lambs began to come in the fall. EXPERIMENT I OBJECT The object of this experiment was to compare the efficiency, as measured by the rate and economy of gains produced by the lambs, of a ration composed of corn, oats, bran, oilmeal, alfalfa and silage, with one composed of corn, oilmeal, alfalfa and silage, for ewes raising hothouse lambs. PLAN OF EXPERIMENT Two lots, 12 ewes and 12 lambs in each lot, were used in this experiment, which lasted from December 19, 1912, to February 18, 1913, inclusive, a period of 62 days. On February 5, five lambs from Lot I and three lambs from L/ot 2 were slaughtered and their dams removed from the experiment. On February 12, sufficient lambs of similar breeding and slightly younger, together with their dams, were added to bring the number of ewes and lambs in each lot back to twelve, as at the beginning. After February 18, lambs were slaughtered from both lots at frequent intervals and other lambs and ewes were added to take their places. It is doubtful if the ewes and lambs thus adde,d were in the experiment long enough for the different rations fed to have much influence on either the rate or economy of g-ains. For this reason no account is taken of the results of the experiment after February 18, although it was continued until March 17, when the last lambs were slaughtered. Animals usexi: A description of the ewes and lambs used is given on Page 201. The 24 ewes included in this experiment were the oiies which lambed first. (For date of birth of lambs, see p. 217). In this, as in all other experiments reported in this bulletin, the two lots were made as nearly alike as possible with respect to age, weight, conformation and breeding. Rations: The rations fed to the ewes were as follows: Lot 1 -Corn, 4 parts; oilmeal, 1 part; alfalfa and silag-e. Lot 2. — Corn, 5 parts; oats, 2 parts; bran, 2 parts; oilmeal, 1 part; alfalfa and silage. The lambs in both lots were fed the same ration, corn and alfalfa. The lambs were fed apart from the ewes. The different grains were so proportioned that the grain rations fed to each lot of ewes had approximately the same nutritive ratio. It was planned to feed the same amount of grain per head to the EXPERIMENTS IN WINTER LAMB PRODUCTION 203 would eat. The ewes in both lots were fed all the hay and silage they would consume without undue waste. Both ewes and lambs were fed as heavily on grain as they would stand, so as to keep the lambs growing as rapidly as possible. Table I shows the average daily ration consumed by the ewes and lambs in each lot by weekly periods and the average for the entire experiment. TABLE I. EXPERIMENT I: Average daily ration consumed by ewes and lambs, by weekly periods Lot 2 Ewes Lambs Ewes Lambs Corn, 5: Corn, 4; oats, 2: oil- Alfalfa Silagre Corn Alfalfa bran, 2; Alfalfa Silatre Corn Alfalfa meal, 1 oil- meal, 1 Dec. lfl-L'4. . .89 .67 2 53 .31 1 .42 .89 1.67 2.53 .31 .42 " 25-31 00 .12 3.49 .38 .66 1.00 1.12 3 58 .38 .40 Jan. 1-7 00 .93 354 .50 .49 1.00 .93 3 55 .50 .59 8-14 100 .00 3.48 .63 .64 1.00 1.00 3.63 .63 .59 " 15-21 00 .00 3.44 .69 .71 1.00 1.00 3.55 .69 .73 " >»->X 00 .00 3 52 .75 .81 1.00 1.00 3.49 ' .75 .81 " 29-Ffb. 4.. .00 .93 3.12 i .91 .87 1.00 .93 3.12 .91 .92 Feb. 5-11... .96 .96 2 fii .76 .80 .98 .98 3.07 .91 .85 12-18 1.00 1.00 3.02 .92 .73 1.00 1.00 3.02 .93 .77 Average .99 1.06 3.23 .65 .65 .99 1.06 3 30 .66 .67 The average daily ration consumed by the ewes as shown by Table I is probably less than is ordinarily fed to ewes raising hot- house lambs, but it should be remembered that these were ewes averaging less than 90 pounds in weight (see Table II, page 204). Larger ewes would probably require more feed to produce the best results. Feeds used: Both the corn and the hay fed were of good quality. Old process oilmeal (pea size) was used. The silage was made from corn of the Clarage variety which had been allowed to reach a good degree of maturity before cutting. It contained a large amount of grain and was of good quality. During part of the time it contained a very small percentage of soybeans. Quarters: During the entire experiment the ewes and lambs were confined in pens, each containing approximately 150 square feet, inside a well ventilated barn with an abundance of sunlight from a southern exposure. Water was supplied to each lot in automatically regulated galvanized iron tanks. Each pen was provided with a ''lamb creep" on one side, which furnished a place where the lambs could eat undisturbed by the ewes. Method of feeding: The lambs were confined in the "lamb creeps" at feeding time until the ewes had finished eating. The lambs were fed all of the shelled corn and alfalfa hay they would eat 204 OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION: BULLETIN 270 three times a day. All uneaten feed was removed from the troughs at each feed and fed and charged to the ewes. The daily ration fed to the ewes was given in two equal parts, morning and evening. The silage and grain were mixed together and fed first, followed by the hay. All uneaten feed was removed and weighed.. WEIGHTS AND GAINS In all of the experiments reported in this bulletin, the initial weight was secured by taking the average of three weights, and the final weight was secured by taking the average of tv/o weights taken on successive days.1 The ewes and lambs were also weighed weekly during the experiment. All weights were taken in the morn- ing before feed and water were given, the water having been with- held during the night previous to weighing. Table II shows the weekly weights and gains and the total gain made by the ewes and lambs in each lot. The ewes in Lot 2, fed corn, oats, bran and oil- meal made a slightly larger gain than did those in Lot 1, whose grain ration consisted of corn and oilmeal, but the lambs in Lot 1 made a larger gain than did those in Lot 2. This experiment does not show any striking difference between the two rations, so far as rate of gain is concerned, but since the gain on the lambs is more im- portant and of more value than the gain on the ewes, what slight difference there is between these two grain rations, as shown by this experiment, is in favor of the one composed of corn and oilmeal. TABLE II. EXPERIMENT I: Weekly weights and gains, and total gains. Date Lot 1 Lot 2 Ewes Lambs Ewes Lambs No. Wt. Gain No. Wt. Gain No. Wt. Gain No. Wt. Gain Dec. 18. 19,20 " 25 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 *1 **12 1,017 1 050 1,040 1,030 1,0^0 1,040 1 OJ5 1,015 .585 600 1010 33 —10 —10 —10 20 5 15 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 *7 **12 12 t 9 9 325 355 385 425 460 500 535 565 271.5 305 521 550 390 400 30 30 40 35 40 35 30 33.5 29 16 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 * 9 9 **12 12 1,038 1,045 1 040 1,045 1 040 1,060 1 055 1,080 745 770 1,058 i'085 -5 5 —5 20 -5 25 25 27 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 * 9 9 **12 12 t 7 330 355 390 430 465 500 527.5 560 397.5 430 558 585 320 325 25 35 40 35 35 27.5 32.5 32.5 27 '5 Jan. 1... " 8 " 15 " 22... " 29 Feb. 5 " 5 . . " 12 " 12... " 17 " 17 "• 19 12 1 035 25 68 .095 ... 312.5 .441 94 .129 ... 294.5 .411 Av. 1 lily .r tin per head *On February 5, 5 lambs were slaughtered from Lot 1 an-i their dams taken out of the lot. On February 5, 3 la.nbs were slaughtered from Lot 2 and their dams taken out of the lot. **On F?bruary 12, 5 ewes and 5 lambs were added to Lot 1. On February 12, 3 ewes and 3 lambs were added to Lot 2. tOn February 17, 3 lambs were slaughtered from Lot 1. On February 17, 5 lambs were slaughtered from Lot 2. EXPERIMENTS JN WINTER LAMB PRODUCTION 205 COST OF GAINS Table III shows the total amount and value of the feed fed to the ewes and lambs in each lot, and the cost of feed per pound of gain made by the lambs with feed at the prices given in the table. In calculating this table, the gain made by the ewes was credited at 3^ cents per pound. Table III shows that the lambs in Lot 1, whose dams were fed a grain ration of corn and oilmeal, not only made a slightly larger, but also a slightly cheaper gain than did those in Lot 2, whose dams were fed a grain ration of corn, oats, bran and oilmeal. The difference in the cost per pound of gain produced by the two rations was so slight, however, as to be of but little significance. Table III shows merely the cost of the gains made by .the lambs during the experiment. The total cost of feed required for raising hothouse lambs is discussed in Part II of 'this bulletin. TABLE III. EXPERIMENT I: Feed given to ewes and lambs; gains produced; cost of gains Lotl Lot 2 Feeds and prices Amount Value Amount Value Corn @ 56c per bushel Lbs. 1 0^5 8 «10 26 Lbs. £55 25 «8 35 Cats (g) 4Uc per bushel 143.90 1.80 L ran ^ $24 per ton .... 143 90 1 73 Oilmeal (& $32 per ton 141 7 2 27 72 00 1 15 /• Ifalf a <& $12.50 per ton Silage & $3.50 pp r ton 1,242 0 2 456-0 7.76 4 30 1,256.00 2 510 00 7.85 4 39 Total cost of feed $24 59 $25.27 Amount and value (@ 3Jic per Ib.) of gain made by ewes 68 0 2-38 94 00 3.29 Gain made by lambs. . . . 312 5 29J 50 Total cost of feed, minus value of grain made by ewes 22.21 21.98 Cost of feed per pound of gain made by lambs 071 .075 QUALITY OF FINISH There was no appreciable difference in the degree of finish pro- duced by the different rations. Both lots produced prime hothouse lambs. EXPERIMENT II OBJECT The object of this experiment was to secure further evidence upon the problem under consideration in Experiment I. PLAN OF EXPERIMENT Experiment II was conducted very similarly to Experiment I. The same feeds were used in both experiments, except that in Experiment II the ewes were fed red clover instead of alfalfa during the last five weeks. The ewes used in both experiments were very 206 OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION: BULLETIN 270 similar in age, type and breeding and were bred to the same rams. In Experiment I, the ewes had all lambed before the experiment began, while in Experiment II they did not begin to lamb until the second week of the experiment. (See Table V, p. 207). The ewes and lambs were confined in pens similar in size and location to those used in Experiment I. There were 11 ewes and their lambs in each lot in this experiment, which lasted from December 24, 1912, to March 28, 1913, inclusive, a period of 95 days. One lamb in Lot 1 died at birth, February 19, and the ewe was removed from the experiment. Rations: The rations fed to the ewes were as follows: • Lot 1. Corn, 4 parts; oilmeal, 1 part; alfalfa, clover and silage. Lot 2. Corn, 5 parts; oats, 2 parts; bran, 2 parts; oilmeal, 1 part; alfalfa, clover and silage. The lambs in both lots were fed the same rations, corn and alfalfa, and were fed apart from the ewes. Both ewes and lambs were fed in the same manner as in Experi- ment I, except that the lambs in Experiment II were not intended for hothouse lambs and were not forced as rapidly as were those in Experiment I. Table IV shows the average daily ration consumed by both ewes and lambs by weekly periods, and the average for the entire experiment. TABLE IV. EXPERIMENT II: Average daily ration consumed by ewes and by lambs, by weekly periods Lotl Lot 2 Ewes Lambs Ewes Lambs Date Corn, 5; Cora, 4 ; oil- meal, 1 Al- falfa* Silajre Corn Alfalfa oats, 2; bran, 2: oil- Al- falfa* Silage Corn Alfalfa meal, 1 Dec. 24- Dec. 31. .5 .97 2.97 .5 .99 2.98 Jan. 1 Jan. 7. .5 .94 2.67 .5 .96 3 05 ' 8 ' 14. .5 .93 3.14 .5 .96 3.58 ' 15 ' 21. .5 .94 3.12 .5 .97 3.57 ' 22 ' 28. .52 .97 3.08 .52 .97 330 ' 29-'Feb. 4. .67 .94 3.02 .67 .97 3.17 Feb. 5- ',11. .67 .93 3 01 .67 .96 3.17 4 12- ' 18. .67 .96 3 22 .10 .10 .67 .98 3.32 .09 .09 ' 19- ' 25. .67 1.00 3.40 .14 .10 .67 .99 3 25 .13 .09 ' 26-Mch. 4. .67 .96 3.55 .24 .16 .67 .96 3.26 .22 .14 Kch. 5- * 11. .67 .95 3.59 .27 .23 .67 !96 3.34 .25 .18 ' 12- ' 18. .67 .97 3.H9 .32 .32 .67 .97 3 57 .29 .29 ' 19- ' 28. .67 .96 3.90 .39 .28 .67 .96 3.79 .35 .26 Average .60 .95 3.26 .25 .20 .60 .97 3.35 .23 .18 *Med5um red clover hay was substituted for alfalfa during- the last five weeks of the experiment. EXPERIMENTS IN WINTER LAMB PRODUCTION 207 WEIGHTS AND GAINS Table V shows the weekly weights and gains and the total and average daily gain made by each lot. As in Experiment I, the lambs in Lot 1, whose dams were fed corn and oilmeal as a grain ration made slightly larger gains than did the lambs in Lot 2, whose dams were fed a grain ration consisting of corn, oats, bran, and oilmeal. The ewes in Lot 1 made a slight gain, while those in Lot 2 lost in weight during the experiment. TABLE V. EXPERIMENT II: Weekly weights and gains, and total gains Lotl Lot 2 Date Ewes Lambs Ewea Lambs No. Wt. (lain No. Wt. Gain* No- Wt. Gain Xo. Wt. Gain* Dec. 23, 24, 25. Jan. 1 8 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 n 11 10 10 10 10 10 10 1,030 1,075 1,085 1 107 1,080 1,015 977 930 950 885t 900 865 890 870 886 45 10 22 -27 -65 -38 -47 20 1 15 -35 25 -20 16 '3 8 11 11 10 10 10 10 10 10 '40 80 103 150 165.5 190t 220 245 275 300 318 40 40 23 47 15.5 30 30 25 30 25 18 11 11 1! 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 ,028 ,075 070 ,082 OPO ,010 955 882 895 870 880 885 880 885 897 4 12 -2 -70 -55 -73 13 -25 10 5 -5 5 12 ;; 1 2 9 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 10 13 25 85 125 163 180 210 235 255 285 320 324 ip 12 60 40 38 17 30 25 20 30 35 15 22 29 Feb. 5 12 19 . 26 Mch. 5 12 19 ' 26 4 28, '29 Birth •weight of lambs born during; the experiment**. . Total Rain Av. daily Rain per head . 91.5 13.5 .013 -91.5 232.0 .377 98.75 -32.25 -03, ... -98.75 225.25 .333 "The weekly trains in this column include the birth weights of the lambs bom during- the experi- ment, but the total train and average daily grain per head is the gain actually produced during the experiment. See following1 note. *:':'A record was kept of the weight of each lamb at time of birth. The sum of these -syeig-hts was added to the gain (or loss) made by t he ewes and subtracted from the sum of the weekly gains made by the lambs, to get the actual gain made by the ewes and lambs respectively tOne lamb died at birth, weight 5.5 pounds. Ewe removed from lot, weight 66 pounds. COST OF GAINS Table VI shows the amount and value of the feed fed to each lot, and the cost of feed per pound of gain made by the lambs in each lot, with feed at the prices indicated in the table. In calculating the cost of gain produced by the lambs, the gain or loss made by the ewes is valued at 3^ cents per pound. Table VI shows that the lambs in Lot 1, whose dams were fed a grain ration of corn and oilmeal made a gain which cost 1.4 cents less per pound than the gain made by the lambs in Lot 2, whose dams were fed a grain ration of corn, oats, bran and oilmeal. 208 OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION: BULLETIN 270 TABLE VI. EXPERIMENT II: Feed given to ewes and lambs; gains produced; cost of gains Lc tl T.o1 , 2 Feeds and prices Amount Value Amount Value Corn © 5fic per bushel Oats © 40c per bushel Lbs. 588.4 $5.88 Lbs. 418.9 126 3 $4.19 1 58 11 5* 14 137 8 1 65 Oilmeal @ $32 per ton Alfalfa © $'I2 50 per ton 121 3 811 0 1.94 5 07 63.2 816 8 1.01 5 10 Clover 6$ $ ' 0 per ton 300.0 1 50 330 0 1 f>5 Silag-e © $3.50 per tori 3,448.0 6.03 3,630.0 6.35 Total cost of feed " $20 56 $21 53 Amount and value (© '6lAc per pound) of gain or loss ( - ) n 5 47 — 32 25 1 13 Gain made by lambs 232 0 225 25 Total cost of feed, minus value of train or plus value of loss 20 09 22 C6 Cost of feed per pound of gain made by lambs 087 111 *The lambs in both lots were fed a small amount of bran when they first began to eat grain. EXPERIMENT III OBJECT The object of this experiment was to compare corn alone with a mixture of corn, oats, bran and oilmeal as grain rations for winter lambs. PLAN OF EXPERIMENT In Experiments I and II, the lambs in both lots in each experi- ment were fed alike and the ewes fed different rations, but in Experi- ment III both lots of ewes were fed alike and the lambs fed different rations. Two lots, eacji composed of 38 ewes and their lambs were used in Experiment III, which lasted from December 24, 1912, to March 28, 1913, inclusive, a period of 95 days. On February 12, four ewes and their lambs were removed from each lot and put with the lambs in Experiment I, to fatten them more rapidly. On February 19, four more ewes and lambs were removed from each lot for the same purpose. At the time the experiment was begun, only about two- thirds of the ewes had lambed. The ewes in this experiment lambed later than those in Experiment I and earlier than those in Experiment II. The ewes used in this experiment were similar in every respect to those used in Experiments I and II (see p. 201) and were bred to the same rams. The same feeds were used and the same method of feeding was followed in Experiment III as in Experi- ment II, but the lambs were not intended for hothouse lambs and were not forced as rapidly as were the lambs in Experiment I. EXPERIMENTS IN WINTER LAMB PRODUCTION 209 Rations: The ewes in both lots were fed corn, oilmeal, clover, alfalfa and silage, the two lots being: fed the same quantity of grain and as much hay and silage as they would eat. The rations fed the lambs were as follows: Lot 1. Corn and alfalfa. Jl/ot 2. Corn, 5 parts; oats, 2 parts; bran, 2 parts; oilmeal, Ipart; and alfalfa. It was planned to feed the lambs in the two lots the same amount of grain per head, and as much hay as they would eat. Table VII shows the average daily ration for both ewes and lambs by weekly periods, and the average for the entire experiment. TABLE VII. EXPERIMENT III. Average daily ration consumed by ewes and lambs, by weekly periods Lotl Lot 2 Ewes Lambs Ewes Lambs i Corn, 5; Date Corn, 4; oil- Alfal- fa* Silage Corn Hay Corn, 4; oil- Alfal- fa* Silage oats, 2; bran, 2; oil Hay meal, 1 meal, 1 meal, 1 Dec. 24-Dec. 31 . .75 1.00 3-53 .094 .039 .75 .99 3.48 .097 .039 Jan. 1-Jan. 7. 8- " 14. .75 .75 .97 .98 i£ .167 .183 .123 .131 .75 .75 .97 1.00 3.67 3.70 .144 .167 .104 .137 " 15- " 21. .75 .98 3.80 .244 ! .211 .75 .97 3 71 .227 .185 " 22- " 28. .75 .99 3.72 .243 .215 .75 .99 3 67 .231 .210 " 29-Feb. 4. .75 .97 3.62 .307 .310 .75 .96 3.52 .291 .273 Feb. 5- " 11. .75 .97 i 3.58 .386 .378 .75 .98 3.54 .385 .385 " 12- " 18. .75 .97 3.38 i .455 .442 .75 .97 3.40 • .429 .393 " 19- " 25. .75 .95 3.25 .422 .384 .75 .98 3.08 .387 .379 " 26-Mch. 4. .75 .96 3.36 .444 .494 .75 .98 3.11 .435 .411 Mch. 5- " 11. .75 .95 3.51 .444 .536 .75 .95 3.24 .449 .528 12- " 18. .75 .93 3.61 .444 .548 .75 .93 3-43 .442 .546 " 19- " 28. .75 .93 3.77 .517 .676 .75 .96 3.64 .484 .568 Average 75 .97 3-60 .333 '.343 .75 .97 3.50 .326 .325 *Medium red clover hay was substituted for alfalfa during- the last five weeks of the experiment. Quarters: Each lot of ewes and lambs was housed in a space 15 ft. x 16 ft. in a one story shed built on the \*€st side of a storage barn. Numerous windows to the west and south gave abundant sunlight and ventilation. The two lots were changed from one pen to the other each week to overcome any advantage due to extra warmth or sunshine which might be possessed by the pen in the south end of the shed. On pleasant days the ewes and lambs had access to a yard 15 ft. x 20 ft. on the west side of each pen. WEIGHTS AND GAINS Table VIII shows the weekly weights and gains and the total gains made by both ewes and lambs. This table shows that the ewes in Lot 1 lost 63 pounds, while those in Lot 2 made a total gain 210 OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION: BULLETIN 270 of 51 pounds, the two lots of ewes consuming- the same kind and practically the same amount of feed. The lambs in Lot 1, fed corn alone made practically the same average daily gain as did those in Lot 2, fed the grain mixture of corn, oats, bran and oilmeal. TABLE VIII. EXPERIMENT III. Weekly weights and gains, and total gains Date Lotl Lot 2 Ewes Lambs Ewes Lambs No. Wt. Gain No. Wt. Gain* No. 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 341 34 302 30 30 30 30 30 Wt. Gain No. Wt. Gain* Dec. 23, 24, 25 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 341 34 292 273 27 27 27 27 3,392 3,400 3,280 3,200 3,145 3 215 3,190 3,150 2,815 2,840 2,435 2 275 2,305 2,360 2,340 2,289 '"8 -120 —80 —55 70 —25 —40 '"25 "'20 30 55 -20 —51 24 28 31 36 37 37 37 37 331 33 2fl2 273 27 27 27 264 395 480 565 705 820 900 987 1,075 905 985 815 845 910 970 1,015 1,037 85 85 140 115 80 87 88 80 76 65 60 45 57 3,394 3,403 3,315 3 170 3,185 3,185 3,160 3,180 2 780 2,830 2,482 2,495 2 520 2,550 2,550 2,550 '"ii -90 -145 15 '—25 20 '"50 '"is 25 30 22 28 29 39 39 39 39 39 351 35 32 .31 31 31 31 31 356.5 475 535 725 827.5 907 990 1,085 910 1,000 830 895 960 1,025 1,080 1,152 iis!5 60 190 102 5 79.5 83 95 "90" '65" 65 65 55 72 Jan. 1 8... 15 22... 29 Feb. 5 12 12 19 19 26 Mch. 5 12 19.. 28,29 Birth weight of lambs born during the experiment* . . Gain 120 -63 -120 943 32? 147 51 -147 993.5 .315 Average daily gain per head 1 Four ewes and lambs were removed from each lot, February 12. 2 Five ewes and 4 lambs, removed from Lot 1, and 4 ewes and lambs removed from Lot 2, Feb. 19. 3 One lamb, weight 34 pounds, died February 22, and 1 lamb, weight 12 pounds, died February 26. The dams of these 2 lambs, weight 180 pounds, were removed February 26. 4 One lamb, weight 35 pounds, died March 20. * See note under Table V, page 207. COST OF GAINS Table IX shows the amount and cost of feed fed per pound of gain made by the lambs with feed at the prices indicated in the table. In calculating the cost of gain made by the lambs, the value of the gain or loss made by the ewes was valued at 3% cents per pound. When this allowance is made, Table IX shows that the lambs in Lot 1 made slightly more expensive gains than did the lambs in Lot 2. If no allowance is made for the gain or loss made by the ewes, the lambs in Lot 1 made slightly cheaper gains than did those in Lot 2. In neither case is the difference great enough to indicate any strik- ing difference in economy between the two rations. The cost of the grain fed to the lambs constitutes such a small percentage of the total cost of feed consumed by both ewes and lambs that it has but little influence on the cost per pound of gain made by the lambs. EXPERIMENTS IN WINTER LAMB PRODUCTION 211 TABLE IX. EXPERIMENT III. Feed given to ewes and lambs; gains produced; cost of gains Feeds and prices Lotl Lot 2 Amount Value Amount Value Corn (?£• 5fiC per bushel Lbs. 2,^73.8 $28.74 Lbs. 2,481.4 205 8 205.8 594 .6 3,407.0 900.0 11,919.0 $24.81 2 57 2.47 9.51 21.29 4.50 20.86 Out* '" 40c PIT bu-hel Bran ("' fcl 00 per ton Oilmeal @ $32.00 per ton. • 476.1 3 372.8 810.0 11,727.0 7.62 21.08 4.05 20.52 Alfalfa d'1 ?12 50 per ton Clover ("•• *10 per ton Silage ({£ 53.50 per ton $82 01 $86 01 Amount and value ('" o!_- rents per pound) of tram or loss(— ) 2.20 51 0 1.79 Gain made bv lambs 943 0 993.5 Total cost of feed, minus value of g-airi or plus value of lo~- 84.21 84.22 Cost of feed per pound of train made by lambs .089 .085 DEGREE OF FINISH At the close of the experiment the lambs in Lot 1, fed corn alone as a concentrate, were not only heavier but were in a noticeably higher condition than were those in Lot 2, fed the mixed grain ration CONCLUSIONS FROM EXPERIMENTS I, II AND III In two of the experiments reported in this bulletin, a grain ration, consisting of corn and oilmeal fed in connection with silage, clover and alfalfa hay to ewes raising winter lambs, produced slightly larger and cheaper gains on the lambs than did a mixed grain ration of cor;:, oats, bran and oilmeal. In one experiment the ewes fed the corn, oats, bran and oilmeal ration made a larger gain than did those fed corn and oilmeal. In the second experiment, however, the ewes fed corn and oilmeal made a slight gain, while those fed corn, oats, bran and oilmeal lost in weight. While further work is necessary to secure conclusive evidence, the results of these two experiments indicate that when silage and clover or alfalfa constitute the rough- age fed, a grain ration of corn, supplemented with some nitrogenous concentrate such as oilmeal, will produce just as large, and often cheaper gains than will a mixed grain ration composed of corn, oats, bran and oilmeal. The choice between a grain ration com- posed of corn and oilmeal and one composed of such a mixture of grains should depend upon convenience and upon the economy of the ration as determined by the relative prices of the diif erent feeds. The corn and oilmeal ration is the more convenient and is usually the cheaper. In the third experiment, a grain ration of corn, in connection with alfalfa, fed to winter lambs, not only produced a slightly larger grain on the lambs, but also produced a better finish than did a mixed 212 OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION: BULLETIN 270 consumed per pound of gain produced by the lambs was prac- tically the same for the two rations. In these experiments oil meal was used because at that time it was as cheap as or slightly cheaper than cottonseed meal. Cotton- seed meal is usually cheaper than oilmeal and contains a higher per- centage of protein, and is an excellent feed with which to balance a ration containing corn and corn silage, which usually are the cheap- est feeds on corn belt farms. When sprinkled over or mixed with the silage it makes a very palatable ration, for which the ewes have a greater relish than they have for the silage alone. PART II COST OF FEEDS IN WINTER LAMB PRODUCTION The cost of gains produced by hothouse lambs as shown in Part I of this bulletin has reference only to the cost of the gains made while the lambs were on experiment. The following pages show the entire cost of the feed required to produce these lots of lambs, including the cost of the feed required to maintain the ewes for a year. No account has been taken of numerous other items which entered into the cost of production, such as interest on the investment, depreciation in value of the ewe flock, ram service, labor, etc., nor has any credit been given for the value of the manure produced. No attempt has been made to determine the total cost of production, as the factors just mentioned are so variable that even if accurately determined in one particular case they would have but doubtful application in other cases. The data here presented represent a careful account of the amount of feed given, gains pro- duced, and receipts from sales. They are presented to give the reader an idea of the possibilities ef hothouse lamb production under Ohio farm conditions. In calculating the cost of production, an attempt has been made to value feeds at average prices for feeds on the farm in Ohio. LAMBS PRODUCED IN 1911-12 The fourteen hothouse lambs born in 1911-12 were from grade Delaine ewes, and were sired by pure-bred Southdown rams. Two of the lambs died February 16.* Six of the lambs were slaughtered February 22, and the remaining six were slaughtered March 13. Table X shows the weight of the ewes and lambs and the amount of feed fed each week. The lambs were fed in a "lamb creep" apart from the ewes, and in addition to this they were allowed to eat hay and silage with the ewes, so that the lambs consumed slightly more and the ewes slightly less feed than is shown in Table X. *The two lambs that died were apparently killed by a disease similar to forage poisoning or spinal meningitis which affects horses and \\hich is supposed to be caused by a fungous growth on the forage. It was at first feared that these two deaths were caused directly by silage, but later deaths from annarentlv the same, disease amonir sheen that, were not. fed silaireled to the rnnrltisinn that the silaere EXPERIMENTS IN WINTER LAMB PRODUCTION 213 ra igh £> 3 St 1 -o i § i X 0100 rH °M lOOOOOiOlOlCSOOOOOlOlO i! o •100000000000100 • •^ IO O ^* (O CO OO •** -^f O Tt( OO O • so ic o T»< eo oo oo oc -fi o -Tt< ao o co os co co — oo co ^3 A \i • II Feb ams, s <*- 11 Ssa bceS .Si» >>& 214 OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION: BULLETIN 270 INDIVIDUAL GAINS Table XI shows the age when slaughtered and the daily grain made by each lamb from the time of birth untilthe time of slaughter. The gains shown in this table are those actually produced and do not include the birth weight of the lambs. TABLE XL Individual gains made by lambs, 1911-12. Gain per day* No. Date of birth Date slaughtered Age when slaughtered Weight when slaughtered from birth until slaughtered Days Lbs. Lbs. Nov. 22 Feb. 22 92 62.50 .571 " 20 •' 94 65.00 .590 Ill " 23 " 22 91 92 58.25 51 25 & 121 " 22 92 52.50 .478 135 " 12 102 53.50 .426 9 Dec. 3 Mch. 13 101 53.25 .428 37 " 9 95 59. dO 110 Nov. 25 109 56 00 *422 133 " 12 122 58.25 '.395 141 " 14 120 54 00 .377 146 " 17 117 5800 .423 A vcrzifirc ..... 102.25 56.80 .465 *In calculating the dail> gain, «-he birth weight was subtracted from the weight when slaughtered, and the remainder divLed by the age in days. DRESSING PERCENTAGE The lambs were sold to a Columbus hotel and were not "hog dressed," as is customary for eastern markets, but were dressed in the manner frequently employed in dressing lambs for the regular trade. The pelt, head and feet and all the viscera, except the heart, liver and kidneys were removed. The carcass was spread by "backsets," and the caul put on in the regular manner. The follow- ing table shows the live and dressed weight and the dressing percentage for each lamb. TABLE XII: Live and dressed weights (cold) and dressing percentage of lambs, 1911-12. "Wn Live Dressed Dressing weight weight percentage 89 62.50 34.00 54.40 68 65.00 33.75 51 92 18 58.25 51.25 30.50 27.25 52.36 53.17 121 135 9 52.50 53.50 53 25 25 75 27.50 27.25 49.05 51.40 51.17 ,f. 59.00 56.00 30.25 27.00 51.27 48.21 133 53.25 27.50 47.21 141 54.00 ^5.25 46 76 146 58.00 27.00 46.55 Total 6S1 50 343 00 " Average 56.80 28.58 50.33 EXPERIMENTS IN WINTER LAMB PRODUCTION 215 TOTAL COST OF FEED, AND COST OF FEED PER POUND OF GAIN In determining1 the cost of feed required to produce the lambs, account was taken not only of the amount of feed fed to the ewes and lambs while the ewes were raising1 the lambs, but also of the total amount of feed required to maintain the ewes from the time they were turned out to pasture one year to the corresponding1 time the following year. Since there was not more than two weeks difference in the time at which the ewes were turned out to pasture each year, the time included by the dates mentioned is practically a year. Table XIII shows the value of the total amount of feed fed, at ordinary farm prices for feeds, and the cost of feed fed per pound of live weight of lamb produced after deducting1 the value of the wool produced by the fourteen ewes. TABLE XIII. Total amount and value of feed fed to ewes and lambs, 1911-12. Corn Cottonseed meal Alfalfa Silage Mixed hay Feed fed to ewes, May 16 to December 14, 1912 Peed fed to ewes and lambs. December 15 until lambs were slaughtered B>eed fed to ewes from the time lambs were slaughtered until April 25, 1912. 581.2 816.9 2335 22.4 412.5 58.7 432.9 2,002.2 428.9 4,592 1,417 20 1 631 6 493 6 2 864 0 6 009 20 DR. 1,631.6 pounds corn at S6c per bushel $16.32 493.6 pounds cottonseed meal at $32.00 per ton 7.90 1.432 ton alfalfa at $12.50 per ton 17.90 3 tons silage at $3.50 per ton 10.50 .01 ton mixed hay at $10.00 per ton 10 *Pasture for 14 ewes at $1.00 per head ' 14.00 $66.72 |4b.5 pounds gain on ewes at 3)4 c per pound $ 1.63 116 pounds wool at 23c per pound 26.68 $28.31 Net cost of feed required to produce 681.5 Ibs. o-f lamb 38.41 Net cost of feed required to produce a pound of lamb, live weight .056 *Estimated. tThe ewes weighed 46.5 pounds more on April 1, 1912, than on the same date a year previous. This grain in live weight is valued at '6\4 cents per pound. Table XIII shows that the total cost of all the feed fed to the lambs and of all the feed required to maintain the ewes for a year, after deducting- the value of the gain in live weight and of the wool produced by the ewes, was 5.6 cents per pound. It should be 216 OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION: BULLETIN 270 noticed that in calculating- the cost per pound, no credit is given for the weight of the two lambs that died, while the feed eaten by these two lambs and by their dams is charged. These lambs that died had practically reached a marketable weight, one weighing 40 pounds and the other 50 pounds, and it is perhaps no more than fair that the weight of these two lambs be included in the total weight, which would decidedly lower the cost of feed required to produce a pound of gain in live weight. SALE OF LAMBS: FINANCIAL STATEMENT The lambs were sold for 35 cents per pound, dressed. The following financial statement shows the amount remaining after deducting the total cost of the feed consumed from the total receipts from the sale of the lambs, wool and pelts. DR. Total cost of feed and pasture $ 66.72 Express on lambs shipped to Columbus 3.80 $ 70.52 CR. 343 pounds lamb at 35c per pound .................... $120.05 14 pelts at 30c ......................................... 4.20 116 pounds wool at 23c per pound .................... 26.68 46.5 pounds gain on ewes at 3J^c per pound .......... 1.63 $152.56 Balance above the cost of feed and marketing: Total ................................................... $ 82.04 Per lamb.. 6.84 LAMBS RAISED DURING THE WINTER OF 1912-13 Pages 202-205 of this bulletin report the results of an experiment with hothouse lambs conducted in 1912-13. The following pages show the total cost of feed required to produce the 32 lambs used in this experiment, together with 8 other lambs of similar breeding but slightly younger in age. The lambs were slaughtered at different dates, from February 5 to March 17, 1913, as they reached the desired weight and degree of finish. Four lambs were not sold because of demoralized shipping facilities when they were ready to slaughter. INDIVIDUAL GAINS Table XIV shows the date of birth, the date slaughtered, and the age and weight when slaughtered, also the daily gain and the total gain made by the lambs from the time of birth until EXPERIMENTS IN WINTER LAMB PRODUCTION 217 they were slaughtered. It may be seen from this table that the total live weight of the 40 lambs was 2,171.5 pounds. The gains shown in this table do not include the birth weights of the lambs. TABLE XIV. Individual weights and gains made by hothouse lambs, 1912-13. Gam per day* Date of Date Age when Weight when from birth No. birth slaughtered slaughtered slaughtered until slaughtered Days Lbs. Lbs. 1 Oct. 23 Feb. 17 117 53.0 .389 2 Nov. 18 " 17 91 55.0 .500 2001 Oct. 26 Mch. 3 128 52.0 .351 2002 Nov. 28 " 17 109 53.0 .390 2003 Dec. 7 " 17 100 57 5 .485 2004 Nov. 5 " 3 118 52.0 .369 2006 Dec. 3 " 17 104 58.5 .471 2008 " 17 110 57.5 .436 20C9 " 2 Feb. 17 107 54 0 .416 2014 Dec. 6 Mch. 10 94 55.0 •468 2018 Oct. 29 Feb. 5 99 67.0 .596 20*1 Nov. 3 " 17 106 52.5 .417 2029 " 3 " 17 106 60.0 .476 2032 Oct. 31 " 5 97 52.0 .448 2033 " 15 " 5 113 55.0 .411 2040 Dec. 11 Mch. 17 96 59.0 .516 2048 Nov. 23 " 10 107 54.0 .458 2050 " 23 " 10 107 59 0 .472 2059 " 25 " 10 105 57.0 .448 2063 Oct. 20 Feb. 17 120 53.5 .371 **2071 Nov. 28 2074 Dec. 3 Mch. 17 io4 53'.6 .'423 **2076 Oct. 23 2084 Nov. 24 Mch. 17 iis 56'5 .'420 2087 Oct. 16 Feb. 5 112 59.0 .437 2088 " 21 Mch. 10 140 54.0 .314 2097 Dec. 17 " 17 90 57.5 .528 **2112 Nov 22 2113 " ' 21 Mch. 10 169 55 ! 6 A13 2117 Oct. 7 Feb. 5 121 52.5 .368 2123 Nov. 4 " 5 93 52-5 .473 2124 Oct. 28 Mch. 3 126 51 0 .353 2125 Nov. 1 Feb. 5 96 52 0 2129 " 1 108 50.0 '389 2142 Oct. 21 Mch. 3 133 57.0 !316 2145 " 14 Feb. 17 126 55.0 2147 " 29 " 5 99 57.0 '490 2174 Dec. 7 Mch. 10 93 54.0 !478 2181 " 2 " 10 98 52.0 .418 **2222 Oct. 19 Weight of 36 Ian Weight of 4 lam Total weight of 1,984.5 187.0 2,171.5 bs not slaughtered • 40 lambs *In calculating the daily gain per lamb, the birth weight was deducted from the weight when slaughtered. **These lambs were not slaughtered. Their combined weight March 17, 1913, was 187 pounds. SHRINK IN DRESSING These lambs were "hog dressed" as is required by the New York market to which they were consigned. All of the viscera except the heart, liver and kidneys were removed. The pelts and heads were left on and the feet removed at the joint nearest the hoof. The carcass was spread by "backsets" and the caul spread over the parts of the carcass where the flesh was exposed. Table XV, showing the average live and dressed weights is of interest to show the amount the lambs shrank in dressing as described above. 218 OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION: BULLETIN 270 TABLE XV. Live and dressed weights and shrink in dressing of 36 hothouse lambs, 1912-13. Total live weight (empty) Total dressed weig-ht (cold) Average shrink in dressing Lbp. 1,984.5 Lbs. 1,352.5 Lbs. 17.6 TOTAL COST OF FEED, AND COST OF FEED PER POUND OF GAIN Table XVI shows the amount of feed fed to the lambs, the total amount of feed required to maintain the forty ewes one: year, the cost of this feed at ordinary farm prices, and the cost of feed per pound of live weight of lamb produced, after deducting- the value of the wool produced by the forty ewes and after making allowance for their loss in live weight during the year. TABLE XVI. Total amount and value of feed given to ewes and lambs, 1912-13. Corn Oil- meal Oats Bran Alfalfa Soy- bean hay Clover Silage Feed fed to ewes May 17 to July 18 356 8 Feed frd to ewes and lambs, Oct. 25 to March 17 Feed fed to ewes after lambs were slaughtered until April 1^13 4,915.0 £02 4 438.6 161.0 216.9 250.2 5 573.5 56 0 931.8 50.0 1,115 8 10,029.7 3 757.0 Total 5 774.2 £09.6 216.9 250.2 5,629.5 931.8 1.165.8 13,786.7 DR. 5,774 pounds of corn at 663 per bushel $57.74 59 \6 pounds oilmeal at $32.CO per ton 9.59 216.9 pounds oats at 40c per bushel 2.71 250.2 pounds bran at $24.00 per ton 3.00 2.815 tons alfalfa at $12.50 per ton 1 ... 35.19 .466 ton soybean hay at $10.00 per ton 4.C6 .583 ton clover hay at $'O.CO per ton 5.83 6.893 tons silag-e at $3.50 per ton 24.13 *Pasture for 40 ewes at $1.00 per head 40.00 f69.5 pounds loss in live weight by ewes at 3^c per Ib. 2.43 $185.28 CR. 317 pounds wool at 23c per pound . . .' $72 91 $ 72.91 Net cost of feed required to produce 2,171.5 Ibs of lamb $112.37 Net cost of feed required to produce a pound of lamb, live weight 052 *E?timated. tThe forty ewes weigrhed 69.5 pounds ieFS on April 1, 1913, than on the same date the year prerknw- This loss in live weight is valued at bJi cents per pound. EXPERIMENTS IN WINTER LAMB PRODUCTION 219 Table XVI shows that after crediting- the ewes with the value of the wool produced and after deducting the value of the loss in live weight du 'ng the year, the total cost of the feed required to produce the lambs was 5.2 cents per pound. SALE OF LAMBS: FINANCIAL STATEMENT This lot of lambs was consigned to a commission firm in New York City, in five separate consignments, as they reached a desirable weight and proper degree of finish. The following financial state- ment shows that after crediting the ewes with the value of the wool produced during the year, the lambs returned, on an average, $4.08 after paying the expenses of marketing them and the cost of all the feed required to produce them. DR. Feed and pasture for 40 ewes and lambs $182.85 Express on lambs shipped to New York 27.38 Commission 14.91 69.5 pounds loss in live weight by ewes at 3^c per Ib. 2.43 $227.57 CR. February 11, 2 lambs at $9.00 $18.00 " 11, 3 lambs at $3.50 25.50 11, 3 lambs at $8.00 24.00 " 21, 8 lambs at $9.00 72.00 March 7, 4 lambs at $7.50 3000 11 14, 8 lambs at $7. 75 .". 62.00 " 21, 5 lambs at $8.50 '. 42.50 " 21, 3 lambs at $8.00 24.00 " 21, 4 lambs at $5.00* 20.00 317 pounds Delaine wool at 23c per pound 72.91 $390.91 Balance above cost of feed and marketing1: Total $163.34 Per lamb 4.C8 *The four lambs which were not sold on account of demoralized shipping- facilities, when they weft ivady for market, were worth, at a conservative estimate, $5.00 apiece, -on the farm. LAMBS RAISED DURING THE AUTUMN OF 1912-13 If ewes can be induced to breed sufficiently early to have the lambs born in the late summer or early fall, the lambs may be nearly, if not quite, matured on pasture. This will materially reduce the feed bill, and will have the lambs ready for market at a time when good prices usually prevail. The following pages show the cost of feed required to raise 7 hothouse lambs in this manner during the summer and fall of 1912. 220 OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION: BULLETIN 270 These lambs were sired by pure bred Southdown rams and were raised from grade Delaine ewes, very similar to those described on pag-e 201. During- the summer the ewes ran on bluegrass pasture until the lambs were born, when they were given the run of a 2X acre lot of an excellent stand of new clover seeding-. Until November 25, when they were taken from the pasture and put into the barn, the ewes received no feed other than that furnished by the clover pasture. From November 2 to 25, the lambs were fed 54 pounds of corn and 25 pounds of alfalfa. After they were put into the barn the ewes were fed corn and soybean hay and the lambs were fed corn and alfalfa hay. One lamb, weighing 49 pounds, died on December 9, of a digestive disorder similar to that described on page 212. On December 18 four of the lambs were dressed and shipped to New Yorkyand the other two were shipped to a Columbus hotel. At the time the lambs were slaughtered they exceeded the most desirable weig-ht for hothouse lambs at that season of the year. Had they been slaughtered two weeks earlier the cost of production would have been less and they probably would have commanded a higher price on the market. Table XVII is of interest to show the date of birth of the lambs and their age and weight when they were slaughtered. TABLE .XVII. Date of birth, age and weight of lambs slaughtered December 18, 1912. No. Date of birth Age when slaughtered Weight when slaughtered Days Lbs. 343 2035 August 12 6 1/6 Id4 54.0 5J.5 2053 July 18 143 5s 0 20i,0 September 4 Iu5 60 5 2077 July 29 U2 60.0 2095* 29 2103 August 6 Io4 63.6 Total 349.0 *Died December 9, weight 49 pounds. TOTAL COST OF FEED AND COST OF FEED PER POUND OF GAIN Table XVIII shows the amount and cost of the feed fed to the lambs and the amount and cost of feed required to maintain the ewes for a year. It also shows the cost per pound of the lambs as measured by the cost of feed fed to both ewes and lambs, after deducting: the value of the wool produced by the ewes. No credit has been given for the weight of the lamb that died. Since the feed eaten by this lamb and by its dam has been included in the above EXPERIMENTS IX WINTER LAMB PRODUCTION 221 calculation of the cost of production, perhaps it is no more than fair to credit the weight of this lambv particularly since it had reached a marketable weight, 49 pounds. If this weight is added to the total weight of lambs produced, it reduces the cost of feed per pound of gain to 3.54 cents. TABLE XVIII. Total amount and vulue of feed given to ewes and lambs, 1912-13. Corn Oilmeal Soybean hay Alfalfa Clover Mixed hay Silasre May 16 to July 18. Ewes ! 89.2 Nov. 2 to Dec. 18. Lambs j 154.2 Nov. 2 to Dec. 18. Ewes | 110.0 348 243 8 92 !0 Dec. 19 to Apr. 9. Ewes I .... isi.8 84 420.3 15.8 2,772 Total 353.4 181.8 348 335 420.3 107.8 2,772 353.4 pounds corn at 56c per bushel $ 3.53 181.8 pounds oilmeal at $32.00 per ton 2.91 .174 ton soybean hay at $10.00 per ton 1.74 .168 ton alfalfa hay at $12.50 per ton 2.10 .21 ton clover hay at $10.00 per ton 2.10 .054 ton mixed hay at $10.00 per ton 54 1.386 ton silage at $3.50 per ton 4.85 *Pasture for 7 ewes and lambs at $1.25 per ewe 8.75 $26.52 54 pounds wool at 23c per pound 12.42 Net cost of feed required to produce 349 pounds of lamb $14.10 Net cost of feed required to produce a pound of lamb, live weight 04 *Estimated. SALE OF LAMBS: FINANCIAL STATEMENT Four lambs were dressed and shipped to a commission firm in New York City. The remaining two were shipped to a Columbus butcher and slaughtered and sold to a hotel for 35c per pound dressed. The butcher received the pelts as pay for dressing the lambs and delivering them to the hotel. The following financial statement shows the amount remaining after deducting the cost of the feed eaten by the lambs and the cost of the feed required to keep the ewes a }Tear, from the receipts from sale of lambs and wool. Since there is no waj^ of determining the amount of gain or loss in live weight b}T the ewes during the j-ear when they were raising the lambs, no account is taken of this item. 222 OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION: BULLETIN 270 DR. Cost of feed and pasture $26.52 Express on 2 lambs shipped to Columbus 1.49 Express on 4 lambs shipped to New York 3.00 Commission on lambs shipped to New York 1.60 $32.61 CR. December 24, 4 lambs at $8.00 $32.00 24, 2 lambs, 58 pounds, at 35c 20.30 54 pounds Delaine wool at 27c per pound 12.42 $64.72 Balance above cost of feed and marketing- : Total $32.11 Per lamb 5. 35 The foregoing- test shows something- of the economy of pro- ducing- hothouse lambs on pasture. Table XVI, p. 218, shows that the cost of feed required per pound of lamb produced was 5.2 cents per pound when the lambs were produced in the barn, while Table XVIII, p. 221 shows that when the lambs were raised on pasture the greater part of their lives, the cost of feed was but 4 cents per pound of lamb produced. This is a point deserving attention from hothouse lamb producers, particularly in the southern part of the state where pastures may be used late in the fall. In frequent cases there are fields of aftermath to be plowed in the spring which will furnish excellent pasture and produce cheap gains. New clover seeding may be used for the same purpose if not pastured too closely so as to injure the stand. Bluegrass pastures, if green and succu- lent, may be used to good advantage, but frequently in the fall they are either burned by dry weather or are pastured off closely and should be supplemented with pasture of another nature. This may be accomplished by using such crops as rape or rye. If these crops are sown in silage corn they frequently will make a good growth and furnish an abundance of pasture after the corn is removed. The extra amount of labor and expense involved in sowing such crops to furnish fall pasture is no greater than that required to feed the ewes and lambs in the barn. EXPERIMENTS IN WINTER LAMB PRODUCTION 223 SUMMARY In two experiments, a grain ration of corn, 4 parts, and oilmeal, 1 part, fed to the ewes in connection with silage, clover and alfalfa hay, produced slightly larger and slightly cheaper gains on the lambs than did a grain ration composed of corn, 5 parts; oats, 2 parts; bran, 2 parts; and oilmeal, 1 part. (See pages 204, 205 and 207.) In one experiment the corn, oats, bran and oilmeal ration pro- duced a slightly larger gain on the ewes than did the corn and oil- meal ration. (See p. 204.) In the other experiment the ewes fed the corn and oilmeal ration made a slight gain, while those fed the corn, oats, bran and oilmeal ration made a slight loss. (See p. 207.) The two rations fed to the ewes produced no noticeable differ- ence in the finish on the lambs. (See p. 205.) A grain ration of corn alone, fed in connection with alfalfa hay to winter lambs produced a slightly larger gain than did a grain ration of corn, 5 parts; oats, 2 parts; bran, 2 parts; and oilmeal, 1 part. The cost of the gain produced by each ration was practically the same. (See pages 209 and 210.) The lambs fed corn alone as a grain ration were in higher condition than were those fed the mixed grain ration. (See p. 211.) Hothouse lambs, born in July and August and maintained on clover pasture and a small amount of grain until November 25 and then fed in the barn, were produced at a smaller cost for feed than were lambs born in the fall and raised in the barn during the winter. (See pages 218 to 222.) WOOL STUDIES WASHING BEFORE SHEARING—TIME OF SHEARING OHIO Agricultural Experiment Station WOOSTER, OHIO, U. S. A., APRIL, 1916 BULLETIN 294 Lambs used in experiment The Bulletins of this Station are sent free to all residents of the State who request them. When a change of address is desired, both the old and the new address should be given. All correspondence should be addressed to EXPERIMENT STATION, Wooster, Ohio TABLE OF CONTENTS Page I. INTRODUCTION 309 II. PLAN OF EXPERIMENT — A. Treatment of lots 310 B. Sheep used 311 C. Management of sheep 311 D. Washing and shearing 311 E. Scouring the wool 311 III. INFLUENCE OF WASHING ON YIELD OF GREASE WOOL AND OF SCOURED WOOL 312 IV. INFLUENCE OF WASHING ON RATE OF GAIN 313 V. INFLUENCE OF TIME OF SHEARING ON YIELD OF GREASE WOOL AND OF SCOURED WOOL 314 VI. INFLUENCE OF TIME OF SHEARING ON RATE OF GAIN 316 VII. SCOURED WOOL YIELDED BY GREASE WOOL 318 VIII. DOES IT PAY TO WASH SHEEP? 319 IX. SUMMARY . . 322 BULLETIN OF THE Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station NUMBER 294 APRIL, 1916 WOOL STUDIES1 WASHING BEFORE SHEARING— TIME OF SHEARING J. W. HAMMOND The practice of washing sheep was brought into Ohio by early settlers from states farther east. The method of washing varies somewhat; usually either the sheep are driven repeatedly through a stream, dammed up if necessary to furnish a sufficient volume of water, or they are held in the water by the attendant and the dirt squeezed out of the wool by hand. While this practice, which was at one time rather general in Ohio, has become almost obsolete in the greater part of the State, it still persists on many farms in the southern and eastern counties, as well as in the bordering territory in the northern Panhandle of West Virginia and in western Penn- sylvania. Object of the experiment. — This experiment was undertaken for the purpose of securing data on the following points: (1) The influence of washing sheep on the yield of grease and of scoured wool and on the rate of gain made by the sheep ; and (2) the influence of the time of shearing on the yields of grease and of scoured wool and on the rate of gain made by the sheep. PLAN OF THE EXPERIMENT Early in March, 1911, 100 lambs born in April and May, 1910, were purchased and were divided into four lots as nearly alike as possible with respect to sex, weight and conformation. The experi- ment extended over a little more than 2 years, so that during its progress three clips of wool were removed, in 1911, 1912 and 1913. lrThe experiment reported in this "bulletin was conducted on the farm of A. O. and Howard J. Campbell, Barnesville, Ohio. The author is glad to express his thanks to these gentlemen for their assistance not only in caring for the sheep, but in executing other details of the experiment. , (309) 310 OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION: BULLETIN 294 The treatment of the lots with respect to washing and time of shearing was as follows: Lot 1. Washed; shorn about April 12. Lot 2. Unwashed; shorn about April 12. Lot 3. Washed; shorn about June 1. Lot 4. Unwashed; shorn about June 1. Each lot was shorn as nearly as possible on the same date each year, so that with the exception of the 1911 clip the fleeces removed represent a variation of not more than 2 days from a year's growth. A short time before being washed in 1913, one-half of the sheep in Lots 1 and 2 were shifted from one lot to the other, and a similar shift was made in Lots 3 and 4. This was done to overcome any inequality between lots that might have resulted from the original division. It was impossible to make any shift between the lots shorn in April and those shorn in June, and still secure a year's growth of wool. Washed sheep, April, 1912 Unwashed sheep, April, 1912 WOOL STUDIES 311 Sheep used. — The sheep used in this experiment, like most of those in eastern Ohio, were practically purebred Merinos, although they were not recorded by any record association. They were com- paratively free from wrinkles and should be classed in the C or light B types, commonly referred to as the Delaine type of Merinos. They had very dense fleeces which carried an unusually large amount of yolk for sheep of this type. They were unusually strong and rugged in constitution and were perhaps above the average with regard to weight and quality of fleece. Each lot contained 19 wethers and 6 ewes. The ewes were not bred during the experiment. Management of the sheep. — Until the last winter of the experi- ment the sheep were managed with the object of keeping them in a healthy, growing condition rather than of fattening them. During the grazing season they were pastured on bluegrass without any grain, and during the winter they were fed corn silage and clover or alfalfa hay, with a light feed of corn. They were housed at night and on bad days, and were allowed the run of a dry barnyard on good days during the winter. During the latter part of the last winter of the experiment they were fed a heavier grain ration to have them ready for market at the close of the experiment, after the last two lots of sheep were shorn in June, 1913. Washing and shearing. — The sheep were washed in a stream of sufficient swiftness to supply an abundance of clean water. Each sheep was held in the stream separately and the dirt squeezed out of the wool by hand. An attempt was made to do a thorough job of washing, but, because of the density of the fleeces and the large amount of yolk they carried, it is probable that the washed wool still contained more foreign matter than is usually contained in washed wool from more open-wooled sheep. After the sheep were washed, from 7 to 10 days were allowed to intervene before they were shorn, to allow the wool to dry out thoroughly. The shearing was done with power-driven clippers which in- sured all the sheep being shorn with greater uniformity than is possible when they are shorn with hand shears. Scouring1 the wool. — Because of the limited capacity of the Station's wool-scouring equipment, only one-fourth of the fleeces shorn in 1911 and 1913 were scoured in the wool laboratory at Wooster. In selecting the fleeces to be scoured, an attempt was made to select those that were representative of each lot. The scouring was done by the emulsion process, similar to that used ^Scouring is a trade term for the process of cleansing wool from impurities, such as yolk, sand. dust. etc. Scoured ivool is wool from which such impurities have been removed. Grease wool is wool as it comes from the sheep, whether or not it was washed before shearing. 312 OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION: BULLETIN 294 commercially. The wool was put through three scouring liquors containing potash soap and potassium carbonate, of gradually dimin- ishing strengths, and finally through a rinse of clear, warm water. The wool was dried to a constant weight at a temperature of 150° F. both before and after scouring, to overcome any differences in moisture content that might exist on different days. The entire 1912 clip was shipped to Cleveland and scoured in a commercial plant. Here the wool was put through three scouring liquors and a final rinse of clear, warm water. This wool was dried to a constant weight at 150° F. before it was shipped to Cleveland, and after it was scoured it was returned to Wooster and again dried to a con- stant weight at the same temperature. INFLUENCE OF WASHING ON YIELD OF GREASE WOOL AND OF SCOURED WOOL Table I shows the total amount and the average yield per head of grease and of scoured wool produced by each lot of sheep in 1912 and 1913. This table shows that the amount of loss in weight of fleece due to washing sheep before shearing depends somewhat upon the time of the year when the washing was done. When the sheep were washed, and then shorn April 12, the average for the 2 years showed a loss of only 1.49 pounds per fleece due to washing; but, when they were washed, and then shorn June 1, this loss was 2.64 pounds per fleece. This difference can perhaps be attributed to one or more of the following causes: (1) While the oil in wool is not readily soluble in water, it is quite probable that some of it is dis- solved when the sheep are washed. As stated on page 315, it seems that the wool shorn June 1 contained more yolk and was thus liable to a greater loss of this material in washing than was the wool shorn April 12. (2) The higher atmospheric temperature may have made the yolk softer in June than in April, either rendering the yolk itself more soluble, or making it possible for the water to wash out more of the other impurities entangled in the yolk. It is probable that both factors were in operation. (3) The water in which the sheep were washed was warmer in June than in April, making it more effective in removing foreign matter from the wool. It is possible, although not probable, that the shock and excite- ment due to washing might affect the health of the sheep to such an extent as to retard the growth of the wool the following year. The yield of scoured wool produced by the different lots, as presented in Table I, throws some light on this point. The average weight of scoured wool produced per head was practically the same for the washed and for the unwashed sheep shorn April 12, but when the WOOL STUDIES 313 shearing was done June 1, the unwashed sheep produced 3.79, pounds, while the washed sheep produced only 3.62 pounds of scoured wool. These small and irregular differences can scarcely be regarded as an indication that washing the sheep was detrimental to the growth of the wool. TABLE I.— GREASE AND SCOURED WOOL PRODUCED Year Sheep shorn April 12 Lot 1— Washed Lot 2 -Unwashed Number Greaset Scoured* Number Greaset Scouredt Total Average Total Average Total Average Total Average 1912 1913 25 25 Lb. 269.80 246.75 Lb. 10.79 9.87 Lb. 98.39 *25.04 Lb. 3.94 3.58 24 23 Lb. 288. 10 267.25 Lb. 12.00 11.62 Lb. 92.37 *27.63 Lb. 3.85 3.95 Av 10 33 3.86 11.82 3.87 Sheep shorn June 1 Lot 3— Washed Lot 4 — Unwashed 1912 1913 25 25 265.70 229.00 10.63 9.16 89.98 *25.93 3.60 3.70 24 24 330.50 271.00 13.77 11.29 93.99 *23.48 3.92 3.35 9.89 3.62 12.53 3.79 *Only 7 fleeces were scoured from, each lot of the 1913 wool. fWool as removed from the sheep. |Wool scoured and dried to a constant weight at 150° F. INFLUENCE OF WASHING ON RATE OF GAIN Where washing sheep before shearing is practiced, a question is often raised as to whether washing is injurious to the health of the sheep. Table II, presenting the gains made by each lot for various periods after the sheep were washed and shorn, shows prac- tically no difference in the rate of gain made by the sheep that were washed and by those that were not washed. This indicates that if washing was detrimental to the health of the sheep, the injury was not sufficiently great to influence the rate of gain after shearing, for the periods shown in the table. There was no evidence that washing was in any way injurious to the sheep. 314 OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION: BULLETIN 294 TALBE II — INFLUENCE OF WASHING ON RATE OF GAIN Date of weighing1 Sheep shorn April 12 Lot 1— Washed Lot 2 -Unwashed Number Weig-ht Total grain Averag-e grain Num- ber Weig-ht Total gain Average gain April 14, 1911 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 Lb. 1,425 1,665 1,865 2,080 1,865 2,250 1,975 2,325 Lb. 240 215 385 350 Lb. '9.' 6 '8.' 6 15 A ii'6 25 25 24 *23 24 *23 23 23 Lb. 1,450 1,685 1,765 1,925 1,765 2,020 1,810 2,155 Lb. 235 220 sis 345 Lb. '9.'46 '9.'5'i 13 .'68 is .'66 June 12, 1911. A prillS, 1912... June 11, 1912 April 15, 1912... February 28, 1913 April 22. 1913 June 7,1913 Sheep shorn June 1 Lot 3— Washed Lot 4— Unwashed June 12, 1911 December 20, 1911 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 1,525 2,045 1,525 2,125 1 930 2,095 1 930 2,080 520 600 i65 iso 20 '.8 24; 6 'eie '6.0 25 25 25 25 24 24 24 24 1,555 2,075 1,555 2,175 1,910 2,065 1,910 2,075 520 620 155 165 20.' 80 24.'80 '6AQ '6.' 87 June 12, 1911 March 18 1912 June 11, 1912. January 17, 1913 June 11, 1912. February 28, 1913 *One sheep died April 22, 1912; weight 60 pounds. INFLUENCE OF TIME OF SHEARING ON YIELD OF GREASE WOOL AND OF SCOURED WOOL Everyone who is experienced in handling sheep has noted that when the weather gets warm in the spring, wool on the sheep be- comes more greasy. One explanation of this is that during the cold winter months the yolk is harder and not as noticeable as it is after the warm weather has softened it into a more nearly liquid form, giving the wool a greasy feel and appearance, although there is thought to be no more oil actually present than there was during the winter. The more commonly accepted explanation, however, is that the coming of warm weather results in the presence of more yolk in the fleece, due to increased activity of the sebaceous glands or of the sweat glands, or of both. It is because of this belief that many sheepmen do not like to begin shearing until the weather becomes warm enough to "bring out the grease." The data pre- sented in Table I furnish evidence to support the latter explanation. From the figures in Table I, showing the average yield per head of grease wool for the 2 years, 1912 and 1913, it may be seen that WOOL STUDIES 315 when the sheep were washed, those shorn April 12 produced 10.33 pounds, while those shorn June 1 produced 9.89 pounds of wool. When the sheep were not washed, those shorn April 12 produced 11.82 pounds, while those shorn June 1 produced 12.53 pounds of wool. When the sheep were washed there was an average differ- ence of 0.44 pound of grease wool in favor of the sheep shorn April 12, but when the sheep were not washed there was an average differ- ence of 0.71 pound of grease wool in favor of the sheep shorn June 1. The data presented in Table IV, page 319, help to explain these differences in yield of grease wool. Table IV shows that when the sheep were washed, the grease wool from those shorn April 12 yielded 40.63 percent, while the grease wool from those shorn June 1 yielded 38.65 percent of scoured wool, or a yield of 1.98 percent more scoured wool from the grease wool produced by the sheep shorn April 12. When the sheep were not washed, the grease wool from those shorn April 12 yielded 36.56 percent, while the grease' wool from those shorn June 1 yielded 32.96 percent of scoured wool, or a yield of 3.6 percent more scoured wool from the grease wool pro- duced by the sheep shorn April 12. The fact that the washed sheep shorn June 1 produced slightly less grease wool per head than did those shorn April 12, while the unwashed sheep shorn June 1 pro- duced more grease wool per head than did those shorn April 12, with no corresponding increase, but rather with an actual decrease, in the amount of scoured wool, indicates that between the dates mentioned there was an increase in the proportion of matter other than wool fiber in the fleeces. The fact that the difference in favor of early shorn wool with respect to the yield of scoured wool was almost twice as great in case of the unwasheol as in case of the washed wool, indicates that this additional amount of foreign matter was partly, but not entirely, removed when the sheep were washed. Since any increase in the proportion of foreign matter from outside sources was improbable at that time of the year, it seems fair to assume that this increase was due to an increased secretion of yolk or other substances from the skin of the sheep. . The late washed sheep were carefully "tagged" or "breeched out" before they were turned to grass in the spring so that the increase in the amount of foreign material in the wool was not due to an accumulation of manure around the breech, which frequently forms when sheep are not shorn until late in the spring. Facilities were not at hand to deter- mine the character of the material removed from each lot of wool when scoured to see if the wool shorn June 1 actually contained more of the products of the sebaceous and sweat glands than did 316 OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION: BULLETIN 294 that shorn April 12. The increase in proportion of foreign matter in wool in the spring months is usually attributed by sheep raisers to an increased amount of oil, but since warm weather increases perspiration, it is reasonable to suppose that at least a part of this matter is composed of deposits of mineral salts, the residue from the evaporation of the perspiration. While many sheep raisers do not like to shear in the spring until the weather becomes sufficiently warm to produce, as they think, the maximum amount of oil in the wool, there are others who have reasons for favoring early shearing. There is a more or less com- mon belief that when sheep are shorn rather early in the spring- say late in March or early in April, while there yet remain a few weeks of cool weather — the wool grows more rapidly than it does if shearing is delayed until hot weather, and that if the sheep are properly housed they suffer no hardships from early shearing. There is also a belief that when sheep are shorn after the coming of the hot weather of late May and early June and are turned out to pasture, the hot sun "scalds" the skin of the newly shorn sheep, particularly if shorn close, and retards the growth of the wool the following year. Table I furnishes evidence to indicate that the time of year when the sheep are shorn has some influence upon the amount of wool produced. Since it is apparent from the data presented on page 319 that there is a difference in the proportion of materials other than wool fiber in wool shorn at different times during the spring, the scoured wool rather than the grease wool must be taken as a measure of the influence of the time of shearing upon the amount of wool fiber produced. It may be seen from Table I that, regardless of whether the sheep were washed, those shorn April 12 produced slightly more scoured wool than did those shorn June 1. While this difference of a fraction of a pound of scoured wool per head seems slight, yet when scoured Delaine wool is worth from 60 to 80 cents per pound, or even more, it may be seen that this difference is of no small financial consequence in a large flock. This point, however, will have but little practical bear- ing until there is evolved a system of buying wool which will take the amount of shrink into consideration more than does the present system and make it possible for growers to receive prices that are more nearly in keeping with the real value of their wool. INFLUENCE OF TIME OF SHEARING ON RATE OF GAIN It is commonly admitted, even by those who practice late shear- ing because of the supposedly greater weight of grease wool secured, WOOL STUDIES 317 that sheep will thrive better and make larger gains if they are shorn before hot weather comes in the spring. Table III furnishes evi- dence to substantiate this opinion. TABLE III INFLUENCE OF TIME OF SHEARING ON RATE OF GAIN Date of weighing- Lots 1 and 2— Shorn April 12 Lots 3 and 4— Shorn June 1 Number Weight Total gain Average gain Num- ber Weight Total gain Average gain April 15, 1912 April 22, 1913 April 22. 1913... 49 *48 48 48 Lb. 13,630 t3,785 t3,785 4 480 Lb. 2is 695 Lb. '4.'48 i4.'48 49 49 49 49 Lb. £4,060 $4,145 *4,145 §4,795 Lb. '85 650 Lb. 'i.'73 13. '27 June 7, 1913. *One sheep died April 22, 1912; weight 60 pounds. 7 Weighed soon after shearing. ^Weighed with the wool on. llncludes weight of wool removed June 1. Table III shows the total and average gains made by the early shorn and -and by the late shorn sheep for the two periods, April 15, 1912 to April 21, 1913, inclusive, and April 22 to June 6, 1913, inclu- sive. These are the only periods for which it is possible to compare the gains owing to the fact that during the year 1911-12, two sheep died, and it was not possible to secure their weights at the time of death. Lots 1 and 2 were shorn on April 13, 1913, but they were not weighed until April 22. With the exception of the 9 days from April 14 to April 22, inclusive, Table III shows the gain made by Lots 1 and 2 during the year intervening between the time they were shorn in 1912 and the time they were shorn in 1913, but it does not show the gain made by Lots 3 and 4 between shearings in 1912 and 1913. It doubtless would be more desirable to show the gain made between shearings each year for the late shorn as well as for the early shorn sheep. In this case, however, such a comparison would be decidedly unfair to the early shorn sheep, because the sheep were all fed heavily between March 10 and June 7, 1913, to get them fat for market, and this period of heavy feeding consti- tutes a much greater percent of the period between shearings in case of the late shorn sheep than it constitutes of the corresponding period for the early shorn sheep. Table III shows that between April 15, 1912, and April 22, 1913, the sheep shorn April 12 made an average gain of 4.48 pounds, while the average gain made by the sheep shorn June 1 was 1.73 pounds. Between April 22 and June 7, 1913, the early shorn sheep made an average gain of 14.48 pounds as compared with an average gain of 13.27 pounds made by the late shorn sheep. Beginning about 318 OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION: BULLETIN 294 March 10, 1913, the sheep were fed heavily to fatten them for mar- ket, which accounts for the larger gains made between April 22 and June 7. While the differences in rate of gain made by the early and by the late shorn sheep were not great, they favor shearing early enough to avoid hot weather in the spring. Other things, not shown by this experiment, in favor of early- shearing are the avoidance of much of the trouble from maggots which is likely to result if sheep are not shorn until late in the spring, and the elimination of "tagging" the sheep to prevent the wool around the breech from becoming soiled when the sheep are turned out to pasture. YIELD OF SCOURED WOOL Table IV shows the percent of scoured wool yielded by the grease wool from each lot for each of the 3 years. Since the wool shorn in 1911 was not a full year's growth, it is not included in the averages. It should be remembered that these percentage yields are based on the weights of both the grease and the scoured wool when dried to a constant weight at 150° F. This makes the yields somewhat higher than those secured by commercial wool scourers or manufacturers, who usually base their scouring percentages on the weight of the grease wool under ordinary atmospheric condi- tions, when the wool may contain from 8 to 15 percent of moisture, and upon the weight of the scoured wool as it comes hot from the dryers, with a low moisture content. In studying the percentage of scoured wool yielded by the grease wool from wrashed and from unwashed sheep, as shown by the averages of the 2 years, 1912 and 1913, in Table IV, it may be seen that when the sheep were shorn April 12, the grease wool from the washed sheep yielded 40.63 percent of scoured wool, while the grease wool from the unwashed sheep yielded but 36.56 percent of scoured wool, or a yield of 4.07 percent more scoured wool from the grease wool produced by the washed sheep. When the sheep were shorn June 1, the grease wool from the washed sheep yielded 38.65 percent, while that from the unwashed sheep yielded but 32.96 per- cent of scoured wool, or a yield of 5.69 percent more scoured wool from the grease wool produced by the washed sheep. Attention is called to the fact that the difference in favor of washed wool with regard to the yield of scoured wool was greater in case of the wool shorn June 1 than in case of that shorn April 12. As has already been stated (p. 312), this is probably due to the warmer weather WOOL STUDIES 319 and warmer water in June, making it possible to remove more foreign matter from the wool shorn June 1 than was removed from that shorn April 12. TABLE IV.— YIELD OF SCOURED WOOL Year Sheep shorn April 12 Lot 1— Washed Lot 2— Unwashed Number fleeces scoured Grease woolt Scoured wool? Number fleeces scoured Grease woolt Scoured wool* 1911 5 25 7 Grams *17,783.5 109,371.5 28,436.0 Grams *7, 800.5 44,629.0 11,358.5 Percent *43.86 40.80 39.94 7 24 7 Grams *27, 645.0 115.399.5 33,491.0 Grams *9, 902.0 41,897.0 12,531.0 Perc'nt *35.82 36.31 37.42 1912 1913 Total or average 1912 and 1913 137,807.5 55,987.5 40.63 148,890.5 54,428.0 36.56 Sheep shorn June 1 Lot 3-Washed Lot 4 — Unwashed 1911... 7 25 7 *30, 252.0 106,973.5 29,049.5 *12,856.5 40,812.5 11,760.5 *42.50 38.15 40.48 6 24 7 *28, 689.0 129 217.0 32,425.0 *9, 777.0 42 631.0 10,650.0 *34.08 32.99 32.85 1912 1913 Total or average 19 12 and 1913 136,023.0 52,573.0 38.65 161,642.0 53,281.0 32.96 *Xot a full year's growth of wool and is not included in the averages, f Sorted and dried to a constant weight at 150° F. j Scoured and dried to a constant weight at 150° P. Table IV shows a difference betwen early and late shorn wool with regard to the yield of scoured wool. This difference was 1.98 percent in case of the grease wool from the sheep that were washed and 3.6 percent in case of the grease wool from those that were not washed. DOES WASHING SHEEP PAY FROM THE STANDPOINT OF EITHER MANUFACTURER OR WOOL GROWER? In considering this question first from the standpoint of the manufacturer, it is extremely doubtful if washing sheep is in any way beneficial. Even if the sheep are washed before shearing, the wool must be scoured before it can be used, and the washing in no way lowers the cost of either the labor or materials used in scouring. One reason that is sometimes advanced to justify the custom of washing sheep is that washing removes a sufficient amount of dirt, particularly from the "dung locks" and "sweat tags" around the breech and belly to prevent the staining of the wool when it is 320 OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION: BULLETIN 294 stored, thus making it whiter after it is scoured. In talking with a number of manufacturers who use both washed and unwashed wool, the writer has never heard this assertion confirmed. On the con- trary, one manufacturer who uses washed wool extensively is authority for the statement that the washing of sheep in water of the low temperature of that used for this purpose seems to 'set" the dirt in the wool and to make it more difficult to remove in scouring. All other things being equal, the prices paid by manufacturers for different lots of grease wool are based upon the estimated amount of scoured wool that will be yielded by each lot. When a manufacturer pays a premium for washed wool, he does so, not be- cause the washing has made the fiber more valuable, but merely because he estimates that the washing has removed so much of the foreign matter that the wool will shrink enough less in scouring to enable him to pay the premium and still have .the wool cost him the same per scoured pound as it would cost if it had not been washed. In other words, the manufacturer attempts to buy washed and un- washed wool at the same price per pound on a scoured wool basis. Table V shows the corresponding prices the manufacturer could have afforded to pay for the washed wool produced in this experi- ment with unwashed wool worth the prices indicated, and have each class of wool cost him the same on a scoured wool basis. Table V is computed from the average yield of scoured wool from each lot for the years 1912 and 1913, as shown in Table IV. Since not all wool, whether washed or unwashed, will shrink the same as that from the sheep used in this experiment, Table V should not be ex- pected to show the exact relationship between the values of washed and unwashed wool that exists in all cases. TABLE V COMPARATIVE VALUES OF WASHED AND UNWASHED WOOL (cents) Based on sheep shorn April 12 Based on sheep shorn June 1 When unwashed wool is worth the following- iprices per pound Washed wool should be worth the fol- lowing1 prices per pound Premium which washed wool should command over unwashed wool When unwashed wool is worth the following' prices per pound Washed wool should be worth the fol- lowing1 prices per pound Premium which •washed wool should command over unwashed wool 20 22.23 2.23 20 23.45 3.45 22 24.45 2.45 22 25.80 3.80. 