FORESTRY PAMPHLETS Forage Crops "Important Range Plants. By Arthur . Sampson. Bui. Ho. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. w Bermuda Grass. By Samuel If. Tracy. Farmers' Bulletin 814, U. S. D. A. ^ Sweet Clover: Growing the Crop. By II. S. Coe. farmers1 Bulletin 797, . )ooartvient of Agriculture. ;et Clover: Utilization. By E. S. Coe. Farmers1 Bulletin 820, U. S- Department of Agriculture. eet Clover: Harvesting and Thrashing the Seed Crop. By H. S. Coe. Far- mers1 Bulletin 836, U. S. D. A. j£es Grass. By P. H. Rolfs. Bui. 138, University of Florida Agri- cultural Experiment Station. nter Forage Crops. Cir. IJo. 189, iversity of California Agricul- . riment Station. By P. B. •uns for Forage. By A. IT. Hume. . 174, S. D. Agricultbural Ibcperiment Station, Brookings, S. D. ;d or Palmilla (Yucca elata) as rgency Forage. Timely Hints for r ere. Ho. 135. University of Arizona ''Agricultural ^xperi^ent Sta. Intensive Cultivation of Alfalfa. ly Hints for Farmers Ho. 93, Univ. of Arizona Agri. T"::p. Station. ^Hairy Peruvian Alfalfa. Tinely Hints for Farmers ITo. 132. "niv. of Ariz- ona Agri. ^xperiment Station. v Feeding Stuffs of Ilinor Importance. By F. . .oil. Cir. Ho. 167, Univ. of California Agricultural ^xperirneht ^ Station. '.'inter Forage Crops. By P. B. ICennedy. Cir. Ho/ 189. Univ. of California 5X3 ^2- . ' •' *' ATIQN YOL.-XXTI (CONT'D) ;attle "increased Cattle Production on South- western Ranges. By James T. Jardine and L. C. Eurtt. Bui. ITo. 588, U. S. Departme-it of Agriculture. Jfects of Grazing upon Western Yellow- pine Reproduction in the National Forests of Arizona and New Mexico. By Robert R. Hill. Bui. No. 580, U. S. Department of Agriculture. ,ive-Stock Classifications at County Pairs. By S. E. Ray. Parsers1 Bul- letin 822, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ^Administration of Grazing in National forests. An Address delivered "by A. F. Potter before the Sixteenth Sf nual Convention of the American t^orial Live Stock Association, 1913. Community Livestock Breeding. By S. T. Sirrpson. Circular 33, University of £souri Agricultural Extension Ser- vice. Sheep and Goats The Sheep Industry on the Minidoka Recla- mation Project. By E. IP. Rinehart. Bui. ITo. 573, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Farm Sheep Raising for Beginners. By . Marshall and R. B. Hillin. Farm — ers1 Bulletin 340, U. S. Dept. of Agri. The Place of Sheep on New England Farms. By F. E. Branch. Farmers1 Bulletin 929. "•:e Sheep-Zilling Dog. By J. F. Wilson. Farriers1 Bulletin 935. •'Sheep Breeding and Feeding. Bui. ITo. 205. Texas Agricultural Experiment Station. :heep Feeding VII -- Fattening Western La^nbs. Purdue University Agri. ment Station. 1916-1917. 'VJ. •• rZentacky's Opportunities as a Sheep State. By L. B. Mann. Cir. ITo. 18, Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station. VOL. XXVI (COi-IT'D) Sheep and Goats Cont'd Ik Goats. By Edward L. Farmers1 Bulletin 920. >Vrhe Hilch Goat in California. By v;in C . Voorhies . Bui . ITo . 2 85 , iv. of California Agri. Exp. Sta. Diseases and Poisons radicating Tall Larkspur on Cattle Ranges in the national Forests. By A. E. Aldous. Farmers Bulletin (N^ 826. > The Poisonous Properties of the Two- Grooved llilk Vetch. By 0. A. Beath and E. E. Lehnert. Bui. Ho. 112, 0 University of Wyoming Agri. Exp. Sta. r Precautions against Poisoning "by Johnson Grass and Other Sorghums. By C. . Earing. *^« Studies in Forage Poisoning — V. Bui. i;o. £07, Kentucky Agri. Exp. Station. 3i-Studies in Forage Poisoning -- VI. Bui. . £08. Zentucky Agri. Exp. Station. 3 3 Facts About Anthrax. By C. H. Earing. Univ. of Calif. Agri. Exp. Station. *•*• ^Garget or Mammitis in Cows. Timely Eints for Farmers rlo. 1E5, Univ. of Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station. ^Cattle Lice and Eov; to Eradicate them. By liar ion lines. Farmers1 Bulletin 909. oromon Parasites of Farm Animals. By '. Burson. Bui. 137, Georgia State College of Agriculture, Extension Divi- sion. Agric , -l^oiefctry . Main Library UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 545 Joint Contribution from the Forest Service, HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester, and the Bureau of Plant Industry, WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER. October 8, 1917 IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS: THEIR LIFE HISTORY AND FORAGE VALUE. By ARTHUR W. SAMPSON, Plant Ecologist, Forest Service. CONTENTS. Object of the studv Page. 1 2 4 4 4 5 6 9 10 11 12 13 15 16 17 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 28 29 30 31 3 31 32 Important species — Continued. Grasslike plants — Continued. Tall swamp sedge Page. 32 Character of the range and forage studied. . . Important species Sheep sedge 33 Grasses Elk grass 34 Rush 35 Mountain bunch grass Woodrush 36 Nonprasshke plants 37 Mountain onion 38 False hellebore 39 Fire willow 40 Pine Tass Wild buckwheat 41 Geranium . . . . . 42 Fireweed 43 Wild celery 44 Skunkweed 45 High huckleberrv 46 Horsemint 46 Blue beardton^ue 47 Mountain elder " 48 Soft cheat Valerian 49 Mountain dandelion 50 Big bunch grass Woolly weed 51 Mountain wheat grass Coneflower 52 Yarrow 53 White foxtail Butterweed 54 Grasslike plants Summary ... 55 Distinctions between grasslike plant and grasses Ecolocical requirements 55 Life history 56 Sedees and rushes . . . Appendix: Plan of studv. . . 61 OBJECT OF THE STUDY. Although practically all types of grazing lands support a variety of plant species, only a certain proportion of the grasses and of the other plants are important from a grazing standpoint. Some species, owing to their wide distribution and abundance, as well as to the relish with which they are cropped, are valuable forage plants; others because of certain chemical contents either during the entire season or at some period of it are poisonous, and therefore seriously objectionable on the range; while still others, either through some peculiar physical structure or because they contain a superabundance 85154°— Bull. 545—17 1 381881 BUI.LBT.IX ViS,, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of tannic acid, which renders them unpalatable are of little or no value for forage.1 In order to gain an intimate knowledge of the habits, requirements, and life history of the more important species, a study was initiated in 1907 by the Forest Service, in cooperation with the Bureau of Plant Industry, upon the Wallowa National Forest in northeastern Oregon. Data on the relative palafability of the different forage plants were gathered by following bands of sheep and observing their choice of feed as they grazed. Afterwards the relative value of the individual range plants was determined by studying (1) their abundance, distribution, tune of flower-stalk production, aggressive- ness, reproduction (both vegetatively and by seed), and seed habits; and (2) their palatability and nutritiousness at various tunes during the grazing season and their ability to withstand trampling. The plan of study and the methods used are fully described at the end of the bulletin. While the results of the study are largely based upon observations in the high mountains in Oregon between elevations of 5,500 and 8,000 feet, they should nevertheless be helpful to stockmen through- out the West in revegetating the range, since many of the species described are widely distributed', and the genera represented nro among those of first importance on most of the natural range lands of the West. A photograph of each important species in natural size accom- panies its description, but where the general characters of two or more species of the same genus are similar, a single photograph is used. With the. exception of Plate XXXVIII all specimens selected for photographic purposes were either in flower or fruit, or both, and care was taken to show the general" character of the root sys- tem, habit of growth, and external structure. Not only will these photographs make possible, in practically every instance, the recog- nition of the same species when met with in the field, but also other species of the same genus will be recognized as congeneric, although the specific name may not be known to the observer. CHARACTER OF THE RANGE AND FORAGE STUDIED. Between the lower and higher grazing lands of the mountains of northeastern Oregon is a difference in elevation of about 7,000 feet. Along with this wide altitudinal variation go widely different growth conditions. Thus, according to the character of the vegetation, the lands studied may be classified into four zones.2 1 The resul ts of natural revegetation studies based upon observation of the plants described in this bulle- tin are presented by the writer in U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 34, " Range Improvement by Deferred and R ot at ion Brazing," 1913, and in the Journal of Agricultural Research, Vol. Ill, No. 2, "Natural Revegetation of Range Lands Based upon Growth Requirements and Life History of the Vegetation," 1914. - Merriam, C. Hart, "Life Zones and Crop Zones of the United States," U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Biological Survey Bui. Xo. 10, 1898. Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I. Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. GENERAL MORPHOLOGY OF GRASSES. A. Rhizome or rootstock. B. Shoot from rootstock. C. Sheath. D. Blade. E. Culm. F. Spikelike panicle of timothy. G. Open panicle of bromegrass. H. Glumes or scales— (1) First glume. (2) Second glume. I. Florets. J. Natural size of complete brome spikelet. Plants one-third natural size. IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS.' ' 3 1 . A Transition zone or yellow-pine ass6ciation' occupying • tlie country between 3,000 and 4,500 feet elevation. 2. A Canadian zone or lodgepole-pine association between 4,500 and 6,800 feet elevation. 3. A Hudsonian zone or white-bark pine association between 6,500 and 8,500 feet elevation. 4. An Arctic-alpine zone or alpine-meadow association from 8,000 feet elevation up. Owing to the wide difference in the physical conditions in these zones, numerous rather distinct range types occur. The tune during which each is grazed varies according to the location. The Transition zone (yellow-pine association), owing to the open character of the tree stand, supports a rather dense grass cover. Big bunchgrass (Agropyron spicatum) occurs in pure stands on the less elevated lands, and pine grass (Calamagrostis suksdorfii), blue bunchgrass (Festuca idahoensis), little bluegrass (Poa sandbergii), and mountain June grass (Koeleria cristata), named in the order of their importance, are the most valuable species at somewhat higher elevations. The majority of the important species are herbaceous. This zone is among the first to be grazed in the spring, the lower lands usually supporting stock early in March. By June 1 the forage in the higher adjoining lands is preferred because of its greater succulence. The Canadian zone (lodgepole-pine association) is more densely forested than the others. Also the forage, instead of being herbace- ous, is mainly shrubby or of the ki chaparral" type. The most im- portant browse plants in this zone are fire willow (Salix nuttallii), black elder (Sambu-cus melanocarpa), high huckleberry (Vaccinium membra naceum), and wax currant (Ribes cereum). Since the physical conditions in the Canadian zone are intermediate between those of the Transition zone below and the Hudsonian zone above, few plants are wholly confined to this region, and many of the species of the transition zone are encountered here. The grazing period in the Canadian zone comes approximately between May 15 and July 15. The Hudsonian zone (white-bark pine association) is characterized by scattered small clumps of woodland and a preponderance of grassland. The most important forage species are mountain bunch- grass (Festuca viridula), onion grass (Melica ~bella), porcupine grass (Stipa occidentals), wild celery (Ligusticvm oreganum), and butter- weed (Senedotriangularis). While this region is not suited for early grazing, because of the lateness of the growing season, it has as great an area and carries about as many stock as both of the lower zones together. It includes all the high summer sheep lands, except the few crests that are grazed above timber line. The grazing period begins approximately July 15 and continues through August and September. 4 nru.F/nx :>45, u. s. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The Arctic-alpine zone (alpine-meadow association), owing to its small carrying capacity and inaccessibility, has little or no value for grazing, and the character of its vegetation need not be discussed. On the Wallowa National Forest the vegetation which furnishes the greater part of the forage is distinctly herbaceous. It consists primarily of grasses, sedges, and rushes, with a fair representation of nongrasslike species commonly termed " weeds." While the species are numerous, about 50 furnish virtually all of the range forage. GENERAL MORPHOLOGY OF GRASSES. In the discussion of the individual species it will be necessary to refer to specific characters in a general way as a means of distin- guishing one species from another. It is essential, therefore, that the reader have a clear conception of what a true grass is. The stems or culms are usually hollow except at the joints (nodes). The leaves consist of two parts, the sheath, which surrounds the culm usually like a split tube, and the blade. The minute flowers are Arranged in spikelets consisting of a shortened axis (the racMlla) and from two to many 2-ranked scales, the lower two of which (the glumes) are empty, while each of the others (the lemmas) bears in its axil a flower inclosed in a 2-nerved scale (the palea). Lemma, palea, and flower, together, are termed the floret. The spikelets may be sessile (without a footstalk) along a jointed axis (the rachis), as in wheat and rye, the whole constituting a spike, or on little stems (pedicels) and arranged in panicles, as in mountain bunchgrasss and smooth bromegrass. The head of timothy is a panicle with the branches and pedicels greatly shortened. This is called a spikelike panicle. Sometimes the lemmas or the glumes bear bristlelike appendages termed awns. The " beard" of barley consists of awns. Plate II has been prepared to illustrate characters which will fre- quently be alluded to in the following discussion. In this illustration cultivated timothy (Phleum pratense) and smooth bromegrass (Bromus inermis) are used because they are well known to stockmen and because they represent the morphology of two distinct and important tribes of grasses. IMPORTANT SPECIES. GRASSES. The grass family (Poaceae) contains about 3,500 known species. They vary in size from small, mosslike individuals in the extreme Polar regions to treelike growths of a hundred feet or more in the Tropics. As a whole, no family of plants enjoys a wider distribu- tion or grows in a greater variety of soils, and no other family is as important economically. From a grazing viewpoint the grasses are more valuable, all localities considered, than all other plants put together. The general taxonomic characters of grasses are shown in Plate II. Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Ml, MOUNTAIN BUNCH GRASS (FESTUCA VIRIDULA). The specimen shown is in process of fertilization. A, glumes; B, lemma; C, palea; D, the caryopsis or grain. Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. PORCUPINE GRASS OR NEEDLE GRASS (STIPA OCCIDENTALS). The seedling shown is of about the average size attained at the end of the growing season. IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 5 KEY TO THK TRIBES AND GENERA. KEY TO THE TRIBES. A . Spikelets upon pedicels in open or spikelike panicles, not in rows. B. Spikelets with but 1 perfect flower (the rachilla prolonged behind the palea as a bristle in Calarnagrostis and Cinna) .................... Tribe Agrostideae. B. Spikelet.s with 2 or more perfect flowers. ('". Glumes usually longer than the first floret; florets with bent awn on the back (excepting Koeleria} .................................... Tribe Aveneae. c. Glumes much shorter than the first floret, unawned or with a straight awn from the apex ....................................... Tribe Festuceae. A. Spikelets sessile, in opposite rows along a zigzag jointed rachis forming a spike; leaf blades bearing a pair of earlike appendages at the base ...... Tribe Hordeae. KEY TO THE GENERA. Agrostideae. A. Lemmas hardened, having a needlelike point at base and a long, usually twice bent awn at the summit ........................................ Genus Stipa. A . Lemmas thin and delicate, not needle-pointed at base, awn less or with a minute awn from the back. B. Spikelets in a dense spikelike head: glumes abruptly awn-tipped. Genus Phleum. B. Spikelets in open or narrow panicles; glumes not awn tipped. C. Floret raised on a little stalk: spikelets in a large nodding panicle. Genus Cinna. r. Floret sessile. D. Floret bearing at base copious white hairs sometimes as long as the lemma; rachilla extended behind the palea ..... Genus Calamagrostis . D. Floret naked or nearly so; rachilla not extended behind the palea, the latter often wanting ............................... Genus Agrostis. Arcneae. A. Lemmas awned. ' B. Panicles open; lemmas convex, irregularly toothed or 2-lobed, awns arising from below the middle ................................ Genus Deschampsia. B. Panicles narrow or spikelike; lemmas keeled, 2-toothed, the awn arising from above the middle ....................................... Genus Trisetum. A . Lemmas not awned, panicles spikelike, culms pubescent below panicle. Genus Koeleria. A. Spikelets with upper florets usually sterile, broad and folding about each other, forming a club-shaped mass; glumes shining; lemmas papery, scarious margined. Genus Melica. A. Spikelets with upper florets not unlike lower ones in shape, but often reduced in size. B. Spikelets not over 5 mm. ($ of an inch) long; not awned. C. Lemmas keeled, acute, the nerves not prominent ............... GenusPoa. C. Lemmas convex, obtuse, the nerves prominent ......... Genus Panicularia. B. Spikelets 1 cm. (f of an inch) or more long, awned or awn-pointed. D. Lemmas 2-toothed, usually awned just below the apex ___ Genus Brornus. D. Lemmas entire, usually awned from the tip ............. Genus Festuca. 6 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPAKTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Hordeae. A , Spikelets solitary at each joint of the rachis Genus Agropyron* A. Spikelets 2 or more at each joint of the rachis. B. Rachis continuous, awns erect, not over 2 cm. (f of an inch) long. Genus Elymus. B. Rachis readily separated into joints, awns spreading, 4 rm. (If inches) or more long Genus Sitanion . MOUNTAIN BUNCH GRASS. (Festuca viridula.} The genus Festuca is well represented in the United States, about 30 native species being recognized.1 Most of them are abundant in the regions to which they are adapted, though three species have been collected but once, two others but twice, and another species, F. rigescens, has been found but once in North America. Several North American species of Fesiuca are of great value for forage and hay. Among these, mountain bunch grass, while not as widely distributed as some others, for example, blue bunch grass (F. idahoensis), is nevertheless the most valuable for grazing pur- poses because of its greater palatability and nutritiousness. Next hi forage value are blue bunch grass (F. idahoensis) and red fescue (F. rubra), of the West, and F. altaica, an important range plant in Alaska. A number of the annuals are valuable for grazing purposes in the semiarid regions, especially in the foothill areas of the South- west, where the seed germinates late in the f^ll and growth contin- ues through the winter. Under such conditions they often furnish a first-class palatable forage at a time when nothing else is available. While mountain bunch grass is usually abundant in the localities in which it occurs, it has not a very wide distribution. Its natural home is in the Hudsonian zone, where it occurs from the lower to the higher limits, reaching well up to timber line. Wherever found in the United States it is closely restricted to the higher elevations. On the Wallowa National Forest in northeastern Oregon, it is seldom found below 6,500 feet. Of all the specimens examined in the Na- tional Herbarium the lowest altitude reported was 5,000 feet. While stockmen usually recognize the species when they see it, and appreciate its forage value, it is sometimes confused with other grasses, perhaps most commonly with blue bunch grass (F. idahoensis} . The latter, however, is distinctly a plant of the Transition zone and is seldom found where mountain bunch grass abounds. The rather prominent awns and the "bloom" on the leaves, which gives the characteristic bluish tinge, readily distinguish blue bunch grass from F. viridula. i Piper, Contr. I'. S. Nat. Herb., Vol. 10, p. 1, 1906. Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. LITTLE NEEDLE GRASS (STIPA MINOR). Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI. MOUNTAIN TIMOTHY (PHLEUM ALPINUM). IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 7 Mountain bunch grass (Plate III) forms densely tufted hummocks or bunches. It has coarse, deep, and spreading perennial roots; erect, slender, and smooth culms from 1 to 2 feet high, slightly thickened at the base; a preponderance of rather long inwardly rolled (involute), smooth or somewhat rough basal leaves; and open semi- nodding panicles, composed of rather compressed spikelets, often of a dark purple color, bearing 3 to 6 florets. As indicated by its usual habitat, mountain bunch grass stands near the head of the list in drought-resistant qualities. Well estab- lished plants subjected to the gradual drying process began wilting excessively when the water content was reduced to 9.5 per cent, and did not, as a rule, recover after the per cent of water dropped to 7. Such a low amount of water about the main roots would be very unusual, of course, on the high range, but it shows the possi- bilities of mountain bunch grass in dry situations. Observations during 1907, 1908, and 1909 showed that the flower stalks were sent up from July 5 to August 20, July 10 to August 25, and July 3 to August 15 in the respective years. The seed crop for these seasons began to ripen as early as August 5, and by September 5 practically the entire crop had matured. The seeds are dissemi- nated almost immediately upon reaching maturity. Flower-stalk production and seed maturity occur earlier upon coarser, less de- composed soils, where the soil water is readily reduced through evap- oration and where the temperature in the substratum is relatively high. Mountain bunch grass seed has a low viability. The average for all laboratory tests made during the three seasons was 12.2 per cent. Field tests in the natural habitat, with seed from the same source, gave a much higher percentage of germination. Upon the higher ranges mountain bunch grass is grazed ravenously by all classes of stock. It is most highly relished at the time of flower-stalk production, the entire aerial portion, including the succu- lent leaves and the flower stalks, often being removed at that time by a single grazing. As the season advances, sheep discriminate be- tween the leaf blades and culms, and when the plant has matured its seeds the latter are rarely cropped. Ripening of the seed crop, how- ever, impairs the plant's palatability and nutritiousness but little. As a rule, the leaf blades are not eaten so closely as earlier in the season, and the fibrous stems or seed stalks remain untouched. But little else of the forage is wasted. The nutritive value of mountain bunch grass is indicated in Table 1, which also presents an analysis of well cured timothy hay for com- parison. BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 1. — Chemical analysis of mountain bunch grass and timothy hay. Material. Protein (nitro- gen). Ether extract (fat). Crude fiber. Mountain bunch grass: Matured plant- 13. 18 2.83 22 20 Growing plant 12.24 3 60 21 In Matured flower stalks 4.18 1.30 38.65 Timothy hay 6.78 2.87 33 40 It will be seen that there is comparatively little difference in the iiutritiousness of mountain bunch grass at the time the flower stalks are being produced and immediately after the seed crop has ripened. The greatest difference in the important constituents is found in the ether extract (fat), which is 27.21 per cent greater in the younger plants. This is partly offset by the fact that there is 7.68 per cent more protein (muscle making nutrients) in the matured plants. The latter also contain 4.96 per cent more crude fiber than the young plants, the most indigestible portion of the forage. In the matured flower stalks the protein (nitrogen) and the ether extract (fat) are very low, while the indigestible (crude fiber) material is very high. This fact explains in part why the flower stalks are not grazed at maturity. Investigations have shown that well-cured grasses yield as much nutriment as the same grasses when green.1 There is this distinction, however, that ordinarily the cured forage is not as palatable as the green. But since about half of the basal leaf blades remain green until the end of the grazing season, the palatability and nutritive qualities of mountain bunch grass remain comparatively high after seed maturity. A plant closely related to the one discussed is blue bunch grass (F. idahoensis). Being confined almost entirely to lands of medium elevation, and the herbage having a distinctly bluish color and the awns on the culms and lemmas being about twice the length of those of mountain bunch grass, the two are readily distinguished even though both are distinctly bunch grasses. The flower stalks of blue bunch grass begin to show about the first week in June in the typical (yellow-pine) habitat and they continue to be produced until about August 1 . The seed matures, for the most part, between June 25 and August 15. The seed tested for germina- tion show a viability of from 11 to 21 per cent. Blue bunch grass furnishes excellent forage for all classes of stock from early spring until the early part of August, when it begins to mature and the leaf blades become somewhat tough and dry. Even at that time it is grazed to a greater or less extent by cattle and horses, but only to a limited extent by sheep. All stock, however, relish i Wolff, E., Farm Foods, 1896, English edition, p. 155. Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII. SLENDER REED-GRASS (CINNA LATIFOLIA). Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VIM. ALPINE REDTOP (AGROSTIS ROSSAE). IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 9 blue bunch grass in the autumn on account of the new growth result- ing from the autumn precipitation. As a whole, it is a palatable and nutritious grass, and, occuring as it does in abundance over well- drained lands of medium elevation, its economic value is high. PORCUPINE GRASS. (Stipa ocddentalis.) The genus Stipa includes a large number of perennial grasses dis- tributed throughout the world. Approximately 30 species are found in the United States, mainly in the West. Many are valuable for grazing purposes, while others are cut for hay. Porcupine grass (Plate IV) is a perennial bunch grass with coarse, spreading, and deeply penetrating roots, capable of withstanding an unusual amount of abuse. The leaf blades are mainly basal, some- what involute (rolled inward), those of the culms shorter than the basal ones, all rather rough and somewhat rigid, the sheaths shorter than the internodes. The panicle is somewhat contracted, about 4 inches long; the spikelets one-flowered; the floret cylindrical, pubes- cent throughout, with a sharp-pointed bent callus at the base. The empty glumes are subequal, membranaceous, and the lemmas or flowering glumes, which completely inclose the palets, are brownish when mature and bear awns from 1 to 1 J niches long, twice bent and strikingly plumose or densely pubescent to the second joint or knee. To judge from the tufted habit of growth and the involute leaf blades and their texture, it might be expected that the moisture requirements of porcupine grass would be about the minimum of the species studied. An average of all moisture tests, however, showed that pronounced wilting resulted in the characteristic soil type where the water content varied from 9.5 to 1 1.5 per cent. In a soil contain- ing 8 per cent of moisture a specimen failed to recover its form and subsequently died. Fearing that some error had crept into the results first obtained, several additional tests were conducted, but the later results agreed with the first. Porcupine grass inhabits only well-drained soils in open, exposed situations in association with mountain bunchgrass, alpine redtop, short-awned bromegrass, and other species. Its seedlings develop somewhat deeper roots than do the majority of the species, and be- cause of this fact they have thrived during dry periods in certain places where other species able to exist in soil of slightly lower water content have died. The flower stalks are all produced within a month or less after the first ones appear. They begin to show about July 15. The seeds are, as a rule, well matured by September 10. In 1909, however, they had ripened and were disseminated by August 30. Dissemina- tion follows almost immediately upon maturity. 85154°— Bull. 545—17 2 10 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The seed crop has a fair viability, the average for the three years being 27 per cent. The highest germination, obtained in 1909, was 35 per cent. On the range this species is reproducing so abundantly that it is very probable that a much higher viability results when the seed is allowed to pass through the usual conditions after maturing. The seed, too, has an effective means of getting into the ground through the boring action of the awn, and this may account largely for the plant's rapid invasion of many situations. It is among the most promising species for restocking depleted ranges. Although not to be compared with mountain bunchgrass in pala- tability, porcupine grass is a good forage plant. It begins growth early in the season and continues growing until late in the summer, the leaf blades remaining green until September 1. Although their texture is somewhat harsh and their edges slightly scabrous, the plant is grazed with considerable relish by sheep, cattle, and horses, though considered most desirable for sheep. Both cattle and horses eat the flower stalks, even when the seeds are approaching maturity, and the long, rather bristlelike awns are likely to make sore mouths or even to cause serious trouble in the throat, sometimes resulting in what is termed " temporary lump jaw." Other grasses, however, may be more directly responsible for these bad effects. Sheep do not consume the flower or seed stalks, but graze the leaf blades closely. A species closely allied to porcupine grass is little needle grass (S. minor). It is very similar in general characters, ecological requirements, and distribution, and for that reason will not be dis- cussed in detail here. While as widely distributed as S. occidentals, it is not nearly so abundant. The plant is taller and may be dis- tinguished at a glance by observing the awns, which are less than half the length of those of S. occidentals , and which, instead of being plumose, are very slightly pubescent or merely roughened. Because of its sparse growth, the plant is not especially valuable for grazing, though eaten with relish by most classes of stock. (See Plate V.) MOUNTAIN TIMOTHY. (Phleum alpinum.) The genus Phleum contains about 10 annual and perennial species, most of which are confined to the Temperate and Arctic regions. Among them is the cultivated timothy, generally conceded to be the most valuable forage and hay plant in the United States. Mountain timothy is occasionally mistaken for the cultivated timothy. While the two plants have somewhat the same general appearance (compare Plates II and VI), the cultivated species, P. pratense, usually grows from 2 to 4 feet high, while mountain timothy as a rule attains less than half that height; also the spike of the latter, Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IX. VIEW SHOWING How CLOSELY SHEEP GRAZE PINE GRASS IN THE SPRING OF THE YEAR. The fibrous woody roots and the fact that it forms a turf renders it almost proof against trampling and close grazing. Pine grass is one of the hardiest and most prolific grazing plants in the "Wallowa Mountains. Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE X. PINE GRASS (CALAMAGROSTIS SUKSDORFII). On the right is shown a pine-grass seedling of 2 months' growth. IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 11 about 1 inch long, instead of being cylindrical and having short awns on the glumes like the cultivated species, is ellipsoid or ovate-oblong, the awns about the length of the glumes. Like the cultivated species, mountain timothy is a perennial plant and has the sheaths of the upper portion of the leafy culms loose as compared with the lower ones. The spikelike panicle is usually purple in color, and the glumes of the spikelets are slightly fringed on the back. Mountain timothy is confined to alpine and subalpine regions. In the region studied it is closely restricted to the Hudsonian zone. It is a plant of turfy habit, growing in moist meadows and swales, around springs, and along banks of streams. Often the stands are dense and pure. In some places, however, the keenest competition exists between the mountain timothy and certain sedges and rushes, the result being that one species predominates here and another there. Since it grows characteristically in boggy or nearly saturated soils, mountain timothy wilts beyond recovery even though there may be a rather high percentage of moisture in the substratum. The five specimens tested for drought resistance persisted only until the water content was decreased to an average of 14 per cent. The flower stalks are produced later than those of vegetation in drier situations, since the moister soils are slower in warming up in the spring. Usually the stalks begin to appear about July 15, and are aH produced by the end of the first week in August. Mature seeds can generally be found after August 15, and continue to ripen until about the middle of September. The fertility of the seed crop is considerably above the average for a typical subalpine herbaceous plant. The average per cent for all tests was 69.5, the maximum germination of 76 being obtained in 1909 and the minimum of 58.2 in 1907. When compared with the average marsh or bog species, mountain timothy ranks high as a forage plant. Early in the summer it is considered by stockmen to be a bit too succulent or " washy," but since sheep naturally avoid its habitat, which is invariably moist at that season, there is little demand for it then. As the season ad- vances, however, the soil becomes drier, and the latter part of the summer this grass is grazed with relish. Mountain timothy remains green and tender unusually late in the fall, and, compared with other species grazed at that time of the year, it is eaten with unusual relish. SLENDER REED-GRASS. (Cinna latifolia.) The genus Cinna is represented by but three species in the United States. Of these, slender reed-grass (Cinna latifolia} is the most important in the localities studied. 