25 27.78 2.78 ' ' 25 29.32 4.32 27 30.01 3.01 27 31.66 4.66 30 33.34 3.34 30 35.18 5.18 33 36.67 3.67 33 38.70 5.70 WOOL STUDIES 321 The data presented in Table V offer but little encouragement for the wool grower to wash sheep before shearing. By means of the scale of prices given in this table the grower is able to tell pretty closely whether the premium offered for wool is sufficient to repay him for the loss in weight due to washing. The figures given in Table V make no allowance for the cost of washing. One thing that should be kept in mind is that the sheep used in this experiment carried denser and more oily fleeces than are carried by the average sheep of the State; consequently the washed wool shrank more in scouring. This results in a smaller "spread" in the prices for washed and for unwashed wool than would be expected in the case of more open-wooled sheep. On this account Table V shows approx- imately the minimum premium for washed wool which the grower can afford to receive and secure the same for his wool, on a scoured wool basis, as he would secure if the wool is not washed, when no allowance is made for the cost of washing. In sections of the State where sheep are washed, they are usually washed and shorn in May or early June ; consequently that irt of Table V which deals with the sheep washed in June is per- taps the more nearly applicable to the sheep-washing proposition in )hio. It may be seen from these figures that when a wool grower reives 20 or 33 cents per pound for unwashed Merino wool, he tould receive 23.45 or 38.70 cents per pound, respectively, for the same wool if he washes it. These differences allow nothing for the cost of washing. A comparison of these figures with actual market prices reveals the fact that the relationship between the prices of washed and unwashed wool shown in Table V is very close to that which actually exists. At the present time (January 6, 1916) un- washed Delaine wool is quoted in Boston at 30 cents per pound while washed Delaine wool is quoted at 35 cents per pound. These figures indicate that the man who washes his sheep usually does not receive a price for his wool which is sufficient to pay him for washing, a task which is not only difficult and unpleasant, but which carries more or less danger both to the flock and to the owner. Table IV shows that when the sheep were washed and shorn about April 12 there was not as great a loss from washing as re- sulted when the sheep were washed and shorn about June 1 ; con- sequently a smaller difference in price in the grease is necessary to keep the price of washed and unwashed wool on a par, on a scoured wool basis. This is illustrated in Table V. This fact can- not be used as an argument in favor of washing sheep at such times of the year or in such manner as will result in the wool being poorly 322 OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION: BULLETIN 294 washed, with the intention of selling the wool at prices which are paid for wool that is properly washed. It should always be kept in mind that dealers and manufacturers know more than does the grower about the value of wools; and, if such practices as have just been described are followed generally enough to increase the aver- age amount of shrinkage of washed wool, it is almost certain that manufacturers will lower the price so that it will be in keeping with the true value of the wool. CONCLUSIONS Effect of washing. — Washed sheep produced 1.49 pounds less grease wool per head when shorn April 12, and 2.64 pounds less per head when shorn June 1, than did unwashed sheep shorn on the same dates. Washing the sheep had practically no effect on the amount of scoured wool produced or on the rate of gain made by the sheep. Wool shorn June 1, both washed and unwashed, shrank more in scouring than did wool shorn April 12. The data yielded by this experiment indicate that, in many cases at least, not sufficient premium is paid for washed wool to cover the cost of washing and for the loss in weight of the wool. Since washing sheep does not improve the quality of the wool fiber and does not diminish the cost of scouring, the practice is not beneficial to the manufacturer. Early vs. late shearing. — Washed sheep shorn April 12 pro- duced more grease wool than did washed sheep shorn June 1, while unwashed sheep shorn April 12 produced less grease wool than did unwashed sheep shorn June 1. This indicates that between these two dates there was an increase in weight of fleece due to the accu- mulation of a greater proportion of yolk or other foreign matter in the wool. Sheep shorn April 12, both washed and unwashed, pro- duced slightly more scoured wool than did sheep shorn June 1. Sheep shorn April 12 made slightly greater gains than did sheep shorn June 1. Bulletin 152 January, 1911 NEW HAMPSHIRE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY The Shepherd's Harvest FEEDING SHEEP AND LAMBS: CLOVER HAY V. NATIVE HAY; TURNIPS V. DRY RATION T. R. ARKELL. NEW HAMPSHIRE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND THE MECHANIC ARTS DURHAM, N. H. NEW HAMPSHIRE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND THE MECHANIC ARTS. NEW HAMPSHIRE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION DURHAM, N. H. Board of Control HON. JOHN G. TALLANT, Chairman, West Concord HON. WARREN BROWN, Hampton Falls HON. N. J. BACHELDER, A. M., M. S., East Andover HON. E. H. WASON, B. S., Nashua PRES. WILLIAM D. GIBBS, D. Sc., ex officio, Durham The Station Staff JOHN C. KENDALL^ B. S., Director. FREDERICK W. TAYLOR, B. Sc. (Agr.), Agronomist. , CHARLES BROOKS, Ph. D., Botanist. FRED RASMUSSEN, B. S. A., Dairyman. B. S. PICKETT, M. S., Horticulturist. B. E. CURRY, A. B., Chemist. T. R. ARKELL, B. S. A., Animal Husbandman. W. C. O'KANE, M. S., Entomologist. CHARLES W. STONE, A. M., Farmer, and Vice-director. W. H. WOLFF, M. S., Assistant Horticulturist. DAVID LUMSDEN, Assistant in Floriculture. W. L. SLATE, Jr., B. S. (Agr.), Assistant in Agronomy. T. O. SMITH, A. B., Assistant Chemist. J. J. GARDNER, B. S., Assistant in Olericulture. O. L. ECKMAN, B. S., Assistant Animal Husbandman. CAROLINE A. BLACK, A. M., Assistant Botanist. MIRIAM L. HOBBS, Purchasing Agent. MABEL H. MEHAFFEY, Stenographer. M. GENEVIEVE BURT, Bookkeeper. MARY L. BURNHAM, Stenographer. The bulletins of the Experiment Station are published at irregular inter- vals, and are sent free to all residents of New Hampshire requesting them. FEEDING SHEEP AND LAMBS: CLOVER HAY v. NATIVE HAY; TURNIPS v. DRY RATION. T. R. ARKELL. General Summary. 1. Clover hay, as a feed for sheep, is decidedly more profitable and more economical in mutton production than native hay. 2. The native hay contained large quantities of timothy and other grasses that the sheep did not relish. Timothy hay is not a palatable feed for sheep. 3. The relative difference in price between timothy or native hay And clover hay is such that the sheep raiser in New Hampshire, who is not growing clover, can profitably sell the former and purchase the latter, or better still, alfalfa, for his sheep. 4. So long as the market price of hay continues high in New Hamp- shire with the comparatively low price of grain, when the greater feeding value of the latter is considered, the sheep feeder can well afford to feed grain in the winter ration. 5. Turnips, in the winter ration, reduce the cost of mutton pro- duction. 6. Turnips, owing to their watery nature, render the ration more palatable, and are distinctly useful, when fed in moderate quan- tities in conjunction with hay and grain, in preventing constipation and other resultant ills, which so frequently occur when sheep are changed from pasture to dry feed. 7. The chief danger with turnips lies in heavily overfeeding or attempting to make them constitute the bulk of the ration, when they are liable to make the ration too laxative and produce scouring. 8. Turnips are well adapted to New Hampshire soils and climate. 9. They can be raised and stored at a cost low enough to compete with silage and in many cases supplant silage for sheep feeding. 10. Turnips or other roots offer a partial solution to the problem of securing a substitute for high priced grain. INTRODUCTION. Sheep raising in New Hampshire is fast becoming an important phase of the livestock industry. Its development, or rather redevelopment, within recent years has been rapid, and every year shows a consistent and satisfactory increase in numbers. Farmers are beginning to realize how profitable, when pursued upon a systematic basis, sheep raising is. Attention is being paid, not only to general sheep raising, but to that more intensive form of it — winter or " hot-house" lamb production. Early lamb raising yields large returns owing to the proximity and sasy access to the Boston and New York markets, where the highest prices in America prevail for this product. i N. H. AGR. EXPERIMENT STATION. [Bulletin 152 There are many advantages of sheep raising that should appeal to the average farmer and make him a convert to the business. First, the initial investment need not be great. In fact, a begin- ner should always start with but a few sheep. As his flock grows, so will his experience in methods of management, and he will not be so liable to make costly mistakes. Nor has the sheep breeder long to wait before he realizes a return from his invest- ment. If he practises winter or " hot-house" lamb raising, he sells his lambs at from ten to fourteen weeks of age, and, even though he is simply raising lambs for the late summer or fall trade, he will seldom have to keep them longer than eight months. By selling his ram lambs and keeping his ewe lambs, he is obtain- ing considerable profit and at the same time increasing his flock rapidly without a further monetary expenditure. Sheep can be maintained very cheaply and still thrive and return a profit. Besides, their feeds need never be of an expen- sive nature. In the summer pasture alone is sufficient; in the winter good clover hay, oats and a few roots or other succulent food. Silage may be used in the place of roots, but very spar- ingly, as silage, if sour or moldy and if fed in quantities much over two pounds per day, is apt to cause severe digestive ail- ments, scouring and consequent loss in weight. Always make the sheep eat up cleanly what is placed before them, rather slightly underfeed than overfeed. This is the great secret of economical feeding, and, without the practice of strict economy in this respect, even reasonable profits can never be attained. In restoring fertility to wornout pastures, sheep can be used effectively as one of the first aids. Their manure is rich and, besides, is evenly distributed over the entire field. Again, sheep are weed destroyers. Where there are many sheep but few weeds will thrive. They will eat and apparently enjoy almost every class of weeds, even one of such a prickly nature as the thistle. Sheep are tfre true pasture scavengers and at the same time natural fertilizers, and these two features are by no means unimportant in the New England scheme of farming. Expensive buildings are not necessary in order to gain success with sheep raising. A barn wherein the sheep can be sheltered from the wintry winds and snow and be fed conveniently, is all that is needed. Sheep confined in a warm, poorly ventilated barn, as is the condition with so many cattle stables, will never thrive well and are very liable to disease and parasites. A warm lambing pen must, however, be provided, yet, after the first few weeks of their lives, even the lambs are capable of standing considerable cold with little or no ill-effects. This feature comprehends another most important advantage of sheep raising, and permits the man with a small capital to enter and pursue the business successfully. Jan., 1911] FEEDING SHEEP AND LAMBS. 5 QBJECT. It is the purpose of this bulletin to present, in as clear and concise fashion as possible, the results of feeding tests, that were pursued during 1909-10, to discover the relative feeding values for sheep of,— 1. Clover hay versus the ordinary hay mixture, designated native hay, that is grown all too prevalently in New Hampshire 2. Turnips in conjunction with grain and hay versus dry ration of grain and hay only. FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT. Feeding was carefully prosecuted in every instance. Regu- larity was a factor to which strict attention was paid. The sheep were fed twice a day, in the morning at 7 and at 4.30 in the afternoon. The rations were always weighed out accurately at every meal. They had access to water and salt, the latter being supplied in the rock form, at all times of the day. An abundance of bedding was provided and, to minimize the possi- bility of an outbreak of disease, the buildings were kept well disinfected. Large yards were connected with the barn, so that the sheep were able to take plenty of exercise. During the experiment the sheep were all healthy and vigorous. Both feeding tests were of ninety-eight days' duration. Care- ful weighings of the individual sheep were made every two weeks, and accurate records of the rate of gain kept. Varia- tions in the time of weighing and the normal condition of the sheep at that time were strictly avoided. Before commencing the experiments the sheep were given a preliminary feeding of two weeks to accustom them to the feeds forming their rations. CLOVER HAY VERSUS NATIVE HAY. Outline of Experiment. Four lots of sheep were used, five in each lot. Two lots comprised ewe lambs; the others, two to three-year-old ewes. The lambs all belonged to some mutton breed, namely, Hamp- shire, Southdown, Dorset Horn and Shropshire, there being an equal number of specimens of the different breeds in both lots. The aged ewes were Rambouillets and Natives, the latter repre- senting the ordinary grade stock in New Hampshire. None of them were with lamb. Both lots of lambs were fed an equal quantity of grain of a similar character (corn, bran and oats in equal parts by weight) and of turnips. In addition one lot was given clover hay; the other, an equal quantity of native hay. With the aged ewes the same plan was followed except that the hay composed the bulk of the ration, turnips only being fed besides. 6 N. H. AGR. EXPERIMENT STATION. [Bulletin 152 Lot I. — Fed Clover Hay COMPOSITION OF NATIVE HAY. The name, native hay, is somewhat misleading. It was used for lack of a better title to distinguish it readily from the clover hay. The native hay of New Hampshire is usually nothing more nor less than wornout timothy hay or pasture, where the natural grasses have taken almost entire possession of the land. It may, however, also constitute hay harvested from meadows where cultivated grasses have never been sown. The physical composition is by no means uniform. It varies considerably according to its timothy content or the length of time that has elapsed since it was first seeded. Timothy in itself is not suitable as a feed for sheep, and often- times in native hay the presence of large quantities of timothy gives to it its low feeding value. One of the main objections to timothy for sheep is its lack of palatability. Sheep do not care for it and, if placed upon a large timothy ration, will not eat sufficiently of it to make substantial gains. In fact, fre- quently under such conditions, the gains are negative. The sample of native hay obtained for the feeding test was fairly typical of what prevails throughout the state. A physical analysis was made, and the following grasses distinguished: Jan., 1911] FEEDING SHEEP AND LAMBS. TABLE 1.— MIXTURE OF GRASSES COMPOSING NATIVE. HAY. Common Name. Scientific Name. Percentage of Composition. Timothy or Herd's grass Phleum pratense 40 Red Top Agrostis alba 20 Kentucky Bluegrass Poa pratensis 15 Meadow Foxtail Alopecurus pratensis 8 Alsike Trifolium hybridum 5 Oat Grass Danthonia spicata 5 Red Clover Trifolium pratense 4 Quack or Couch Grass Agrogyron repens . . .... 3 The chemical composition is as follows : TABLE 2.— PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF NATIVE HAY. Water. Ash. Protein. Crude Fiber. N. Free Extract. Fat. 10.80 6.49 5.70 28.90 45.45 2.66 A fairly accurate, though not elaborate, digestion experiment was performed with one of the sheep to determine the relative digestibility of the native hay used in the feeding test.* The digestion coefficients are given in Table 3. TABLE 3.-DIGESTION COEFFICIENTS OF NATIVE HAY. Protein (Per cent.). Crude fiber (Per cent.). N. Free Extract (Per cent.). Fat (Per cent.). 42 53 58 49 WEIGHTS AND GAINS OF SHEEP. Lots I and II contained the lambs; III and IV the aged ewes. Lots I and III were supplied clover hay; II and IV, native hay. The sheep in the different lots were selected, so as to be as nearly alike as possible and thus obviate striking individual differences. In lot IV, sheep No. 18 made negative gains, yet she appeared perfectly healthy and vigorous and apparently ate her feed as well as the others. * Acknowledgment is due to Mr. W. L. Adams, formerly assistant in chemistry at New Hampshire Experi- ment Station, for successful prosecution of this phase of the experiment; also to bulletins No. 114 and No. 71 of the South Dakota and Nevada Agricultural Experiment Stations, respectively, from which valuable information was gleaned as to methods of pursuing this work. 8 N. H. AGR. EXPERIMENT STATION. [Bulletin 152 TABLE 4.— BI-WEEKLY WEIGHTS OF LAMBS. Lot. No. Breed. Dec. 6. Dec. 20. Jan. 3. Jan. 17. Jan. 31. Feb. 14. Feb. 28. Mar. 14. I 117 124 Hampshire Hampshire . 93H 109 .8* 104 119 109 124U 114 130 118 135 123 13914 128 144.1,4 155 136 Southdown Dorset. . . 95 123J4, 99 129 103 134 108" 139 114 143 \4 119^ 147Vi> 125 152 130 157 II 138 169 120 Shropshire Hampshire Hampshire 90 98 108^ 93 103 113 97H 107 117 102M 112 121 108 117 124 113 121 127% 118 125 130 124 129 133 158 160 Southdown Dorset 101 104 105 106 108 109 112 112 115 115V4 117 118 120 120 124 122 III 127 90 70 14 Shropshire Native Native. Rambouillet 89 126 123 104 90 128 127 105 92 131 132 107V4 94 133 136 109V4 97 134 139 112}4 99 137 142^ 115 102 139H 146 117 105 143 149 11 814 13 64 Rambouillet Rambouillet 103 ii&A 106 116 108" 118 m 119 iuy2 120% 1WA 123 120 125 123 1071.4 IV 43 Native 129 130 131 133 133 134 136 137 65 Native 127 129 132 134 135 137 139 140 63 Rambouillet 125 126 126 1261-4 12714 128 128 129 18 Rambouillet 104 104 104 103 101 101 102 102 15 Rambouillet 104 105 106 108 108 108K 109 109 1 Lot II.— Fed Native Hay Jan., 1911] FEEDING SHEEP AXD LAMBS. TABLE 5.— SUMMARY OF GAINS. Lot I. Lot II. No. Total Daily Individual Individual Breed. gain gain (Ibs). (Ibs). No. Total Breed. Individual ft Daily Individual 117 124 155 136 138 Hampshire 3 Hampshire 3 1.5 .352 3.5 .362 5.0 .357 5.5 .341 1.0 .346 169 120 158 160 127 Hampshire 31.0 .316 .250 .234 .183 .163 Hampshire 24.5 Southdown 23 . 0 Southdown 3 Dorset 3 Shropshire 3 Dorset ! 18.0 Shropshire 16.0 Lot III. Lot IV. No. To Breed. Indiv s al Daily dual Individual n gain s). (Ibs). No. Total Breed. Individual gain (Ibs). ' Daily Individual gain (Ibs). SO 70 14 13 64 Native 1 Native 2 Rambouillet. . . 1 1 Rambouillet 2( Rambouillet 1 7.0 .173 3.0 .265 1.5 " .147 ).0 .204 5.0 .132 43 65 63 18 15 Native 8 .081 .132 .040 -.020 .051 Native 13 Rambouillet 4 Rambouillet -2 Rambouillet 5 Lot 1. Lot 2. Total gain, pounds 172.500 Average net gain per lamb, pounds ! 34.500 Average daily gain per lamb, pounds .351 Lot3. Total gain, pounds 90.500 Average net gain per lamb, pounds I 18. 100 Average daily gain per lamb, pounds . 184 112.500 22.500 .229 Lot 4. 32.000 6.400 .065 Both lots I and III, according to Table 5, show considerable advantage over lots II and IV, respectively, in average gain per lamb. The greater gains of lots I and II over the others is to be expected: lambs will always gain at a greater rate than aged sheep. The disparity in rates of gain is distinctly apparent between lots III and IV, the former making an average increase per sheep almost three times greater than the latter. In fact, in lot IV the daily gain per sheep was exceedingly small. This points so far strongly to the advantage of clover hay over native hay as a feed for sheep. 10 N. H. AGR. EXPERIMENT STATION. [Bulletin 152 Lot III.— Fed Clover Hay Lot IV.— Fed Native Hay Jan., 1911] FEEDING SHEEP AND LAMBS. 11 CHARACTER AND AMOUNTS OF FEED. Corn, bran and oats, in equal parts by weight made up the grain mixture. Its average composition is represented in Table 6. TABLE 6.— AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF ONE POUND OF GRAIN MIXTURE. Crude N. Free Fat Water Ash Protein Fiber Extract (Ibs). (Ibs). (Ibs). (Ibs). (Ibs). (Ibs). .112 .034 .125 .069 .613 .047 The character of the rations is clearly indicated in Table 7. TABLE 7.-COM POSITION OF RATIONS. Pounds Lot. Ration. per day Water Ash Protein Crude N.free Fat per (Ibs.). (Ibs.). (Ibs.). fibre extract. (Ibs.). * sheep. (Ibs.). I Grain Yz .056 .017 .063 .035 .306 .023 Turnips 2 1 772 .024 024 026 150 004 Clover .230 .093 .185 .372 .571 .049 Total 4 2 058 .134 272 433 1 027 076 II Grain . 056 .017 .063 035 306 023 Turnips 2 1.772 .024 .024 .026 .150 .004 Native Hay . .162 097 085 .433 681 039 Total 4 1.990 .138 .172 .494 1.137 .066 III Turnips 4 3 544 048 048 052 300 008 Clover Hay . . . 2 306 .124 .246 .496 762 066 Total 6 3 850 172 294 548 1 062 074 IV Turnips 4 3 544 048 048 052 300 008 Native Hay 2 .216 .129 .114 .578 .909 .053 Total ! 6 3.760 .177 .162 .630 1.209 .061 The amounts of the rations supplied respectively to lots I and II and to lots III and IV were equal. These were regulated by discovering the maximum feeding capacity of the lots fed on native hay. The others were then given an equal quantity. The sheep showed a marked partiality for the clover hay, which they ate greedily, while they by no means relished the native hay. However, to the aged ewes no grain whatever was given. The object of this was to determine whether sheep could be 12 N. H. AGR. EXPERIMENT STATION. [Bulletin 152 carried through the winter upon clover and native hay, when fed practically alone, and make at the same time substantial and profitable gains. It is true that with the clover hay fairly good increases in weight were obtained, yet that these gains were as economically made as though grain were fed in connection with the ration, is to be doubted. Since this experiment pro- vides no direct evidence wherefrom comparisons in this respect may be drawn, as the lambs, which were fed grain, naturally would make greater gains anyway than the aged sheep, yet the relative cost of grain and hay in New Hampshire affords sufficient data for fairly accurate deductions. The cost of all classes of hay, except clover, in this state in 1909 was approximately a cent a pound ($20 per ton) and of grain, such as is used for sheep, on an average about a cent and a half a pound. The relative difference in price is exceedingly small, when account is taken of the greater increases in weight it is recognized grain will produce. Therefore, in New Hampshire, from the standpoint of economy, unless the prevailing prices of feeds completely change, the plan of attempting to winter sheep on hay alone, especially with lambs and pregnant ewes, should never be practised. Turnips were fed in conjunction with all the rations to provide succulence and to give to the feed a laxative tone. TABLE 8— DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS AND NUTRITIVE RATIOS OF RATIONS." Lot. Ration. Pounds per sheep per day. Dry matter (Ibs.). Digesti- ble Protein (Ibs.). crude fiber (Ibs.). Digesti- N. free extract (Ibs.). Digesti- ble fat (Ibs.). Nutri- tive ratio. I Grain . . 444 048 008 247 018 Turnips Clover hay 2 .228 1 270 .020 102 .019 211 .143 326 .004 025 II Total ' Grain 4 1.942 444 .170 048 .238 008 .716 247 .047 018 6.2 Turnips 2 228 020 019 143 004 Native Hay Total 4 1.338 2 010 .035 103 .184 211 .395 785 .019 041 10 5 III Turnips 4 456 040 038 286 008 Clover Hay Total 2 6 1.694 2 150 .136 176 .282 320 .434 720 .034 042 6 4 IV Turnips . 4 456 040 038 286 008 Native Hay 2 1 784 047 246 527 026 Total g 2 240 087 284 813 034 13 5 * Digestible coefficients were obtained from Henry's "Feeds and Feeding." The nutritive ratios, shown in Table 8, clearly indicate the difference between clover and native hay in the amounts of digestible nutrients they contain The native hay is exceed- ingly low in digestible protein, and comparatively high in digesti- Jan., 1911] FEEDING SHEEP AND LAMBS. 13 ble carbohydrates, consequently producing a wide nutritive ratio — wider by far than that for clover hay Nor are the digestion coefficients for the native hay so high as for the clover. COST OF RATIONS AND GAINS. TABLE 9.— POUNDS OF DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS FOR 100 POUNDS INCREASE IN WEIGHT. Lot. Ration. Dry Matter. Digestible Protein. Digestible Carbohy- drates. Digestible Fat. I Grain Turnips Clover Hay 553 27 48 43 271.76 13.39 II Grain Turnips Native Hay 961 72 44 97 434.93 17.90 III Turnips Clover Hay 1,168 47 95 65 565 21 22.82 IV Turnips Native Hay 3,446.15 133 84 1,687.69 52.30 TABLE 10.— AVERAGE WEIGHT AND COST OF FEED FOR 100 POUNDS INCREASE IN WEIGHT . Lot. Grain (Ibs.). Turnips (Ibs.). Native Hay (Ibs.). Clover Hay (Ibs.). Total Cost. I 142 569 427 $7.66 II 218 873 655 12.40 III 2,173 1,086 16.24 IV 6,152 3,076 42.87 Tables 9 and 10 are self-explanatory. In these the supremacy of clover hay over native hay as a feed for sheep is patently shown. Both the clover hay fed lots required less feed to pro- duce a hundred pounds increase in weight, and the cost of pro- ducing this gain was much less. In fact, with lot IV the cost was exorbitant and far from profitable. Another feature is emphasized in Table 10, and that is the greater cost of producing an increase in weight with aged sheep than with lambs. That this criterion also applies, although not to such an extent, in comparing lambs with yearlings, should be borne in mind by the practical feeder. If merely preparing his sheep for the shambles, he should sell as lambs, and thus avoid the added expense of a prolonged feeding period and the naturally increased cost of producing a pound of gain. 14 N. H. AGR. EXPERIMENT STATION. [Bulletin 152 TABLE 11.— COMPARISON AS TO COST OF RATIONS. Lot. Cost for 98 Days. Daily Cost. I $2.63 $.026 II 2 78 028 Ill 2 74 028 IV 2 94 030 The feed used in the experiment was all purchased, and the prevailing market prices charged in calculating the cost of rations. This by no means gives unfair comparisons in regard to conditions on the average farm, since the farmers of New Hampshire have to buy the bulk of their grain and can readily sell their hay at the regnant market price. Bran cost $27 a ton, corn $28 a ton, oats an average of 54 cents a bushel. The clover hay was delivered from Ohio at $18 per ton, but the native hay, even with close buying, cost $20 a ton and the turnips $5 per ton. Consequently, in all results where cost is concerned, the clover hay has had an added advantage over the native hay, since the initial purchasing expense was not so great. However, this is but slight, and in no way disturbs or unduly influences the real results. CONCLUSION. The foregoing results should afford ample proof of the superior- ity of clover hay over the native hay as a feed for sheep. It is more palatable, as shown by the fact, as already stated, that the sheep would not eat the native hay so readily. The clover hay contains greater amounts of digestible nutrients, especially protein, and produced larger and more economical gains. In fine, the best plan for a farmer to pursue without clover and with sheep to winter, is to sell his timothy and native hay and purchase for his sheep clover or better yet, if he can obtain it at a reasonable price, alfalfa, as alfalfa has a still higher feeding value than clover. He should not, however, overlook the rela- tively small difference in price that really exists between hay and grain, when comparative feeding values are taken into con- sideration, and, therefore, should feed some grain in conjunction with the hay. Again, roots are necessary to give a laxative tone to the ration. The amounts will vary with different con- ditions; the feeder must determine these for himself. He should make it a point to feed so as to keep well within the pale of profit and at the same time produce as large gains as possible. Jan., 1911] FEEDING SHEEP AND LAMBS. 15 Lot I. — Fed Dry Rations TURNIPS VERSUS DRY RATION. Outline of Experiment. Ten ewe lambs were selected and divided into two lots, con- taining two Shropshires, two Dorsets and one Hampshire in each lot. One lot (lot I) was fed grain and clover hay; the other (lot II), grain, clover hay and turnips. The amount of grain and clover hay given to lot II was reduced to correspond in cost of ration to that of lot I. In amounts of digestible nutrients there was little difference between the two rations. However, the ration of lot I (without turnips) possessed a slight advantage in this respect. Each lamb in lot I was given per day a ration consisting of 1 pound of grain (oats, bran and corn in equal parts by weight) and 2 pounds of clover hay; lot II, % of a pound of the same grain mixture, 1 J4' pounds of clover hay and 5 pounds of turnips. The daily cost of each ration amounted to 3 Y^ cents a day, and the cost for the entire feeding period of 98 days, approxi- mately $3.50. WEIGHTS AND GAINS OF LAMBS. The lambs of both lots possessed at the beginning of the experiment fairly uniform weights. They had previously been fed together on the same rations. Fortnightly records of their weights had been kept, and it was impossible to distinguish any material difference in their rates of increase. Consequently, the feeding trial may be considered a fair test of the value of turnips in a winter ration. 16 N. H. AGR. EXPERIMENT STATION. [Bulletin 152 TABLE 12.— BI-WEEKLY WEIGHTS OF LAMBS. Lot. No. Breed. Dec. 6. Dec. 20. Jan. 3. Jan. 17. Jan. 31. Feb. 14. Feb. 28. Mar. 14. I. 116 Shropshire 100 10414 109 113 11614 120 123 126 125 Shropshire 111/4 117 122 127 13234 13734 142 14634 112 Dorset 96 101 10534 110 114 118 12134 124 118 Dorset 122 127 131 135 138 142 109 Hampshire — 107 111 115 119 122 125 128 131 IT. 126 Shropshire 111 116 122 127)4 132 138 14334 149 130 Shropshire 96 102 108 113 118 ¥2 124 130 136 111 132 Dorset Dorset 110 98 115 102 120 107 124 H2J4 1293-S 11734 135 122 140 126 131 2 106 Hampshire . . 113 118 124 130 135 141 146 152 TABLE 13.— SUMMARY OF GAINS. Lot I. Lot II. No. Breed. Total Individual gain (Ibs.). Daily Individual gain (Ibs.). No. Breed. Total Individual gain (Ibs.). Daily Individual (£3. 116 125 112 .118 109 Shropshire — Shropshire. . . . Dorset Dorset Hampshire .. 26.0 35.0 28.0 29.5 24.0 .265 .357 .285 .301 .244 126 130 111 132 106 Shropsh Shropsh Dorset. Dorset. Hampsh TC 38.0 40.0 35.5 33.0 39 0 .387 .408 .362 336 .397 ire . ire Lotl. Lot 2. Total gi Average Average 142.500 28.500 .290 185.500 37.100 .378 net gain per Ian daily gain per 1< ib, pounds imb pounds In every instance the turnip fed lambs (lot II) made decidedly better gains than those upon the dry ration. The results are striking. Toward the end of the experiment, as represented in Table 12, the difference in the gains of the two lots is especially apparent, the lambs in lot II excelling the others to a marked degree. This was due, perhaps, largely to a stagnation of the appetite of those fed on the dry ration. It was with the greatest difficulty that they were made to eat up all of their ration. In fact, with one sheep in lot I epsom salts had to be used to correct costiveness. Those given turnips, however, eagerly sought and would have eaten more. Had their full appetite been appeased, they doubtless would have made even larger gains and with as great economv. Jan., 1911] FEEDING SHEEP AND LAMBS. 17 Lot II. — Fed Turnips CHARACTER AND AMOUNTS OF FEED. The grain mixture was similar to the one used in Experiment 1. (lor composition see Table 6.) TABLE 14.-COMPOSITION OF RATIONS. Lot. Ration. Pounds per day sheep. Water (Ibs.). Ash (Ibs.). Protein (Ibs.). Crude fiber (Ibs.). N.free extract (Ibs.). Fat (Ibs.). T Grain II. Clover Hay. . . Total .....:::::.: Grain Clover Hay . ] . j Turnips 2 f .306 .418 .084 .192 4400 .034 .124 .158 .025 .077 .125 .246 .371 .093 .153 .069 .496 .565 .051 .310 .613 .762 1.375 .459 .476 .046 .066 .112 .034 .041 Total 1 470fi .060 .065 .375 .010 .426 1.310 .085 A noteworthy feature in Table 14 is the watery nature of the turnips. This factor comprehends their real feeding value They give to the ration a laxative effect, and, consequently,* keep the sheep in a healthy, vigorous condition. Their high digestibility should also be remarked in Table 15 18 N. H. AGR. EXPERIMENT STATION. [Bulletin 152 TABLE 15.— DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS AND NUTRITIVE RATIOS OF RATIONS.* Lot. Ration. Pounds sheep per day. Dry matter (Ibs.). Digesti- ble Protein (Ibs.). Dig* crude fiber (Ibs.). Digesti- N.free extract (Ibs.). Djgfr fat (Ibs.). Nutri- tive ratio. I Grain . . . 1 888 097 017 493 037 Clover Hay Total 2 3 1.694 2 582 .136 233 .282 299 .434 927 .034 071 5 9 II. Grain Clover Hay .666 1 058 .072 085 .012 176 .369 271 .027 021 Turnips. . . ... 5 570 050 045 360 010 Total 7 2.294 .207 233 1 000 058 6 6 ' Digestible coefficients were obtained from Henry's "Feeds and Feeding." COST OF RATIONS AND GAINS. As heretofore stated, the daily cost of the rations were equal, namely, 3^5 cents per day. The cost was computed upon the same price basis as described in Experiment I. The turnip fed lambs, as shown in Tables 16 and 17, made considerably better gains at the expense of less feed and inci- dentally less cost than the lambs on the dry ration. This proves that turnips decrease the cost of producing a pound of mutton. TABLE 16 —POUNDS OF DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS FOR 100 POUNDS INCREASE IN WEIGHT. Lot. Ration. Dry Matter. Digestible Protein. Digestible Carbohy- drates. Digestible Fat. IT, 1 Grain Clover Hay 889 11 80 34 422 75 24 48 TT Grain Clover Hay, Turnips 606.87 54 76 326 19 15 34 TABLE 17— AVERAGE WEIGHT AND COST OF FEED FOR 100 POUNDS INCREASE IN WEIGHT. Lot. Grain (Ibs.). Turnips (Ibs.). Clover Hay (Ibs.). Total Cost. I.. . 344 688 $11.96 II.... 198 1322 330 9.60 It can be conclusively stated, from the results of this axperi- ment, that turnips have a beneficial effect in economy of mutton production. There is, however, one danger with turnips and Jan., 1911] FEEDING SHEEP AND LAMBS. 19 that lies in overfeeding or attempting to make them constitute the bulk of the ration. Turnips, on account of their watery nature, are not in themselves a substantial food. When extrava- gantly fed, they are apt to render the ration too laxative and produce scouring. Besides, to pregnant ewes heavy overfeeding of turnips will not infrequently cause them to bring forth lambs that are flabby or weakly. Four pounds per day to a sheep, however, is a safe limit. Mangels and sugar beets, although rather more palatable and sheep prefer them slightly to turnips, are for rams expressly unsuited, as they are conducive to the deposition of calculi in the kidneys, bladder and urethral tract.* These calculi are composed chiefly of calcium phosphate, are irritative to the urinary organs and will frequently attain sufficient size to close completely the urethral tract, causing in consequence the certain death of the ram. Turnips apparently have no such ill effect. To recapitulate, turnips reduce the cost of mutton production, aid in the digestion of the fibrous foods and keep the sheep in a healthy and vigorous physical condition. They are a boon in the ration inasmuch as they prevent constipation and many other resultant ills, which so frequently occur when sheep are changed from pasture to dry feed. It must, however, always be borne in mind that turnips should be supplied only as a supple- mentary feed to give to the winter ration the slightly laxative effect of pasture. * Bulletin 112, Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station.— Influence of feeding sugar beeta and mangels to breeding animals with special reference to the formation of renal and urinary calculi. STATE COLLEGE OF WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION PULLMAN, WASHINGTON DIVISION OF BOTANY Plants Used for Food by Sheep on the Mica Mountain Summer Range By R. KENT BEATTIE BULLETIN No. 113 December, 1913 All Bulletins of this Station sent free to citizens of the State on application to Director BOARD OF CONTROL. D. S. TROY, President [ Chimacum JAS. C. CUNNINGHAM, Vice-President Spokane E. A. BRYAN, Sec'y. Ex-Officio.... President of the College, Pullman R. C. McCROSKEY Garfield PETER MCGREGOR Spokane LEE A. JOHNSON Sunnyside STATION STAFF. IRA D. CARDIFF, Ph. D Director and Botanist ELTON FULMER, M. A State Chemist S. B. NELSON, D. V. M.. Veterinarian O. L. WALLER, Ph. M Irrigation Engineer A. L. MELANDER, M. S Entomologist O. M. MORRIS, B. S Horticulturist GEO. M. SEVERANCE, B. S.. Agriculturist C. C. THOM, M. S Soil Physicist A. B. NYSTROM, M. S Dairy Husbandman GEO. A. OLSON, B. S. A., M. S Chemist W. T. SHAW, B. Agr.. M. S Zoologist R. C. ASHBY, B. S Animal Husbandman J. G. HALL, M. A Plant Pathologist E. G. SHAFER, M. S Agronomist J. W. KALKUS, D. V. S Assistant Veterinarian C. A. MAGOON, M. A Assistant Bacteriologist M. A. YOTHERS, B. S Assistant Entomologist HENRY F. HOLTZ, B. S Assistant Soil Physicist E. F. GAINES, B. S Assistant Cerealist C. F. MONROE, B. S. A Assistant Animal Husbandman W. J. YOUNG, B. S Assistant Horticulturist C. B. SPRAGUE, B. S Assistant in Horticulture D. C. GEORGE, B. S Assistant Plant Pathologist C. K. McWILLIAMS, M. A ..Assistant Chemist H. M. WOOLMAN Assistant Plant Pathologist ELLA W. BROCK... ...Executive Clerk Plants Used for Food by Sheep on the Mica Mountain Summer Range. BY R. KENT BEATTIE, A. M. Professor of Botany and Head of the Department of Botany, W , S. C.* The plant growth of a forest region is not confined to trees which are valuable for wood products and lumber. Associated with them are other smaller trees and many shrubs and herbs. All these together form a secondary but at the same time a very important source of the usefulness of the forest — the supplying of food plants for grazing animals. An economical management of the forest involves a wise and eco- nomical use of this forest food. As much use of it must be made as is consistent with the main object of the forest, the production of wood products and lumber, and with the preservation of a continued supply of grazing for future years. The state of Washington contains seven well marked vegetative regions: (1) The sagebrush plains of central Washington, (2) the bunch-grass hills of the Palouse country, (3) the moist west side fir forests, (4) the yellow pine forests of the Blue mountains, Stevens, and Ferry counties and the eastern slope of the Cascade mountains, (5) the white pine and white fir forests of the Cascade and Blue mountains, (6) the subalpine fir and black hemlock forests of the higher Cascades and Olympics, and (7) the high arctic vegetation above timber line in the Cascades and Olympics. All of these regions enter more or less into cattle, sheep, and horse raising. Only the sage-brush plains, the bunch- grass hills, and the yellow pine and white pine forests enter into this discussion. The sage-brush plains and their adjacent river valleys lie below 1200 feet elevation and have a rainfall of 5.7 to 13 inches per year. About three-fourths of this rain falls during the months from November to May, while July, August, and September are almost rainless. The winters are mild. The temperature in winter averages but little below freezing and seriously cold weather comes but seldom. These condi- "Resigned September 15, 1912. 4 Plants Used by Sheep on Mountain Range. tions provide a large acreage of land unsuited to ordinary agriculture, except in the small area where irrigation water is available, but they furnish a large amount of valuable winter forage easily supplemented by alfalfa hay from the nearby irrigated lands. The dry summers, how- ever, make it impossible to carry any large amount of stock on this range throughout the year. The effective use, therefore, of this vast amount of the raw material out of which human food and clothing are made by range animals is conditioned on the use of other summer range lands during the dry and barren period from June 1 to November 1 . Fortunately for the producers and consumers of stock in the state, the sage-brush region is surrounded on all sides by other higher, cooler, and moister regions available for summer range. The bunch-grass hills which immediately surround the sage-brush are almost entirely settled up and fenced and are given over to wheat raising and general farming. They are not available for grazing till when the grain has been threshed and the wheat fields have become stubble fields. But back of and above these in the foothills and in the mountains lie the yellow and the white pine forests. Parts of these forests are cleared and other parts will in the future be cleared and converted into agricultural land, but large areas are valuable only for forest purposes. They are now mostly under the control of the nation, the state or large lumber in- terests and are available for summer range. The preservation of these forests and the proper use of them as summer range demands intelligent management. Intelligent manage- ment can only be based on knowledge. There is at the present time in this, as well as in every other branch of science, too great a tendency to draw general conclusions on but few local data. Because the sheep tramp out the grass in one region does not signify that they will in another. Because one plant or one sort of plant is the chief food plant in one region do^s not prove that it is in another. It is therefore very desirable that range data be secured in many different and varied regions. To gather data which might represent the conditions in one part of this vast northwestern summer range, the writer spent the month of August, 1911, in a study of the sheep food plants on the summer range in the Mica Mountain region of Latah county, Idaho. Although this region lies outside the state of Washington, it is an easily accessible ex- tension of the Washington vegetative regions and is much used by Wash- ington sheep from the winter ranges in southwestern Whitman and adjacent counties. Again in the latter part of July, 1912, a second visit was made to the region before the sheep reached it to check up the effect of the previous year's grazing. The work resolved itself into a study of the food habits, the range management, and the effect on the range of two well-handled bands of sheep grazed on a leased range which was well supplied with food. I am very greatly indebted to McGregor Brothers of Hooper, Washington, whose sheep were the subject of this investigation, and to Plants Used by .Sheep on Mountain Range. 5 their employees for the numerous courtesies which made the work pleas- ant and indeed possible. I am also indebted to the Potlatch Lumber Company of Potlatch, Idaho, for information as to their forest lands leased for grazing purposes. MANAGEMENT OF THE SHEEP. In the year 1911, McGregor Brothers raised about 12,000 sheep. They were wintered on the McGregor ranch on the breaks of Snake river, just east of the Palouse river, near Hooper, Whitman county, Washington. The lambing season began about March 20 and con- tinued for six weeks. Shearing was begun about April 25. The sheep were started for the summer range as soon as possible after the shearing season. Half of them were sent north of Spokane, Washington, into the Huckleberry Range of mountains lying between the Columbia and the Colville valleys. The other six thousand, with which we are con- cerned, in two equal bands, started on June 1 for the Idaho range. They were seven days on the road. McGregor Brothers had leased the grazing privileges from the Potlatch Lumber Company on all its forest land lying between the head- waters of Hatter creek (a tributary of the North Palouse river, which rises in the Thatuna hills and empties into the Palouse near Princeton, Idaho) and the Shay meadows, which lie about four miles west of Bovill, Idaho, on a small tributary of the Potlatch river. The region leased was two miles wide and about twenty-two miles Ion?. The two drainage basins, the Palouse and the Potlatch, are separated somewhat east of the middle of this strip by the Mica mountains, a small range of mountains which rise to an altitude of about 4500 feet. The grazing region crossed over a large section of this ridge and these mountains furnished one of the most valuable sources of food supply. Part of the strip of land has been logged; some of it is now being cut; but much of it is still in virgin forest. Here and there arc a few home- steads and developed farms belonging to individual owners and cleared and developed by them, but these interfered but little with the grazing of the tract. The same region has been grazed by the McGregor Broth- ers' sheep for a number of years in the past but had been ungrazed for a year or two about 1 908 or 1 909. It is bisected for nearly its whole length by public and private roads which follow more or less closely the township line. It is made easily accessible by the Washington, Idaho & Montana Railroad, a fully equipped railroad about fifty miles long, con- necting the Palouse line of the Northern Pacific at Palouse Washington, with the Elk River line of the Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget Sound Railway at Bovill, Idaho, carrying legular passenger and freight traffic as well as being used for the hauling of logs to one of the largest saw- mills in the United States at Potlatch, Idaho. The sheep reached the summer range at the west end and moved slowly eastward throughout the summer, reaching the Shay meadows at 6 Plants Used by Sheep on Mountain Range. the eastern end about October 1 . Here they were finally counted and sorted in the permanent corrals kept at this place for that purpose. In three days they were driven back to the western end of the leased land, feeding on selected grazing grounds which had been saved during the eastward trip. They were then moved into the wheat stubble fields north and west of Potlatch, Idaho, through which they gradually moved south- westward during the month of October and the first half of November. They then returned to their winter range near Hooper, Washington. On August 7, when the writer began this study, one band of about 3000 sheep had reached the Vassar meadows, which lie in sections one and two of township 40 north, range 2, west of the Boise meridian, and were feeding in the white pine region. The other band of about the same size was on the Mica mountains back of Lundsford's meadow in section thirty-three of township 41 north, range 2, west. They were grazing in the yellow pine region. During practically the whole month of August, while the sheep were under observation, the two bands re- tained this relative position, one south of the middle line of the grazing region moving eastward through the white pine, the other north of the middle line moving eastward through the yellow pine. The Horse Camp, so-called, or headquarters camp of the outfit was on the Wfindus meadow, in section one of township 40, convenient to both bands. With the two bands of sheep were four men, a boss, a helper and two herders. The herders camped with the sheep. The boss and the helper lived at the horse camp, moved the herders' camps when neces- sary, purchased and hauled supplies, hauled drinking water for the camp and salt for the sheep, looked up stubble field range for the autumn feed- ing, repaired the roads, and in general looked after the welfare of the sheep and of the herders who could not leave them. The boss, Mr. Robert Clyde, of Potlatch, Idaho, has lived in the region for twenty- five years, is thoroughly familiar with every foot of its intricate geog- raphy, and has worked for McGregor Brothers for a long time. The other three men -are natives of Hautes-Alpes, a province of eastern France, come from a race of sheepherders, and have had several years of experience with sheep in this country. The McGregor Brothers prefer and usually secure French herders, of whom there is quite a colony in the vicinity of Walla Walla, ^ashington. THE GRAZING REGIONS CONSIDERED. The food plants of the sheep vary greatly in the different vegetative regions under different climatic conditions. What the sheep eat de- pends on what they have to eat. The vegetation of the four regions herein considered is therefore described below. THE SAGE-BRUSH PLAINS AND VALLEYS. This region is used by the sheepmen only as winter range. It has been fully described and its food plants discussed in Bulletin 60 (7)* *See Bibliography. Plants Used by §heeP on Mountain Range. 7 of the Washington Agricultural Experiment Station by Mr. J. S. Cotton, who, in the years 1901 to 1903, investigated the winter ranges of cen- tral Washington and the summer ranges in the adjacent parts of the Cascade mountains, The dominant plant of the sage-brush region is naturally the sage-brush, Artemisia tridentata Nutt., which is accom- panied by rabbit brush, Chrysothamnus nauseosus (Pall.) Britt., and antelope brush, Kunzia tridentata (Pursh) Spreng., and others. The region is hot and dry in summer and its sparse covering of the more tender herbs and grasses wither or cure into hay as the dry season approaches. THE YELLOW PINE FORESTS. From the standpoint of plant geography, the yellow pine forests form the upper part of the Arid Transition region (18) (17). If the sage-brush region be taken as a center, the yellow pine region is the second concentric zone lying around it. Between the two lie the bunch- grass prairies of the lower part of the Arid Transition zone. These will be considered later. In eastern Washington, the yellow pine forests lie in general be- tween altitudes of 1800 and 3300 feet (18, page 50), but in the eastern part of this region in Latah county, Idaho, and especially in the Mica mountains, the region of this investigation, the upward ex- tension of the yellow pine is somewhat greater. The yellow pine as a dominant tree here reaches 4500 feet, although the underbrush changes to that more typical of the white pine region at about 4000 feet. The principal species of this forest is the western yellow pine, Pinus ponderosa Dougl. This is an important timber tree which in this region frequently reaches a diameter of three feet and a height of one hundred feet. Here the yellow pine forests cover granitic hills and mountains and are open in character. Mixed with the yellow pine is a considerable amount of western larch or tamarack, Larix occidentalis Nutt. On one of the southwesterly ridges of the Mica mountains, in limited localities, it dominates certain parts of the ridge and occur? in almost pure stand. Elsewhere in the region it is scattered or is occasionally abundant on steep slopes. Spruce, Picea engelmanni Parry, lodgepole pine, Pinus contorta Dougl., and Douglas fir, Pseudotsuga mucronata Raf., form secondary species in the yellow pine forest. There is very little second growth timber except in clearings where it usually consists of lodgepole pine, Douglas fir and white fir, Abies grandis Lindl. A considerable amount of shrubby growth occurs in clumps espe- cially just below the crest of the hills where it sometimes forms dense thickets, but it nowhere presents the uniformly thick undergrowth so characteristic of the white pine forest to be described below. The shrubs of the yellow pine forest consist chiefly of buckbrush, Ceanothus san- gumeus Pursh, nine-bark, Opulaster paudflorus (T. & G.) Heller, 8 Plants Used by Sheep on Mountain Range. coral berry, Symphoricarpos racemosus Michx., ocean spray, Holodiscus discolor Maxim., wild rose, Rosa pisocarpc. Gray, and thimble berry, Rubus parviflorus Nutt. The open ground is covered with pine grass, Calamagrostis sufys- dorfii Scribn., mixed with various herbs such as species of Lathyrus and Fragaria. Higher up on the mountains, above 3500 feet altitude, the under- brush becomes more abundant and changes in character. Sticky laurel or buckbrush, Ceanothus velutinus Dougl., replaces the common buck- brush, Ceanothus sanguineus Pursh, of the lower level. At about 4000 feet a great deal of huckleberry brush, Vaccinium macrophyllum (Hook.) Piper, comes in. THE WHITE PINE FORESTS. In northern Idaho, the western white pine, Pinus monticola Dougl., is the dominant tree of what the plant geographers call the Canadian zone. As represented in the region under consideration, this is a very sharply limited :\nd easily distinguished zone. Here it does not begin at the upper edge of the yellow pine and run up L ountain sides but it covers a wide expanse of lower country bounded on the southwest by the Mica and other mountains and extending east vardly to the Bitter Root mountains. The white pine region lies at altitudes varying around 3000 feet. It is composed of innumerable small hills separated by rather steep can- yons in which flow small streams. At intervals the stream bottoms widen out into wet meadows. It is these meadows which, from the standpoint of human geography, form the key to the country. (Figs. 1, 3, and 4.) THE WOODS. The white pine forests cover the hills and run down to the edge of each meadow, extending out into the meadow just as far as the wet- ness of the soil will permit. The western white pine is the dominant tree but the white fir, Abies grandis Lindl., is almost as abundant and along the edge of the meadow far outstrips in number of individuals all other trees. Here it stands in striking groups. There being no crowd- ing, its branches are retained to the ground and the individuals of vary- ing sizes form conical spires which excel in beauty of shape and in artistic grouping the best effects of the landscape gardener. Douglas fir is also mixed with the white pine in considerable quantities. The white pine woods are dense and dark, and are always rroist. The underbrush is dense and uniform. It is composed chiefly oi huckleberry, Vaccinium macrophyllum (Hook.) Piper, mixed with ser- vice berry, Amelanchier florida Lindl., alder, Alnus sinuata (Regel.) Rydberg., coral berry, Symphoricarpos racemcsus Michx., honeysuckle, Lonicera utahensis Wats., Pachistima myrsirites (Pursh) Raf., and the Plants Used by Sheep on Mountain Range. 9 thimble berry, Rubus parviflorus Nutt. The ground beneath the bushes is covered with such plants as the dogwood, Cornus canadensis L., meadow rue, Thalictrum occidentale Gray, Clintonia uniflora (Schult.) Kunth., false miterwort, Tiarella unifoliata Hook., false Solomon's seal, Vagnera sessilifolia (Baker) Greene, and the twin flower, Linnaea amerlcana Forbes. THE MEADOWS. Coming out of the woods into the meadows, we meet with very different conditions. While the woods are cool and moist, in August, the meadows are hot and dry and the ground is baked hard. Most of the meadows are under cultivation and are producing large crops of tim- othy. A few of them are growing oats. These are cut in the milk for hay. Around the edges of the cultivated meadows and all over some small uncultivated ones, the native vegetation still exists. Wherever it is dry enough in winter for the trees and shrubs to encroach, we find a few spruces, Picea engelmanni Parry, white firs and the coral berry. The open meadow is covered with a dense growth from three to five feet high of such plants as yarrow, Achillea millefolium var. lanulosa (Nutt.) Piper, aster, Aster hendersoni, fescue, Festuca sublata Trin., aconite, Aconitum columbianum Nutt., false bugbane, Trautvel- teria grandis Nutt., golden rod, Solidago elongata Nutt., and cinque- foil, Potentilla nuttallii Lehm. or a related species. THE BUNCH-GRASS HILLS. The bunch-grass hills which form the fourth vegetative region in- volved in the feeding of the bands of sheep which are herein considered, lie between the sage-brush plains and the yellow pine forests. They form the region called by plant geographers the lower Arid Transition region. These hills are almost entirely under cultivation. The land is all fenced and is to a very large extent raising wheat. The native vege- tation which once covered the hills consisted largely of bunch-grass, Agropyron spicatum (Pursh) Scribn. & Smith, mixed with numerous prairie herbs. Except along streams in the valleys or on very steep north hillsides there were no trees and shrubs. The native vegetation is now so scarce that it does not enter as a factor into sheep grazing. The wheat raised on these hills ripens in July and August and between the fifteenth of July and the first of October is harvested. It is cut with a binder and shocked or else cut with a header, but in any case is threshed direct from the field without stacking before the winter rains come, which usually begin between September fifteenth and October first. The stubble fields filled with straw, shattered grain, wild oats, Avena fatua glabrata Petermann, and sprouting weeds are thus available for the feeding of sheep in October and November. 1 0 Plants Used by Sheep on Mountain Range. THE HERDING SYSTEM. In the two very different regions of the summer range, the yellow pine and the white pine, the two bands of sheep mentioned above were grazed and studied in the month of August, 1911. The typical method of herding them was as follows: The herder established his camp on the edge of a meadow, near a piece of level bottom land, or on the edge of a clearing on a hill. Here was the bedding ground of the sheep; that is, the place where they were gathered for the night. To this same ground the sheep returned every night till they had grazed over all the ground available from this point. They were then moved on to the next bedding ground. This system is dia- grammatically represented in figure 1 7, which represents the grazing plan for one week. In this case the sheep were moved from bedding ground A to bedding ground B on the first day. Bedding ground B is located on the edge of a small timothy meadow at a point where two or three small ravines run back into the hills. Early on the second morning the sheep begin to stir and are guided out into the timber in the region marked 2. In the main they are started out on the side of the range opposite the ground they covered the day before. They are guided and held from too great scattering by careful quiet circling movements of the herder, who, after an early breakfast which he cooks and eats at his tent, puts in the most of the forenoon in handling the sheep. It is his effort to get the sheep out about a mile from the camp in the forenoon and to spread them out in small groups so that all will have an opportu- nity to feed. Although the herder usually has a couple of dogs with him he uses these but little in the woods except in an emergency. DoT IIAVK A .STRAIGHT/ STRONG BACK Choose wethers for fitting with straight, broad backs, well muscled and free from any depression, and which will not give way under the judge's hand. Therefore, to show yearling wethers, the selection must com- mence with choosing lambs which are kept to give opportunity later to select yearlings suitable for fitting. The highly fitted lamb does not often make a good yearling ; consequently a num- ber of unfitted lambs must be held in reserve for the selection of yearlings later. To produce lambs which are most suitable for show purposes choice ewes noted for their good breeding and milking qualities should be selected. These should be coupled with a ram of ex- cellent breed and mutton type, having a straight, wide, thickly fleshed back, full, low-set thighs, and a constitution and pre- potency which enable him to transmit these qualities to his get. 8 WISCONSIN BULLETIN 232 Filially, the individual to be fitted must be rigidly selected, which necessitates careful scrutiny and handling to avoid animals with defects and to get as desirable form and quality as possible. Good breed type; a close, dense fleece; a straight, broad back, with well developed muscle and free from any depression; a broad, level rump ; low, thick thighs ; and straight, well-set legs are qualities sought for in the selection of lambs. In other words, the score card for mutton sheep shown on this page, which the shepherd must keep in mind, is carefully applied to each individ- ual and only such selected as conform to its requirements. THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY SCORE CARD FOR MUTTON SHEEP SCALE OF POINTS Possible score Points Age Teeth GENERAL APPEARANCE-24 POINTS "Weight estimated.. . .. actual pounds according1 to age 6 Form, low, long, symmetrical, compact, and evenly covered with firm flesh 10 Quality, clean bone; silky hair 6 Temperament .... 2 HEAD AND NECK— 9 POINTS Muzzle, fair size; nostrils large; lips thin; mouth large 2 Eyes, full, bright 1 Face, short bold expression 1 Forehead, broad . . 1 Ears, fine, erect 1 Neck, thick, short; throat clean 3 FOREQUARTERS-13 POINTS Shoulder Vein, full .. . 2 Shoulders, covered compact 3 Chest, deep, wide large girth. 3 Krisket, full prominent* breast wide 2 Legs, straight, short, wide apart, strong; forearm full, shank smooth 3 BODY— 13 POINTS Back, straight wide 4 Loin, broad, thick 4 Ribs, deep, arched 3 Flank, low, thick, making underline straight . . 2 HINDQUARTERS— 17 POINTS Hips, smooth far apart . . 3 Rump, long, level, wide 4 Thighs, full, well fleshed 3 Twist, plump deep 4 Legs, straight, short, strong; shank smooth .... 3 CONSTITUTION- 10 POINTS Girth, large. 3 Skin, pink color 3 Fleece, dense and even over body yolk ajoundant 4 WOOL- 14 POINTS Quantity, long, dense, even 6 Quality, fine, soft pure even 4 4 'nil

  • lp»an 4. FITTING YEARLING WETHERS AND LAMBS FOR EXHIBITION 9 To secure good yearlings the development of the lambs is care- fully watched, and when the lot to be fed for the show is finally selected it has been the practice to save, so far as possible, only those which possess the foregoing characteristics, and have in addition the ability to feed well and lay on firm flesh, covering the sheep well over its entire body. FEEDING SHOW WETHERS Having laid a good foundation by carefully selecting the right kind of wethers, one must proceed to feed them in a manner to insure a finished form that will conform to or at least closely ap- proach the judge's ideal. Several factors enter into the success- ful feeding of any class of animals and especially into the feed- ing of show wethers. Time is, a factor not always appreciated. Feeding for the show must begin early — at least fifteen to eigh- teen weeks prior to the date of the show — and at no time in the life of the sheep should there be any neglect in providing suit- able feed and pasture to keep the sheep growing and thrifty. When the time for special fitting and feeding begins, alertness on the part of the feeder to observe the manner in which the wethers eat and thrive, judgment regarding the kinds and amounts of feed to supply daily, and regularity in feeding and caring for the sheep each day, are all factors of great importance. All who have had to do with feeding sheep realize how fastidious they are and how necessary it is to have conditions just right, so as to avoid getting them off feed and retarding the gain and development necessary to obtain the high state of flesh demanded in the show ring. Great care must be exercised to get them properly started on their feed. Likewise as the wethers approach the finishing point and their appetites are less keen, the feeder must exercise his greatest skill to keep them doing well. In push- ing wethers forward there is also the danger of overdoing the work and having them soft and flabby, or in a condition often spoken of as "stale." The character of the feed and the rate at which they are pushed along in the process of fattening are the factors which account for the difference between wethers of un- finished, prime, or overdone condition. As the University flock is composed of a variety of breeds it has been possible each year to select and show lambs of several breeds, and also to show yearling wethers in many different 10 WISCONSIN BULLETIN 232 classes. For the past twelve years sixteen to twenty head of yearling wethers have been fitted and shown each year by the University at the International Live Stock Exposition held in Chicago. During this time every effort was put forth to select the wethers carefully and feed them intelligently so that they would be in prime condition as regards form, finish, and quality of mutton and would be able to compete successfully with other fat sheep exhibited at this show. The competition was both on foot in the show ring and on the block, where the dressed carcass- es were judged. During two three-year periods, 1902 to 1904, and 1907 to 1909, respectively, the wethers fed were divided each year into four lots as uniform as possible with reference to breed, size, and general quality, and the respective lots fed the grain ra- tions shown on page 12. In view of the fact that the trials with the various grain rations fed during each of these two periods were triplicated, and records of the feed consumed, the gains made, and the prizes won were carefully kept, it has been decided to give a brief report of the work of fitting show wethers for the two periods for the benefit of all who undertake to show sheep. The results of the trials for the first period have been previously published in the Twentv- second Annual Report of this Station and are here reviewed in order to present a complete record of the work. FEEDING UNIVERSITY SHOW WETHERS The special feeding and preparation of University wethers for the International Live Stock Exposition, which occurs about the first week of December, has always commenced about the end of July or the first of August. Prior to this time, from about May 10, the wethers had been on grass pasture without additional grain, hay, or other feed. The pasture season gave them a rest from the heavy feeding of concentrates and put them in the best condition to make good use of the grain and other feed supplied them when the special preparation for the show commenced. In order to study the value of various grain rations, the wethers were divided into four lots each year as heretofore stated and fed their respective grain rations in separate pens. All ran together to receive pasture, hay, cabbage, and roots. They were turned to pasture every day that the weather permitted so as to give them FITTING YEARLING WETHERS AND LAMBS FOR EXHIBITION 11 all the chance possible to exercise and get what grass they cared for up to November 1, after which they were kept in the barn day and night. Pains were taken not to expose them at any time to storms. The roughage, in addition to pasture, consisted of hay, cabbage, and roots. Clover hay was fed when it could be secured, FIGURE 4. DEEP, FULL HINJ :roved the more efficient supplement. The yearlings of this lot required less grain and hay per hundred pounds gain, and made a greater gain than did the lot which received the cottonseed meal. The carcasses of both lots were graded good, but Lot III ranked ibove Lot IV on the basis of their selling value. 336 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STA. BULLETIN, NO. 115 SHELLED CORN AND CLOVER HAY VS. SHELLED CORN AND TIMOTHY HAY. The importance of clover as a hay crop in Missouri is increasing rapidly. This crop has the advantage of being much superior to timothy from the standpoint of maintaining soil fertility. From the standpoint of the stock feeder it also ranks above timothy, as it contains more protein than timothy hay; hence, when fed it will reduce the amount of commercial nitrogenous concentrates that need to be purchased in order to balance a ration of shelled corn. These two lots of yearlings were fed to illustrate the effect of these two roughnesses as a feed for fattening western yearlings. Table IV shows the results obtained from this trial. TABLE IV. SHELLED CORN AND TIMOTHY HAY vs. SHELLED CORN AND CLOVER HAY. Lot II Lot II Shelled corn Shelled corn and timothy and clover hay. hay. Average initial weight 77.8 Ibs. 78.15 Ibs. Average final weight 98. 7 Ibs. 101. 25 Ibs. Average total gains 20.9 Ibs. 23. 10 Ibs. Average daily gains .213 Ibs. . 235 Ibs. Grain.. 1.17 Ibs. 1.23 Ibs. Hay.... 1.40 Ibs. 1.72 Ibs. Grain.. 549. 28 Ibs. 524. 89 Ibs. Hay.... 660.28 Ibs. 730.73 Ibs. Cost of 100 Ibs. gain, with corn at 40c per bushel, and hay at $10 per ton $7 . 514 $7 . 402 Average shrink per head from Co- lumbia to National Stock Yards 5.7 Ibs. 5.75 Ibs. Average weight per head at Na- tional Stock Yards 93 . Ibs. 95 . 5 Ibs. Selling price per 100 pounds $6. 15 $6.35 Average cost per head, Columbia, at $4.25 per 100 Ibs $3.306 $3.321 Average cost of feed per head $1.51 $1.730 Average selling price per head, Columbia $5.33 $5.681 Average profit per head $0.514 $0.630 Dressing per cent 49 . 6 52.2 Grade of carcasses Fair Good Average daily rations Feed per 100 Ibs. gain RATIONS FOR FATTENING WESTERN SHEEP 337 Lot I which received timothy hay did not eat their hay well. They mussed over and wasted more of it than did Lot II. 'his was especially true towards the latter part of the experiment. it required more care and attention to keep the timothy hay lot From going "off feed" than it did with the lot receiving clover hay; lowever, by careful feeding, neither lot were "off feed" at any ;ime during this experiment. Clover hay proved to be a superior roughness to the timothy hay every way during this trial. Lot II required less grain though little more hay was consumed per hundred pounds gain. The >st of one hundred pounds gain is in favor of the lots receiving the lover hay. The yearlings in Lot II were in better condition and >ld for fifteen cents per hundred pounds more than did the year- lings which received timothy hay. The difference in the condition of flesh was especially noticeable in the carcasses. The backs and ribs of the carcasses of Lot I which :eived the timothy hay lacked a shading of fat which the butchers like to see. The caul and kidney fat was very light and the car- isses of the timothy hay lot were graded medium. They ranked >t of all the seven lots. The carcasses of Lot II were graded good, 'hey had sufficient kidney and caul fat, and the backs and ribs •ere well shaded with fat. SHELLED CORN AND CLOVER HAY VS. ;HELLED CORN, CORN SILAGE AND CLOVER HAY. The high price of hay and the lack of an efficient means of itilizing cornstalks has led to the more general use of corn silage is a feed for meat producing animals. The results of experimental feeding and the opinion of practical feeders agree that corn silage fed alone as a roughness is not as satisfactory as when fed in con- lection writh hay. In order to obtain some accurate data as to the dative value of corn silage and clover hay as compared with clover lay alone, as a roughness for fattening yearlings, the Missouri Experiment Station fed two lots of yearlings on the above named roughnesses. The results are recorded in Table V. 338 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STA. BULLETIN, NO. 115 TABLE V. SHELLED CORN AND CLOVER HAY vs. SHELLED CORN, CLOVER HAY AND CORN SILAGE. Feed per 100 Ibs. gain Average initial weight Average final weight Average total gains Average daily gains [ Grain. . Average daily rations Hay.. . . ' Silage. . Grain. . Hay.... Silage. . Cost of 100 Ibs. gain, with corn at 40c per bushel, hay at $10 per ton, silage at $3 . 50 per ton. . . . Average shrink per head from Co- lumbia to National Stock Yards Average weight per head at Na- tional Stock Yards Selling price per 100 Ibs Average cost per head, Columbia, at $4.25 per 100 Ibs Average cost of feed per head. . . . Average selling price per head, Columbia Average profit per head Dressing per cent Grade of carcasses. . Lot II Shelled corn and clover hay. 78.15 Ibs. 101,25 Ibs. 23.10 Ibs. .235 Ibs. 1.23 Ibs. 1.72 Ibs. 524.89 Ibs. 730.73 Ibs. $7.402 5.75 Ibs. 95.5 Ibs. $6.35 $3.321 $1.730 $5.681 $ .630 52.2% Good Lot V Shelled corn, clover hay and corn silage. 78.35 Ibs. 105.00 Ibs. 26.65 Ibs. .271 Ibs. 1.23 Ibs. 1.33 Ibs. .80 Ibs. 455.72 Ibs. 489.11 Ibs. 278.61 Ibs. $6.187 6.5 Ibs. 98.5 Ibs. $6.35 $3.329 $1.644 $5.871 $ .902 49.7% Good The corn silage used in this trial was grown on land that aver- aged forty-five to fifty bushels of corn to the acre. Lot II consumed on the average .39 pounds more hay per head per day than did the lot receiving clover hay and corn silage. The .80 pounds of corn silage eaten by Lot V was equivalent to the .39 pounds of addi- tional hay which Lot II consumed as compared with Lot V. That is, it required approximately two pounds of corn silage to replace one pound of clover hay. The corn silage lot made a greater gain than did the clover hay lot. The two lots sold for the same price per hundred pounds live weight. The shrink in shipping was slightly more with the lot re- ceiving corn silage. Under the heading of "Feed per hundred ing £ RATIONS FOR FATTENING WESTERN SHEEP 339 pounds gain," 278.61 pounds of corn silage was equivalent to 69.17 pounds of shelled corn, and 241.62 pounds of clover hay in produc- ing gains. Figuring the replacement value of corn silage on the ove figures and valuing corn at forty cents per bushel, and clover ay at $10.00 per ton, one ton of corn silage is worth $11.23 in this Kcific trial. The carcasses in both lots were graded good. However, when ced according to their selling value, the silage-fed lot (Lot V) 5 ranked above Lot II. The silage fed in this experiment was of good quality. It is icrally dangerous to feed mouldy silage to sheep. In general, the bad results from feeding silage to sheep have been due to mouldy d sour silage. Silage of poor quality cannot be recommended as sheep feed. Even with good quality silage, the feeder should be ry careful to pick out any mouldy spots which sometimes occur good silage. REGULAR FEEDING VS. SELF-FEEDERS. The high cost and difficulty of obtaining satisfactory farm help ive prevented many from feeding sheep. To determine whether ie self-feeder might be used in solving the help problem, Lot VI is fed grain by means of a self-feeder during the last eight weeks the trial. A V-shaped hopper was constructed above the ten- ich grain trough so arranged that the shelled corn would feed down into the grain trough. This lot was handled in exactly the same manner as all the other lots for the first six weeks, i.e., they were started on corn gradually and three weeks were spent in getting them onto full feed. They were then carried along in the usual way until the end of the sixth week. During the remaining eight weeks, this lot received their grain from a self-feeder, fresh grain being put in the feeder every four or five days. Table VI shows the value of a self-feeder as compared with hand feeding. 340 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STA. BULLETIN, NO. 115 TABLE VI. REGULAR FEEDING vs. SELF-FEEDING. Lot II Lot VI Shelled corn Shelled corn and clover hay. and clover hay. Regular feeding. Self feeding. Average initial weight 78.15 Ibs. 77.95 Ibs. Average final weight 101. 25 Ibs. 102. 00 Ibs. Average total gains 23.10 Ibs. 24 . 05 Ibs. Average daily gains . 235 Ibs. . 245 Ibs. ( Grain.... 1.23 Ibs. 1.55 Ibs. Average daily rations < TT ^ 1 Hay 1.72 Ibs. 1.38 Ibs. . /Grain.... 524. 89 Ibs. 637. 42 Ibs. Feedperl Ibs. gain | Ray 730.73 Ibs. 564. 86 Ibs, Cost of 100 Ibs. gain, with corn at 40c per bushel and hay at $10 per ton $7 . 402 $7.377 Average shrink per head from Columbia to National Stock Yards 5.75 Ibs. 5 . 2 Ibs. Average weight per head at Na- tional Stock Yards. ... 95.5 Ibs. 96.8 Ibs. Selling price per 100 Ibs $6.35 $6.40 Average cost per head, Columbia, at $4. 50 per 100 Ibs $3.321 $3.312 Average cost of feed per head $1.730 $1.688 Average selling price per head, Columbia $5 . 681 5 . 47 Average profit per head $ .630 $ .47 Dressing per cent 52.2% 49.8% Grade of carcasses Good Prime It can be seen in this table that the lot fed by means of a self- feeder consumed 26% more corn and 19% less hay per hundred pounds gain in live weight. It required 112.53 pounds, or two bushels more corn per hundred pounds gain for the lot which was fed by means of a self-feeder as compared with the lot fed in the usual manner. The yearlings of Lot VI, fattened on a "self-feeder," were in better condition at the end of the ninety-eight-day feeding period, and sold for five cents more per hundred pounds. Their carcasses were graded prime, and ranked the best of all seven lots. The cost of one hundred pounds gain with corn at forty cents per bushel and hay at $10 per ton was three cents less with the self- fed lot than with the lot fed by the usual method. With fifty-cent RATIONS FOR FATTENING WESTERN SHEEP 341 corn and ten-dollar hay, the cost of one hundred pounds gain is sixteen cents more in the lot with fhe self-feeder. Feeding by means of a self-feeder has some objections. Sheep are dainty eaters and do not like grain that has been mussed over. The feeder should vary the amount of feed given according to the weather conditions and e general conditions of the sheep. The advantage of a self-feeder, en at a low price of corn is small, as it will be found necessary to d by hand the first five or six weeks of the feeding period in order accustom the sheep to a full feed of grain before them all the me. The successful feeder always spends considerable time with e sheep to see that every individual is doing well. If any should uire his attention it can be looked after immediately. When a self-feeder is used one will not so readily notice the sheep that off feed. 342 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STA. BULLETIN, NO. 115 BARN FEEDING VS. OPEN LOT FEEDING. South of Missouri and in the dry climates of the west open lot feeding is a common practice. In the southern part of Missouri cattle are sometimes fed in the open with only such shelter as is af- forded by bluffs and thickets of trees. The success of feeding in the open is directly dependent on the season. The temperature of Missouri during an average winter would not seriously interfere with open lot feeding, but the rains and snows common during our winter season makes this practice an unprofitable one. The results of indoor feeding as compared with open lot feeding can be seen in Table VII. TABLE VII. BARN FEEDING vs. OPEN LOT FEEDING. Lot II Lot VII Shelled corn Shelled corn and clover hay. and clover hay. In barn. In open lot. Average initial weight 78. 15 Ibs. 78.0 Ibs. Average final weight 101.25 Ibs. 97.6 Ibs. Average total gains 23. 10 Ibs. 19. 6 Ibs. Average daily gains .235 Ibs. . 200 Ibs. , .. . Grain 1.23 Ibs. 1.23 Ibs. Average daily rations Hay 1.72 Ibs. 1.77 Ibs. Grain.... 524. 89 Ibs. 887. 50 Ibs. Feed per 1MO Ibs. gam Hay 730. 73 Ibs. 617. 09 Ibs. Cost of 100 Ibs. gain, with corn at 40c per bushel and hay at $10 per ton-. $7.402 $9.424 Average shrink per head from Columbia to National Stock Yards 5.75 Ibs. 4.6 Ibs. Average weight per head at Na- tional Stock Yards 95.5 Ibs. 93. Ibs. Selling price per 100 Ibs $6.35 $6.30 Average cost per head, Columbia, at $4.25 per 100 Ibs $3.321 $3.315 Average cost of feed per head $1.730 $1.733 Average selling price per head, Columbia $5.681 $5.383 Average profit per head $ .630 $ .335 Dressing per cent 52.2% 50.6% Grade of carcasses. . Good Good RATIONS FOR FATTENING WESTERN SHEEP 343 The yearlings fed in the open lot received the same amount of 'rain and consumed a little moreliay than did those fed in the barn, "he total gains made by the yearlings fed in the barn averaged three id one-half pounds per head more than those fed outside. The irn-fed lot required 362.61 pounds, or 6.4 bushels less corn per lundred pounds gain than did the lot which was fed in the open, cost of one hundred pounds gain in Lot VII was $2.02 greater lan the same amount gained in Lot II with corn at forty cents per mshel, and hay at $10 per ton. This is the result of only one trial. However it is sufficient to idicate that under average weather conditions which prevail in issouri one must have barns or sheds which will protect the sheep rom rains and snow in order to make sheep feeding profitable. rhen a sheep's fleece becomes thoroughly soaked, it will require >ur or five days for it to dry out. There is always great danger of meumonia, colds and other attendant difficulties under these condi- ions. During the ninety-eight days of this feeding trial, fifty-one lys were clear, twenty-nine days were cloudy or partly cloudy ind the other eighteen days it either rained or snowed. The max- lum temperature was seventy degrees which occurred in the sec- >nd week in January. The minimum was eight degrees which oc- curred the second week in February. The average range of temp- erature for most weeks varied from twenty to forty-five degrees. 344 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STA. BULLETIN, NO. 115 w w co o • 0 • 10 >0 CO CO 10 O —i co 00 co co co *>• co co 00 t^ ON t^ ON T-H .-H »0 > °\ 10 T^ 10 OO CN lO CO CN 00 O *— i OO fe o C/) H O 55 W > w co W 10 t*» co co o vo CN CN co oo CN *-H T-I !