12 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Slender reed-grass is a rank growing perennial from 1 J to 4 feet tall. The culms, which are usually very brittle, are bent like a knee at the lower joints. Like the sheaths, the leaf blades are rough, and are especially broad and very flat (Plate VII). The panicle is long, often exceeding 8 inches, open, and usually drooping. The favorite habitat of slender reed-grass is in sparsely vegetated forests which admit enough light for the undergrowth to succeed. It is closely restricted to shaded situations with well-watered soils. The inherent tendency toward shade is shown by the unusually wide and flat leaf blades as well as the absence of basal leaves, while the high water requirements are shown, among other things, by the meager development of the root system, the absence of special con- trivances to retard transpiration, and the restriction of the species to wet soils. Growing in situations very similar to mountain timo- thy, it has virtually the same water requirements. Failure to re- cover from wilting took place in the mucky soil in which this species grows when the moisture content in the case of one specimen was 13.5 per cent and in another 16 per cent. The flower stalks were produced from July 5 to August 5, July 10 to August 15, and from July 5 to August 10 in 1907, 1908, and 1909, respectively. Compared with 'the earliest appearance of the flower stalks, the seed readied maturity at a relatively late date, the earliest being about the last week in August. The crop matured evenly, however, with approximately 15 days intervening between the time the earliest seed matured and the major portion ripened. The length of time required for a seed crop to ripen in nearly all cases seems to influence the vitality of the resulting crop. An even and comparatively short maturing period usually indicates, for a given locality, seed of higher vitality than that which ripens at wholly different dates. The average germination of the seed crop of slender reed-grass for the three seasons was 86.8, and the minimum yearly average, 79 per cent, obtained in 1907. Since slender reed-grass does not enjoy an especially wide zonal distribution, and is closely restricted to moist situations, it supplies but limited forage. So far as palatability is concerned, however, it ranks high, and since it remains green and tender throughout nearly the entire summer grazing season, the herbage is closely consumed. Owing to the moist condition of its habitat in the early part of the season, the plant is seldom grazed by sheep until August. ALPINE REDTOP. (Agrostis rossae.) The genus Agrostis is composed of about 100 species, most of which are found in the North Temperate Zone.1 As indicated by its com- i Ilackel, Edward, "The True Grasses," p. Ill, 1890. Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XI. MARSH PINE GRASS (CALAMAGROSTIS CANADENSIS). A portion of the characteristic creeping rootstocks is shown. Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XII. 13 TUFTED HAIR-GRASS (DESCHAMPSIA CAESPITOSA). IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 13 mon name, alpine redtop is typically a plant of the high grazing lands. On the Wallowa National Forest it is not found below about 6,500 feet. It grows well up to and even a little beyond timber line, having approximately the same distribution as mountain bunchgrass, with which it is commonly associated. This species, like a great many typical upland plants, is short, rarely exceeding 8 inches in height (Plate VIII). Unlike cultivated redtop, it is distinctly tufted instead of stoloniferous, and has a large number of narrow basal leaves from one-third to one-half the length of the culms. The panicle is rather contracted, about 2 niches long, and the spikelets are purple-green merging into red, one-flowered, with awnless glumes. Alpine redtop seems best adapted to a well disintegrated basaltic soil relatively rich in humus, characteristic of glades and open pla- teaus. It wilts beyond recovery in soils of this type having a water content of from 8.5 to as low as 7 per cent. Good stands have often been seen in rather moist habitats, but, as a rule, it succeeds best and is more commonly met with in well-drained soils. Being a bunchgrass, it never completely covers the ground, but hi certain localities it is sometimes the main species. The average time during which the flower stalks were sent forth in 1907, 1908, and 1909 was four weeks. In 1907 they first showed on July 5 and continued to be sent forth until August 15. The seed crop was fairly well ripened at the end of the first week hi September. The germination power of the seed in 1907 was 29 per cent; in 1908, 38 per cent; and in 1909, 41 per cent. For an upland peren- nial grass these figures are considerably above the average, and in favorable situations the reproduction was good. While not eaten with the same relish as are a number of its close relatives, alpine redtop is grazed by sheep to a considerable extent, particularly in the fore part of the season. After about August 15, when all the flower stalks have been sent up, the leaf blades become rather tough and unpalatable, and other plants are then preferred. The shortness of its leaf blades, its scattered growth, and the compara- tively short period during which it is eaten with relish affect its importance as a forage plant. PINE GRASS. (Calamagrostis suksdorfii.) The genus Calamagrostis, to which pine grass belongs, contains about 130 species widely distributed throughout temperate and mountain regions. Thirty-eight species, mostly native, occur in North America, mainly in the West. Only three occur in the Southern States, and six of those States are without a single species. 14 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Botanically Calamagrostis is closely related to Agrostis, the genus to which redtop belongs, but may be distinguished from it by the long, soft, fine hairs on the callus or hardened base of the floret and by the prolongation of the axis of the spikelet behind the palea. Pine grass makes its most luxuriant growth in the Transition zone, where it grows mainly under the relatively open forest of western yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa) . It is also found in the Canadian zone, where it often ranks first in abundance and importance among the grass species. In the Hudsonian zone it is found only in the warmer situations of the lower altitudes. (See Plate IX.) Pine grass (Plate X) may be recognized by its perennial character and its^ abundant, well-developed, creeping rootstocks which produce a continuous, closely matted sod or turf. The culms, somewhat bunched, grow from 1 to 3 feet tall, and usually bear three short, smooth leaves ; the rather numerous lower or basal leaves are somewhat involute, flexible, and smooth. The panicle, pale green until the plant is mature, is contracted and densely flowered, the spikelet bearing but one floret. One pronounced character by which the species may be recognized at a glance is the ring of stiff hairs at the junction of the sheath and blade. The fibrous, widely spreading and deep root system, make it possible for pine grass to grow in exposed situations where the soil is relatively dry during most of the growing season. (Tests for drought resistance show that this species usually fails to regain its form after wilting notably in a soil containing an average water content of 8.5 per cent. In the case of two specimens turgor was regained in a soil which contained but 5.5 per cent of moisture.) Owing to the warm and relatively dry situations generally inhabi- tated by pine grass, the flower stalks begin to appear about July 1. The number is comparatively small, and production continues until September 1 . On the higher areas flower-stalk production is invaria- bly sparse, with the period of production extending from July 20 to the end of the season. The seed begins to ripen on the lower ranges in late July, and the period of maturity extends until the middle of September. On the higher ranges the first seed ripens by August 10, and the maturing period lasts until unfavorable weather condi- tions in September. Seed of the last flower stalks produced seldom ripen. In fertility, the seed of pine grass l ranks about the highest of the native species studied. The lowest vitali ty observed occurred in 1 907, when an average of 58.2 per cent was obtained. In 1908 and 1909 averages of 76 and 74.5 per cent, respectively, were secured. Seed collected at different times in the Transition zone yielded the highest * The seed used in these tests was collected in the upper Canadian zone in the latter part of August of Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIII. SLENDER HAIR-GRASS (DESCHAMPSIA ELONGATA). Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIV. 15 SPIKED TRISETUM (TRISETUM SPICATUM). IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 15 results in nearly every case, one germination test, the highest of all, giving 98.5 per cent. Among stockmen there is much diversity of opinion as to the forage value of pine grass. While it may not be included in the category of choice forage plants, except in the spring when it is young and tender, yet it plays a valuable part on the range. In the spring of the year the leaf blades are eaten with nearly as great relish as any of the native grasses, and judging from the condition of the stock feeding upon it, the species has high nutritive qualities. From early spring to about the middle of July, on the lower ranges, all classes of stock graze it closely and with considerable relish. In the latter part of July, however, the tissues of the leaf blades become fibrous and tough, the plant is not grazed with relish, and is then considered to have a much lower nutritive value. In the fall of the year, after the rains have started, it is again grazed to a limited extent, since the leaf blades are somewhat softened by the precipitation. BLUEJOINT. (Calamagrostis canadensis.) Bluejoint or marsh pine grass, because it is less abundant and less important than pine grass, is not so well known to stockmen as the latter. Though its distribution is about the same, it does not inhabit pint@; forests, but grows in marshes and swales and along moist stream banks. The local name is derived from its resemblance to typical pine grass, to which it is closely related. The two species may readily be distinguished by the panicle (com- pare Plates X and XI), which in pine grass is dense or contracted and pale green, while in blue joint it is very loose and open and tinged with brown or pale purple. The latter does not have the character- istic ring of stiff hairs at the junction of the sheath and blade. The culms of marsh pine grass are erect, from 1J to 3 feet high; the leaves, smooth, long, wide, and distinctly flat. It has rather shallow, lateral roots. Reproduction by root stocks is prolific, and dense stands are common in favorable situations. The wide, flat leaves, shallow roots, and the situations in which marsh pine grass grows indicate its inability to withstand drought. The soil in which it occurs is well supplied with moisture, but is not especially rich in organic matter. In some of the tests the plants did not succumb until the water was reduced to nearly 11 per cent. In the case of two tests the specimens recuperated from the wilted condition when the soil contained an average of 14 per cent of moisture. The flower stalks begin to appear about June 25, and by July 20 are nearly all sent up. Mature seed can usually be found by August 16 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1, and by August 20 the main seed crop has ripened. The seed has a high power of germination. The average for all tests made was 71.5 per cent, with a minimum germination of 59.5 per cent. Owing to its rank growth blue joint is better suited to cattle and horses than to sheep, yet the latter eat the leaf blades, though rarely the flower stalks even when young. Because of its restriction to moist situations, it is not very abundant, and consequently fur- nishes a comparatively small amount of forage. TUFTED HAIR-GRASS. (Deschampsia caespitosa.) Tufted hair-grass (Deschampsia caespitosa) is a member of the same tribe as cultivated oats. Though from its general appearance this fact would not be recognized, yet botanically they are closely related. Tufted hair-grass is often mistaken for redtop, mainly because of its loose panicle, but morphologically it is very different. Redtop has but one flower in a spikelet, while tufted hair-grass has two perfect flowers. The genus Deschampsia is represented by about 20 species, adapted mainly to the cold and temperate regions. About 6 species are found in the western part of {he United States. Tufted hair-grass is a perennial tufted species with rather deep and spreading fibrous roots. The culms are from H to 3 feet tall, erect, and smooth, or in some specimens slightly rough, the leaves mainly basal and very numerous, flat, and often ascending to hah0 the length of the culms. The spikelets, bearing two perfect flowers, are small and shiny, and the panicle is open, the branches widely spreading. Both the empty and the flowering glumes are shiny in appearance (Plate XII). The latter are notched at the apex and bear a short awn on the back. This species is rarely found in dry situations, but grows abundantly in moist meadows, canyons, and bottom lands, where it frequently predominates. Concerning its density of stand and rankness of growth F. Lamson-Scribner 1 states that is has a record of producing 10,209 pounds of green and 3,318 pounds of dry hay per acre. The minimum amount of soil water with which it will grow varies between 11.5 and 14.5 per cent. In soils containing less than this amount of moisture the wilted leaf blades failed to regain their turgidity. The first flower stalks appear about July 20, and their production continues until about August 15. As with most species in moist soils, the flower stalks are not produced as early as in the drier situations. The tune required for the development of the seeds is rather prolonged, and well-matured seeds are rarely found until i Economic Grasses, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Div. Agrost. Bui. 14, p. 32, 1900. Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XV. MOUNTAIN JUNE GRASS (KOELERIA CRISTATA). Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XVI. ONION GRASS OR MOUNTAIN BLUEGRASS (MELICA BELLA). IMPORTANT RAXGE PLANTS. 17 September 1. B}' about the middle of September the crop is usually well ripened, and, for the most part, disseminated. The germination per cent is about the average for an upland plant, the average for aU tests conducted during the three years of study showing 26.4 per cent for the seed crop from the Hudsonian zone, where the revegetation studies were made. Seed collected in the Canadian zone germinated as high as 50 per cent. Some seed compa- nies handle seed of this species grown in Europe, which as a rule has a fair germinative strength. It is sold for about $22 per 100 pounds. This species is an important forage plant because it occurs fre- quently throughout the Hudsonian zone, is often met hi the Canadian zone, occurs in sufficiently dense stands to make it an appreciable factor in meadow crops, and is eaten with relish. So far as texture is concerned, it is always desirable for cattle and horses, but is often too rank and coarse to be of the highest value for sheep. Neverthe- less, as a rule, sheep graze it closely. Densely vegetated meadows of this species grazed by sheep comparatively early in the summer when the root leaves are tender may have the appearance of a newly-mown lawn of bluegrass, so closely is the forage removed. Up to about August 15 tufted hair-grass is highly relished, but after that date the leaf blades take on a fibrous or somewhat woody texture which greatly lessens their palatability. In the latter part of the grazing season it is not usuaUy grazed closely unless it has been cropped earlier in the season, a condition which results in prolonging the growth of the vegetative parts. The aftermath is eagerly consumed by all classes of stock, and especially by sheep. Observations indi- cate that this species withstands trampling and close grazing better than any other valuable forage grass in the region studied. This fact is due both to the habit of growth of the plant and to the nature of the situations in which it grows. SLENDER HAIR-GRASS. (Deschampsia elongata.) Slender hair-grass, though closely related botanically to tufted hair-grass, differs widely from it in general appearance (Plate XIII). Like tufted hair-grass it is a perennial and grows in tussocks, though the latter seldom attain a diameter exceeding 4 niches, and more often are only one-half that size. Slender hair-grass bears the appearance of an annual grass in that it is very shallow rooted and sends up a preponderance of slender naked seed stalks. The latter are erect and from 8 to 16 inches tall. At the base a prodigious number of narrow, rather smooth but very short root leaves are produced. The panicle is long, often fully one-third the length of the culm, and usually not widely branched. 