>• *— I VO iO VO O CN > 10 HH CN CN 10 r^ CO -rH t^ CN CN 00 >0 CO ON •>-> W CN " 10 10 to CO ,_, t-» >O t^ CN CN oo co Tf< O CN . I— 1 T-I O co ON O ON CO 00 t^ O 00 CN ON O 1>- lO O . o ,9 O i-l O i-H O 00 I-H CO t— O CN ^ O CN CO 10 t>- H W O O T-H CO co > W CQ H 00 O ON CN ON O •* NO 10 VO •c ft Q O RATIONS FOR FATTENING WESTERN SHEEP 345 , SUMMARY 1. In this experiment feeds were figured at the following ces: Hay, $10 per ton; corn silage, $3.50 per ton; corn, 40 cents r bushel; linseed oil meal, $32 per ton; cottonseed meal, $28 per 2. At the above prices a ration of shelled corn, clover hay, and rn silage was the most economical. 3. The ration of shelled corn and clover hay ranked second an economical feed for yearling sheep. 4. As the price of corn and hay increases, it will be found economical to add a nitrogenous supplement. In these trials lin- seed oil cake was superior to cottonseed meal. 5. Clover hay proved to be greatly superior to timothy hay as a roughness for fattening western yearling sheep, with shelled corn as the grain ration. 6. The lot fed in the open required 6.4 bushels more corn for each one hundred pounds gain, than did the lot fed on the same ra- ion in the barn. Feeding sheep in an open lot without shelter from winter rains and snows is undoubtedly a poor practice. UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station BULLETIN NO. 120 Rations for Breeding Ewes COLUMBIA, MISSOURI October, 1914 UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station BOARD OF CONTROL. THE CURATORS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI. EXECUTIVE BOARD OF THE UNIVERSITY. THOM\S J. WORN ALL, Chairman, Liberty. SAM SPARROW, Kansas City. J. C. PARRISH, Vandalia. ADVISORY COUNCIL. THE MISSOURI STATUE BOARD OP AGRICULTURE. OFFICERS OF THE STATION. THE PRESIDENT OP THE UNIVERSITY. F. B. MUMFORD, M. S., Director, Animal Husbandry. J. W. Connaway, D.V.S., M.D., Veteri- nary Science. Frederick Dunlap, F.E., Forestry. C. H. Eckles, M.S., Dairy Husbandry. W. L. Howard, Ph.D., Horticulture. C. B. Hutchison, M.S. A., Farm Crops. M P. Miller, M.S.A., Soils. G. M. Reed, Ph.D., Botany. E. A. Trowbridge, B.S.A., Animal Hus- bandry. P. F. Trowbridge, Ph.D., Agricultural Chem- istry. J. C. Whitten, Ph.D., Horticulture. H. O. Allison, M.S., Animal Husbandry. H. L. Kempster, B.S.A., Poultry Hus- bandry. L. S. Backus, D.V.M., Veterinary Science. P. M. Brandt, A.M. Assistant to Director. J. B. Gingery, D.V.M., Veterinary Science. Howard Hackedorn, B.S.A., Animal Hus- bandry- J. C. Hackleman, A.M., Farm Crops. L. D. Haigh, Ph.D., Agricultural Chemistry. Leonard Haseman. Ph.D., Entomology. O. R. Johnson, A.M., Farm Management. H. F. Major, B.S.A., Landscape Gardening. C. R. Moulton, Ph. D., Agricultural Chem- istry. L. S. Palmer, Ph.D., Dairy Chemistry. E. C. Pegg, M.F., Forestry. L. G. Rinkle, M.S. A., Dairy Husbandry. L. A. Weaver, B.S.A., Animal Husbandry. A. R. Evans, B.S.A., Assistant, Farm Crops. W. E. Foard, A.M., Assistant, Farm Man- agement. R. R. Hudelson, B.S.A., Assistant, Soils. Elmer H. Hughes, B.S.A., Assistant, Ani- mal Husbandry. M. A. R. Kelley, B.S. in Agr. Eng., Assis- tant, Farm Mechanics. C. A. LeClair, A.M., Assistant, Soils. T. C. Reed, A.M., Assistant, Dairy Hus- bandry. W. M. Regan, A.M., Assistant, Dairy Hus- bandry. C. C. Wiggans, A.M., Assistant, Horticul- ture. F. L. Bentley, B.S. in Agr., Assistant, Ani- mal Husbandry. C. E. Deardorff, B.S. A., Assistant, Soil Survey. A. J. Durant, B.S. A., Research Assistant, Veterinary Science. J. F. Hamilton, Assistant, Veterinary Sci- ence. F. Z. Hutton, (1) B.S. A., Assistant, Soil Survey. E. W. Knobel, B.S. A., Assistant, Soil Sur- vey. H. H. Krusekopf, B.S. A., Assistant, Soil Survey. B. E. Sive, C.E., Assistant, Agricultural Chemistry. E R. Spence, B.S. A., Assistant, Veterinary Science. A. C. Stanton, B.S. A., Assistant, Dairy Hus- bandry. A. T. Sweet, (1) A.B., Assistant, Soil Survey. Boleslaus Szymonjak, B.S. A., Assistant, Horticulture. H. K. Thatcher, B.S. in Agr., Assistant, Soil Survey. W. E. Thrun, A.M., Assistant, Agricultural Chemistry. B. W. Tillman, (1) B.S. A., Assistant, Soil Survey. T. T. Tucker, A.M., Assistant, Veterinary Science. E. E. Vanatta, M.S. A., Assistant, Agricul- tural Chemistry. E. S. Vanatta, (1) B.S. A., Assistant, Soil Survey. C. A. Webster, B.S. A., Assistant, Poultry Husbandry. George Reeder, (1) Dir. Weather Bureau. Flora G. Ernst, (1) A.M., Seed Testing Lab- oratory. J. G. Babb, M.A., Secretary. R. B. Price, B.S., Treasurer. R. H. Gray, Accountant. T. D. Stanford, Clerk. Edith Briggs, Stenographer. J. F. Barham, Photographer. Arthur Rhys, Herdsman, Animal Husbandry. C. M. Pollock, Herdsman, Dairy Husbandry. (1) In the service of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. RATIONS FOR BREEDING EWES. HOWARD HACKEDORN. I The investigation here reported was conducted for the purpose, :st, of comparing clover hay, timothy hay, corn stover and corn silage as roughages for pregnant ewes; second, to determine the ad- visability of feeding a grain ration in conjunction with the various roughnesses mentioned above for maintaining pregnant ewes during the time that they occupy winter quarters; and, third, to study the effect of the treatment of pregnant ewes upon the growth and vigor f the lambs. PLAN OF THE EXPERIMENT. Sheep Used. The ewes in this experiment were purchased at the insas City stock yards in September, 1911. They were from two four years old and were classified as Colorado Ewes. All had good louths and udders. They averaged 86 pounds in weight in a me- lium condition of flesh. In the fall of 1912, all ewes with broken louths, spoiled udders and those which had not raised lambs the >revious year were culled out, so that the ewes in the experiment dur- ig the second year were a better lot of breeding ewes than those that rere used during the first year. ONE OF THE LOTS OF EWES. This cut shows the general type, character, and quality of the ewes used in the experiment. They were all good, strong ewes, representative of the western range type. Lots and Rations. The ewes were put into winter quarters the last week in November, and started on the various rations which were as follows: (31) 32 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 120 Lot I. Grain and corn stover. 1911. Lot II. Grain and clover hay. 1911. Lot III. Grain, clover hay and corn silage. 1911. Lot IV. Grain, clover hay and corn stover. 1911. Lot V. Grain and corn silage. 1911. Lot VI. Grain and timothy hay. 1911. Lot VII. Clover hay and corn silage. 1911. Lot VIII. Clover hay and corn stover. 1911. Lot XI. Grain and corn stover. 1912. Lot XII. Grain and clover hay. 1912. Lot XIII. Grain, clover hay and corn silage. 1912. Lot XIV. Grain, clover hay and corn stover. 1912. Lot XV. Grain and corn silage. 1912. Lot XVI. Clover hay. 1912. Lot XVII. Clover hay and'corn silage. 1912. Lot XVIII. Clover hay and'corn stover. 1912. It was planned to have 17 ewes in each lot the first year of this ex- periment, but some of the ewes did not get with lamb and were taken out of the experiment, as this condition of barrenness could not be attributed to the feed. This accounts for the different number of ewes in the lots excepting in the case of the three lots which received corn silage. During the fourth week of the first year of this experi- ment, Lots III, V, and VII which were receiving silage in their ration were fed some mouldy silage through a mistake on the part of the feeder which resulted in the death of five ewes in each of Lots III and V, and one ewe in Lot VII. The three lots were continued on the same rations for three months after this trouble occurred, without any further bad results. The same rations were fed from December 10, 1912 to April 1, 1913, without any trouble, hence it would seem advisable in making comparisons not to consider the ewes which died as a result of the mouldy silage. The ewes were charged with dead lambs in cases of abortion. The second year all ewes proved to be with lamb. This year all lots contained 10 ewes excepting Lot XI, in which one of the ewes had to be removed before the experiment began, as she was not in a nor- mal condition of health. Special care was taken in both the years of this experiment to have all lots uniform as to size, quality and con- dition. Other factors than the feed might affect the results of an experi- ment with breeding ewes. For this reason, special effort was made to keep all other factors as uniform as possible. RATIONS FOR BREEDING EWES 33 Roughnesses. The clover hay used in 1911 was choice hay. It ras clear and bright with few waeds or foreign grasses in it. During the second year of the experiment it was impossible to obtain choice :lover hay, most of it being slightly mixed with timothy hay. The ly was of good quality and well cured. Bales that were badly lixed with timothy were set aside. The timothy hay used for Lot rl was graded choice, being of a good, bright color containing very ittle foreign grasses or weeds. The yield of corn in 1911, was not lormal on account of the extremely dry summer, the result was that corn silage of that year contained a low per cent of grain and a ittle higher per cent of acid than good silage should contain. The silage made during 1912 was of good quality containing a normal per :nt of grain and was not so sour as the silage of the previous year, "he stover used was field cured, and from time to time the shocks -ere hauled in from the field and stacked near the feeding shed, "he stover used the winter of 1911-12 was not of good quality, on :cpunt of the fall rains having caused some deterioration. The >tover used during the second winter was of good quality. The Grain Ration. The grain ration was the same for all lots, 't consisted of six parts shelled corn, three parts wheat bran and one trt pea-size linseed oil cake, by weight. The amount of grain fed the different lots varied, the object being to keep the ewes in good con- lition of flesh, hence it was necessary to feed some lots more grain lan others as the roughnesses did not have equal feeding values, "he corn used was good No. 2 shelled corn. The bran was first jrade soft wheat bran and the linseed oil meal was old process meal id the best quality that could be obtained. Quarters. The different lots were kept in yards of uniform size. 'hey were fed in a shed open to the south, with an exercise yard sloping to the south. The covered space allowed to each lot was 8J/2x22i/2 ft., including feeding racks and water troughs. The ad- joining exercise yard for each lot was 8^x100 ft. The feeding racks consisted of eight-inch grain troughs with a V- shaped hay rack above, so arranged that the hay would feed down through the grain trough. The sides and ends of the rack were tight to prevent loss of hay. Method of Feeding. The first year all rations were divided into two equal portions, one-half of which was fed in the morning and one- half in the evening. The second year all the grain and part of the roughage was fed in the morning, the remainder of the roughage was fed in the evening. 34 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 120 The silage was always fed in the morning so that if any ill effects re- sulted it could be noticed more readily. Feeding was done at 7 :30 in the morning and at 4:00 in the afternoon. During the first year, the ewes and lambs were removed after lambing, from the lot in which they had been fed throughout the winter and placed in a lot where they were fed a ration of grain and alfalfa hay. The grain ration being the same as was fed before; corn six parts, wheat bran three parts and linseed oil meal one part. The ewes and lambs from all lots were placed in one yard and re- ceived such amounts of hay and grain as were necessary to keep them in good thrifty condition. The second year the ewes, after lambing, were continued on the ration which they had been receiving, until they were turned out on rye pasture, April 2. Water and Salt. All lots were supplied with fresh clean water from the deep wells of the University water system. Common bar- rel salt was kept before the ewes at all times. WEIGHT RECORDS. Weights of Ewes. The ewes and lambs were weighed every thirty days. The water was cut off the evening before each weigh day and the ewes were weighed in the morning before feeding. The final weights of the ewes were taken six to eight hours after lambing. Three successive weights were taken at the beginning of the experi- ment, the average of these three weights being used as the initial weight. The second day of the three successive weigh days is used as the base date for the beginning of the experiment. Weights of Lambs. The birth weight of the lambs was taken as soon as the lambs were dry, which was six to eight hours after lamb- ing. Lambs dropped during the night were weighed in the morning. Both years the lambs were dropped in March and the first week in April. The final weights of each lot were taken when the lambs averaged thirty days of age. Thus some lambs were over thirty days of age while others were less than thirty days old, however, the extreme difference in the ages of the lambs was in no case, over three weeks. The Rams Used. The first year of this experiment, eighteen of the ewes proved to be with lamb when purchased. The sire of these lambs was unknown. The remainder of the ewes were bred to yearling Hampshire rams. One was a large framed rough ram weigh- RATIONS FOR BREEDING EWES 35 ig 215 Ibs. in medium breeding condition; the other ram was a loother, more compact ram weighing 175 Ibs. in breeding condition. The second year, all the ewes were bred to the last mentioned ram. Grain Rations for Lambs. Creeps were provided for the lambs, e., part of each lot was fenced off with a partition providing spaces ist large enough for the lambs to crawl through, but small enough keep the ewes out. In these creeps, the lambs were fed all the rain they would clean up. The grain ration fed the lambs was the ime as that fed the ewes, except that coarsely ground corn was used >tead of shelled corn. The Measure of Efficiency. In experiments with fattening ani- lals, the measure of efficiency of a ration is determined by the pounds feed required to produce 100 Ibs. of gain, the cost of the feed and le condition of the animals at the end of the feeding period. How- , rations for maintaining breeding animals cannot be measured )V the above standaid. The purpose of all breeding animals is to >roduce young. Hence, the offspring is the most important factor measuring the efficiency of a ration for wintering pregnant ewes. The measure of efficiency in this experiment was, first, the weight id condition of the lambs at birth; second, the ability of the ewe to ickle the lambs — this being measured by the gain and general thrift the lambs while suckling their dams; third, the general thrift and >ndition of the ewes throughout the trial; fourth, the cost of the ition. CLOVER HAY vs. TIMOTHY. Many farmers in Missouri produce timothy because it is a more ;rtain crop and easier to grow than clover. Unfortunately, how- , the crops which are produced with the least trouble are not al- rays the best. From a soil fertility standpoint, clover is much supe- rior to timothy, and from a sheep feeding standpoint, clover has prov- a superior roughness. In order to study the relative merits of these two hays as roughnesses for wintering pregnant ewes, this trial was conducted. The results are recorded in Table I. 36 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 120 TABLE I. — CLOVER HAY VERSUS TIMOTHY HAY. Number of ewes. Clover hay and grain. Timothy hay and grain. Lot II 1911 Lot VI 1911 14 15 Average initial weight of ewes. 92.75 91.73 Average final weight of ewes. 99.28 84.06 Average loss or gain of ewes. 6.53 - 7.67 Total number of lambs. 16 17 Total number of strong lambs. 16 11 Total number of weak lambs. 0 5 Total number of dead lambs. 0 1 Average weight of live lambs. 8.98 8.48 Average daily rations of ewes. Grain. .33 .35 Hay. 2.99 2.91 Average daily gain per lamb during first 30 days after birth. .534(a) .447 (a) (a) The ewes received a ration of grain and alfalfa hay after lambing. From this table it is seen that the lot of ewes receiving clover hay produced the higher per cent of lambs. However, this difference is small and is not of as much importance as the difference in the con- dition of the lambs at time of birth and at the average age of thirty days. The ewes receiving timothy hay dropped five weak lambs and one dead lamb, while the lambs from the ewes fed on clover hay were all strong, thrifty lambs, which were fatter and better nourished at birth, averaging one-half pound more in weight. The ewes in Lot II (those receiving clover hay) suckled their lambs much better than did the ewes in Lot VI as is indicated by the greater gain made by these lambs. The difference in weight does not rep- RATIONS FOR BREEDING EWES 37 as great a difference as could be seen in the lambs. The lambs Lot II were fat and in the best of condition, while those in Lot VI :ked the flesh which is required to make good marketable lambs in early summer. It is of further interest to note that the eleven strong lambs in Lot did not make as high an average daily gain as did the lambs in >t II, where all lambs were considered. This emphasizes the fact it the ewes fed on timothy hay were not in a condition to suckle leir lambs as well as the ewes fed on clover. It should be remem- -ed that after lambing, the ewes of both lots were fed on alfalfa hay id grain. The two lots were fed practically the same amount of grain and during the period of pregnancy. The lot receiving timothy hay not eat the hay with the keen appetite, however, which was >ticeable with the ewes fed clover. Lot II (clover hay) refused only )2 Ibs. of hay per head per day, while Lot VI (timothy hay) refused 17 Ibs. per head per day. There was very little difference in the cost of the two rations as loice timothy and choice clover are about the same in price. Timothy hay proved to be such an inferior ration that it was not mtinued the second year. CLOVER HAY AND GRAIN vs. CLOVER HAY. Under systems of diversified farming, breeding ewes are kept to :ilize the coarser feeds such as hays, fodders, etc. The more con- jntrated feed such as grains are either sold or fed to animals which in utilize them to better advantage than the breeding ewes. How- , a small portion of the grain might be used to good advantage in >ding the breeding flock. Especially is this true when the pastures ive been sparse so that the breeding flock goes into the winter in tin condition. In order to throw some light on this question, the trial which is reported in Table II was conducted. 38 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 120 TABLE II. — GRAIN AND CLOVER HAY vs. CLOVER HAY. Grain and clover hay, Lot XII. Clover hay, Lot XVI. 1912 1912 Number of ewes. 10. 10. Average initial weight of ewes. 81.69 79.72 Average final weight of ewes. 84.90 76.70 Average loss or gain of ewes. 3.21 - 3.20 Total number of lambs. 11. 10. Total number of strong lambs. 10. 9. Total number of weak lambs. 1. 0. Total number of dead lambs. 0. 1. Average weight of live lambs. 8.98 8.16 Average daily rations of ewes. Grain 56 Hay. 2.94 3.27 Average daily gain per lamb 30 days after birth. .319(a) .204(a) (a) The ewes were continued on the same ration after lambing as they had been receiving before lambing excepting the amount was increased. This trial was carried on in the winter of 1912-13. The ewes went into winter quarters in fair condition of flesh. Both lots were uniform as to size and condition. The ewes fed clover hay and grain made an average gain of 3.21 Ibs. prior to lambing while the ewes without grain lost practically that amount during the same period. This loss was not enough to be of serious consequence. The number and condition of the lambs produced was practically the same. The lambs from the ewes re- ceiving grain weighed .82 Ibs. more at birth than those from the ewes receiving clover hay only. The important advantage of grain feed- RATIONS FOR BREEDING EWES 39 ig is seen in the last line of this table. The wide difference in the iverage daily gain of the lambs for the first thirty days, indicates the dative ability of the ewes to suckle their lambs. The ewes receiv- ing grain suckled their lambs much better than did the ewes receiving 10 grain, as is indicated by the greater daily gain per lamb. The jwes suckling lambs were given the same ration they had received >rior to lambing except the amount given was increased. The dif- jrence in the value of the lambs indicates the advisability of feeding >me grain to the ewes after lambing. .AMBS FROM LOT XII — EWES WERE FED GRAIN AND CLOVER HAY. 'his lot of lambs was in better condition and was superior to those of Lot XVI, because their mothers received sufficient feed to produce abundance of milk. LAMBS FROM LOT XVI— EWES WERE FED CLOVER HAY. The mothers of these lambs did not receive enough feed for the produc- tion of sufficient milk to keep the young lambs fat. Table II indicates that clover hay alone is sufficient to carry preg- nant ewes through the winter, providing they are in a good condition of flesh when they go into winter quarters. However, after lambing, if the ewes and lambs are kept in dry lot, grain feeding is advisable. 40 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 120 If the ewes are not fed grain during the winter, it is preferable to start feeding grain about a month before the lambing season begins, starting with a small amount — about one quarter of a pound of grain per head per day. This will get the ewes accustomed to grain feed- ing so that after lambing they can be fed sufficient grain to maintain milk flow without danger of digestive troubles which usually accom- pany sudden and heavy feeding of grain. The grain used in this trial was 6 parts corn, 3 parts bran and 1 part linseed oil cake. It proved a very satisfactory grain ration. CORN SILAGE vs. CORN STOVER. The corn belt farmer of a few years ago did not consider the corn stalks of sufficient value to spend much time and expense in saving them for a winter feed. The stalk-fields were pastured, but no at- tempt was made to utilize them to any great extent. Cheap land and cheap feed made it more economical to utilize only the better quality of hays. The change in farm practices brought about by the higher prices of land and feeds has made advisable the utilization of all the feed grown. Corn stalks are being utilized to a greater ex- tent as a part of the ration for wintering breeding and young stock. The following trials were conducted in order to determine the rela- tive value of silage (which includes the stalk and the ear) as com- pared with stover (stalk cut and cured in the field with the ear re- moved). The data from this trial are presented in three tables. Corn Silage and Grain vs. Corn Stover and Grain. The first of these tables, Table III, shows the results of feeding corn silage and grain as compared with corn stover and grain, the silage and the stover constituting the entire roughness. An effort was made to in- duce Jihe ewes to eat as much of the roughness as was possible. In addition, grain was fed in such quantities as was necessary to keep the ewes in good, thrifty, breeding condition. RATIONS FOR BREEDING EWES 4l TABLE III. — CORN SILAGE AND GRAIN vs. CORN STOVER AND GRAIN. Corn silage and grain. Corn stover and grain. LotV. Lot XV. Average. Lot I. Lot XI. Average. 1911 1912 1911 1912 Number of ewes. ' Average initial weight of ewes. Average final weight of ewes. Average loss or gain of ewes. Total number of lambs. 11 10 21 17 9 26 87.42 78.89 83.36 87.27 84.14 86.17 88.00 80.75 84.54 88.53 79.33 85.34 .58 1.86 1.18 1.26 -4.81 -.83 11 10 21 18 10 28 Total number of strong lambs. Total number of weak lambs. Total number of dead lambs. 10 10 20 18 8 26 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 Average weight of live lambs. 9.79 9. 9.37 9.45 8.93 9.29 Average daily rations of ewes. Grain. .30 .58 .43 .41 .73 .503 Silage. Stover. 3.50 3.34 3.42. 6.22 5.97 6.16 Average daily gain per lamb 30 days after birth. .530 (a) .248 (b) .458 (a) .319. (b). (a) The ewes received a ration of grain and alfalfa hay after lambing. (b) The ewes were continued on the same ration after lambing as they had been receiving before lambing excepting the amount was increased. From this table, it is seen that during the first year of this trial there was very little difference in the condition of the ewes. The percentage of the lambs in both lots was the same, 100 per cent. The lambs in both lots were strong and thrifty, with the exception of one in Lot V, which later developed into a strong lamb. The lambs dropped by the ewes receiving silage averaged one-third of a 42 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 120 pound heavier than the lambs dropped in Lot I. The second year's results were practically the same excepting one ewe in Lot I aborted about the middle of the feeding period. The probable cause of this was injury received while weighing. During both years, more grain was required to maintain the desired condition of the ewes receiving corn stover than was required by the ewes receiving silage. The ewes receiving the stover refused about half of the roughness given. The first year they were fed an average of 6.22 Ibs. of stover per head per day and refused 2.39 Ibs. and the second year 5.97 Ibs. stover was fed and 2.35 Ibs. refused. During the first year of this trial the ewes and lambs after lambing were put on a ration of grain and alfalfa hay. The lambs from the silage-fed ewes made a greater gain than the lambs from the ewes fed on stover. During the second year when the ewes and lambs were kept on the same ration that they received through the winter, the lambs in Lot XI made the greater gain. The difference in the aver- age daily gain made by the lambs was so small as to be of little signifi- cance. From Table III it can be seen that with corn stover as a roughness, from one-fourth to one-third more grain is required to winter breeding ewes than when silage is used. Otherwise there was little difference of practical consequence. It should be borne in mind that the death of five ewes in Lot V was attributed to mouldy silage. Corn Silage and Clover Hay vs. Corn Stover and Clover Hay. The object of this experiment was to secure data upon a number of com- binations of roughnesses in order to determine so far as possible those most desirable for Missouri conditions. Clover being a common hay crop on all the better farms of the state, combinations of clover and corn silage, and clover and corn stover were tested. The results of this work is reported in Table IV. RATIONS FOR BREEDING EWES 43 TABLE IV. — CORN SILAGE AND CLOVER HAY vs. CORN STOVER AND CLOVER HAY. C and orn silage clover ha y- Cc and >rn stove clover h r ay. Lot VII Lot XVII 1 Lot VIII Lot XVIII 0) bfl £ 1911 1912 > < 1911 1912 > < Number of ewes. 15 10 25 17 10 27 Average initial weight of ewes. 91.64 79.43 86.75 85.62 83.39 84.80 Average final weight of ewes. 90.26 74.9 84.12 86.94 75.60 82.74 Average loss or gain of ewes. -1.38 -4.53 -2.63 1.32 -7.79 -2.06 Total number of lambs. 19 10 29 19 10 29 Total number of strong lambs. 15 10 25 17 7 24 Total number of weak lambs. 4 0 4 2 2 4 Total number of dead lambs. 0 0 0 0 1 1 Average weight of live lambs. 8.57 8.70 8.62 8.51 7.77 8.27 Average daily rations of ewes. Hay. 2.07 1.59 1.87 2.56 1.62 2.31 Silage 2 55 1 87 2 36 Stover 2 05 3 04 2 32 Average daily gain per lamb 452 165 435 .181 30 days after birth (a) (b) (a) (b) (a) The ewes received a ration of grain and alfalfa hay after lambing. (b) The ewes were continued on the same ration after lambing as they id been receiving before lambing excepting the amount was increased. The first year of this trial, the ewes in both lots practically main- tained their condition up to lambing time, as can be seen by corn- ering the initial and final weights. The fifteen ewes in Lot VII pro- luced four pairs of twin lambs, while only two pairs of twin lambs •ere dropped in Lot VIII. The twin lambs in all cases were weak at birth. Hence the larger number of weak lambs in Lot VII which 44 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 120 received clover hay and corn silage is accounted for by the larger per cent of lambs dropped and should not be attributed to the dif- ference in the feed. Throughout the first year's work, there was very little difference in the value of the two rations. The lambs were of practically the same average birth weight, and after lambing when both lots were put on a ration of grain and alfalfa hay the ewes suckled their lambs equally well, as is indicated by the average daily gain of the lambs for the first thirty days after birth. The most important difference is seen in the average daily ration. The ewes in Lot VIII required about one-half pound more of clover hay per head per day than did the ewes in Lot VII which received the clover hay and corn silage. During the second year of this trial, the silage proved a better roughness than the stover. The silage in this test was of much better quality, containing a larger amount of grain than did the silage which was used in the trial the first year. The ewes receiving the silage more nearly maintained their condition and produced stronger and heavier lambs than the ewes receiving the corn stover. The ewes in Lot VII which received the corn silage suckled their lambs better than those receiving the stover. The table shows that the lambs in Lot XVIII made a little greater gain than those of Lot XVII. This is accounted for by the fact that six of the ewes in Lot XVIII did not produce sufficient milk to keep the lambs alive and they died before the end of the third week. Thus, only four of the strongest lambs were left. The ewes of Lot XVII were able to raise all their lambs, which gives them a decided advan- tage. Averaging the two years' work, there was little difference in the efficiency of the rations up to lambing time. After lambing, the corn silage and clover hay proved the superior ration. Corn Silage, Clover Hay and Grain vs. Corn Stover, Clover Hay and Grain. The results of feeding grain and clover with corn silage and corn stover respectively were recorded in tables III and IV. In Table V, the results of feeding small amounts of both grain and clover, with silage and corn stover respectively are presented. RATIONS FOR BREEDING EWES 45 TABLE V. — CORN SILAGE, CLOVER HAY AND GRAIN vs. CORN STOVER, CLOVER HAY AND GRAIN. Corn silage, clover hay and grain. Corn stover, clover hay and grain. Lot III Lot XIII Average. Lot IV Lot XIV Average. 1911 1912 1911 1912 Number of ewes. 10 10 20 14 10 24 Average initial weight of ewes. 95.36 81.13 88.24 90.78 83.86 87.89 Average final weight of ewes. 98.30 86.5 92.40 90.04 83.6 87.58 Average loss or gain of ewes. 2.94 5.37 4.26 -.74 -.20 -.31 Total number of lambs. 14 11 25 16 10 26 Total number of strong lambs. 13 11 24 13 10 23 Total number of weak lambs. 1 0 1 3 0 3 Total number of dead lambs. 0 0 0 0 0 0 Average weight lof live lambs. 8.23 9.27 8.698 8.96 9.05 9.00 Average daily ration of ewes. Grain. .33 .57 .450 .30 .58 .397 Hay. 2 . 00 1.64 2.079 2.00 1.57 1.86 Silage. 1.80 1.87 2.09 Stover. 2.00 3.08 2.35 Average daily gain per lambs .418 30 days after birth. (a) .378 (b) .485 (a) .284 (b) i (a) The ewes received a ration of grain and alfalfa hay after lambing. (b) The ewes were continued on the same ration after lambing as they had been receiving before lambing excepting the amount was increased. 46 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 120 A study of this table shows that the ewes receiving the corn silage gained slightly in weight while the ewes receiving the corn stover lost some in weight. There was very little difference in the average daily allowance of grain and clover. During the first year, the lambs in the lot receiving corn stover averaged a little heavier at birth (.73 Ibs.) than did those in Lot III. The ewes in Lot III pro- duced a higher per cent of lambs which would account for their lower average weight. The first year's results show that the lambs in Lot IV (corn stover, clover hay and grain) made slightly greater gains. This small difference again can be accounted for by the greater per cent of lambs in Lot III. The second year's results show that corn silage proved more efficient than corn stover. The lot of ewes receiving silage produced a higher per cent of lambs, which averaged heavier and made better gains than the lambs dropped by the ewes receiving the corn stover. This difference is not large, and taking an average of the two years' work the rations are of about equal value. The corn silage proved slightly superior as a larger per cent of lambs was raised in this lot. Greater care must be taken in feeding silage than stover because of the dangers of mouldy silage. Tables III, IV and V show that there is not a great difference in the value of corn stover and corn silage when it is used to reduce the consumption of the more expensive feeds such as grain and clover hay. The corn silage proved slightly superior in all cases. The two dis- advantages attending the feeding of silage are, first, a flock of 50 to 150 ewes cannot use enough silage to make the silo a profitable in- vestment unless sufficient stock of other classes are available which may also be fed silage; second, mouldy and extremely sour silage is a dangerous feed for sheep. On many farms where much of the corn stover is wasted it could be utilized as one of the roughnesses for breeding ewes if fed in limited quantities. FEEDING CORN SILAGE TO BREEDING EWES. The question of feeding silage to the breeding flock has become an important one in the last few years. Especially, are the methods of silage feeding of interest to those who have sufficient live stock to economically use a silo. In Table VI the results of the various meth- ods of feeding silage tested at the Missouri Experiment Station are presented. RATIONS FOR BREEDING EWES 47 TABLE VI. — FEEDING CORN SILAGE TO BREEDING EWES. Corn silage, clover hay and grain. . V * Corn silage and grain. Corn silage and clover hay. Lot III. Lot XIII. Average. Lot V. Lot XV. Average. Lot VII. Lot XVII. Average. 1911 1912 1911 1912 1911 1912 • Number o f ewes. Average ini- tial weight of 10 10 20 11 10 21 15 10 25 95.36 81.13 88.24 87.42 78.89 83.36 91.64 79.43 86.75 ewes. Average final weight of 98.30 86.5 92.40 88.00 80.75 84.54 90.26 74.9 84.12 ewes. Average loss or gain of 2.94 5.37 4.26 .58 1.86 1.18 -1.38 -4.53 -2.63 ewes. Total num- ber of lambs. 14 11 25 11 10 21 19 10 29 Total num- ber of strong lambs. 13 11 24 10 10 20 15 10 25 Total num- ber of weak 1 0 1 1 0 1 4 0 4 lambs. Total num- ber of dead 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 lambs. Average weight of live lambs. 8.23 9.27 8.698 9.79 9 9.37 8.57 8.70 8.62 Average daily rations of ewes. Grain. .33 .57 .45 .30 .58 .43 Silage. 1.80 1.87 2.09 3.50 3.34 3.42 2.55 1.87 2.36 48 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 120 TABLE VI— Continued. Corn silage, Corn silage Corn silage and clover hay and grain. clover hay and grain. Lot III. Lot XIII. Average. Lot V. Lot XV. Average. Lot VII. Lot XVII. Average. 1911 1812 1911 1912 1911 1912 Hay. 2.00 1.64 2.07 2.07 1.59 1.87 Average daily gain per lamb 30 days after .418 (a) .378 (b) .53 (a) .248 (b) .452 (a) .165 (b) birth. (a) The ewes received a ration of grain and alfalfa hay after lambing. (b) The ewes were continued on the same ration after lambing as they h ad been receiving before lambing exepting the amount was increased. A study of this table shows that during the first year of these trials there was little difference in the three lots. The ewes in all lots practically maintained their condition. There was a slight change in the average weight of the ewes in the various lots. However, the difference was so small as to be of little significance. The first year the ewes were put on a ration of grain and alfalfa hay after lambing. On this ration the lambs in Lot V made the larg- est gains; those in Lot VII were second in the amount of gain per LAMBS FROM LOT XIII — EWES WERE FED CORN SILAGE, CLOVER HAY AND GRAIN. This ration proved to be one of the most satisfactory rations for breeding ewes. RATIONS FOR BREEDING EWES 49 LAMBS FROM LOT XV — EWES WERE FED CORN SILAGE AND GRAIN. The mothers of this lot of lambs required from one-fourth to one-third more grain to maintain them in good breeding condition than did the ewes receiving corn silage, clover hay and grain. head per day and those in Lot III ranked last. This difference in the gains made by the lambs is probably not due so much to the feed the ewes received prior to lambing as to the difference in the number >f lambs the ewes suckled. The number of lambs raised by the various lots is represented by the following percentages: Lot III, 140 per cent; Lot VII, 114.28 per cent; Lot V, 100 per cent. During the second year of this test when the ewes were fed the same ration after lambing as they had received before the lambs were dropped, the ration of corn silage, clover hay and grain proved the most efficient. The lot of ewes receiving this ration gained more in weight and condition, produced a higher per cent of lambs, and suckled them better than the ewes in the other two lots. LAMBS FROM LOT XVII — EWES WERE FED CORN SILAGE AND CLOVER HAY. This lot of lambs was the poorest of the three lots. The ewes receiving silage and clover hay did not give sufficient milk to keep the lambs in good condition of flesh. 50 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 120 The last line of Table VI shows that the lambs of Lot XIII made the highest average daily gain of the three lots. A further study of the second year's results shows that a ration of grain and silage was more efficient in maintaining the condition of breeding ewes than a ration of clover hay and corn silage. The former ration also proved to be much the better ration for ewes suckling lambs than did the ra- tion of clover hay and corn silage. The table shows that during both years the difference in the effi- ciency of the three rations up to lambing time is so small as to be of little consequence. After the lambs had been dropped a ration of grain, clover hay and silage proved to be the best ration for ewes suckling lambs. The ration of grain and silage ranked second, and clover and corn silage ranked last. Silo Capacity for Sheep Feeding. The weight of corn silage per cubic foot is not constant. It will vary with the maturity of the corn when put into the silo, with the amount of water added when the corn is put in, with the manner in which it is scattered and tramped and many other factors. For most practical purposes 40 Ibs. per cubic foot is accurate enough in estimating the capacity of a silo. In Table A the capacity of the silo is calculated on this basis. RATIONS FOR BREEDING EWES 51 TABLE A. Diameter of silo. Height of silo. Estimated capacity tons. ^x Acreage of Number of sheep cornrequir- required to ed to fill utilize sil- silo, 12 tons age in 150 days per acre. 2 Ibs. per head per day. Number of sheep required to utilize 3 in. of silage per day. 10 28 44.9 3.7 300 392 10 30 47.1 3.9 311 392 10 32 50.2 4.1 331 392 10 34 53.3 4.4 356 392 10 36 56.5 4.7 377 392 10 38 59.6 4.9 398 392 10 40 62.8 5.2 420 392 12 28 63.2 5.3 422 565 12 30 67.8 5.6 452 565 12 32 72.3 6.0 483 565 12 34 76.8 6.4 513 565 12 36 81.3 6.7 543 565 12 38 85.8 7.1 573 565 12 40 90.4 7.5 603 565 14 28 85.9 7.1 574 817 14 30 92.1 7.6 614 817 14 32 98.2 8.1 655 817 14 34 104.5 8.7 698 817 14 36 110.5 9.2 737 817 14 38 116.6 9.7 778 817 14 40 122. 8 10.2 819 817 52 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 120 TABLE A. — Continued. Diameter of silo. Height of silo. Estimated capacity tons. Acreage of corn requir- ed to fill silo, 12 tons per acre. Number of sheep required to utilize sil- age in 150 days 2 Ibs. per head per day. Number of sheep required to utilize 3 in. of silage per day. 16 28 112.5 9.3 751 1005 16 30 120.6 10. 804 1005 16 32 128.6 10.7 858 1005 16 34 136.6 11.3 912 1005 16 36 144.7 12. 966 1005 16 38 152.8 12.7 1019 1005 16 40 160.8 13.4 1072 1005 18 30 152.4 12.7 1016 1270 18 32 162.5 13.5 1083 1270 18 34 172.7 14.3 1152 1270 18 36 182.8 15.2 1220 1270 18 38 193.0 16. 1287 1270 18 40 202.2 16.9 1355 1270 18 42 212.3 17.7 142'3 1270 18 44 223.5 18.6 1490 1270 18 46 233.6 19.4 1558 1270 20 30 188.4 15.7 1256 1570 20 32 200.9 16.7 1327 1570 20 34 213.5 17.7 1424 1570 20 36 226.0 18.8 1508 1570 20 38 238.6 19.8 1591 1570 RATIONS FOR BREEDING EWES 53 TABLE A. — Continued. Acreage of Number of sheep Number of sheep Diameter Height Estimated corn requir- required to required to of of capacity ed to fill utilize sil- utilize 3 in. silo. silo. tons. silo, 12 tons age in 150 days of silage per acre. 2 Ibs. per head per day. per day. 20 40 251.2 20.9 1675 1570 20 42 263.7 21.9 1759 1570 20 44 276.3 23.0 1843 1570 20 46 288.8 24. 1926 1570 20 48 301.4 25.1 2010 1570 20 50 314.0 26.1 2093 1570 If a silo was filled about one-half to two-thirds full and then ai- med to settle for two or three days, and then filled to the top and illowed to settle and again refilled no doubt the silo would hold near- ly its estimated capacity. This method of filling the silo is not prac- tical under most farming conditions. The silo is usually filled in one to three days depending on its size. Under these conditions the amount of silage fed out the silo will be about two-thirds to seven- LAMBS FROM LOT XI— EWES WERE FED CORN STOVER AND GRAIN. Corn stover can be successfully utilized as a roughness for breeding ewes providing sufficient and proper concentrates are fed in addition. 54 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 120 LAMBS FROM LOT XIV— EWES WERE FED CORN STOVER, CLOVER HAY AND GRAIN. This ration proved to be the most atisfactory method of utilizing the corn stover for breeding sheep. eights of its estimated capacity. For this reason the figures in the last column of the table should be reduced by one-eighth to one-third, as these figures are based upon the supposition that the silo will hold as much silage as it is estimated to hold. FEEDING CORN STOVER TO BREEDING EWES. Corn stover alone is not recommended as a feed for breeding stock of any kind because it does not contain sufficient quantities of muscle and blood building nutrients. It also has a tendency to constipate breeding ewes, which frequently leads to more serious troubles. In order to utilize the corn stover to the best advantage it should be fed in connection with a protein feed and one of a laxative nature. In these trials a grain ration of six parts shelled corn, three parts bran and one part linseed oil cake by weight was used and proved very satisfactory. The results of feeding trials of corn stover and grain, corn stover and clover hay; and corn stover, clover hay and grain, are presented in Table VII. LAMBS FROM LOT XVIII — EWES WERE FED CORN STOVER AND CLOVER HAY. The mothers of these lambs received a ration which did not contain enouah nutriment to keen un a flow r>f milk sufficient tr» maintain RATIONS FOR BREEDING EWES 55 TABLE VII. — FEEDING CORN STOVER TO BREEDING EWES. Corn stover Corn stover, Corn stover and grain. clover hay and and grain. clover hay. Lot Lot < 1911 1912 > Number of ewes. 17 9 26 14 10 24 17 10 27 Average ini- tial weight of 87.26 84.14 86.17 90.78 83.86 87.89 85.62 83.39 84.80 ewes. Average final weight of 88.53 79.33 85.34 90.04 83.6 87.58 86.94 75.60 82.74 ewes. Average loss or gain of 1.26 -4.81 -.83 -.74 -.2 -.31 1.32 -7.79 -2.06 ewes. Total num- ber of lambs. 18 10 28 16 10 26 19 10 29 Total num- ber of strong 18 8 26 13 10 23 17 7 24 lambs. Total num- ber of weak 0 0 0 3 0 3 2 2 4 lambs. Total num- ber of dead 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 1 1 lambs. Average weight of 9.45 8.93 9.29 8.96 9.05 9.0 8.51 7.77 8.27 live lambs. Average daily rations of ewes. Grain. 41 73 50 ! 30 58 397 Hav 2.00 1.57 1.86 2.56 1.62 2.31 56 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 120 TABLE VII. — Continued. Corn stover Corn stover, clover Corn stover and and grain. hay and grain. clover hay. Lot Lot n> oti 05 Lot Lot o> bfl cd Lot Lot < 1911 1912 > Stover. 6.22 5.97 6.16 2.00 3.08. 2.35 2.05 3.04 2.32 Average daily gain per .458 .319 .485 .284 .435 .181 lamb 30 days (a) (b) (a) (b) (a) (b) after birth. (a) The ewes received a ration of grain and alfalfa hay after lambing. (b) The ewes were continued on the same ration after lambing, as they had been receiving before lambing excepting the amount was increased. The results of the various feeding trials with corn stover carried on by the Missouri Experiment Station show that grain with corn stover as the only roughness is more satisfactory than the corn stover with a limited amount of clover hay. In both years of this experi- ment, the ewes were fed such amounts of grain and clover hay as was necessary to maintain them in thrifty, breeding condition. During the first year there was little difference in the two lots of lambs at birth. Afterwards when both lots were fed a ration of grain and alfalfa hay no great difference was noticeable. The second year, there was an appreciable difference in the condition and thrift of the lambs at birth in favor of the lambs in Lot XI (grain and corn stover). The lambs in Lot XI at the end of the first thirty days had made greater average daily gains and were uniformly a superior lot of lambs. Six of the ten ewes on the ration of corn stover and clover hay were unable to suckle their lambs the second year when the lots were continued on a ration of grain and corn stover. The first year Lot IV, which received grain, corn stover and clover hay produced lambs superior to those in Lot I. The second year the lambs in Lots XIV and XI were of practically the same quality and condition at birth. The ewes in Lot XIV receiving the ration of grain, clover hay and corn stover suckled their lambs a little better than did the ewes in Lot XI receiving a ration of grain and corn stover. This is indicated by the greater average daily gain made by the lambs in Lot XIV. RATIONS FOR BREEDING EWES 57 'he difference is not large. It would probably have been greater if grain ration of straight corn had been used. The conditions of this experiment made it necessary to feed the tover in racks. This method of feeding stover is not commonly . It is preferable to scatter the stover out on a pasture when- the weather and condition of the ground will permit it. It is intial for the health of the flock that the breeding ewes have an >pportunity to take plenty of exercise. When this method is fol- >wed the breeding ewes will take sufficient exercise to keep them in jood healthy condition. Also, by this method the labor of handling manure is avoided. GENERAL SUMMARY. Clover hay and grain proved more efficient as a ration for breed- ing ewes than timothy hay and grain. Clover hay alone was sufficient to maintain pregnant breeding ewes up to lambing time. After lambing^the* addition of grain to the ration proved advisable. PP Corn silage when fed with clover hay, with grain, and with both clover hay and grain, proved a slightly better roughage than corn stover fed with the same combination of grain and clover hay. Mouldy or extremely sour corn silage is a dangerous feed for sheep. Eleven ewes were lost in this experiment in one week from accidentally feeding mouldy silage. A ration of corn silage, clover hay and grain proved to be the most efficient means of utilizing silage. A ration of grain and corn stover gave very satisfactory re- sults when sufficient and proper kinds of concentrates were used. Corn stover, clover hay and grain proved to be the most satis- factory method of utilizing stover. Corn silage and stover both proved to be better roughages than timothy hay when fed with grain. ! PURDUE UNIVERSITY Agricultural Experiment Station No. 162, VOL. XVI NOVEMBER, 1912 FATTENING WESTERN LAMBS 1910-11 and 1911-12 \ I. Timothy Hay vs. Clover Hay for Fattening Lambs Part II. Corn Silage as a Roughage for Fattening Lambs Part III. The Effect of the Amount of Silage in a Ration for Fat- tening Lambs Part IV. Cottonseed Meal as a Supplement to Rations for Fatten- ing Lambs Published Dy the station: LAFAYETTE, INDIANA U. S. A. BOARD OF CONTROL ADDISON C. HARRIS, President Indianapolis, Marion County GEORGE ADE Brook, Newton County CHARLES DOWNING Greenfield, Hancock County SAMUEL M. FOSTER. Fort Wayne, Allen County CYRUS M. HOBBS Bridgeport, Marion County CHARLES MAJOR Shelbyville, Shelby County JOSEPH D. OLIVER South Bend, St. Joseph County ROYAL E. PURCELL Vincennes; Knox County WILLIAM V. STUART LaFayette, Tippecanoe County WINTHROP E. STONE, A. M., Ph. D President of the University STATION STAFF HEADS OF DEPARTMENTS ARTHUR Goss, M. S., A. C Director JOSEPH C. ARTHUR, D. Sc Chief in Botany GEORGE I. CHRISTIE, B. S. A Sup't Agricultural Extension ROBERT A. CRAIG, D. V. M Chief Veterinarian OTTO F. HUNZIKER, M. S Chief in Dairy Husbandry WILLIAM J. JONES, JR., M. S., A. C.1 State Chemist JOHN H. SKINNER, B. S Chief in Animal Husbandry JAMES TROOP, M. S Chief in Entomology ALFRED T. WIANCKO, B. S. A Chief in Soils and Crops CHARLES G. WOODBURY, M. S Chief in Horticulture ASSOCIATES AND ASSISTANTS JOHN B. ABBOTT, M. S , Associate in Soils EVELYN ALLISON, B. S Assistant in Botany JAMES C. BEAVERS, B. Agr Associate in Soils and Crops Extension REUBEN O. BITLER, B. S.4 Deputy State Chemist JESSE G. BOYLE, M. S Assistant in Horticulture RALPH E. CALDWELL, B. S Associate in Milk Production SAMUEL D. CONNER, M. S Associate Chemist in Soils and Crops CECIL W. CREEL, B. S.8 Entomological Assistant CLINTON O. CROMER, B. S Assistant in Crops CARLETON CUTLER, B. S.* Deputy State Chemist JOHN J. DAVIS, B. S.8 Entomological Assistant RALPH B. DEEMER, B. S.* Deputy State Chemist WILLIAM F. EPPLE, Ph. G Assistant in Dairy Chemistry MARTIN L. FISHER, M. S Associate in Crops RAE W. FLEMING, B. S Assistant in Serum Laboratory HENRY Fox, Ph. D.8 Entomological Assistant GEORGE M. FRIER, B. S. A Assistant in Agricultural Extension FREDERICK D. FULLER, M. S.* Chief Deputy State Chemist ROY L. GREENE, B. S.* Inspector State Chemist Department FRANK D. KERN, Ph. D Associate in Botany FRANKLIN G. KING, B. S Associate in Animal Husbandry JOHN W. MCFARLAND, B. S.* Inspector State Chemist Department HERMAN H. MADAUS, B. S Associate in Serum Production LOVINA S. MERiCK2 Assistant in Agricultural Extension HORACE C. MILLS, B. S Associate in Dairy Manufactures CLAYTON R. ORTON, B. S Assistant in Botany JOSEPH OSKAMP, B. S Assistant in Horticulture ALLEN G. PHILIPS, B. S. A Associate in Poultry Husbandry WILLIAM J. PHILLIPS, M. S.8 Entomology FRANCIS J. PIPAL, M. A Assistant in Botany EDWARD G. PROULX, M. S.4 Deputy State Chemist MORRIS W. RICHARDS, M. S Assistant in Horticulture OTIS S. ROBERTS, B. S.4 Chief Inspector State Chemist Department J. HOWARD ROOP, B. S.4 Deputy State Chemist HAROLD R. SMALLEY, B. S Assistant Chemist Soils and Crops GEORGE SPITZER, Ph. G., B. S Associate in Dairy Chemistry HERBERT B. SWITZER, B. S Assistant in Dairy Bacteriology DAVID O. THOMPSON, B. S Associate in Animal Husbandry Extension REX A. WHITING, D. V. M Associate in Animal Pathology NELLIE TRACY Secretary to the Director and Librarian MARY K. BLOOM Bookkeeper 1 In charge of Fertilizer and Feeding Stuff Control * Detailed by U. S. Dep't of Agriculture — Seed Testing •Detailed by U. S. Dep't of Agriculture — Cereal and Forage Crop Insect Investigations •Connected with Fertilizer and Feeding Stuff Control ADVISORY COMMITTEE (UNDER LEGISLATIVE ACT OF 19O9) T. A. COLEMAN, Rushville State Live Stock Association U. R. FISHEL, Hope State Poultry Fanciers' Association H. H. SWAIM, South Bend State Horticultural Society D. B. JOHNSON, Mooresville State Dairy Association D. F. MAISH, Frankfort ..,., -—,,,.... ....State Corn Growers' Association FATTENING WESTERN LAMBS 1910-11 and 1911-12 H. SKINNER F. G. KING SUMMARY PART I 1. Timothy hay in all rations where it was fed proved a very isatis factory feed for fattening lambs. 2. Lambs fed shelled corn and timothy hay were very un- irifty. 3. Lambs fed shelled corn and clover hay made more rapid id more economical gains than those fed shelled corn and timothy 4. A ration of shelled corn and clover hay produced better inish on lambs than a ration of shelled corn and timothy hay. 5. A ration of shelled corn, cottonseed meal and clover hay •oduced faster and more economical gains on fattening lambs than ration of shelled corn, cottonseed meal, and timothy hay. 6. Lambs fed shelled corn, cottonseed meal, and clover hay :quired a much better finish than others fed a ration of shelled >rn, cottonseed meal and timothy hay. PART II 7. The addition of corn silage once daily to a ration of lelled corn and clover hay did not affect, to any appreciable extent, le rate of gain on fattening lambs. 8. The addition of corn silage once daily to a ration of shelled >rn and clover hay slightly reduced the cost of gains on fattening imbs but did not greatly affect their selling value. 9. Lambs receiving silage once daily and clover hay once daily ite approximately the same quantity of hay as of silage. 10. The grain consumption was affected very little by the Idition of silage to a ration of corn and clover hay. 11. Lambs fed silage were never unhealthy and showed no un- favorable symptoms. 12. The addition of corn silage to a ration of shelled corn, )ttonseed meal and clover hay did not greatly affect the rate of tin nor the finish on the lambs but did effect a small saving in cost >f gain. in , 674 PART III 13. Lambs receiving rations of shelled corn, cottonseed clover hay and silage ate the same quantities of grain when sila was fed twice daily as when it was fed once daily. 14. Lambs receiving silage twice daily ate less hay than those receiving silage once daily. 15. Lambs fed silage twice daily made approximately t same gains as others fed silage once daily, but made cheaper gai and acquired a better finish. 1 6. No bad effects were produced by feeding lambs large quantities of silage. 17. The ration of shelled corn, cottonseed meal, clover hay, and corn silage proved to be the best of the seven rations fed in these trials. PART IV 18. The addition of cottonseed meal to a ration of shell corn and timothy hay increased the appetites of the lambs for both grain and hay. 19. The addition of cottonseed meal to a ration of shelled corn and timothy hay improved the thrift of the lambs; increased the rate of gain; decreased the cost of gain; and added greatly to the selling value of the lambs. 20. The addition of cottonseed meal to a ration of shelled corn and clover hay did not greatly affect the appetites of the lambs for either grain or hay. 21. The addition of cottonseed meal to a ration of shelled corn and clover hay slightly increased the rate of gain and added materially to the selling value of the lambs. 22. The addition of cottonseed meal to a ration of shelled corn and clover hay did not on the average of three trials affect the cost of gain when corn was as low as 40 cents per bushel but made slight decrease in cost of gain when corn was above 40 cents per bushel. 23. The addition of cottonseed meal to a ration of shelled corn, clover hay and corn silage had no effect on the roughage co sumption but slightly increased the grain consumption in one of t three trials. 24. The addition of cottonseed meal to a ration of shell corn, clover hay and corn silage slightly increased the rate of gal and added to the selling value of the lambs. 25. The addition of cottonseed meal to a ration of shelled corn, clover hay and corn silage did not affect the cost of gain when corn was valued at 50 cents per bushel but made a slight decrea in cost of gain when corn was above 50 cents per bushel. 675 INTRODUCTION The agricultural methods of the corn belt are in a state of ransition. The settlement of the government lands, thereby pre- senting much farther increase in acreage has given rise to the neces- sity of more intensive methods of farming than have been generally practiced in the past. With these intensive methods, the greatest -oblem is the maintenance of soil fertility. This in turn gives rise the necessity of better methods of live stock farming. Believing that the feeding of crops to live stock will, with in- >lligent methods, return greater profits to the farmer in the main- lance of soil fertility and as a means of marketing the products >f the farm than will any other system of farming, adaptable to rerage farm conditions in the corn belt, the Animal Husbandry apartment has been endeavoring to help solve some of the prob- is confronting the live stock feeders of the State. For several irs this station has been securing data on the best rations for fat- ling steers. In these feeding trials an effort has been made to mduct them under conditions as nearly as possible comparable *ith actual farm conditions. Inspection of and suggestions on the lethods of conducting the trials and of presenting the data have Iways been invited. In the fall of 1910, the investigations in stock feeding were [tended to cover the field of sheep and lamb feeding. Owing to ic fact that the results of a single trial are often misleading three :periments under as nearly the same conditions as possible and •ith the same rations were conducted before any results were pub- ished. The three trials with different rations reported in this bul- >tin were conducted under as nearly the same conditions as it was >ssible to place them. MARKET CONDITIONS. — The conditions of the live stock market luring the progress of these trials were not conducive to satisfactory inancial results. In the fall of 1910, the pasture conditions in the >rth\vest forced an exceptionally large number of sheep and lambs market. The large corn crop in the middle states induced such irge feeding operations that all the feeding lambs and sheep on ic market were absorbed at very high prices by feeder demand, le result of this heavy marketing and feeding was a very dull and insatisfactory market in the winter and spring for all classes of ;heep and lambs. The fall of 1911 also witnessed a heavy market- ig of western lambs but feeder demand was not as keen as in the >revious year. Fewer sheep were fed and prospects seemed good for a satisfactory margin in the feeding operation. The condition )f the experimental lambs, however, put them on the market before the promised raise in the market arrived and the feeding trials the >cond year showed little better financial returns than did those of the first year. 6;6 OBJECT The object of this work was to secure accurate data on the comparative value of the more common roughages of the farm and the advisability of using some concentrated commercial feeding stuff for fattening lambs. This includes comparisons between clover hay, timothy hay, and corn silage as roughages for fattening lambs and also shows the effect of adding cottonseed meal to rations of shelled corn and the different roughages mentioned above. PLAN The plan- of the work was to secure strong vigorous western lambs and discard the smaller ones until a uniform flock w; secured. This selected flock was divided into seven lots, equal ii size, condition, quality, thrift, and breeding. The lots were fed as follows : Lot I. Shelled corn, timothy hay. Lot 2. Shelled corn seven parts, cottonseed meal one part, timothy hay. Lot 3. Shelled corn, clover hay. Lot 4. Shelled corn seven parts, cottonseed meal one part, clover 'hay. Lot 5. Shelled corn, clover hay (morning) silage (evening). Lot 6. Shelled corn seven parts, cottonseed meal one part, clover hay (morning) and silage (evening). Lot 7. Shelled corn seven parts, cottonseed meal one part, clover hay (morning and evening) silage (morn- ing and evening). SHELTER, FEEDING YARDS, AND WATER SUPPLY. — The condi- tions surrounding the lambs were no better than those in an average feed lot. Each lot of twenty lambs was fed in an open shed 14 b] 1 6 feet facing south opening into a yard 14 by 28 feet. No pave- ment, cinders or stone was placed in either shed or yard. The shed was generally dry and no bedding other than the waste from the feed rack was used except on two occasions when the snow had drifted in badly. The yards were often muddy in wet weather. The lambs at all times had dry ground under cover on which to lie. The water was supplied from the West Lafayette Water Works in galvanized iron tubs. The water was renewed twice daily and the tubs were cleaned once daily. An attempt was made to keep fresh water before the lambs at all times but this was some- times difficult in the winter of 1911-12 on account of the water in the tubs freezing very quickly during the cold weather. 1677 WEIGHTS Weights were taken by lots on three consecutive days in 1910-11 t the beginning and end of the trials and every ten days during le progress of the trials. The average of the three consecutive weights at the beginning and end of the trial was used as the initial and final weights. In the two trials of 1911-12 individual veights in addition to lot weights were taken on three consecutive ays at the beginning and end of the trials and the averages of the hree weights used for initial and final weights. Individual and lot eights were taken every thirty days, and lot -weights every ten ys during the progress of the trials. The identity of each lamb as known by a numbered tag fastened to the ear. Weights were en in the morning after the lambs had finished eating. In 910-11 water was withheld on the morning the weights were taken, til after the lambs were weighed, but in 1911-12 no attempt was de to withhold water. Owing to a storm which wrecked the feeding plant and neces- itated the closing of the experiment at the end of fifty days the ndividual weights and three days weights were not taken at the nd of the experiment in the second trial of the series. METHOD OF FEEDING The method of feeding was the same in all lots in the three trials reported in this bulletin. Grain was fed at 6:00 a. m. and 4 130 p. in. under the shed in combination troughs and racks. The grain was weighed and when more than corn was fed, mixed in buckets before being scattered in the troughs. Grain was fed in such quantities as would be eaten before the lambs left the troughs. When starting on feed about one-fourth pound of oats per head was fed twice daily. After the lambs had learned to eat oats, small amounts of corn were added to the rations. Within eight or ten days the lambs were eating shelled corn readily and the oats were gradually dropped from the ration and cottonseed meal, where it was fed, added. After the lambs had cleaned up the grain, roughage was fed. Hay was fed twice daily to all lots, except Lots 5, 6, and 7, in such quantities as would be eaten before time for the next feed. Lots 5 and 6 received clover hay in the morning and corn silage in the evening. Lot 7 received corn silage twice daily and clover hay in the morning during the first trial and both morning and evening during the second and third trials. It was the intention to have all silage consumed within an hour after it was fed. 6;8 DESCRIPTION OF THE LAMBS The lambs used in the first trial, covering a period from October 21, 1910 to January 19, 1911, were choice Idaho lambs showing evidences of being a cross of Cots wold rams on fine- wooled ewes. These lambs were very rugged and thrifty but were only moderately smooth in conformation. They were purchased on the Chicago market October 10, 1910 for $6.50 per cwt. After being dipped under the supervision of the U. S. Government in- spectors, they arrived in Lafayette October 12, 1910. They were grazed on a field "of aftermath from a mixed clover and timothy meadow until the afternoon of October 19, when they were divided into lots for experiment. During the last few days on pasture they were fed small quantities of oats and hay. The lambs used in the second trial of the series extending from September 21 to November TO, 1911, were also bred in Idaho. and were a cross of Shropshire rams on fine-wooled foundation. These lambs were very uniform; in quality and color, all being black- er brown faced. They were of excellent quality and of low blocky conformation. They were purchased on the Chicago market Sep- tember 12, 1911 for $5.25 per cwt. After being dipped under Gov- ernment supervision, they were shipped to Lafayette, arriving Sep- tember 14, 1911. They were pastured on a field of aftermath from a mixed clover and timothy meadow until the afternoon of Septem- ber 18 when they were brought to the experimental pens and divided into lots for feeding. The lambs used in the trial extending from December n, 1911 to February 19, 1912 were bred in Idaho and were the product of Hampshire rams on fine-wooled ewes. These lambs were very rugged and heavy boned and graded "choice" but not very uniform in size. They were purchased on the Chicago market November 2, ion, for $5.00 per cwt. The U. S. Government had suspended dipping on November 2; hence these lambs were shipped to Lafayette without dipping. On arrival at Lafayette, November 3, the lambs were given all the hay they would r all of the following feeds : shelled corn, cottonseed meal, clover ly, timothy hay, and corn silage. The corn fed in the first two •ials was old corn and of excellent quality. The corn fed in the lird trial was a little too high in moisture content to grade as fo. 2. Also the grain showed some sign of rotting due to the wet reather in the autumn of 1911. The cottonseed meal was of 'Choice" grade guaranteed to contain 41 per cent, crude protein id 8 per cent. fat. The clover and timothy hay used was pure id almost all of good quality, only a very small part of it being of iferior quality or moldy. It was at all times readily eaten by the imbs. The silage was made from corn produced on the college farm, taking about 65 bushels per acre in 1910 and 38 bushels per acre 1911, the yield of silage being thirteen and seven tons per acre ispectively. The corn was well matured when put into the silo. In [910, about two-thirds of the husks and one-third the blades were >rown when put into the silo. This produced a silage containing approximately 29 per cent, dry matter. In 1911, practically all the )lades were dry but the stalks contained a high per cent, of moisture For such an advanced stage of the blades. The silage in 191 1-12 con- tained approximately 35 per cent, of dry matter. Care was taken it all times that no moldy or spoiled silage was fed. 68o PRICES OF FEEDS The prices of feeds are based on the prices at the time the experiments were conducted. In the trial beginning October 19, 1910, corn is valued at 40 cents per bushel, cottonseed meal at $30.00 per ton, clover hay at $10.00 per ton, timothy hay at $12.00 per ton and corn silage at $3.00 per ton. This valuation for silage allows 75 cents per ton for harvesting, 25 cents per ton for the stover con- tained in a ton of silage and 40 cents per bushel for the corn. In the trial beginning September 21, 1911, clover hay is valued at $15.00 per ton; timothy hay at $18.00 per ton; and corn silage at $4.00 per ton. In the trial beginning December n, 1911, clover hay is valued at $18.00 per ton, timothy hay $20.00 per ton, and corn silage $4.00 per ton. In the trial beginning September 21, 1911, corn is valued at 63 cents per bushel. In the trial beginning Decem- ber n, 1911, corn is valued at 56 cents per bushel. The above prices are used in all financial statements. All financial statements are based on the principle that the value of the manure offsets «the cost of feeding. For purposes of correlating all trials, feeds are valued, except in the item of actual costs, at uniform prices. Clover hay is valued at $10.00 per ton, timothy hay $12.00 per ton, and corn silage $3.50 per ton, oats at 40 cents per bushel and cottonseed meal at $30.00 per ton. Corn is valued at 40 cents, 50 cents, and 60 cents per bushel. These values are used for purposes of uniformity in com- parisons of different trial's and not for figuring financial results. PART I TIMOTHY HAY vs. CLOVER HAY FOR FATTENING LAMBS In many parts of Indiana the ease with which a stand of tim- othy is secured and with which the hay is cured has led to a large use of this roughage for stock feeding. In many sections timothy was formerly a standard roughage for all classes of animals. The practice of feeding timothy hay to meat producing animals is, how- ever, gradually becoming less common on account of the superior feeding qualities and lower price of other forms of roughage. Th< superiority of leguminous roughages like clover hay, alfalfa hay, cowpea hay, etc., over timothy hay and other roughages of the same nature has been conclusively shown in numerous trials with fatten- ing cattle. Very little data is available, however, for information on their comparative value for fattening lambs or sheep. This trial was planned to obtain some of these essential data. Lots of lambs as nearly equal in every respect at the beginning of the trials were fed on rations of shelled corn and timothy hay, and of shelled coi and clover hay. The results of the trials are shown in Table I. 68 1 « rf <3 <* cq oo cq CO rH co cq -«*i t- LO !>; CO 00 OS CO CO •^ os co cq 0 CO I PI OS LO TH TH CO* -"d" CO Tj" LO CO •» LO ?' * 5 TH CO LO cq os cq co TH 0 OS ss co o «>• rt< OO OS t>- CO g 1 Iq OS LO 00 LO cq cq LO co OO LO oo cq CO*TH LO s T3 ^ M os LO CO CO CO Tt< TH ^_ cq co o tr- CO i— i C3 ^ c^q LO C* co co s o d ^ IB| TjJ C 06 os LO I TH o -« M ^ t- CO co cq TH -^i CO 0 rj< oo o 0 TJJ cq o os t- 00 CO 0 LO O£H «3 PI OS LO cc5 tr- rH iH iH CO Tj* CO' -^ LO LO ^05-0 * LO 0 LO 0 CO OO OO rj< l> O \^ ^ c3*S TH TjH CO cq os o co oo co LO cq o ** •"S ^ o OS OS O TH TJH TjJ OS CO l> 00 S1 CD fi*J LO CO TH 69- S g . 0 LO LO cq co os co cq co co ^ oo cq os os co cq LO LO CJ *T* t-( ^ CO LO OS r-i r-i CO Tji TjJ rji LO CO LO osf ggl oo cq <«• ^go -o .^" oo OS t- rH CO TH rj< CO rt< LO LO W OJ p"^ 10 CO 00 TH O OO Tt< LO Tl< CO TH 1 l«i LO CO t> t>- iH T-i LO ^ co co t> 06 LO I | 2 d 1 7! CQ QQ CQ 333 CQ I 1 s A d ^ .S oj d *3 bo hn ® oS 0 M a ft ft 1 S '5) bO «w •a £ oi m m *0 1 1 "3 ^ * s, 73 d .2 '3 I III O 0) 1 I'll 0) 1—1 o "o "o o 0 000 TH .— i ^ LO CO fel S g S ^d 8 8 8 CO o y the lambs was a good criterion of the feeding value of the two Masses of roughage. At the end of the first trial, the lambs fed timothy hay were valued 40 cents per cwt. less than those fed :lover hay. In the last trial (the second trial was discontinued before values could be taken) the difference in selling value was cents per cwt. The lambs fed timothy hay were in little bet- ter than good feeding condition when sold, while those fed clover hay carried very good finish. IORN, COTTONSEED MEAL AND TIMOTHY HAY vs. CORN, COTTON- SEED MEAL AND CLOVER HAY Further comparisons between timothy and clover hay were made when a nitrogenous concentrate in the form of cottonseed meal was added to both rations. One pound of this commercial feed was fed for every seven pounds of corn. The addition of this feed which is high in protein assisted greatly to balance the ration of corn and timothy hay but it also had a somewhat beneficial effect on the ration of corn and clover. The marked superiority of clover hay over timothy was almost as evident in this series, of trials as when no cottonseed meal was fed. Table II shows the comparison of the following rations: Shelled corn, cottonseed meal and timothy hay; Shelled corn, cottonseed meal and clover hay. 684 |gj|l| CO 0 l> CO 10 CO cq TI< cq oo LO O rH 00 05 rH CO O5 -^ O LO CO t- 05 •TjH Tf r-i rH CO rj* cd T}" id co" id sf "°S" id cd t> id a Irfl^-S to ^ 00 oo CO t- cq co LO O5 OO LO O5 t- oo cq co rJH 05 LO 0 CO i.i |5|«fli cq* CO O5 00 CO ^ rH rH CO CO t^ Tj" LO CO id 2|o * 1 co cq O O5 CO O5 CO CO LO 1-1 s^ ^ fi1 o 'O ^"^5 o CO CO rH O cq LO cq o oo co CO CJ ^ tH -M g ^j O CO oo' id " rH rH id n" o t> t> oo id • o 111 CO t> rH rH 9 •8 -* ~-S cq 00 CO CO CO rH cq 0 Tt< CO t- o cq t- cq 10 t- > ^ ^ssif i O5 id cd rH rH rH co' «*<' cd ^' id id oS* CC o ° ssg TJ ' >• 00 0 CO CO CO O LO LO TJ« . N— ' r5* C3* O 7? 'S -5 to t^» cq cq 0 0 LO !>• 10 cq t- cq ft ai CO ^ rH rH CO CO t> id id cd « 10 t^. .rH OR Ls leibiS « o£ "5 a O SS§ S« rH CO o 00 O5 O* CO co CO t>- 05 cq co rH rH* 0 CO t> 0 CO ^ CO rH CO rH o rH co cq id id id cd 10 CO id t]go S A * O5 t- rH rH OO O5 IO O5 CO o X-/ ,2 fl O ^ ^ 4^ ( CO rH LO cq 05 CO 0 co -* o tr- LO 1 I81S§I 10 LO cq* 00 CO rH Tl" CO io id cd cd LO f CD O CP rd ^ rd 3 1 . d E •"• CQ OQ 03 « 2 1 i 1 CD a a s d 8 rn t-l *1 t-l Q) CD (U a a a S e 1 § «M "* bO «M d 3 3 3 Q « 1 s 1 rt '3 d o a 0 o rH 0 0 O 000 ^ Tj< LO CO O o 3 'd 1—4 'S d £ 0) .3 § Average ( III 1 cD-S 'ei a o o o o d o o o GO o 0 d s r^H ^ w 685 In this series of trials no great difficulty was experienced in keeping the lambs on feed as was the case when corn and timothy without cottonseed meal were fed. The lambs fed timothy relished their grain at all times but had poor appetites for hay. It is noted that there was little difference in the grain eaten by the lambs of these lots ; and what difference there was, was largely in the last trial in which the lambs were very thin at the beginning. The difference in the roughage consumption, however, was almost as marked as when no cottonseed meal was fed. The lambs in the three trials ate 47 per cent, more of clover than of timothy hay. An examination of the table shows that in each of the three trials the lambs receiving timothy hay made less gain than those receiving clover hay. The average daily gain per lamb for the three trials was .268 pound when corn, cottonseed meal, and timothy hay comprised the ration and .353 pound when corn, cottonseed meal and clover hay were fed. This shows an increase of 32 per cent, in rate of gain by the use of "a leguminous instead of a non-leguminous roughage. The cost of gain with feeds at actual prices at time of experi- ment showed 33 cents per hundred pounds to be the least difference between the two roughages and in one case the difference was $2.76 per hundred pounds gain in favor of clover hay. The average of the experiments shows a difference in cost, with corn at 40 cents per bushel, of 87 cents per hundred pounds gain, and with corn at 60 cents per bushel of $1.12 per hundred pounds. As has been pre- viously mentioned, these markedly poor results with timothy hay are due to its unpalatability and to its lack of food nutrients with which to balance a grain ration of corn. The poor feeding value of timothy hay is more strongly emphasized when it is noted that the difference in finish on the lambs was so great that in the first trial, the lambs fed timothy hay were valued at 15 cents per hun- dred pounds and in the last trial 47^2 cents per hundred pounds less than those fed clover hay. From the results of these trials which include six direct com- parisons between timothy and clover hay it is evident that the former roughage is far inferior to the latter for fattening lambs, and should not be used for this purpose except in extraordinary cases. When fed with corn alone, the effect of timothy hay on the thrift of the lambs was harmful. Little finish was added to the lambs. The high cost of this hay also tends to prohibit its use even if the feeding value were much higher. Considered as a whole, the feeding of lambs with timothy hay as the only form of roughage is to be discouraged, and this is especially true when corn alone is the grain ration to be used. 686 PART H CORN SILAGE AS A ROUGHAGE FOR FATTENING LAMBS Part II of this bulletin is a report on the study of the value of rations containing corn silage with other rations similar in every respect except that they contained no silage. Silage has long been considered by dairymen as indispensable and has of late years come to be considered as one of the principal factors operating to keep the beef cattle industry in a prominent position in the corn belt. Clover hay as a feed for fattening lambs has long been appreci- ated, but the corn stalk has not been utilized in such a manner that the highest value has been received for the nutrients therein con- tained. It has long been known that approximately 40 per cent, of the dry matter of the corn plant is found in the stalk. This material is in such condition when cured as stover that a comparatively small per cent, of the actual food nutrients are used by the animal. When the corn plant is harvested by being put into, a silo, it passes through a process of fermentation that renders the hard woody portions of the plant soft and palatable and preserves the succulence of the green feed in such a manner that almost the same effects on the animal are produced by this feed as by a luxuriant pasture. The exceedingly good results secured by feeding corn silage to fattening cattle led to trials to test the value of this roughage for fattening lambs. In view of the fact that there are many reports of injury to sheep by molded silage, great care was taken to prevent any spoiled silage from being offered to the lambs. While no bad results were experienced during these trials from feeding silage to sheep or lambs, reports from feeders who have fed silage exten- sively indicate that care must be taken in order to prevent injury from feeding moldy or very acid silage to sheep. THE VALUE OF CORN SILAGE FED WITH SHELLED CORN AND CLOVER HAY The effect of adding corn silage once daily to a ration of shelled corn and clover hay is shown in Table III. In the three trials reported clover hay was fed in the morning and corn silage in the evening. The former roughage was fed in such quantities as would be consumed before time for the next feed and the latter in such quantities as would be eaten within an hour or an hour and a half. A full feed of shelled corn was given twice daily after the first few days. Oats were fed for the first few days while the lambs were, being taught to eat corn. Table III gives comparisons of the fol- lowing rations : Shelled corn, and clover hay; Shelled corn, clover hay and corn silage. 68; TJ CO eg 05 o Tt< oo o o a* t~ ao o . Jd'&S CD eg CO CO rH OS OS CO 00 01 t~ co eg os s^ IMl os" IO eg 00 eg* ' r-i eg co eg* eg* IO ^ IO IO eo- B*8 eg co rH C~ IO OO OS CO CO .jj s c* « ** eg oo co eg •* ^T °? Tt< os co eg "^00 •C £) •— • OS 10 eg" oo eg" r-i r-i eg CO Tj* CD" T)" id co •9- .s V ^ '£ , OS £ s Is SI rH <« rH CO OO O co co eg t- eg CD IO IO 00 ^_ t- rH •* O IO OS t^ rjn O IO co -r - '-^1 Isli CO CD id 00 <*> r-i " rH eg co eg co CD TJ* id CO id f z — ~ eg '~~~ ~~* ^ ^c 'O LJ eg 10 co 00 10 oo eg co ^ IO ^-^ ^ cj ^ OS IO CO CO CO ^ eg co o t~ CO 111 eg" CD id 00 8" ^ ^*^ oo id CD co id rt " X w .1: i P|e -o T .. ig > « CD CO OS rH CD eg t^ eg o os oo eg c- as Tt< eg t~ rH oo eg CD OS t^ CO OO E c ^ x0^ OS 10 t~ rH co" co eg* cd n" id id fc. >» •^ - — S3 ' Z - ~ i — q "'o CO <* c- eg rH rt< CO CO O rt< oo o 0 ^ eg o os t- OO CD O IO |j| S ~ !ii OS IO id CD i-i T-i rH CO "1* cd TJH id id - T3 . t^w « cj o> sm r-l OS eg Tt< CO CO O oq co eg os oo c- eg TJ< CO 00 CO ^ 10 t- os •>^ 10 rH tr-; CD i o ' liil CD IO CO 00 O r-i * ' CO co eg* eg" •** rt* id id id -j ^i DO - 0 « /' _ ^ 0 > 7 1 ~ ~. TJ .. V, O IO eg co os 10 co eg co CO TJI oo eg eg t- eg t- os os co eg 1C -: jj Q III CD" 10 id 00 c^ ^ CO' Tl" T(H ^i IO CO* id - cc s- 02 _r -4-J ^o T & "S C - I III O) «M d Z^ 02 02 02 — a 1 « ft d QJ d 'I S 3 3 d ? Q) |j fe M ft ft ft 0 1 ! — bfl cw ""O o* • • • ^3 pt - - 1 M S •& S ri ^ o ft 000 0 000 ,H ^-, •* 10 CO "3 ; - "5 "eS fe o o -| ^ w> a ui g) g §,« r-i ^ ^ W -C5 '!» • rH O 4^ «SII OJ 5 tn ^H S ft 0 O O O ^ cd 0 0 0 • > !• M S ' 'S 1— 1 S 00 ^ ^ 0 reviously discussed except that all rations contained cottonseed leal in the proportion of one part of this feed to seven parts of :orn. The kind of lambs used, method of feeding, and other de- tails were the same as in the trials previously noted. Table IV shows comparison of the following rations : Shelled corn, cottonseed meal, and clover hay ; Shelled corn, cottonseed meal, clover hay, and corn silage. 690 0> $ •g "fl^K'gl, ^ > s 2 .2^ « ^ (^ ^ ^ iH rH CO -rj" CO -rt* LO CO o3 K •G 8"S M 6-3 LO OO CM (M S T3 A „ £ qj -2 a o ^ "3 « w 00 tr— CN| t^ LO CO rH OS O co t> cq OS 0 00 •<*< rH rH os o cq co cq LO o LO 0 00 O ^£ ^ "« gi^ « * o— CN* OO CO rH ' T-l co cq co CD ^ LO LO to u «88 *«« CD 00 C\l 6^ "eS §• ssg IfiMS 00 CO TjH 00 CO CO LO OS OO LO OS t- oo cq co •^ os to o to 00 y ^ O 4^ ^ rt O CsJ OS CO rH rH CO CO t>* Tj* LO CD to -O q ^ o o OT S *3 co oo cq M- (U OJ C/3 I o lel-silS rH CO -^ rH CO rH CO CO 0 05 00 CO OS OS T— 1 OS LO LO CO C~ rH ^ CO 0 to •£ ^ OS LO CO rH co cq cq CO Tl* LO LO 6 «s, rrj O rH * fl?3 -W G£ ^JOi-a "• 0 rH T-i CO '^ LO LO LO CO to *"o V rC § Q * y >— - LO OO CO ae- c o CC c> o3 13 ^S M M W .rH d g 1 1 d 02 "1 g C3 P n .2 t 1 Q< ft ft o a > M fill «M § ^3 0 1 o a ,2 « « a o ^°^ 0 o <=> 0 TH ,_ T}< LO CO *o O5 LO CO rH CO LO^LOLO g£ CO V rr- J- •. CM rH -* CO CO CM CO Tt< CD O5 t* fl* O 'O 'rtf 02 til) S ^* CM ^^ CM CO CM O5 O5 LO CO l> <1 *3 a ij S0 ^,5 ^^ oi CO •*& rH co CM' CM LO TjH LO LO **? H*v* LO oo CM •fr Cb •Sat'c^SS'R oo oo 0 LO OO CO rH O5 O CO CO t^ rH 00 CM 00 O rH CM rH LO O LO c r- • rgf-H+J^q^^Oa'C ^3 CM oi j^. rH * r-i CO rH Tji CD Tj5 LO LO cc !ti gSg^s-i^e-o CO 00 CM €«- F* i 00 oo LO 00 (>• co rH O5 O CO O; CM rH ' rH 05 0 00 ^ T-H rH co' CM' co O5 O CM CO CM LO O LO CO ^J LO LO c oc ir: s > O ^. 523 . >> o S * 0 05" 1O 00 OO id rH 10 rH CO rH CO CM O t> Tj< rH " i-i O rH O5 CM CO -^ co" CM' T}5 05 CO rH CD CO CO rH LO CD Tj5 LO LO +i5s'd rH T-H ^ i ^ CM rH CD CO CO O5 O5 LO CO t- rH • \3 ^ fl'o'O'^fe SS^ CO •^ rH CO O O5 OO rH O5 LO T* CD 0 LO •£ ^f-t-fJ^^^-OSfl^ O5 LO CD rH CO CM CM CO ^5 LO 10 o *Q S"c ^ 2(5*^ o ^ LO t^ rH M- CO CQ « «M 01 _ J* « CD LO 05 OO LO 0 CO O5 CO CO t- CD t- CM l> O rH ' rH 10 CO CD !>• CM rH CO CM CO* CD O5 rfl O CO t> CO O5 •«^* ^ id id 0 00 oo-o o> o ^ '?~C) • M" ® QJ'-N a S5'S'* > aa~ rH CO CM 0 CO CO b- !>• O CM 05 00 rH O O O OO O5 Ttl co' CM' CM' CM CO O5 CO 05 C5 LO rH •* id id cd LO LO o ^O-^^aOl^ oS LO 00 CO M- O w«§ v* 03 0 •d I ^ "a" 0) S a ,0 ,0 rQ CO 03 2 _, S 'S O) O) ^* r** ^ M r-H 0 0 O s ^_> | S ? O ft § 000 _ ^ LO CD 5 £ '5 t-, 0) 0) bo g _. O .2 W) ll&l . 50 r£3 03 ft 3 M a d "o o o o c^ o p cp tuo ri *l~t rH •S o> 0) O 01 ^ *i3 •S o3 ^ t> • 0 w M t— 1 fe o rne in mind that cattle receiving silage once daily consume from ro to four times as much silage as hay and when receiving a full feed of silage about five to seven times as much silage as hay. The iverage of three trials shows that practically the same quantities if silage and hay were eaten when both were fed once daily. When silage was fed twice daily, less than two pounds of this roughage eaten for every pound of clover hay consumed. In other rords, lambs receiving all the silage they will eat will still continue iting comparatively large quantities of hay. It will be noted from the table that the difference in the grain 'quired to make a pound of gain in any trial was very small. There a considerable difference in the roughage required to make a >und of gain. On an average, 1.19 pounds of silage replaced .55 )und of clover hay in the feed required to make a pound of gain. This slight difference in feed requirement per pound of gain made 'ittle difference in cost of gain but what difference appeared was favor of the larger quantity of corn silage. The greatest and least. saving in cost was 26 cents and 6 cents respectively per hun- Ired pounds gain. When the average is taken with feed at normal •ices, there was but 10 cents per hundred pounds difference in cost )f gain between the two rations. There was a marked difference in the finish on the lambs pro- luced by the two rations. In the two trials wherein the final values >f the lambs were secured by lots, there was 5 cents per cwt. in me trial and 30 cents per cwt. in the other trial in favor of the irger quantity of silage. This difference in finish was as noticeable 694 after the carcasses were dressed as it was while on foot; the car- casses of the lambs fed silage twice daily being more plump and more nearly covered with fat than those fed silage once daily. PART IV COTTONSEED MEAL AS A SUPPLEMENT TO RATIONS FOR FATTENING LAMBS The results of the experiments discussed have shown clearly that the use of some kind of leguminous hay such as clover is far superior to the non-leguminous hays such as timothy. One of the chief reasons for the superiority of the clovers over the grasses is that the former contains a much higher per cent, of protein than the latter. Experiments in large numbers are practically unanimous in proving that in order for an animal to make the most rapid gains, the food nutrients in its ration must be in the proportion to each other in which the body of the animal makes use of them. Numerous trials have shown that our principal grain, corn, does not contain protein in sufficient quantities to fully meet the demands of the animal body. Economic conditions are such, however, that corn must continue in the future as it has been in the past to be the mainstay of the livestock industry in the corn-belt. The relative price of feeds has often been such that it was most profitable to feed a ration deficient in protein rather than expend cash for sup- plementary feeds. The high price of corn and other feeding stuffs has of recent years drawn more attention to the question of adding protein in some form to the corn. Since the physiological effect on the animal has long been understood, the present investigations are largely based on the economic questions of relative cost of feeds and the effect on the financial side of the transaction. In these trials cottonseed meal has been fed as the supplement in all cases because it seems to be the most satisfactory source of protein available to feeders in quantities large enough to meet the demand should its use ever assume large proportions. THE EFFECT OF ADDING COTTONSEED MEAL TO A RATION OF SHELLED CORN AND TIMOTHY HAY The experiments to determine the advisability of 'adding cotton- seed meal to a ration of corn and timothy hay were planned to throw some light on the question of adding a concentrated feed, high in protein, to rations in which both the concentrates and rough- age fed are lacking in this food nutrient. Timothy hay, like corn and like the straws and corn stover and hays from grasses is- defi- cient in protein. In a ration of corn and a non-leguminous hay, the addition of a commercial protein feed would have a much more marked effect than when a leguminous hay is fed with corn. It is in such rations as those in this trial where a commercial protein feed produces the best results. The result of the addition of cotton- seed meal to a ration of shelled corn and timothy hay is shown in Table VI. 695 OO r rQ ' ^ CO t>OO COCO COlOOiCO - V H g" § 'S "3 ^ •^ iH b- C"5 *^ ; P 01 cqco cjs^t1 coot>Tr< -• j> 'S *"^-* ^ CO LO i~) O OS OQ OO OO OS t^* CO 3 <5 ^ S "o OSOqcO rH* LO'*" OOCOt-^OO i 18I LO C- T-l ««- : a **!«--£ COM OOS COOSCOCO lO C> CO CO CNI r-HO MLO (TQOOOCO CO : tf I8|uj COOC5LO rHrH LOTj5 Ot^t>OOLO i 1 ~ |B-5 to to t~ osco coco t- LO * ^> J >^ ^ 'S -T-^ rHTt !~ liM OS t-iH iHOO OSLOCTSCO O Looq'co r-i * -<*co LOLOCOCOLO LO oo • irq ««- - ^ 1-3 ^ >, "-< « ' S '-:- ^T* +»Sro OO : j =3S§ "0 -^ OS I>»T—( COrH TfiCO'^'LO lO LOCOOOrH OOO rJHiH rJ ^ , : 1 So) f> CJ O *S H t i jv. rh ^ ^ [Vj (^ 02 696 The results of these trials are typical in showing the effect of adding a high protein concentrate to a ration in which corn is fed with a roughage containing a low per cent, of protein. The most noticeable effect was on the appetites of the lambs. The lambs fed the ration not containing supplement had delicate appetites. It was difficult at all times to keep them on feed. The longer they continued on feed, the more difficult it became to prevent their going "off feed." The lambs receiving cottonseed meal, on the other hand, ate grain well at all times although they did not relish their hay. Table VI shows that in all trials, the grain consumption was larger when a supplement was fed, and the average of three trials shows approximately 15 per cent, increase in the quantity of grain eaten as well as a slight increase in the quantity of hay eaten, due to the addition of cottonseed meal. The rate of gain is a very good indication of the feeding value of the two rations. In the first trial, the lambs fed corn and timothy hay gained 17.8 pounds per head and those fed cottonseed ireal in addition to corn gained 26.5 pounds per head. In the second trial the lambs fed the former ration gained 10.3 pounds per head and those on the latter gained 14.2 pounds. The gains made in the last trial were 12.4 pounds and 15.6 pounds per head respectively. The average gain per lamb was increased in the average of three trials, from 13.5 pounds to 18.7 pounds or approximately 39 per cent., by the addition of cottonseed meal. The cost of gains was greatly decreased by the addition of cottonseed meal to the ration. The grain required to make a pound of gain was decreased from 5.29 pounds to 4.36 pounds by the addition of the nitrogenous concen- trate, while the hay required per pound gain was decreased from 4.84 pounds to 3.66 pounds. This saving of feed resulted in a de- crease in cost of gain varying from $1.05 per cwt. gain in the first trial to $2.18 per cwt. gain in the second trial. The average saving on the actual cost of gain was $1.60 per hundred pounds. When timothy hay is figured at a normal price of $12.00 per ton and clover hay of $10.00 per ton there would be a saving on each hundred pounds of gain of $1.05 when corn is 40 cents per bushel; $1.28 when corn is 50 cents per bushel; and $1.51 when corn is worth 60 cents per 'bushel. The lambs fed the unsupplemented ration were in no case in very much better than feeder condition when the trials ended. The selling value of the lambs was increased 35 cents per cwt. in the first trial and 32^ cents in the last trial by the addi- tion of the cottonseed meal. 697 'HE EFFECT OF ADDING COTTONSEED MEAL TO A RATION OF SHELLED CORN AND CLOVER HAY The well known efficiency of the clovers as a means of bal- icing a ration of corn has led to its general use in lamb feeding, [evertheless, the practice of feeding some form of concentrated •otein feed has become so general that, in many instances feeders >nsider its use profitable even when a leguminous hay is fed. These •ials were planned to throw light on this subject. In all lots fed, ic cottonseed meal was fed in the proportion of one part of this jed to seven parts of corn. Both hay and grain were fed accord- ig to the appetites of the lambs. The kind of lambs and the method conducting the experiment was the same as in the other trials lentioned. Table VII on the following page shows the effect of add- ig cottonseed meal to a ration of shelled corn and clover hay. Table VII shows that the addition of cottonseed meal to a ition of corn and clover hay had very little effect on the appetites the lambs. At no time during the trials did any of these ibs show a tendency to go "off feed" and the difference be- reen the eagerness with which the lambs of the two lots ate their was practically negligible. The rate of gain was very slightly icreased by the use of cottonseed meal. This increase in gain lounted to 1.4 pounds per lamb in the first trial; .3 pound in the :ond, and 4.2 pounds in the third, or an average of 1.9 pounds, ic result of this slight increase in rate of gain was to decrease le feed required to make a pound of gain in corresponding pro- )rtions. The average of the trials shows a saving of 25 pounds >f grain and 27 pounds of hay per hundred pounds gain by the Idition of a supplement. The high price of the cottonseed meal icreased the cost of gain in the first trial, when corn was worth cents per bushel, 14 cents per hundred pounds ; but, in the last ro trials, the cost of gain was less when the supplement was fed. 'he table on cost shows that with corn at 40 cents per bushel, the )st of gain was practically the same in both lots when the average >f three trials is considered, but with corn above this price there a saving effected by the use of cottonseed meal. The .selling lue of the lambs in the two trials where final values were secured lowed an increased value of the lambs fed the supplemented ration >f 10 cents per cwt. in the first trial and 17^ cents per cwt. in the ist trial. EFFECT OF ADDING COTTONSEED MEAL TO A RATION OF SHELLED CORN, CLOVER HAY AND CORN SILAGE The saving of the roughage produced by the corn plant by con- certing it into corn silage necessitates feeding this product to live tock on the farm or immediate vicinity in which the corn is grown, 'he feeding of corn silage complicates the question of what is best 698 $ CO oi o t-; CO LO CO r-i TH eg oo rH oo os TH LO O CO OS Tt< O CO TJH CO •* LO CO ll LO 00 eg M- p •0 M « ^ 00 LO eg CO CO rH t- LO OO OS CO CO t- co TJH os co eg lil OS 10 00 eg rH rH co ^ cd Ti" id co oo (>• eg os oo t- oo eg co 10 eg rH """ d o -a ~~ ® CO ^ 00 CO CO LO LO OS rJH OS LO O • r-3 r-i 4J QJ 5? P* eg OS CO rH rH co" co* • c^ •* id cd 2 o!?I £S|£a| CO 00 a^l 3*« OS LO CO eg CO LO CO CO "*• oo 10 oo eg co •* TH •* eg co o t- LO «o ' c3 ^ r^ rt eg id CsJ rH rH ^t -^ QQ to co cd id Q «3| CO 00 eg ee- 0 CO rH eg co b- t~ eg LO t- i ^ CJ § T1 *""^ ® eg oo CO CO 0 ^ o eg t-- t-- TH LO t> ^5 *H ^3 O> ^ ^ OS id CO r-i rH CO* Tj* CO rt" id LO 5 '«' 1-1 **• £§!»s| 10 t- TH M 0 > o;5SSS ^ ^ ft W) bO s rt* ft S ea n"o ooo bJO .2 "3 d i ilage which itself is lacking in protein, the ration is widened when jually it should be narrowed. It has been found with cattle, that best results with silage cannot be secured unless protein in some mcentrated form is used, because clover hay is replaced to such extent by corn silage that the influence of the dry roughage as a leans of balancing the ration is very slight. The effect of adding ttonseed meal to a ration of corn, clover hay and corn silage for ittening lambs is shown in Table VIII on the following page. One mnd of cottonseed meal was fed for every seven pounds of corn, these trials, grain was fed according to the appetites of the lambs. [ay was fed in the morning in such quantities as would be consumed ifore time for the next feed. Silage was fed at the evening feed such quantities as would be consumed within approximately an lour. Table VIII shows that the addition of a nitrogenous supple- nit did not in the first two trials affect the appetites of the lambs for grain but that in the third trial where larger quantities of silage -ere consumed, it increased the quantity of grain eaten. The quan- ity of roughage consumed was not affected by the cottonseed meal the ration. The rate of gain was more rapid in the first trial when no ipplement was fed, the total gain being greater by .7 pound per im'b. 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If aS !$T3 ! -M revious trials have shown a high comparative efficiency for corn >ilage. The results are shown in Table I. The first feed given the lambs on November 5 consisted in Lot 3 of seven pounds of oats md 25 pounds of hay twice daily. The hay consumption did not increase above this amount. On the second day the quantity of its fed was raised to eight pounds twice daily per lot. On the ifth day two pounds of shelled corn were added to the ration and m the sixth day the corn was increased to three pounds twice daily lot, and the oats decreased to seven pounds twice daily per lot. 'he corn gradually replaced the oats until at the end of ten days, to pounds of corn, no oats, and 25 pounds of clover hay were fed twice daily. The quantity of corn was then raised to 12 pounds rice daily and remained at this amount for thirty days when it was lised to 14 pounds twice daily per lot. On January i the corn raised to 16 pounds twice daily where it remained until the end >f the trial. The hay in Lot 3 remained at 25 pounds twice daily >er lot until the end of twenty-seven days when it dropped to 22 mnds twice daily and remained at this figure for twenty-eight lys when it was again reduced and remained at approximately 21 Hinds twice daily per lot until the end of the trial. In Lot 6, iven pounds of oats, 10 pounds of silage and 15 pounds of hay fed twice daily beginning with the trial. The oats were grad- lally increased and changed and replaced by corn as noted in Lot 3. "he hay consumed remained at 15 pounds for sixty days when it ras necessary to reduce the quantity fed. With a few changes, 12 mnds twice daily per lot was the quantity of hay consumed after ic end of sixty days. On the fifth day the silage was increased to 12 pounds per feed and two days later to 15 pounds per feed. On the thirteenth day, it was increased to 18 pounds twice daily and on the twenty-fifth day to 20 pounds per feed where it remained mtil the sixty-third day when it was again decreased to 15 pounds where it remained until the end of the trial. 902 TABLE I. — Corn and Clover Hay vs. Corn, Clover Hay, and Corn Silage for Fattening Lambs, November 5, 1914 to February 3, 1915 Lot 3 Lot 6 RATION Shelled corn, clover Shelled corn, clover, silage Average initial weight 56.6 Ibs. 56.6 Ibs. Average final weight 84.0 86.0 Gain per lamb 27.4 29.4 Average daily gain .304 .327 " Average daily feed per lamb grain 1.08 1.08 " hay 1.81 1.12 " silage 1.38 " Feed per pound gain grain 3.56 " 3.31 " hay 5.93 " 3.43 " silage 4.23 " Cost per 100 Ibs. gain $8.62 $7.41 Selling value of lambs in feed lots 8.60 8.65 Profit per lamb .64 1.04 Table I shows that the grain consumed was the same in both lots but that in Lot 6 receiving corn silage 1.38 pounds of ensilage replaced .69 pound of hay in the daily ration. The average gain per lamb was 27.4 pounds in Lot 3 and 29.4 pounds in Lot 6. The feed required to make a pound of gain was somewhat less' in Lot 6 receiving corn silage, than in Lot 3 not receiving corn silage. It required 3.56 pounds of corn and 5.93 pounds of hay to make one pound of gain in Lot 3 and it required 3.31 pounds of grain, 3.43 pounds of hay and 4.23 pounds of corn silage to make a pound of gain in Lot 6. At the prices of feed given on page 900 the cost of one hundred pounds of gain was $8.62 in Lot 3 fed corn and clover hay as compared with $7.41 in Lot 6 fed corn, clover hay, and corn silage. The lambs in the silage fed lot were valued at five cents per hundred pounds more than those in Lot 3. The lambs fed shelled corn and clover hay returned a profit of 64 cents per head as compared with $1.04 per head by the lambs fed corn, clover hay, and corn silage. 903 PART II CORN SILAGE ALONE VS. CORN SILAGE AND DRY ROUGHAGE FOR FATTENING LAMBS Table II shows a comparison of rations in which all lots re- jived a full feed of corn silage twice daily in addition to the grain ition consisting of seven parts by weight of shelled corn and one irt of cottonseed meal. Lot I received no cured roughage. Lot 5 ;ived oat straw twice daily and Lot 7 received clover hay twice lily. Corn silage was fed in such quantities as would be consumed an hour to an hour and a half while oat straw and clover hay -ere fed in such quantities as would be cleaned up before time for ic next feed. All lots were started on grain rations of oats in ;hich corn was introduced at the end of four days and cottonseed leal at the end of seven days. Lot i received a small quantity of >ver hay for the first five days on feed while silage was being icreased to such quantities as the lambs would consume. At the id of eleven days the ration fed twice daily was 10.5 pounds of >rn, 1.5 pounds of cottonseed meal and 30 pounds of >rn silage in Lot i, the same quantity of corn, cottonseed meal, id corn silage in Lot 5 plus five pounds of oat straw, while in Lot it consisted of 10.5 pounds of corn, 1.5 pounds of cottonseed leal, 18 pounds of corn silage, and 15 pounds of clover hay. At ic end of twenty-five days on feed the silage was raised to 35 mnds per feed in Lots i and 5 but was decreased again within Mght days in Lot i and three days in Lot 5 when the normal silage msumption became practically stationery at 32 pounds per feed in )t i and 25 pounds per feed in Lot 5 and the oat straw consumed Lot 5 was increased from five to eight pounds per feed where remained until the last month on feed. At the end of twenty- re days the silage consumed in Lot 7 became practically stationary it 20 pounds twice daily or 40 pounds for the twenty-five lambs each day. The grain was increased as the appetites of the lambs would justify. 904 TABLE II.— Value of Corn Silage With and Without Cured Rough- age for Fattening Lambs, November 5, 1914 to February 3, 1915 Lot 1 Lot 5 Lot 7 Shelled corn, Shelled corn, Shelled corn, RATION cottonseed cottonseed cottonseed meal, meal, meal, corn silage oat straw, clover hay, corn silage corn silage Average initial weight 56.6 Ibs. 56.6 Ibs. 56.6 Ibs. Average final weight 79.6 83.6 " 86.7 " Gain per lamb 23.0 27.0 " 30.1 Average daily gain .256 " .301 " .335 " Average daily feed per lamb grain 1.02 " 1.08 " 1.08 " cured roughage .04 " .55 " 1.12 " silage 2.17 " 1.88 " 1.38 " Feed per pound gain grain 3.99 " 3.60 " 3.24 M cured roughage .16 " 1.82 " 3.35 " silage 8.47 " 6.24 " 4.13 " Cost per 100 Ibs. gain $6.74 $6.21 $7.37 Selling value of lambs in feed lots 8.40 8.50 8.75 Profit per lamb .92 1.21 1.15 and Table II shows that there was no difference in the grain coi sumption between the lots receiving oat straw and corn silage, clover hay and corn silage but that the lot receiving no dry rough- age consumed slightly smaller quantities of grain. About half as much oat straw was eaten in Lot 5 as clover hay in Lot 7. There was a marked increase in the silage consumption when no dry roughage was fed. The lambs receiving corn silage as the only roughage gained 23 pounds in ninety days; those receiving oat straw and corn silage as roughage gained 27 pounds, and those re- ceiving clover hay and corn silage gained 30.1 pounds in ninety days. The grain required to make a pound of gain was highest in Lot i receiving no dry roughage and least in Lot 7 receiving clover hay and corn silage as roughage. The silage required to make a pound of gain was least in Lot 7 but in this lot it required 3.35 pounds of clover hay in addition to the grain and silage to make a pound of gain, while in Lot 5 it required 1.82 pounds of oat straw in addition to the silage. The cost of gain was $6.74 per hundred weight in Lot I receiving no dry roughage, $6.21 per hundred weight in Lot 5 receiving oat straw in addition to the corn silage and $7.37 per hundred weight in Lot 7 receiving clover hay in addition to the corn silage. The addition of oat straw to the corn silage increased the selling price of the lambs ten cents per hundred weight and the addition of clover hay to corn silage increased the selling price of the lambs 35 cents per hundred weight. The profit was 92 cents per lamb in Lot I, $1.21 per lamb in Lot 5, and $1.15 per lamb in Lot 7, thus showing that as an economical ration oat straw in ad- dition to corn silage was more efficient than clover hay. This is slightly contrary to results secured in the winter of 1913-14 in which clover hay proved more economical than oat straw. 905 PART III .OVER HAY VS. ALFALFA HAY AS ROUGHAGE FOR FATTENING LAMBS The desire for information concerning the feeding value of fa hay induced this station to begin a series of trials to de- ine this question. A trial conducted in the winter of 1913-14 •ed higher feeding value for clover hay than for alfalfa hay. The trial was repeated with the results reported in the following table. TABLH III. — Clover Hay vs. Alfalfa Hay as Roughage for Fattening Lambs, November 5, 1914 to February 3, 1915 Lot 3 Lot 4 RATION Shelled corn, Shelled corn, clover alfalfa ._. , Average initial weight 56.6 Ibs. 56.6 Ibs. Average final weight 84.0 82.3 Gain per lamb 27.4 25.7 ' Average daily gain .304 " .286 ' Average daily feed per lamb grain 1.08 " 1.08 * hay 1.81 " 1.81 ' Feed per pound gain grain 3.56 " 3.78 * hay 5.93 " 6.31 * Cost per 100 Ibs. gain $8.62 $9.80 Selling value of lambs in feed lots 8.60 8.50 Profit per lamb .64 .26 The clover hay was of fair quality while the alfalfa was ex- cellent quality of fine second cutting, baled dry from the mow. Both lots of lambs were started on feed as noted for Lot 3 on page 901. During the entire experiment each lot of lambs was fed exactly the same quantity of feed each day. The grain and hay consumed were exactly the same in both lots. The appetites of the lambs were remarkably uniform. It will be noted in Table III that the average feed for the entire period showed the feed con- sumption to be i. 08 pounds of grain daily per head and 1.81 pounds of hay daily per head. At the end of ten days on feed the lambs were receiving 24 pounds of grain and 50 pounds of hay daily per lot. At the end of the feeding period they were receiving 32 pounds of grain and 42 pounds of hay daily per lot. The lambs in Lot 3 fed shelled corn and clover hay gained 27.4 pounds per lamb in ninety days as compared with 25.7 pounds per lamb in Lot 4 fed shelled corn and alfalfa hay. The feed required to make a pound of gain was slightly less in Lot 3 than in Lot 4. The cost of each hundred pounds of gain was $8.62 in Lot 3 fed clover hay as compared with $9.80 per hundred pounds in Lot 4 fed alfalfa hay. The lambs receiving clover hay were valued at $8.60 per hundred pounds and returned a profit of 64 cents per lamb. The lambs fed shelled corn and alfalfa hay were valued at $8.50 per hundred pounds and returned a profit of 26 cents per lamb or a 906 difference of 38 cents per head in favor of clover hay. Had clover hay and alfalfa hay been valued at the same price per ton there would still have been a difference in profit of 22 cents per lamb in favor of clover hay. PART IV COTTONSEED MEAL AS SUPPLEMENT TO RATIONS FOR FATTENING LAMBS A comparison of Lots 6, 7, and 8 in Table IV shows the effect of adding cottonseed meal to rations of shelled corn, clover hay, and corn silage. Lot 6 received no cottonseed meal, Lot 7 received one pound of cottonseed meal for every seven pounds of shelled corn fed and Lot 8 received one pound of cottonseed meal for every four pounds of shelled corn fed. All lots of lambs were started on the same quantity of feed. The quantity of feed consumed was the same in Lots 6 and 7 as regards grain, hay and silage and was the same in all three lots as regards hay and silage. The difference .in grain consumption between Lot 8 and Lots 6 and 7 was too slight to be of any significance. TABLE: IV.— Effect of Adding Cottonseed Meal to Rations for Fattening Lambs, November 5, 1914 to February 3, 1915 Lot 6 Lot 7 Lot 8 Shelled corn, Shelled corn Shelled corn RATION clover, silage 7 parts, cottonseed 4 parts, cottonseed meal 1 part, meal 1 part, clover, clover, silage silage Average initial weight 56.6 Ibs. 56.6 Ibs. 56.4 Ibs. Average final weight 86.0 " 86.7 " 87.9 Gain per lamb 29.4 " 30.1 31.5 " Average daily gain .327 " .335 " .350 " Average daily feed per lamb grain 1.08 1.08 " 1.10 " hay 1.12 1.12 " 1.12 " silage 1.38 1.38 " 1.38 " Feed per pound gain grain 3.31 3.24 " 3.14 " hay 3.43 3.35 " 3.20 " silage 4.23 4.13 " 3.95 " Cost per 100 Ibs. gain $7.41 $7.37 $7.17 Selling value of lambs in feed lots 8.65 8.75 8.85 Profit per lamb 1.04 1.15 1.32 It will be noted in Table IV that there was practically the j feed consumption in all three of the lots. The gain was increased from 29.4 pounds per lamb to 30.1 pounds per lamb by the addition of one pound of cottonseed meal to every seven pounds of corn and was still further increased to 31.5 pounds per lamb by the addition of one pound of cottonseed meal to four pounds of corn. Since the feed consumption was practically the same in all lots it is read- ily apparent that there was a slightly larger feed requirement per pound of gain in Lot 6 than in Lot 7 and in turn larger in Lot 7 907 than in Lot 8. This difference was not great. The cost per hun- dred pounds of gain was $7.41 in Lot 6 receiving no cottonseed meal, $7.37 in Lot 7 receiving a smaller amount of cottonseed meal and $7.17 in Lot 8 receiving a larger amount of cottonseed meal. The lambs in Lot 6 fed no cottonseed meal were valued at $8.65 per hundred pounds and returned a profit of $1.04 per head. The lambs in Lot 7 receiving a small amount of cottonseed meal were valued at $8.75 per hundred pounds and returned a profit of $1.15 per head. The lambs in Lot 8 fed the larger quantity of cottonseed meal were valued at $8.85 per hundred pounds and returned a profit of $1.32 per head. This trial bears out previous data at this sta- tion on the same subject with the exception that in previous trials there has been practically no difference in the gains or selling value of the lambs receiving the two different proportions of cottonseed KPART V THE VALUE OF OATS FOR LAMBS Oats are probably as good grain as can be found for starting bs on feed and this station makes a practice of teaching the bs to eat by feeding them oats. However, there is quite a prac- ice among sheep feeders of feeding oats throughout the entire feed- period. The economy of such a practice has been under investi- tion at this station for three years. The trial conducted in the winter of 1914-15 is reported in this bulletin. Lot 6 was fed shelled corn, clover hay, and corn silage and Lot 2 was fed a grain mixture of corn two parts, oats one part, clover hay and corn silage. The Its are shown in Table V. V. — Corn vs. Corn and Oats as Grain for Fattening Lambs, November 5, 1914 to February 3, 1915 = Lot 6 Lot 2 Shelled corn, Shelled corn RATION clover, 2 parts, silage oats 1 part, clover, silage Average initial weight 56.6 Ibs. 56.7 Ibs. Average final weight 86.0 84.3 " Gain per lamb 29.4 " 27.6 Average daily gain .327 " .307 " Average daily feed per lamb grain 1.08 " 1.00 " hay 1.12 " 1.03 " silage 1.38 " 1.38 " Feed per pound gain grain 3.31 " 3.26 " hay 3.43 " 3.35 " silage 4.23 " 4.51 " Cost per 100 Ibs. gain $7.41 $7.79 Selling value of lambs in feed lots 8.65 8.60 Profit per lamb 1.04 .87 For forty days the grain consumption was the same in both lots but thereafter the lambs in Lot 6 would consume slightly larger quantites of grain. The difference in the appetites was shown at the end of three weeks in hay consumption when Lot 2 receiving 908 the oats, refused to eat as much hay as the lambs in Lot 6 not re- ceiving oats. This difference in feed consumption was not extreme- ly marked yet it showed some difference in the appetites of the lambs. The gains were slightly larger in Lot 6 not receiving oats, the total gain being 29.4 pounds per lamb in ninety days as com- pared with 27.6 pounds per lamb when the grain ration consisted of corn and oats. The grain and hay required to make a pound of gain was slightly greater in Lot 6 than in Lot 2 receiving oats but the silage requirement per pound of gain was larger in the latter lot. Each hundred pounds of gain cost $7.41 in Lot 6 and $7.79 in Lot 2. The lambs not receiving oats were valued at $8.65 per hundred pounds as compared with $8.60 per hundred pounds for lambs fed oats in addition to the corn. The profit per lamb was $1.04 in Lot 6 as compared with 87 cents in Lot 2 receiving the oats in addition to the corn. PART VI OPEN SHED VS. BARN AS SHELTER FOR FATTENING LAMBS The influence of the kind of shelter on fattening lambs was studied in this experiment by feeding one lot of twenty-five lambs in an open shed, 14 by 16 feet, with an open lot 14 by 14 feet in connection, and another lot of lambs, apparently similar in every way, upon the same ration, in a barn. The lot of twenty-five lambs in the barn was allowed a floor space 14 by 24 feet. The ceiling of the barn in which these lambs were fed is ten feet high. No other live stock was kept in the barn which has a total floor space of 36 by 44 feet. Two windows, one on the south and another on the east, were kept open at all times; two windows on the north were kept open except in bad weather. Both lots of lambs were fed a ration of shelled corn, clover hay, and corn silage. The results of the trial are shown in Table VI. TABLE VI. — Open Shed vs. Barn as Shelter for Fattening Lambs, November 5, 1914 to February 3, 1915 Lot 6 Lot 9 Open shed Barn Average initial weight 56.6 Ibs. 56.5 Ibs. Average final weight 86.0 85.7 Gain per lamb 29.4 ' 29.2 Average daily gain .327 ' .324 " Average daily feed per lamb grain 1.08 ' 1.08 " hay 1.12 ' 1.12 " silage 1.38 ' 1.38 " Feed per pound gain grain 3.31 ' 3.33 " hay 3.43 ' 3.46 " silage 4.23 ' 4.27 " Cost per 100 Ibs. gain $7.41 $7.47 Selling value of lambs in feed lots 8.65 8.55 Profit per lamb 1.04 .94 909 It will be noted that there was no difference in the feed con- sumption between the lambs fed in the open shed and those fed in the barn. The grain, hay and silage consumption was exactly equal in both lots. The difference in rate, of gain between the lambs fed in the barn and in the open shed was too small to be of any signif- icance, the difference being only .2 pound per lamb in ninety days. There was only six cents difference in the cost for each hundred • pounds of gain. The lambs fed in the open shed were valued ten cents per hundred pounds higher than the lambs fed in the barn. This was not due to difference in finish but to difference in firmness of flesh, the lambs in the barn being considerably softer than those fed in the open shed. The profit per lamb was ten cents greater when they were fed in the open shed than when fed in the barn. This was due primarily to the difference in selling price caused by the softness of flesh in the lambs fed in the barn. SUMMARY In reporting experimental data, the lambs are valued at $7.45 per hundred weight in order to give data such as would be secured had the lambs been purchased at the time the trial began. This eliminates market fluctuations between the time the lambs were pur- chased and the beginning of the experiment, and also the factor of cheap gains on grass. The top price for feeding lambs when the trial began was $7.15 per hundred pounds. Thirty cents for expenses in buying and shipping to the feed lot made the initial estimated cost $7.45 per hundred weight. The final values are based on valua- tions on the basis of the Chicago market by commission men. The market was higher when the lambs were sold than when they were valued thereby returning more actual profit to the Station than is wn in the experimental data. S-H ,0 O5 as OO TH O XO CM O OO OSCM CDrH CM l>- OO tH ^ i— I XO !>• > 8- CO TH CM THCM t^ CO rH TH 1O CM CO CM t>- CM CD t>- ^f 1 1^- COCM OOCM ' CD CD TH CM CM HCOTH OOOOC^ O>CO T-H §«3 £ t/i tt >-S PQ 3 sill! xo rt< O OO TH CM CD co TH CM XO XO l>^ OO OO XOG3OSTHXO >CM CD CMOO CM t^^ o TH o THCM"' s^§)fl'sss-i ill 5333333 ssssssss CM * " CO' CM 00 CO 00 t~-co r^co 3i «,-, rJJrH !OOi< CM * "COCO 3.55 S?^ CO ^ CO OrH 10( CM'I-H Tj5< rH rH t^ t^ CD co ' *od ^ CM OO 1O t>; rH ^ rHCOCJiCO^lO CDCMOSCDrHrH O; CO CNJ O5 CO rH rH Oi t-^ J>^ OO* lO OO lO O5 Tf Ci -^ CDCM rHCOW 1O O OO CD t>-00 t^rH S^' ^^ IO iO §5§^gS OrHCOC^ ' 333353 lO rH OO ^ CO rH OCO CiCO 0 CM CO CO S f2 CO CM ' OJ iO OO OO Tj CD XO O5 OO rH rH 010 OOCM N r"1^ trr r* "- < -( O S * ^ «*H -^ ... £j SOJ^'W-M wOvvveoOgcaOovoaO 0 £ "g 02 O U U 3 5 O « -3 912 EXPENDITURES 243 lambs, weight 12580 Ibs. @ $7.15 per cwt $ 899.47 400 Ibs. hay - , 5.00 Dipping @ 3 cents per head 7.32 Commission 10.00 $ 921.79 Freight ---$ 18.00 1500 Ibs. hay @ $15.00 per ton 11.25 Pasture 9 days @ one-third cent daily per head 7.29 Labor I'.SO $ 38.04 Cost of lambs at experiment time $ 959.83 Feed while on experiment 477.76 Total cost $1437.59 RECEIPTS 200 lambs, weight 17000 Ibs. @ $9.60 per cwt $1632.00 Freight $23.80 Terminal charges 1.00 Insurance 10 Yardage 10.00 Commission 14.00 — $ 48.90 $1583.1 18 cull lambs, weight 915 Ibs. @ $7.10 per cwt 64.97 25 lambs, weight 2340 Ibs. @ $8.25 per cwt 193.05 Total receipts $1841.12 Profit.... 403.53 M PURDUE UNIVERSITY FORJJSTIl Agricultural Experiment BULLETIN No. 192, VOL. XIX SEPTEMBER, 1916 SHEEP FEEDING VI FATTENING WESTERN LAMBS 1915-1916 'art I. Corn Silage and Clover Hay as Roughage for Fattening Lambs 'art II. Corn Silage Alone vs. Corn Silage and Dry Roughage for Fattening Lambs 'art III. Clover Hay vs. Alfalfa Hay as Roughage for Fattening Lambs 'art IV. Cottonseed Meal as Supplement to Rations for Fat- tening Lambs 'art V. Molasses for Fattening Lambs Part VI. Ground Soybeans vs. Cottonseed Meal as Supplement to Rations for Fattening Lambs Part VII. Open Shed vs. Barn as Shelter for Fattening Lambs Famished Dy tie Station: LAFAYETTE, INDIANA U. S. A. ADDISON C. HARRIS, President Indianapolis, Marion County FAY S. CHANDLER Indianapolis, Marion County CHARLES DOWNING Greenfield, Hancock County SAMUEL M. FOSTER Fort Wayne, Allen County JOHN A. HILLENBRAND Batesville, Ripley County CYRUS M. HOBBS Bridgeport, Marion County JOSEPH D. OLIVER South Bend, St. Joseph County GEOKGE PURCELL.!-.. Vincennes, Knox County WILLIAM V. STUART ».. LaFayette, Tippecanoe County WINTHROP E. STONE, A. M., Ph. D President of the University STATION STAFF HEADS OF DEPARTMENTS ARTHUR Goss, M. S., A. C Director GEORGE I. CHRISTIE, B. S. A Sup't Agricultural Extension ROBERT A. CRAIG, D. V. M Chief Veterinarian OTTO F. HUNZIKER, M. S Chief in Dairy Husbandry HERBERT S. JACKSON, A. B Chief in Botany WILLIAM J. JONES, JR., M. S., A. C.1 State Chemist JOHN H. SKINNER, B. S Chief in Animal Husbandry JAMES TROOP, M. S ., Chief in Entomology ALFRED T. WIANCKO, B. S. A Chief in Soils and Crops CHARLES G. WOODBURY, M. S Chief in Horticulture ASSOCIATES AND ASSISTANTS JOHN M. ALDRICH, Ph. D.3 Entomological Assistant EVELYN ALLISON, B. S Assistant in Botany PAUL R. BAUSMAN, B. S.4 Inspector State Chemist Department JAMES C. BEAVERS, B. Agr Associate in Soils and Crops Extension REUBEN O. BITLER, B. S.4 Deputy State Chemist CHARLES S. BREWSTER, M. S Assistant in Poultry Husbandry RALPH E. CALDWELL, B. S Associate in Milk Production GLENN G. CARTER, B. S.4 Inspector State Chemist Department DAVID B. CLARK, D. M. C Assistant Veterinarian CARL H. CLINK, B. S Assistant in Serum Production THOMAS A. COLEMAN Ass't State Leader Field Studies and Demonstrations SAMUEL D. CONNER, M. S... Associate Chemist in Soils and Crops CLINTON O. CROMER, B. S Associate in Crops GEORGE A. CROSS, B. S Graduate Assistant in Animal Husbandry CARLETON CUTLER, B. S.4 First Deputy State Chemist and Microscopist (Feeds) JOHN J. DAVIS, B. S.3 Entomological Assistant in Charge RALPH B. DEEMER, B. S.4 Deputy State Chemist LEO P. DOYLE, B. S Assistant in Animal Pathology WILLIAM F. EPPLE, Ph. G Assistant in Dairy Chemistry FREDERICK A. FENTON, M. S.3 Scientific Assistant MARTIN L. FISHER, M. S Assistant Chief in Soils and Crops GEORGE M. FRIER, B. S. A Associate in Charge of Short Courses and Exhibit!3 LESLIE R. GEORGE, B. S Assistant in Animal Pathology ROY L. GREENE, B. S.4 Inspector State Chemist Department MABEL L. HARLAN Assistant in Agricultural Extension ABNER J. HUNTER, B. S. A Assistant in Serum Production CORA A. JACOBS, A. M.2 Seed Analyst SADOCIE C. JONES. M. S Assistant in Soils LAWRENCE C. KIGIN, D. V. M Assistant Veterinarian FRANKLIN G. KING, B. S Associate in Animal Husbandry HERBERT E. MCCARTNEY, B. S. A Assistant in Animal Husbandry Extension EDWIN B. MAINS, Ph. D Assistant in Botany PRESTON W. MASON, B. S Assistant in Entomology SHIRLEY L. MASON, A. B.8 Scientific Assistant DONALD F. MATTSON, B. S. A Assistant in Creamery Inspection HORACE C. MILLS, B. S Associate in Dairy Manufactures HARRY C. MUGG, B. S.4 Deputy State Chemist HARRY A. NOYES, M. S., Research Assistant in Horticultural Chemistry and Bacteriology GLEN L. OGLE, B. S Assistant in Creamery Inspection JOSEPH OSKAMP, B. S Research Assistant in Pomology GEORGE A. OSNER, Ph. D Associate in Botany HARRY C. PAINE, D. V. M Associate Veterinarian ALLEN G. PHILIPS. B. S. A Associate in Poultry Husbandry EDWARD G. PROULX, M. S.4 First Deputy State Chemist (Fertilizers) HARRY J. REED Associate in Horticulture CHARLES C. REES, M. A Assistant in Botany OTIS S. ROBERTS, B. S.4.., Chief Inspector State Chemist Department J. HOWARD ROOP, B. S.4 Deputy State Chemist ALFRED F. SATTERTHWAIT 3 Scientific Assistant GEORGE SPITZER, Ph. G., B. S Associate in Dairy Chemistry CHESTER G. STARR, B. S. A Assistant in Swine Production and Management HERBERT B. SWITZER, B. S. A Assistant in Dairy Bacteriology THOMAS S. TOWNSLEY, B. S Assistant in Poultry Husbandry GILBERT P. WALKER, B. S Assistant in Soils and Crops FRED L. WALKEY. D. V. M Assistant Veterinarian JAMES L. WEIMER, Ph. D Assistant in Botany REX A. WHITING. D. V. M Associate in Animal Pathology LESTER YODER, B. S. A Graduate Assistant in Horticultural Chemistry NELLIE TRACY v Secretary to the Director and Librarian MARY K. BLOOM Bookkeeper i In charge of Fertilizer and Feeding Stuff Control • Detailed by U. S. Department of Agriculture — Seed Testing 3 Detailed by U. S. Department of Agriculture — Cereal and Forage Crop Insect Investigations 4 Connected with Fertilizer and Feeding Stuff Control ADVISORY COMMITTEE (UNDER LEGISLATIVE ACT OF 19O9) J. P. PRIGG, Daleville State Live Stock Association U. R FISHEL, Hope State Poultry Fanciers' Association H. H. SWAIM, South Bend State Horticultural Society R* ?,' J?HNSON, Mooresville State Dairy Association D. F. MAISH, Frankfort , State Corn Growers' Association FATTENING WESTERN LAMBS 1915-1916 H. SKINNER F. G. KING SUMMARY PART I 1. The addition of corn silage to a ration of shelled corn and ver hay did not affect the grain consumption, but 1.12 pounds of corn silage replaced .65 pound of clover hay in the daily ration per lamb. 2. Lambs fed shelled corn and clover hay gained 24 pounds per head as. compared with 24.7 pounds by those fed corn silage in addition. 3. Four hundred fifty-two pounds of corn silage saved 12 pounds of corn and 283 pounds of clover hay in feed required for each hundred pounds gain. 4. The addition of corn silage increased the selling value of e lambs and added 29 cents to the profit per head. PART II th, 5. Lambs receiving no dry roughage did not consume as large quantities of grain but larger quantities of silage than those fed dry roughage in addition to grain and silage. 6. There was practically no difference in grain consumption between lambs fed silage and oat straw for roughage and those fed silage and clover hay for roughage. 7. Lambs fed silage alone as roughage gained 17.5 pounds per head at a cost of $8.86 per hundred pounds ; those fed silage and oat straw for roughage gained 17.2 pounds per head at a cost of $9.11 per hundred pounds; those fed silage and clover hay for roughage gained 25.2 pounds per head at a cost of $8.26 per hundred pounds. 8. Lambs fed shelled corn, cottonseed meal, and corn silage were valued at $10.05 Per cwt- and returned a profit of 80 cents per head; those fed shelled corn, cottonseed meal, oat straw and corn silage were valued at $9.65 per cwt. and returned a profit of 46 cents per head ; those fed shelled corn, cottonseed meal, clover hay, and corn silage were valued at $10.90 per cwt. and returned a profit of $1.74 per head. PART III 9. Lambs fed shelled corn and clover hay ate the same quan- tity of grain but more hay than lambs fed shelled corn and alfalfa hay. 10. Lambs fed shelled corn and clover hay gained 24 pounds as compared to 26 pounds by lambs fed shelled corn and alfalfa hay. 11. Cost of gain was higher from the standpoint of feed re- quired and cost of feed with clover hay than with alfalfa hay for roughage. 12. Lambs fed alfalfa hay acquired a better finish and returned a larger profit than those fed clover hay. PART IV 13. The addition of cottonseed meal to a ration of shelled corn, clover hay, and corn silage had no effect on the daily feed consump- tion by lambs. 14. The addition of cottonseed meal to the ration slightly in- creased the rate of gain and decreased the feed required to make a pound of gain, but not the actual cost of gain. 15. Lambs fed cottonseed meal in addition to a ration of shelled corn, clover hay, and corn silage were valued at $10.90 per cwt. and returned a profit of $1.74 per head; those not fed the cottonseed meal were valued at $10.30 per head and returned a profit of $1.31 per head. PART V 1 6. The substitution of a small quantity of cane molasses for an equal quantity of corn in a ration of shelled corn, cottonseed meal, clover hay, and corn silage did not produce any marked effect on the appetites of the lambs or the rate of gain made by the lambs, but slightly increased the cost of gains. 17. The addition of the molasses to the ration failed to add to the finish of the lambs or the profits returned. PART VI 1 8. Lambs fed ground soybeans as supplement to corn, clover hay and silage maintained as eager appetites and consumed as large quantities of feed as those fed cottonseed meal as supplement. 19. Lambs fed ground soybeans gained 24.3 pounds as com- pared to 25.2 pounds by those fed cottonseed meal. 20. Gains were made more economically from both feed and financial standpoint by using cottonseed meal instead of ground soybeans. . 21. Lambs fed ground soybeans as supplement were valued at $10.65 per cwt. and returned a profit of $1.45 per head; those fed cottonseed meal as supplement were valued at $10.90 per cwt. and returned a profit of $1.74 per head. PART VII 22. Lambs fed in a well ventilated barn ate practically the same quantity of feed but made slightly less gains than those fed in an open shed. 23. The cost of gain was slightly higher when the lambs were fed in the barn. 24. Lambs fed in a barn were valued at $10.30 per cwt, and returned a profit of $1.22 per head; lambs fed in an open shed were valued at $10.30 per cwt. and returned a profit of $1.31 per head. INTRODUCTION Eight trials in feeding lambs have been conducted at this in- stitution. Lambs have in the last few years been the most profitable animals employed for converting feed into meat. Although the cost of feed has been high, the price received for fat lambs has been such that very handsome profits were realized. Feed was thus marketed at a figure very much above the market and the fertility contained therein returned in part to the soil. Notwithstanding the fact that the profits from feeding lambs have been high, the main- tenance of soil productivity through the feeding of live stock is the greatest and most permanent benefit to be derived from the feed- ing of lambs. Were it not for the advantages of marketing of crops and the maintenance of soil fertility, benefits derived from the direct profit in feeding lambs would in a long series of years not be large enough to make the business attractive except to a lim- ited number of special sheep feeders. 'Under conditions as they exist, the marketing of crops, the maintenance of soil fertility and le direct profit secured, make lamb feeding a practice to be highly :ommended to stockmen who are equipped for the business. OBJECT The object of this work was to obtain additional information the comparative feeding value of the more common roughages of the farm and on the advisability of using some concentrated com- mercial feeding stuff for fattening lambs. This includes a com- parison of clover hay and corn silage alone and in combination as roughage for fattening lambs ; the value of corn silage alone as roughage and in combination with dry roughage for fattening lambs ; a comparison of the feeding value of clover hay and alfalfa hay for fattening lambs; the value of cottonseed meal for supple- menting rations of corn, clover hay, and corn silage; the compar- ative value of cottonseed meal and ground soybeans as supplements to rations for fattening lambs; the value of molasses for fattening lambs ; and the influence of shelter for fattening lambs. PLAN The plan of the work was to secure strong, vigorous western lambs and discard the smallest and any extremely large ones, in order to secure a flock as uniform as possible. This selected flock was divided into nine lots of twenty-five lambs each. All lots were as nearly uniform as possible as to size, condition, quality, thrift, sex, and breeding. Eight of the nine lots were placed in an open shed and fed different rations. One lot was fed in the barn upon a ration similar to Lot 6 in the open shed. The following rations were fed : Lot i. Shelled corn, cottonseed meal, corn silage. Lot 2. Shelled corn, cottonseed meal, molasses, clover hay, corn silage. Lot 3. Shelled corn and clover hay. Lot 4. Shelled corn and alfalfa hay. Lot 5. Shelled corn, cottonseed meal, oat straw, corn silage. Lot 6. Shelled corn, clover hay, corn silage. Lot 7. Shelled corn, cottonseed meal, clover hay, corn silage. Lot 8. Shelled corn, ground soybeans, clover hay, corn silage. Lot 9. Shelled corn, clover hay, corn silage (fed in barn). SHELTER, FEEDING YARDS AND WATER SUPPLY The conditions surrounding the lambs were no better than those in many feed lots of the State. Eight lots of twenty-five lambs each, were fed in an open shed facing south, opening into a yard fourteen feet deep. Each lot of lambs occupied a covered shed 14 by 16 feet and an open lot 14 by 14 feet. No pavement, cinders, or stone was placed in either yard or shed. The sheds were dry and no bedding other than the waste, which was small, from the feed racks was used except when the .sheds were bedded at the beginning of the experiment. The open yards were often muddy in wet weath- er. The lambs at all times had dry ground in the shed on which to lie. The lot of lambs fed in the barn was confined to a space 14 by 24 feet with a concrete floor and was not allowed out of the barn during the experiment. The barn was well ventilated and did not become unduly warm, nor did the air become heavy or stagnant at any time. The floor was kept well bedded at all times. Water was supplied to all lots from the West LaFayette Water Works in galvanized iron tubs which were regularly cleaned once daily and more often when necessary. They were refilled twice daily so that fresh water was kept before the lambs at all times. (1 i WEIGHTS Weights were taken by lots on three consecutive days at the inning and end of the trial and every tenth day during the prog-. s of the same. The average of the three consecutive weights at e beginning and end of the trial was used as the initial and final eights. Individual weights in addition to lot weights were taken three consecutive days at the beginning and end of the trial, and ery thirtieth day throughout the progress of the same. The iden- tity of each lamb was known by a numbered tag fastened to the ear. Weights were taken in the morning after the lambs had fin- ished eating. METHOD OF FEEDING The method of feeding was the same in all lots reported in this lletin. The grain was fed at 6:00 A. M. and 4:30 P. M. under cover, in narrow grain troughs. When ground soybeans or cot- tonseed meal was fed in addition to corn, it was mixed with the corn before being scattered in the troughs. Grain was fed in such quantities as would be eaten before the lambs left the troughs. The molasses was poured over the silage. When starting on feed, about one-fourth of a pound of oats per head was fed twice daily. After the lambs had learned to eat oats, small amounts of corn were added to the rations. Within a few days the lambs were eating corn readily and the oats were gradually dropped from the ration, and in Lots I, 5, and 7, cottonseed meal, and in Lot 8 ground soybeans were added. Within sixteen days all lots were on the experimental rations. The grain was increased until they were on full feed at the end of four weeks. After the lambs had cleaned up the grain, roughage was fed in combination racks and troughs. All rough- age was fed twice daily. Hay and straw were fed in such quanti- ties as would be cleaned up before the time for the next feed. Silage was fed in such quantities as would be consumed within an hour to an hour and a half. Feed not consumed was removed from the troughs and weighed. When feed was not all consumed the quantity offered at the next feed was reduced. DESCRIPTION OF LAMBS The animals used in this trial were choice improved Mexicans purchased on the Denver, Colorado, market, October u, 1915. They were from Mexican foundation improved by mutton rams. They were of excellent quality, and remarkably uniform in size, type, quality, and condition. Although lighter in bone than northern range lambs, they were very strong and thrifty. They were dipped under government supervision at Kansas City, Missouri, and ar- rived in LaFayette, October 17, 1915. They were kept in the feed- ing yards and fed alfalfa hay until October 26, 1915, when they were divided into experimental groups. Two hundred fifty lambs were purchased. Twenty-five were discarded when the experimental groups were made. Considering the original cost of the lambs, freight, cost of feed before the experiment began, the actual cost of the lambs when started on trial was $8.85 per cwt. METHOD OF VALUING THE LAMBS The initial value of the lambs was taken as $8.85 per cwt. or actual cost. It was impossible to base the initial value on the Chi- cago market as has been done in the past because the Chicago mar- ket was not open for feeding lambs and was, therefore, making no price quotations. Final values were placed on the fat lambs by Messrs. Chas. H. Shurte of the Knollin Sheep Commission Co., Chicago, Illinois, J. M. Horan of Armour and Co., Chicago, Illinois, and J. S. Taylor of Indianapolis. Final values of fat lambs are on the basis of Chicago prices less 60 cents per hundred pounds, to cover cost of shipping. All financial statements are based on the actual cost of lambs and Chicago valuation for fat lambs less 60 cents per hundred pounds. QUALITY OF FEEDS The rations fed were composed of various combinations of all or part of the following feeds : shelled corn, oats, cane molasses, cottonseed meal, ground soybeans, clover hay, alfalfa hay, oat straw, and corn silage. Corn and oats were of fair quality. The unfav- orable season for crop production 'in 1915 did not produce grain of normal feeding value. Molasses was purchased on the open mar- ket and was of the ordinary cane feeding variety ; cottonseed meal was of choice grade guaranteed to contain 41 per cent, crude pro- tein and 8 per cent, fat ; soybeans were good and contained 39 per cent, protein. Clover hay was of medium quality. Alfalfa hay was of second and third cutting and of excellent quality, considering the unfavorable season for curing hay. Oat straw was of excellent quality carried over from the previous year. Corn silage was made from corn produced on Purdue farm and yielding approximately fifty-two bushels per acre. Corn was well matured when put into the silo. This produced a silage containing approximately 37.31 per cent, dry matter. Care was taken at all times that no moldy or spoiled silage was fed. PRICES OF FEEDS The prices of corn used in presenting financial results are based on the actual price at LaFayette elevators during the time the ex- periment was in progress, which was as follows: first month 47.2 cents; second month, 54.8 cents; third month, 61.7 cents; last ten days 64 cents per bushel. Oats are valued at 32 cents per bushel; cottonseed meal and ground soybeans at $38.00 per ton; and mo- lasses at $30.00 per ton. Clover and alfalfa hay are valued at $12.00 per ton; oat straw $5.00 per ton; corn silage $4.50 per ton. All financial statements are based on the principle that the value of the manure offsets the labor of feeding and cost of bedding. PARTI IORN SILAGE AND CLOVER HAY AS ROUGHAGE FOR FATTENING LAMBS Part I of this bulletin is a report of a trial to show the compara- value of clover hay and clover hay and corn silage as roughage >r fattening lambs. Both lots of lambs were started on feed with ration of 14 pounds of oats daily for twenty-five lambs. At the id of seven days, corn was added to the ration and oats gradually liminated until by the seventeenth day on experiment each lot of ibs was receiving the experimental rations alone. This is a long- period of time than is usually required for getting lambs on a traight corn ration. This drove of lambs, however, did not learn eat grain as readily as other droves of lambs that have been fed. icy were also very slow about learning to eat silage and it was )t until the seventeenth day that they ate more than one pound of ilage daily per lamb. The highest daily consumption of silage at ly time during the experiment by Lot 6 was 30 pounds for twenty- ive lambs. At no time during the trial did the lambs eat less than pound of hay daily per head. When no silage was fed, more than le and four-fifths pounds of hay daily per head were consumed by ic lambs. This shows that this drove of lambs was inclined to ivor hay above grain and silage as compared with lambs fed in revious years. The results of the trial are shown in Table I. I. — Corn and Clover Hay vs. Corn, Clover Hay, and Corn Silage for Fattening Lambs, October 28, 1915 to February 5, 1916 RATION iverage initial weight Lverage final weight rain per lamb ivenige daily gain Lverage daily feed per lamb grain hay silage d per pound gain grain hay silage )st per 100 Ibs. gain lling value of lamb rofit per lamb Lot 3 Lot 6 Shelled corn, clover Shelled corn, clover, silage 56.4 Ibs. 56.3 Ibs. 80.4 " 81.0 24.0 " 24.7 .24 " .247 nb 1.01 " 1.01 1.82 " 1.17 1.12 " 4.19 " 4.07 " 7.57 " 4.74 " 4.52 " $ 8.81 $ 8.00 feed lots 10.20 10.30 1.02 1.31 10 Table I shows that the addition of corn silage to a ration of shelled corn and clover hay had no effect on the grain consumption but that 112 pounds of silage replaced 65 pounds of clover hay in roughage consumption. The gains made by the lambs were so near- ly the same in the two lots that the difference is negligible. In economy of gain the lambs fed corn silage showed a saving of 81 cents on each hundred pounds of gain, 452 pounds of corn silage re- placing 283 pounds of hay and 1.2 pounds of corn. The selling value of the lambs was slightly increased by the use of corn silage as is shown by the selling price of the two lots of lambs. When corn and clover hay were fed the average profit per lamb was $1.02 as compared with $1.41 by the lambs fed corn, clover hay and corn silage. PART II CORN SILAGE ALONE VS. CORN SILAGE AND DRY ROUGHAGE FOR FATTENING LAMBS Part II is a discussion of results in which corn silage was fed as the only roughage for fattening lambs as compared with oat straw and corn silage, and clover hay and corn silage. All lots of lambs in this discussion received a grain ration consisting of seven parts of shelled corn and one part of cottonseed meal. Lot I re- ceived corn silage alone as roughage after the first fourteen days. Owing to the fact that the lambs did not take readily to silage as the only roughage, it was necessary to give some clover hay during the first two weeks on feed. After this time, however, the lambs were limited to corn silage as roughage, except at one time after they had been on feed for eighty days, it was necessary to give one feed of clover hay to bring the lambs back onto feed. The lambs receiving no clover hay did not consume as much silage as in former years. The maximum consumption of silage was 54 pounds daily for twenty-five lambs. The maximum grain consumption in Lot i was 28 pounds daily for twenty-five lambs. In Lot 5 re- ceiving oat straw and corn silage there was a maximum silage con- sumption of 34 pounds daily for twenty-five lambs. In Lot 6 re- ceiving clover hay the maximum silage consumption was 30 pounds to twenty-five lambs. The lambs in Lots I and 5 receiving no clover hay were more difficult to keep eating well than the lambs in Lot 7 receiving clover hay and corn silage. At the end of eighty days on feed the lambs in Lot I went off feed badly and it was necessary to reduce their ration very materially and give them one feed of clover hay in order to get them to eating well again. II TABLE II.— Value of Corn Silage With and Without Dry Roughage for Fattening Lambs, October. 28, 1915 to February 5, 1916 RATION Lut 1 Lot 5 Lot 7 Shelled corn, cottonseed meal, silage Shelled corn, cottonseed meal, oat straw, silage Shelled corn, cottonseed meal, clover, silage Average initial weight 56.1 Ibs. 56.1 Ibs. 56.0 Ibs. Average final weight 73.6 " 73.3 81.2 Gain per lamb 17.5 " 17.2 " 25.2 " Average daily gain .175 " .172 " .252 " Average daily feed per lamb grain .96 " 1.00 " 1.01 " dry roughage .10 " .63 " 1.17 " silage 1.88 " 1.27 " 1.12 " Teed per pound gain grain 5.48 " 5.78 " 4.00 " dry roughage .58 " 3.63 " 4.65 " silage 10.77 " 7.37 " 4.45 " Cost per 100 Ibs. gain $ 8.86 $ 9.11 $ 8.26 Selling value of lambs in feed lots 10.05 9.65 10.90 Profit per lamb .80 .46 1.74 Table II shows that the elimination of dry roughage from the ration caused a decrease in the grain consumption by the lambs. There was a very decided increase in the silage consumption due to the elimination of the dry roughage but not an increase in the pro- portion of the dry matter taken from the ration by the elimination of clover hay. There was also a decrease in the gain per lamb by the elimination of clover hay. .When clover hay was fed there was a gain of 25.2 pounds per lamb during the feeding period. When oat straw was fed in connection with corn silage each lamb gained 17.2 pounds, whereas when corn silage was the only roughage, there was a gain of 17.5 pounds. The cheapest gains were made when the lambs received both corn silage and clover hay, the cost being $8.26 per hundred pounds which covered the cost of 400 pounds of corn, 465 pounds of hay, and 445 pounds of silage. When no clover hay was fed except during the first few days the cost of gain was $8.86 per hundred pounds and the feed required to make a pound of gain was 5.48 pounds of grain, .58 pound of hay and 10.77 pounds of silage. When oat straw was fed in connection with silage more corn was required to make a pound of gain than when either corn silage or corn silage and clover hay were fed and in addition each pound of gain required 3.63 pounds of oat straw and 7.37 pounds of corn silage which made the cost of gain $9.11 per hundred pounds. The finish on the lambs was very much better when clover hay was fed in addition to corn silage, Lot 7 being valued at $10.90 per hundred pounds in the lots as compared with $10.05 m Lot i and $9.65 in Lot 5. The profit per lamb was $1.74 when both clover hay and corn silage were fed, 80 cents when corn silage alone was used for roughage and 46 cents when corn silage and oat straw comprised the roughage eaten. 12 PART III CLOVER HAY VS. ALFALFA HAY AS ROUGHAGE FOR FATTENING LAMBS Part III shows a comparison between clover hay and alfalfa hay as roughage for fattening lambs. Both lots of lambs were treated alike in all particulars except that one received clover hay and the other alfalfa hay. The clover hay used was of medium quality but as good as could be secured locally. It was not possible to secure clover hay entirely free from mold but the lambs ate it with relish. The alfalfa hay fed was of excellent quality and well cured. TABLE: III. — Clover Hay vs. Alfalfa Hay as Roughage for Fattening Lambs, October 28, 1915 to February 5, 1916 RATION Lot 3 Lot 4 Shelled corn, clover Shelled corn, alfalfa Average initial weight 56.4 Ibs. 56.1 Ibs. Average final weight 80.4 " 82.1 " Gain per lamb 24.0 " 26.0 " Average daily gain .24 " .26 " Average daily feed per lamb grain 1.01 " 1.01 " hay 1.82 " 1.70 " Feed per pound gain grain 4.19 " 3.87 " hay 7.57 " 6.55 " Cost per 100 Ibs. gain $ 8.81 $ 7.87 Selling value of lambs in feed lots 10.20 10.75 Profit per lamb 1.02 1.74 It will be noted that the grain consumption by the lambs was the same in both lots but that the hay consumption was higher when clover hay was fed. The gain made by the lambs, however, was greater in Lot 4 receiving alfalfa hay than in Lot 3 receiving clover hay, the difference being two pounds per lamb in one hundred days. The cost of gains was, therefore, considerably cheaper when alfalfa hay was used than when clover hay was fed, both hay and grain requirements being less with the alfalfa hay in the ration. Each hundred pounds of gain cost $7.87 with corn and alfalfa hay as compared with $8.8 1 with corn and clover hay. The finish on the lambs was also better when alfalfa hay was fed. The lambs fed corn and clover hay returned a profit of $1.02 per head as compared with $1.74 per head when corn and alfalfa hay were fed. This trial does not agree with two previous trials at Purdue on this subject. Former trials have shown more rapid and economical gains by the use of clover hay than alfalfa hay. The difference this year should be attributed principally to the difference in the quality of the hay. 13 PART IV COTTONSEED MEAL AS SUPPLEMENT TO RATION FOR FATTENING LAMBS Part IV shows the effect of adding cottonseed meal to a ration of shelled corn, clover hay, and corn silage for fattening lambs. Both lots of lambs were started on oats and gradually changed to corn as outlined in Part I. At the end of twelve days a pound of cottonseed meal for twenty-five lambs was introduced into the ration and increased until at the end of twenty days three pounds of cot- tonseed meal and 21 pounds of corn were fed in Lot 7 as compared with 24 pounds of corn in Lot 6. From this time forward both lots of lambs were fed all the grain, hay, and silage they would consume, the cottonseed meal being kept in the proportion of one pound to seven pounds of corn. At no time during the experiment was there any difference in the quantity of feed eaten between Lots 6 and 7. The appetites of both lots of lambs were keen at all times. TABLE: IV. — Effect of Adding Cottonseed Meal to a Ration of Shelled Corn, Clover Hay, and Corn Silage for Fattening Lambs, October 28, 1915 to February 5, 1916 Lot 6 Lot 7 Shelled corn, Shelled corn, RATION clover hay, cottonseed meal, corn silage clover hay, corn silage Average initial weight 56.3 Ibs. 56.0 Ibs. Average final weight 81.0 ' 81.2 " Gain per lamb 24.7 ' 25.2 " Average daily gain .247 ' .252 " Average daily feed per lamb grain 1.01 ' 1.01 " hay 1.17 ' 1.17 " silage 1.12 ' 1.12 " Teed per pound gain grain 4.07 ' 4.00 " hay 4.74 ' 4.65 " silage 4.52 ' 4.45 " Cost per 100 Ibs. gain $ 8.00 $ 8.26 Selling value of lambs in feed lots 10.30 10.90 Profit per lamb 1.31 1.74 It will be noted in Table IV that there was no difference in the feed consumed by the lambs. There was a very slight increase in rate of gain by the use of the cottonseed meal. There was, how- ever, an increase in cost of gain by the use of cottonseed meal, the higher priced concentrate overbalancing the slight increase in rate of gain. There was a much better finish secured on the lambs re- ceiving cottonseed meal, Lot 7 being valued at $10.90 per hundred pounds as compared with $10.30 per hundred pounds in Lot 6. The profit per lamb was $1.31 per head when no cottonseed meal was fed and $1.74 per head when cottonseed meal supplemented the ration. This is in accord with previous trials showing that cotton- seed meal had its greatest benefit in increasing the finish on the lambs. 14 PART V MOLASSES FOR FATTENING LAMBS Part V is a report of the first trial of a series to determine the value of molasses as an appetizer for fattening lambs. The only difference in the ration between Lots 2 and 7 lies in the fact that four pounds of cane feeding molasses replaced an equal quantity of corn in the daily ration for twenty-five lambs. While the lambs were being started on oats, no molasses was fed. On the sixteenth day on trial, oats were dropped and molasses substituted ; from this time forward four pounds of molasses daily per lot were given in Lot 2. TABLE: V.— Effect of Adding Molasses (Cane) to Rations for Fat- tening Lambs, October 28, 1915 to February 5, 1916 Lot 2 Lot 7 Shelled corn, Shelled corn, RATION cottonseed meal, cottonseed meal, molasses (cane), clover hay, clover hay, corn silage corn silage Average initial weight 56.2 Ibs. 56.0 Ibs. Average final weight 81.8 " 81.2 " Gain per lamb 25.6 " 25.2 " Average daily gain .256 " .252 " Average daily feed per lamb grain 1.02 1.01 " hay 1.19 1.17 silage 1.12 1.12 Feed per pound gain grain 3.99 4.00 hay 4.64 4.65 silage 4.35 4.45 Cost per 100 Ibs. gain $ 8.49 $ 8.26 Selling value of lambs in feed lots 10.40 10.90 Profit per lamb 1.29 1.74 Table V shows that there was very little difference in the ap- petites of the lambs in the two lots under discussion. When mo- lasses was fed, however, the lambs seemed to be a little more eager for their feed than when it was not fed. The rate of gain was slightly faster when molasses was used. The cost of the molasses was so high, however, that 100 pounds of gain cost $8.49 when molasses was added as compared with $8.26 per hundred pounds when no molasses was used. This was due to the price of molasses and not to the quantity of feed consumed for each pound of gain, because the feed required to make a pound of gain 15 was less in Lot 2 than in Lot 7. The valuation placed on the lambs was higher in Lot 7 than in Lot 2 thus making a higher profit Where no molasses was fed. There does not seem to be any logical reason, however, why the lambs in Lot 2, which made more rapid gains than those in Lot 7 should not have finished as well as the latter. Had the valuation of the lambs been the same there would have been only three cents per lamb difference in the profit in favor of not feeding molasses whereas under the actual valuations there was a difference of 45 cents in the profit per lamb. i6 PART VI GROUND SOYBEANS VS. COTTONSEED MEAL AS SUPPLE- MENT TO RATIONS FOR FATTENING LAMBS Part VI is a discussion of results comparing cottonseed meal and ground soybeans as supplements to corn for fattening lambs. Both lots of lambs were fed the same except that cottonseed meal was used in Lot 7 and ground soybeans in Lot 8. There was no appareiil difference in ibc appetites of the lambs throughout the experiment. I'.otb lots of lambs seemed to relish their feed. TABI«& VI. — Cottonseed Meal vs. Ground Soybeans as Supplement to Shelled Corn, Clover Hay, and Corn Silage for Fattening Lambs, October jS, 1<)I5 to February 5, rc)i(> Lot? l,..t S RATION Slirll.Ml COl-M, cottonseed meal, Shelled corn, ground Noybeans, clover hay, clover liny. corn silage corn ullage Average Initial weight 56.0 Ibs. 56.2 Ibs. Average final weight 81.2 " 80.5 " (Jain per lamb 25.2 " 24.3 " Average daily train .252 " .243 " Average daily IVed per lamb grain 1.01 " 1.01 " hay 1.17 " 1.16 " si la ire 1.12 " 1.12 " Feed per pound jrnin grain 4.00 " 4.14 " hay 4.65 " 4.78 " silage 4.45 - •l.f.l " Cost per 100 Ibs. jrnin $ 8.26 . $ 8.5'J Selling value of lambs in feed lots 10.1)0 10.66 Ti-o lit per lamb v 1.74 1/15 It will be noted in Table VI that the daily feed consumption was the same in both lots. There was very little difference in the rate of gain made by the lambs although this slight difference was in favor of the lambs receiving cottonseed meal. The feed required to make a pound of gain and cost of gain was also in favor of the cottonseed meal. With both supplements valued at the same price, 100 pounds of gain cost $8.26 when cottonseed meal was fed as compared with $8.52 when ground soybeans were fed. The lambs receiving cottonseed meal were valued at $10.90 per hundred pounds and returned a profit of $1.74 per lamb. Lambs fed ground soy- beans as supplement to their ration were valued at $10.05 per hun- dred pounds and returned a profit of $1.45 per lamb. Had both lots of lambs been valued at the same price, the profit in Lot 8 would have been $1.65 per bead as compared with a profit of $1.74 per head in Lot 7. PART VII OPEN SHED VS. BARN AS SHELTER FOR FATTENING LAMBS Part VII shows the influence of shelter on fattening lambs. )t 6 wa^ fed in an open shed containing a space 14 by i'> feel, ider cover and 14 by 14 feet in the open. Lot 9 was fed in a barn iih three \\indows on the north, one on the south, and one on the which were kept open for ventilation. The lambs were con- lined to a space 14 by 24 feet. There was a floor space in the barn, however, of }h by 44 feet with no other animals in the barn, thus giving excellent ventilation for the lambs. TAHI.I VII. — Open Shed vs. Barn as Shelter for Fattening Lambs, October 28, 1915 to February 5, 1916 Lot 6 Lot 9 Open shed 1 Barni Avorago initial weight 56.3 Ibs. 56.2 Ibs. Avenigr fin.-il weight 81.0 " 80.1 " (Jain per lamh 24.7 " 23.9 " Aver.-ij.--e chilly gain .247 " .239 " Average daily food per lamb grain 1.01 " 1.01 " bay 1.17 " 1.17 " silage 1.12 " 1.09 " Feed prr pound gain train 4.07 " 4.22 " Bay 4.74 " 4.91 " si Inge 4.52 " 4.57 " Cost por 100 Ibs. gain $ 8.00 $ 8.27 SHIing value of hunks in feed lots io.:u) 10.30 Profit por lamb 1.31 1.22 1 I cation was shelled corn, clover hay, and corn silage Table VII shows that there was no difference in grain or hay consumption between the two lots but that the silage consumption -lightly greater in the open shed. This was due to the fact that the lambs in the barn did not learn to eat silage as early as those in the open. After they had learned to eat their silage well then was no difference in the silage consumption between the two The gain was slightly more rapid for the lambs in the open shed, tlie gain por lamb being 24.7 pounds in Lot 6 and 23.9 pounds i" Lot <) fed in the barn. The food required to make a pound of gain was loss in Lot 6 fed in the open shed than in Lot 9 fed in the barn. i8 o 8 ^_^ VQ i— i to b eg ? to * I c & W .s >TO o> & 1 s 3 CO « 3 i oo TJH os o t^ i-i co T-i' T-H OO t^» Oi OO 1O Tf* i— I C- IO C^ TF OO oo 3 s; 00 LOOO TH cqee-o 0> XO OO OO CD OO CD OO CM6/3-OCM rH CM OO »oxo o t>^ OS CM Iffllffl ifl o o w fl C5 *j W O w d CO CM OO OO t— ^^ ^> T-H CM rH CO r- Tfi 1O OO CO CM O5 CD OO CM e/3-o xo -^ CM oo rf o> CD CO rH rH CM (M r *O CM 1O OO rH rH CM€«-rHrH 10 00 XO OO Tf CD flfl -C o o w ST; n^[; & >.a » ,„, „, t» o . . 10 OS rH OO COOO rH tot-; oqoq -* T}5 T^H O rH IO CO t>- CO OO rH O CD oq oq TJJ co 10 O rH IO* CO t— oi oo oo t^ cooo c^io 00 rH CO t-^ IO f— OO IO l>- OO IO co coca co 10 oq co t^ CO O rH IO* TfC^I rH rH t- CO CO rH OilO"^ !>• OO rH OS OO CO 10 co co cqoq-^ coc^oq IO CO !>• O Oi rH lO O rH rH T-H rH •fr i OO OO !>• OO O I rH IO rH I rH IO co cd ** OOt^COrHOOOrHrH °™%£ OOTlfM COlO(M TtcooonrHCN C<1 !>• rH rH rH rHCx5cOldoOOrHrH said, in passing, that the sheep is the ideal animal for the man with the small capital. The business can be entered into with but a small outlay of money and large returns secured upon it he outlay within a few months after the investment is made. The poor man cannot wait long for his investment to begin to return dividends. The sheep and the hog are the poor man's animals. Of course large amounts of money can be invested in them if desirable. The work began in the summer of 1906 with {he old flock of ewes which had been kept upon the Station farm for several years previous. This flock consisted of but 16 ewes, of mixed breeding, headed by a pure-bred Southdown ram. The pictures will show the general quality of the animals. Later on, in 1007, there was a flock of 30 scrub ewes added to these, headed by a pure-bred Dorset ram, but the Station is not yet ready to report upon the work done with this scrub flock, except with respect to some winter work in cotton seed menl food in 2. 137 How THE OLD FLOCK WAS HANDLED. During the summer months, \vhile the pastures were green, no attention was given the sheep at all except to see that they had plenty of water and a mixture of tobacco dust and salt before them at all times. The object in feed- ing the tobacco was to keep down stomach worms, as the worms are the bane of the sheep farmer, and it is claimed that tobacco dust will hold the pest in check. This was given them in proportion of one pint of dust to about four pints of salt. The sheep soon acquired a taste for the tobacco. It is well known that sheep should be changed from pasture to pasture as often as possible, un- less the range be exceedingly large. The object in chang- ing the pasture is to hold in check the stomach worms. The Station's pastures, or lots, are small, so the sheep were changed from one to the other as often as the grass became short. There was no regularity followed in making the change. The period of gestation in the ewe is about five months, so if the lamb is to be dropped in December or the first of January she must be bred in July or early part of August. To be sure that she breeds in these months she should be turned upon a fresh pasture just before the time for breed- ing and then given a little cotton seed meal daily. As far as possible this plan has been followed with this flock. Of course there will always be a few late lambs, but if the ewes are in good breeding condition, neither too fat nor too poor, throughout July and August, the great majority of them will breed to drop lambs from Christmas to January the 15th. The Station ram was allowed to run with the ewes at all times. If there had been as many as 50 ewes it would have been wise to have kept him away from the flock during the day time, and turned him in with them at night only. But with the few that we had he could be expected to be a safe breeder when running with the ewes both night and day. Som^ sheep farmers do not permit the ram to run 138 with the flock at all through the breeding season, but un- less the owner has time to examine the ewes closely every day it is better for the male to be with them at least one- half of the time or the lamb crop will come on irregularly. WINTER FEEDING OF EWES. In the fall when the pastures became exhausted the ewes had to be managed as the small, farmer would have handled them. There was no open range upon the Station farm »o they had to be fed throughout the winter months. The man who has a farm with a winter pasture or range could have avoided this extra expense. Some farmers in the state feed nothing but cotton seed meal and hulls to the pregnant ewes during the winter months. Others feed nothing but cotton seed. Still others are afraid to feed either cotton seed meal or cotton seed, thinking that cotton by-products are dangerous feeds for sheep. It is often claimed that cotton seed or cotton seed meal will cause blindness, dizziness, etc., and sometimes death when given to ewes. During the winter of 190G-'07 the old flock was divided into two lots of eight ewes eaclu and one lot was fed upon soy bean hay alone and the other lot upon cotton seed meal and hulls. The soy bean hay was of excellent quality but had no mature beans upon it, as it was cut before the beans were ripened. The cotton seed meal was fresh and bright. Local conditions determine, to a large extent, the prices ef feeds. Any prices that the authors might assume would not meet all conditions, so actual Auburn prices were taken as a basis upon which to rest the financial estimates. The local prices were: Cotton seed meal $25.00 per ton. Cotton seed hulls . :__ _f 6.00 per ton. Roy bean hay ___ _|12.50 per ton. Pasture rent per sheep per month .10 Cotton seed $12.00 per ton. During the winter (time the animals were enclosed in a small pen, with a 'shelter across one end, so they could get Southdown Ram. The pure-bred ram quickly improves the flock in both conformation and wool covering. Lot I — Wintered on Soy Bean hay. Hay per ewe daily, 1.9 pounds. Expense to feed each ewe a month, 35 cents. Lot II — Wintered on Cotton Seed Meal and Hulls. Feed per eive daily j '5 Pound cotton sccd me«1' 1.3 pound cotton feed 139 no feed but that which was weighed out to them. Salt and water were kept before them constantly. No tobacco was used throughout the winter months, but perhaps it would have been wise to have used it. They were fed twice daily. The ewes were pregnant, and of course did not all lamb upon the same date. When one dropped a lamb she was taken out of her lot and put into a third lot, where the object was to learn how much the feed must be increased to maintain a ewe while milking. The following table tabulates the results of the winter work— 190G-'07: Tulle 1. Cotton seed meal and hulls versus Soy Bean hay for wintering pregnant eices. Lot. Ration. Av Xo. ewes for 106 days Feed eaten daily per ewe Total gain each ewe for 106 days Cost of fetd per ewe per month Lbs. Lbs. Cts. 1 \ Cotton seed meal 1 1 / Cotton seed hulls J 5.8 0.5 1.3 1.8 30 2 Soy bean hay . . . 6.4 1.9 1.6 35 The ewes were not, of course, given all they could eat. The object was to feed them only enough to maintain them,, that is, to keep them from either losing or gaining in weight throughout the winter months. The above ewes gained between one and two pounds each during the entire winter. It would, no doubt, have been better if they had been given enough feed to have made them gain from six to eight pounds each, as each one had to develop a. foetus which weighed from five to nine pounds at birth. The farmer could have cheapened the ration of lot 1. the cotton seed meal lot, by not feeding as much cotton seed meal as was fed in the test. It would have been cheaper to have cut down the meal and increased the hulls, but a large amount of meal was used in the test so that it would be possible to collect some data upon the effect of rather large dfiily feeds of cotton seed meal upon the health of the ewes. Tn this tost the Cotton -seed meal ration was fixed at ona- 140 half a pound daily per ewe and the hull part of the feed was varied so as to hold her at a uniform weight. The test shows .5 of a pound of cotton seed ineal and 1.3 pounds of hulls to be sufficient to maintain these preg- nant ewes in the winter time. The ewes averaged about 95 pounds in weight. The animals were given this ration for 106 days and some of them even longer. One and nine- tenths pounds of soy bean hay per ewe per day proved to be sufficient to maintain the other lot. Both lots came through to ithe lambing period in excellent health and spirits, but the cotton seed meal lot seemed to be more spirited and alert than the soy bean lot. No objection, though, could be brought against either feed as far as their general effects upon the animals were concerned. When the prices are quoted as heretofore given the cotton seed meal ration proved to be the cheaper of the two. In lot one it cost 30 cents a month to feed each animal, while with lot two the expense was 35 cents a month per ewe. A little change in the price of feeds would alter the financial statement, however. But, taking the above results and quotations as a basis, the soy bean hay proved to be worth $10.68 a ton for carrying the ewes through the winter when compared to the cotton seed meal and hull ration. In some parts of the state that price would be a good one for the hay, but in other portions of the state conditions are such that a farmer could well afford to sell the hay upon tlie market, and with the proceeds buy cotton seed meal and hulls to use in feeding the sheep. In many points in the state soy bean hay sells for |15.00 to $20.00 a ton. The farmer cannot afford to feed it to sheep, or, in fact, any other kind of live stock, except probably the work animals, when he can secure f 20.00 a ton for it after a short haul. Other feeds are cheaper. FEEDING THE MILKING EWE. As stated above, when a ewe brought a lamb she was taken out of her lot and placed in a third lot, where she was given more feed than when dry. After the lamb came 141 *he was a iiiilkiiig animal and had to be treated as such. The cow in milk requires much more feed than does me dry cow, and so the milking ewe must be fed more liberally than the dry one. The most economical thing to have done with the ewe \vhen she dropped the lamb would have been to put her and the lamb out upon green pasture. This date would be around January the first. Green pastures can easily be provided at this time of year, as oats, vetch, rye, wheat, burr clover and barley pastures. The pasture method is the way the farmer should handle his flock for the great- est profit, but the Station wished to learn how much the feed should be increased after the ewe came into milk, and also study the effect of prolonged feeding of cotton seed meal upon the health of the animal, so it was not possible to employ the cheapest methods in this particular test. So the mothers were confined in a third lot and fed upon an increased amount of cotton seed meal and hulls. A small passage was made in the fence leading out into the pasture, wrhich was composed of oats and vetch, and the lambs only were given the freedom of this run. But it might be that the farmer would not be supplied writh a green field when the lambs begin to come, and he would be interested in knowing just how much the feed should be increased wrhen the ewe changes from a dry to a milking animal. The majority of owners allow their ewes, cows, sows and mares to run down rapidly in flesh wh^n they come into milk. It has been a rule of the writers to increase the feed of a mare or a cow twenty-five per cent, when the young animal was born, thinking that this increase in feed would be sufficient to maintain the mother in as good condi- tion as she was before giving birth to the voting animal, but tho following data show that an increase of twenty-five per cent, was not sufficient : 142 Table 2. Amount feed required to maintain a ewe before and after lambing. Lot Ration Am't feed Total gain each e\ve eaten daily for whole period Cost to carry each t-we for one month Before lambing: Lbs. Lbs. • as. 1 ( Cotton seed meal / j Cotton seed hulls \ 0.5 1.3 1.8 35 After lambing: ~ ( Cotton seed meal ) ' j Cotton seed hulls ( .88 2.35 1.5 54 At the beginning of the test the feed of those ewes in milk was made just double the amount given the dry ewes so that the animals would be sure to not lose in weight, but it was soon learned, as the ewes begun to increase in weight, that an hundred per cent, increase was more than necessary, so the amount was gradually decreased until it was brought down to the above average figures. They were carried along upon this basis for a period of seventy-three days. The ewes were practically maintained, as far as total weight was concerned, as they gained but one and one- half pounds for the whole time. In the test it required 75 per cent, more cotton seed meal and 81 per cent, more hulls to maintain a ewe when suckling a lamb than when she was dry and pregnant. Of course there are several fac- tors that would be controlling ones in determining the amount of feed required for an animal after lambing, as the amount of milk given, but under conditions as they existed in this test the necessary increase in feed, when the animal came into milk, was nc4 less than 75 per cent, above that which she received when dry. In some experimental work with grade angns cows, Pro- fessor Mumford, of the Illinois University, in bulletin III, says, "In this test it took approximately twice as much feed to maintain a cow suckling a calf as it did during her pregnancy." 143 HANDLING AND FEEDING THE LAMBS. As a rule, the farmer feeds the early lanib nothing in addition to Us mother's milk and what little pasture it cam secure during the winter months. It will pay to feed the lambs though, and to feed them well. Any animal makes its cheapest gains when young. If it has a good pasture of oats and vetch to run upon it will eat but little grain in addition. But it will eat some corn and should have it, because this early lamb, to derive the greatest profit upon him, and at the same time lessen the risk of summer dis- ease, should be pushed to an early market. The first lambs were dropped January the 8th. This was late, which fact gave greater cause for pushing them to an early market. From the sixteen ewes fourteen lambs were raised to a marketable age. Two of the ewes were too young to breed at this time. As soon as the lamb was born he was placed in a third lot with his mother. In the fence of this lot was a small hole which permitted the lambs to creep through and make use of the pasture of oats and vetch. The pasture, which had been fall planted, was ready for grazing by tne time they could use it. As stated above, it would have been better and cheaper if the mothers had been allowed the run of this pasture also, but they were kept off for reasons heretofore mentioned. A small pen was also cut off in the corner of the lot where the mothers were kept and a creep made into this pen largfe enough for the lambs to go through. In this pen coarsely ground corn was kept all the time in a small trough. The pasture and grain should be given the lambs as soon as they are born and they will begin to eat by the time they are ten days old. The lambs did not eat much corn, but what they did eat helped to put the finish on them at an earlier date, so that they sold well upon the market. The 14 lambs at? but 6.6 bushels of corn during the whole winter and early spring. 80 the lambs had all of the corn, milk and green pastures that they wanted. With this combination of feed they, of oonrse. did well. 144 They Avere sold at an average age of 101 days and had attained an average live weight of 51 pounds (Atlanta weights) . They ma^fe excellent gains to be born of mothers that average only 95 pounds in weight. It might have been more profitable to have carried them to a heavier weight, but that point could not be determined. If they had been born earlier they could have been fed longer and still been placed upon the early market. The object was to sell them as early in the season as possible and yet have a reasonable size. This is the reason why earliness of birth is such an important question. When warm weather comes on the price of mutton declines, as people do not like mutton during the warm months, so it is to the advantage of the owner to let the lambs go at the earliest possible date. And, too, when they are sold' in the early spring the danger of losses from summer dis- eases is also considerably lessened. The earliest bunch was sent to Atlanta, April 23rd, 1907. The Station has suc- ceeded, during the last two years, in getting some lambs ready for the market by the middle of April. Two of the bunch sold for nine cents a pound live weight, while three sold for eight and one-half cents a pound. The remaining ones were sent on later and sold for but eight cents a pound. The late ones were, in fact, better lambs than the first onos. but the weather was becoming warm and there was not as great a demand for them as there was for the early ones. The l>est prices prevail just before Easter time. The Station has not been able to secure as good prices for lambs as have some farmers of the slate. A picture in another part of the bulletin -shows some lambs which were sold, in April, 1908, in Birmingham, for ten cents a pound live weight. It must be remembered, too, that these lambs were not fancy bred ones. They were just common lambs. In fact, 1wo of them were out of scrub mothers by a pure bred Southdown ram. The others were out of grade mothers. 145 ^ >SALT FED. Salt was placed in small boxes and kept before the animals all the time. They are very fond of it, as the fol- lowing table shows. Each ewe ate at the rate of 15 to 19 pounds of salt yearly, or a flock of 100 ewes would have consumed in one year's time from 1,500 to 2,000 pounds of salt. Table 3. Salt eaten per month ~by each ewe. Lot Ration Ponnds salt eaten per ewe each month 1 (1906) Soy bean hay 1 35 7 '1906) Cotton seed meal j 1 53 1 (1907) Cotton seed hulls j ' Green sorghum plus mixed ( hav /«iimmpr wnrlr'l ' 1.23 Cotton seed meal .". . ) 2 (1907) Cotton seed hulls (summer [• 1.29 work) j WATER DRANK.' It is often thought that sheep will not drink much water, and that they will thrive as well without it as with it. Data were collected on the amount of water consumed by some ewes from August 21st to September 9th, 1908, while Ihey were confined in small sheltered lots. The weather was about normal for this time of year. Table 4. Water drank per ewe per day. Lot Ration Pounds water used by each ewe per day 1 Green sorghum 2.5 (.3 gallons) 2 Cotton seed meal and hulls 6.1 (.95 gallons) FINANCIAL STATEMENT FOR OLD FLOCK. 1906-'07. The financial statement includes all the income and ex- penses upon the old flock of 16 ewes and one ram from October the first, 1906, to October the first, 1907,— a year's time. While the flock was not carried through the year wilh a view of rendering a financial statement at the end, still the statement points out what profit can be made upon 146 a small flock if profits be the only point ill view. The authors had other questions to solve with the Hock, so it was not carried through the year as cheaply as the farmer could have carried it through. If profits had been the only point in view the animals would have been handled more economically by feeding the ewes very little grain after the iainbs were born. To secure the greatest returns the moth- ers should have been turned out into the oat and vetch pas- ture with the lambs and fed little, if any, concentrated feeds. But owing to the fact that the Station at that time owned no other flock, this same flock had to be used in the spring experiment of 1907, when a study was made of the amount of feed required to maintain a ewe after lambing. This, of course, ran the expense up very materially — - about 30 per cent, more than it should have been. But in the following financial statement all of the expenses have been counted against the flock. Table 5. Financial statement of old flock — 1906-1907. Expenses : Rent on pasture, 10 cts. per sheep per month $12.24- Lot 1. 1503- lbs. soy bean hay at $12.50 per ton 9.39 T t 9 342 Ibs. cotton seed meal at $25.00 per ton . . 4.27 879 Ibs. cotton seeed hulls at $6.00 per ton . . 2.64 530 Ibs. cotton seed meal at $25.00 per ton . . 6.62 T . o 1332 Ibs. cotton seed hulls at $6.00 per ton . . 3.99 f^»i»Kfe~\i98 lbs- cotton seed at $12-00 Per ton •• •• 1-19 (after lambing) 1 ton green hay &t $2>00 per ton 2>00 371 lbs. corn at 70 cents per bushel 4.63 35 lbs. bran at $30.00 per ton 52 Death one ewe 3.00 Express charges to send lambs to Atlanta 7.00 Express charges to send wool to Atlanta 60 Total $58.09 Receipts: To 14 lambs $53.56 To 55 1-2 lbs. wool, 26 1-2 cts. per Ib. . . 14.64 Total . ..$68.20 Side view of average Alabama scrub ewe. Price $1.50— $3.00. These ewes are excellent animals with which to start a flock of sheep. Use pure-bred rams upon them. 16 lambs of this bunch told for 10 cents a pound, live "weight, at Birmingham, April 15, 1908. Belonged to J. S. Kernachan. Spring lambs running on a pasture of oats and vetch during the winter time. U7 The above tabulation shows every item of expense against the flock during the entire year except the labor required to look after it. It has been assumed that the value of the manure will offset the labor expenses. After all of these expenses were considered the flock gave a return of $10.11. What do these figures mean? Do they mean that the Sta- tion received but $10.11 on the whole flock? No, that is not all they mean. They mean that the Staton realized $12.50 per ton for all the soy bean hay eaten throughout the winter, that the pasture rented for ten cents per sheep per mouth, that 70 cents per bushel were realized upon the corn used and $12.00 a ton on the cotton seed — and finally, in addition 1o marketing the farm crops at the above prices, $10.11 were realized. The financial returns were satisfac- tory, but not as satisfactory as ithey could have been made if the feed bill had been cut down and pasture made use of after the lambs came. For instance the farmer would have almost entirely dispensed with the feed item of $13.70 for lot 3. Live stock should be looked upon as a means of marketing the farm crops at good prices while, at the same time, the manure is returned to the soil. EXPERIENCE OF Two ALABAMA SHEEP FARMERS. Many farmers will be interested in the following state- ments from good farmers who have tried the sheep business and are making a success of it — Alabama Experimental Station. Dear Sirs :— About fifteen years ago I bought six head of ewes and one buck as a start in the sheep business. Up to that time I had never liked sheep, but experience has taught me to be more and more pleased wth them as time goes by. They have been great money makers for me. I kept all the ewe lambs for several years and today have one hundred and forty head of breeding ewes. For the last five years have sold both male and female lambs, keeping just enough ewe lambs to keep up the number where I want it. 148, I do not know of an iuvestment that will make money faster than will sheep — with proper care and attention. We think an investment is doing wonderfully well if the origi- nal capital doubles itself in ten years. But see what the sheep did; if they had increased to twelve only witliin the ten years they would have doubled the investment. But they did much more than simply double. Within the ten years the ewe part of the flock — that part retained upon the farm — doubled about five times, to say nothing of the number of ewe and male lambs that have been sold from tie farm within the ten years. I have idealized, in the fifteen years, about one thousand dollars for lambs, while the wool has paid for the keep of the flock every year. I have never been bothered by dogs. I have always kept the sheep upon my own lands, never allowing them to run i^pon the commons. The animals have been perfectly healthy all the time. I have never lost a sheep except from old age. They run upon pasture about nine months of the year without any other feed in addition. The pasture keeps them in fine condition. During the lambing itime the ewes need some extra feed, so I then give them some cotton seed — about three bushels to each one hundred ewes — and any good hay that I happen to have on hand. The lands upon which the sheep have been running will carry twice as many head of stock now as it would ten years ago. The sheep is called the "golden hoofed" animal and I think they are entitled to the name; they have not only brought in the money, but have improved the land. The manure spreader is said to. be a paying investment, but sheep are a decided improvement on any manure spreader, as they manufacture and spread the manure too. T have never had trouble arise from running other kinds of stock with the sheep. T keep horses, cattle and sheep in the same pasture all through the grazing season, except when the lambs are younir, when T keep them away from all other 141) stock. The other stock do not object to eating the grass iipon which the sheep have grazed. Yours trulv. J. fc§. KERNACIIAN, Florence, Ala. Alabama Experiment {Station. Dear {Sirs:— Jn January, 1904, when we bought our farm, the man of Nvhum we bought it had a small flock of forty-eight head of -sheep and was very anxious to leave them with us on shares, but we had ahvays heard that sheep would ruin a pasture, and so were unwilling for them to stay. But finally we agreed to keep the sheep for him for eighteen months on shares; we were to receive one-half of the wool and lambs and bear the expense of pasture and the labor to look after them. The first year we raised fifty-four lambs and divided up about July first. As he intended to sell his part of the lambs he took the bucks and left us twenty-seven ewe lambs as our part of the first crop of lambs. Now, it is strange, but it is a fact, that the next spring every one of these tw<>n1y-sevi!n ewes had lambs and some of them had twins. When we divided up again the next year, about July first, we had about seventy-five sheep, and besides had cHvrd sume money for our part of the wool. In the meantime we had watched pretty closely and found that, instead of injuring our pastures, the sheep had benefited them by eating weeds and other things which our cattle would not eat. So far, we were well pleased with onr experiment and de- cided that, by breeding up our sheep, we could make some money, so wo ordered two Southdown rams from Ken- tucky. We decided on the Southdown because, after read- ing and making inquiry, we thought tl>ov would suit ns V'st as wo profor a dual purpose animal — ono that would produce both AVOO! and mnfton. \W Imvo l»ad no cause for rerrrot in making- tin's selection, as thov have boon vorv 150 Jhardy here and proved to be the ideal sheep for Qiir needs. £very year we have put in new bucks, selected and kept our best ewe lambs, and sold the buck lambs and the old investment in sheep has never paid us less than hundred per cent, and many years has paid us even ?auore than that. The higher we grade them up the better Tthey pay us, notwithstanding the fact that the higher they ;are graded up the greater price we place upon the breeding rHock. As evidence of this fact, we have sheared from one ^hundred and seven sheep six hundred and thirty-three jpounds of wool in the grease, but free of burrs and dirt. Although our lambs were unusually late this season, they liave been dressed and shipped, having made an average ^dressed weight of about forty pounds. Their quality has l>een such as to tax our capacity for supplying them, and we have received the best price we have ever obtained. The sheep we started with were scrubs — justf the ordinary *heep of the county. Our farm is no better than many other farms of the State, yet our sheep have proven to be a better investment 'to us than money at compound interest. :8till it is a fact that some farmers contend that there is BIO money in live stock on the farm, and that, here in -Alabama, we canndt afford to have anything but scrub cat- tle, sheep and hogs. If the farmer who thinks this will try in but a small way to improve and build up his stock- giving the business the same conservative thought and care that brings success to other undertakings — he will soon "have a good balance to the credit of the live stock account, l>esides having the satisfaction of owning useful and pretty animals. We try to keep only about one hundred ewes, and carry them in the pasture along with about one hundred and "fifty cattle. The sheep benefit the pasture by keeping down weeds. There is no objection to having the sheep and cattle In the same pasture. We make our living from the farm, consequently everything upon the farm must pay its own 151 way and make something for us besides. We have found, and the Southern farmers who try it will find, that sheep are a paying- proposition. They have the following ad- rant ages : They require but a small capital to begin the business. They will do well on hilly and broken lands. Their manure is one of the richest animal manures that can be obtained. The money comes in from them in the spring and early summer when money is scarce. They subsist on things that other animals will not eat. They afford us two sources of profit — wool and lambs. Yours very truly, J. B. MCDANIEL, Camden, PART II. FEEDING COTTON SEED MEAL TO SHEEP. It is generally thought that cotton seed meal has a toxic- effect on sheep similar to the effect it often has on hogs. Many farmers will not use it as a sheep feed because of the reported ill results. It is charged with producing illness, blindness, dizziness, etc., after being used for a few weeks. For the last four years this Station has been trying to determine whether cotton seed meal is an injurious feed for sheep or not, and, so far, no ill results have come from its use, with possibly one exception in 1906. The old flock of ewes has been used in this work to- gether with a flock of scrub ewes which were brought to the farm in the summer of 1907. The animals using the meal have been fed by the side of other animals which were being given rations without cotton seed meal so as to study the effect of the cotton seed meal upon the general health of the animals, even though no deaths should occur as a result of its use. The following table gives the details of ihe live weight, total cotton seed meal eaten and num- ber of days that each ewe ate the cotton seed meal : Table 6. Feeding cotton seed meal to sheep. i c §1 6 O) 88 *£ II j|as. 134 Excellent health throughout. 151 7.1 78.8 '88 for 131 das' j 134 Excellent health throughout, 1907. 5 120 105.0 .5 210 Excellent health throughout. 7 102 92.5 .5 185 Died Jan. 31-'08. No blindness,. dizziness, etc. Cause of death probably worms, as worms were in stomach. . 3 120 105.0 .5 210 Excellent health throughout. 4 132 73.5 .5 147 Died Jan. 11-'08. She seemed blind, staggered, would not eat well when fed in trough. Died fat. Would eat if feed placed before her. 96 32 17.5 .5 35 Died Sept. 19-'08. Death cau? ed by getting head fastened k fence. 33 59 105.0 .5 210 Excellent health throughout. 29 65 105.0 .5 210 Excellent health throughout. ( .25 for 44 das. 65 16.8- .28 for 10 das. 63 Excellent health throughout. ( .33 for 9 das. 75 34.0 | 'g5 ff°* 4g 90 Excellent health throughout. ( .25 for 44 das. 65 16.8 . .28 for 10 das. 63 Excellent health throughout. ( .33 for 9 das. ( .25 for 44 das. 83 16.8] .28 for 10 das. 63 Excellent health throughout. ( .33 for 9 das. I .25 for 44 das. 85 31.8- .28 for 10 das. 90 Excellent health throughout. ( .5 for 36 das. ( .25 for 44 das. 65 16.8- .28 for 10 das. 63 Excellent health throughout. .33 for 0 das. 154 ) .25 for 44 das. 196 70 16.8 > .28 for 10 das. 63 Excellent health throughout ) .33 for 9 das. ( .25 for 44 das. 197 54 16.8^ .28 for 10 das. 63 Excellent health throughout ( .33 for 9 das. 170 74 18.2 .32 for 57 das. 57 Aborted after weigh day. 171 46 18,. 2 .32 for 57 das.' 57 Had been on sorghum; became very weak before putting on cotton seed meal. 174 47 18.2 .32 for 57 das. 57 Had been on sorghum; became very weak before putting on cotton seed meal. 198 35 5.9 .28 for 21 das. 21 Had been on sorghum; became very weak before putting on cotton seed meal. 177 68 18.2 .32 for 57 das. 57 Had been on hay. Gaine! rapidly when put on cottrn seed meal. 181 61 18.2 .32 for 57 das. 57 Had been on hay. Gaine rapidlv when put on cottoi seed meal. 140 52 18.2 .32 for 57 das. 57 Had been on hay. Gain- rapidly when put on coitf seed meal. .185 58 18.2 .32 for 57 das. 57 Had been on cotton see' before placed on cotton seed meal. 188 50 18.2 .32 for 57 das. 57 Had been on cotton seed before placed on cotton seed meal. r*9 65 18.2 .32 for 57 das. 57 Had been on - cotton before placed on cotton seed meal. 199 49 18.2 .32 for 57 das. 57 Had been on cotton rec before placed on cotton ?eed meal. 1908. ( .23 for 94 das. 185 95 65.1 -.8 for 33 das. 157 Excellent health throughout. ( .57 for 30 das. ( .23 for 94 das. 48 100 65. IT. 8 for 33 das. 157 Excellent health throughout f .57 for 30 das. 155 ( .23 for 67 das. 182 110 80.51 -80 for 60 das. ( .57 for 30 das. i .23 for 68 das. 177 96 79.9-^ .80 for 59 das. j .57 for 30 das. 194 *84 16.6 .23 for 72 das. 5 109 58.1 -j .23 for 165 das. .48 for 42 das. f .23 for 84 das. 186 100 84.3 ! i .80 for 43 das. .57 for 30 das. I .48 for 28 das. 193 90 27.8 .23 for 121 das. ( .23 for 73 das. 58 81 77. li .8 for 54 das. ( .57 for 30 das. 190 68 19.8 .23 j .23 for 73 das. 178 95 77.1 - .8 for 54 das. j .57 for 30 das. j .23 for 78 das. 61 99 74.2 • .80 for 49 das. ( .57 for 30 das. I .23 for 106 das. 30 102 65.5- .57 for 30 das. ( .48 for 50 das. 33 93 31.1 .23 17 60 16.8 .23 f .23 for 71 das. 70 110 91. 7 J .8 for 56 das. .57 for 30 das. I .48 for 28 das. f .23 for 73 das. 71 100 101.1 .80 for 54 das. .57 for 30 das. I .48 for 50 das. t .5 for 71 das. 174 75 97.4 .8 for 56 das. ( .57 for 30 das. 157 Excellent health throughout. 157 Excellent health throughout. 72 Aborted. Taken out of test. 207 Excellent health throughout. 185 Excellent health throughout. 121 Died. No report on death. 157 Excellent health throughout. 86 Aborted. Taken out of test. 157 Excellent health throughout. 157 Excellent health throughout. 186 Excellent health throughout. 135 Aborted. Taken out of test. 73 Taken out of test as she was young and was getting weak. 185 Excellent health throughout. 207 Excellent health throughout. 157 Excellent health throughout. 156 192 91 38.5 .50 for 77 das. 77 Excellent health throughout. f .50 for 93 das. n , 2 114 114.8 i -*° Jo* 34 das. 20? Excellent health throughout. i . o i xor ou uas. I .48 for 50 das. ( .5 for 67 das. 195 75 98.6-] .8 for 60 das. 157 Excellent health throughout. ( .57 for 30 das. 47 85 47.0 .5 for 94 das. 94 Absorted. Taken out of test. f .5 for 109 das. 14 135 106-°]'57for 30 das' 202 Excellent health throughout. I .48 for 50 das. f . 5 for 82 das. 196 70 118. iJ -8 £or 45 ^as' 207 Excellent health throughout; i . o i lor oU oas. ( .48 for 50 das. f .5 for 116 das. 29 105 97.3.-! 'g7 t°£ gj jj^g* 185 Excellent health throughout. i '.48 for 28 das'. f .5 for 100 das. 59 85 102. l\ -f_ ^or H riod, the average gain per head was increased from 0.24 to 0.4£ >und daily. 9. After ground feterita and milo had been supplemented in the ition received by Lot 2, the lambs did not go "off feed" as readily when on the ration composed wholly of cotton seed meal and silage. 10. The lambs of Lot 1 returned a profit of $1.03 per head, or a )fit of 38'.3 per cent, on the original investment. 11. The lambs of Lot 2 returned a profit of 82 cents per head, or profit of 30.3 per cent, on the original investment. 12. Throughout the experiment the cost of salt per head figured than one cent. fANUARY, 1912 BULLETIN 309 CORNELL UNIVERSITY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Department of Animal Husbandry THE PRODUCTION OF "HOTHOUSE" LAMBS Under the direction of HENRY H. WING BY E. S. SAVAGE AND G. W. TAILBY, JR ITHACA, N. Y. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY CORNELL UNIVERSITY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION EXPERIMENTING STAFF LIBERTY H. BAILEY, M.S., LL.D., Director. ALBERT R. MANN, B.S.A., Secretary. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, B.S., Entomology. HENRY H. WING, M.S. in Agr., Animal Husbandry. JOHN CRAIG, M.S. in Agr., Horticulture. T. LYTTLETON LYON, Ph.D., Soil Technology. HERBERT J. WEBBER, M.A., Ph.D., Plant-Breeding. JOHN L. STONE, B. Agr., Farm Practice and Farm Crops. JAMES E. RICE, B.S.A., Poultry Husbandry. BENJAMIN M. DUGGAR, M.S., Ph.D., Plant Physiology. GEORGE W. CAVANAUGH, B.S., Chemistry. HERBERT H. WHETZEL, A.B., M.A., Plant Pathology. ELMER O. PIPPIN, B.S.A., Soil Technology. GEORGE F. WARREN, Ph.D., Farm Management. WILLIAM A. STOCKING, JR., M.S.A., Dairy Industry. CHARLES S. WILSON, A.B., M.S.A., Pomology. WALTER MULFORD, B.S.A., P.E., Forestry. HARRY H. LOVE, Ph.D., Plant-Breeding Investigations. ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Ph.D.. Plant-Breeding. DONALD REDDICK, A.B., Ph.D., Plant Pathology. WILLIAM A. RILEY, Ph.D., Entomology. MERRITT W. HARPER, M.S., Animal Husbandry. J. A. BIZZELL, Ph.D.. Soil Technology. CLARENCE A. ROGERS, M.S.A., Poultry Husbandry. GLENN W. HERRICK, B.S.A., Economic Entomology. HOWARD W. RILEY, M.E., Farm Mechanics. CYRUS R. CROSBY, A.B., Entomological Investigations. HAROLD E. ROSS, M.S.A., Dairy Industry. ELMER S. SAVAGE, M.S.A., Ph.D., Animal Husbandry. LEWIS KNUDSON, B.S.A., Ph.D., Plant Physiology. KENNETH C. LIVERMORE, B.S. in Agr., Farm Management. ALVIN C. BEAL, Ph.D., Floriculture. MORTIER F. BARRUS, A.B., Plant Pathology. C. C. HEDGES, A.B., Agricultural Chemistry. GEORGE W. TAILBY, JR., B.S.A., Superintendent of Live Stock. EDWARD S. GUTHRIE, M.S. in Agr., Dairy Industry. PAUL WORK, B.S., A.B., Olericulture. EDWARD R. MINNS, B.S.A., Farm Practice and Farm Crops. LEE B. COOK, M.S. in Agr., Dairy Industry. MORRIS M. McCOOL, M.S. in Agr., Ph.D., Plant Physiology. HARVEY L. AYRES, Superintendent of Dairy Manufactures. CLARA NIXON, Assistant in Poultry Husbandry. LOIS W. WING, A.M., Dairy Industry. EMMONS W. LELAND, B.S.A., Soil Technology. CHARLES T. GREGORY, B.S. in Agr., Plant Pathology. WALTER W. FISK, B.S. in Agr., Dairy Industry. R. D. ANTHONY, B.S., B.S. in Agr., Pomology. The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to persons residing in N< York State who request them. 230 I I* a f|$ s| 55 J8« U* !i i i THE PRODUCTION OF " HOTHOUSE » LAMBS E. S. SAVAGE AND G. W. TAILBY, JR. The natural time for sheep to drop their lambs is in the spring. Re- production in most of our domestic animals may be controlled at will by the breeder, but this is not entirely true of the ewe. She will sometimes breed to drop her lamb as early as October or November, but as a rule she cannot be made to breed until the fall, to drop her lamb the following spring. Restaurant keepers and hotel men, always on the lookout for rarities and for meats of an unusual nature with which to tempt their guests, have created a demand during the months from December to May for young lambs weighing about thirty-five pounds when dressed. This market has grown to its greatest proportions in Boston, New York, and Washington. The lambs are sold by the carcass and not by the pound. The prices in the eight seasons 1903-1904 to 1910-1911 have ranged from for a lamb sold late in the season to $12.50 for a prime lamb sold at top of the market. (Table i, p. 247.) For the purpose of studying this business as a profitable kind of sheep husbandry for the New York farmer, the flock at Cornell University has been managed as a hothouse-lamb flock for several seasons. The results of this practice for the eight seasons 1903-1904 to 1910-1911 form the basis of the discussion set forth in the following pages. The bulletin has been divided into three parts: Part I deals with the care and man- agement of the flock; Part II contains the record of the product during the eight seasons covered; and Part III is made up of tabulations of the data. PART I • CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE CORNELL UNIVERSITY HOTHOUSE-LAMB FLOCK The term " hothouse lamb " as here applied has probably been de- j rived from the fact that these lambs, born late in the fall and in the early winter, are essentially an artificial product and are analogous to the prod- ucts of our greenhouses or hothouses in that they are propagated out of their natural season for a market willing to pay almost any price for an unusual product. The term has, however, no reference to the quarters in which the business is conducted, for the best success has been attained in : quarters that were in no way artificially heated. 231 232 BULLETIN 309 I In discussing the care and management of such a flock, it has seemed] best to take up the matter according to the season and to carry the dis-j cussion through the full calendar year, beginning with the spring man-j agement after the winter's crop of lambs has been butchered. Spring management After the lambs have been taken away, the ewes are put on a ration of hay alone for two or three weeks and their udders are watched carefully to see that no trouble arises from caked udder. In some cases it may be necessary to milk out the ewe once a day, and later once every third FIG. 39. — Part of hothouse-lamb flock at pasture day until she is dry. Then the ewes are fed a few roots to keep them in good condition until they are turned to pasture for the summer.' Summer management on pasture The pasture season has ordinarily opened about May 15. When the ewes are turned to pasture the rams have been turned with them. The flock has been allowed to run together until the fall, when it is put into winter quarters. During the winter the rams have been quartered sepa- rately. The flock has been made up of representatives of several breeds, both pure-bred and grade. Ordinarily three pure-bred rams, a Hamp- shire, a Southdown, and a Horned Dorset, have been allowed to run with the flock. THE PRODUCTION OF " HOTHOUSE " LAMBS 233 No particular method of getting the ewes to breed early has been fol- owed, since it has never been clearly ^shown that one method has proved lalbetter than another. Therefore the ewes and the rams have been turned together and allowed to breed at will. The only precaution taken has jbeen to see that the ewes were in as good a condition as possible when 'turned out, and that the rams were young and active. The results from this treatment of the flock have been good. ;;J No attention has been paid to what cross would be the most profitable, J since all the lambs have been slaughtered for market and none have been kept for breeding purposes, the flock being maintained by purchase. Three rains have been kept with the flock for the reason that competition jamong the rams makes them more active. Care has been taken that the ewes should have access to plenty of water and should receive plenty of salt. Late in the pasture season the pasture as been supplemented with green foods of different kinds, varying with the year : rape, cabbage, beet tops, and other green foods have been used to good advantage in this way. The whole object in feeding the ewes after they have become pregnant is to make " dairy " sheep of them: that is, to put them in condition to give as much milk as possible for the use of the lamb. Fall and winter management The fall and winter management of the flock may be discussed together, under four heads: the care of the rams; the care of the ewes; the care of the young lambs; slaughtering and marketing the lambs. Care of the rams. — When the flock is taken from pasture the rams are separated and quartered separately until the next pasture season. They I have received no particular care except to see that they were kept in good |j condition. It has not been found necessary to feed them anything except a good quality of hay, together with clean water and a sufficient amount of salt. Care of the ewes. — Until they have lambed, the ewes have been fed clover hay alone unless they were out of condition, in which case a small amount of grain has been fed immediately after taking them from pas- ture. They have been put into dry, clean, well-ventilated pens, each pen containing from ten to fifteen ewes. The pens have been so protected that the water provided for the ewes has seldom frozen, the temperature rarely falling below 40° F. The pens have been cleaned once or twice during the season, and sufficient bedding has been provided to keep them dry at all times. Salt has always been supplied. The lambs have been dropped in the regular pens, although it has been thought that it would be better to provide an artificially warmed lambing 234 BULLETIN 309 pen to provide against chilling the newborn lamb before he gets dry. The lambs are all right as soon as they get dry and up on their feet, ij the temperature in the pen does not go below 20° F. After the lambs are born, the ewes with their lambs have been pemu together and the ewes fed grain and some succulent food. Each pen usually contained eight to ten ewes and their lambs. The size of the pens is about ten by fifteen feet. The grain ration has always been mac up nearly in accordance with the following formula: 60 pounds of whe bran, 30 pounds of corn meal, and 10 pounds of old-process oil Sometimes the proportions have been changed or other grains have b( added, but the above formula is a representative one for the ewes, have been fed lightly at first and then increased to two or three pounc per head per day. Besides clover hay for roughage, it has been the pn tice to provide roots, feeding about two pounds of sliced turnips or mangel per head per day. It has been thought that turnips gave better result than did mangels. When no roots have been available, silage been fed in the same amount, two pounds per head per day, with g( success. As mentioned before, the best food to keep the lamb growing is his mother's milk, and the main object in feeding the ewe at this point is get the greatest possible milk-production. Care must be taken that neithei the lamb nor his mother shows signs of scouring; such signs exhibited by either indicate overfeeding of the ewe. Careful shepherding at all times ! is the keynote of success with this kind of sheep husbandry. Care of the young lambs. — No matter what the size of the hothouse ! lamb may be, he will not top the market unless he is fat. In order to attain this condition, as indicated above, the best food is his mother's j milk and plenty of it; this must be supplemented with grain, however,! as the lamb grows. At different times the following mixtures have been tried: (1) 50 pounds of corn meal, 50 pounds of wheat middlings, and 5 pounds of oil meal; (2) 25 pounds of wheat bran, 25 pounds of wheat middlings, 25 pounds of hominy chop, and 8 pounds of oil meal; (3) When the lambs were one month old, 45 pounds of whole corn, 45 pounds of whole oats, and 10 pounds of oil cake, pea size. When this last mixture was used it was fed once a day, after • which the trough was swept out clean and a mixture like No, i or No. 2 was fed once daily. No advantage was found in the use of No. 3, and therefore its use has been discontinued oi late and mixtures like No. i or No. 2 have been relied on en- tirely. THE PuonrcTiox OF " HOTHOUSE" LAMBS 235 e lambs have been provided with a separate place for eating their in, which is usually called a creep. This is simply an arrangement of little pen alongside the large pen, into which the lambs may go but the may not. Here the lambs have been provided with grain at all times. ,t it may be necessary to sprinkle a little sugar over the grain. The FIG. 40. — Dressing table, knife and backsets ttle lambs will soon learn to like it and those that learn to eat it first will soon teach the others. It has been the practice to keep grain before the Ltle lambs at all times, yet to be careful that it is never fouled in any way. Success depends on the little ones' eating well all the time and growing fatter every minute of their short lives. The lambs usually grow rapidly enough to be ready for slaughter in seventy to seventy-five days from birth. They should be made to grow 236 BULLETIN 309 fast enough to gain at least one half pound per day during this time and to reach a slaughter weight of 45 to 48 pounds at the end of the time (Table 4). This short discussion covers the main points in the year round manage- ment of a hothouse-lamb-produc- ing flock as it has been conducted at Cornell University. Before discussing the data obtained that serve to show the practice above outlined as good, it remains to describe the method of slaughter- ing the lamb for market. Slaughtering and marketing the lambs. — The hothouse - lamb market is a special market com- manding a high price and the variations at the top are large. The market is fastidious, hence small things count for much. The results of good shepherding and good feeding, ending in a plump lamb in fine condition, may b discounted twenty-five per cen through carelessness in slaughter ing and in preparing for market Here care and cleanliness mus prevail. For the New Yor market the slaughtering must b done late Saturday afternoon o Sunday, if the weather is warm, s that the lamb may be cooled ou and wrapped for shipment by ex press on Monday. It has bee found most advantageous to se on Tuesday's or Wednesday' market. It is always best to se on the wholesale market, whic closes Friday noon; therefore the lambs must be on the market b] Wednesday at the latest. The lambs are " hog-dressed," that is, most of the pelt is left on, th head and feet are cut off, and the stomach, spleen, intestines, bladder and gall bladder are removed. The lamb is taken directly from his mother FIG. 41. — Method of bleeding the lamb THE PRODUCTION OF " HOTHOUSE " LAMBS 237 In slaughtering, bleeding is much more satisfactory if the lamb is sus- pended. A thin-bladed knife (Fig. 40) is the only tool necessary. The ' following method has been found good practice in slaughtering: Fasten the hind legs together and hang up the lamb. Insert the knife ' close to the backbone near the angle of the jaw, at the same time dislocating the neck. This will stun the lamb and prevent spattering the carcass with blood. With the first stroke of the knife, cut completely through the under part of the neck. Then sever the head completely from the neck (Fig. 41). Place the lamb on his back on a suitable trough-shaped table (Fig. 42). Cut through the skin from breast to back of scrotum, to angle of hind leg, and loosen the skin. Remove a triangular-shaped piece of skin in the angle of the :hind leg where the skin is free from wool. Remove the skin around the rectum, on the under- side of the tail for a little distance down the tail, and on the inside of the hind legs, leaving it attached to the rectum. Then pull the rectum straight out. Remove a narrow strip from gamble to pas- tern, cut off the hind legs at the ankle joint, and loosen the gambles. Cut off the front legs at the knee joint nearest the foot, which gives a flat surface. Leave a little flap of skin on the front of the leg to fold back over the knee joint after the leg has been removed. Hang up the lamb and make an incision from in front of the scrotum or udder to the breastbone. Remove omentum or caul as the intestines roll out (Fig. 43). The omentum is the layer of fat covering the viscera. It :nay be removed as a whole, and should be kept clean for use in covering the exposed parts of the carcass when dressing is finished and backsets have peen adjusted. Fi<;. 42. — Lamb on dressing table 238 BULLETIN 309 Remove the intestines, stomach, spleen, bladder, and gall bladder. The liver is left in. Then split down the breastbone and make an incision into the chest in order to cool it out. In all the work of skinning and dressing the lamb, be very careful to remove none of the fat from the body. The final thing to do is to spread the carcass with two sticks called backsets. These sticks are 13 to 15 inches long, according to the size of the lamb. They are best when made of ash, hickory, or red oak. A good size is one made of one of the above woods and sawed \ x f inch, 12 to 15 inches long, sharpened to a fine point with a shoulder at either end (Fig. 40). In spreading the carcass, the sharp point of one end of the backset is inserted in th< loose skin near the breastbone carried back of the body, and in sorted in the turned back flank on the other side. The second backset is then inserted in the same way crossing the first on the back o the carcass. The caul is then spread over the exposed parts o: the carcass in front, fastening to the four points of the backsets and pulling it into the crotch of the hind legs (Fig. 44). The carcass should next be hung in a cool place until it is thor- oughly cold. Twenty to twenty- four hours is usually sufficient . In midwinter a lamb can be coolec out in twelve hours. When thoroughly cold the carcass is ready to be wrapped and' shipped. The carcass is first wrapped in unbleached muslin. One square yard is sufficient for 'each carcass. This is used to cover the exposed parts only. The method of putting on the cloth is shown in Figs. 45 and 46. After the muslin is adjusted, the whole carcass should be wrapped in burlap and sewed up securely to keep it clean (Fig. 47). The carcasses are usually FIG. 43. — Removing the entrails. The caul is shown at the bottom of the picti'.re THE PRODUCTION OF " HOTHOUSE " LAM us 239 K shipped by express in order to insure prompt delivery and to get them promptly on the market early in the week. PART II RECORD OF THE PRODUCT In Part I the methods of handling the hothouse-lamb flock at the Cor- nell University farm have been outlined. In Part II it is aimed to show that these methods have produced good results. The time of market- ing to obtain the highest prices may be first discussed. Time to market The average of eight seasons' quotations shows that the time to market hothouse lambs is before March 4 (Table i and Plate I). On the average the price begins a steady decline about March 4 and does not again recover. Before March 4 the price varies some- what on the average, and still more in individual seasons. This means that in order to top the market the lambs must be born before January i. The top price for the eight years was $12.50, quoted in the third and fourth weeks of January, 1909. The average up to March 4 for all the eight seasons has not varied widely from $io per carcass (Table i). f So far as the product of the Cornell flock is concerned, out of a total of 261 lambs raised as winter lambs in eight years, 60, or 23 per cent, have been sold before March 4 — a creditable percentage when the difficulty of getting the ewes to breed in the early summer is taken into account (Table 2). This leads us to the data on the number of lambs that have beeh sold on the hothouse-lamb market out of the total number of lambs born. FIG. 44.— The caul properly spread over the carcass 240 BULLETIN 309 Percentage of lambs dropped early at ike Cornell University farm There have been born in this flock, in the eight seasons, a total of 401 lambs. Of these, 261, or 65.1 per cent, have been marketed as hothouse lambs. This takes into account those that have died at birth as well as those born too late to reach the hothouse-lamb market. This percentage FIG. 45. — Method of covering the carcass with muslin of 65.1 out of all the lambs born shows that fair success has been attaine by the method of turning three rams with the flock and leaving them ii the pasture during the entire summer. N-ecessary gain per day The records show that the best prices are obtained for lambs that gained an average of at least one half pound per day. The fluctuatioi THE PRODUCTION OF " HOTHOUSE " LAMBS 241 above and below the highest quotation at the time when each lamb was sold has been correlated with the gain per day. Disregarding those lambs that were sold at the highest quotation each week, it has been found that of those remaining less than 50 per cent have been sold above quotation, until those making a gain of one half pound per day or more are considered. From then on it is found that 50 per cent or more, disregarding those sold on quota- tion, have been sold above quota- tion (Table 5). Weight at which to slaughter A study of the records has been made in order to show the proper weight at which to slaughter the lambs to get the best price. From this study it is clear that the lambs should reach a weight of 48 to 50 pounds before slaughtering. Dis- | regarding those sold at the highest price quoted, of those slaughtered at a weight of 46 to 48 pounds, 59.6 per cent sold under the highest quotation and 40.4 per cent scld above quotation. Of those lambs weighing less than 46 pounds at slaughter, a still greater percentage was sold below the highest quotation. Considering those lambs that weighed at slaughter more than 49 pounds, we have over 50 per cent selling above quotation. : If those sold at the highest quoted ' price are considered, it is more clearly shown that the lambs must FIG. 46. — Carcass wrapped in muslin attain a weight of nearly 48 pounds before slaughtering (Table 6). The best breed for hothouse-lamb production There now remains the consideration of the data that will show the i results in the Cornell flock as to breed, It has been shown that one of 242 BULLETIN 309 the most important phases of the subject of hothouse-lamb production is getting the ewes to breed early. The records have been studied to see if this is in any way a breed characteristic. It has been shown (Table i and Plate I) that March 4 is the date when the high prices received for hothouse lambs during the early winter begin to decline. If the percentage of lambs from breed slaughtered before that dat is calculated and compared witl the percentage slaughtered aftei that date, it will throw some light on the breeds that breed tl earliest. The ewes that breed the earliest From the records it is s that of the total number of hot- house lambs produced, 42.8 cent of those born from grade Dor- set ewes were slaughtered befoi March 4 and from the other ewe in the following order: from pui bred Dorsets, 34.8 per cent; fi pure-bred Rambouillets , 33.3 p( cent ; from pure-bred Delaines, 33.3 per cent; from grade Cheviots, 31.2 per cent; from pure-bi Shropshires, 23.1 per cent; from the other ewes, the highest per- centage of lambs sold was 12.9 per cent from the grade Shroj shires (Table 2). In order, then, from the stand- point of earliness of production, the breeds stand as follows: Horned Dorsets, both pure-bred ] and grades, Rambouillets, Delaines, grade Cheviots, and Shropshires. If both pure-bred and grade Cheviots were considered together, the pure- bred Cheviots would lower the average of the breed so that the Shrop- shires would stand ahead of them (Table 2). The most successful hot- house-lamb breeders are using Horned Dorset and fine-wooled ewes. FIG. 47. — Carcass wrapped in burlap reedy for shipment THE PRODUCTION OF " HOTHOUSE " LAMBS 243 Percentage from each breed marketed as hothouse lambs out of total number born it of the total number of lambs born from the ewes of the different ids, 93.3 per cent of those born from the grade Dorsets were marketed hothouse lambs; 81 per cent from the Delaines; 76.9 per cent from the Rambouillets ; 76.2 per cent from the grade Cheviots; 70.8 per cent from the pure-bred Dorsets; 69.2 per cent from the Cotswolds; 66.6 per cent from the Hampshires; 59.6 per cent from the grade Shropshires; 59 per cent from the grade Southdowns; 55.8 per cent from pure-bred South- downs; 50 per cent from the pure-bred Shropshires; and 46.9 per cent from the pure-bred Cheviots (Table 3). Again, taking both pure-breds and grades of each breed into considera- tion, the breeds would stand in the following order: Dorsets, Delaines, Rambouillets, Cotswolds, Hampshires, Cheviots, Southdowns, and Shrop- shires. The data for weight at birth, weight at slaughter, total gain, number of days growth, gain per day, selling price, and highest price at the time each lamb was sold, have all been averaged and are interesting to study; but the individual variations are so great that no conclusions can be drawn as to the comparative value of the different breeds. From the above studies the conclusion is clear that the best results in hothouse-lamb production would be with the Horned Dorset, the Delaine, and the Rambouillet breeds, mainly because of their early breeding habits and from the fact that the ewes of these breeds are excellent mothers. Records of some individual ewes Some of the ewes in the flock have made exceptional records. These records are reviewed to show what is possible with some ewes. A grade Dorset ewe, No. 98 (Tables 3 and 4), has the best record. She produced ten lambs in eight seasons. All of these lambs were raised early enough to be marketed on the hothouse-lamb market, where they brought a total of $94. If they had sold at the highest quoted price for the weeks in which they were sold, they would have brought $86. This denotes that the offspring of this ewe sold well above the quotation. The records show that this ewe raised every lamb born from her, and produced milk enough to keep the lambs gaining an average of .56 pound each per day. A pure-bred Dorset ewe, No. 607 (Tables 3 and 4), produced nine lambs in five years and raised eight of them early enough to be marketed as hothouse lambs. They sold a little below the highest quoted price, 244 BULLETIN 309 bringing a total of $73.52, when if sold at the highest quoted price they would have brought $75.52. Notwithstanding the fact that three years out of the five there was a pair of twins to be fed, the eight lambs made an average gain per day of .51 pound each. A pure-bred Dorset ewre, No. 7,475 (Tables 3 and 4) , produced ten lambs in seven years, of which seven sold as hothouse lambs for $55.02. The total of the highest quotations when these lambs were sold was $55.02, show- ing that they averaged FIG. 48. — Dorset ewe No. 607 they were marketed, daily. No. 7,475 was the mother of No. 607 , whose record is given just above. ARambouillet ewe, No. 5 (Tables 3 and 4) , raised seven lambs out of eight born in seven years. These seven lambs made an average gain of .48 pound each per day. They were sold for $42.49 when the quo- tations totaled $49.98. This shows that they were sold somewhat below quotation, a fact that may be partly to sell at the highest price quoted when These lambs averaged a gain of .51 pound each • FIG. 49. — Rambouillet ewe No. 5 explained by the low gain per day. A Delaine ewe, No. 318 (Tables 3 and 4), raised seven out of eight lambs THE PRODUCTION OF " HOTHOUSE " LAMBS 245 born in six years. They made an average gain per day of .49 pound each. They sold for a total of $46.48 when quoted at a total of $48.02. This also may be due to the fact that the average daily gain was below .50 pound. A grade Southdown ewe, No. 316 (Tables 3 and 4), produced eleven lambs in seven years. Seven of these were raised as -hot- house lambs and sold for $40.95 when the quotations called for a total of $44.8 7. These 'lambs made a -daily • gain of .40 pound each. A grade Southdown FlG' 5o.-Ddo«~ «* No. 3*S ewe, No. 376 (Tables 3 and 4), produced ten lambs in six years, of which seven sold as hothouse lambs for $47.53. The total of the highest quo- tations when these lambs were sold was $50.47. These lambs averaged a daily gain of .49 pound each. A grade Shropshire ewe, No. 360 (Tables 3 and 4), produced eight lambs in five years, of which seven were sold as hothouse lambsfor$53.97. The total of the highest quotations when these lambs were sold was $58.52. These lambs made a gain of .47 pound each daily. From no other ewe in the flock have more ' — Grade Southdown ewe No. 116 .1 • 1 .1 than six hothouse lambs been sold. For comparison with the work of these exceptional ewes the average production of the flock has been calculated. In the eight 246 BULLETIN 309 years during which records have been kept, eighty-four ewes have been producing hothouse lambs. Some of these ewes have been in the flock only one year, while others have been in the flock the full time. The average length of time that each ewe has been in the flock has been 3 .88 years. The eighty- four ewes have pro- duced a total of 401 lambs, of which 261 have been sold as hot- house lambs. The average selling price has been $7.52 and the average quotation $7.78. The average number of lambs sold as hothouse lambs average selling price, have brought $23.31. Calculated from this amount by dividing by 3.88, the annual income per sheep has been $6. These figures indicate that this type of sheep husbandry is a good one to follow. Seven dollars and fifty cents is a good price for a lamb at twc months of age. Not all of the lambs are born early enough to be sold 01 the hothouse-lamb market, but they can be used for ordinary purposes iJ they are born late. An average yearly income per sheep of $6 besides the amount that he wool will bring should pay a farmer well for food and labor. The time over which the records extend, eight years, is long enough to make tht averages accurate, and they form a good basis for judging of the value of this industry to the farmer. FIG. 52. — Gr.ade Shropshire ewe No. 360 from each ewe has been 3.1. These, at $7.52, the t-H &, !~! O ^ 2 H s • ' ° ' • • 0 c i— » 8 * * 10 vO O • O M- o CO 01 .2 »' * j < ; i • s s vd «d nS 0 0000 ^O O t^ O O ^O VO a Ov s 0 QUO 0 10 10 10 10 IO 10 •* * o IO 10 d i IO O 10 10 d §v vd jj g I1O 1 10 IO ^ O Ov 1 v£ h "O t^ ^ g 0 I e> 10 ^? s rt l» .*-*». O C« 00 S 'a jfl 2 000 IO IO 10 t^ CO t^ Oi t^ O CO vd o rT i-3 ^ 1 o IO 10 « g £ t-H O Ov t- O. 0 t- 0 '* 00 O "*" H o o o 10 .•*?*? t^. Ov Ov 0 Ov 00 0 12 CO r>; * H: M 00 O> 0 M O 0 M Ov o> fc 8 u VO j_ U3 a 0 ^ 0 0 0 ^ w M f* O\ 0 « +s M £ o S -9 M 0 M M 0 0 0 o o « > 0 s * 2 o 10 « dv o «' o" dv di M M M M d §v Ov CQ .^ H 1 "* d 8 C 10 d oo d M o M o IO o s o, O 00 O O M M O M o o" £ £ § Ov 0 0 M -0 00 Ov 1 II 4 • § cr :l- !_2jhj : 2 *• 0. >, M s 1 O. • « 0 '0 0 0 i d o Q 10 MM • • M M H t o I *t II.- • M M o IO 1 « :::::: 2 0 0 c •c > CN :::::: 2 2 2 a • i5 H c o a x I Sv I 1 1 I Sv Cv g "3 I ^ ^t .0 ^ JL J, iv g g a §v §v gv g o 0> i ^ ? 248 BULLETIN 309 TABLE 2. CORRELATION: BREED AND EARLINESS OF SLAUGHTER Date of slaughter 1 o Q Grade Dorset Hampshire Cotswold Rambouillet Cheviot Grade Cheviot Delaine Southdown Grade Southdown .0 Grade Shropshire Dec. 10— 16 2 Dec 17—23 2 i Dec. 24—30 Dec. 31— Jan. 6 Tan 7—13 2 i . . . . fan. 14-20 I fan. 21—27 fan. 28-Feb. 3 I Feb. 4—10. . . . I Feb. 11-17 I 3 i i 3 i Feb. 18-24 3 Feb. 25-Mar. 3 Mar. 4—10 3 7 i 6 i 2 2 I i 3 i i i i Mar. 11-17 Mar. 18-24 Mar. 25-31 . . 3 I 5 i i 4 i 2 I 2 3 2 2 i 2 3 2 I April 1—7 .... i 2 3 April 8-14 5 2 2 I 3 I i 6 April 15-21 April 22—28 2 i I 4 2 7 3 4 2 3 I 5 April 29-May 5 i 2 I 5 I 2 4 May 6—12 2 May 13-19 I I 2 May 20-26 I i May 27— June 2 I Total Number sold before March 4 Per cent sold before March 4 46 16 34-8 14 6 42.8 4 o o 9 I II 30 10 33 3 23 o o 16 5 31-2 30 10 33-3 19 2 10.5 26 3 ii. 5 13 3 23-1 31 4 12.9 TABLE 3. PERCENTAGE OF LAMBS RAISED AS HOTHOUSE LAMBS FROM DORSET EWES FROM GRADE DORSETS 0 _. ijg | J} t/3 8 J3 g-g i II '§1 £3 £ % rt -£ | ll 1! JH imbs ra ter laml *£H ^ §• rt O G _£j *-* C *£* ^ 0 S jj g o c a i1 *"* 0 3! rt G 5* 2 3 § C Z H s i! §3 ^ 1 1 o 3 1 3 ~£f CD ^ W H P £11 » >* H H &H « 280 3 3 3 o o 96 2 T 0 i IOO 281 I o o 0 0 97 I I o i IOO 282 6 5 4 I 20 9- 8 10 o IO IOO ^ 311 i i o I IOO 27 " i I I 0 0 312 6 8 2 6 75 72( 2 2 o 2 IOO 356 3 4 2 2 So 604 4 7 I 6 86 607 5 9 I 8 89 616 4 5 I 4 80 617 4 8 2 6 75 , 632 4 5 0 5 IOO 7,475 7 10 3 7 70 Total. . 12 I to 7 65 19 46 70.8 Total. . s I to 8 15 I 14 93.3 Average 4 5-4 1.6 3-8 70.8 Average 2-8 3 .2 2.8 93.3 THE PRODUCTION or " HOTHOUSE " LAMBS 249 FROM HAMPSHIRES FROM DELAINES ^ j § .Si n V3 J2 ^2 3.3 6 S u 1* |1 3.8 JjJ I 38 > $ "o * ^"•0 W > H H i w ' W > H H PH "" 19,586 2 2 i I 50 3i8 6 8 i 7 87-5 73 I I o I IOO 953 8 7 2 5 71 80 I I 0 I IOO 993 7 7 I 6 86 81 I 2 I I 50 997 4 4 I 3 75 i, 060 5 4 0 4 IOO I , IOO 7 7 2 5 71 Total. . 4 I tO 2 6 2 4 66.6 Total . . 6 4 to 8 37 7 30 81 Average 1.3 1-5 • 5 1 .0 66.6 Average 6.2 6.2 I .2 5 81 FROM SOUTHDOWNS FROM GRADE SOUTHDOWNS d c W 1 a 1* ,| |j Total lambs raised as winter lambs . Per cent lambs rais- ed as winter lambs 8 w 1 ft ,™ ft •a! 0^ I 1! ••3 ^ H Total lambs raised as winter lambs ll Is *-* c 1'? Total . . . Average. 358 378 604 605 851 5 8 4 4 8 6 10 4 5 9 2 8 o 2 3 4 2 4 3 6 66.6 20 IOO 60 67 Total . . Average 79 313 376 828 829 830 6 5 7 6 2 I 6 7 7 II 10 2 I 6 3 6 4 3 2 O O 4 i 7 7 0 i 6 57 14 63 70 0 IOO IOO 5 4 to 8 5 • 8 34 6.8 15 3 19 3-8 55-8 55.8 7 I to 7 4-7 643 18 2.6 26 3-7 59 59 FROM COTSWOLDS FROM RAMBOUILLETS d c a i J3 6-g ^S a |! 8 Jo 1 H Total lambs raised as winter lambs If S]J W 1 c E 1 5 11 8 |1 |s Total lambs raised as winter lambs f Total... i Average . 248 256 848 849 850 4 i 4 2 2 4 2 3 2 2 I 2 O O I 3 o 3 2 I 75 0 IOO IOO 50 Total . . Average 5 7 57 10? 143 248 249 292 294 295 7 I 2 2 6 3 3 3 3 3 8 i 2 1 4 5 3 3 4 i 0 o 2 7 i 0 i 6 4 3 3 3 2 87-5 IOO o 33.3 IOO IOO 00 IOO IOO 50 5 I to 4 2.6 13 2.6 4 .8 9 1.8 69.2 69.2 IO i to 7 3-3 39 39 9 • 9 30 3 76.9 76.9 250 BULLETIN 309 FROM SHROPSHIRES FROM GRADE SHROPSHIRES A 1 |j3. il 8 T3 "Is 03 03 '5B 1 11 1^ ri Ife ,S«S B fe | ll a.S "s B-J It d e 99 g i *« 2 1- rf o fi B£ • ~.B 3 03 11 d c £ 1-1 o. . — ' O r | B^ ^3 c •a* II g W £ 9 "o CD 'CJ ^ s -5 "o ^ OJ ^J W H H A. * W > h H PH "" 144 4 5 2 3 60 95 3 4 i 3 75 217 6 6 4 2 33-3 IOO i 2 2 0 0 218 3 3 2 I 33-3 269 5 7 3 4 57 223 5 5 I 4 80 270 2 2 0 0 606 5 7 4 3 43 271 I O i IOO 272 2 O 2 IOO 276 4 I 3 75 277 2 2 O o 340 2 0 2 IOO 341 5 10 5 5 50 360 5 8 i 7 87-5 608 8 8 4 4 50 Total . . . 5 3 to 6 26 13 13 50 Total . . 12 i to 8 52 21 31 59.6 4 6 5 2 2 6 2 6 50 2 6 FROM CHEVIOTS FROM GRADE CHEVIOTS 8 1. •2.8 8 1 i-2 J3 •si w i jj '§1 gj 1 -a ^ Is II 1! i -a 11 ll B ^ d c g 3 z I1 5 •3-3 ,2 c 11 0 0 O \\vrage. . 9-8 47 Q 38 i 64 6 cq . 8 22 7 84. DELAINES Num- ber of lambs From ewe no. Av. wt. at birth (Ibs.) Av. wt. at slaugh- ter (Ibs.) Av. gain (Ibs.) Av. days growth Av. gain per day (Ibs.) Av. selling price Av. quota- tion Total .... Average. . On 4* Oo ONCn vi 963 993 997 i ,060 I ,100 10. 0 9-5 10.6 II .0 10.6 8.6 47.1 48.4 45-6 45-3 45-0 47-8 37-i 38.9 35-0 34-3 34-4 39-2 75-6 82.0 68.5 74.0 74.0 94-8 •49 •47 ^46 .46 .41 .$6.64 7.10 9.08 7-50 7.38 8.70 $6.86 7-50 9-58 8.50 7.88 8.40 30 299-5 10. 0 1400.2 46.6 •#6 2342 . 2 78.1 •47 $231.98 7-73 $242 . 02 8.07 SOUTHDOWNS Num- ber of lambs From ewe no. Av. wt. at birth (Ibs.) Av. wt. at slaugh- ter (Ibs.) Av. gain (Ibs.) Av. days growth Av. gain per day (Ibs.) Av. selling price Av. quota- tion 4 2 4 3 6 358 378 604 605 851 9.8 9-7 9-7 7.8 10.5 49.0 46.5 48.8 47.0 48-3 39-2 36.8 39-1 39-2 37-8 68.3 74.0 69.0 89.6 69-3 •57 •50 •57 •44 •55 $9-12 7-63 7-75 5-50 6-75 $8.62 8.00 7.63 6.00 7.00 Total 10 18^ 8 QI C O j-zgr 8 . SlIQ 7 A. $ T A T OO \verage . 97 J.8 2 78 =; T> 7 •P l 6 V • / 4 7 ifi o° • o /- • / • 00 7-3° .42 254 BULLETIN 309 GRADE SOUTHDOWNS Num- ber of lambs From ewe no. Av. wt. at birth (Ibs.) Av. wt. at slaugh- ter (Ibs.) Av. gain (Ibs.) Av. days growth Av. gain per day (Ibs.) Av. selling price Av. quota- tion 4 i 7 7 0 79 313 316 376 828 9.8 9.2 8.7 9-5 46.8 51.0 47-7 48.3 37-0 41.8 39-0 38.8 67-5 76.0 97-5 78.4 •55 •55 .40 •49 $7.38 6.00 5.85 6.79 $7.63 6.00 6.41 7-21 6 829 830 7.8 9.8 50.0 49-5 42.2 39-7 69.0 69.0 .61 •58 8.00 7-92 7.00 7-93 Total 26 242 4 I2S7 2 2060 3 $I7Q ^2 $186 44 Average . 9- 3 48 ^ ^Q O 70 2 4Q 6 90 717 SHROPSHIRES Num- ber of lambs From ewe no. Av. wt. at birth (Ibs.) Av. wt. at slaugh- ter (Ibs.) Av. gain (Ibs.) Av. days growth Av. gain per day (Ibs.) Av. selling price Av. . quota- tion 3 2 I 4 3 144 217 218 223 606 10.9 8.8 10.7 9.6 10. I 45-7 47.0 41 .0 51.0 47-3 34-8 38.2 30-3 41.4 37-2 61.0 64-5 69.0 71.0 65-3 •57 •59 •44 •58 -57 $7.83 9.00 3-50 8.38 6.00 $8.50 9.00 7.00 8.25 6.66 Total IT. I2Q 7 618 o 860 9 $06 *i Sio^ 48 Average IO O 47 ^ •77 c 66 2 1:7 7 42 7 q6 GRADE SHROPSHIRES Num- ber of lambs From ewe no. Av. wt. at birth (Ibs.) Av. wt. at slaugh- ter (Ibs.) Av. gain (Ibs.) Av. days growth Av. gain per day (Ibs.) Av. selling price Av. quota- tion 3 o 95 IOO 7-i 43-0 35-9 87.0 .41 $6.00 $7-00 4 o 269 27O 9-3 45-3 36.0 75-8 •47 7.00 6.88 i 2 3 o 271 272 276 277 10.5 10.8 10.7 43-0 45-0 43-0 32.5 34-2 32-3 46.0 62.5 7i-3 •71 •55 •45 7-50 7-75 5-66 7-50 l:% 2 5 7 4 340 341 360 608 12.2 7-5 8.2 IO.O 44.0 47-2 47-0 52.3 31-8 39-7 38.8 42-3 51-5 84.8 82.0 63.0 .62 •47 •47 .67 8.00 6.80 7.71 7.00 ?i 8.36 7-38 Total .... Average. . 3i 282.0 9- : 1434-4 46. 3 37-2 2302 . i 74.2 •5° $217.95 7.03 $231.54 7-47 THE PRODUCTION OF " HOTHOUSE " LAMBS 255 TABLE 5. CORRELATION: GAIN PER DAY WITH AMOUNT ABOVE OR BELOW HIGHEST QUOTATION Gain per day (Ibs.) .26- • 30 •31- • 35 • 36- .40 .41- •45 .46- • 50 .51- • 55 • 56- .60 .61- ..65 .65- .70 • 71 - -75 .76- .80 .81- .85 *i I __^M i 2 i 2 i 2.50 2.00 I-SO 1. 00 .50 " • i i 2 3 I i 6 3 2 4 3 8 8 7 7 3 i i 13 2 3 i 5 2 2 i i i I i .00 " " I 2 6 9 18 10 9 7 3 i i . 25 above quotation •SO 1. 00 i 50 ::: 3 I i i i 3 I i 8 3 9 5 "s 5 9 2 I 2 2 I 2 I I I 2.00 " " 2 I 2 I Total, disregarding those sold at quotation 2 6 2O 30 22 37 25 18 16 7 5 3 Per cent below quotation. . . . Per cent above quotation .... TOO IOO 80 20 90 10 81.8 18.2 48.7 51-3 36 64 22.2 77-8 12.5 87-5 28.6 71.4 40 60 IOO * Spoiled after slaughter. TABLE 6. CORRELATION: WEIGHT AT SLAUGHTER WITH AMOUNT ABOVE OR BELOW HIGHEST QUOTA- TION, 1903-1904 TO 1910-1911 Weight at slaughter (Ibs.) 37-39 40-42 43-45 46-48 • 49-51 52-54 55-57 58-60 7i oo below quotation *l _Q u u oo i so " " i i I .00 " " 3 SO 3 00 I 3 i .50 « " 00 " " i 5 5 3 ig 8 9 3 3 4 .50 • " 6 6 10 i 3 00 " " i 3 1^ 25 15 5 i .25 above quotation 2 50 " " 7 i I. 00 « « i 50 " " i i 5 3 8 3 i I " ' i 3 i i Total, disregarding those sold at quota- tion it sold below quotation yer cent sold above quotation 3 66.6 33-4 18 94-4 5-6 1? 34 47 59.6 40.4 45 37-8 62.2 16 31.2 68.8- 9 33-3 66.7 2 IOO i IOO * Spoiled in marketing. CORNELL UNIVERSITY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION THE FOLLOWING BULLETINS AND CIRCULARS ARE AVAILABLE FOR DISTRIBUTION TO THOSE RESIDENTS OF NEW YORK STATE WHO MAY DESIRE THEM 154 219 262 265 266 267 270 272 273 274 276 277 280 282 283 284 285 Tables for Computing Rations for Farm Animals. Diseases of Ginseng. Apple Orchard Survey of Niagara County. On Certain Seed-Infesting Chalcis-Flies. The Black Rot of the Grape and Its Con- trol. Fertilizing and Seeding Experiments with Root-Crops. Fancy Cheeses for the Farm and Factory. Fire Blight of Pears, Apples, Quinces, etc. The Effect of Fertilizers Applied to Timothy on the Corn Crop Following It. Building Poultry Houses. Peach Leaf Curl. The Principles of Brooding — The Im- proved New York State Gasoline-Heated Colony-House Brooding System. Pastures in New York. Seven Methods of Feeding Young Chickens. The Control of Insect Pests and Plant Diseases. Labor-Saving Poultry Appliances. The Cause of "Apoplexy " in Winter-Fed Lambs. 286 The Snow- White Linden Moth. 288 Spray Injury Induced by Lime-Sul Preparations. 289 Lime-Sulfur as a Summer Spray. 291 The Apple Red Bugs. 292 Cauliflower and Brussels Sprouts on Island. 293 The Black Rot Disease of Grapes. 294 A Heretofore Unnoted Benefit from Growth of Legumes. 295 An Agricultural Survey of Tompl County. 297 Studies of Variation in Plants. 298 The Packing of Apples in Boxes. 301 Sweet Pea Studies — I. 302 Notes from the Agricultural Survey Tompkins County. 303 The Cell Content of Milk. 305 The Cause of "Apoplexy " in Winter-I Lambs. 307 An Apple Orchard Survey of County. 308 The Plum Leaf-Miner. CIRCULARS i Testing the Germination of Seed Corn. 3 Some Essentials in Cheese- Making. 4 Soil Drainage and Fertility. 5 Suggestions from a Survey of the Trucking Region of Eastern Long Island. 6 Suggestions Concerning Treatment of Seed Corn with Deterrents against Crows. The Relation of Lime to Soil Improvement The Elm Leaf-Beetle. Orange Hawkweed or Paint Brush. Propagation of Starter for Butter- Making : and Cheese- Making. Helps for the Dairy Butter- Maker. The Chemical Analysis of Soil. Address MAILING ROOM, COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, ITHACA, N. Y, 256 JANUARY, 1910 The Agricultural Experiment Station Colorado Agricultural College RATION EXPERIMENT WITH LAMBS 1906-07, 1907-08. SELF FEEDERS FOR HAY BY W. L. CARLYLE AND G. E. MORTON PUBLISHED BY THE EXPERIMENT STATION FORT COLLINS, COLORADO 1910 Upper— Self Feeders For Hay. Lower — A Type of Grain Trough. RATION EXPERIMENT WITH LAMBS. 1906 1907. 1907-1908. W. L. CABLYLE and G. E. MORTON. INTRODUCTION This bulletin covers two winters' work with lambs done under the direction of W. L. Carlyle. The first winter's work, on Cut Hay versus Whole Hay, was carried out by H. M. Cottrell, and the second winter's work on Cut Hay versus Whole Hay, and on Self Feeders for Hay compared with Old Style Hay Racks, was carried out by the writer, G. E. Morton. CUT HAY VERSUS WHOLE HAY — ALFALFA—FIRST TRIAL The Fort Collins district furnishes an excellent field for the study of the lamb feeding industry. Because of the large numbers fed, and the high ranking of the finished lambs on Eastern markets, feeders are unusually alert in their search for means of reducing the cost of production. One of the questions frequently put to live stock men of the College and Station has been concerning the value of cutting alfalfa hay into short lengths. There is considerable waste in feeding whole hay to sheep as they reject quite a large per- centage of the stems. There is no doubt that cutting the hay causes sheep to eat it more closely, but the question of interest is whether enough saving is effected by the cutting to reimburse the feeder for the cost of cutting The trial here reported was made with grade Shropshire lambs from the Idaho range. The lambs were fed whole hay and corn for a period of seven weeks, and were then put upon experiment, one lot being fed whole hay and the other fed hay run through an ordi- nary feed cutter, and cut to 1/8 of an inch in length. TABLE I. TOTAL WEIGHTS AND GAINS— SIX WEEKS Dec. ist, 1906, to Jan. i2th, 1907—125 Lambs in Each Lot Lot No Weight at Beginning fibs.) Weight at Close (Ibs.) Gain in Weight (Ibs.) Total Feed Consumed, (Ibs.) Corn Alfalfa Hay Oil Meal A Whole Hay 12,635 14,256 1621 7785 24,592 140 B Cut Hay 12,533 13,948 *1505 7903 10,893 140 *Gain shown by final weight plus 90 Ibs., weight of lamb which died. COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION The weights and gains made by the two lots, as shown in the table, are very closely alike. The amounts of corn and oil meal fed the two lots were also nearly equal. But the hay eaten by the lot fed whole hay was over double that eaten by the lot fed cut hay. Table II shows how this effects the feed required for 100 pounds of gain and the cost of gain. There was only one pound difference in the average gain per head made by the two lots of lambs in six weeks. TABLE II. FEED FOR GAIN AND COST OF GAIN— 125 LAMBS IN EACH LOT Lot No. Ration Average Gain Per Head, Six Weeks, Ibs. Pounds of Feed For 100 Pounds Gain Cost of Feed For 100 Ibs Gain* Corn Hay A Corn, Alfalfa Hay, Whole, on Ground 13 478 1511 8,6 $8.73 B Corn, Alfalfa Hay, Cut, on Ground 12 525 724 9.3 7.61 •NOTE — Corn at 1 cent per lb., Alfalfa Hay at $5.00 per ton, Cut Hay at $6.00 per ton, Oil Meal at 2 cents per lb. FEED FOR GAIN The lot fed whole hay required 47 pounds less corn for ioc pounds gain than the lot fed cut hay, but ate 1511 pounds of hay for every hundred pounds gain, while the cut hay lot ate only 724 pounds of hay for each 100 pounds gain. This is a marked difference. COST OF GAIN The prices, from which the costs given in the above table were computed, are not the exact prices of the feeding stuffs at the time the experiment was carried on; but they are round numbers, and changing the prices of feed stuffs in this instance could not greatly affect the ratio between the figures for the two lots. This experiment shows a considerable saving by using cut hay, although the cost of feed for 100 pounds of gain in either case is so high as to be almost prohibitive, A partial explanation of this may be found in the fact that the fleeces of the lambs were trimmed preparatory to showing at the Western Stock Show, causing a shrinkage in the weight of the lambs during the fourth week. With Lot B this shrinkage amounted to a loss of 252 pounds for the week, or about 2 pounds per head. The most of this shrinkage was regained the following week, however, as shown by the gain of 529 pounds for that week, or over five pounds per head. So we cannot look for an explanation of the high cost in this shrinkage. But considering the feed given the whole hay lot, we find that they ate on an average 4.7 pounds of hay per head each day, an enormous amount. This would indi- cate very poor hay or an unnecessary waste of good hay, so that in either case, one would not be justified in reaching the conclusion that the economy shown by the table would ordinarily follow the use of RATION EXPERIMENT WITH LAMBS cut hay. In view of the unusually heavy consumption of whole hay, a series of experiments along the same line is necessary before a con- clusion is warranted. The trial reported below is the second in a series bearing upon the same problem. CUT HAY VERSUS WHOLE HAY, ALFALFA, SECOND TRIAL In this trial, self feeders for hay were used, and if there be economy in the use of cut hay, it should appear under these conditions ; for the self feeder should protect fine cut hay and leaves from staling and from being blown away by the wind even to a greater degree than they protect whole hay, with the following exception. If there are frequent wet snows, these serve to cause greater waste of cut hay than of whole hay when self feeders are used, because the cut hay dries out less readily than the whole, and so becomes less palatable. In the following table, Lots I and II are the Lots to be com- pared : TABLE A TOTAL WEIGHTS AND GAINS— 14 WEEKS Nov. 23d, 1907, to Feb. 29, 1908 — 200 Lambs in Each Lot Lot Weight at Beginning (Ibs.) Weight at Close (Ibs.) Gain in Weight (Ibs.) Total Feed Con- sumed, (Ibs.) Corn Alfalfa Hay Hay, Cut, in Self Feeder I 11,675 19.330 7655 20,445 46,329 Hay, Whole, in Self Feeder II 12,240 19,170 6930 20,595 41,615 Hay, Whole, on Ground III... 11,813 18,555 6742 20,595 49425 The amount of corn eaten by the two lots was practically equal. There is again a difference in the amount of hay eaten, but in the opposite directions, showing 4700 pounds of hay saved by the whole hay lot. This may be accounted for by too wide an opening in the self feeders where the lambs remove the hay, resulting in some waste of cut hay. The self feeders are in an experimental stage even for whole hay, and little is known concerning their construction for greatest economy with cut hay. COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION TABLE B FEED FOR GAIN AND COST OF GAIN— 200 LAMBS IN EACH LOT Lot No. Ration Average Gain Per Head, 14 Weeks (Ibs.) Pounds Feed For 100 Ibs. Gain Cost of Feed For 100 Ibs. Gain* Corn Alfalfa Hay I Corn, Alfalfa Hay, Cut, in Self Feeder. . 38.3 267 605 $4.48 II Corn, Alfalfa Hay, Whole, in Self Feeder 347 297 601 4.47 III ... Corn, Alfalfa Hay, Whole, on Ground. . 33.7 306 733 4.89 "NOTE— Corn at 1 cent per lb., Alfalfa Hay at $5.00 per ton, Cut Hay at $6.00 per ton. ECONOMY By the table above we see that the cut hay lot gained on the average of 3.6 pounds per head more than those fed whole hay. It required for 100 pounds of gain with the cut hay lot the same amount of hay and 30 pounds less of corn. This resulted in a cost of $4.48 and $4.47 for each hundred pounds gained by the two lots, estimating the cost of cutting hay at $1.00 per ton. The actual cost of cutting amounts to about 50 cents per ton, but counting interest on the capital invested in machinery and depreciation in value of machinery, the cost of cutting will approximate $1.00 per ton. Firms cutting hay for others charge even more than this. This trial shows no economy in cutting a good quality of alfalfa hay. The hay used was well cured, first and second cutting hay. The only point in favor of the cut hay is that changes in the construction of the hay self feeders may result in a greater saving of the hay, and further trials will be made with this point in mind. In this trial the lambs were made to eat the whole hay about as closely as they do in a commercial feed lot, no unusual amount of stems being cleaned from their racks. For the present the author feels justified in saying that so far as the experimental work with cut hay has gone at this Station, there is not sufficient evidence in favor of cutting hay to justify sheep feeders in putting in machinery for that purpose. The indications are that it does not pay to cut good alfalfa hay. SELF FEEDERS FOR HAY. The trial reported above also included a test of the value of self feeders. Lot II was fed whole hay in a self feeder and Lot III was fed whole hay in racks on the ground such as are in common use in many sections of the state. From Table B, we find that the average gain of the two lots was 34.7 pounds and 33.7 pounds respectively; and the amount of corn required for 100 pounds gain was 297 pounds for Lot II and 306 pounds for Lot III. When we look at the amount of hay re- quired for 100 pounds gain, we find quite a difference, 601 pounds being required by the self feeder lot, and 733 or over one-fifth more RATION EXPERIMENT WITH LAMBS hay required by those fed on the ground. This brings the cost of loo pounds gain in live weight of the lambs fed on the ground up to $4.89 compared with $4.47 for the self feeder lot. With a higher price than $5.00 for hay the difference would be correspondingly greater. The self feeder racks shown in the cut of the feed yard's, cost $1.00 per running foot completed. They will accommodate about four lambs to the running foot, two on a side, as not so much space is needed at a self feeder as at the ordinary rack, not nearly all the lambs eating at one time. With hay at $5.00 per ton, these racks saved in the present instance 42 cents for each 100 pounds gain, or about 14 cents on each lamb. With four lambs to the running foot of rack this would be a saving of 56 cents against an initial cost for material of $1.00. With hay at $7.00 per ton, a saving of 18 cents per head was effected. This one experiment then indicates consider- able advantage for the self feeder when whole hay is fed, as the racks would pay for themselves in two seasons or less. Another trial is contemplated. SUMMARY. Two trials of chopped hay do not settle the question of economy in cutting the hay, but the second trial with good hay, where undue waste was not allowed shows no economy. The lambs ate more hay and less corn when the hay was cut, but the cost of 100 pounds gain was practically the same whether the hay was cut or not, with $1.00 per ton charged for cutting. One trial of self feeders for hay shows a considerable saving. With hay at $7.00 per ton, the self feeders costing $1.00 per running foot for materials, repaid their initial cost in one season, accommo- dating 6 lambs to the running foot. LAMB FEEDING, 1907-1908 Bi-weekly Data, Lot i. 200 Lambs in Lot. Ration: Corn, Alfalfa Hay, Cut, in Self Feeder Weight (Ibs.) Gain (Ibs.) Average Gain Per Head Ibs. Feed Corn ,lbs. Alfalfa Hay Beginning 1 167S 2nd Week 14270 2595 12.984 1895 4th Week 15037 767 6th Week 15720 683 3.418 2800 8th Week 16355 635 3.173 2800 10th Week 17200 845 4.225 3150 12th Week 18300 1100 5.500 3500 !4th Week 19330 1030 5.15 3500 7655 38.30 20445 46329 COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION LAMB FEEDING, 1907-1908 Bi-weekly Data, Lot II. 200 Lambs in Lot. Ration: Corn, Alfalfa Hay Whole, in Self Feeder Weight Gain Average Gain Per Feec ,lbs. (Ibs.) (Ibs.) Head Ibs. Corn Alfalfa Hay Beginning 12240 2nd Week 4th Week 14695 15340 2455 645 12278 3 223 2045 2800 6th Week 15835 495 2.478 2800 £th Week 16195 360 1 80 2800 10th Week ]2th Week 14th Week 17010 18030 19170 815 1020 1140 4.078 5.10 5 70 3150 3500 3500 6930 34,67 20595 41615 LAMB FEEDING, 1907-1908 Bi-weekly Data, Lot IIL 200 Lambs in Lot. Ration: Whole, on the Ground Corn, Alfalfa Hay, Weight (Ibs.) Gain (Ibs.) Average Gain Per Head Ibs. Feed, Ibs. Corn Alfalfa Hay Beginning 11813 2nd Week 13935 2122 10.61 2045 4th Week 14715 780 390 2800 6th Week 15395 680 3.40 2800 8th Week - 15605 210 1 05 2800 10th Week 16195 590 2.95 3150 12th Week 17140 945 4.723 3500 T4th Week 18555 1415 7.078 3500 6742 33.73 20595 49425 Note. — It will be noticed that the lambs made a large fill the first two weeks. This was in spite of the fact that the experiment was not begun until six days after the lambs were unloaded, the lambs being given all the hay they would eat during this time. OF OCTOBER, 1916 FOESTRY BULLETIN No. 144 OF AGKtCULTUfTC UN*vri*SlTY OF CALIFORNIA THE PENNSYLVANIA STATE COLLEGE SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station Shropshire Sheep on Pasture The Maintenance of Breeding Ewes of Mutton and Wool Sheep STATE COLLEGE, CENTRE COUNTY, PENNSYLVANIA THE PENNSYLVANIA STATE COLLEGE SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION Advisory Committee of the Board of Trustees H. V. WHITE, Chairman, Bloomsburg, Pa. E. S. Bayard Pittsburgh C. E. Patton Curwensville Vance C. McCormick Harrisburg C. J. Tyson Flora Dale EDWIN EELE SPAEKS, President of the College. STAFF Administration R. L. Watts, Dean and Director. C. L. Goodling, Superintendent of Farms. Julia C. Gray, Librarian and Editor. William G. Murtorff, Clerk. H. Marilla Williams, Record Clerk. Jean T. Sandstrom, Secretary. Agronomy F. D. Gardner, Head of Department. E. L. Worthen, Soils. C. F. Noll, Farm Crops. W. H. Darst, Farm Crops. J. W. White, Soils. R. S. Smith, Soils. R. A. Andree, Farm Mechanics. E. O. Anderson, Farm Management P. S. Baker, Farm Crops. H. P. Cooper, Farm Crops. D. C. Wimer, Soils. Agricultural Education T. I. Mairs, Head of Department. W. 'R. White, Assistant. Agricultural Chemistry Charles W. Stoddart, Head of Department. Margaret B. MacDonald, Food and Dairy Chemistry. E. E. DeTurk, Physiological Chemistry. *H. R. Kraybill, Plant Chemistry. 1). E. Haley, Soil and Fertilizer Chemistry. Animal Husbandry W. H. Tomhave, Head of Department. B. O. Severson, Breeding and Sheep. Paul Gerlaugh, Swine. F. B. Crooks, Poultry. I. D. Wilson, Veterinarian; Horses. L. S. Kleinschmidt, Poultry. F. L. Bentley, Beef Cattle. L. P. McCann, Swine. R. H. Olmstead, Sheep. Botany Frank D. Kern, Head of Department. *C. R. Orton, Plant Pathology. J. Ben Hill, Genetics. *R. A. Waldron, Plant Pathology. J. F. Adams, Plant Pathology. * Absent on leave. The bulletins of the Station will be mailed regularly, free of charge, to all residents of the State who request them. Address: Director of Experiment Station, State College, Centre Co., Pa. *A. R. Haas, Plant Physiology. A. A. Ilansen, Ecology. J. P. Kelly, Genetics. W. G. Edwards, Botany and Forestry. I.. <>. Overholts, Mycology. R. S. Spray, Weeds and Seeds. G. A. Meckstroth, Plant Pathology. J. W. Miller, Teaching Fellow. John Ellis, Gardener. Dairy Husbandry Fred Rasmussen, Head of Department. F. S. Putney, Milk Production. E. L. Anthony, Farm Dairying and Milk Production. J. M. Sherman, Bacteriology. * Elizabeth B. Meek, Bacteriology. S. I. Bechdel, Milk Production. G. S. Bulkley, Milk Production. I. J. Bibby, Dairy Manufacture. E. R. Hitchener, Bacteriology. A. L. Beam, Farm Dairying and Milk Pro- duction. W. D. Swope, Milk Production. F. P. Knoll, Superintendent of Creamery. Experimental Agricultural Chemistry William Frear, Vice-Director and Head of Department. G. C. Given, First Assistant Chemist. E. S. Erb, Associate Chemist. Charles Kern, Laboratory Assistant. Experimental Pomology J. P. Stewart, Head of Department. W. C. Gillespie, Assistant. Forestry John A. Ferguson, Head of Department. George R. Green, Wood Technology. Clarence R. Anderson, Forest Management. Horticulture S. W. Fletcher, Head of Department. A. W. Cowell, Landscape Gardening. C. E. Myers, Vegetable Gardening. F. N. Fagan, Pomology. E. I. Wilde, Floriculture. J. R. Bechtel, Vegetable Gardening. L. F. Reese, Pomology. A. F. Yeager, Pomology. J. S. Gardner, Vegetable Gardening. H. M. Hills, Gardener. Grit Publishing Co., Williamsport, Pa. THE MAINTENANCE OF BREEDING EWES OF MUTTON AND WOOL SHEEP1 B. O. SEVERSON Pennsylvania offers to its farmers special opportunities and facilities for the production of mutton and wool. Sheep are by nature suited to its extensive grazing areas, at present utilized by only a limited number of grazing animals ; its natural production of forage crops ; its favorable climate and soil ; and its excellent markets. The marked increase in value of both mutton and wool during the year 1916 demonstrates the American shortage of and demand for those commodities. The actual averages of prices for the five years covered by the experiment discussed in this bulletin are given herewith. The prices of 1916, compared with the average prices of 1914 and 1915, showed an increase in the value of mutton of 13.2 per cent to 16.6 per cent ; in the value of wool, of 26.4 per cent to 36 per cent, in the various lots of sheep under investigation. This investigation was begun December 1, 1911. Details of the results of Part I were published in the annual reports of The Pennsylvania State College for 1911-12 and 1913-142. A summary of those details of Part II, as given in the report for 1915-16, is also reported herewith. Object The object of these experiments was the collection of data upon the following factors: 1. The possibilities for sheep raising in Pennsylvania. 2. The cost of maintaining breeding ewes. 3. Influence of type upon cost of maintenance. 4. Value of corn silage as a sole roughage for breeding ewes. 5. Effect of corn silage on lambs produced. 6. Value of alfalfa hay and corn silage vs. corn silage alone, as a roughage. 7. Value of an open shed as shelter. 8. Cost of maintaining ewes during summer months. 9. Value of wool. 10. Value and cost of lambs at marketable age. 11. Value of alfalfa hay as a sole roughage for breeding ewes. 1 Reprints of the details of the investigation, including costs, will be mailed upon request. Reprint of 1913-14 is now available. Reprint of 1915-16 will be available January 1, 1918. 2 Annual Report, Penna. State College, 1915-16. 4 BULLETIN 144 Plan of Investigation During the winter period the ewes were divided into four lots : Shropshires in Lots I and II, and Delaine-Merinos in Lots III and IV. The ewes during the summer were alternated on two pastures every two weeks. They flocked together, without any grain, except for a few weeks prior to and during the breeding season. The two breeds were separated during the mating season. The same grain mixture was fed at all times during the experiment. Rations Part I (Winter Period) 3 December 1, 1911-April 25, 1913 Lot I — 10 Shropshires. Corn silage, twice daily, according to appetite Cottonseed meal (1 Ib. to each 25 Ibs. of silage) Grain mixture Parts Shelled corn 5 Oats 3 Wheat bran 2 Linseed oil meal 1 To maintain good condition Lot II — 10 Shropshires. Corn silage in evening Alfalfa hay in morning, according to appetite Grain mixture same as for Lot I Lot III — 10 Delaine-Merinos. Same as for Shropshire Lot I Lot IV — 10 Delaine-Merinos. Same as for Shropshire Lot II For Lots I and III one pound of cottonseed meal was added to each 25 pounds of corn silage. Part II (Winter Period)4 December 5, 1913-May 9, 1916 Lot I — Shropshires. Alfalfa hay sole roughage Grain mixture same as for Part I Lot II — Shropshires. Same ration as fed in Part I Grain mixture same as for Part I Lot III — Delaine-Merinos. Alfalfa hay sole roughage Grain mixture same as for Part I Lot IV — Delaine-Merinos. Same ration as fed in Part I Grain mixture same as for Part I The grain mixture was fed in the same amounts to all sheep used in Part II. In the winter of 1914-15, however, it was not fed previous to lambing and only to ewes that yeaned. In 1913-14 corn silage was limited to 2 pounds per ewe daily for Lots II and IV, and alfalfa hay was fed according to appetite. In 1914-15 corn silage and alfalfa hay were fed according to appetite. In 1915-16 3 Prof. W. A. Cochel made the plan for Part I; Messrs. William Cleaver and K. C. Ikeler assisted with records. 4 Messrs. K. J. Suelke, K. W. Duck and G. H. Grabe assisted with records. MAINTENANCE OF BREEDING EWES OF MUTTON AND WOOL SHEEP 5 Delaine-Merino Ram of C Type Used Fall of 1915 to Lots II and IV the corn silage was fed according to appetite. Alfalfa hay was restricted to 2 pounds per ewe for Lot II, and to 1.75 pounds for Lot IV. Shropshire Ram Used in Part I 6 BULLETIN 144 Description of Sheep5 This experiment was begun with twenty purebred Shropshire and twenty purebred Delaine-Merino ewes of breeding age, all having been kept under the same conditions for two and one-half months previously. Purebred Shropshire and Delaine-Merino rams had been placed with the ewes of their respective breeds on Sep- tember 12. The Delaine-Merino ewes were all in good physical condition, and were two years old. Two Shropshires lacked thrift. It was later determined that they had nodular disease. The re- maining Shropshires were healthy and in most cases two years old. The Delaine-Merino ewes largely possessed C-type, a few possess- ing B-type. The new ewes introduced in Part II were raised from those on Part I of this experiment. The number of ewes in each lot varied in Part II. In the winter of 1913-14 Lots I and II were composed of eight Shropshires each ; Lots III and IV of six Delaine- Merinos each. In the winter of 1914-15 Lots I and II contained ten each, and Lots III and IV six each. In 1915-16 the number was ten Shropshires each in Lots I and II, and eight Delaine- Merinos each in Lots III and IV. Purebred rams of the respective breeds were used. In 1914, in the Shropshire lots, several crossbred lambs were obtained due to accidental mating of rams of other breeds with the ewes. Quarters The first two winters the shelter was a shed 30 feet long and 22 feet deep, open to the south. The shed had four divisions, each 7^2 feet wide and 17 feet deep ; these adjoined an open lot of the same width and 22 feet deep. This plan provided a pen for each lot 39 feet deep and 7^2 feet wide. The open pen had a cement floor with a retaining wall. Sufficient bedding was used to keep the pens dry at all times. A sheep shed open to the south was used also for Part II of this investigation. The quarters available to each lot were 9 feet wide and 23 feet long; adjoining them was an open lot of the same width and 30 feet deep. The ground surface was well drained, and sore feet gave no trouble, as in the first two winters when a retaining wall and a cement floor prevented drainage from the exercise yards. The lots did not allow the pregnant ewes enough exercise. At the open end of the shed, a door was hinged above, 5 Detailed description given in The Pennsylvania State College Annual Ee- port, 1915-16. MAINTENANCE OF BREEDING EWES OF MUTTON AND WOOL SHEEP Lot I — Part II — Shropshire Ewes Representative of Those Used in Lot II and kept closed only in severe weather. At lambing time the ewes were invariably removed to warmer quarters, and after one week returned to the open shed. Weighing Individual weights were taken on three consecutive days, at the beginning and close of each winter and summer period. At the end of every four weeks during the winter period, weights were taken on three consecutive days, the first and third days being group weights of each lot, and the second day individual weights of each sheep. A single group weight was taken at the middle of each four-week period. During the summer months individual weights were taken every four weeks6. Lot IV— Part II— Delaine-Merino Ewes Representative of Those Used in Lot III 6 Details of methods of feeding and air-dry matter of feeds in Annual Re- port, Penna. State Qpllege, 1911-12, 1913-14, and 1915-16. BULLETIN 144 All Lots Shown in Pens Used in Part I EXPENDITURES AND RECEIPTS IN SHEEP RAISING Part L— December 1, 1911-April 25, 1913 Table L— Summary of Two Winters (147 days) 147 Days Lot I Shropshire's Corn silage, cottonseed meal and grain Lot II Shropshires Alfalfa hay, corn silage and grain Lot III Delaine- Merinos Corn silage, cottonseed meal and Lot IV Delaine- Merinos Alfalfa hay, corn silage and grain Average initial weight per ewe 'Average final weight per ewe 136.615 Ibs. 131 121 Ibs. 135.298 Ibs. 132 134 Ibs 101.297 Ibs. 108 047 Ibs 99.765 Ibs. 107 704 Ibs Gain or loss in weight per ewe -5.494 Ibs. -3.164 Ibs. 6.750 Ibs. 7.939 Ibs Average daily feed per ewe 38 Ibs 38 Ibs 38 Ibs * 38 Ibs Cottonseed meal .24 Ibs. 20 Ibs 5 81 Ibs 3 59 Ibs 4 81 Ibs 2 96 Ibs Alfalfa hay . . 1.59 Ibs. 1 47 Ibs 2Av'ge daily consumption D.M. in feeds per ewe 2Average daily consumption of D. M. in feeds per 100 Ibs live weight 2.390 Ibs. 1.714 Ibs. 2.837 Ibs. 2 025 Ibs 1.775 Ibs. 1 774 Ibs 2.452 Ibs. 2 307 Ibs 3Total cost of feed per ewe (147 days) 4Total amount of bedding per ewe. . 52.801 78.18 Ibs. $3.436 78.18 Ibs. $2.450 88 51 Ibs $3.151 88 51 Ibs Total cost of bedding per ewe $ 313 f 313 $ 353 $ 353 *Total amount of manure per ewe (147 days) . . . Total value of manure per ewe 749.61 Ibs. $ 932 749.61 Ibs. $ 932 795.43 Ibs. $ 994 795.43 Ibs. $ 994 6Interest on equipment per ewe $ .15 $ .15 $ .15 $ .15 7Total cost of labor per ewe $ -41 $ 41 $ 41 $ 41 Average weight of fleece per ewe 7.677 Ibs. 7.464 Ibs. 13.006 Ibs. 12.349 Ibs. 8Total value of fleece per ewe $1.867 $1.808 $2951 $2.763 9 Average weight of lamb at birth 8.825 Ibs. 8.550 Ibs. 7.785 Ibs. 7.800 Ibs. Average weight of lamb at four weeks of age. . . 10Per cent, lambs by ewes that yeaned 22.25 Ibs. 140% 20.85 Ibs. 166% 21. 25 Ibs. 112.5% 19.70 Ibs. 105.5% 1 *Per cent, lambs raised by ewes that yeaned . . . Total cost of maintenance per ewe (credit for manure) 147 days 73.33% 12.741 115.5% $3.377 62.5% $2.369 86.1% 53.070 1 Weight of fleece included. 2 D. M. Designates dry matter (air). Cost of feeds: Shelled corn, 62.5c bushel: Wheat bran, $28 ton: Cottonseed meal, $32 ton; Oats, 50c bushel; Linseed Oil meal, $36 ton; Corn silage, $3.50 ton; Alfalfa hay, $15 ton. 4 Results 1915-16 — Straw valued at $8 per ton. 5 Results 1915-16 — Manure valued at $2.50 per ton. Value of shed $100 @ 6 per cent. 7. Labor @ 15c per hour, % hour daily for flock. 8. Fleece valued on Philadelphia market: Shropshire 1912 @ 26c and 1913 @ 23c per pound; Delaine-Merinos 1912 @ 24c and 1913 @ 21c per pound. 9. Annual Report 1911-12, Pennsylvania State College, Table IX, page 167, and Annual Report 1913-14, Pennsylvania State College, Table XIX, page 108. 10-11. Annual Report 1911-12, Pennsylvania State College, pages 173, 174, and Annual Report 1913-14, Pennsylvania State College, pages 110-112. MAINTENANCE OF BREEDING EWES OF MUTTON AND WOOL SHEEP 9 There was no apparent difference in vitality in ewes of both lots during the winter of 1911-12, but the ewes in Lot II in 1912-13 were decidedly stronger and more active. The ewes of Lot I prior to lambing showed discomfort by constant stretching of the body. The grain mixture was added to the ration in all lots eight weeks prior to lambing in 1911-12, and four weeks prior to lambing in 1912-13. The largest amount of silage eaten per ewe was 6.8 pounds daily for 56 days prior to lambing in 1911-12 in Lot I. The lowest amount was 2.6 pounds daily per ewe for 42 days after lambing in 1912-13, also in Lot I. The quantity of corn silage consumed, however, was very uniform in Lot II, during the two winters. The air-dry matter in feeds consumed per ewe was 16.1 per cent less per ewe and 16.3 per cent less per 100 pounds live- weight in Lot I than in Lot II. The lower cost of maintenance in Lot I indicates that corn silage reduces the total cost. The manure was valued at $2.50 per ton which is less than the value of its fertility constituents7. The weight of wool was .213 pounds more per ewe in Lot I than in Lot II, a difference due possibly more to individuality than to the ration fed, since the market value, based on quality and length of fiber, was the same in both lots8. The greater weight of lambs in Lot I at four weeks after birth was due to the high mortality of weak lambs. Thirty-three percent of the ewes in Lot I were assisted in lambing in 1911-12, and one lamb was born dead. Five lambs were dead at birth in 1912-13. They were soft and flabby and the placenta was slimy and semi-decomposed. Two ewes in this lot died at lambing time. They showed some nodular disease, but not sufficient to cause death. Their deaths were no doubt due to complications caused by lack of appetite and the burden of pregnancy. The lambs in Lot II were vigorous at birth. The ewes in this lot were thrifty and maintained good appetites. Of the lambs that died prior to being placed on pasture in Lot II, two were killed by accident, and one twin died of weakness. Dogs were responsible for the mortality after the lambs were pastured. Two ewes of this lot died of very advanced stages of nodular disease. The feed was consumed more uniformly throughout both win- ters in the Delaine-Merino lots than in the Shropshire lots. The ewes of Lot IV, fed corn silage and alfalfa hay as roughage, con- 7 Ohio Bulletin 246, $4.45 per ton. ^Valuation by J. Bateman & Co., Philadelphia. 10 BULLETIN 144 sumed 27.6 per cent more air-dry matter in their feeds than did those of Lot III for which corn silage was the sole roughage. The lower cost of $.691 per ewe for feeds consumed in Lot III does not justify its being fed, because of high mortality of lambs. The quality and market value of wool from both lots was the same9. The lambs were more vigorous in Lot IV than in Lot III. In Lot III one lamb was killed by a blood sucking animal and in 1913 three lambs died because of weakness. One ewe in Lot III died the summer of 1912 and another the spring of 1913. A comparison of the two lots of the two breeds shows similar results. The Delaine-Merino ewes consumed their roughage more uniformly and with greater relish than the Shropshire ewes. Per ewe, the Shropshires of Lot I consumed 25.7 per cent more air-dry matter than the Delaine-Merinos of Lot III, but 3.4 per cent less per 100 pounds liveweight. Likewise in Lots II and IV, the Shropshires consumed 13.5 per cent more per ewe but 12.2 per cent less per 100 pounds liveweight than the Delaine-Merinos. The care required by Merino ewes at lambing time was less than that required by Shropshire ewes. The weakness of ewes and lambs in Lot III, Delaine-Merinos, was not as great as that manifested by the Shropshire ewes in Lot I, to which a similar ration was offered. The loss of lambs in Lots I and III was largely due to the ration fed, namely, corn silage alone as a roughage. Conditions that affected losses in lambs, aside from the rations fed, were lack of sufficient exercise space and inexperienced labor in caring for the sheep. Table 2. — Summary of One Summer's Results (216 Days) April 19-Nov. 21, 1912 Lot I Shropshires Lot II Shropshires Lot III Delaine-Merinos Lot IV Delaine-Merinos 1 Initial weight per ewe Final weight per ewe 123.484 Ibs. 152.430 " 113.487 Ibs. 145.625 " 92.614 Ibs. 106.366 " 84.224 Ibs. 99.531 " Gain in weight per ewe .... 2 Interest on pasture 28.946 " $ 93 32.138 " $ 93 13.752 " $ 70 15.307 " $ .70 3Interest on $100 equipment 4Labor cost per ewe .09 21 .09 .21 .09 .21 .09 .21 5 Grain cost per ewe .36 .36 .36 .36 6 Service of ram cost per ewe Total cost per ewe (216 days) .29 1.88 .29 1.88 .29 1.65 .29 1.65 acre per Delaine-Merino ewe, land valued at $56 1. Weight of fleece not included. 2. Estimated % acre per Shropshire ewe and per acre @ 5 per cent interest. 3. Equipment $100 for 216 days @ 6 per cent. 4. Labor 15 minutes (flock) daily @ 15c per hour. 5. Grain mixture 978 pounds. 5 parts corn @ 70c per bushel; 8 parts oats @ 50c per bushel; 2 parts wheat bran @ $30 per ton; 1 part oil meal @ $38 per ton. 6. Service of one ram for 38 ewes, valued at $25, cost of maintenance $6 annually, depreciation 25%. 9 Based on quotations on individual fleeces by J. Bateman & Co., Philadelphia. MAINTENANCE OF BREEDING EWES OF MUTTON AND WOOL SHEEP 1 1 Table 2 shows the expense of pasturing Shropshire and Delaine-Merino ewes10. Table 3.— The Average Annual Cost of Maintenance Per Ewe Lot I Shropshires Silage, cottonseed meal and grain Lot II Shropshires Silage, alfalfa hay and grain Lot III Delaine-Merinos Silage, cottonseed meal and grain Lot IV Delaine-Merinos Silage, alfalfa hay and grain Winter maintenance per ewe Summer maint'ance per ewe interest on value per ewe . . 2 Depreciation per ewe $2.741 1.88 .48 36 $3.377 1.88 .48 35 $2.369 1.65 .36 23 $3.07 1.65 .36 24 8Mortality risk per ewe .... Total annual cost per ewe.. .65 6.111 .66 6.747 .48 5.089 5.'32 1. Interest on value of ewe @ 6 per cent — Shropshires valued @ $8 and Delaine-Merinos @ $6. 2. Shropshirea estimated as serviceable four seasons, Delaine-Merinos five seasons. Market price Shropshires $5 per cwt., and Delaine-Merinos $4.50 per cwt. 3. During the experiment two ewes died in each of Lots I, II and III. The mating season began the middle of September for both crops of lambs. The greater cost of maintenance for Shropshires was 12.2 per cent more than for Delaine-Merinos. Table 4.-— The Value of Mutton and Wool Lot I Shropshires Silage, cottonseed meal and grain Lot II Shropshires Silage, alfalfa hay and grain Lot III Delaine-Merinos Silage, cottonseed meal and grain Lot IV Delaine-Merinos Silage, alfalfa hay and grain ^ost of feed per lamb 2Average weight per lamb at weaning 18.25c 70 5 Ibs 16. 5c 65 5 Ibs 17. 5c 59 0 Ibs 17. Oc 56 5 Ibs 3Market value per lamb 4Per cent lambs raised by ewes that veaned $5.46 73.33^ $5.08 115.5% $4.13 62 3% $3.96 86 \% Value of mutton per ewe that veaned $4 00 $5 87 $2 58 $3 41 Value of wool per ewe Total value of mutton and wool per ewe that yeaned Total cost of ewe and feed per lamb 1.86 5.86 6.29 1.80 7.67 6.91 2.95 5.53 5 26 2.76 6.17 5 49 Profit or loss per ewe -.43 .76 .27 .68 Profit or loss per ewe with 100% lambs - 03 1 23 Profit or loss per ewe with 125 <t I than in Lot II. Manure was valued at $2.50 per ton. The due of the shelter, the feed racks and the other facilities used by le ewes on the experiment was $100. The percentage of lambs raised to a weaning age was 110 per cent in Lot I and 95 per cent in Lot II. The heavy loss of lambs was due largely to employment of inexperienced labor and lack of exercise space, facts which serve to emphasize the import- ance of these two factors in successful sheep raising. Greater milk flow from the ewes fed alfalfa hay as a sole roughage in Lot I as compared with Lot II caused the greater gain in the lambs. Dur- ing the winter of 1914-15 no grain was fed to the ewes before lambing; the result was weaker lambs in Lot I, and less milk from the ewes at time of lambing. By giving credit for the manure •produced and the cost of feed, labor, equipment and bedding for a winter period of 158.3 days, the Shropshires fed alfalfa cost 23 per cent more for maintenance than the Shropshires in Lot II, fed corn silage and alfalfa hay as roughage. The results obtained in the two Delaine-Merino lots fed the same as the Shropshire lots show similar correlation. Cost of feeds was $1.36 more per ewe in Lot III than in Lot IV. There was no apparent difference in the vigor of these lambs at birth except during the winter of 1914-15 when no grain was fed prior to lambing. The ewes in Lot III (1914-15), fed alfalfa hay as a sole roughage, produced lambs less vigorous and gave less milk at lamb- ing time than those of Lot IV. This difference, however, was not as evident in the Delaine-Merino ewes as in the Shropshire ewes. The Delaine-Merino ewes of Lot III, fed alfalfa hay as a sole roughage, supplemented with a grain mixture, furnished more milk to their lambs. The total cost of winter maintenance per ewe after giving credit for the manure was 23 per cent greater in Lot III than in Lot IV. The Delaine-Merino lambs weighed more at eight weeks of age in Lot III than the Shropshires in Lot I, due to the Delaine- Merino ewes nursing single lambs and the Shropshire ewes nursing a higher percentage of twins. During the three winters of the investigation the Delaine-Merinos lambed earlier and in a shorter period than did the Shropshire ewes, because of being bred earlier in the fall and mating nearer the same time than the Shropshires, even though the mating season began on the same date for all lots. 14 BULLETIN 144 The Shropshire ewes of Lot I yeaned a higher proportion of lambs, but lost a greater number than the Delaine-Merino ewes of Lot III. The Shropshire ewes required more care at lambing than the Delaine-Merino ewes. Lot II, Shropshires, and Lot IV, Delaine-Merinos, were fed corn silage and alfalfa hay as roughage. The greater amount of bedding used by the Delaine-Merino ewes was due to the same apportionment to a smaller number of ewes11. The proportion of lambs raised by the Delaine-Merino ewes that produced lambs in Lot IV was greater than for the Shrop- shires that yeaned in Lot II. Shropshire ewes in Lot II cost 5 per cent more for winter maintenance than the Delaine-Merino ewes of Lot IV. Table 6. — Summary of Maintenance of Ewes on Pasture Two Seasons, Summers of 1914 and 1915 Lot I Shropshires Lot II Shropshires Lot III Delaine-Merinos Lot IV Delaine-Merinos Average length of period . . ^ost of pasture, labor, grain, equipment and ser- vice of sire per ewe, 1914 2 Cost of pasture, labor, grain, equipment and ser- vice of sire per ewe, 1915 Average cost per ewe 205 days $1.83 1.69 1 76 205 days $1.83 1.69 1 76 205 days $1.65 1.46 1 555 205 days $1.65 1.46 1 CCC 3Initial weight per ewe .... Concluding weight per ewe Gain in weight per ewe 135.37 Ibs. 172.57 37.20 144. 79 Ibs. 178.31 33.52 103. 30 Ibs. 127.21 23.91 103.18 Ibs. 129.63 26.45 . Annual Report, Pennsylvania State College, 1915-16. 2. Table XLVII, Annual Report, Pennsylvania State College, 1915-16. 3. Weight of fleece not included. The cost of summer maintenance was calculated on same basis as that shown in Table 2. The greater cost of 1914 was due to Grazing on Hilly Pasture 11 Annual Eeport, Penna. State College, 1915-16. MAINTENANCE OF BREEDING EWES OF MUTTON AND WOOL SHEEP 15 26 ewes being on the experiment in 1914, and 32 in 1915, a fact showing that 32 ewes approaches a more economical unit than 26 ewes. Ewes of all lots made marked increases in weight during the pasturing season. Table 7. — Annual Cost of Maintaining Breeding Ewes December 5, 1913-May 9, 1916 One year Lot I Shropshires Alfalfa hay and grain Lot 11 Shropshires Corn silage, alfal- fa hay and grain Lot III Delaine-Merinos Alfalfa hay and grain Lot IV Delaine-Merinos Corn silage, alfal- fa hay and grain Winter maintenance per ewe Summer maint'ance per ewe 1 Interest on value per ewe. 2 Depreciation of ewe $5.92 1.76 .60 50 $4.516 1.76 .60 50 $5.586 1.555 .48 .50 $4.290 1.555 .48 .50 Mortality risk per ewe 217 217 .173 .173 "Total annual cost per ewe 8.997 7.593 8.294 6.998 1. Shropshires valued at $10 per ewe; Delaine-Merinos at $8 per ewe; at 6 per cent interest. 2. Shropshires estimated serviceable 4 seasons^ and Delaine-Merinos 5 seasons. Market value of Shropshire ewes 160 pounds @ $6 per cwt., and Delaine-Merinos 110 pounds at $5 per cwt. 8. Based on results of two ewes dying during the 2% years of the investigation. In both the lots fed alfalfa hay as a sole roughage the cost of maintenance was 15.6 per cent greater than in the lots fed corn silage and alfalfa hay. A comparison of the Shropshire ewes in Lots I and II fed the same as the Delaine-Merinos in Lots III and IV, respectively, showed 7.8 per cent greater cost of maintenance for the Shropshire ewes. Table 8. — Average Annual Receipts from Mutton and Wool Lot I Shropshires Alfalfa hay and grain Lot II Shropshires Corn silage, alfal- fa hay and grain Lot III Delaine-Merinos Alfalfa hay and grain Lot IV Delaine-Merinos Corn silage, alfal- fa hay and grain lAverage weight of lambs at weaning1 58.78 Ibs 59 00 Ibs 57 60 Ibs 53 10 Ibs 2 Average cost of grain per lamb $ .27 $ .29 $ .27 $ .29 "Average market value per 100 Ibs live weight 9 58 9 50 9 166 8 833 4 Average value of wool per pound .304 297 266 2636 Average value of fleece per ewe 2 603 2 276 3 28 2 933 Average value of mutton and wool, 100% lambs... Annual cost of ewe and lamb 8.23 9.27 7.88 7.88 8.41 8 56 7.62 7.28 Profit or loss with 100% lambs -1 04 - 15 34 Profit with 125% lambs .... Profit with 150% lambs Profit with 175% lambs .... .40 1.81 3.22 1.40 2.80 4.20 1.13 1.51 1. Lambs weaned July 3, 1914; July 3, 1915; July 5, 1916. 2. Details in Annual Report, Pennsylvania State College, 1915-16. 3. Average of Pittsburgh market quotations (3 years). 4. Records on individual fleeces by J. Bateman & Co., Philadelphia. 16 BULLETIN 144 The fact that the Delaine-Merino lambs were more nearly the weight of the Shropshires at weaning time than is shown in Table 4, Part I, was because the Shropshire ewes had a higher propor- tion of twins and the Delaine-Merino lambs averaged nearly two weeks older than the Shropshires in Part II. The value of the mutton and wool, based on market prices for the three years, was greatest in the lots fed alfalfa hay as a sole roughage. The Shrop- shire lambs, because of their thicker flesh covering, varied from $.50 to $.75 higher in market value per 100 pounds liveweight than the Delaine-Merinos. The greater market value of mutton and wool in Shropshire Lot I and Delaine-Merino Lot III, in which alfalfa hay was the sole roughage, did not offset the greater cost of maintenance for the breeding ewes. The lambs in these two lots did not weigh as much or have as high condition as the lambs from Lots II and IV in 1915, owing to the feeding of no grain to the ewes prior to lambing. No credit was given for the manure produced on pasture, the increase in stand of grass by sheep grazing and the destruction of weeds which were abundant in the pastures. When 100 per cent lambs were raised the Delaine-Merino ewes in Lot IV were the only ewes to show a profit, while the Shrop- shire ewes in Lot II paid for the cost of their maintenance. The Shropshire ewes, however, are capable of raising 150 per cent or more, while 125 per cent from Delaine-Merinos is all that can be Table 9.— Cost of Maintenance, with Alfalfa Hay at Varying Prices Lot I Shropshires Lot II Shropshires Lot III Delaine-Merinos Lot IV Delaine-Merinos Annual cost per ewe, alfalfa @ $12.00 per ton $ 7.926 $ 7 00 $7 311 $6 454 Annual cost per ewe, alfalfa @ $15 00 per ton 8 997 7 593 8 294 6 998 Annual cost per ewe, alfalfa @ $18.00 per ton 10 065 8 185 9 277 7 544 Annual cost per ewe, alfalfa @ $20.00 per ton 10 778 8 571 9 932 7.908 Value of mutton per cwt. year 1916 10 50 10 50 9 75 9 50 Value of wool per pound, year 1916 367 366 32 .306 Total value mutton and wool with 100% lambs . . . 1 Profit or loss per ewe with 100$ lambs on 1916 prices 1 Profit per ewe with 125$ lambs on 1916 prices 9.14 -.13 1.43 8.88 1.00 2.55 9.29 .73 2.23 8.29 1.01 2.27 1. Cost of feed for lamb included. Alfalfa valued at $15 per ton. MAINTENANCE OF BREEDING EWES OF MUTTON AND WOOL SHEEP 17 expected. The profits in sheep raising will depend largely upon the ability to raise high percentages of lambs fitted into good con- ditioij for market, since the production of mutton is variable and that of wool is relatively stable. Table 9 shows that when alfalfa hay is worth $15 per ton a reasonable profit can be made on ewes, fed as in Lots II and IV, with 100 and 125 per cent lambs raised, and at mutton and wool prices of 1916. SUMMARY Part I 1. Corn silage as a sole roughage, supplemented with one pound of cottonseed meal to each 25 pounds of silage, is an unsatis- factory ration for pregnant ewes, even with the addition of a good grain mixture. 2. Lambs dropped by ewes, fed a ration of corn silage and cottonseed meal, are heavier, weaker, less active at birth and have a higher mortality than lambs of ewes fed a roughage ration of corn silage and alfalfa hay. 3. Breeding ewes fed a ration of corn silage and cottonseed meal are less active and less vigorous in the latter stages of preg- nancy than ewes fed corn silage and alfalfa hay as roughages. 4. Lambs raised by breeding ewes, fed corn silage as a sole roughage, matured into good, marketable lambs. 5. As a roughage ration corn silage and alfalfa hay fed to- gether was satisfactory. 6. The Shropshire ewes required more air-dry matter for maintenance per ewe but less per 100 pounds liveweight than the Delaine-Merino ewes, on the same feeds. 7. The cost of winter feeds was 18.5 per cent less in the Shropshire lot and 22.2 per cent less in the Delaine Merino lot where corn silage was the sole roughage. This fact does not justify its use as a sole roughage, because of its high mortality risk. It should be fed to the greatest extent possible without danger to the pregnant ewe. 8. Delaine-Merino ewes, though not so easily placed in high condition of flesh, retain that condition more persistently after lambing than do Shropshires, and require less attention. The Delaine-Merinos were more subject to "foul foot" in damp weather. 9. Delaine-Merino ewes in Lot III averaged 40.9 per cent heavier fleeces with a greater valuation of 36.7 per cent, than the 18 BULLETIN 144 Shropshires of Lot I. In Lot IV the Delaine-Merino fleeces were 39.5 per cent heavier and 30.9 per cent more valuable than those of the Shropshires of Lot II. 10. The total annual cost of maintenance was 16.6 per cent greater for the Shropshires in Lot I than for the Delaine-Merinos in Lot III; the cost of the Shropshires in Lot II was 21.1 per cent greater than that of the Delaine-Merinos in Lot IV. 11. The value of mutton was 35.5 per cent greater from the Shropshires of Lot I than from the Delaine-Merinos of Lot III, while the mutton from the Shropshires of Lot II was 41.9 per cent more valuable than that from the Delaine-Merinos of Lot IV. 12. If 100 per cent lambs were raised by Delaine-Merino ewes of Lot IV the profit would be $1.23 per ewe, while a Shropshire ewe fed the same feeds in Lot II would yield a profit of $1.24, if 125 per cent lambs were raised. 13. Wintering pregnant ewes in an open shed was conducive to the health and thrift of ewes and lambs. Such quarters, how- ever, require a southern exposure, a dry bed, well-drained and spacious yards, and provision for warmer quarters during the "lambing season." The proportion of receipts from mutton and wool was: Lot I— Mutton 68.3 per cent. Wool 31.7 per cent. Lot II — Mutton 76.6 per cent. Wool 23.4 per cent. Lot III— Mutton 46.7 per cent. Wool : 53.3 per cent. Lot IV— Mutton 54.3 per cent. Wool 45.7 per cent. Part II 1. Alfalfa hay at $15 per ton is too expensive as a sole rough- age for breeding ewes of these types. 2. Alfalfa hay with a grain mixture of one-quarter pound per ewe daily produces vigorous lambs, results in a greater growth of wool and stimulates a greater milk flow than a ration of corn silage, alfalfa hay and grain. 3. When alfalfa hay is fed without grain to breeding ewes prior to lambing, the lambs are weak at birth and the ewes give less milk than with grain. 4. Ewes on alfalfa hay as a sole roughage drink more and urinate excessively, resulting in "burning" the wool and soreness, particularly the Delaine-Merinos. MAINTENANCE OF BREEDING EWES OF MUTTON AND WOOL SHEEP 19 X. 5. A ration of alfalfa hay, corn silage and a limited grain mixture is more economical by 15.6 per cent than alfalfa as a sole roughage, and is satisfactory for pregnant ewes. 6. Ewes fed no grain prior to lambing produced stronger lambs in Lots II and IV, and gave more milk than those in Lots I and III. 7. Except for the 1915 crop of lambs, when no grain was fed prior to lambing, the lambs of Lots I and III, fed alfalfa hay as a sole roughage, carried a higher condition of flesh and made more rapid gains than those in Lots II and IV, respectively. 8. The daily air-dry matter in feeds consumed per ewe was 21 per cent greater, and per 100 pounds liveweight 23 per cent greater, in Shropshire Lot I, with alfalfa hay as a sole roughage, than in Shropshire Lot II, with corn silage and alfalfa hay. 9. The daily consumption of air-dry matter by the Delaine- Merinos was 18.9 per cent greater per ewe, and 16.2 per cent greater per 100 pounds liveweight, in Lot III than in Lot IV. 10. The bedding per ewe varied from 75.2 to 90.03 pounds in the four lots. 11. A greater amount of manure was produced by ewes fed alfalfa hay as a sole roughage. 12. Shropshires in Lot I consumed 8.6 per cent more air-dry matter in feed per ewe, but 13.1 per cent less per 100 pounds liveweight than the Delaine-Merinos in Lot III on a similar ration. 13. Shropshires in Lot II consumed 6.1 per cent more air-dry matter per ewe and 20 per cent less per 100 pounds liveweight during the winter period than the Delaine-Merinos in Lot IV, fed a similar ration. 14. The average Delaine-Merino fleece in Lot III was 30.4 per cent heavier and 17.6 per cent more valuable than the average Shropshire fleece in Lot I ; while in Lot IV the Delaine-Merino fleece averaged 45.1 per cent heavier and was 22.3 per cent more valuable than the Shropshire fleece from Lot II. 15. The lambs produced by the Delaine-Merinos were heavier at birth than the Shropshire lambs, due to a small proportion of twins. 16. The Delaine-Merino lambs were hardier at birth and the ewes required less care than did the Shropshires. 17. The cost of maintenance per ewe decreases with the in- crease in number of ewes in a flock to a unit of at least 40 ewes. 20 BULLETIN 144 18. Shropshire ewes in Lots I and II cost 7.8 per cent more for maintenance than Delaine-Merino ewes of Lots III and IV, respectively. 19. Early summer lambs should be fed grain, and they should be marketed prior to the middle of July, if the flock or the pasture is infested with sheep parasites12. 20. Rape pasture for lambs after weaning, without grain, is not as good as blue grass pasture during a wet season13. 21. Shropshire lambs are worth from $.50 to $.75 more per 100 pounds liveweight than Delaine-Merino lambs. 22. Sheep improve the stand of grass and eradicate weeds14. 23. A high percentage of good market lambs is the most important factor in profitable sheep raising. 24. Exercise and care of breeding ewes are as important as feeds in increasing the percentage of lambs. 25. The increase in value of mutton, based on 1916 quota- tions as compared with the averages of 1914 and 1915, was 15.1 per cent in Lot I ; 16.6 per cent in Lot II ; 14.7 per cent in Lot III ; and 13.2 per cent in Lot IV. 26. The increase in value of wool based on 1916 quotations was 35.4 per cent in Lot I ; 36 per cent in Lot II ; 29 per cent in Lot III ; and 26.4 per cent in Lot IV over the averages of 1914 and 1915. 27. Feed racks which prevent seed and chaff from getting into the fleece increase the value of wool from one to two cents per pound15. 28. Delaine-Merinos may be kept for breeding purposes until seven or eight years of age, while Shropshires rarely exceed seven years. 29. Wool production as well as mutton production is an essen- tial in profitable sheep raising. When 100% lambs were, raised the income from mutton as compared with wool was: Lot III— Mutton 62.2 per cent. Wool 37.8 per cent. Lot IV— Mutton 60.8 per cent. Wool 39.2 per cent. Lot I — Mutton . . . Wool Lot II— Mutton . . . Wool . . .68.3 per cent. .31.7 percent. .71.1 per cent. .28.9 per cent. 12—13 Annual Report, Pennsylvania State College, 1915-16. 14 Annual Report, Penna. State College, 1913-14, 1915-16. 15 Annual Report, Penna, State College, 1915-16. The Pennsylvania State College School of Agriculture and Experiment Station ;;ptember, 1916 Extension Circular No. 49 Department of Agricultural Extension M. S. McDOWELL, Director. A flock on the college farm SHEEP RAISING TABLE OF CONTENTS SUBJECT PAGE Age of breeding sheep . 21 Ailments of lambs 50 A sheep corral 35 Breeds of sheep 14 Bedding 45 Castration 53 Caked udders 39 Care and management of ram . . 22 Care and management of flock . . 24 Co-operation 61 Cross-breeding 22 Demand for mutton and wool . . 4 Dipping 36 Docking 54 Drenching 30 Equipment 44 Essentials in profitable sheep raising 3 Establishing the flock 19 Exercise of breeding ewes 47 Feeding the ram 23 Feeding the pregnant ewes .... 46 Feeding the lambs 52 & 55 Flushing the ewes 40 Foot rot 37 History of sheep raising in Penn- sylvania 10 Review of sheep growing in the United States 9 Inbreeding 22 Internal parasites in sheep .... 26 Introduction 3 Late autumn pasture 42 Lambing 47 Lamb brooder 50 Maggots 38 Marking the lambs 53 Market grades of wool 58 SUBJECT PA Marketing products of wool and mutton Nodular disease Obstacles to sheep raising Phases of sheep raising Possibilities of sheep raising. . . Preparation for lambing Prevention of bloat Protection from dogs Raising orphan lambs Records Relation to soil fertility Resting the ewes Rotation of pastures Selection of a breed Selection of ram Selection of the ewes Sheep as weed destroyers Shelter Shearing Sorting the ewes Stomach worms Summer and autumn manage- ment Summer pasture The sheep gad-fly . . . The use of forage crops The mating season The sheep's place on the farm . . Treatment for worms Treatment for bloat Treatment for lambs Trimming feet Types of sheep Value of a sire Weaning lambs Winter and spring management of the flock . SHEEP RAISING IN PENNSYLVANIA -by- B. O. Severson INTRODUCTION. The state and the nation need a greater number of sheep to sup- ply the increased demand for mutton and wool, at prices which insure Drofit for labor and money invested. The object of this bulletin is not :o advocate sheep raising as a main feature of farming, but rather as i detail in general farm practice. The successful industries of this :ountry are efficiently managed, and they utilize as many of their by- products as possible. The farmer likewise, who can utilize his labor, 'eed and equipment to the best advantage, is efficient as a producer. Sheep raising is a detail of farming that returns a profit when flocks ire properly managed. "In England the question is not whether you :an afford to keep sheep on high-priced land, but whether you can af- ord to keep high-priced land without sheep/'1 Essentials in Profitable Sheep Raising. 1. The willingness of the farmer to pay the proper attention to us flock at the critical times of the year. 2. The production of lambs of early maturity that should prefer- bly be marketed before the first of July. 3. The control of parasites in the flock by the sale of early ambs, rotation of pastures and flock management. 4. The protection of sheep from dogs, by community interest in beep, by enforcing dog laws and keeping sheep in protected quarters t night. 5. The utilization of pasture to the greatest degree. 6. The feeding of corn silage with clover or alfalfa hay, supple- nented with grain, to the breeding ewes at definite periods. 7. The selection of breeding sheep that possess merit in wool, s well as in mutton character. Constitutional vigor and health as a esult of breeding and care are essentials in a foundation flock. 1U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 20, 1913. 3 8. A pure-bred ram of a desirable type and quality should sire the lambs. 9. Cheap equipment which offers protection, plenty of ventilation and a dry bed. 10. The marketing of products of wool and mutton with an understanding of market values and demand. Community organiza- tions would be beneficial in this regard. 11. A permanent flock of 50 to 100 breeding ewes is a desirable number for an average farm flock if the owner has had sufficient ex- perience in sheep management. 12. Realization of the fitness of a flock on the farm, their value as weed destroyers, utilizers of rough feeds, and conservers of soil fertility. Possibilities of Sheep Raising. Pennsylvania2 has a total acreage of 28,692,480, of which 16,018,- 961 acres are not considered improved farm lands. Of this unim- proved land 5,893,313 acres are in farms. The number of prin cipal grazing animals in the State in 1910 includes 1,586,519 cattl< and 883,074 sheep. From these figures it is evident that a large shan of this untillable land is not being grazed to its greatest capacity Of the 12,637,519 acres of improved land, 3,088,105 acres were used for forage crops in 1909. It would seem safe to conclude, therefore, that this State affords sufficient grazing land, and warrants the production of such farm crops as would permit a material increase in the number of sheep raised, provided other conditions are satisfactory. Demand for Mutton and Wool The demand for mutton and wool is greater than the supply. The value of mutton is higher than it has ever been. Wool prices ad vanced even before the European war began, and the latter has createc abnormal wool values. In spite of this increase in value, there has been a decrease in wool production in the United States. There were 328,000,0003 pounds of wool grown in the United States in 1909 and 288,000,0004 pounds in 1915, a decrease of 40,000,000 pounds in six years. The total number of sheep in the United States decrease( from 52,447,861 in 1909 to 49,162,0004 in 1915. The average increase in value of sheep in the United States has been gradual since 1910 2U. S. Census, 1910. 3U. S. Census, 1910. 4Estimate U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1915. 4 icn they were worth $4.12 per head, while on Jan. 1, 1916, they were >rth $5.175 per head. Even with the decrease in numbers of sheep, their value has in- ised, due to a growing appreciation of mutton as food. The aver- age value on the world's greatest market (Chicago), for 1915, was $6.40 per cwt. for sheep and $9.05 for lambs, an increase of 80 cents per cwt. for sheep and $1.15 per cwt. for lambs, over 1914 average.6 The question may properly be asked, "Why have mutton and wool production decreased?" The decrease has been largely due in the west Fig. 1. — Sheep graze on steep hills. the "gradual encroachment of agriculture" on grazing lands, "and consequent increase in the cost of sheep raising."7 The fact that the United States imported 263,928,000s pounds of wool in 1910, and 308,083,000° pounds of raw wool in 1915, dem- onstrates that there is a great demand for wrool. Pennsylvania ranks second to Massachusetts in the United States in the production of woolen goods. There were 104 establishments, employing 7,207 per- sons, and the industry was capitalized at $15,811,911, in Pennsylvania, m 1909. 5U. S. Crop Report, January 31, 1916. GChicago Live Stock World. 7Report of Tariff Board, Vol. 2, page 302. ^Census Report, 1910. ''Yearbook 1915, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. As a demonstration of the demand for wool in the United States at the present time, the following resolution was passed on Januai 31, 1916, by one of the largest wool and textile associations in th< United States : "The Philadelphia Wool and Textile Association, being intimatel; acquainted by their trade requirements with the sheep industry of th< world, and especially of the United States, feel it to be their duty t( arouse the attention of the people of the United States to the decreas in the number of sheep in the United States, and in consequence then of, to the decreased supply of wool and meat available for the need oi our population. From the facts regarding this matter, which come t( our knowledge, we not only have evidence of decreased production, but it appears to us that this decrease will continue unless effectiv< efforts are made to interest and encourage our farming population t( engage more generally in the maintenance of sheep. Moreover, w( are aware that these supplies available from foreign sources are evi- dently also on the decline, and we have seen what serious effect foreign war can produce on such sources of supply." Relation to Soil Fertility. The ''golden hoof" explains the relation between sheep and soil fertility. The high nitrogen and potassium content of sheep manure, which is readily available as plant food, and the tendency of sheep to spread their excrement uniformly are the factors which increase j soil fertility. When sheep graze too closely they may injure grass j land, but this should not be mistaken for depleting the soil of its, fertility. The following table gives the relative value of manure from.j various classes of live stock. Weight and Value of Manure from Farm Animals.10 Total Excrement in one year Horses 15,877 Ibs. Cattle 26,061 " Sheep 1,367 " Swine 2,375 " Based on nitrogen 15.84 cents per tb., phosphoric acid 8.25 cents per lbv and potash 5.3 cents per Ib. Total Value Value per ton $20.39 $2.56 26.10 2.00 3.03 4.45 4.02 3.38 'Ohio Bulletin, No. 246. Although the value of sheep manure per head, annually, is not as :at as that of cattle, horses or swine, its value per ton is greater be- cause of its higher nitrogen and potassium content, and its lower moisture content. Sheep as Weed Destroyers. Sheep consume more weeds than any other class of live stock, | except goats. It is estimated that sheep will eat 90 per cent, of all troublesome weeds.11 They will destroy weeds in pastures, in grain fields and corn fields after harvesting, and clear the fence rows. How- ever, sheep are not scavengers to the extent that they can thrive on refuse and weeds alone. In order to get sheep to consume leaves on shrubs, the tenderer grasses must be scarce. Goats are better adapted to clearing brush land than are sheep. Some farmers consider sheep cessary as an economical means of controlling weeds. The Sheep's Place on the Farm. It is the specialist only who should engage in sheep raising as his main farming enterprise, but a medium-sized flock is invariably suited to conditions on an average farm. Sheep require relatively little labor, the greatest amount being required during lambing time, which is generally in March, a month when the average farmer wants employment for his labor. Buildings may be erected cheaper than for any other class of live stock. Rough feeds that are wasted and weeds that are a nuisance are utilized and made into marketable products of mutton and wool, and sheep may be slaughtered so as to provide fresh meat at any season of the year. The following quotation is taken from the United States Farmer's Bulletin No. 526: "Judged by its composition, palatability, wholesomeness, digestibility, relative cost, and the number of ways in which it can be prepared for the home table, mutton is an important food stuff, which is well worth the at- tention of the housekeeper who wishes to provide her family with an attractive and palatable diet at a reasonable cost." Breeding sheep are relatively cheap, and two cash crops, one of mutton and the other of wool, are raised annually. Obstacles to Sheep Raising. One of the greatest obstacles to sheep raising is the lack of know- ledge and interest in the proper care and management of the flock. The labor required in caring for the flock is relatively small, but at nU. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 20, 1913. 7 certain times, such as lambing, weaning, and breeding, certain details must be observed. If the breeder is unwilling to give this attention to his flock, it will prove a deficit rather than an asset to his farming operations. With experience in sheep raising the management of sheep becomes a simple proposition. The dog nuisance is another serious obstacle. However, the Pennsylvania Legislature passed a law in 1915 that protects the sheep raiser to a greater degree than ever before. When the sentiment o: a community is as favorable to sheep as to the "cur" dog, then sheep Fig. 2. — A C-typed Merino ram. ought to have a fair show. It is possible to protect the flock further by fences, corrals, and dogs which protect rather than destroy. It is generally believed that dogs have caused more discouragement in sheep raising during recent years than any other single cause. Another obstacle in raising sheep is the trouble caused by para- sitic diseases. This trouble, however, can be controlled by intelligent management of the flock. By the selection of healthy breeding stock, the rotation of pasture crops for grazing, the marketing of the lamb crop early in the season, use of forage crops and special medicinal treatment, this obstacle in sheep raising can be overcome. Review of Sheep Growing in the United States.12 "In the activities of the last century sheep raising reached its >remacy in the East of the United States. The census of 1848 >hows New York 5,119,000, Ohio 2,028,000, Pennsylvania 1,768,000, ;rmont 1,682,000, Virginia 1,294,000, and Kentucky 1,008,000. The iep in these six states represented about 66.7 per cent of all the sheep the country. During the decade ending 1840, the sheep industry rospered both because of the flourishing condition of domestic manu- facture and the absence of any serious foreign competition. By 1860, Fig. 3. — A Shropshire ram. shown by the census of that year, the number of sheep in Vermont, New York, and the Eastern states had begun to decline, while on the contrary, the number in the middle western states showed an increase. For that year Ohio reported 3,547,000, and Michigan 1,275,000. The whole number of sheep in the country increased between 1840 and 1860 only about 3,000,000. After the Civil War the wools from Aus- tralasia and the River Platte began to come into competition with do- mestic wools, and along with this competition came the tariff rates of 1867 to protect the domestic grower. The most dominant influence in the wool-growing industry of the United States after the war was 12Vol. 1, page 195, Report of Tariff Board, 1912. 9 the rise of sheep-growing in the West. The frontier country provec particularly adapted to the pasturing of flocks, and in competition with the western wool, the number of sheep in the East continued t< decline. By 1890 the whole number of sheep in the New Englan< and Middle Atlantic states, according to the census of that year, wa only 4,278,000. The states that year with over 1,500,000 each wer Texas, Ohio, Michigan, Montana, Utah, New Mexico, California, an< Oregon. The far western states have continued their advance. L 1900 they contained 55.78 per cent, of all the sheep in the country, an< in 1910 they contained 58.41 per cent of all the sheep in the country. A Brief History of Sheep Raising in Pennsylvania. "It is uncertain when sheep were first introduced into the colon) of Pennsylvania." However, in August, 1683, William Penn wrot concerning his colony, "Plenty of cow cattle and some sheep."13 One of the first branches of industry that Penn sought to develo; for his colony was the manufacture of woolen cloth, which stimulatec sheep raising. In 1698 woolen mills were established (fulling). L 1723 stocking weaving was begun in Chester County. The Govern ment placed the first Tunis sheep to come to America in the hands o Judge Richard Peters, near Philadelphia, in 1799, which greatly im proved the mutton qualities of the sheep in Pennsylvania, and many were sent to southern states. "As early as 180014 the New Leiceste was known about Philadelphia." Sheep of an Irish breed were exhib ited at Philadelphia in 1809. Two Dutch breeds, the Texel and Fries land, were introduced about this time, and also English breeds o sheep. An organization founded in 1809, and composed of the most prom inent men of Philadelphia and vicinity, known as "The Pennsylvani; Society for the Improvement of Breeds of Cattle," did much to en courage and develop the sheep industry at this period in the state The manufacture of wool in the colonies properly began with the first erection of fulling mills, the woolen webs of the hand looms o private families being carried to these mills to receive body and thick ness. It is stated that in 1777 there were 100 stocking weavers a Lancaster, then the largest inland town in the country. 13Special Report on Sheep, U. S. Dept. of Agr. 1892, page 29. 14Plumb's "Types and Breeds of Farm Animals," page 430. 10 Around 1800, each farmer in the vicinity of Philadelphia and Lancaster kept forty to fifty sheep.15 Pennsylvania has played a great part in the development of the Merino breed of sheep, which has been and is in a large measure the foundation stock of the sheep industry of the United States and the wool-growing countries of the world. The original importations of Spanish Merinos were made by the following men : Robert Livingston, United States Minister to France in 1802; Col. David Humphrey, Min- ister to Spain in 1802; William Jarvis, American Consul at Lisbon, in Fig. 4. — A Southdown ram. 1810; and Richard Meade, American Consul at Cadiz, Spain, in 1810.. Dr. James Mease, near Philadelphia, during this period, was especially connected with the improvement of sheep. In 1810 and 1811 over 2,500 Merinos were landed in Philadelphia, some being the best that were brought to the country. As the Merino was a wool sheep and not suited to the eastern section of Pennsylvania, where mutton was in demand and the raising of sheep for wool alone was unprofitable, these sheep were gradually sent westward or crossed with improved mutton breeds, and by 1840 Merinos were unknown where formerly they had been raised in abundance in the eastern part of the State. 15U. S. Sheep Report, 1892. 11 However, the breed found a section of the State to which it was adapted. This was in the western counties, particularly Washington and Greene. Some idea of the important role that this section played may be gained from the following quotation from "Modern Sheep :" "When the manufacturer demanded a larger staple of wool" and "the demand for mutton increased," then it was that broadminded breeders of certain states conceived the idea of wool and mutton type. Most prominent in this movement were breeders of Pennsylvania. From Powers' "American Merinos" is quoted: "Fine flocks of Black Tops Fig. 5. — A Dorset ewe. or Delaine-Merinos found in Washington County, Pa., tracing to the Meade importations, contributed perhaps more than any other within its borders to set Washington County at the very forefront of the United States in the production of sheep and wool." Taking the State as a whole there was small variation in the num- ber of sheep from 1840 to 1880. In 1840 there were 1,767,620, and in 1880 there were 1,776,598. But there was a gradual shifting of loca- tion within the State. The decline in eastern Pennsylvania was very great, while the increase in the western section was sufficiently large 12 u> offset the loss in the East. Since 1880 the decline has been marked, the number falling from 1,776,598 in 1880 to 945,002 in 1890. The causes assigned were the low prices of wool as a result of the tariff 1882 the great expansion of sheep raising in the western states, the velopment of coal lands, the ravages of dogs and infestation of parasites. During this period the eastern part of the State was prac- tically stripped of sheep. According to the United States Census of I'.'IO, Pennsylvania had 883,074 sheep, of which 40 per cent, were in Washington and Greene counties. "The Delaine wools of Ohio and Pennsylvania were claimed to be the strongest wools of Merino blood raised in the world/'16 "The result of the raw wool investigation establishes the fact that it costs more to grow wool in the United States than in any other country; that the Merino wools required in such great volume by our mills, are the most expensive of all wools produced, that the highest average cost in the world is in the state of Ohio and contiguous territory; and that the lowest average cost on similar wool is in Australia."17 Types of Sheep. There are two general utility types of sheep — one is mutton and the other is wool. Many farmers in western Pennsylvania are raising sheep for wool alone, and losing by it. According to investigations by representatives of the Tariff Board, Greene County had 43 per cent, wethers in 191 118 whose regular income is wool. "The total cost of maintenance per head is $2.78 in case of crossbreeds and $2.44 in case <>f~ Merino flocks/'19 There were 543 flocks involved in this investi- gation in this section. "For purebred Merinos the average net charge 1 against wrool per pound was 19 cents, and for crossbreeds 2 cents per pound of wool was returned additional to the value of the fleece/' "It seems important for sheep farmers of the hill regions of Ohio, Pennsylvania and West Virginia, to seek wherever possible to pro- duce fat lambs as an effective means of abating their wool costs/'20 The results of several years of investigation at The Pennsylvania State College-1 have shown that sheep cannot, under average condi- tions, be raised for wool alone or for mutton alone with greatest profit. Mutton, however, is the most important consideration, and wool luVol. II, Report of Tariff Board, 1912, page 301. 17Vol. I, Report of Tariff Board, 1912, page 10. 18Vol. II, Report of Tariff Board, 1912, page 272. 19Vol. II, Report of Tariff Board, 1912, page 373. -"Vol. II, Report of Tariff Board, 1912, page 550. Pennsylvania State College, Annual Reports 1911-12, 1913-14, 1915-16. 13 secondary. The Shropshire breed as representative of mutton type and the Delaine-Merino as representative of wool type were used in this investigation. Under the conditions of the experiment the two types were practically equal in profits. However, Merino sheep of the smooth-bodied type, possessing mutton form, were more profitable than the wrinkly or the heavier-wooled types. Likewise, the Shrop- shire sheep, possessing the best fleeces combined with mutton form, were most profitable. Fig. 6. — A Cheviot ram. Breeds of Sheep. "Which is the best breed?" This is a difficult question to answer when the exact conditions under which sheep are raised and marketed are not known for the immediate locality. However, selection of a breed is important for greatest profit to the producer. A detailed study of the characteristics of a breed should be made in order that the breed selected will be adapted to conditions of market and environ- ment. The market requirements today are for "native" lambs that weigh from sixty-five to seventy-five pounds, in good condition of flesh. This kind of a lamb requires breeding in order to possess the desired condi- 14 tion and weight at the same time. The breeds that are larger and coarser are likewise later maturing and do not meet average Pennsyl- vania conditions. Neither does the extreme wooled type of sheep meet those conditions. The most desired breeds are those of medium size, combining a balance of mutton and wool characteristics and the ability to produce early-maturing lambs. The more important breeds re: Wool breeds include Merinos or fine-wool breeds. Type A Spanish or American Merino. Type B American Merino. Type C Delaine-Merino, Dickinson Delaine-Merino, Black- Top Merino and Rambouillet Mutton breeds include medium and coarse-wooled breeds. The medium-wooled breeds are the earlier-maturing mutton ;ds and include the Shropshire, Southdown, Dorset, Hampshire, ithdown Cheviot, Oxford, Suffolk, and Tunis. The coarse-wooled ;ds are later maturing than the medium-wooled breeds, and include Lincoln, Cotswold, Leicester, and Rommey Marsh. The C type Merino might well be considered as of mutton type, :hough the wool characteristics of types A and B are possessed to a iater degree than the mutton qualities of mutton breeds. By type is meant a Merino sheep possessing the heaviest and finest fleeces, indicated by numerous folds that cover the neck and body, and fine- is in quality of the wool. By type B is meant a Merino possessing slightly coarser wool fiber, a deeper flesh covering and folds on the ick and hindquarters. The C type Merino is free from folds, with the exception of an occasional one on the neck, and possesses a smooth body covered with a longer fibered fleece than that of types A and B. In the medium-wooled breeds the mutton characteristics predom- inate. They are adaptable for small flocks and raised where inten- sified farming is practiced. In hardiness they excel the coarse-wooled breeds, but on grazing lands, where exposure is an important factor, the Merinos excel the mutton breeds because of their denser fleeces, which offer greater protection. The coarse-wooled breeds, due to their open fleeces, cannot withstand exposure. Their fleeces are less valuable and their lambs are later maturing. There is, however, one breed of coarse-wooled sheep known as Black-faced Highland, of Scotland, that is adapted to exposed conditions and to rocky and neg- lected areas. The selection of a breed should be made on judgment based upon a breed's qualifications, and not upon mere sentiment. Standard refer- 15 ences, such as Plumbs' "Types and Breeds of Farm Animals," Craig' "Sheep Farming," Government bulletins,22- and information obtaine< from breeders and breed associations, should be studied. As a guid in the selection of a breed the following points should be used : 1. Production of early or late lambs. 2. Grazing ability of sheep. Fig. 7.— A Cotswold ewe. 3. Ability to feed largely on grain or hay. 4. Milking qualities of ewes. 5. Fattening qualities of lambs. 6. Altitude and topography of land. 7. Size of flock. 8. Wool production. 9. Percentage of twins. 22Farmers' Bulletin 576 and United States Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin No. 94, 1914. 16 10. Individual preference. 11. Market demand. 12. Community interest and demand. Phases of Sheep Raising. There are several methods of raising sheep which are determined by the judgment of the breeder, based on market conditions and the suitability of a given locality to the production of sheep for a given purpose. The phase that will be given special consideration in this bulletin is the method generally employed by the average farmer pos- sessing twenty-five to thirty breeding ewes. In this method, mating occurs in September or October, the lambs being born in February and March. These lambs will be ready for market by July 1, if grain is fed. To this method the mutton breeds and smooth-bodied Merinos arc adapted. The details of management, however, to which sheep under this method are subjected would apply in a general way to all other methods. Another method of sheep raising is the production of early spring lambs weighing fifty to sixty pounds by the middle of April. The mating season under this method would be during July and August for lambs born during December and January. Breeds of sheep that mate during warm weather should be selected. The Dor- set, Tunis and smooth-bodied Merino are satisfactory for the produc- tion of early lambs. Rams of the other mutton breeds are used as crosses on Merino ewes for the production of early spring lambs. The production of winter lambs or "hothouse" lambs is a phase of sheep raising carried on to some extent in Pennsylvania. In this method the mating season begins in April and extends through the months of May, June and July, the lambs being dropped from the first of September until the middle of December. These lambs are raised for , a special trade, which is to supply a fine product out of season. This phase of sheep raising should be undertaken only after first-hand experience with sheep, and with a knowledge of market conditions. Phis method involves higher cost of equipment, more labor and the feeding of more expensive grain feeds than any of the other methods. The breeds suited to this production are the Dorset, Tunis, and smooth-bodied Merino. The latter breed, in this case, should be cross- ed with rams of either the Dorset, Southdown, Tunis, Shropshire, Hampshire, Oxford or Cheviot breeds. When crosses are made on the Merino breed the medium-sized mutton breeds are more desirable than the larger and coarser breeds for early-maturing lambs. Another method of sheep raising is to utilize pasture land to the i greatest extent, fattening the lambs on grass. The lambs that are in 17 marketable condition are sold in the fall of the year, while those th; are in need of more weight and condition are placed in the feed lot an< disposed of during the winter or early spring. This method involv< less labor and equipment than any of the other methods. The matin| season beginning the middle of November, the lambs would be droj ped in April and May. This method would be most practicable whei sheep raising is done on an extensive scale with smooth-bodied Mei inos, because of their superior grazing ability. The mutton breed ai also adapted to this method. Fig. 8. — Merino ewes of C-type. Any of the other methods could be used with either purebred grade flocks, although the first method is the one generally practiced Another phase of sheep husbandry is that of fattening westerr lambs. This method involves the purchase of "feeder" sheep on th< large sheep markets of the country, in the late summer or fall of t year. This method is not practiced in Pennsylvania except in a ve small way, but is a general method in some of the corn belt states, this method sheep, when purchased early, are fattened on pastun supplemented with grain, or allowed to range over harvested graii fields, and to "clean up corn fields." Another way to fatten them is ii the feed lot with grain and roughage. This method has become 18 "speculative proposition" due to the high- cost of "feeders," and should be practiced on a sufficiently large scale to require at least a carload of sheep in order to save on freight and commissions. "Western" sheep . are more desirable for this method than "native" sheep (raised east of the Mississippi River), because they are more uniform in type, breed- ing and quality, and are freer from disease. R Establishing the Flock. Fifteen to twenty-five ewes is a sufficient number for any one hout experience to undertake as a nucleus of a farm flock. A farm k should consist of twenty-five or more sheep. A large flock of fifty _. es makes it possible to invest in a good purebred ram and to use him to his capacity, and also provides a unit number for labor and equipment. After the type and breed have been decided upon, the individual breeding animals must be selected. This is important, since within a breed there is variation in type, vigor, quality, form, resistance to disease, wool, breeding ability, milking tendencies, disposition and grazing ability. The ram is the most important breeding animal in the flock since he contributes fifty per cent., at least, to each crop of lambs, and often more. If he is a purebred and a good ram he will be more pre- potent than the females of the flock. Even in a small flock of sheep, where the object is to sell the surplus as mutton, a purebred ram is essential for the greatest profit. The Wisconsin23 and Missouri24 Experiment Stations have, on investigation, shown that purebred mut- ton rams sire lambs that make greater gains, reach a higher condition of flesh at less cost in amount of feed consumed, and command a high- er market price than lambs sired by a "scrub" ram. To begin writh, one or two purebred ewes should be added with the females of a grade flock. By a gradual building up of a purebred flock the breeder will ibe able to handle such flock, after having gained the necessary ex- perience on the cheaper grade ewes. Another inducement in gradual- ly working into a purebred flock is the extra profit derived from the raising stock of beauty and merit. Selection of Ram. The ram should conform to the standard which the breader has in mind as the ultimate attainment of his entire flock. The ram should -3Kleinheinz' "Sheep Management," page 5. 24Missouri Circular No. 65. 19 first possess the essential characteristics of the breed to which he belongs. Constitutional vigor is to be desired above everything else. This is shown in the width and depth of chest, active move- ment, expressive eyes, bright, pink skin free from a pale, lifeless ap- pearance, or a bluish skin, which indicates ill health or lack of thrift He should have good size and weight, but quality should not be sacri- ficed for size. In judging weight, due consideration should be given for fat. A ram should never be excessively fat, but rather in a mus- cular condition. Fat in a ram renders him sluggish and inactive as a breeder. The condition of a ram should be judged by the uniformity of muscular development in the region of the back, loin, rump and leg of mutton. Selection should be made with the idea of developing this portion of the sheep's body to the greatest extent, since the valuable region of the carcass for mutton is found here. Quality in a ram is important, but more coarseness must be allowed than in the ewes since a certain degree of that coarseness indicates masculinity. Mascu- linity is the best indication of the breeding character of the ram Quality is shown in the bone of the leg, the texture of the hair on the nose and legs, the shape and size of the ear and, to some extent, the quality and texture of the wool. To place accurate judgment on form it is necessary to handle the sheep rather than to judge by observation alone, since sheep may be trimmed in such a way as to deceive the eye. The judge should first look at the teeth to determine the age then the eye to observe the disposition and alertness, using both hands to determine the width of the head, the width of neck, shoulder chest, loin, back and rump. The ram should be uniform in width throughout, with some allowance for greater width in the shoulder for the ram as compared with wethers or ewes. His neck should be short and thick and his body at the chest, middle and flank of equa! depth and width, the leg of mutton carried down deep in the twist, anc he should stand straight on legs. Rams that "break down" in their pastern joints have a hereditary weakness of that condition, and shoulc be avoided. The appearance of a ram should be blocky. The sides should be straight, with level and parallel top and under lines. He should be erect and stylish in carriage. The fleece of the ram should show density, quality and length of fiber and secretion of yolk. These indicate the value of wool. Wool is essential in mutton sheep as w( as in Merino sheep, and due consideration should be given to it in tl selection of breeding stock. 20 Selection of the Ewes. Uniformity in vigor, form, type, quality, breeding character and breed character should be held uppermost in selecting ewes for the flock. The ewes possess a relatively higher degree of quality than the ram, and should be thoroughly feminine. Femininity in ewes indi- cates "maternal instinct" ; those possessing it are more regular breed- ers and deeper milkers. Lack of constitutional vigor should not be mistaken for femininity. Femininity is indicated by length and re- finement of the head, docile eyes, a medium length of neck and roomy body. Selection should seek to establish twin production of ewes, which is a hereditary tendency.25 Freedom from disease is indicated by the pink color of the skin, alert expression of the eye and the yolk in the wool. Large, roomy, vigorous ewes are a safeguard against losses in lambs since they produce vigorous lambs and give a large amount of milk. The most discouraging thing the young shepherd contends with is a high mortality rate of young lambs at lambing time. This can, in a large part, be avoided by the selection of the right kind of ewes. Avoid the selection of old and emaciated ewes, as they are invariably infested with parasites. The quality, form and condition of the ewe are judged in the same way as those of the ram. However, the ewe cannot approach the ideal mutton form as closely as the ram, as the extremely lowsct, blocky, and high-conditioned ewes have a tendency to be non- breeders. Age of Breeding Sheep. A sheep should not be used for service until one year of age. As a yearling, a ram may be mated with as many as thirty ewes without in- jury. As a two-year-old a ram is at his best. He can be used until eight to ten years of age if properly managed. He should never be allowed to become too fat or be used excessively. A ewe should be at least a yearling before raising her first lambs ; otherwise, her size and vigor will be so stunted as to result in smaller and weaker lambs. In the Merino breeds the ewes are often two years old before raising their first lambs. The mutton breeds are not, on the whole, as long-lived as the Merino sheep.26 The average age when ewes of the Shropshire breed are disposed of is about six to seven years, while for the Delaine-Merinos it is about nine years.26 ^Wisconsin Bulletin No. 95. 26The Pennsylvania State College Flock Records. 21 Some ewes at six years of age lose their teeth ("broken mouths"), and should then be sold. "Ewes average a larger percentage of in- crease in lambs after they reach full maturity at three years of age, and until after they are six years old, when the rate of increase di- minishes/'27 Age in a sheep may be readily estimated, since the permanent set of teeth gradually replaces the temporary (milk) teeth. A sheep is a lamb until the first pair of incisors replaces the central pair of temporary incisors (sheep have no incisors on the upper jaw), at about twelve months of age. The second pair of permanent incisors replace their corresponding temporary teeth at the end of two years, the third pair are replaced at the end of three years, and the fourth pair at the end of four years, when a sheep is said to be fully matured. Cross-Breeding Many of our present day mutton breeds were founded by crossing two or more breeds, resulting, after years of careful selection, in established breeds. Cross-breeding may be used for the production of market lambs, but the breeding stock should be bred pure. Com- bining the grazing and early breeding character of the Merino with some mutton breed makes an excellent market lamb. There is, how- ever, sufficient variation in type within breeds to give a great range for the selection of characters that are necessary to meet market re- quirements of mutton and wool. Inbreeding. By inbreeding is meant the mating of closely related animals. Promiscuous inbreeding leads to low constitution, loss of vigor, non- breeding character and decrease in weight and size. This method of breeding intensifies all characters, both good and bad. Only in the hands of the experienced breeder, who is thoroughly familiar with the ancestry of his animals and a good judge of sheep, should in- breeding be practiced. Care, Feed and Management of Ram. Since the ram usually represents more than fifty per cent, of the influence of heredity on each crop of lambs, his care, feed and management must be duly considered. He should not be allow< to run with the breeding flock. Keep him separate with a young rai or wether for association. During all seasons of the year he should -7Wisconsin Bulletin No. 95. 22 -cive sufficient exercise to give him a good appetite and keep him in vigorous physical condition. Rams are more often injured as jeders from lack of exercise than from any other cause. Old rams dll not exercise sufficiently if fed too much grain. A ram should rver become fat. During the winter he can be turned out into a yard id allowed to eat his grain and roughage strewn on a smooth surface, turned out in a field to hustle for dead weeds and grass. In the •ly spring he may be placed on pasture, but must be kept under iclter at night to prevent pneumonia. An orchard is an ideal place the ram during the summer months. Feeding the Ram. Experience of practical breeders demonstrates that a ram, to be ipt in good physical condition, must be fed feeds with a liberal sup- of protein and mineral matter. Because of its deficiency in both these constituents, corn should never be fed as a sole grain feed to ram, except when fed with legume hay in limited amounts. The lount of grain fed will depend upon the condition of the ram, the season of the year and the roughage fed. During the winter months the grain for a ram should not exceed one pound daily. In the spring of the year, feed no grain if the pas- ture is good and the ram is in good physical condition. In August the following grain mixtures are recommended for fitting the ram >r the mating season : equal parts of oats and wheat bran ; two parts talfa meal and one part corn ; equal parts of corn and oil meal ; equal irts of Canadian field peas and oats, or equal parts of corn, oats, rheat bran, and oil meal. The object should be to get the ram into as vigorous a condition possible for the mating season, as his energies will be drained that time. A mature ram weighing 150 to 200 pounds should eat >ut two pounds of grain daily during the breeding season. How- *er, it is very easy to get the ram to consume too much grain, and that will injure his activity as a breeder. A vigorous ram averages a higher per cent, of lambs that are strong and vigorous at birth. A ram that is not vigorous may become sterile before the ewes of the flock have all been bred. "Ewes bred early in the season of mating to a single ram dropped a larger percentage of lambs than those near the latter end of the season."29 Succulent feed should be available at all seasons of the year. The in England and Scotland, whence our mutton breeds have come, 29Wisconsin Bulletin 95. 23 are fed roots universally. Roots may be fed at all seasons of the year in amounts limited to two or three pounds daily per head. The fol- lowing roots are recommended : rutabaga or Swedish turnips and car- rots. Sugar beets and mangelwurtzels are objectionable to breeding sheep, since they cause calculi (stones) to form in the kidneys.30 Cabbage may be fed in limited quantities to a ram, with good results. Corn silage affords one of the cheapest and most desirable sources of succulence. It must be free from mold, for when partially decom- posed it is dangerous feed.31 Clover hay and alfalfa hay are the best for rams. They should be fed in limited amounts of three pounds daily when silage and grains are also fed. Old rams eating too much hay become sluggish. Clean oat straw, mixed hay and corn stover are satisfactory, but necessitate a greater amount of grain in addition. Timothy hay is one of the poorest hays for rams, as it causes constipation and has less food value than clover or alfalfa. The feet should be trimmed regularly to avoid foot trouble and the breaking down of the pastern joint. Treatments with reference to maggots, dipping, tagging and parasitic diseases apply to the ram as to the rest of the flock, as discussed in later pages of this bulletin. Value of A Sire. The value of a ram will depend upon the uniformity of excellence of his get. Constructive breeding is done with least expense through the sire. He should always be a more superior individual than th< average ewes of the flock. If his lambs are not equal to the ewes ii merit, discard the ram and select another that is strong in those points in which the ewes are weak. A good ram should be kept as long possible to breed him in the flock without forced inbreeding. Care and Management of the Flock. Success in raising sheep at a profit depends largely upon intelli- gent management of the flock. This discussion will be based on the management of a farm flock of fifty ewes. The details, however, will apply in a general way to sheep raising under Pennsylvania condi- tions. It will be assumed that the object is to raise March lambs, of sixty to seventy pounds live weight, fitted for market prior to July, ?'°Iowa Bulletin No. 112. 31Purdue Bulletin No. 147 and Missouri Bulletin No. 120. 24 Summer and Autum Management. Summer Pasture. — Blue grass pasture is one of the best for sheep. Forage crops may be used but involve more labor, expense and care. However, the problem of keeping the sheep free from parasites may at times necessitate the use of forage crops, and also the "flushing" of ewes for breeding. In most sections of Pennsylvania Sheep may be turned on pasture by the first of May. No grain need be fed except to the lambs, in creeps, when placed in protected quarters at night. If fed grain, the lambs, can be weaned without losing in weight or condition of flesh. Shelter is necessary to protect the ewes and lambs Fig. 9.. — A portable shade for sheep. from cold and rains, which may cause pneumonia. Sheep should not be allowed to graze the grass closely in the spring. Sufficient growth should take place in order that a reserve of blue grass will be available during July and August. On average pasture that will maintain a cow at the rate of two acres a season, the same area will maintain seven sheep averaging 150 pounds in weight. Sheep should not be allowed to graze closely, since they will kill out the grass by eating the crown of the plant. When pastured judiciously, sheep increase: the stand of grass in thickness and yield. Sheep should be grazed for as long a period as possible without danger of exposure to severe weather. The cost of maintaining sheep on pasture land valued at $60 per acre, with interest, labor and feed, 25 is less than one-half the cost of maintenance on a practical ration in winter quarters.32 Under normal conditions sheep may be grazed for seven months of the year. However, on bright days during the winter months it is highly desirable to have the flock turned out on pasture to graze and exercise. While on pasture the sheep should be provided with shade, water and salt. Sheep naturally graze when it is cool, and lie in the shade during the hotter portion of the day. Trees are best for shade. Fresh water and salt are necessities too often overlooked for sheep on pasture. During early spring and late autumn, shelter that will protect the sheep from cold rains will extend the period of pasturing by a month or more without danger of losses. The two serious obstacles during the summer months are parasites and the "sheep killing dogs." Internal Parasites in Sheep. In order that internal parasites may be controlled intelligently, their life histories should be known. The most serious internal sheep parasites in Pennsylvania are the stomach worms (Haetnonchus con- tortus) and the worm causing nodular disease (Esophagostomum columbianum). Another parasite associated with the pasturing sea- son is "grub in the head," caused by the sheep gadfly (Oestrus ovis). The Stomach Worm. "It occurs in the fourth stomach, the place where the hay and other coarse vegetable food of the host animal have finally become converted into chyme, and where the worm can do the most damage by irritation to the mucous membrane and by absorbing food that should be utilized by the host animal. "The male Haemochus contortus (stomach worm) attains a length of three-fourths of an inch (20 millimeters) and has at the pos- terior end a clasping organ, known as a bursa, which has a very char- acteristic bi-lobed structure. The female may attain a length of one and one-fourth inches (30 millimeters), and is characterized by a spiral striping due to the coiling of the two uterine branches around the intestine. The worms are red. "The female produces a large number of eggs, which are passed in the feces of the host animal. These eggs hatch in two days, if the temperature and moisture conditions are favorable, and small em- 32The Pennsylvania State College Annual Report, 1911-12, 1912-13, 1915- 26 bryos, in what is known as the rhabitform stage, escape. These begin feeding and growing, the skin being molted in the process at least once. The embryo is then in the sheathed stage, its former cuticle completely encasing it. Embryos attain this stage in about ten to fourteen days. The embryo is now sealed up and no longer feeds. Previous to this time the eggs and embryos are easily killed by drying and exposure to low temperatures. After becoming ensheath- ed, the embryos are very resistant to these conditions. During wet weather and while the dew is on the grass, the embryos crawl up the blades of grass, and sheep or cattle eating the grass take the embryos into the stomach where they develop into adult worms."33 Irritation of the mucous membrane is produced by the worms, causing irregular digestion, resulting in scouring. These worms are blood-sucking, and cause an anaemic condition of the animal. Infec- tion is most serious in lambs which, apparently healthy, become low in condition during July and August, and often die. Lambs affected have diarrhoea, are unthrifty, wreak and emaciated. Mature sheep are able to resist stomach worms, but when heavily infested become weak and are unable to stand the extra strain of lambing. Nodular Disease. "The adult worms live in the upper part of the large intestine in sheep." "The female worm attains a length of about five-eighths of an inch (15 millimeters), the male being a little shorter. The worms have a characteristic solid-white color which differentiates them from most of the other sheep parasites, which are somewhat translucent, yellowish, or in the case of stomach worm, red. The head is bent over and forms a hook with the body. The parasite appears to be a native of this country, which has adapted itself to our sheep. The life history of this worm is not completely known. The eggs produced by the female are passed with the feces of the host_ \Yhen the resulting embryos again come to light they are found in* tumors in the mucous lining of the intestine." Here they form cysts which become surrounded by a green necrotic material due to the resulting inflammation. "The cysts break down and the embryos live in the necrotic mass. After a time they break from the tumors, and attain maturity in the lumen of the intestines. It appears that the formation of tumors may not be essential to the development of the •'•"•Twenty-seventh Annual Report, United States Bureau of An. Industry* page 443. 27 worm, and perhaps the state in the intestinal mucosa is entirely omit- ted at times. Curtice (1890c) made observations, and surmises that this species develops normally in the lumen of the intestines, and even gets to the mesenteric glands, the liver or the omentum ; that those which penetrate the wall of the intestines may develop slowly and at length get to the lumen of the intestines, or may die ; that this tumor- making stage of the life history may favor the survival of the species by providing slowly developing forms which pass the winter here and mature in the spring, at a time when the eggs spread on the pas- tures will better serve the purpose of infestation; and that worms penetrating the walls of the intestines too deeply, such as those attain- ing the omentum or the liver, perish/'34 This disease is incurable, and animals infested must be properly managed. If not intelligently managed the entire breeding flock will be lost eventually Symptoms of the disease in lambs are diarrhoea, vigorous appetite, loss in condition of flesh and enfeebled thrift. This disease is more fatal to mature sheep than to lambs because of time required for the disease to develop to an acute stage. In mature sheep the disease is recognized by an emaciated condition, feeble- ness, pale or bluish skin, a listless expression of the eye, and a good appetite. The vitality is lowered, and the extra strain of lambing, secretion of milk and exposure to weather cause complication and death. Some ewes while apparently in high condition of flesh, are noticeably lacking in vigor. Rotation of Pastures. In order to control parasites, rotation of pastures for the flock is considered the most practicable method. Another method is the in- tensified forage crop system used by English shepherds on high-priced land. By having the pasture so arranged as to allow the flock to be alternated every ten days on two or more areas, the infestation of the sheep by the worms can be partially controlled; for during the interval that the sheep are off pasture many of the larvae that are developed in the feces from the sheep die. In a badly infested flock the 4ambs should be weaned prior to June, or kept in dry lot separate from the ewes, and allowed to nurse their mothers at night. Lambs raised in dry lot for breeding purposes, when fed succulent feed in the form of green alfalfa, clover and other forage crops, with grain, 84Twenty-seventh Annual Report, Bureau of An. Industry, U. S., page 448. 28 will develop into vigorous breeding animals.35 This last method is the most satisfactory one where the breeding flock is infested with nodular disease. The infested animals should be sold. "By the bare-lot method, it is possible to raise lambs, up to the period of weaning, and without separating them from their affected mothers, practically free from nodular disease of the intestines. The method is worthy of trial by flock masters owning breeding ewes affected with nodular disease."36 Treatment for Worms. There are several medical treatments for worms ; they should be considered as preventives, however, rather than absolute cures. In winter quarters a mixture of tobacco stems and salt is considered desirable in eliminating worms from the digestive tract. A vermi- fuge recommended by Dr. Law is "Arsenous acid one dram, sulphate of iron five drams, powdered areca nut two ounces, common salt four ounces." This is sufficient for one dose for thirty sheep. It may be given with the salt, or in ground feed. If the flock is apparently healthy, four doses, given at intervals of three days, is sufficient. If symptoms of stomach worms are manifested the animals should be dosed daily until they have received from five to ten doses, the amount depending upon the condition of the animal.37 This vermifuge should be given to the flock prior to being placed on pasture in the spring, or when placed in winter quarters. Treatments for stomach worms include gasoline, turpentine or benzine, given as a drench, the method being the same for each. The sheep should be kept "off feed" for twelve hours. One dose for a lamb at weaning is five ounces of cow's milk, one-half tablespoonful of gasoline and one tablespoonful of raw linseed oil, thoroughly mixed. For a mature sheep the amount of gasoline is doubled. This treatment should be given on three consecutive days. Another treatment is one-quarter of a pound of blue stone or cop- per sulphate, dissolved in a quart of hot water with enough cold water added to make nine quarts. This solution is used by many shepherds for stomach worms. This solution is given as a drench, one table- spoonful to a lamb four months old, or two tablespoonsful to a mature sheep. Only one dose need be given, and an overdose is dangerous. 85Breeder's Gazette, May 18, 1916. ^Louisiana Bulletin No. 89. 37Craig's "Common Diseases of Farm Animals/ 29 Drenching Sheep. Great care must be exercised in drenching sheep. The sheep should stand on all fours, with its rump firmly pressed into a corner, the operator standing astride the sheep, holding its head in a horizon- tal position. By the use of a long-necked bottle or a funnel with a rubber tube attached, gradually administer the dose, without causing exertion on the part of the sheep. If the sheep struggles too much, or if the head is held too high, or when large doses are quickly given, the solution may enter the windpipe and pass into the lungs rather Fig. 10.— Sheep on rape pasture. than into the esophagus to the stomach. Drenching is usually fatal to the sheep if the solution enters the lungs. The Use of Forage Crops. The use of forage crops, properly managed, will control parasites, but without due precaution they may cause greater infestation. The English shepherd employs this method for sheep raising on an inten- sified plan, where land is expensive and the greatest return per acre of land is necessary. The sheep raiser in this country may well fol- low his example where sheep are raised in flocks of more than fifty 30 on high-priced land, and especially when engaged in raising sheep exclusively for mutton production. The method consists in grazing on a forage crop, such as winter wheat, rye, alfalfa, clover, rape, turnips, oats and peas, soybeans and corn. Hurdles made of board panels, hung on movable standards, or a portable woven wire fence, may be used. The hurdles or fences are provided with "creeps," or openings wide enough to allow the lambs to pass through without injury. In this way the lambs graze ahead of the ewes on the fresh crop. The portable fences are moved up as the ewes graze down the forage, sufficient area being allowed for a period of two weeks. In the case of roots, the tops grow out again and the roots may be harvested in the late autumn. The early forage crops, depending upon the season, may be replaced, and the ground reseeded for a second crop. Rape is a crop that may be used during the entire season, as it will produce a crop if sown at any time from early spring until September 1. Rye, sown in August, furnishes an excellent early spring pasture. If corn is used it should be grazed when eighteen inches high. Fifty to sixty lambs may be grazed on a half acre of good stand of rape for two or three weeks. The forage crop should be so arranged as to be in proper growth when the sheep are placed on it, at different intervals, during the summer. In the use of a for- age crop there is danger from bloat, especially before the sheep are accustomed to the forage. Treatment for Bloat. Ewes and lambs are subject to bloat when placed on forage crops. Drenching with new, warm, sweet milk, one pint for a lamb and one quart for a mature sheep, will relieve the sheep, when followed by a drench of three to four ounces of castor oil. Another remedy is as fol- lows : "when first in distress, administer three tablespoonsful of raw linseed oil containing a teaspoonful of turpentine. If this does not re- lieve at once, tie or hold a large corn cob, or stick of similar size, crossways in the mouth like a bridle bit; hold the head up, stand astride the ewe and seek gently to press the gas out with the knees. Do not use too much force."38 One pint of a one-half of one per "cent, solution of formalin is also a remedy for a mature sheep. For quick relief in severe cases, make an incision high up on the left side at the point of greatest distention. This will relieve the first 38Wing's "Sheep Farming in America." 31 stomach (rumen) of gas. A thoroughly disinfected knife, or better a trocar, should be used for this operation. All cases of bloat should be treated at once. Prevention of Bloat. Sheep may be gradually accustomed to forage crops in a way to prevent bloat. In the beginning, they should be well supplied with grass or some dry roughage, and not placed on the forage until after the dew is off. Allow them to graze for one hour the first day. Fol- low this method on succeeding days, increasing the length of time by an hour each day, and at the end of five days the sheep or lambs may safely be placed permanently on the forage crop. It is good practice to have blue grass pasture in addition to a forage pasture, for the best use of the forage crop and the prevention of bloat. The Sheep Gadfly. Riley (1869) describes it as looking "something like an over- grown house fly." It has no mouth and hence does not feed, the principal purpose of the animal at this stage being that of reproduc- tion. After the mating of the male and female flies, the female de- posits its larvae, already hatched from the eggs, inside the nostril of the sheep. The larvae are provided with hooks, and by means of these they work their way up into the nostril of the sheep. The lar- vae develop into grubs, which attain a length of three-fourths of an inch (20 millimeters). The larvae are first white, but later become yellow, and finally a dark yellow with a black band on each segment, and the segments armed with black spines. This is the stage in which the parasite is most commonly seen and described. At the proper time the grub escapes from the nostrils, falls to the ground and bores its way under the ground to a depth of one or two inches. After a period, which varies with the weather conditions, the mature fly emerges from its pupal case and makes its way to the open air. The larvae deposited by the female fly "crawl around in the sheep's nostrils and work their way into the passages of the turbin- ated bones and into the frontal sinuses." "The irritation caused by the grub results in catarrh, from which the disease due to grub takes the name of "snotty noses." Worse than this is the fact that the in- flammation set up in the nasal mucosa causes an irritation of the nerves of smell, and the inflammation is transmitted along the short course of these nerves to the brain. When the grubs are numerous the ef- fects on the sheep are serious and at times fatal. The catarrh is ac- 32 companied with considerable sneezing and snorting. Later the ani- mal shakes its head or rubs its nose on the ground. As a rule it is able to survive the attack until the escape of the larvae from the head, and then the symptoms abate and the animal recovers."39 Few sheep die from grub in the head, but preventive measures are desirable. One method is the smearing of the nostrils with some substance that is offensive to the flies. Smearing the nose with pine tar, or a mixture of tar and fish oil, will keep the flies away. The application should be made at least once a week. One of the corn- Fig. 11 —Sheep killed by dogs.— Part of a flock of 192 head in Calhoun County, Mich., killed in one night by the attack of two dogs. Few of these sheep were bitten or maimed; they were simply run to death. (Photo by courtesy of Breeder's Gazette.) mon methods of applying tar to the noses of the sheep is to smear it on holes two and one-half inches in diameter in a board which is placed over the salt trough. The flies are most troublesome during June and July. Another preventive measure is, "to provide the sheep with a cool, well-ventilated and darkened resting place in which they may remain during the heat of the day in the warm season."40 •i9The Twenty-seventh Annual Report U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry, Page 453. 40Shaw's "Management and Feeding of Sheep." 33 Protection from Dogs. Dogs have been responsible for enormous sheep losses in Pennsyl- vania, and in many localities have discouraged sheep raising to the extent of annihilation. According to the State Department of Agri- cuture 5,808 sheep were killed in Pennsylvania in 1915. Are dog owners determined that their dogs shall prevent the development of Fig. 12. — A dog-proof fence. the sheep industry, which might be a source of .profit to the farmer and an economy to the consumer? If adequate laws were passed and enforced, the dog nuisance would become practically negligible, as it is now in some European countries. The enforcement of these laws depends upon whether the community sentiment is as favorable to sheep as it is to dogs. A good dog is a worthy companion, but the owner should keep him where he will not menace his neighbors' property. 34 Besides enforcing the law, the sheep raiser can do a great deal to protect his flock from the ravages of dogs. A dog-proof fence about a paddock or enclosure, in which the sheep are kept at night, will pre- vent night attacks, which are the more frequent. The use of bells hung on the large sheep will often warn the farmer of the presence of dogs. Some advocate the presence of a few goats in the flock as protection. A Sheep Corral. An enclosure surrounded by a five-foot, woven wire fence, with a barb wire at the bottom and two at the top, provides a dog-proof Fig. 13. — A sheep corral provided with shelter and a breeding pen. corral. Such fences may be constructed at prices ranging from seventy-five cents to one dollar per rod for material and labor. The corral for a flock of fifty ewes should be one acre in extent, and well drained, in order to make a stand of grass secure. A fence 36 inches high should divide the corral into two equal parts, so that the flock may be alternated at ten-day intervals ; otherwise, parasitic in- festation will result. A cheap shed, open to the south, will pro- vide protection to the sheep from the severe weather of early spring and late autumn. It must be dry, well bedded and drained, so that the sheep will not become filthy, a condition which results in fly 35 trouble, foot rot and injury to the fleece. For a flock of fifty breeding ewes a shed thirty feet long and twenty feet wide will furnish the necessary space. Dipping Sheep. Sheep are subject to external parasites, of which there are three classes, namely, scabies, ticks and lice. These can be easily controll- ed by dipping in a solution of a standard disinfectant. The sources of these parasites are stock cars, introduction of new stock and infect- ed quarters. Before new stock is introduced into the flock they should be dipped. The flock should be dipped twice a year, once in the spring and once in the autumn. Even though no external para- sites are present, dipping is a precaution. It cleanses the wool and T SH&EP DIPPING VAT: MflOE: OF HErflVY VrtNIZED I ROM WIT STE-tL RErlMFORCEMEttT AS SHOWN Fig. 14. — A sheep dipping vat. improves its quality. If ticks or lice are present, two dippings at intervals of fourteen days apart, in the spring of the year, are neces- sary. The first dipping will kill the adults and the second dipping will kill the parasites that have hatched during the two-week period. When the ewes are shorn the parasites go to the lambs, where the wool is longer and offers them protection. May is therefore a good month for this operation. A warm day should be selected, as cold, damp weather may cause pneumonia, especially to those sheep weakened by internal parasites or nursing more than one lamb. A dipping vat similar to the one illustrated is a convenient piece of equipment for any farmer to have, since it can be used for swine and other stock. It should be at least eight feet long, twenty-two inches wide and four feet deep. It may be made of concrete, wood, or galvanized iron. The vat should be placed in a hole two feet deep, so 36 at the operators may handle the sheep conveniently. At the time dipping it is desirable to have a chute of permanent or tempor- construction. This provides a means of placing the sheep in the t one at a time. At the outgoing end the vat has an angle of forty- e degrees provided with cleats or notches which give the sheep a thold when leaving the vat. A sloping platform, also provided ith cleats, should be constructed at the end from which the sheep leave the vat ; this allows the solution to drain off the animals and re- turn to the vat. A two to five per cent, solution of any of the standard coal tar infectants will kill ticks and lice. A dip made from soaking tobac- co stems is satisfactory. Prepared arsenical dips may be used, but directions must be followed carefully. The solutions should be thoroughly mixed at the time of dipping at a temperature of 90° to 95* F. The sheep, when placed in the vat, should have its head pushed under quickly for an instant, and should be kept standing in the solution for one minute. Trimming of Feet. KThe feet of sheep should be trimmed at least twice a year. The jep is set on its rump, and the operator trims each foot, being care- not to cause bleeding. Well-trimmed feet do not collect filth between the hoofs. Soreness is thus avoided. All sheep that show evidence of lameness should be examined at once, so that causes of foot rot may be discovered in time. Old or heavy sheep that are regularly trimmed, stand straight on their feet and do not break in the pastern joint. Foot Rot. This disease may be due to soreness caused by too much moisture and filth between the hoofs. True foot rot is infectious and spreads ; very rapidly on wet land and in foul quarters. There is a discharge with a very offensive odor, and the hoof itself becomes rotten in places. The skin above and between the hoofs is red, tender and swollen. The animal is lame and becomes unthrifty. The disease prevails more especially in late summer and on low wet lands. "Treatment : Clean thoroughly between the toes ; pare away all the diseased horn and remove the loosened pieces. The hoof, if grown out of shape, must be trimmed to normal proportions. The patients 37 should be kept upon clean, dry footing, and serious cases should be kept in the yard or in dry stables. Four per cent, carbolized tar makes a good application for cleansing and disinfecting, and keeps out dirt. Treatment of the whole flock may consist in driving it through a large pan containing a solution of copper sulphate about four inches deep. The animals should be forced to remain in the pan several minutes. This solution should be made up by dissolving a pound of copper sulphate in the proportion of one to two pounds per gallon of water."41 Maggots. During the hot, humid days of summer the blow-fly is trouble- some to sheep. These flies lay thousands of eggs in the folds of Merino sheep and in the filthy or wet fleeces of other sheep. Clean and dry quarters are the best preventive of this fly. The eggs hatch into larvae known as maggots, which eat their way into the flesh of the animal. Animals afflicted with these parasites are easily de- tected because of their restlessness. The treatment is simple and ef- fective. The wool is shorn off close to the body where the maggots are located and a kerosene emulsion applied. A coal tar disinfectanl in a ten per cent, solution may be used. The wound should then be dressed with a two per cent, carbolized salve. Weaning the Lambs. At twelve to sixteen weeks of age, lambs may safely be weaned. Weaning should take place prior to June 1, for when lambs are allowed to run with their mothers during July and August heavier infestation with worms results. The ewes need rest after nursing lambs, and should be given an opportunity to build up their physi- cal condition before the mating season begins. A breeding ewe in good physical condition when bred produces a higher percentage of lambs than when in low physical condition. The lambs that are not marketed should be placed in a pasture lot that has not previously been grazed by sheep that season, in order that they may be kept free from parasites. No grain need be fed to growing lambs destined for breeding purposes when good pas- ture is available. At weaning the lamb should be separated from the ewe, and th< latter placed on pasture that is short of grass so that the milk flow will decrease. The second day after weaning the entire flock should b< 41ReynolcTs "Veterinary Studies." 38 LMme over and each ewe milked out. This operation is repeated on the fourth day after weaning. At that time most of the ewes will be "dried up sufficiently to prevent caking of the udders. However, the deep milking ewes, the best mothers, should be treated further until safely "dried up/' Fig. 15. — 1. A docking pincer. 2. An ear punch. 3. A wool card. 4. Pruning shears. 5. Wool shears. Caked Udders. Ewes with caked udders (garget) are rendered valueless as breed- ers unless properly treated; this is, important, since the best milkers are most often affected. In case udders become caked, an application of ointment consisting of four parts lard and one part turpentine, or a tincture of iodine or belladonna leaves, or camphorated oil, thoroughly rubbed in, will cure mild cases. Garget may arise from 39 congestion of milk in the udder, bruising and chilling of the udder, or from infection. The first three causes can, in most cases, be cured by the above treatment. Infection of the udder is rarely cured ex- cept in the case where special treatment is used. Dr. Miller's treat- ment42 is to inject through a teat a saturated solution of boric acid, and apply a sharp blister ; give the patient a mild physic, and protect against unfavorable weather conditions ; as soon as an abscess forms* in the udder, open it, so as to give free discharge, and wash out fre- quently with boric acid solution. Resting of the Ewes. When safely "dried up" the ewes should be placed on good pas- ture and allowed to rustle for nourishment. This will give them a chance to rest after nursing their lambs. The restoring of weight lost during the lactation period should be gradual. Sorting the Ewes. The ewes should be sorted before being bred in the fall of the year. Animals eliminated for various causes should be placed separ- ately, fattened and disposed of. The following points should be consid- ered in eliminating breeding ewes from the flock : character of lambs produced, number of lambs, disposition, milking qualities, freedom from disease ; if purebred the breed character, age and non-breeding tendencies. Ewes that fail to breed any season should be eliminated ; "twin getters" should be selected. Deep milkers may be in low condi- tion ; therefore, do not mistake them for those afflicted with parasitic disease. Broken mouths (with no incisors, or only a few), caked udders, the emaciated, the weak and those afflicted with goiter should also be sorted out. Detailed records of lambing, breeding and wool pro- duction will assist the shepherd in sorting out his breeding flock. Flushing Ewes. By flushing is meant the bringing of the ewe to an optimum condition of flesh and vigor for mating. Flushing insures the pro- duction of a higher percentage of lambs,43 and the breeding of ewes in a shorter period of time. By this method the periods of heat are more regular and a majority of ewes get in lamb at the first or second ser- vice.44 Judicious feeding is the means by which ewes are prepared 42Craig's "Sheep Farming." 43Kleinheinz' "Sheep Management/' 44Craig's "Sheep Farming." 40 for breeding. Since the ovum is the hereditary part contributed by the ewe to the lamb and the spermatozoon the hereditary carrier of the ram, it seems reasonable that when the animals producing these two cells are in a vigorous state of health and nourishment the vital- of the organs that produce the cells would also contribute more igor to the cells themselves. Flushing is accomplished by feeding extra feed on pasture and by ic use of a forage crop. In a wet season when grass is abundant there is no necessity for extra feeding; in fact there is danger of get- ting the ewes too fat. Usually a daily allowance of a quarter to a half pound of grain mixture, rich in protein, is sufficient to flush a ewe in a period of four to six weeks. Rape pasture is recommended highly for this purpose. One acre of rape will ordinarily flush forty to fifty ewes when they are grazed for only one or two hours daily. The extent of extra feeding will depend upon the condition of the ewes. There is less danger of excessive fat from the use of forage crops than from grain. This method of feeding should be continued until the ewes have been bred at least once. The Mating Season. Preparatory to mating, the ewes should be trimmed about the vul\a and all tags removed. The method of handling the ram will depend upon the number of sheep in the flock, the method of sheep raising practice and the experience and quality of labor employed. For small flocks of twenty-five or less ewes, allow the ram to run with the ewes. However, the ram should not be placed with the flock longer than an hour the first two days. If fifty ewes are to be safely bred to one ram, the "hand-coupling" system should be employed. By this system is meant allowing the ram to be with the flock in the early morning and the late evening to serve the ewes that are in heat. The ram should not serve more than three without a rest, lest he be rendered sterile. The ram should have lamp black placed on the breast so that all ewes are marked by him. When mated the «wes should be separated from the flock and records made of the date of service, so that the time of lambing may be closely pre- dicted. The ewes that have been bred snould be watched, and if a large number of them come in heat again a new ram should be secured. When the rams are allowed to run with the flock, mark- ing of the ewes by the ram should be practiced, records being taken at the end of each day of the ewes newly marked. In raising "hot- 41 house lambs," or with large flocks of a hundred or more sheep, when pedigree records are not kept, several rams should be placed with th< flock, one ram being used for forty ewes. During the breeding season the ram must be carefully fed and ex- ercised. If separated from the flock, another ram or an old ewe thai has previously been bred should be kept with him. His appetites should be keen and a grain ration of equal parts of oats, wheat bran and oil meal, not exceeding two pounds daily, should be fed. Suc- culent feed in the form of roots or grass will serve to keep him in good condition. A ram that loses his appetite may become tem- porarily sterile at this time. The time of breeding for March lambs begins the middle of Sep- tember. The normal gestation period in sheep is 146 to 147 days foi mutton breeds, and 152 days for Merinos. The periods of heat occui normally at the end of eighteen to. twenty-one days. The breeding season should last at least six weeks, to allow for a second service of ewes failing to become pregnant from the first service. After the matii season, the feed for the ram should be reduced and he should be rested. Late Autumn Pasture. After the grain and corn crops have been harvested, the may graze on them. The sheep will "clean up" the fence rows, the weeds and the waste forage that was not collected in harvesting. The longer the sheep are kept on pasture or grazed on harvested fields, the better. They are thereby utilizing feeds that are otherwise wast- ed. Grazing also keeps the sheep in better physical condition. In most sections of Pennsylvania sheep may be grazed without extra feed until December first, if given shelter at night. Winter and Spring Management of the Flock. Shelter. — During the winter months the sheep should be con- fined to shelter that is dry and furnishes protection from rain, wind and snow and has available exercise lots. An open shed similar to that illustrated in figure 16 gives plenty of warmth to sheep dur- ing the coldest weather. The open shed should face the south and have swinging doors that can be lowered during severe weather. The exercise lot should have at least twenty-five square feet of space for each mature sheep. The construction of this shed is cheap and simple, and need not cost more than $1.50 per animal for a flock of fifty ewes. The shed should be well ventilated, but free from 42 raughts. Convenience should be considered, and fields or pastures to which the sheep may run during winter days is important. The should be placed on an elevation, so that all water will drain ray. A windbreak should shelter the exposed portion of the shed. >ace should be provided for bedding, roughage and feed. The doors, sts and feed racks should be constructed so as to give plenty of ice for the sheep to pass without crowding, a condition which ith pregnant ewes, often results in abortion. CROSS SECTION OF SHED Fig. 16. — Cross section of The Pennsylvania State College sheep shed. The only season when warmer quarters are necessary is during the lambing period. Then the ewes are taken into the barn or some shelter that is relatively warm, so that the lambs are protected for a few days until they have strength to resist severe weather. Where winter lambs, "hothouse lambs" or early spring lambs arc raised, it is desirable to have warmer quarters than an open shed provides. A barn constructed on the plan illustrated in Figs. 17 and 18 will provide warm quarters for a flock of sixty breeding ewes.45 It has a semi-circular roof, and the walls may be constructed of lum- ber, stone or cement concrete. The floor plan provides for a root cellar, a feed room and four pens, one of which is so arranged as to be used for temporary lambing quarters. The feed racks are movable. The doors are wide, those at the end being six feet and those at the side seven feet. The top half of each door is hinged above and opens inward and upward. The windows, which are thirty inches by four feet, should be hinged at the bottom and swing inward, so that they may be opened for ventilation without causing draughts direct- ly on the sheep. The floor above the pens should be tight, so as to prevent the chaff and dirt from sifting through upon the backs of the sheep below. Ventilation flues are also provided. 45Sheep Husbandry in Canada, Bulletin 12, 1913. 43 Equipment. Feed racks should be built to prevent chaff from getting into th< fleece of sheep. Any rack that will allow the sheep to shake am root into the hay will result in dirty and shabby fleeces. Such fleeces are termed "unmerchantable/' and bring from one to two cents a pound. The rack illustrated in Fig. 19 has a box beneath which pn I4'0' H Fig. 17. — Floor plan of a sheep barn, (Canadian Bulletin No. 12).* vides a means of feeding corn silage, roots and grain in the same racl with the hay. Boxes should be provided for salt which should be kept before sheep at all times. For a large flock, watering troughs should be provided, but for small flocks, buckets may be used. As shown in the illustration (Fig. 20), temporary lambing pens can be arranged, consisting of hinged panels four feet long and two and one-half feet high. *Drawn by the Division of Farm Mechanics of the Dept. of Agronomy. 44 Bedding. The quarters should never become moist. Oat straw makes the best bedding, since the bearded varieties of wheat, barley and rye get Fig. 18.— Cross-section plan of sheep barn, (Plan Canadian Bulletin No. 12). > Fig. 19. This feed rack furnishes space for grain and hay, and protects the fleece from chaff. 45 into the fleece and irritate the sheep. The manure should be removed frequently during the winter months. Feeding the Pregnant Ewes. When clover or alfalfa hay is fed, with corn silage or roots as a source of succulence, grain need not be fed until four to six weeks prior to lambing. The expense of maintaining breeding ewes should be as low as possible without injury to the forthcoming lamb. Ex- periments46 have shown that alfalfa alone is too expensive, that corn silage alone causes the ewes and lambs to be weak ; but that a combi- nation of corn silage not to exceed three pounds daily, and as much al- falfa hay as the ewes will consume, furnishes an excellent roughage ration. Timothy hay is a poor sheep feed, and causes constipation. Corn stover and oat straw are good roughages, but must be fed with a greater grain allowance and are best with some succulent feed like corn silage in addition. Only good corn silage may be fed safely to sheep, as sour, (highly acid) decomposed or moldy silage will result in abortion or death to the pregnant ewes. Swedes or rutabagas, turnips and carrots are satisfactory roots, but mangels and sugar beets cause calculi47 (stones) in the kidneys and should not be fed. The allowance of roots to pregnant ewes should not exceed three pounds daily. Some grain is necessary before lambing to stimulate greater milk flow. It also serves to stimulate the appetite for roughage. If the ewe is in good physical condition a quarter of a pound of a grain mix- ture per ewe is sufficient,*this amount to be fed four to six weeks prior to lambing. Grain should not be introduced into the ration or increased materially within a week of lambing, as it may cause milk fever. After the lambs have made a start the grain ration should be increased to one-half pound per animal, and by any additional amount considered necessary to meet existing conditions. Shepherds pre- fer wheat bran, oats and oil meal for breeding ewes. Corn is con- sidered too fattening, and is used sparingly. Experimental evidence does not bear out the opinion of old shepherds on this point when corn is fed in limited quantities. . A ration used by The Pennsylvania State College with good results is composed of five parts shelled corn, three parts oats, two parts wheat bran and one part oil meal. The ^Pennsylvania Annual Reports 1911-12, 1913-14, and 1915-16. 47Iowa Bulletin No. 112. 46 Ohio Station found a ration composed of four parts corn and one part oil meal cheaper and more satisfactory than the Pennsylvania ration.48 Regularity, cleanliness and quiet must prevail in the successful feeding of pregnant ewes. Exercise of Breeding Ewes. Feeding alone will not produce strong and vigorous lambs from breeding ewes. The vigor of the ewe is invariably transmitted to the lamb. One of the difficulties in managing breeding ewes during the winter is their tendency not to exercise sufficiently. The ewes should be placed on pasture or fields to exercise and gather weeds or dead grass. When the snow is too deep, paths may be made and hay or grain strewn in them which will cause the ewes to exercise. An ex- perienced shepherd never forgets to have his ewes exercise daily, as it stimulates their appetites and makes them vigorous to resist the strain at lambing time, and the drain of the lactation period which fol- lows. Preparation for Lambing. With records of mating on hand, the time of lambing can be pre- dicted, since the normal gestation period is about 147 days. Provided such records are kept, signs of approaching lambing are shown by the distention of the paunch, the swelling of the vulva, the enlarge- ment of the udder, and within the last forty-eight hours the filling up of the teats. Ewes that are well advanced should be separated from the flock one week prior to lambing and given extra attention. Within a few hours of lambing the ewes should be placed in individ- ual lambing pens. Several days before lambing, remove all the tags or filthy wool about the vulva of the ewes, at the same time remov- ing all the loose and dirty wool about the udder and the tags about the hind flank. Lambs will suck these tags and strands of. wool, which form wool balls in the intestines and cause death. The udder should be trimmed on a warm day and prior to lambing, since sudden uncovering in severe weather may cause garget. Lambing. The lambing season is the most critical period in the manage- ment of the flock. The shepherd, therefore, should be alert to save a high percentage of his lambs, on which his profits depend. The lambing season begins the latter part of February and extends 4SOhio Bulletin No. 270. 47 through the month of March. Having set apart those ewes that are due to lamb, it is easier to observe those that need attention. The ewe about to lamb becomes restless and seeks seclusion. The shep- herd should watch each ewe at lambing, but not disturb her unless assistance is necessary. "Generally it is not necessary to watch later than eleven o'clock at night, for if a ewe does not lamb before this time she usually will not before four o'clock the next morning."49 It is on the coldest and most severe nights that attention to the ewes is most important. Fig. 20. — A temporary lambing pen. The normal presentation of the lamb is the head first, with the forelegs extending forward beneath the head. Any other presentation is abnormal, and may require the assistance of the shepherd. It is often necessary to help young ewes with their first lambs by grasping the forelegs and pulling at the same time that the ewe strains. This is sometimes necessary for lambs that are very large. Ewes may give birth to lambs delivered backward without assistance. If the head or legs are not in proper position the shepherd assists the ewe. The ewe is placed in position by standing her in a corner and raising her hindquart- ers so that her body is at an angle of forty-five degrees. In this way the stomach and intestines do not press against the uterus, giving more room for the operator to work. Before placing it in the vagina the hand should be thoroughly washed, the finger nails trimmed and 49U. S. Department Bulletin No. 20, 1913. 48 cleaned, and a little raw linseed "oil smeared on the arm. The lamb should be first placed in position and then gradually drawn out, care being taken not to rupture the uterus or vagina by severe or quick pulling. After this operation the ewe should be flushed out with a .one-half per cent, solution of a coal tar disinfectant. The solution should have a temperature of 90° F., and be administered by means of a funnel attached to a one-half inch rubber tube. Experience in this operation may save many ewes and lambs. Treatment for Lambs. After birth the ewe should at once begin to dry off the lamb by licking. If twins are born she may neglect the first born. In such a case, or in severe weather, the shepherd should take the lambs into a warm room and rub them dry. If the ewe refuses to lick the lamb she may often be induced to do so if a pinch of salt is sprinkled over it. The lamb should attempt to get its first meal on its own initiative ; if it is too weak, assistance should be given. After the lamb re- ceives its first meal, it is able to resist cold to a remarkable degree. The ewe recognizes her lamb at first by its smell, and for that reason she should be compelled to own her lambs at once in case of twins or triplets. Some ewes will not own their lambs ; in such cases they should be held while the lambs nurse, and be confined with them separately from the flock until they will own them. A ewe that has lost her lamb can be made to adopt others if the skin of her own lamb is tied over the back of the adopted lamb, or if her own milk is sprinkled over it. In case a ewe gives an insufficient amount of milk, she should be fed a grain mixture of equal parts of oats, wheat bran and oil meal in liberal amounts, to stimulate milk secretion. Some lambs are born apparently lifeless,. or are chilled at lambing. They may often be revived. For weak lambs remove the phlegm from the mouth and nostrils, and start artifical respiration by breathing into the lamb's mouth. Then holding it with one hand upon its belly ; pat it with the other just back of the shoulders. If lambs are chilled, rub them vigorously or place them in a pail of water as hot as the hand can stand, and rub dry. Such lambs should be wrapped and placed in a warm place. A few drops of whiskey given to the lamb in warm ewe's or cow's milk will serve as a stimulant. Still born lambs are lambs that are born dead. If for any cause the ewe is unable to give birth to her lamb, the lamb will die and 49 the ewe will die also unless relieved. The ewe shows symptoms of this condition by a loss of appetite, a listless and pained expression of the eyes and a dropping of the head. In advanced cases an offen- sive odor from the vagina is characteristic. Such ewes should have the lambs removed, and should be thoroughly flushed out with one- half per cent, solution of a coal tar disinfectant every other day, unti restored to normal condition. Raising Orphan Lambs. Where it is necessary to raise a lamb by hand, a definite course of procedure should be employed. Warm cow's milk used at a temper- ature of 90° F. is a good substitute for ewe's milk. A nursing bottle with a rubber nipple is necessary, but it should be washed thoroughly in warm water before being used. Feed the lambs every two hours the first two days, after which the interval may be extended to four times, daily, while at the end of two weeks, twice daily will suffice provided the lamb eats grain. Skim milk or sour milk will cause in- digestion in lambs. Ewe's milk contains about seven per cent, fat, while cow's whole milk on the average contains 3.5 per cent fat. The milk fed the new-born lambs should be as nearly similar to its mother's milk as possible. Lamb Brooder. The lamb brooder, as illustrated in Fig. 21, is constructed of a frame twenty-four inches high and covered with burlap sacks. A foot warmer or twro are placed in the brooder. On very cold nights, lambs from twelve to forty-eight hours old will crowd into this warm en- closure. Where winter lambs are raised this simple equipment is desirable. Ailments of Lambs. The ailments from which lambs are apt to suffer are indigestion, scours, retention of excrement, wool balls and naval disease. Indi- gestion is due to feed or exposure. The lamb becomes sluggish and weak. If the ewe is in poor condition, feed oil meal or some succulent feed. Give the lamb an ounce of castor oil. "Scours in lambs are the outcome of milk unsuitable or excessive, or of germ infection. The result is profuse, white-colored evacu- ations. It seldom takes the epidemic form, but in many instances may occur simultaneously and from the same cause, that is, an ex- cessive quantity of rich milk furnished. When indications of scours 50 appear, the diet of the dams should be reduced and a portion of the milk taken from the dams of the lambs that are thus affected, in order that the latter may not get an excess. A form of scours may occur ! at a later period, in which the evacuations have a greenish tint. It is more fatal than the former, and is caused by some unsuitable element in the diet."50 Retention of excrement occurs when an accumulation of the ex- crement lodges at the tail and closes the passage. The excrement should be removed. Fig. 21. —A lamb brooder. Naval disease refers to infection of the umbilical cord soon after birth. This disease is accompanied by diarrhoea. Clean and sani- ;tary quarters are the best preventive. An application of tincture of iodine will usually destroy the infection. Sore eyes in lambs are cured by washing with a saturated solu- tion of boric acid daily until the soreness has disappeared. Blisters on the lips of lambs should be scraped off and the mouth washed with 50Shaw's "Management and Feeding of Sheep." 51 a two per cent, solution of a standard coal tar disinfectant on con- secutive days. Feeding the Lambs. Lambs will begin to nibble grain in feed troughs with their mothers at about ten days of age. Lamb creeps with slats placed eight inches apart should be constructed in pens. Corn meal, with some oil meal mixed with it, is palatable to lambs. Only a little should be fed at first. The feed trough should be cleaned out at least twice Fig. 22. A lamb creep. daily, and the refus grain fed to the ewes. As the lambs begin to eat they should be fed regularly and liberally. A grain mixture of five parts corn meal and one part oil meal may be fed. If the lambs an to be sold early, corn meal alone, with alfalfa or clover hay, is a g< ration. The ewes and their lambs should be given green pasture as early as possible. Rye sown in August of the previous year will make suitable green feed by the first of April. The ewes should be fed in such manner as to give the lambs a good start before they are placed on permanent pasture and weaned. 52 Marking the Lambs. All lambs should be marked before weaning. It is desirable to mark them when two or three weeks of age. The method of mark- ing, recommended by the various sheep breeders' associations, is the most practicable for the average farmer. This consists in placing in the ear a metallic label on which the name of the owner and the num- ber of the lamb are stamped. The label should be inserted in a hole punched near the base of the ear, so that the weight of the label will not cause the ear to lop over. The hole should be made between the second and third ridge of the lower side of the ear, thereby allowing sufficient room in the label for the growth of the ear. In case of pure- bred stock the association number is placed in the right ear, and the owner's number in the left ear. Records. Records of lambing should be kept for each ewe, showing the number of lambs dropped, their condition, the date, and the condition of the ewe. Later, in case of purebred sheep, the ear tag number should be recorded for each lamb, so that in the registration the exact records are available. The sire of the lambs, the age of the ewes, the amount and condition of fleeces produced each year, are records that are of value in intelligent breeding of a flock. In cases where the mother of the lamb is in question, the lamb should be re- moved from the flock, and, after an hour's time, again placed with the flock; its mother will then be anxious to find her lamb, and can be readily caught and indentified. In the registration of purebred lambs most associations require the certificates of entry prior to Decem- ber first, after which date the fee is increased. Application blanks can be secured from the associations of all breeds of sheep ; when properly filled out, with money covering the fee, and sent to the secre- tary, they entitle the owner to the privilege of recording the sheep as purebred. Castration. All lambs that are to be sold for mutton should be castrated. Ram lambs make less gains, do not reach as high a condition, have a coarser texture of meat and bring less money on the market than cas- trated or wether lambs. The operation is simple, and all lambs that are not kept for breeding should be so treated. "One of the best methods is to cut off the lower third of the scrotum with a clean, sharp knife, and force the testicles down. They can be grasped by the 53 thumb and two fingers and pulled out, one at a time, with the sper- matic cord attached. If the lamb is rather old and the cords will not pull out, they can be cut or scraped off above the testicles."51 The operator should have clean hands and a knife thoroughly disinfected. The wound should be washed with a two or three per cent, solution of a standard coal tar disinfectant. Lambs are best castrated when two to four weeks of age. After the operation the pens in which the lambs are kept should be cleaned and bedded to avoid infectiton. Fig. 23. — The correct manner of leading a sheep. Docking. By docking is meant the removal of the tail. This operation should be done one week following or previous to castration, since the two operations are too severe for the lamb to endure at one time. All up-to-date sheep men dock the lambs. The tail is a source of filth, and encourages trouble from maggots. Undocked breeding ewes are often unbred because of their tails. Lambs that are docked appear more blocky and uniform, and therefore bring higher prices than un- docked lambs. The operation may be performed when lambs are from one to four weeks of age. 61U. S. Agricultural Department Bulletin No. 20, 1913. 54 The best method of docking is to use a hot pincer, such as the one shown in Fig. 15. A common blacksmith's pincer will do as well. These pincers should be red hot, and the t/il "seared off one inch from the base. A shingle with a hole large enough to pull the tail through should be placed up close to the body of the lamb, to protect it from a possible burn. Ten lambs can be docked in rapid succession with one heating of the pincer. This method prevents all loss of blood. Pruning shears, a block and a chisel, or a comon knife, may be used in cutting off the tail. With all of these instruments a considerable loss of blood results. Feeding Lambs Prior to Weaning. Lambs bring the highest prices in the early season ; therefore, they should be marketed early. If lambs are fed grain while on pasture before weaning, they will make greater gains and carry a higher finish. When the lambs are weaned they should be sorted out with reference to sex, the ram lambs and ewe lambs being placed in separate pastures on which the breeding flock has not been kept that season. Grain-fed lambs do not suffer a set-back at weaning time. Shearing. Sheep that are sheltered at night should be shorn in April. The ewes are thereby able to resist the effects of exposure when placed on permanent pasture for the summer. The work on the farm is not as pressing during this month as in May. Too many ewes are not shorn until the very hot days of summer. A heavy fleece is a burden to the ewe in hot weather, and results in a lower milk flow. Newly-shorn ewes should not be exposed to cold rains, damp quarters or hot sun. Sheep may be shorn with hand shears or a sheep-shearing machine. The shearing machine is preferable because the wool is shorn closer to the body, the sheep is less restless, the wool is freer from "second cuts/' and for the average shearer it is easier and more rapid than handshearing. However, for either very early or late shearing, the objection may be raised that the shearing machine cuts too close. It is not advisable to wash sheep before shearing, as was the practice formerly. Fleeces should never be shorn when wet, as such wool will mold. If a clean, smooth floor is not available, a platform 10 x 10 feet rais- ed one foot off the ground, provides a space for shearing a sheep with a 55 machine. Special precaution should be taken to keep the fleece free from dirt and foreign material. There are several methods of shearing sheep, but the one illus- trated herewith shows the essential points. The sheep should be handled with care to prevent struggling and abuse. Set the sheep on its rump, so that the hind legs are off the floor. Begin by open- Fig. 24. — Shearing with a machine, beginning at the throat. ing up the fleece down the throat and along the median line of the abdomen. In case the operator is right-handed, begin to the right shearing the fleece free from head and legs. When this is accomplish- ed, long strokes can be made in shearing the fleece from the sides anc back. The fleece should not be torn, and is always kept away from the sheep and the shearer^ the sheep is pivoted and turned in the direction opposite to that in which the fleece falls. 56 Fig. 25. — The wool should be kept intact and away from the sheep and shears. Care in the preparation, tying, packing and storing of the fleeces brings higher market prices. The platform should be free from dirt, Fig. 26. — The shearing completed. 57 the flesh side of the fleece turned down, all tags removed, and the edges of the fleece turned in from all sides. The fleece should then be rolled into a firm bundle and tied. By the use of a wool box similar to that illustrated in Fig. 27 the fleeces are made more at- tractive. The objection to a wool box is that the fleeces are often tied too firmly. Two to three strands each way of the fleece with glazed or paper twine should be used. Sisal or binder twine is ob- jectionable, since the fiber of this twine gets into the wool and is woven into the cloth. Wool merchants pay less for wool tied with sisal twine, and many manufacturers will not buy it. The fleeces Fig. 27. —A fleece tied and ready for packing, with tags removed. should be packed firmly into wool sacks obtainable from wool com- mission merchants ; they are eight to ten feet in length and eight feet in circumference. Tags should be packed separately from the fleeces. All wool should be stored in dry places. Market Grades of Wool. The classification of American fleeces is made on the localities from which they come. The Ohio and Pennsylvania fleeces form a class which includes the wool produced in Pennsylvania, Ohio and West Virginia. This class heads the list of American wool because 58 of the predominance of Merino blood and the freedom of the wool from sand and dirt. The market grades of this as quoted from the American Sheep Breeder, April 11, 1916, are: Ohio and Pennsylvania fleeces — Fine washed Delaine 37c and 38c XX and above, washed 34c " 35c Fine unmerchantable 34c 35c Fine unwashed Delaine . . .34c " 35c Fig. 28. — A fleece tied and ready for packing, with tags removed. Fine unwashed clothing 29c 30c Half-blood combing 37c Three-eighths blood combing 40c Quarter blood combing 39c Medium clothing 32c and 34c Years ago there were two higher grades — Picklock and XXX. These two grades were produced by the American and Silesian Merino, but have been discontinued. Delaine refers to Merino fleeces of one-half blood quality with a fiber length of two and one-half inches. XX represents the quality of an ideal American Merino. X grade has the same quality as Delaine, but is less than two and one- half inches in length. The term "combing" applies to wool of less 59 than one-half blood quality and more than two and one-half inches in- length. The term "clothing" refers to the same quality of wool as "combing," but less than two and one-half inches in length. "Wash- ed" refers to fleeces coming from sheep that have been washed prior to shearing, while "unwashed" is a term referring to fleeces that are unwashed. "Unmerchantable" refers to poorly washed, improperly tied or dirty fleeces, but does not mean unsalable wool. "Fine" has the same significance as X or Delaine quality. Fig. 29. — The right manner of opening a fleece to study its characteristics. "Half-blood, three-eighths blood and quarter blood grades, as th< terms were coined, referred to wool from sheep of half, three-eighth; and quarter Merino blood, but have no such significance now. Wool; grading as high as half-blood can come from sheep having no tract of Merino blood ; the Southdown, for instance, produces wool thai sometimes grades that high, and this breed has been kept pure froi the outside for centuries. On the other hand, quarter blood woulc rarely come from sheep containing Merino blood, and braid is th< lowest grade of all. It usually refers to luster wool, such as mighl come from Lincoln or Cotswold Sheep."52 Most of the medium-wool 52U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 206, 1915. 60 ed breeds produce wool of one-fourth or three-eighths blood quality of combing length. Marketing Products of Wool and Mutton. The sheep raiser should be familiar with market quotations of wool and mutton in order that he can dispose of his products intelli- gently. If he is unable to dispose of his wool at proper prices to local dealers, it will pay him to ship the wool to commission mer- chants, who will sell it on the open market. The same is true in marketing lambs for mutton, but because of the freight costs, the dif- ficulty is to ship in small lots. Community organization would cor- rect this difficulty if the mutton and wool could be sold on the prin- cipal markets in carload lots. Such organizations have proved suc- cessful in Tennessee and Canada. Local markets in Pennsylvania and the numerous wool mills throughout the State make it possible in many sections to market the products of sheep to advantage with- out shipping to the large and centralized markets. Co-operation. The key to live stock improvement and profitable production is co-operation. The present extension organization of agriculture in Pennsylvania and other states could, with the good will of sheep growers and others interested, develop organizations that would produce and market mutton and wool to advantage. A sheep production association with appropriate officers could be formed of farmers within a limited area ; it might include fifty farm- ers, a number found most desirable by a successful Tennessee sheep raisers' association. The object of this organization should be to de- cide on a distinct purpose of production as to the kinds of lambs and wool best fitted to its mutual benefit. It should decide upon the breed, the time of mating, the method of feeding, the time of shear- i ing, the method of handling the wool, the age and weight of the lambs when marketed and the method of marketing. In this way ! several carloads of lambs and wool could be marketed at one time, i and thus a uniform product would be furnished, demanding a higher market price. For marketing, an organization including several production organizations could be formed. A manager well posted on market conditions and demands should be selected. By keeping in touch with ; the production associations he could determine the best time and 61 method of selling the lambs for mutton. Likewise, with a centraliz- ed warehouse he could store wool in large quantities, grading it int< market classes and selling through commission merchants who would gladly come and inspect the wool. Further, the Australian method of auctioning wool could be employed. On a stated date, commission merchants and representatives of wool manufacturers could bid on theij wool directly from the farmers' representative organization. 62 BULLETIN NO. 119 MARCH 1910 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION SOUTH DAKOTA STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND MECHANIC ARTS DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY FATTENING LAMBS BROOKINGS, SOUTH DAKOTA MFW3 PTQ. CO., ABERDEEN, S. D. GOVERNING BOARD REGENTS OF EDUCATION Hon. E. C. Ericson, President Elk Point, S. D. Hon. A. J. Norby I Sisseton, S. D. Hon. A- M. Anderson Sturgis, S. D. Hon. A: E. Hitchcock, j .Mitchell, S. D. Hon. P. W. Dwight Sioux Falls, S. D. STATION STAFF A. J. Norby Regent Member A. E. Hitchcock . Regent Member Robert L. Slagle President of the College James W. Wilson ' . . Director and Animal Husbandman N. E. Hansen Vice Director and Horticulturist James H. Shepard Chemist E. W. Olive Botanist E. L. Moore Veterinarian C. Larsen Dairy Husbandman Clifford Willis Agronomist and Supt. of Substations A. E. Koch Assistant in Chemistry J. V. Bopp Qhief Assistant in Agronomy T. H. Lund Assistant in Dairying A. R. Dutcher Assistant in Chemistry S. Garver . : . . Assistant in Agronomy, Cottonwood. Substation O. E. White Assistant in Botany P. H. Moore. .Assistant in Agronomy, Highmore Substation W. D. Griggs .... Assistant in- Agronomy, Eureka Substation M. Champlin (Co-operative) Assist, in Agronomy, Highmore Substation R. A. Larson Secretary and Accountant B. B. Lawshe Stenographer Any resident of the state may have his named placed on the regular mailing list to receive the Bulletins of this Station free upon application to the Director. ERRATA Cn page 6-49 read-hay 30 1 er hundr- d | rrrd . P0*e 6? 6 SUMMARY omit-in forty-four day FATTENING LAMBS JAMES W. WILSON The live stock industry has been and is a prominent factor in solving the problem of retaining and improving the fertility of the soil. It has been demonstrated that raising crops year after year on the same land and selling them in their natural form, without the use of animals to produce manure, mate- rially impairs the producing capacity of the soil. Commercial fertilizers are used extensively farther east, which render the cost of production comparatively expensive. Roberts, of the New York Experiment Station, found that sheep manure was worth more per ton as a fertilizer than that made by any other farm animal. To sheep belongs part of this credit as economical pro- ducers, requiring less than the average number of pounds of feed for the production of a pound of gain. In former years many of the sheep raised in South Dakota were shipped to eastern feed lots and fitted for market on rape pasture and a small allowance of grain. After careful inquiry it is learned that these feeders figure on a profit of not less than one dollar per head. This profit is obtained by the increase in value of the original weight and gain put on during the short feeding period while on rape pasture. The sheep has no equal as a weed destroyer, eating nearly all the numerous weeds and grasses found on every farm. From all reports the sheep industry is increasing in the state, although the days of raising sheep in large flocks for the feeding market are slowly passing away. In the older settled sections many flocks have been established recently, which 646 will more than offset the loss of the large number formerly raised on the range. By this better care the lambs will be better fitted for the butcher and will command a higher price in the market than formerly. Although sheep raising is one of the most profitable in- dustries on the farm, in some of the most densely populated sections of this state, where the farms are highly improved, where large yields of grain are obtained annually, and where during the past few years the price of the land has trebled, the fattening of sheep for market is practically unknown. This Bulletin presents the results obtained in two feeding experiments with lambs. The first experiment was to de- termine the relative value of alfalfa hay and upland prairie hay with the same kind of grain ration; the second was to determine the value of different grain rations for lambs while on rape pasture. The question of producing the cheapest pound of gain should be kept in mind when fattening lambs, for market, and these results are intended to furnish the fitter an idea of the value of cheap fodder and pasture in mutton production. EXPERIMENT NO. 1 FATTENING LAMBS ON ALFALFA AND PRAIRIE HAY The successful introduction of hardy varieties of alfalfa into different section of South Dakota in the near future will have a great bearing on the live stock industry. This legume will furnish to a large extent the protein desired to feed with the highly carbonaceous grains. It is a palatable and a highly digestible feed. If properly made into hay it serves as a conditioner for all kinds of live stock during the long winter when green forage is not at hand. The results of an experiment with hogs at this Station in feeding the same kind of a grain ration on blue grass, clover, and alfalfa pastures, show that the gain for the lot receiv- ing alfalfa, during the same period, was fifteen pounds greater 647 than the gain for lot receiving blue grass pasture, and six pounds greater than the gain for the lot receiving clover pasture. The adaptation of different varieties of alfalfa to various conditions of South Dakota under the auspices of the United States' Department of Agriculture is now in progress, and it is hoped that as a result of the introduction into the North- west of the hardiest alfalfas of the world, varieties will be. found especially suitable to each set of soil and climatic con- ditions. The upland prairie hay of the Northwest is widely known, throughout the markets, for its highly nutritious qualities. During the winter of 1908 twenty grade lambs from eight to ten months of age, raised on the college farm, were di- vided into two lots and weighed up for the experiment. From the tables of wreights and gains it may be seen that there were only three pounds difference in the aggregate weight of the twro lots. The object was to determine the value of these two hays with the same kind of grain ration for the production of a pound of gain. The lots were given the same number of pounds of grain daily and all the hay they would eat up clean. The grain ration for each lot consisted of a mixture of one hundred pounds of oats, one hundred pounds of shelled corn and twenty-five pounds of linseed meal. The lots were started on one pound per head of this mixture per day and increased until they were receiving two and two- tenths pounds of grain daily. For every pound of grain fed the lambs, the alfalfa lot consumed one and three-tenths pounds of hay. For every pound of grain fed the prairie hay lot, the lambs consumed one pound of hay. In other feeding experiments with lambs of this age at this Station about two pounds of grain per head daily was an average allowance when on full feed. 648 TABLE OF WEIGHTS AND GAINS ALFALFA HAY LOT 10 -*> .,-XM c-q IO ^^ Number of Lambs "§! "Sri So pj »Q gjj si ^s O "3d 1-3 & °W 325 99 114 132 33 .54 318 . . ... 100 115 130 30 .49 1000 84 97 113 29 .47 342 73 90 113 40 . 65 343 85 100 30 .49 321 93 115 131 38 62 339 86 103 117 31 50 316 92 108 124 32 .52 327 92 107 114 22 .36 353 73 87 101 28 46 Total and averages 877 1036 1190 313 .,51 PRAIRIE HAY LOT 349 . 86 98 106 20 .33 348 77 91 103 26 42 302 94 103 114 20 33 344 107 117 126 19 .31 1032 . 68 90 101 33 .54 1001 86 92 106 20 f) O 315 75 79 84 9 .14 359 99 118 132 33 54 1024 102 117 137 35 57 1049 80 86 99 19 .31 Totals and averages 874 991 1108 234 38 Without exception the gains made by the alfalfa lot are the largest ever obtained in a feeding experiment with lambs at this Station. This table shows that the individual gains va- ried from thirty-six hundredths (.36) to sixty-five hundredths (.65) of a pound daily, and an average gain per head daily of fifty-one hundredths (.51) of a pound. Bulletin No. 86 of this Station (edition now exhausted) shows that where ten different grain rations, with prairie hay, were fed to lambs for the purpose of fattening, the average gain per head daily ranged from twenty-two hundredths (.22) to twenty-nine hundredths (.29) of a pound. 649 TABLE NO. I t- h +J bfrH -M h c3 C nj S-. •— » SH •— t III Weight End October 0 11 1 Weight End October Cj O | 11 69 91 22 II .50 60 77 17 .55 79 98 19 .43 56 75 19 .61 82 94 12 .27 82 95 13 .42 78 93 15 .34 || 78 89 11 .35 74 95 21 .48 69 85 16 .52 74 93 19 .43 65 74 9 . 29 71 93 22 .50 65 75 10 3° 71 91 20 .45 66 78 12 '.39 76 96 20 .45 |l 66 74 .26 71 84 13 .29 66 74 8 26 63 87 24 .54 63 70 V '.2-2 75 95 20 .45 51 64 13 4° 883 1110 227 .43 787 930 143 .38 II LOT IV RAPE AND BARLEY 1 • ! 68 80 12 27 61 71 10 .32 72 91 19 .43 1 56 68 12 .39 62 84 .50 1 71 81 10 .32 73 94 21 .48 66 73 7 .22 " 65 83 17 .39 75 85 10 .32 67 85 18 .40 1 72 84 12 .39 69 94 25 .57 1 78 94 16 i .52 56 71 15 .34 1 75 91 16 | .52 72 91 19 .43 1 55 69 14 .45 71 85 14 .32 56 70 14 .45 62 86 24 .54 73 85 12 .39 70 92 .50 50 58 8 ! .26 1 1 807 1036 229 .43 | 788 928 140 .37 I The twenty-four lambs receiving what oats they would eat morning and evening made the largest gain of the four lots, being fifteen and forty-one hundredths (15.41) pounds each, * At the Wisconsin Station sixteen wethers were fed on 0.7 of an acre of rape for twenty-five days, and also ate 153.5 pounds of oats and 97.5 pounds of whole corn. They gained a total of 149 pounds, or a weekly average of 2.6 pounds. Valuing the foods and the wethers at cost, and the selling price of the latter at 4 cents per pound, the rape would be worth $14.48 per acre. as compared to fifteen and thirty-seven hundredths (15.37) pounds for Lot IV, receiving barley. The lambs in both Lots III and IV for both years made larger and more uniform gains than did the lambs in Lots I or II, showing that oats and barley are better suited for rapid gains for lambs than corn or no grain when on rape pasture. The difference in gain in favor of the oat lot is so small that the value of these two grains may be considered about equal pound for pound for fattening lambs on rape. The average gain for the twenty-four lambs fed rape and oats both years was fifteen and forty-one hundredths (15.41) pounds, while the average gain for twenty-four lambs fed rape and barley was fifteen and thirty-seven hundredths (15.37) pounds per head.* TABLE NO. II 1908 Experiment 1909 Experiment T *o . a £ -o o . ft X5 g £ ? Kinds of Feed ,1) u 6 tn >> Bj Q .? Grain Consiur.c (3 1 s 5 1-1 0 6 fc Q 6 ^ Grain Consume c cB O io Lot I, rape 12 44 | 1971 37 1 !11 1 31 117 .34 Lot II, rape pasture and shelled! II corn. . . |11| 44 2101 178| 3411121 31 275 119 .32 Lot III, rape pasture and oats. . . |12| 44 3031 2271 .43|"12j 31 282 143 .38 Lot IV, rape pasture and barley. .|12| 44| 3131 229! .43IU2I 31 282 1401 .37 N Table No. II shows kind of feed, number of lambs, num- ber of days fed, quantity of grain consumed, total gain and average gain per head daily for each lot and for both years. The grain ration was the same for both years. For the quantity of grain consumed, the lots receiving oats made the best gains each year, although the two lots receiving barley made practically the same gain for grain consumed. Barley as a rule, is much higher in price than oats at this time of * At the Ontario Experiment Station, fifteen wethers were fed on an acre of rape, with 0.5 pound of oats in addition. Besides eating almost the whole of the crop from an acre in fifty-eight days, they also consumd 345 pounds of oats, and gained 23.67 pounds per head, or a weekly increase of 2.8 pounds per head. 656 the year, hence for economical and quick gains with lambs on rape pasture, oats are to be preferred. . . By feeding shelled corn there was a loss each year, as the gains were not so large as they were for the lots receiving the rape pasture alone. Our results of pasturing sheep and lambs on rape on the college farm and the experiment station have been very satis- factory. An experiment was conducted to determine what conditions must be present to cause bloat when first turning in on rape as follows : Lot No. i was put in on the clear rape without any other forage plant accessible and kept there day and night ; Lot No. 2 was turned in on a field where they had access to grass in addition to .the rape pasture ; Lot No. 3 was turned on the rape when the dew was on early in the morning; Lot No. 4 was turned on rape when it was dry. The lambs were raised on the range and were not accustomed to this forage. The result was the same for each lot, all coming through in a healthy condition. O'f the 96 head of lambs weighed up for this experiment, two head are not reported. One died a few days after weigh- ing, and the other was affected with worms. We believe, however, that care should be taken when turning in on any kind of new forage, as there is danger of the animal gorging himself. SUMMARY 1. Ten lambs receiving alfalfa hay gained seventy-nine pounds more in forty-four days than did the same number of lambs receiving upland prairie hay, each lot consuming the same quantity of grain. 2. With- the three hundred and sixty-nine head of lambs fed at this Station and weighed individually at certain inter- vals, all receiving practically two pounds of grain when on 657 full feed, the gains have never before been so large for grain consumed. This shows that alfalfa hay with a grain mixture and a little linseed meal was markedly superior to any other grain or forage ration. 3. It required only three and eight hundredths (3.08) pounds of grain and three and ninety-five hundredths (3.95) pounds of alfalfa hay to make a pound of gain, as compared to four and twelve hundredths (4.12) pounds of grain and four and one hundredth (4.01) pounds of upland prairie hay to make a pound of gain with lambs during same length of feeding period and with the lambs practically of the same weight. 4. Larger and more uniform gains were made with lot receiving alfalfa hay than with lot receiving prairie hay. ( See table of weights and gains. ) 5. Figuring the price of alfalfa hay and prairie hay the same, it cost one and one-tenth of a cent more per pound to make a pound of gain with the lot receiving upland prairie hay than it did with the lot receiving alfalfa hay. 6. Lambs fed a grain ration of South Dakota oats while on rape pasture made a larger gain than did lambs fed a grain ration of corn while on rape pasture or a grain ration of barley while on rape pasture. 7. With all the experiments at this Station in feeding lambs on rape the loss has not been greater than it is under ordinary feeding operations. 658 LIST OF AVAILABLE BULLETINS 89 Preliminary Experiments with Vapor Treatments for the Prevention of Stinking Smut in Wheat. 90 Tankage and Other By-products for Pigs; Shrunken Wheat for Swine. 91 Co-operative Vegetable Tests in 1904; Peas, Beans, Sweet Corn, Cabbage. 92 The Milling Qualities of Macaroni Wheat. 93 Plums in South Dakota. 94 Alfalfa and Red Clover. 95 The Treatment of Nail Pricks of Horse's Foot. 96 Forage Plants and Cereals at Highmore Sub-Station. 97 Speltz and Millet for the Production of Baby Beef. 98 Crop Rotation. 99 Macaroni or Durum Wheats. A continuation of Bulle- tin 92. 100 The Value of Speltz for the Production of Beef and Pork. 101 Forage Plants at the Highmore Sub-Station, 1906. 1 02 Evergreens for South Dakota. 103 Breeding Hardy Strawberries. 104 Breeding Hardy Raspberries. 105 Stock Food for Pigs. 1 06 Sugar Beets in South Dakota. 107 Sheep Scab. 1 08 New Hybrid Fruits. 109 Rusts of Cereals and Other Plants, no Progress in Variety Test of Oats. in A Study of South Dakota Butter with Suggestions for Improvements. 112 The Killing of Mustard and Other Noxious Weeds in Grain Fields by the Use of Iron Sulphate. 113 Progress of Variety Tests of Barley. 114 Digestion Coefficients of Grains and Fodders for South Dakota. 115 Report of Work for 1907 and 1908 at Highmore Sub- Station. 116 Acidity of Creamery Butter and its Relation to Quality. 117 Sugar Beets in South Dakota. 118 Corn. BULLETIN NO. 127. MAY, 1911. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION SOUTH DAKOTA STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND MECHANIC ARTS DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY BREEDING AIND FEEDIIXQ SHEEP Six Breeds BROOKINGS, SOUTH DAKOTA From the Press of the Mitchell Publishing Company Mitchell, S. D. GOVERNING BOARD Hon. A. E. Hitchcock, President Mitchell, S. D. Hon. P. W. Dwight, Vice President Sioux Falls, S. D. Hon. A. M. Anderson Sturgis, S. D. Hon. August Frieburg Beresford, S. D. Hon. H. Reinhardt Eureka, S. D. STATION STAFF A. E. Hitchcock Regent Member P. W. Dwight Regent Member Robert L. Slagle President of College James W. Wilson .... Director and Animal Husbandman N. E. Hansen Vice Director and Horticulturist . James H. Shepard Chemist E. W. Olive Botanist E. L. Moore Veterinarian C. Larsen Dairy Husbandman Clifford Willis Agronomist and Supt. of Substations S. Garver Co-operative Assistant in Agronomy C. M. Woodworth Eureka Substation M. Champlin (Co-operative) Asst. in Agronomy, Highmore Substation J. V. Bopp Assistant Chief in Agronomy W. L. Burlison, Chief Assistant in Agronomy W. D. Griggs First Assistant in Agronomy H. H. Biggar Assistant in Agronomy O. E. White Assistant in Botany J. H. Sarvis Assistant in Botany William White Assistant in Dairying D. E. Bailey Assistant in Dairying Howard Loomis Assistant in Agronomy R. A. Larson Secretary and Accountant M. M. Johnson Bulletin Clerk and Stenographer 99 BREEDING AND FEEDING SHEEP James TV. Wilson. Sheep-farming has been practiced since the earliest times, and is one of the most profitable branches of the live stock industry. The modern breeds are the result of care- ful selection and breeding of those best adapted to the various localities, each breed being established for distinct purposes. Soil, climate and feed in these localities deter- mined to a large extent the characteristics of the breed. Nearly all of the common breeds are of foreign origin, and the two controlling factors in their development were the production of mutton and the production of wool. The sheep has been termed the plant scavenger of the farm. In fact, there are very few plants sheep will not jat during some stage of its growth, and yet the cured fodders and grasses must be of the best quality to obtain the best results in feeding operations. Sheep require less pasture than any other animal on ie farm. After the grain is cut and stacked, sheep are irned on the stubble to eat the weeds which otherwise rould go to seed. Many farmers make a practice of turning lambs into :he corn field in the early fall to gather up all the weeds. Many farmers in the corn belt sow rape with the grain furnish additional feed since this affords an abundance of succulent forage late in the season up to the time of severe frosts. Bulletin 119 of this Station (edition exhausted) re- >rts an average gain on lambs in a two year's experiment >asturing sheep on rape of .34 and .37 of a pound daily. This gain is larger for the same breed, and was made much cheaper than the gain made by any of the lots in this six years' experiment where grain and oilmeal were fed. 100 A brief history of each of the six breeds used in this experiment is given to show the similarity in their blood line«. In this connection it will be noted that the oldest and best established breeds were the strongest breeders. EWES THE EXPEKIMENT. The object of this experiment was to ascertain which of the following named breeds of sheep is the best to use on the western bred ewe, both wool and mutton being con- sidered. In the fall of 1904 sixty head of western Montana bred yearling ewes were purchased and divided into six different lots of ten head each. These ewes were quite uniform in size and conformation. Some had more Merino blood than others, and some had more Down blood but all were compactly built. Their fleeces were light compared to fleeces of sheep kept under home conditions. These ewes were easy keepers. After lambs were weaned in fall they would fatten quicker and be in better shape for winter than ewes of some of the pure bred flocks kept under the same conditions. Each of these lote was bred to an aver- age pure bred ram of the following breeds : Cotswold, Hampshire, Oxford, Southdown, Shropshire and Kam- bouillet. 101 In 1905, the ewes bred to the Cots wold were bred to the Hampshire and the ewes bred to the Rambouillet were bred to the Cotswold, and so on for each lot changing breed of ram each year for each lot of ewes. This furnished lambs from each lot of ewes each year by ram of different breed. The same ram was not used for the six years in any case, but an average ram of the breed was used. The lambs were lambed during the latter part of April and first part of May each year. The lambs were allowed to run with the ewes each year on blue grass pas- ture until early fall, when they were separated and put in a field of rape pasture where they grazed until freezing weather. On January 1, they were divided up as to breeds and fed until April 1st, when they were sheared and ship- ped to the Clay Robinson & Co., commission firm at Chi- cago and sold on their merits.. The wool was shippel to H. T. Thompson & Co., Chicago, graded and sold on its merits. The grain ration was weighed out morning and evening and each lot was given all it would eat up clean of a mixture of 100 pounds of shelled corn, 100 pounds of oats and 25 pounds of oil-meal. Each lot was given all the upland prairie hay it would eat. The experiment of 1908 was not as successful as those for the other five years on account of an accident in early fall of 1907. The number of pounds of feed for a pound of gain was larger on account of the quality of the feed, but the results are similar for each lot during that year. The number of ewes diminished as the experiment progressed until in 1910 there were but 35 remaining. During the spring of 1910 ten of the ewes died and three affected were turned over to the Veterinarian of the Station for post-mortem examination. The winter of 1909-10 was the worst we had during this experiment. The snow was deep and there were feAv pleasant days the ewes would take exercise. The following is a diagnosis by 102 Dr. E. L. Moore, Veterinarian of this Station, as to the cause : "I have carefully examined several of the western ewes that have been dying and I find a 'condition similar to that found among many of the sheep of this locality at this time of the year. That is, in all of these cases it will be found that the liver is soft, yellow or clay-colored and soft and friable ; in addition there is a catarrhal condition of the intestines, the feces being hard and coated with mucus. From an observation extending over several years I have no hesitancy in attributing this to lack of exercise and the long period of dry feeding during the winter. As soon as these sheep are able to be turned out and get to grass the death rate stops, but when kept under the conditions under Ayhich it has been necessary to keep this band of western ewes a very large death rate is to be expected and there seems to be little chance of stopping it. In explanation of this trouble at this time, and of its absence, heretofore, it is only necessary to remind you that it has been necessary to keep this band under closer confinement that usual and that the supply of roots for feeding has been more limited." 103 COTSWOLD RAM The Cotswold was the largest of the six breeds used in this experiment. This breed is not commonly found in the Northwest probably on account of the loose, fluffy na- ture of its fleece. History shows that it is one of the old- est breeds of &heep of which there is any record. The name is from the Cotswold Hills in England. It is claim- ed that the Romans in the second century kept this breed of sheep principally for the production of wool. It has been used to cross on other breeds to increase the size and length of staple of wool. The rams used in this experiment were strong breed- ers, transmitting to the offspring more of the breed characteristics than any of the other breeds except the Rambouillet. The flock of pure-bred Cotswolds on the College Farm has not been as rugged as the flocks of the Down breeds, but the lambs from this cross were hardy. 104 LAMBS Western Bred Ewes by Pure Bred Cotswold Ram Number of Iambs in experiment 190« 9 from » ewes 1907 12 from 10 ewes 1908 5 from X ewes 1909 14 from 8 ewes 1910 10 from 8 ewes 1911 7 from 4 ewes Number of lambs fed 9 12 5 14 8 7 iWumber of vflnys fed .... 107 104 91 105 104 104 Average weight nt beginning 94 88 85 66 69 59 Average weight at close, includ- ing -wool .... 135 124 124 100 »9 100 Average gain per head .... 41 36 39 34 30 41 Average gain per head daily .39 .34 .43 .32 .29 .39 Total concen- centrates fed 2024 2395 944 2614 1355 1350 Concentrates for pound of gain 5.42 5.50 4.81 5.46 5-57 4.70 Selling price on Chicago markets $3.80 | $7..%0 $7.15 $7-05 ! 90.50 I $5.25 105 HAMPSHIRE This is a comparatively new breed of mutton sheep in the Northwest,, but one of the oldest of the Down breeds of England. In 1861, The Royal Agricultural Society of Eng- land recognized this as a distinct breed, but it existed sever- al years previous to this time. As with the Shropshire, this breed was also repeatedly crossed with the Southdown to improve its quality. The original strain had long curly legs and a coarse body throughout. The present day Hampshire is noted for its large weight at an yearly age and is perf erred for this reason by many breeders. However, Hampshires are not as compact- ly built as the Shropshires and not considered as desir- able by the butcher on account of the large bones. The wool is shorter in staple than with the Shropshire and they do not when matured yield as much per head. "ttlack wool and hair where there should be wool, in the pure-breds should not be tolerated. Rams of this breed did not impress their qualities on tli<> offspring as strongly as did rams of the Cotswold and Rambouillet breeds. Nine years experience with the Hampshire shows it to be perfectly hardy in South Dakota. 100 V •rf LAMBS Western Bred Ewes by Pure Bred Hampshire Ram Number of Iambs iii experiment ISHM: 10 from 10 ewes 1907 11 from 10 ewes 1008 8 Number of days fed 1O7 104 91 105 104 104 Average weight a I beginning 88 1)1 82 77 73 64 Average weight at close, includ- ing wool .... 124 12« KM; 115 102 98 Average gain per bead .... 86 35 24 38 20 34 Average gain per bead daily .83 .33 .2« .::<; .2S .32 Total concen- trates fed . . . 2022 21114 1020 2213 i «sr» 151G I ' Concentrate* for pound of gain 5.33 5-57 <;.;>s 5.34 (J.37 5.63 Selling price on Chicago markets $5.80 $7.50 $7.15 $7.05 $9.50 $5.25 107 OXFORD The Oxford is the largest of the Down breeds of sheep. If has in its value the blood of the Southdown, the Hamp- shire ami the Cotswold breeds. It was originated about is:>0, but., the present day sheep is the result of great care and selection since that time. The object in originating this breed was to secure a better quality of mutton than that produced by the long- wool ed breeds of sheep, and a better quality and a larger quantity of wool than that produced by the short wooled breeds. In England it is considered by many the best breeds of sheep not only for the producer, but for the butcher. There are comparatively few breeders of Oxfords in the Nor lh west. Like the other Down breeds of sheep used in this ex- periment the breed characteristics were not as uniformly transmitted to the lambs as with some other breeds. Nine yeans experience shows that the pure-bred flock on t lie College Farm is perfectly hardy under our condi- tions. 108 LAMi3S Western Bred Ewes by Pure Bred Oxford Ram Number of lambs ill experiment 1800 9 from 9 ewes 11)07 12 from 10 ewes 1908 7 from 7 ewes 1909 9 from 7 ewes 1910 12 from 9 ewes 1911 9 from 7 ewes Number of lambs fed .... 9 12 7 8 8 9 Number of days fed 107 104 91 105 104 104 1 Average weight at beginning 94 80 92 76 72 67 A verage weight at close, includ- Wool 129 124 118 116 106 106 Average gain per head .... 35 34 26 40 34 39 Average gain per head daily .37 .33 .28 .38 .32 .36 Total concen- trates fed .... 1925 2373 1218 1619 1370 1717 Concentrates for pound of gain 5.3G 5.83 6.24 5.07 5.13 4.99 Selling price on Chicago % markets $5.80 $7.50 $7.15 $7.05 $9.50 $5.25 109 SOUTHDOWN The Southdown was the smallest breed of sheep used in this experiment. This breed belongs to the short-wool class and is not commonly found in the Northwest. For quality it is unexcelled in the markets. Each year the butchers selected these lambs as being the best for the market. Indeed, the mutton from this breed of sheep com- mands the best price in the market on account of its quality. This breed has been used to improve the quality of some of the other Down breeds of sheep to a larger extent than has any other distinct breed. Its low set, broad back, well sprung rib, full leg and sty lish appearance make it attractive wherever found. This breed has a comparatively dense fleece of good quality but short in staple. The cross on the western bred ewe was a good one, the lambs being good feeders, 1ml were smaller than other breeds when finished. The nine years experience with the pure-bred South- down flock on the College Farm shows it to be hardy un- der our conditions. 110 LAMBS Western Bred Ewes by Pure Bred Southdown Rani JV 11 in her of Iambs in experiment UIO<: j IU from 1(1 ewes 1J107 14 from 10 ewes 11)08 4 from 4 ewes 1909 12 from 1910 12 from 191 1 r ewes i 7 ewes 1910 1911 12 from 7 from 8 ewes 6 ewes Number of lambs fed 1 . 12 8 i 11 11 7 Number of days fed 107 104 91 105 104 104 Average weight at beginning 84 83 75 70 61 64 Average wreight at close, includ- ing wool 120 113 94 103 93 106 Average gain per head . . . . 36 30 79 33 32 42 Average gain per head daily M .29 .21 •32 .30 .40 Total concen- trates fed 1575 2146 1045 2217 1928 1404 Concentrates for pound of gain 5.39 5.89 6.83 6.04 5.54 4.80 Selling price . on Chicago ma rkets $5.80 $7.50 $7.15 $7.05 $9.50 $5.25 RAMBOUILLET The Rambouillet breed was originated by the French Government at a place by this name only a few miles from Paris. It is one of the oldest breeds of sheep in existence and is used quite generally under range conditions in the Northwest. It is 'claimed that they will flock together better and on account of their dense fleeces are better able to withstand the sudden changes of temperature than any other breed. The foundation stock was the Spanish Merino import- ed from Spain in the year 1786. The size of the sheep and the weight of the fleece were increased without losing the quality of the fibre. The modern Rambouillet ha? fewer wrinkles in his skin than the Merino and is preferred by many on this ac- count. The lambs from this breed of sheep and the grade ow<'< posseted the characteristics of the breed stronger than those from any other breed used. The pure-bred Rambouillet on the College Farm is hardv and well suited to our conditions. 114 LAMBS Western Bred Ewes by Pure Bred Rambouillet Rcm Number of Iambs in experiment IllWi 7 from 7ewes 1907 10 from 10 ewes 1908 7 from 6 ewes 1909 12 from 7 ewes 1910 10 from 7 ewes 1911 7 from 7 ewes Number of | lambs fed 7 10 7 12 10 7 Number of days fed ...'.. 107 104 91 105 104 104 Average weight at beginning 83 83 76 66 63 71 Average weight at e-Io.se, includ- ing wool . 127 114 100 98 90 109 Average gain per head .... 44 31 24 32 30 38 Average gain per head daily .40 .29 .26 •31 .26 .36 Total concen- trates fed 1658 1989 940 2383 1523 1353 Concentrates for pound of gain 5.43 6.52 5.06 6.13 5.53 5.13 iSelling price on Chicago markets 95.80 $7.50 $7.15 $7.05 $9.50 $5.25 115 WOOL The heaviest fleece on record weighed 52 pounds. It represented 13 months growth and was taken from a Merino lamb owned by a firm in Kansas. The quantity and quality of the fleece is governed by the breed, the feed, the age and the conditions under which the sheep is kept. We must look to breed for certain classes of wool. The demand in the market changes from time to time for these classes depending to a certain extent on the prevailing demand for different classes of dress goods. An inferior 'class of wool can be produced with any breed, if the feed is not of proper quality. Some showmen make a practice of shearing their sheep early so they will have a longer fleece to trim. Dipping undoubtedly improves the quality of a fleece by washing out a large per cent of the dirt. Lambs for this experiment were dipped in the fall each year before cold weather. Lambs in this experiment were between ten and one- half and eleven months old when sheared. They were sheared two weeks before marketing and the clip was shipped to the H. T. Thompson & Company wool house in Chicago, graded and sold on its merits. Deducting the cost of shipping the following table shows the average amount per head received annually for each breed. Net Returns for Wool Per Head 1H 1 1 1 o H a H s Average CotMWolll $2.39 $2.03 $1.20 $1.47 $1.56 $1.04 $1.63 Hampshire 2.03 | 1.76 | .98 1.37 1.30 .82 1.37 Oxford 2.04 1 11TI .78 1.58 1.54 1.06 1.36 Southdown ... 1.48 Kll .78 1.06 1.20 .77 1.11 Shropshire 1.86 | !.*• .82 1.34 1.33 1.13 1.36 Rambouillet ,SR 1.R1 .74 1.14 1.27 .94 1.24 116 The commission firm made the following comments on the quality of the wool. 1907. "We consider this one of the best lots of wool, taken as a whole, we have ever seen from your state. You will please bear in mind the faict that these wools are better handled and of better value than most clips in the state and prices named would be way out of range for average wools from South Dakota of the same grade. In other words, we do not believe the average run of wools, even if free from burrs, seed and chaff, from South Dakota could be sold in this market today within 3 cents to 5 cents per lb., of these prices. In making up statements in regard to sale of this wool, we think it would only be fair to the wool growers of your state and to ourselves to give the facts as above stated, for we often hear our sales quoted by many grow- ers and they wronder why we cannot get them as much money as we do for your wool.^ If they could see them side by side they would readily understand it.'7 1909. "We found all of this wool in good condition and as you know, handled better than the majority of wools from your state and therefore commands a better price." 1910. "We find this to be an exceptionally choice lot of wool, being, we consider, the best we have ever seen from the state of South Dakota. All of the wools are very choice as to condition and will command the highest market price for wools of their grade and kind." 1911. "All of these wools are far better in color than the average wools from your state, caused partially by being shorn so early and further by the excellent care the sheep have undoubtedly received.' All of these lots were short staple, due probably to the sheep having been shorn less than a year ago." 117 The average net selling prices for the different grades of wool during the six years were as follows : Oxford and Shropshire 20 cents, Cotswold, Hamp- shire and Southdown 19 cents and Rambouillet 17 cents per pound. The following table includes the average yield of wool per head by breeds. Average Yield of Wool Per Head ft g a £ ti s 2 I \ £ '= 1 M M C I ! 5 £ 1906 . . 9.7 8.2 7.5 6.4 7.7 8.5 1907 . . 8.5 7.2 7.0 5.9 6.9 7.2 1908 . . 6.6 6.7 6.7 5.0 5.4 5.7 1909 . . 8.8 6.5 5.5 6.0 r>.5 5.7 1910 . . 7.1 6.2 7.3 5.7 5.8 7.1 1911 . . 6.8 5.5 7.1 5.1 7.5 7.2 Ave. . . 7.9 6.7 6.8 5.6 6.4 7.0 DRESSED WEIGHT The following table shows the per cent that each lot dressed for the last three years of the experiment. Per Cent Each Lot Dressed g 9 . M •s C X 41 | S T "3 | •M 5 S A •5 M S c: o S - X 0 ;Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent 1909 53.1 53.6 53.5 52.3 50.8 56. 1910 49.1 51.2 50.6 50.1 | 50.4 50.3 1911 55.2 55.6 54.6 57.0 58.5 56.5 Ave 52.4 53.4 52.9 53.1 53.2 54.2 I 118 The table shows that the Rambouillet cross was the largest and the Cotswold the smallest dresser. With the 1910 lots the packers quote the Hampshires and the Rambouillets lambs the "best dead" of the six lots. The general criticism before slaughter was that the Cotswold were too leggy and too heavy, the Hampshires and Oxfords too heavy, the Kambouillet not smooth enough but the Southdowns and the Shropshires, with a few ex- ceptions, meeting the demand of the market. Totals for Six Years Breed t) V V. ft 2 .5 0 £ • !] a e ~ rtl 3s*1 K ^ £ 55 46 5.24 $1.63 55 .31 5.87 $1 37 53 .34 5.43 $1.36 S<>utliviis 53 .25 5.64 $1.11 Shropshires .31 5.75 $1.36 Ramhouillets 53 .31 5.63 $1.24 From the above table it will be seen that the Cotswold lambs made the largest gain per head daily, required the least quantity of grain and produced a fleece that brought twenty-six cents more per head than any other breed. Of the Down breeds the Hampshire, Shropshire and the Ox- ford were about equal in value of fleece per head, but the Hampshires and Shropshires required 44 hundredths and 32 hundredths more grain for a pound of gain than did the Oxfords. 119 Eighteen of the 344 lambs lanibed died before reach- ing market. The cause of their death was due principally to worms, but several were lost through accident. -The worms were more severe on the weakest lambs of the flocks. As a remedy for this disease the instructions by Dr. E. L. Moore from Press bulletin No. 2 of this Station were fol- lowed with good results : TAPE WORMS IN SHEEP The frequent number of cases in which loss of lambs from parasites is reported, the predominance of tapeworms in most of the cases which have been submitted for autopsy, and the exhaustion of Bulletin No. 78, entitled "A Prelim- inary Report on the Fringed Tapeworm of Sheep," indi- cate the necessity for publishing the essential features of this bulletin in press bulletin form. While the copper sulphate treatment has been employed by us for tapeworms alone, the indications are that the same treatment will prove efficient for stomach worms and other round worms also. SYMPTOMS— Lambs which should be thrifty do not do well, scour badly, and gradually die. A more careful examination shows that the mucous membranes of the eyes are pale and bloodless; soft swellings, in the more advanced and chronic cases, appear under the throat and in the neighborhood of the neck ; the gait becomes feeble, and the body emaciated. Such symptoms are not characteristic of any one particular parasite, but may be found in any parasitic disease of sheep that is accompanied by mortality. If effected with tapeworms, however, segments of these worms will appear with more or less regularity in the droppings, as distinct whitish masses. Post mortem exam- inations should be made to verify the diagnosis. TREATMENT— Treat each individual of the flock. It may not itself be seriously suffering from the worms, but it may aid in the further infestation of the flock and oc- casion additional loss. 120 Keeping the sheep shut up and away from food for twenty-four hours before treating. Dissolve one ounce of copper sulphate (bluestone) to two 'quarts of water and give to each individual a dose as indicated in" the following table :— For a lamb 3 months old give 2-3 of a fluid ounce (20 cc.) For a lamb 6 months old give 1 1-2 fluid ounces (40 cc.) For a sheep 1 year old give 2 1-2 fluid ounces (60 cc.) For a sheep 2 years old give 3 1-2 fluid ounces (90 cc.) PRECAUTIONS — Use copper sulphate of a uniform blue color, without any whitish crusts, or in conglomerate lumps. Do not guess at weights or measures. Have your drug- gist weigh the bluestone; and have him graduate your drenching bottle by marking the appropriate doses with a file. Do not allow the* sheep to have access to water for several hours after dosing. Should any of them receive an overdose, indicated by lying apart from the rest of the flock, purging, and showing symptoms of pain, place in a shady place and give a tea- spoonful of laudanum in a tumbler full of milk. Provide your sheep with a rotation of pasture. This does not mean that the sheep should be changed from one pasture to another every few weeks or months, but every year or so put them on a pasture on which no sheep have ranged for at least one year. While no one has as yet discovered the intermediate host or -hosts of any of the tapeworms of the herbivora, yet they probably pass part of their life in some of the lowrer animals or insects. This is why a rotation of pasture is so strongly emphasized in trying to rid a flock of sheep from parasites. E. L. MOORE, Veterinarian. BULLETIN NO. 165 APRIL, 1916 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION SOUTH DAKOTA STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND MECHANIC ARTS DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY CORN SILAGE FOR LAMBS BROOKINGS, SOUTH DAKOTA BOWEN PUBLISHING COMPANY, HURON. S. D. GOVERNING BOARD. Hon. T. W. D wight, President Sioux Falls, S. D. Hon. August Frieberg, Vice President, Beresf ord, S. D. Hon. A. M. Anderson Sturgis, S. D. Hon. Frank Anderson Webster, S. D. Hon. J. W. Campbell Huron, S. D. STATION STAFF T. W. Dwight Regent Member J. W. Campbell Regent Member Ellwood C. Perisho President of College James W. Wilson .... Director and Animal Husbandman N. E. Hansen Vice Director and Horticulturist James H. Shepard Chemist C. Larsen Dairy Husbandman A. N. Hume Agronomist and Supt. of Sub-Stations J. G. Hutton Associate Agronomist M. Champlin. . . .Assistant Agronomist and Collaborator Howard Loomis Agronomy Analyst Guy E. Youngberg Assistant Chemist Matthew Fowlds Assistant in Crops Howard W. Gregory Assistant Dairy Husbandman Edwin H. Hungerf ord Dairy Analyst Vern R. Jones Assistant Dairy Husbandman and Dairy Bacteriologist R. C. Sherwood Assistant Chemist Harry Rilling Assistant Dairy Bacteriologist Arthur Lynch Assistant Dairy Husbandman Fred C. Stoltenberg Assistant Horticulturist R. A. Larson Secretary E. I. Fjeld Bulletin Clerk and Stenographer CORN SILAGE FOR LAMBS. James W. Wilson This bulletin includes the results of two experi- ments in feeding corn silage to lambs. It also includes results of other experiments in feeding lambs at this Station and reported in previous bulletins now out of print. The sheep is the plant scavenger of the farm, and will eat nearly all plants during some stage of their growth. Many plants that have become troublesome weeds on farms would be completely destroyed if the sheep were given a chance to eat them before seeding. Because of this peculiarity sheep raising is a profitable business. Then again, it has been found that a ton of sheep manure is worth $3.75. In other words, this amount of money is necessary to buy the plant food con- tained in one ton of sheep manure. The number of sheep in the United States in 1910 was 52,448,000 by the Census of 1910 . In 1915 the esti- mate was only 49,956,000 sheep, a falling off of nearly 3,000,000 head, and yet the population of the United States has been gradually increasing. The cause of this big decrease is undoubtedly the opening for settlement of the range country in the middle west, where many of the sheep were formerly produced. From June 30, 1912, to June 30, 1914, there was a, decrease of 36,522 pounds in the exportation of mutton from the United States. By the official estimate of the United States De- partment of Agriculture, there were 604,000 sheep in South Dakota on January 1, 1916, compared to 636,000 one year ago. These same estimates show that during this time this is the only kind of livestock that has de- creased in numbers within the state. It is true the sheep demands a little attention at certain seasons of the year and good fences are required to inclose them, but even with this expense it is a profit- able animal to keep to use in mixed farming which 378 is the only safe system to follow in the Corn Belt. Lambs turned on the stubble, after the small grain is harvested and stacked, providing rape has been sowed with the grain, will make a big gain and the manure will be scattered evenly over the field. In 1908 and 1909 experiments were conducted at this Station to determine the value of different grain rations for lambs while on rape pasture, and the results were reported in Bulletin No. 119 (edition exhausted). Rape has a comparatively narrow nutritive ratio, since it contains a large per cent of digestible protein to the per cent of digestible carbohydrates, in this respect re- sembling clover and alfalfa. Animals require certain quantities of these elements in their daily ration for the best gains, and whether the elements are bought in the market in the form of by-products of mills and factories, such as linseed meal, cottonseed meal, or any other high- ly proteinaceous substance, or whether it is grown on the farm, the result in feeding is the same. The aver- age gain per head daily for the two experiments when the lambs received rape pasture alone was .34 of a pound, or a larger gain than is usually made when lambs are receiving a full feed of grain and hay. The best gains ever secured at this Station in feed- ing lambs are also reported in Bulletin No. 119. It was in an experiment to determine the comparative value of al- falfa and prairie hay, with the same kind of a grain ra- tion, for the production of a pound of gain. The grain ration consisted of a mixture of 100 pounds of oats, 100 pounds of shelled corn and 25 pounds of oilmeal. Each lot was started on one pound per head of the mixture daily, and increased until they were receiving two and two-tenths pounds per head of grain daily, and what hay they would eat. The average gain per head daily for the lot that received the alfalfa hay was .51 of a pound, while with the lot that received the prairie hay the aver- age gain per head daily was .38 of a pound. These lambs were as near the same in weight and age as was possible to get them. 379 Experience teaches that lambs will do a good job in picking a field of corn; in fact, pick it much cleaner than is done by the average picker. Then, too', they will eat the husks and leaves of the corn, and nearly all the weeds that have gone to seed. They will clean up the borders of the field that would otherwise remain foul year after year. The sheep is peculiar in his habits. He prefers the grain in its natural condition and it should be so fed, un- less in case of a grain like millet seed when it should be ground coarsely. Thousands of lambs were fed in South Dakota dur- ing the past year, and if there were greater stability in the lamb market I know of no other line of feeding where larger profits will accrue than from fattening the lamb. THE EXPERIMENT This experiment extended over two seasons, the fall of 1914 and the fall of 1915. The object was to ascer- tain to what extent corn silage could be added to the lamb 's ration for the best results in fattening. Because of the large number of silos now being erected in South Dakota, and because of the excellent results obtained in experiments at this Station in feed- ing cattle corn silage for a cheap preliminary gain, I concluded information would be needed as to whether lambs could be handled in a similar manner. There were 140 lambs used in this experiment. Those for the 1914 test were home grown or native lambs, while those for the 1915 test were western range lambs. Each year they were fed in seven different lots of ten head each. Each year lot I was fed corn silage as the sole roughage. Each lot received the same grain ra- tion, consisting of corn and oats mixed half and half by weight. Lots II to VI inclusive were fed silage and prairie hay, with their grain rations, in varying quanti- ties; while lot VII received hay as a roughage with their grain rations. The results are based on the average for both years, and show plainly the value of corn silage when added to 380 the lamb's ration. Lot I, grain and corn silage. These lambs were fed corn silage as the sole rough- age ration with their grain. They were given all they would eat. The average ration for the two years was 1.38 pounds of corn silage and 1.15 pounds of grain per head daily. 1914 Experiment Pounds Average weight at beginning 74 Average weight at close 85 Average gain per head daily, 87 days 13 Valuing grain at one cent a pound and corn silage at three dollars a ton, cost of producing 100 pounds of gain $11.44 1915 Experiment Average weight at beginning 80 Average weight at close 85 Average gain per head daily, 60 days 08 Valuing grain at one cent a pound and corn silage at three dollars a ton, cost of producing 100 pounds of gain $12.00 381 Lot II, grain, less corn silage than for lot I and a small quantity of hay These lambs received the same grain ration and one- half as much corn silage as lambs in lot I, and in addi- tion a small quantity of hay. The average daily ration for the two years was 1.52 pounds of grain, .72 of a pound of corn silage and .76 of a pound of hay, per head. 1914 Experiment Pounds Average weight at beginning 72 Average weight at close 92 Average gain per head daily, 87 days 23 Valuing grain at one cent a pound, corn silage at three dollars a ton, and prairie hay at six dollars a ton, cost of produc- ing 100 pounds of gain $8.45 1915 Experiment Average weight at beginning 82 Average weight at close 93 Average gain per head daily, 60 days 18 Valuing grain at one cent a pound, corn silage at three dollars a ton, and prairie hay at six dollars a ton, cost of produc- ing 100 pounds of gain $9.69 382 Lot III, grain, less corn silage and more hay than for lot II. These lambs received the same quantity of grain, .12 of a pound corn silage less and .10 of a pound more of hay than lot II. The average daily ration for the two years was 1.52 pounds of grain, .60 of a pound of corn silage and .86 of a pound of hay per head. 1914 Experiment Pounds Average weight at beginning 72 Average weight at close 96 Average gain per head daily, 87 days 28 Valuing grain at one cent a pound, corn silage at three dollars a ton, and prairie hay at six dollars a ton, cost of produc- ing 100 pounds of gain $7.12 1915 Experiment Average weight at beginning 77 Average weight at close 91 Average gain per head daily, 60 days 23 Valuing grain at one cent a pound, corn silage at three dollars a ton, and prairie hay at six dollars a ton, cost of produc- ing 100 pounds of gain $7.83 383 • Lot IV, grain, less corn silage and more hay than for lot III. The twenty head of lambs in these lots received the same quantity of grain, an average of .11 of a pound of corn silage less and .11 of a pound more of hay than lambs of lot III.. The average daily ration for the two years was 1.49 pounds of grain, .49 of a pound of corn silage and .97 of a pound of hay, per head. 1914 Experiment Pounds Average weight at beginning 72 Average weight at close 96 Average gain per head daily, 87 days 28 Valuing grain at one cent a pound, corn silage at three dollars a ton and prairie hay at six dollars a ton, cost of produc- ing 100 pounds of gain $7.09 1915 Experiment Average weight at beginning 74 Average weight at close 86 Average gain per head daily, 60 days 21 Valuing grain at one cent a pound, corn silage at three dollars a ton and prairie hay at six dollars a ton, cost of produc- ing 100 pounds of gain $8.39 384 Lot V, grain, less corn silage and more hay than for lot IV. These lambs received practically the same quantity of grain, an average of .12 of a pound less of corn silage and .26 of a pound more of hay than lambs in lot IV. The average daily ration for the two years was 1.51 pounds of grain, .37 of a pound of corn silage and 1.23 of a pound of hay, per head. 1914 Experiment Pounds Average weight at beginning 72 Average weight at close 93 Average gain per head daily, 87 days 25 Valuing grain at one cent a pound, corn silage at three dollars a ton and prairie hay at six dollars a ton, cost of produc- ing 100 pounds of gain $7.96 1915 Experiment Average weight at beginning 80 Average weight at close 92 Average gain per head daily, 60 days 19 Valuing grain at one cent a pound, corn silage at three dollars a ton and prairie hay at six dollars a ton, cost of produc- ing 100 pounds of gain $9.23 385 Lot VI, grain, less corn silage and more hay than for lot V. These lambs received the same quantity of grain, and an average of .15 of a pound of corn silage less and .10 of a pound more of hay than lambs in lot V. The average daily ration for the two experiments was 1.52 pounds of grain, .22 of a pound of corn silage and 1.33 pounds of hay, per head. 1914 Experiment Pounds Average weight at beginning 72 Average weight at close 95 Average gain per head daily, 87 days 24 Valuing grain at one cent a pound, corn silage at three dollars a ton and prairie hay at six dollars a ton, cost of produc- ing 100 pounds of gain $7.21 1915 Experiment Average weight at beginning 81 Average weight at close 92 Average gain per head daily, 60 days 17 Valuing grain at one cent a pound, corn silage at three dollars a ton and prairie hay at six dollars a ton, cost of produc- ing 100 pounds of gain $10.40 386 IP*. Lot VII, grain and prairie hay The twenty head of lambs in these lots were given the same quantity of grain as other lots and all the prair- ie hay they wanted. The average grain ration for the two experiments was 1.51 pounds of grain and 1.11 pounds of hay, per head daily. 1914 Experiment Pounds Average weight at beginning 72 Average weight at close 95 Average gain per head daily, 87 days 23 Valuing grain at one cent a pound and prairie hay at six dollars a ton, cost of producing 100 pounds of gain $7.45 1915 Experiment Average weight at beginning 78 Average weight at close 88 Average gain per head daily, 60 days 16 Valuing grain at one cent a pound and prairie hay at six dollars a ton, cost of producing 100 pounds of gain $10.47 387 TABLE OF WEIGHTS AND GAINS. LOT I— CORN SILAGE AND GRAIN 11H4 Kxperiment 1915 Experiment js ± 2 a i~ a Si jA || *§* *§§ d *£ §1 il q II I) i^P O II '5 S Is o *1 o fc B Q £! (J 1 (14 74 77 82 18 83 H 75 -8 54 63 65 (59 15 K 89 90 7 101 104 109 117 16 77 73 80 3 Sick S 89 91 8 66 70 72 77 11 75 • 8C 79 4 73 77 89 88 15 * 102 106 16 69 72 79 79 77 82 76 82 7 10 84 91 79 7 6 93 93 90 75 77 81 6 76 84 95 91 15 79 78 83 4 667 723 759 772 105 802 H 855 53 LOT II-CORN SILAGE, GRAIN AND HAY 79 79 90 97 18 66 78 81 15 58 ra 78 85 27 81 82 84 3 75 78 83 92 17 77 83 84 7 89 01 99 100 11 94 90 102 8 69 89 91 22 74 83 86 12 41) 61 71 77 28 98 104 114 16 73 79 87 91 18 96 106 110 14 ae 85 98 97 29 81 89 95 14 87 86 99 109 22 75 83 83 8 73 77 77 81 8 80 83 93 13 720 794 871 920 200 822 881 932 110 LOT III— CORN SILAGE, GRAIN AND HAY i 62 74 88 83 21 84 95 100 16 79 87 98 111 32 75 86 95 20 80 77 85 89 9 74 85 91 17 54 72 78 87 88 86 89 96 10 84 94 98 106 22 72 80 88 16 70 90 88 98 28 81 88 92 11 76 87 99 107 31 70 77 78 8 56 73 82 90 34 75 83 87 12 14 84 79 88 14 72 81 86 14 85 87 88 101 16 88 97 101 13 720 825 883 960 240 777 861 914 137 LOT IV-CORN SILAGE, GRAIN AND HAY 51 54 58 61 10 79 86 90 11 54 64 70 79 25 78 82 85 7 79 87 93 96 17 74 80 85 11 88 100 107 116 28 69 74 85 16 66 Tti 82 89 24 76 86 86 10 78 95 100 109 31 76 80 81 5 85 103 109 124 39 77 89 91 14 78 82 83 89 11 72 as 92 20 87 101 108 116 29 72 84 87 15 55 71 79 84 29 63 73 78 15 720 833 889 963 243 736 817 860" 124 388 TABLE OF WEIGHTS AND GAINS (Continued) LOT V-CORN SILAGE, GRAIN AND HAY 1914 Experiment 1915 Experiment PQ!J * 52 OJ £8 «> §] 8) — '- 1 f J §1 fs a '3 H^ || II c II II If a/ p > a. *** cd O 'S.I ^ y O ^'& £ 0 P '5 a 0) P * 94 103 109 120 26 80 89 85 5 66 79 85 94 28 75 81 84 9 77 85 92 101 24 85 91 100 15 55 60 * 67 76 21 76 82 86 10 67 77 81 87 20 74 89 95 21 50 60 66 65 15 77 92 96 19 98 112 122 130 32 92 101 103 11 81 82 89 93 12 78 86 92 14 64 75 82 85 21 87 87 87 68 74 83 83 15 82 92 P4 12 720 807 876 934 214 806 890 922 116 LOT VI-CORN SILAGE, GRAIN AND HAY 70 86 97 105 35 83 90 99 16 79 96 99 105 26 72 76 79 7 69 71 74 78 9 87 99 97 10 73 86 87 92 19 89 86 92 3 85 97 105 112 27 66 77 81 15 73 81 88 88 15 92 92 91 -1 73 98 106 117 44 78 89 93 15 75 84 100 105 30 92 92 100 8 58 73 75 77 19 76 88 94 18 63 65 69 67 4 80 85 92 12 718 837 900 946 228 815 974 918 103 LOT VII-GRAIN AND HAY 69 86 83 ,1 28 73 80 81 8 80 96 101 113 33 71 80 83 12 44 52 63 70 26 86 98 104 18 55 67 66 74 19 88 98 107 19 71 72 69 83 12 84 83 88 4 85 102 109 113 28 69 76 81 12 66 76 81 80 14 73 79 81 8 77 90 88 86 9 83 95 101 18 77 94 98 104 27 82 80 79 -3 94 110 115 127 33 72 76 76 4 718 845 873 947 22y 781 845 881 100 The table of weights and gains is presented to show how irregular the gains were for some of the lambs. The gains for the lambs in lots I for both years, while they are uniform for the two years, are not anywhere nearly as good as the gains for lambs in lots II, III and IV, where hay was fed with silage. In fact, one lamb in the 1914 test did not do anything on corn silage as the sole 389 roughage and was taken out of the experiment a few days after the beginning. Both years the lambs in lot I did not take to their feed like those of other lots, and the gains per head show that something was materially wrong, as only one-half as much gain was made in the same length of time as with the lots not receiving any silage. Neither could they be induced to eat their grain ration. The following statement of the feeds consumed daily should be studied in connection with the table of weights and gains: STATEMENT SHOWING THE AVERAGE DAILY RATION, AND THE AVERAGE COST OF PRO- DUCING 100 POUNDS OF GAIN FOR EACH LOT BOTH YEARS Corn Grain Hay Average cost of pro- Silage ducing 100 Ibs. gain Lot I .1.38 1.15 .00 11.72 Lot II I'l 1.52 .76 9.07 Lot III 60 1.52 .86 7.47 Lot IV 49 1.49 .97 7.74 Lot V 37 1.51 1.23 8.59 Lot VI 22 1.52 1.33 8.80 Lot VII 00 1.51 1.11 8.96 Valuing feeds the same per pound for each lot, the average cost for the two years of producing 100 pounds of gain varied from $7.47 to $11.72, a difference of $4.25 per hundred. In studying the table it will be seen that the most uniform gains were made by the lambs of lot III; that in lots I and II, receiving more silage and less hay, and in the remaining lots, receiving more hay and less silage, the gains made were not so uniform. The financial statement shows that the lambs of lot III also made the cheapest gain. The grain ration for the different lots was the same, being one-half by weight of corn and oats. The results show that the lambs received as much grain daily as 390 other lots, but by feeding an average of .6 of a pound of silage and .87 of a pound of hay daily the lambs did bet- ter than when a full silage ration or a full hay ration was fed. In fact, the corn silage was a benefit in in- creasing the appetite of lambs of lots V and VI, as they consumed more hay and made cheaper gains than lambs of lots VII that did not receive any silage with their ra- tion. Bulletin No. 160 of this Station shows the value of a preliminary feeding period with cattle in obtaining comparatively cheap gains before they are put on a feed of grain. This should also be practiced by feeders of lambs but not with corn silage as the sole ration. The range lambs used for the 1915 experiment were turned on a meadow when received and in 44 days gained near- ly 8 pounds per head. This is probably why gains for lambs of 1915 experiment were not so large as those for 1914 experiment; also the silage for the 1915 experiment was not so good as silage for the 1914 experiment be- cause corn wras frosted before it was put into the silo and ears had not reached the glazed stage. SUMMARY 1. Corn silage is not suitable as the sole roughago ration for fattening lambs with grain. 2. By adding a small quantity of corn silage to the lamb's ration, more uniform and larger gains were made than with lambs not receiving any corn silage. See gains for lots III and IV for both years. 3. A mixture of oats and corn, half and half by weight, and prairie hay, is not a good ration for fatten- ing lambs. 4. From Bulletin No. 119 (edition exhausted; lambs receiving rape pasture alone made an average gain, in two experiments, of .34 of a pound daily. By adding corn and oats to the ration of two other different lots for, two experiments, those that received oats made an average daily gain per head of .38 compared to .32 daily for the two lots receiving shelled corn while on rape pasture. 20 EQUIPMENT FOR FARM SHEEP RAISING V. O. McWHORTER Of the Animal Husbandry Division FARMERS' BULLETIN 810 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry A. D. MELVIN, Chief Washington, D. C. June, 1917 Additional copies of this bulletin may be obtained from the Division of Publications, U. S. Department of Agriculture EQUIPMENT for raising sheep on farms need not be expensive. In mild latitudes little housing is needed, and the main need is for fencing and pastures of sufficient number an{l size to allow frequent changing of flocks to fresh ground to insure health. Where winters are longer and more severe, buildings and sheds are necessary to fur- nish protection from storms, though no special provisions are needed for warmth. Dryness, good ventilation, and free- dom from drafts are the first requisites of buildings for sheep. Convenience in feeding and shepherding must also be held in mind in locating and planning such buildings or sheds. Small flocks can be cared for in sections of barns having stabling or feed storage for other stock, but with a flock of, say, 100 ewes separate buildings are desirable. The interior arrangement of these buildings should be such as. to require a minimum of labor and the least possible moving of the ewes in doing the feeding and caring for them during the lambing season. A building of this type can also be utilized for fattening purchased lambs to be disposed of before lamb- ing begins in the regular farm flock. A good supply of feed racks, grain troughs, etc., can be provided at small expense and will save labor and prevent waste of feed. EQUIPMENT FOR FARM SHEEP RAISING.1 CONTENTS. Page. Drawings and bills of materials 3 Important features of buildings for sheep 6 A barn for the exclusive use of sheep 10 A combination horse, cattle, and sheep barn . . 13 A closed sheep shed 15 An open sheep shed 16 A feed lot for fattening lambs. Feed racks .'....'... Grain troughs Lambing pens and creeps Fencing and hurdles Miscellaneous equipment Page. 17 18 21 32 23 DRAWINGS AND BILLS OF MATERIALS. The object of this publication is to furnish a practical guide for the equipping of farms for sheep raising. Wide differences in climatic conditions render it impracticable to suggest a par- ticular type of building for all sections; therefore a number of FIG. 1. — Barn for the exclusive use of sheep. In requesting plans and bill of material for this building, mention subject No. 685, serial Nos. 567, 568, and 569. types of barns and sheds are presented. In many cases it will IK- found satisfactory to construct buildings as shown in the plans. Where this is not advisable the essential features of arrangement can be adopted with such alterations in detail as are rendered nee-, essary by climatic or other fixed features. 1 The author is indebted to Mr. Wallace Ashby of the Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering for assistance in the design and preparation of drawings and descriptions of the buildings shown in figures 1 to 11. 3 FARMERS' BULLETIN 810. The estimated cost of buildings given in the discussions of the sets of plans is based upon average prices for material and labor in May, 1916. Elaborate and expensive structures are not advo- cated for use in handling sheep. Buildings of this character do not insure economy in management and are not essential to the wel- fare of the flock. In deciding upon the amount of equipment other than buildings no set rules can be followed. Peculiarities of individual farms FIG, 2. — First and second floor plans of barn shown in figure 1. EQUIPMENT FOR FARM SHEEP RAISING. FIG. 3. — Cross section of main part of barn shown in figure 2. and variations in systems of rearing determine what can be used to the best advantage. The assortment of minor equipment shown is designed to include the range of such material that will permit a selection of what is needed in any particular case. Working drawings and bills of materials for the buildings shown in this bulletin may be obtained without charge, by those who intend to build, from the Office of Public Roads and Rural En- gineering, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. While prints of the drawings will be furnished as long as they are avail- able for free distribution, it is expected that only persons who are interested to the point of building will apply for them. 6 FARMERS BULLETIN 810. IMPORTANT FEATURES OF BUILDINGS FOR SHEER LOCATION. The site for permanent buildings for sheep should first of all be dry and well drained. Ample yard space that is dry and shel- tered should be available adjacent to the main barn or shed. A southern slope with sandy soil is especially satisfactory for this purpose. ' On most farms it will be advantageous to have the buildings and yards easily reached from the regular pastures or from fields used FIG. 4. — Cross section of shed part of barn shown in figure 2. to grow forage crops for summer pasture. As the flock requires attention many times daily during part of the year, convenience of location in relation to the farm dwelling and to other buildings will effect an economy of time in the performance of routine labor. WARMTH, DRYNESS, AND LIGHT. Since sheep do not require quarters that are especially warm, a single wall will ordinarily insure sufficient warmth. If lambs are dropped in very cold weather, a temporary covering over the lambing panels described later will answer the purpose, or a small space can be partitioned off in which to keep a few ewes until their lambs become strong. Shade and protection from heat are peculiarly necessary for sheep. Shade can not always be furnished in pastures, and buildings that are well located and constructed so as to render them cool in summer will often provide greater comfort to the sheep during hot days than would be possible for them out of doors. Dryness and freedom from draft are most important. Sheep can not possibly thrive in quarters that are damp or dark. In fact, the flock should be shut in only during storms. Abundance of light EQUIPMENT FOE FARM SHEEP RAISING. 7 in all parts of the building and at all times is necessary not only for the health of the sheep but for convenience of the shepherd in caring for them. One square foot of window for each 20 square feet of floor space is necessary. Windows should be placed at a height to insure a good distribution of light, and particularly direct sunlight for the lambing pens during the period the ewes are lambing.1 VENTILATION. Close confinement in poorly ventilated pens is very injurious to breeding ewes. While they should seldom be shut indoors, a part of the flock will usually lie inside at night. At lambing and during storms doors should be closed. For such times it is necessary to pro- vide means of securing fresh air without creating drafts. In a very large building with numerous doors and windows it is often advis- able to build one or two partitions from floor to ceiling to prevent drafts. Fresh air can be admitted through muslin- screened windows op'ened on the side opposite to that from which the wind is blowing without causing drafts if all other sides of the building are tightly closed. FIG. 5. — Combination horse, cattle, and sheep barn. In requesting plans and specifica- tions for this building, mention subject No. 685-A3, serial Nos. 612 and 613. In very cold sections, or where lambs are to arrive in the winter months, specially arranged outlets for foul air and inlets for fresh air will be necessary. Foul-air flues should extend from the ceiling with as few bends as possible to the roof. They should be of suffi- cient size and number to give 8 to 10 square inches for each sheep in the building. Fresh air may be admitted through arranged 1 Farmers' Bulletin 4.".s. " Iloir Houses," contains directions for the placing of windows to secure the maximum of sunlight at any season and in any latitude. 8 FARMERS * BULLETIN 810. inlets near the floor line. Some attention is required to adjust such inlets to the variations in wind and temperature, and the same is true where windows are depended upon. There is no efficient auto- matic system of ventilating sheep buildings. FLOORS. Level and well-drained clay-surfaced floors are satisfactory and economical. Sheep pack the surface very firmly, and if there is proper drainage the only objection to this floor is that it does not exclude rats. Concrete floors for alleys and feed rooms are neces- sary, but will seldom be called for in the pens. &r'cf- ^ \ FIG. 6. — Floor plan of barn shown in figure 5. EQUIPMENT FOR FARM SHEEP RAISING. 9 ARRANGEMENT OF BUILDING. The main features to be provided in the floor plan are minimum of waste space, convenience and ease in feeding and in cleaning the pens, and elimination of the need of moving or disturbing the sheep. Pen partitions should be movable. By using feed racks to make divisions in the pen space the size of the pens can be varied as needed, FIG. 7. — Cross section of barn shown in figure 5. FIG. 8. — A closed sheep shed. In requesting building plans and specifications, mention 685-B2, serial 566, 80747°— Bull. 810—17 2 10 FARMERS' BULLETIN 810. and in special cases the racks can be removed to permit the use of the space for other stock. A BARN FOR THE EXCLUSIVE USE OF SHEEP. In figures 1, 2, 3, and 4 are shown a perspective view, floor plans, and cross sections of a building for the exclusive use of sheep, which "- --------- >J FIG. 9. — Floor plan of shed shown in figure 8. is designed to meet the needs of those permanently engaged in sheep raising on a large scale. The eight large pens will each hold 20 ewes, allowing 12 square feet of floor space and 15 inches of rack Jr.iJ, FIG. 10. — Cross section of shed shown in figure 8. space per ewe, and the small pen at the north end will accommodate 4 or 5 bucks. The partitions between the pens are formed by mov- able feed racks of the type shown in figures 15 and 16, so arranged EQUIPMENT FOR FARM SHEEP RAISING. 11 FIG. 11. — An open sheep shed. In requesting plans and specifications for this shed, mention subject 685-B2, serial 565. that the attendant can walk down the center to distribute feed; and those next the alley are formed by wall racks such as are shown in figures 18 and 19. An advantage would be gained by having the movable racks which form the fronts of the pens made in 10-foot lengths, with a light 3-foot door hung on one end. This arrange- ment will allow wider latitude in the use of the double cross racks for dividing the pen space; it would permit the forming of pens 10, 20, or 30 feet in width. The door upon the end of the alley rack H G/34/W LOT 1 !^i ffwttar s&# ' 1 H «s' FIG. 12.— Plan of a feed lot for finishing lambs for market. 12 FARMERS BULLETIN 810. JQ-- would always be where it was needed to 'fasten to the cross rack and close the pen. This barn provides storage space for 55 tons of loose hay or straw in the mow and 1,100 bushels of grain in the storage room on the second floor. This is enough feed, ex- cept silage, to carry all the sheep that should be put into the barn, for a period of five months. The silo should have a .capacity of 30 tons. Arrangements are made for filling the mow by horse fork and carrier, and for hoisting feed in bags with a block and tackle. Hay is thrown down through two chutes, each fitted with panel a sliding door at the bottom, and grain is delivered to the first floor through four al spouts, each of which may carry a dif- ferent mixture. The railing around the platform scale near the feed spouts should have gates arranged so that either sheep or feed may be weighed. During the lambing season, which seldom lasts over six weeks, the detachable lambing pens, illustrated in figure 25, may be used. These have a great advantage over permanent lambing pens, since they can be folded up and put away when not in use. FIG. is.-section of a that may be used for fencing FIG. 14. — Illustrating the use of panel shown in figure 13, EQUIPMENT FOR FARM SHEEP RAISING. 13 The shepherd's room is equipped with a stove and medicine closet and may be used as a hospital for chilled lambs. With a room of this kind at the disposal of the shepherd, this barn may be considered as having all of the essentials for successful winter lambing. With a larger silo, a supply of roughage stored outside the barn with which to refill the mow late in the fall, and a few extra feed racks set up in the lots, this barn could be used for feeding out two carloads of lambs in early winter before being needed for the breed- ing ewes. The estimated cost of the barn proper, without feed racks, is $2,400. These figures are given only as a guide, however, as the actual cost may vary considerably from this amount, according to local prices 10*0- FIG. 15. — A combination hay and grain rack which may be entered by attendant when feeding grain. of material and labor and the amount of farm labor that is used. The estimated cost of a 9 by 26 foot concrete silo of 30-ton capacity is $150, and for each additional ton $3.10 extra (Farmers' Bulletin 589). A COMBINATION HORSE, CATTLE, AND SHEEP BARN. Figures 5, 6, and 7 show a perspective view, floor plan, and cross section of a general barn intended for farms where all live stock is kept in a single building. This barn will accommodate 10 horses, 5 cows, and 63 sheep. In order that no kind of stock may be dis- turbed by the presence of another, and to prevent drafts through the building, the quarters for the horses, cows, and sheep are partitioned off, as shown by the heavy lines on the plan and cross section. The cow stable is ceiled on the inside of the studs to make it warmer and 14 FARMERS ' BULLETIN 810. FIG. 16. — Combination hay and grain rack with bottom for feeding both roughage and grain. to provide a smooth surface which* will not collect dust, but the rest of the barn has a single wall. The equipment for the sheep pens is the same as that discussed for the barn illustrated in figures 1 to 4, and similar doors, windows, and ventilation system are used. More window area per square foot of pen space is provided in this barn than in the other, because the par- /o '— o TY > FIG. 17.- -Combination hay and grain rack with solid front to keep feeding materials out of fleece. EQUIPMENT FOR FARM SHEEP RAISING. 15 titions prevent light from passing from .one side of the building to the other, and the low eaves shade the windows part of the day. The hay mow, which has a capacity of 50 tons and is filled by a horse fork and carrier, occupies the entire central part of the building from the ground to the roof and also the space above the alleys and grain bins. It is reached through four hay chutes, placed to make feeding easy. The total capacity of the grain bins is 2,000 bushels, so that the barn hasx feed capacity enough to carry the stock on full feed for five months. FIG. 18. — A stationary or wall hay and grain rack. The estimated cost of this barn complete is $2,125, but this amount is intended only as a guide, the actual cost varying with local prices of material and labor and the amount of farm labor that is used. A CLOSED SHEEP SHED. Figures 8, 9, and 10 show a simple type of closed sheep shed which is especially adapted for farms on which the main barn has large feed capacity but not sufficient floor space for the live stock. Allow- ing 12 square feet of floor space per animal, this shed will hold 26 sheep, which gives a space at the rack of almost 17 inches each. One of the racks shown in figures 15 and 16 should be used in this shed, and the feeding should be done entirely from the walkway in the center so as to avoid disturbing the sheep. The large door at the end of the rack is intended for taking in feed, which must be stored in 16 FARMERS BULLETIN 810. another building. The windows of this shed should be hung on center pivots to permit entrance of air through the full size of the window. The doors used by the sheep may be made in two parts, opening outward independently. The upper half should be hinged at its top and counterbalanced by a weight connected to it by a light wire cable passing through a pulley at the side of the shed and an- other on the eave. A stay rod is needed to hold the door firmly when it is partly open. The doors, windows, and roof ventilator always will furnish good ventilation if properly adjusted. This shed affords good protection for sheep under any conditions and may be used for winter lambing if it is made 20 feet wide instead FIG. 19. — Combination hay and grain rack, with grain troughs so constructed that they may be pulled to back of rack and grain placed in them without entering the pen. of 16, so that as many detachable lambing pens as are needed may be set up next the wall and still leave room at the rack for the other ewes. The estimated cost of this shed is $140. AN OPEN SHEEP SHED. Figure 11 shows a shed 16 feet wide by 24 feet long, open on the south side and having feed racks of the type shown in figure 18, or figure 20 along the other three sides. This shed will shelter 30 mature sheep, allowing 12 square feet of floor space per animal. When sheds of this type are well protected by trees they are satis- factory for mature sheep in almost any section. They do not fur- nish sufficient protection for winter lambing in a cold climate, but EQUIPMENT FOR FARM SHEEP RAISING. 17 may be used profitably for this purpose in many parts of the South. The estimated cost of this shed complete is $90. A FEED LOT FOR FATTENING LAMBS. Figure 12 shows the plan of a feed lot designed to care for 400 fattening lambs. With certain modifications it is planned after the FIG. 20. — Stationary or wall rack without provision for feeding grain. lots successfully used in Colorado and other western States. This plan provides for running the number of lambs mentioned in two pens. The panels which divide the pens also make the racks for / *<9" FIG. 21. — The self-feeder hay rack. feeding hay. These panels are built as shown in figures 13 arid 14. They should be made of strong material and securely attached to posts at the corners and centers. In distributing hay to these racks, a wagon ma}7 be driven through the gates (indicated at A and B) down through the main feed racks 18 FARMERS* BULLETIN 810. and out between the two sheds. Grain can also be unloaded at the grain bin direct from the wagon. If desired the self-feeder hay rack described in figure 21 can be substituted for the " fence " rack. If this is done, the feed lot may be inclosed with a straight fence rather than the irregular panels used for feeding purposes. A sufficient number of grain troughs is provided in the grain lot for feeding at one time all of the sheep included in one of the pens. The pivot gate shown in figure 12 is used on the same plan as a water A FIG. 22. — A reversible stationary grain trough. • gate. The projecting ends of the horizontal top piece are secured by strap iron at the tops of the posts supporting them. The gate is opened by means of a vertical narrow board fastened at one end and projecting above the top. After the lambs have learned to eat grain they are likely to crowd toward the grain yard. When the troughs are filled the gate is opened by swinging the bottom away from the lambs, allowing them to pass under. This opens the full width of the gate at once and avoids any trouble through the lambs crowding against the gate. FEED RACKS. COMBINATION HAY AND GRAIN RACKS. Combination hay and grain racks are probably the most convenient for feeding small lots of sheep. The open-end rack shown in figure 15 EQUIPMENT FOR FARM SHEEP RAISING. 19 Fic. 23. — A reversible movable grain trough. is for use in barns where feeding is done by passing directly from the alley to the rack, thus obviating the difficulties which follow from entering pens filled with sheep. Figure 16 shows a rack that is some- times preferred in which hay and grain are fed from the same bottom. This rack, however, requires the feeding of hay and grain at different times. The fleeces of sheep may be kept comparatively free from chaff or other feeding material by exercising care in distributing the feed. -cf FIG. 24. — A light movable trough for feeding grain and roots. Some shepherds prefer a rack with closed sides instead of slats ; such a rack requires that the hay be eaten through an opening at the bottom as shown in figure IT. A stationary rack which may be built against a wall or a partition (fig. 18) effects a considerable saving in floor space, but does not permit the feeding of grain without entering the sheep pen. In a 20 FARMERS BULLETIN 810. T FIG. 25. — Hinged panels for temporary lambing or claimjpg pens. rack such as shown in figure 19 provision can be made for sliding the grain boxes through below the hay rack and filling them from the alley outside. HAY RACKS. The wall rack shown in figure 20 is very useful in connection with open sheds. This rack is for hay only and may be constructed very cheaply. FIG. 2G. — Lamb creep with rollers for uprights. The self-feeder rack for hay shown in figure 21 is commonly used where very large numbers of sheep are fed. In building this type of rack care should be taken to insure ample width between the sides EQUIPMENT FOR FAIill SMKKI' KAISIMI. 57 IN 21 4XZ 4\Z FIG. 27. — A dog-proof fence. at the bottom and for the side openings at which the sheep feed. This will remove the necessity for keeping the hay pushed down to the lower openings. GRAIN TROUGHS. Figure 22 shows a stationary reversible grain trough largely used in outdoor lamb-feeding yards in the West. A. single board forms the bottom for each trough. To clean the trough it is only necessary to turn it over. The posts to which this trough is attached should FIG, 28. — Panel and braces for making a portable sheep fence. 22 FARMERS' BULLETIN 810. be firmly set to avoid being misplaced by the crowding of the sheep. The pivot upon which the trough turns is placed at the left of the *_ center of the end piece. This brings the wide or heavier side of the trough always upon the peg placed at either side to hold it in position. A movable trough of this type is shown in figure 23. This trough is not so readily re- versed as the stationary style, as a peg must be withdrawn to permit turning the trough and afterwards inserted to keep it in position. It is useful for small lots of sheep that are to be fed outdoors. Figure 24 shows a simpler and lighter type of grain trough: Danger of upsetting can be overcome by giving ample length to the cross footpieces. T LAMBING PENS AND CREEPS. The detachable lambing pen previously re- ferred to for use at lambing time is shown in figure 25. Two panels are hinged together and furnished with hooks to fasten them to the wall or to other panels. The first pen is formed by placing the pair of hinged panels at right angles to each other in a corner of the pen and fastening them to the walls. Other pens are added as needed, one end being hooked to the corner of the last pen at one free end and to the wall at the other end. The figure shows panels for making a pen 4 by 4 feet, but a 3 by 4 foot i. FIG. 29. — The iron stand- ard which is success- fully used at the Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station as a support for holding woven-wire fencing in constructing temporary sheep fences. «