85154°— Bull. 545—17 3 18 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In the region studied this species has a wide distribution. It occurs most abundantly and grows most luxuriantly in the Canadian zone, though it is met with in a variety of situations in both the upper and lower contiguous zones. In fact, the tendency of slender hair grass to adjust itself to various sites is a marked characteristic. In the well-aerated, finely disintegrated, basaltic soil of the plateaus in the Hudsonian zone this species does not wilt notably until the water content of the soil falls to between 8.5 and 10.0 per cent — a relatively low figure. On the other hand, simultaneous drought tests conducted in soils rich in organic matter, and where the plant had had access to a high per cent of soil water at all times, resulted in destructive wilting of the plant when the soil-water content was as high as 15 per cent. In moist situations a meager root system is developed, and on dry sites, while the root rarely penetrates deeply into the soil, it spreads over considerable surface. The flower stalks begin to appear about July 10 in the drier situa- tions, and a week or so later in moist places. By August 1 the majority have put in their appearance. Mature seeds are found as early as August 5, while the bulk of the seed crop is matured by August 25. The tests made for seed vitality were confined to the year 1909, and showed an average of 41.5 per cent. On lower ranges somewhat higher figures were obtained, 56.5 being the maximum. The grazing value of this plant is relatively low, and in this respect it does not compare favorably with tufted hair grass. Owing to its shallow roots the plant is frequently pulled up. Sheep grazing on this plant, especially early in the season when the soil contains a high per cent of moisture and the roots are readily pulled out, start masticating the leaf blades, but usually expel them when they find that roots and clinging dirt form the dessert to their diet. After a few experiences of this kind they crop it but little. Since the tussock is small, horses often pull up the entire tuft, and after eliminating the greater part of the clingirg dirt by shaking it vigorously and rubbing it upon the. ground, sometimes devour the plant. After about August 15 the leaves become air dried, and slender hair grass is then disregarded as a forage plant by all classes of stock. Another species known as black hair-grass (D. atropurpurea) occurs in scattered stand in open situations throughout the Hudsonian zone. Being restricted to high elevations (it rarely occurs below 6,500 feet), the flower stalks are not seen until July 15 and they continue to be produced until about August 25. No seed is matured until about September 1 and very little fertile seed is developed even in most favorable seasons. Reproduction takes place vegetatively by means of offshoots arising from root stocks. Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XVII. LITTLE BLUEGRASS (POA SANDBERGII). Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XVI 1 1. SHORT-AWNED BROMEGRASS(BROMUS MARGINATUS). The sheath on the basal portion of the culm was accidentally removed before the photograph was taken. IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 19 The plant, being late in maturing and the herbage green and tender throughout the season, is grazed with much relish by all classes of stock from early spring until late autumn. It occurs in dense stands only hi small isolated patches and conse- quently is not highly important as a range plant. SPIKED TRISETUM. ( Trisetum spicatum.) The genus Trisetum belongs to the oat tribe, and is represented by about 8 species in the western United States, most of which occur in the higher mount ains. The zonal distribution of Trisetum spicatum is typically Hudsonian, though it occurs commonly above timber line and is found to a limited extent on north and east slopes in the Canadian zone. The plant occurs irregularly in scattered stands throughout the upland ranges in exposed situations on well-drained soils. It is frequently asso- ciated with slender hair-grass, but is more deeply rooted. As its habi- tat indicates, spiked trisetum is not readily killed by drought. Most specimens tested were able to regain turgor and, of course, absorb water from the soil until its content was reduced to from 7.5 to 9.5 per cent. As a rule the plants died very gradually, probably owing to the highly developed contrivances for protection against rapid transpiration. The plant is a perennial of tufted habit with deep and widely spread- ing fibrous roots (Plate XIV). It may usually be recognized by the soft downy pubescence on the sheaths and culms, which has given it the local name "wool grass," although this is a widely variable char- acter, some individuals appearing nearly smooth. Most specimens appear downy silvery white. The culms vary in height from 1 to 2 feet. From the crown arise a large number of short, flat, and rather wide basal leaves. The panicle is spikelike and cylindrical hi char- acter, somewhat contracted and shiny. The lemma or flowering glume bears on the back a rather inconspicuous, slender, soft, divergent awn. The flower stalks appear about July 10, and a month later produc- tion is usually complete. The seeds do not begin to ripen before about August 25, and generally are not all matured by the time inclement weather comes in the fall and prevents further development. As a result, viable seed are produced only on the earliest flowering stalks. In 1907 the seed crop averaged 11 per cent germination, and hi 1909, 28 per cent. No tests were made hi 1908. While spiked trisetum occurs in scattered stands, it is widely dis- tributed and furnishes more forage than is ordinarily thought. The leaf blades are eaten in preference to many other species, so that little 20 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPAKTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of the herbage goes to waste. In addition, the plant begins to grow early in the spring and does not ripen until late in the fall, so that it remains fresh and palatable throughout the season. Though it with- stands trampling well, natural regeneration on protected ranges is scant as compared with that of other species whose seed crop has about the same or even lower viability. MOUNTAIN JUNE GRASS. ( Koe leria cristata . ) Koeleria, though a genus of only about 15 species, has wide geo- graphical distribution. In the United States mountain June grass is the only representative of common occurrence and much economic value. Mountain June grass is a tufted perennial species, 1 to 2 feet in height, the culms of which are usually pubescent just below the panicle. The leaves, which are mainly basal (Plate XV), are unu- sually numerous. They are flat or slightly inwardly rolled, vary in texture from smooth to rough, and are often hairy. The panicle, pale green in color, is spikelike when young, but during fertilization is rather widely expanded. 'The lemmas or flowering glumes are glossy, and the plant can nearly always be recognized off hand by the shiny character of the panicle. This plant often inhabits very dry situations, though on the lower ranges it matures comparatively early and so largely avoids the driest part of the season. In the higher altitudes moisture is usually present a few inches below the surface. Most of the plants tested wilted strik- ingly, usually beyond recovery in a soil having from 10 to 13.5 per cent water content. Thus the soil-moisture requirements in the par- ticular soil type in which it grows are about the average. The flower stalks on the upland ranges were put forth in 1907 be- tween July 10 and 28; in 1908 between July 10 and 25; and in 1909 between July 5 and 25. The seeds begin to ripen about the latter part of the second week in August, but the entire crop is not matured until about September 10. The germinative power of the seed is low. In 1907 an average of three tests gave 16 per cent and in 1908 14 per cent. No test was made in 1909. However, on the lower areas in the Transition zone, for example, the seed was somewhat more viable, though there was no marked contrast in the germinative power. Mountain June grass is of considerable importance as a forage plant in the region studied, and few species are more eagerly eaten. The long, soft, and numerous crowded basal leaves are consumed by sheep, cattle, and horses in preference to many more abundant forage plants when green, and, like mountain bunch grass, the leaf blades but not the flower stalks are eaten by sheep after the seeds have reached ma- Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIX. SOFT CHEAT OR CHESS (BROMUS HORDEACEUS). Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. . PLATE XX. TALL MEADOW-GRASS (PANICULARIA NERVATA). IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 21 turity. It is found rather sparingly on the higher ranges, but is fairly abundant in glades and sparsely timbered areas of medium moisture in both the Canadian and Transition zones. ONION GRASS. ^ (Melica bella.) The species of the genus Melica, over 50 of which have been de- scribed, are distributed throughout the temperate and subtropical regions. Several are of value for grazing, but the genus as a whole, contains few species of high economic importance. Onion grass enjoys a rather wide distribution, growing luxuriantly in the upper Canadian zone, but also succeeding well in the Hudson- ian zone. It rarely occurs as the predominating species in a plant formation, but appears in rather scattered stands hi association with such species as mountain bunch grass and short-awned bromegrass, on well-drained soils. In its ability to exist in soils of low water con- tent it is very similar to mount ain bunchgrass, the plant wilting be- yond recovery from this condition when the soil water is reduced to from 6.3 to 8.5 per cent. Onion grass is a perennial, bulbous at the base, fibrous rooted (Plate XVI). Culms 1 to 2 feet tall, sheaths and blades smooth or slightly rough to the touch. The panicle is sparsely branched, and the spike- lets usually bear 5 flowers. The lower or empty glumes are shorter than the scale of the floret, and both the glumes and the lemma, es- pecially the part of the latter naturally exposed, are dark purple when young, fading to light brown upon the approach of maturity. The flower stalks appeared from July 20 to August 10, in 1907, July 15 to August 15 in 1908, and July 10 to August 15 in 1909. In 1908 matured seeds were not found until August 20, and in the other two seasons the seed-maturing period was even later; in fact, this function was so much delayed in many situations, particularly where grazing had been carried on excessively, that a large amount of the seed failed to mature at all. Germination tests showed the seed to have a low vitality. In 1907 negative results were obtained, and in 1908 only 4 per cent germina- tion was secured. In 1909 no germination test was made. From these data and the fact that it is not regenerating on the range, the species would seem poorly adapted to the revegetation of depleted ranges. Notwithstanding the fact that onion grass has a wide distribution and ranks high in palatability, its scattered growth restricts its value as a forage plant. It starts growth early in the spring and, since it continues activities until late in the season, is relished through- out the summer by all classes of stock, and especially by sheep. 22 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. A species of the same common name, closely resembling Melica bella and nearly as widely distributed and as important economically in the region studied, is Melica spectabilis. In habit of growth and general appearance the plants are very similar, both being bulbif erous and growing to practically the same height. In contrast with the rather dull spikelets of M. bella, however, those of M. spectabilis are bright in appearance and the glumes are membranaceous ; the pedicels of the former are stiff and erect, whereas those of the latter are slender and flexuous. The period of flower-stalk production and seed maturity is virtually the same as in the case of M. bella, and the viability of the seed crop is also very low. LITTLE BLUEGRASS. (Poa sandbergii.) The genus Poa is composed of about 150 species widely distributed in temperate and cold regions. In the western United States about 75 species have been reported. The value of the bluegrasses for hay and forage is well known. Cultivated Kentucky bluegrass is closely related to little bluegrass. Little bluegrass is distinctly' a plant of the Transition zone, though through its ability to adjust itself to more or less adverse conditions it succeeds remarkably well on upland ranges and furnishes an abundance of forage. While at higher elevations it often grows luxuriantly in rich clay loam soils, usually it inhabits inferior shallow soils. On typical scablands and rocky areas it is the most common and characteristic species. Owing primarily to its ability to with- stand drought and wide variation in temperature, the range of dis- tribution of little bluegrass in the region studied is unusually broad. It grows profusely in the lower limits of the Transition zone, about 2,000 feet, and is also common on ranges of 8,000 feet elevation. On such situations it is almost invariably confined to scablands and poorly disintegrated soils on the warmer south and west exposures. In the tests made to determine its drought resis- tance, little bluegrass did not show signs of complete wilting until the soil water was reduced to between 6.5 and 7.8 per cent. Little bluegrass is a perennial (Plate XVII) and grows in tussocks not usually exceeding 8 inches in diameter. It has coarse, deeply penetrating roots, which withstand trampling remarkably well; smooth culms, slightly decumbent at the base, 1 J to 2 feet in height; close erect panicles composed of spikelets of 3 to 5 florets; and a superabundance of narrow, short, and rather flat, or sometimes slightly folded, blue-green basal leaves. The flower stalks of little blue grass are among the earliest to appear on the range. This is due, first, to the character of the situations in Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXI, BIG BUNCH GRASS (AGROPYRON SPICATUM). Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXII, MOUNTAIN WHEAT GRASS (AGROPYRON VIOLACEUM). IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 23 which the species grows on the higher ranges, and second, to the inherent tendency of the species to complete its development at a very early date in its lower zone. The flower stalks on the upland ranges appeared from July 10 to August 1, July 10 to August 10, and July 5 to August 5, in 1907, 1908, and 1909, respectively. The seeds began to ripen in the latter part of July, and, except in 1907, the seed crop had matured by August 20. The seed crop developed in the high mountains has a low vitality, the average for all tests made for the Hudsonian zone for the three years being only 7 per cent. In contrast to this, seed grown in the Transition zone showed average germination of 38.4 per cent. As a forage for sheep, horses, and cattle early in the season, little bluegrass can hardly be surpassed. The entire plant is readily con- sumed until the seeds begin to reach full development. After the seeds have matured, however, which they do early in the summer, the plant is neglected for the more palatable tender species. In the fall of the year, when the bulk of the range plants are air-cured, little bluegrass again becomes one of the choice species. Other bluegrasses occur in the mountains, but as a rule are so scattered as not to merit special mention. The species most com- monly met with, in order of their abundance, are P. Irachyglossa, P. paddensi.s, and P. ampla. SHORT-AWNED BROMEGRASS. (Bromus marginatus.) The genus Bromus is closely related botanically to Festuca, to which mountain bunchgrass belongs. In general, it differs in having larger spikelets and a toothed apex on the lemma, or flowering glume. Short-awned bromegrass (Plate XVIII) is a perennial species, and on favorable situations almost invariably forms a dense turf. The culms are erect and stout, from 3 to 4 feet in height, the sheaths are usually clothed with scattered, rather long, soft hairs ; the panicle is erect and somewhat narrow, of a purple cast, and from 4 to 8 inches long, with seven to nine flowered spikelets, the florets coarsely pubescent, with two rather pointed hyaline teeth at the apex and the midrib extending into an awn one-fourth inch long. Short-awned bromegrass has rather a wide distribution in the region studied, but grows most luxuriantly between 4,000 and 7,500 feet elevation, where it generally inhabits the better soils of medium moisture content. It grows in dry situations on open plateaus, in friable loam soils, and in canyons, and often predominates on the banks of streams. The plant did not wilt destructively until the moisture in the soil was reduced to between 5.5 and 8 per cent. 24 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The flower stalks begin to show about July 25, and by August 10 are usually all produced. Matured seeds have been observed as early as August 10, and are usually pretty well ripened by Septem- ber 1 . Dissemination takes place almost immediately upon maturity. Seeds of this species are above the average in germinating power. Seed vitality for the three years beginning with 1907 was 38, 47, and 58 per cent, respectively. On the lower ranges a germination as high as 85 per cent was obtained. The forage value of short-awned bromegrass is relatively high. Because of its rank growth and the coarseness of the culms, however, it is more valuable for cattle and horses than for sheep, although if grazed when young the latter class of stock often entirely consume it. At a later period of growth the culms develop an abundance of crude fiber, and sheep then consume only the leaf blades and the panicle with its spikelets of developing grain. Horses are particularly fond of the grain both in the matured state and when green, and stockmen consider it equal to oats in nutritiousness. When this species is grazed off early in the summer it continues to grow luxuriantly, and at the close of the season has produced a second crop of leafy foliage equal in palatability to the early crop. Under such treatment, how- ever, no seed stalks are produced. On the Wallowa National Forest a variety of short-awned brome- grass, B. marginatus seminudus, and three other species, namely, rattlesnake grass (B. brizaefor mis) , B. richardsonii, and soft cheat (B. Jiordeaceus) have been collected. Because of the sparseness of all these forms except the last, this will be the only one discussed. SOFT CHEAT. (Bromus hordeaceus.) Soft cheat or chess, an annual native to southern Europe, has taken possession of deteriorated grazing lands in Washington, Oregon, and certain localities in California. On the lower ranges of the Wallowa National Forest, where germination occurs in the fall, it produces a first-class early spring feed when little else is available. Soft cheat (Plate XIX) has an erect growth. The culms, which are often very hairy at the nodes, attain a height of from 1 to 2 feet and are subtended by sheaths bearing long flexible hairs often of a silvery-white luster. The leaves are long and narrow, somewhat pubescent or smooth, and rather numerous for an annual species; the panicle is narrow, contracted, and erect, the spikelets from 5 to 13 flowered. Extending from the lemma or flowering glume is a stout, straight, or when old, slightly twisted awn, about J inch long, somewhat flattened near the base. Soft cheat is well adapted to the Transition zone, but grows luxuriantly in the Canadian zone, and is occasionally met with in Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXIII, \ RED BUNCH GRASS (AGROPYRON FLEXUOSUM). Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXIV. SMOOTH WILD RYE(ELYMUS GLAUCUS). IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 25 the Hudsonian zone, though there it is of little forage value. It makes its best growth on shallow clay loam soils, where, notwith- standing its shallow roots, it remains green throughout the summer. External hairy contrivances protect the plant from transpiration. Wilting beyond recovery does not take place until the soil moisture falls to or slightly below 5.5 per cent, a condition which very few herbaceous species can withstand. Owing to its ability to succeed in dry soils and to withstand long periods of drought, and because of its good seed habits and aggressiveness, soft cheat is valuable as a binder for exposed soils. On the higher ranges in the Canadian zone, and in those parts of the Hudsonian where it occurs, the flower stalks are mostly produced by July 15. The seeds are usually matured by August 10. In the Transition zone the seeds are ripened a month earlier. Seed col- lections made on the upland ranges at an altitude of 6,000 feet yielded an average germination of 48.2 per cent, while seed grown in the Transition zone during the same seasons averaged 78.5 per cent. This wide difference is doubtless due to the more favorable tempera- ture in the lower zone. Since the forage of soft cheat is produced exceptionally early, it is of special value at that season, and the leaf blades are then eagerly eaten. There is diversity of opinion among stockmen as to the nutritive qualities of this grass. Many claim that it is a valuable feed when supplemented with other species of grasses and weeds, but owing to its u washy," succulent nature in the spring of the year, it is not conducive to putting on solid fat. Miners say that their pack animals fatten quickly upon it when left at leisure, but when grazing upon it exclusively they are unable to work without excessive loss of flesh. After the seeds have ripened the plant is of very little forage value. TALL MEADOW-GRASS. (Panicularia nervata.) The genus Panicularia belongs to the same tribe as Kentucky bluegrass and mountain bunch grass. It contains about 20 species, most of which are found in North America. As its common name implies, tall meadow-grass usually attains a good height. The leaf blades are flat, smooth beneath, and rough above, and the sheaths are rather rough throughout. At maturity the somewhat purplish panicles with long flexible branches are usually drooping. This species is closely confined to moist situations, and is able to thrive in rather deep shade. It is almost invariably associated with slender reed-grass and various species of sedges and rushes of high water requirements. It occurs rather extensively in moist situa- tions in the Canadian zone, and is often the chief species in favorable spots in both the Hudsonian and Transition zones. 85154°— Bull. 545—17—4 26 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Since tall meadow-grass is entirely restricted to wet soils, the root system is not extensively developed, and it requires a relatively high amount of moisture to supply its needs. In its typical habitat it wilted beyond recovery when the soil water was reduced to from 12 to 14.5 per cent. The average period of flower-stalk production extends over about three weeks, beginning about July 10, while by August 1 most of the stalks have been sent forth. The seed begins to ripen about Au- gust 20, and by September 10 the crop is practically all matured and disseminated. Seeds are dropped immediately upon ripening. The germinative power of the seed crop, as tested in 1908, gave an average of 85 per cent, and since reproduction of this species seems to be generally good, it is probable that the seed has a high average vitality. Tall meadow-grass (Plate XX), like a number of other species with a high-water requirement, supplies only a limited amount of forage. It is relished by all classes of stock, and is probably most valuable as forage during August, since it is then less succulent than earlier in the season. Up to August 1 the flower stalks are eaten nearly to the same extent as the leaf buds, but after that period they become somewhat tough and are not usually eaten by sheep. Horses and cattle, however, continue to consume the entire plant until much later in the season. Another species, P. pauciflora, very commonly associated with tall meadow-grass, has similar distribution and habits. P. pauciflora, however, does not occur as abundantly and, consequently, is not as valuable as a forage plant. It is readily distinguished by having 5 nerves on the lemma instead of 7, as in the case of tall meadow grass. BIG BUNCH GRASS. (Agropyron spicatum.) The grass tribe, Hordeae, to which this and the following five species belong, is of high importance in the West. The genus Agropyron contains about 40 species, more than half of which are found in the United States. Of these, many are highly valuable for hay and forage. Big bunch grass or blue bunch grass, as it is sometimes called because of the characteristic blue-colored culms or stems, is a peren- nial with deep fibrous roots. The culms, smooth and covered with " bloom," attain a height of about 12 to 18 inches in dry situations where this grass characteristically occurs, while in deep rich soils of abundant moisture a height growth of about 30 inches is sometimes made. The leaf blades, about half the length of the culm, are mainly basal and produced in abundance. They are flat when green, but slightly rolled inwardly when the plant is air dry or suffering for lack Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXV. WHITE FOXTAIL(SITANION VELUTINUM). Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXVI. 'N TALL SWAMP SEDGE (CAREX EXSICCATA). IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 27 of water. The spikes are somewhat compressed, slender, 2 to 4 inches long. The spikelets are flattened, and as shown in Plate XXI, are long, narrow, erect or spreading, 3 to 6 flowered, 4 to 12 in number. The glumes (empty lowermost two scales) are sharp- pointed but awnless; lemmas (upper flowering scales) are usually provided with stout, somewhat twisted awns J/£ to 1 inch long. The distribution and abundance of this grass are unusual. It constitutes the controlling type of plant growth below the yellow- pine zone, where it is depended upon to furnish the major portion of the fall, winter, and spring forage. In a few localities in Montana and Wyoming it grows so dense that it is of value for hay. It extends even into the Hudsonian zone (ustially in scattered stand, though in favorable situations nearly covering the ground with a rank growth), and even in this grazing type produces considerable herbage. This wide distribution is due to its remarkable capacity to endure drought. It is able to exist though for several days in a wilted condition, in the basaltic-soil type of the higher ranges when there is but 5.5 to 7.5 per cent water. This accounts for the prevalence of big bunch grass on scablands, benchlands, and gritty, poorly disintegrated soils of low water content. Flower stalks first show about August 1, appearing very irregularly until perhaps September 1. Both the beginning and completion of production are thus unusually late, and the delay in the appearance of the flower stalks is reflected both in the time of seed maturity and in the fertility of the seed. Fully ripened seeds are rarely found before August 20. The seed crop continues to ripen irregularly as long as the weather permits, but the bulk of the seeds do not reach maturity. The seed that does mature germinates rather poorly. The average for 1907, 1908, and 1909 was 16, 30. and 26.5, respec- tively. On the lower ranges, however, seed is matured early and evenly, and a germination of 80 + per cent is often obtained. The large amount of herbage afforded by big bunch grass on the lower ranges, and even in the upland grazing areas, places it well toward the top of the list of important forage plants. No other grass or forage plant is so abundant on the lower areas, nor supplies so much feed. As a fall, spring, and winter feed it is preeminent. When the fall rains come on, usually in September, big bunch grass is awakened to growth, and for two months or more, depending upon the altitude and physiography, continues its activities. This tender and succulent herbage is ravenously consumed by all classes of stock in the fall as well as during the winter and spring. About the middle of June on the lower areas, however, the foliage becomes somewhat tough and unpalatable and ceases to be of high value for forage. On the higher ranges, owing to the delay in the growing period and the absence of growth in the fall, the plant is grazed 28 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. throughout the season, though it does not seem to be consumed with the same eagerness as many other species. MOUNTAIN WHEAT GRASS. (Agropyron violaceum.) Mountain wheat grass resembles in general appearance cultivated wheat, though the two are not closely related botanically. Like big bunch grass, this species is a densely tufted perennial with deep and spreading roots. It is readily distinguishable from the former species, however, by its awnless spikelets or the presence of a slight rudimentary awn on the lemma. The leaves are unusually numerous, basal, flat, and somewhat rough, about half the length of the culms, the latter attaining a height of from 1 to 2 feet. The spikes are slender and short, the lower (empty) glumes being conspicuously three-nerved (PL XXII). Though common in both the Canadian and Arctic-alpine zones, this species reaches its best development in the Hudsonian zone. As would be expected from the extensive development of the root system, it is best adapted to soils of medium moisture content. It inhabits open exposed situations, and is usually associated with big bunch grass, mountain bunch grass, and little bluegrass. In ecologi- cal requirements it resembles these species closely. In the drought tests it did not wilt beyond recovery until the soil water dropped to between 6 and 7.5 per cent. The flower stalks begin to show during the last week of July or first days of August, and production is for the most part complete within 3 weeks after their first appearance. As a rule the seeds are ripened from about August 20 to September 1. Dissemination takes place almost immediately after maturity. As a rule, the vitality of the seed of most of the species growing in the Hudsonian and Arctic-alpine zones reaching maturity on or before September 1 is high, and in this respect mountain wheat grass is no exception. In 1907, a very poor seed year for mountain wheat grass, there was an average germination of 78 and in 1908 and 1909, respectively, an average of 96 and 82.5 per cent. From these figures it would be expected that this species is regenerating in favorable localities. Observations show that this is true where the seed crop is worked into the soil through grazing or otherwise, but where the surface layer is undisturbed the seeds, which are large and have no awns on the flowering scales to bore them into the ground, do not germinate. Mountain wheat grass is greatly relished by all classes of stock. Growth starts promptly in the spring, and the plant remains green and palatable until late in the fall. It is eaten with the greatest relish Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXVII. TALL SWAMP SEDGE IN A SATURATED SOIL ON MINAM MEADOWS, WHERE IT FINDS AN IDEAL HABITAT. Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXVI 1 1. SHEEP SEDGE (CAREX ILLOTA). IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 29 up to about August 15, but considerably later in the season, even in September, the basal leaf blades, though not the flower stalks, are eaten close to the ground by sheep and cattle. Mountain wheat grass is cropped in preference to a large number of species. It is preferred in the latter part of the season, if not earlier in the year, to big bunch grass, though its scattered growth and narrow zonal distribution make it less important than the latter. A species closely allied botanically to mountain wheat grass is red bunch grass (A. flexuosum) , so named on account of its reddish- purple panicles and bunched habit of growth (PI. XXIII). Its prominent awns and loose spikes, however, give a very different appearance from the former. It is sometimes mistaken for smooth wild rye (PL XXIV) , though very different in structure. In its range of distribution, ecological requirements, period of flower stalk pro- duction and seed maturity, and in its forage value, red bunch grass is very similar to mountain wheat grass, though in most situations it does not remain palatable as late in the season. SMOOTH WILD RYE. (Elymus glaucus.} The species belonging to this genus are generally known as rye grasses because of their resemblance to the ordinary cultivated rye. There are about 25 species of Elymus, distributed mainly throughout the north temperate regions. Smooth wild rye is a perennial bunch grass with a strong root system capable of withstanding more than the average trampling by stock. It grows from 1 to 3 feet in height, the sheaths enveloping the culms usually being smooth, the leaves abundant, smooth beneath, some- times rough above. The spike, 2 to 5 inches long, is narrow and slender, bearing numerous spikelets of three to six flowers. The glumes (lowermost empty two scales) are narrow, sharp pointed and rigid. The lemmas (upper flowering scales) smooth or slightly rough, each bearing a straight rough awn one-fourth to one-half inch in length. This grass is distributed over a wide altitudinal range. It is most abundant in the upper Canadian zone, is fairly common in the lower Hudsonian zone, and is found to a limited extent in the Arctic- ilpine zone. As a rule, its growth is not dense, but affords an abun- dance of forage because of its wide distribution. In most cases it is merged with mountain bunch grass, short-awned bromegrass, and other species characteristically associated with the latter in glades and parks. Smooth wild rye seems to be somewhat better able to succeed in moister habitats than many of the plants associated with it in exposed situations, and yet it withstands drought remarkably well. In the drought tests it did not wilt beyond recovery in some 30 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. instances until the soil moisture was reduced to 7.5 per cent, though two species died when there was a water content of 9.8 per cent. Flower stalks begin to appear during the first week in July and continue until about the first week in August. The seed crop begins to ripen as early as August 1 and continues throughout the month, few immature seeds being found in September. The vitality of the seed crop is about the average for upland grazing plants. The aver- age germination for the three years of study was 21.2 per cent. From this it would seem that many other species, such as moun- tain wheat grass, which shows an average germination of 64 per cent, would reproduce much more abundantly. Smooth wild rye, however, is one of the most aggressive species on the high grazing lands. The seedlings develop deep root systems, and a large per- centage of the young plants succeed in rather adverse situations. The grazing value of smooth wild rye is high. By many stockmen the plant is considered rather too coarse for sheep, though it is probable that its forage value in this respect is underestimated, since observations show that sheep readily graze it. Sheep rarely crop the flower stalks, because these are produced exceptionally early, and their rapid height growth soon puts the best part of them out of reach of the animals, -and because the stalks are somewhat coarser than sheep relish and become unpalatable early in the sea- son. All things considered, however, this plant furnishes good forage by the time the upper ranges are grazed, and the herbage is consumed ravenously throughout the season. Horses are fond of the flower stalks, and until the seeds are matured and disseminated the spikes or flower heads also furnish choice feed. Cattle graze the forage closely even after the seed has been disseminated. WHITE FOXTAIL. (Sitanion ve lutinum . ) White foxtail, often called wild barley, to which it is closely related, is undesirable on the range because of its low forage value and its aggressiveness on overgrazed areas. The plant derives its name from the prominent awns, which, with the entire spike, turn a light-straw color upon reaching maturity. It is a tufted perennial grass from 1 to 2 feet tall, the culms rather conspicuously spreading on the ground, the leaf blades mainly basal, somewhat involute and rough, the upper surface pubescent. The glumes are provided with long stiff awns, which, at maturity, are strikingly divergent (Plate XXV). White foxtail is most abundant in the Hudsonian zone. It is also found on the lower grazing types, though not to the same extent as on upland ranges. The situations most favorable to it are open glades of rather poorly disintegrated soils with moisture content Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXIX. MARSH OR WATER SEDGE (CAREX FESTIVA). Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXX. MARSH SEDGE (CAREX VULGARIS BRACTEOSA). IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 31 below the average. In the drought tests the individual plants wilted excessively in soil varying in moisture from 6 to 8.5 per cent. The flower stalks of white foxtail are among the earliest to appear, and are practically all produced by August 1. Matured seeds are found as early as August 15, and are practically all ripened by the end of the first week in September. Unlike most species, the seeds are not disseminated immediately upon reaching maturity, but per- sist for some time unless they are brushed off by direct contact or shaken off by some vigorous mechanical means. Wind is ineffective in bringing about a wide distribution of the seed, but stock, especially sheep, when the}" come in contact with matured plants, distribute the seed crop broadcast, the awns attaching themselves to the wool. Germination tests as well as observations on the reproduction of this plant on the range indicate a high viability. In 1907 and the two succeeding seasons an average of 43, 77, and 82.5 per cent of the seed germinated under controlled conditions. The best repro- duction is taking place on sparsely vegetated soils where the seed are worked well beneath the surface and where competition with other species is not severe. The forage value of white foxtail is always low. In the spring, shortly after growth has started, the leaf blades are eaten by stock of all kinds, but this period is so short as to be negligible. Even before the majority of the flower stalks are produced the herbage becomes tough and harsh, and stockmen claim that the mouths of sheep become sore and tender if they graze it to any extent. As soon as the seeds begin to ripen white foxtail is almost wholly dis- regarded. If stock should consume any quantity, however, the awns may cause sore mouths and big throats, and the barbs even get into the eyes. Thus the plant is practically worthless, and the range would be better off by its absence. GRASSLIKE PLANTS. DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN GRASSLIKE PLANTS AND GRASSES. Stockmen, as a rule, do not distinguish between true grasses and grasslike plants such as sedges and rushes. The latter, because of their frequent occurrence in marshes, swales, along creek banks, and in other moist situations, are commonly referred to as "water grass," "wire grass," "swamp grass/' etc., but the three distinct groups of grasses, sedges, and rushes are almost invariably spoken of collec- tively as "grasses." Sedges, Carex, may readily be distinguished from grasses in the following simple ways : 1. The stems of sedges are triangular, jointless and solid, the leaves 3-ranked, and the leaf sheaths closed. 32 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 2. The stems of grasses are generally hollow, cylindrical, and jointed, the leaves 2-ranked, and the leaf sheaths usually split. Rushes (Juncus and Juncoides) are readily distinguished from grasses and sedges by: 1. The flowers of rushes are regular and, though diminutive, simi- lar in form to those of a lily, having a perianth composed of six bractlike scales, and with three to many small seeds borne in a capsule or small pod. 2. The flowers of grasses and sedges are not symmetrical, the perianth being irregular and inconspicuous or obsolete, and are sub- tended by husklike scales, each flower producing but a single seed. SEDGES AND RUSHES. It is the general opinion among ranchers that, as compared with grasses, sedges and rushes are of low nutritive value. This idea is generally true, but when a grass species occupying a typical marshy bog is compared with sedges and rushes from a similar situation chemical analysis has shown that the food value differs but little. Practically all species of moist habitats are somewhat too succulent or " washy," notably in the spring of the year, and while they are eaten with relish at that time they are doubtless more nutritious later in the season. A thousand or more species of sedges (Carex) have been described. They are widely distributed and are most abundant in temperate regions. In the United States approximately 500 species are found, about half of which occur in the Western States. The rush genus (Juncus) contains over 200 species. TALL SWAMP SEDGE. (Carex exsiccata.) Because of its abundance, density of stand, and height growth, this species is one of the best-known sedges on the Wallowa National Forest. It ranges from 1J to 3 feet in height, has coarse leafy culms, and broad, thick, flat leaves of a light-green color. The spikes, developed sometimes as much as 4 inches below the staminate flower clusters, are very short-stalked (Plate XXVI). The root system is somewhat meager, and new growth takes place abundantly through stolons and roots tocks. The drought tests showed that this plant wilted destructively when the rich organic soil in which it grows contained, in the one case, 22.5 per cent of moisture and in the other 24 per cent. Ob- viously, therefore, the species is distinctly of the marsh type. In most perennial bogs, preferably in saturated soils, it grows pure, to the exclusion of other species (Plate XXVII). Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXX I. MARSH SEDGE CCAREX TOLMIEI SUBSESSILIS). Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXX 1 1 ELK GRASS (CAREX GEYERI). IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 33 In somewhat drier situations, such as over-irrigated meadows, it often produces a conspicuous growth, and when associated with some cultivated grass such as redtop, is cut for hay. Tall swamp sedge is most common in the Canadian zone, but also occurs along the border of the Hudsonian zone. The flower stocks begin to push forth about June 20, and are all out by the last week in July. The seed are comparatively slow to mature, practically none being found until the last week in August, while the entire crop is not ripened until September 15. In viability the seed ranks low. The average germination obtained from the tests made in 1908 and 1909 (no tests made in 1907) was 15.2 per cent. Low vitality in the seed of this plant, however, is of little significance, since the species propagates profusely by rootstocks. Compared with many other species of its class, the forage value of tall swamp sedge is high, and early in the season the herbage is eaten with relish by sheep. Owing to the sheep's dislike for bogs, how- ever, many areas densely covered with this species are not visited until the soil becomes fairly dry. In the latter part of the summer the leaf blades become tough and harsh, and sheep do not consume them with the same eagerness as in the forepart of the season. Horses are particularly fond of this plant. They graze it throughout the season and seem to do well upon it for short periods, but, if left free, withdraw to better-drained soils which afford a wholly different type of herbage. Miners and campers state that their pack animals eat tall swamp sedge readily, but are unable to do the usual amount of work when grazed exclusively upon it. It is probable, therefore, that its nutritive value is low. SHEEP SEDGE. (Carex illota.) Of the bog forage plants of the genus Carex, sheep sedge is possibly the most important. It is a stolonif erous perennial or densely matted species about 1 foot tall, with culms usually exceeding by one- third the numerous grasslike leaves. The latter are narrow and smooth, and soft even when the plant is mature. Inconspicuous small spikes crowded into small dark brown heads distinguish it from cer- tain other associated species (Plate XXVIII). Sheep sedge is confined to mountain meadows, and rather closely to moist situations, though it persists in some which become com- paratively dry later in the season. Conditions in the Hudsonian zone are well adapted to its highest development. The leaf blades wilted but recovered their form in the rich loam soil containing 14 per cent of moisture. The flower stalks begin to appear about the middle of July and are practically all sent forth during the following three weeks. Matured 85154°— Bull. 545—17 5 34 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. seeds are found about August 20, and by the end of the first week in September the whole seed crop has ripened. Data on the vitality of the seeds were obtained only in 1909, when an average from three tests gave 27.5 per cent germination. As its common name implies, sheep sedge is a highly relished sheep forage. The leaves are tender and juicy throughout the sum- mer, and the plant seems to be consumed with about the same eager- ness at all times during the growing season. Horses, too, graze this sedge with unusual eagerness, consuming flower stalks with the same avidity as the leaf blades. Since sheep sedge is restricted to moist habitats it is, of course, not very abundant, but in favorable situa- tions it holds its own remarkably well, and it is not uncommon to find it predominating over other sedges and more fastidious species almost to their entire exclusion. Three other species, usually called marsh or water sedges, C. fes- tiva, C. vulgaris bracteosa, and C. tolmiei subsessilis, are, on account of their general appearance, forage value, and distribution, often con- fused with sheep sedge. Of these, Carex f estiva resembles it most, but differs in many minute characters (compare Plates XXVIII and XXIX). The leaves of Carex f estiva are much broader and coarser, and are rough on the edge, and the color of the plant is light green. The other two species, C. tolmiei subsessilis and C. vulgaris bracteosa (Plates XXX and XXXI) have much more elongated spikes, of a brown-black color, which alone should eliminate confusion. The latter attains about twice the height of the former, and its culms are more acutely angular. The forage value of all three species is prac- tically the same, though C. vulgaris bracteosa is relatively less abund- ant than the other two. C. tolmiei subsessilis remains palatable to stock for a longer period than either of the others, but is more abund- ant in the alpine or upper sub alpine regions, and therefore matures later, being of little importance as forage when the other species are of highest value. ELK GRASS. (Carex geyeri.) Of the dry-land sedges, elk grass is by far the most abundant. It occurs in the Canadian and Hudsonian zones, often as the predomi- nating species on exposed hillsides, and is among the earliest of the herbs to send forth its leaf blades. Many hillsides have been almost wholly vegetated by this species. Since elk grass produces new plants by stolons the growth is dense and segments of a tuft are almost inseparable (Plate XXXII). The slender, angled, rough culms, about 1 foot high, exceed but slightly the harsh and rough-edged leaf blades. The spikes are slender, borne at the summit of the culm, the st animate flowers usually appearing above, and the pistillate (1 or 2 in number) below. Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXXI 1 1, Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXX IV. 35 WOOD RUSH (JUNCOIDES PARVIFLORUM). IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 35 The very nature of the habitat in which elk grass succeeds indi- cates its unusual ability to withstand low moisture conditions. The soil in which it grows is a coarse gravelly one, which liberates the water more readily than finer soils. Drought tests resulted in the extensive wilting of all leaf blades of the plant only when the water content was reduced to 6.5 per cent, and in some instances slightly lower. This places elk grass very near the head of the list in its ability to exist under adverse moisture conditions. Flower stalks begin appear during the last week in June, and by July 20 practi- cally all are out. About the tune that the last flower stalks are sent up matured seeds are found. By August 15 the seed crop is almost entirely ripened and disseminated. The seed has about average viability, the tests in 1907 and in the two subsequent seasons showing germinations of 6, 26, and 32 per cent, respectively. In the forepart of the season elk grass is grazed with a certain amount of avidity, though practically every other grass species is preferred to it. It is only eaten by sheep up to about August 1, unless the stock are starved. After that date the leaves become so tough, hard, and fibrous that even horses will not graze it if other forage is available. Sheep always scatter widely when feeding upon it, doubtless searching for more palatable food. RUSH. (Juncus parryi.} Among the several species of rushes found on the highland ranges Juncus parryi is commonly met with, and in value is typical of other species which are abundant in the region studied. Like most rushes of the drier situations, Juncus parryi is tufted, and has woody, fibrous, deep-spreading roots capable of withstanding an unusual amount of abusive grazing. The stems are thin and wiry, from 4 to 10 inches long, and the cylindrical leaves are about half the length of the flower stems (Plate XXXIII) ; the inflorescence, usually 2 or 3 flowered, is surpassed by a bract similar to the leaves. Juncus parryi is confined to the high ranges. In the Hudsonian zone it occurs extensively in open, exposed situations on well-drained, often poorly disintegrated soils. It is usually associated with elk grass (Car ex geyeri) and is just about as drought resistant, the specimens studied not wilting beyond recovery until the soil-moisture content was reduced to from 5.5 to 7 per cent. Above timber line it is found in considerable abundance in association with typical alpine species. On the lowest areas on which the plant occurs the flower stalks begin to show about July 10, and by August 5 nearly all have been sent up. Matured seeds are usually not found before August 25. 36 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The viability of the seed crop has not been determined. Other species of the same genus growing in similar habitats have given results that are comparatively low. (See Table 2, p. 58.) The forage value of Juncus parryi is not especially high, resembling that of elk grass more than any of the other species described. Like the latter, this rush is eaten to some extent early in the season, but soon becomes extremely tough and unpalatable. For this reason, if other forage is available, it remains untouched by horses and sheep. Since it is grazed to such a limited extent, practically nothing is known of its nutritive qualities. A number of other rushes of minor importance occur throughout the mountains, the majority in moist soils. WOOD RUSH. (Juncoides parviflorum.} This genus is closely related to the rushes and resembles them in general character. It may be distinguished from the latter, how- ever, by the leaf sheaths, which in this genus are closed and in the rushes open. Further, the seed vessel or capsule of Juncoides bears 3 seeds while in Juncus the capsule is many-seeded. About 60 species are on record and they are widely distributed. Wood rush is a tufted, hardy, perennial plant, the stems, com- monly 2 to 3 in a tuft, 1 to 2 feet high. As shown in Plate XXXIV, the grasslike flat leaves, usually about one-third the length of the flower stems, are wide and sharp-pointed; inflorescence a loose panicle, commonly 2^ to 4 inches long, its lowest bract foliaceous, usually less than J the length of the panicle; flowers borne singly or 2 to 3 together on the branches of the panicle on slender pedicels or stalks. Wood rush is strictly a high-range plant, and while found to a limited extent in the warmer situations of the Arctic-alpine zone it is almost entirely confined to the Hudsonian zone. The densest and most luxuriant growth occurs in the semihumid soils of exposed situations, though it is often found in considerable abundance both in well-drained soils and on forested areas. Its most common associate is tufted hair-grass (Desckampsia caespitosa) and black hair-grass (D. atropurpurea) . In water requirements it is similar to the two species of hair-grasses, neither of which may be classed as highly drought resistant. It is usually unable to recover from a wilted con- dition in its natural habitat when the water content of the soil drops to between about 10 and 12.5 per cent. Since the plant grows only on the higher and relatively moist soils, the flower stalks seldom begin to show until July 20. Three weeks later practically all have been produced. Matured seeds are found about the time that the last flower stalks are sent forth, though the Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXXV. MOUNTAIN ONION (ALLIUM VALIDUM). Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXXVI. a \ SMALL WILD ONION (ALLIUM COLLINUM). IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 37 main seed crop is not ripened until about September 1. The vitality of the seed, according to tests made in 1908-1909, is low, an average for the two seasons giving only 7.5 per cent. The plant regenerates vegetatively to a marked degree. No local species of the family to which wood rush belongs compares with it in forage value, in which respect it is of much more importance than certain species of grasses. It is relished by all classes of stock, but because of being restricted to high mountain lands not usually accessible to cattle and horses it is grazed almost entirely by sheep. The relatively moist and cool soil which it characteristically occupies tends to prevent rapid early spring growth, such as is made by plants in the better-drained and warmer habitats. Wood rush is therefore eaten with avidity when other species of high repute, as forage plants, are well along towards maturity and eaten with little gusto. Both sheep and horses have been observed to graze the leaf blades with eagerness, in preference to certain grasses and forage weeds, late in September. Wood rush is able to withstand an unusual amount of trampling and abuse in favorable habitats because of its density of growth. This is due not to a particularly deep-root system, but rather to the density of the roots which ramify through the superficial soil layer, binding it so firmly as to prevent exposure of the roots by trampling. NONGRASSLIKE PLANTS. Besides the grasslike plants included in the preceding discussion, there are a number of other plants which furnish a large amount of the most valuable forage on the upland ranges. All classes of stock prefer a variety of feed, and sheep probably utilize a greater number of species than any other class. During certain periods of the year and under certain conditions, even where there is an abundance of comparatively palatable grasses, their choice forage is made up almost wholly of weeds and browse. A band of sheep when passing somewhat hastily over a range which supports an admixture of grasses, sedges, rushes, weeds, willows, elders, and the like, first eat the tender weeds and leaves of shrubs, while the grasses are not grazed, except to a limited extent, until the other kinds of forage have been largely consumed. On many of the upland ranges on the Wallowa National Forest there is a superabundance of weeds and here and there a number of shrubs, and since these ranges are accessible in the main only to sheep, the areas supporting these nongrasslike species are very closely cropped. Owing to the great variety of this class of feed and the large number of species grazed by sheep, only the species of first importance are discussed. These have been arranged in families and according to their botanical relationships. 38 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Liliaceae - Lily. Allium validum. Allium platyphyllum. Allium fibrillum. Melanthactae Bunchflower. Veratrum viride. Salicaceae Willow. Salix scouleriana. Polygonaceae Buckwheat. Polygonum phytolaccaefolium. Geraniaceae Geranium. Geranium viscosissimum. Onagraceae Evening primrose. Chamaenerion angustifolium. Apiaceae - -Parsnip. Ligusticum oreganum. Polemoniaceae. . f Phlox. Polemonium pulcherrimum. Vacciniaceae Blueberry. Vacdnium membranaceum. Menthaceae Mint. Agastache urticifolia. Scrophulariaceae Beardtongue. Pentstemon procerus. Caprifoliaceae * Honeysuckle. Sambucus melanocarpa. Sambucus glauca. Valerianaceae Valerian. Valeriana sitchensis. Cichoriaceae , Chicory. Hieradum cynoglossoides . Agoseris glauca. Asteraceae Aster. Rudbeckia occidentalis. Achillea lanulosa. Senecio triangularis. Senecw columbianus. MOUNTAIN ONION. (Allium validum.) Onions belong to the lily family. About 275 species have been described, and 40 or more are found in the western United States. Mountain onion, an account of its abundance, size, and the relish with which it is eaten, is one of the most valuable of these plants. It usually attains a height of 1 to 2 feet. The bulbs differ from those of other local species in being narrow and much elongated. They are provided with a rose-white, delicate covering. The rootstooks are unusually stout, and the plant makes a bunched growth, producing a heavy, dense rose-colored or nearly white flower cluster (Plate XXXV) . Mountain onion is restricted to the Hudsonian and timber- line regions. It belongs to the group of plants which require a moist or even wet soil throughout the year and occurs in wet meadows and springy places within the altitudinal limits of its range. The Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXXVII, PANICLE IN FLOWER AN & FRUIT 33 FALSE HELLEBORE (VERATUM VIRIDE), Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXXVIII. FIRE WILLOW (SALIX NUTTALLII). One leaf is turned so as to show the venation and character of the under surface. IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 39 minimum soil moisture content capable of maintaining it was found to be between 14 and 16 per cent. As a usual thing this plant grows in close association with marsh sedges and rushes, though it fre- quently produces a dense growth that crowds out other species. The flowers begin to unfold during the first week in July, and nearly all are out by the end of the first week in August. Unlike grasses, whose pollen is carried to the flower by the wind, flowers of this and other onions obtain their interchange of pollen mainly through the visits of insects. The seeds are comparatively late in maturing, seldom beginning to ripen before the last week in August, and unfav- orable weather conditions often prevent ripening. The average ger- mination of the seed crop in 1908 and 1909 was 37 per cent. Con- sidering the lateness of the maturing period, these figures are above the average. The palatability of the mountain onion as compared with that of other plants growing with it is pronounced. When sheep first visit an area containing this particular onion hi association with sedges, rushes, and the usual plants of such habitats, the majority of the other species are almost wholly disregarded until the onions have been grazed off. Few, if any, of the marsh plants are eaten with more eagerness than mountain onion. The flowers are usually cropped first, but the long flat tender leaves are apparently consumed with about the same relish. Several species of onion occur on the upland ranges, but they fur- nish only a small amount of the range forage, though eaten greedily by nearly all classes of stock. Of these species the small wild onion (A.fibrillum) is the most important. This is the earliest of the species, doubtless from the fact that it is almost entirely confined to scablands. It is a small plant (Plate XXXVI) , usually not over 6 inches in height, and has a cluster of white flowers which are expanded shortly after the disappearance of the snow. It is valuable only as an early range plant, and by August 1, like most other onions in similar situations, completes its growing period, dries up, and disappears. Wild onion (A. platyphyllum) is another important high mountain form, very similar economically and ecologically to A. JibriUum. One objection to grazing sheep upon onion is that the mutton is flavored by it. This objection is not serious, however, since the plants are usually grazed early in the spring when there is little or no output of mutton, and the flavor is soon lost when sheep are put upon other forage. FALSE HELLEBORE., ( Veratrum wride.) False hellebore, sometimes known erroneously as skunk cabbage, is a close relative of the lilies. In appearance it resembles the true hellebore (Veratrum album), from which it derives its common name. 40 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. False hellebore is a perennial herb, 1 J to 6 feet tall. Just beneath the ground the stalk becomes fleshy and much expanded, and from this protrudes a number of rootstocks and from 35 to 40 coarse, "ropy," tough roots, the latter penetrating the soil to a depth of about 20 inches. The stem is very stout and has an abundance of short-petioled or sessile, acute and broad leaves; the panicle is elon- gated, drooping, and provided with a profusion of green flowers (Plate XXXVII). False hellebore flourishes best in a comparatively wet soil. It grows densely in marshy basins, along creek banks, and in swales of nearly all kinds in the upland ranges of the Hudsonian zone. It wilts notably, in most cases beyond recovery, when the soil water content is reduced to from 11 to 14.5 per cent. The flower stalks rarely put in their appearance until about August 5, and in certain places the flowers do not unfold until September 1. The lower flowers expand first, and the lower part of the panicle is the first to mature the seed. Dissemination takes place shortly after maturity, and since the seeds are flat, broad, and winged, they are well scattered. The earliest seeds to ripen in 1909 (about August 25) showed an average germination of 24 per cent. Those which matured after September 5 had practically no viability. The forage value of false hellebore varies with the time of year, though in a way opposite from that of most grazing plants. Except very early in the spring, prior to the expansion of the leaves, when the young shoots are grazed by sheep to a certain extent, it is seldom eaten until after one or two rather severe frosts. Usually not until after August 15 is any considerable portion of the plant grazed with much relish on upland ranges, but later in the fall sheep eat it. In many instances only 3 or 4 inches of the coarse stalk is left. The leaves and pithy portion of the stalk are the parts relished. Stockmen generally hold that this plant is poisonous if eaten before it has been frosted. To what extent false hellebore has a toxic effect on stock early in the season is not known, but no authentic cases are on record where sheep have been poisoned by it. The short rootstocks are no doubt poisonous, but late in the season, at the time when the plant is generally grazed, the roots are rarely pulled up. FIRE WILLOW. (Salix scouleriana.) In the region studied the willow family, including poplars or aspens, furnish more first-class browse than any other group. Fire willow, or NuttalTs willow as it is sometimes called, is a common invader of burned-over lands, where it is the most important species. Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXXIX. WILD BUCKWHEAT (PoLYGONUM PHYTOLACCAEFOLIUM). Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XL. GERANIUM (GERANIUM VISCOSISSIMUM). A portion of the coarse root is shown on the left. IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 41 Fire willow rarely develops into tree form in the region studied, though elsewhere it often attains a height of from 15 to 25 feet and a diameter of 8 inches. The leaves are of a light shade beneath, smooth, and free from hairs on the upper surface. The midrib is prominent and yellow (Plate XXXVIII). This willow grows along mountain streams, in canyons, and on gentle slopes in damp leaf litter or rather poorly disintegrated soils. While it is sometimes sparsely scattered it more often grows in dense clumps. On burned-over areas in canyons and on gentle slopes where the soil has not been rendered sterile, it often produces dense low thickets. On the Wallowa National Forest where it grows in close association with snow bush or buck brush (Ceanoihus velutinus) in the Canadian zone, it forms what is known as chaparral. In the Hudsonian zone it occurs more sparingly. Male and female flowers are borne on different bushes, the seed production, of course, being confined to the female ones. The seeds ripen in the spring about the tune the leaves have reached full development. The little pods open up soon after maturity and liberate the silky hairy seeds, which are widely distributed. Xo tests were made of the viability of the seed of this species. It produces an abundance of seed, but reproduction is mainly vegetative. In the Wallowa Mountains fire willow is the preeminent browsing plant. The low and spreading habit of growth adds greatly to its value as a sheep forage, and the tune at which the leaves are developed renders it valuable as an early browsing plant. As high as sheep can reach, the branches are stripped of their leaves, though the bark is seldom eaten. Since this plant makes a comparatively rapid growth, a portion of the branches are soon beyond the reach of sheep and injury from severe grazing is unusual. In fact, the more sheep browse on the willow the denser becomes the growth. This is due to the vigorous and persistent sprouting of new branches as a result of the trimming back of the young shoots through grazing. Even when a bush is cut to the ground a number of young shoots are produced. WILD BUCKWHEAT. (Polygonum phytolaccaefolium.} This plant belongs to the well-known buckwheat family; the genus is represented by some 70 species in the United States. Wild buckwheat is a perennial with a coarse, fleshy, sparsely branched but deep root. It attains a height of about 2 feet; the stem is well supplied with comparatively large, oval-shaped leaves, and panicles of rather small greenish white flowers (Plate XXXIX). The species is mainly confined to exposed situations in the Hud- sonian zone, though it occurs to a limited extent in both of the bordering zones. It attains its best development on mountain 85154°— Bull. 545—17 6 42 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. slopes in a soil with the average amount of moisture.1 While it seldom grows pure, it is common enough in mixture with grasses of various kinds to give character to the range. Flower stalks appear from about the latter part of the second week in July until August 5. Matured seeds are found as early as August 1, while the major part of the crop is matured by about August 25. Though the seed crop is ripened early the vitality is not high. The average germination obtained in 1908 and 1909 was 3 and 13.5 per cent, respectively. Since wild buckwheat inhabits comparatively dry situations, it resumes growth early in the spring and by July 15 has produced an abundance of leafy herbage which is greedily eaten by sheep. After about the last 10 days in August, when the leaves begin to dry up, the plant is no longer relished. In many places where the natural reseeding experiments are being conducted good reproduction of this species has been secured. It withstands trampling remarkably well, and is promising as a plant for the revegetation of depleted ranges under a system of deferred grazing. The nutritive qualities of wild buckwheat are generally considered to be high. ^GERANIUM. (Geranium viscosissimum.) Geranium belongs to the same family as the well-known alfileria or "filaree," which is so valuable for grazing in certain sections of the country. It is a coarse, much branched, and leafy species (Plate XL), from 1 to 2 feet high. Both the branches and the upper side of the leaves are covered with fine hairs ; the leaves are long petioled, large and thick, deeply three-parted; the petals pink or purple, sometimes fading to barely white. The root is very coarse and tough, and rather deep, but not branching. In the Transition zone this plant is sufficiently abundant to be of considerable value for grazing, and is nearly as common in the Canadian zone, occupying open glades and parks and canyon bot- toms and hillsides, in medium moist, preferably gravelly, loam soils rather rich in humus. It rarely grows in dense stand, but in favor- able situations is often conspicuous, especially during the flowering period. It is usually associated with Indian paint brush (Castilleja) and yarrow (Achillea). The flowering period extends over approximately one month. On the lower ranges it is among the first of the perennial plants to bloom. 1 In determining the water requirenents of this species, it was almost impossible to obtain reliable data by the methods used because of the deep "taproot" which, if only slightly injured, would result in death to the plant within a few hours. An average of all tests attempted showed that it was unable to absorb water at a rate sufficient to reestablish turgidity from the soil in which it grows when the content was reduced to between 8 and 10 per cent. Judging from the species with which it is associated and the habitat in which it grows, these figures appear to be spm§wha.t high. Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XL I. FlREWEED (CHAMAENERION ANGUSTIFOLIUM). Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XLII. WILD CELERY (LiNGUSTicuM OREGANUM), IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 43 In the Canadian zone the flowers begin to unfold about June 20, and by July 20 most of them have expanded. The seed matures from about July 25 to August 15. In 1909 the seed crop from the Canadian zone germinated 29.5 per cent. Reproduction on the range in general is taking place slowly. Geranium is one of the choice forage plants for cattle and sheep. Since it grows in abundance on the cattle and sheep allotments, it is equally valuable to both classes of stock. When it is young all but the lower portion of the coarse stem is eaten, but later only the flowers, immature fruits, and leaves are grazed. About the time that the seed crop has matured the leaves dry up and the plant loses much of its forage value. FlREWEED. (Chamaenerion angustifolium.) CJutmaenerion angustifolium is given its name, fireweed, because of its prevalence on burned-over forest lands. This species is the most valuable perennial grazing plant of the evening primrose family. It attains a height of 2 to 5 feet, depending on the situation. The cylindrical stem bears an abundance of long, slender, nearly entire, thin leaves, and the inflorescence consists of a raceme of delicately pink or nearly white, or sometimes purple, flowers developed at the apex of the stem (Plate XLI). The long, slender capsules split into four divisions at maturity, liberating the numerous minute seeds provided with a tuft of long silky hairs, by means of which they are carried great distances by the wind. In the Wallowa National Forest fireweed is most abundant on burned-over areas in rather dry, often coarse, gravelly and even sterile soils in the Canadian zone. It also occurs in both of the con- tiguous zones, though never in pure stand. It is one of the first species to invade heavily burned lodgepole-pine forests. Fireweed is drought resistant, comparing in this respect with some of the grasses which grow both in moist and in dry situations. The plants were found not to wilt excessively until the soil moisture was reduced to between 8.2 and 11.5 per cent, depending upon the par- ticular soil type. In the moister places, where decayed vegetable matter is more abundant, the moisture requirement figures are higher. The production of flower stalks, like the seed-maturing period, continues for an unusual tune. In the warmer situations flowers begin to unfold as early as June 20, and in a few places buds are found at the apex of the raceme as late as the early part of August. The lower flowers are first displayed, and as the season advances there is a gradual sequence or succession in the flowering toward the 44 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. apex of the raceme. Accordingly, while the upper part of the raceme is in full flower the lower portion often has well-developed seed pods. In some cases the seed reaches maturity on the lower parts of the raceme while buds are still forming on the upper portion. The seed- maturing period begins about August 1 and continues until inclement weather sets in. While the viability of the seed is not high, the average for that collected in 1908 and 1909 being 21.5 per cent, the earlier maturing seed runs from 10 to 12 per cent higher than that maturing later. The amount of seed produced is unusually large and reproduction is very abundant. When young, fireweed is eaten with great avidity. As the season advances, however, the stem become fibrous and unpalatable, and after August 1 only the flowers and leaves are grazed, the stem being left quite naked. Few if any " weeds" are more relished by sheep than fireweed. Horses, too, eat it to a limited extent, and cattle graze it ravenously. Since it begins growth early in the spring and is late in reaching maturity, it furnishes a much relished feed during the greater part of the summer grazing period. WILD CELERY. (Ligusticum oreganum.) Ligusticum oreganum, sometimes called wild parsnip, belongs to the same family as cultivated celery, parsnip, and carrot, and in the region studied is called both wild celery and wild parsnip. It has the characteristic parsnip aroma, and resembles the parsnip somewhat in the appearance of the leaf (Plate XLII). It should not be con- fused with the poisonous water hemlock, which is found in wet soils and is sometimes called "wild parsnip.'7 Wild celery is a smooth perennial with large aromatic, sparsely branched roots. The leaves are numerous, nearly all basal, and com- pound, being ternately (in three) then pinnately divided', the umbel is made up of numerous rays with many narrow pointed bracts sur- rounding the flower cluster. The plant is distinctly one of the Hudsonian zone. It occurs on all exposures and slopes, but prefers deep, loose, porous and friable, well-drained soils of medium moisture content. Since it does not regenerate by offshoots from running rootstocks, it probably is not capable of forming, even under most favorable conditions, pure or nearly pure stands. It is most commonly associated with mountain bunchgrass, short-awned bromegrass, and other species inhabiting the better soils or glades. Its water requirements are higher than those of its associates. The plant wilts usually beyond recovery hi a soil whose water content varies from 8 to 9.5 per cent. Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATEXLMI. SKUNK WEED(POLEMONIUM PULCHERRIMUM). Only a portion of the creeping rootstock is shown. Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XLIV. HIGH HUCKLEBERRY (VACCINIUM MEMBRANACEUM). Showing edible mature berries. IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 45 The leafless flower stalks begin to show about the second week in July, and are nearly all developed during the succeeding four weeks. The seed crop matures, on the average, from about August 15 to September 10, and is disseminated immediately afterward. The seed has low viability. In 1907 and in the two succeeding seasons a germination of 2, 6, and 11.5 per cent was obtained. The plant, especially the fruiting parts, is very sensitive to frost, which may account in part for the low viability of the seed, since after August 15 frosts are frequent in the situations where it grows. Reproduction is taking place sparingly on the range in general, and even on the allotments that are in process of reseeding under deferred grazing. Wild celery may be utilized quite as early for grazing purposes as the majority of the grasses, and furnishes ideal feed for sheep from July 20 to August 25. Horses sometimes eat it, though only to a limited extent. Unlike most plants, it is eaten with quite as much relish late in the season as early in the summer. After about August 25 it is not valuable for forage, the leaves being killed by frost, leaving only the naked flower stalk. SKUXKWEED. (Polemonium pulcherrimum.) Skunkweed, so called because the plant has an odor somewhat suggestive of a skunk, is a fine hairy plant from 4 to 8 inches in height, with sparingly branched slender stems. The leaves are basal and compound, the oblong leaflets numbering from 7 to 15 or even more. The corolla of the clustered flowers is blue, turning very pale or nearly white before dropping. The root system is exception- ally superficial and spreading (Plate XLIII). The plant grows in tuftlike patches of shoots arising from creeping rootstocks. If a single plant is pulled from the ground in a loose soil most of the lateral roots, as well as the main root, come up with it. Skunkweed is confined almost exclusively to the Hudsonian zone. While it often produces a conspicuous and luxuriant growth in the open, it prefers the somewhat diffuse light of open forest lands. In exposed situations, where the soil type is relatively coarse in texture, the plant does not succumb from excessive transpiration until the soil-water content is reduced to 7 per cent, and in protected situa- tions, where the soil texture is rather fine, death due to wilting comes when the water content is reduced to 10 per cent. The flowers begin to open during the second week in July and bloom throughout August, though after the middle of the month most have expanded. About August 20 the seeds begin to ripen, and this continues as long as the season is favorable. The seed crop 46 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. is comparatively fertile. In 1908 and 1909 an average germination of 41.5 and 32.5 per cent was obtained. Since skunkweed grows above the range ordinarily grazed by cattle, it furnishes only sheep forage. It is eaten ordinarily with about the average amount of relish, and at times ravenously. It is best for grazing purposes from about July 20 to the last week in August. At the latter end of the season the foliage is frequently frostbitten and dry. HIGH HUCKLEBERRY. (Vacdnium membranaceum.') High huckleberry is the most valuable grazing species of its family in the region studied. It is a much branched and leafy shrub from 1 to 4 feet tall (Plate XLIV), the twigs slightly angled, leaves thin, not shining, short-petioled. The flowers are inconspicuous and soli- tary, and the corolla, usually five-toothed, is greenish or purplish in color. The berry, when mature, is purplish black. It is slightly acid and is highly valued as food. High huckleberry is confined to the Transition and Canadian zones, being most abundant in the latter. It is commonly found under yellow pine, fire willow, and lodgepole pine, and accordingly endures a considerable amount of shade. It is characteristic of strongly acid or sour soils, and is rarely, if ever, found on limestone or even neutral soils. On the lower elevations the flowers begin to appear about June 1 , and by July 1 most of them have expanded. The berry begins to develop dark pigment as early as July 15, and the ripening period continues until about the first week in September, at which time most of the berries are clinging. Since the berries are palatable to both birds and animals, they are almost entirely consumed, and seed distribution is thorough. Sheep browse this plant with avidity, and it is grazed from about June 15 to late in the autumn, though it is most palatable early in the season. Throughout the Canadian and Hudsonian zones and up to the limits of tree growth another species, known as red huckleberry (Vacdnium scoparium), occurs in even greater abundance than the high huckleberry. As a forage plant, however, it does not compare with the latter, though it is grazed to a limited extent. This species also is confined to acid soils. HORSEMINT. (Agastache urticifolia.) Horsemint is the most widely distributed representative of the mint family in the Wallowa Mountains, and is of the highest value for grazing. Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XLV. HORSEMINT (AGASTACHE URTICIFOLIA). Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XLVI. BLUE BEARDTONGUE (PENTSTEMON PROCERUS). A portion of the running rootstocks is shown. IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 47 It is an erect smooth perennial plant from 1 to 3 feet tall, with square stems and opposite, petioled leaves, the margins coarsely and irregularly toothed. The flowers are clustered in a dense terminal spike, the corolla pink-white or sometimes light purple. The root is coarse, fibrous, woody, and rather spreading (Plate XLV). Horsemint is widely distributed. It is met with occasionally in the Transition zone, and is abundant in the Canadian and Hudsonian zones. Though occurring but sparingly hi the upper altitudes of the latter zone, it is of considerable value for forage up to 8,000 feet. The best development and densest stands are found in loose soils of medium moisture on the glades^in the upper Canadian and lower Hudsonian. While it often predominates over associated species hi the better and moister soils, it almost always grows in scattered stands, especially in shallow, coarse, gravelly clays. The flowers begin to form about July 10, but all are not expanded as a rule until August 20. Fertilization is largely effected through insects, mainly bees. The two-lipped corollas drop soon after fertilization. Matured seeds are usually found by the last week in August though the entire crop is rarely ripened until about September 10. The matured, brownish-black, plump, hard-coated, oval seed-like nutlets are not disseminated at once, but are readily expelled when the seed cluster is vigorously shaken, shooting out some distance from the parent plant. For a high-range plant the germination power of the seed is about the average. In 1908 and 1909 representative samples gave an average of 16 and 28.5 per cent, respectively. Where this species is given a chance to reproduce, i. e., on ranges where the seed crop is allowed to mature prior to grazing, reproduction is taking place, though sparingly. The actual amount of seed produced per plant is relatively small, and since only about one-fourth is fertile the species is succeeding as well as might be expected. Horsemint begins growth early in the season and matures late and consequently is relished by stock at all times during the summer. Both sheep and cattle eat it with much relish, though sheep graze it with greater avidity. Horses eat it only to a limited extent, and it can not be considered of value for this class of stock. Until the flowering parts begin to drop the entire cluster is consumed, so that early in the season the whole plant is eaten. After about August 10 only the leaves are grazed. Since younger leaves remain green some little tune after seed maturity, horsemint is preferred in the fall of the year to some of the more valuable grasses and forage plants. BLUE BEARDTONGUE. (Pentstemon procerus.) About 100 species of Pentstemon are found in the United States and Mexico, many of them of value for grazing. Blue beardtongue 48 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. is the most highly relished as well as the most abundant of the various species on the high range lands of the Wallowa National Forest. Blue beardtongue is a perennial with conspicuous lateral running rootstocks which send out a number of shoots reaching a height of 4 to 12 inches. The whole plant is smooth and somewhat shiny; the lower leaves are long petioled, smaller than those arising from the middle of the stem; the upper leaves are small and without leaf stalks (Plate XL VI). Thee flowers, usually 5 in a cluster, are arranged in whorls. The bright blue corolla is lipped, the lower lip bearded within. As hi all bear/ltongues, one of the five stamens is sterile, and in this species it is distinctly bearded also. This plant is conspicuous in the Hudsonian zone, though it grows in varying abundance at lower altitudes. Open parks and medium moist meadows of deep, loose, but well-drained soils are the favorite habitats. In moisture requirement it resembles wild celery (Ligus- ticum origanum), with which it is commonly associated. In the characteristic soil type in which blue beardtongue grows, wilting beyond recovery does not occur until the soil-water content is reduced to from 10 to as low as 8 per cent. The flowers begin to open ab'out July 10, and all are out by August 15. About the time the last flowers expand the first matured seeds are found, though, of course, on different plants. The seed tested in 1909 showed a viability of 18.5 per cent. In previous years no germination studies were made. Under favorable conditions on protected ranges, however, reproduction is excellent, and it is appar- ent that this plant will increase in abundance under the deferred- grazing system. Blue beardtongue seems to be eaten by sheep with more eagerness than any of its allied species. Since its growth begins promptly in the spring, it furnishes a fair portion of the valuable early forage. The leaves, but not the stems, are eaten even after the seeds have matured, though they are not as palatable as earlier in the summer. The plant is of highest value for grazing between about July 15 and August 20. Besides the blue beardtongue three species of Pentstemon, P. deus- tus, P. fruticosuSj and P. venustus, all grazed at certain times in the season, are common hi the Wallowa Mountains. MOUNTAIN ELDER. (Sambucus melanocarpa.) Mountain elder is a shrub with stems 3 to 6 feet high rising in profusion from a common crown; twigs of one year old growth smooth, shiny green-brown and slightly angled, the pith yellow- brown; bark of the older branches rather thick, rough, dark yellow- Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XLVII, MOUNTAIN ELDER (SAMBUCUS MELANOCARPA). Observe the smooth bark of the younj twig in contrast to the coarse bark of the older branch. Bui. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XLVIII. MOUNTAIN ELDER (SAMBUCUS MELANOCARPA). foliage "^ °f thC palatabUity of mountain elder, sheep usually leave the lower branches quite bare of -. bJcti •!« : :*g||t||t Si s« : • •:?«•§ =s s*.s'£ s. 4ff •Sgehi^fcsS.SS *K ssoSB-j-sssssbSvrsaSgjsjtji^gifc SJ S ,-» f<> ~ i '<• - ---=:-=:-=: ^T ~ ."-."- '-r. -O =: i .is >• r- r~ = -r >«&!«! ^ ss^-e^j-'c^'-^s 5-~???§s ^5 £ '^ £? =^c i § £ £ S ^fe.^s ^^§^*^<5> bO be be bct^ be be . be be be be I 3_; 33 s 3 3 3 3 "5 3 "3 53 I dda.djr cs.rf. 80 - ii illiU l-lil II KUt sn^x m II IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 61 APPENDIX: PLAN OF STUDY. In obtaining information on the individual forage species, consid- eration was given as far as possible to the following points: 1. Name of plant, both Latin and common. 2. Distribution. a. Characteristic zone. b. Most typical habitat; abundance and density of stand. 3. Usual plant associations and communities. 4. Habit of growth. a. Annual or perennial. 6. Tufted growth, height growth, and character of herbage. 5. Character of root system. a. Spreading fibrous root, or taproot with lateral rhizomes. 6. Depth of roots in soil. 6. Ecological requirements. a. Soil and moisture preferences. 6. Drought resistance. 7. How flower stalks are sent up. 8. How fertilized. 9. When seeds are matured. 10. How and when seeds are disseminated. 11. Seed habits, strong or weak. Viability tests. 12. Period of germination. 13. Classes of stock which graze it. 14. Suitability for early or late grazing. 15. Palatability when green and when matured. 16. Time at which it is usually grazed. 17. Relative forage value. Information on the points in the above outline was secured through investigation extending over four successive years. The actual eco- logical requirements of the various species could be determined only through physical-factor measurements. An important factor affecting the distribution, and more particu- larly the succession of vegetation, is available soil moisture. Experi- ments showed that the greatest physiological activity is manifested at the time fertilization is taking place or immediately after the completion of the flower-stalk production but prior to a pronounced development of the seed. The comparative ability of the various species to withstand drought was determined by ascertaining for each species the amount of moisture remaining in the soil when the plant had wilted to a point from which it could not recover. Unless pronounced wilting was actually in progress as a result of aerial and soil conditions, it was necessary to bring it about by cutting off the water supply from the plant. In making determinations in the field one of the methods used was as follows: The plants to be tested were dug up, with the roots undisturbed in their own soil, particular care being taken to prune off as little of the root system as possible. The block of soil 62 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. held together by the intertwining of the roots was wrapped in burlap for purposes of transfer and immediately placed upon suitably cut wire screen (see Plate I), which, when fitted and fastened together around the soil body in the form of a basket, was placed in the hole created by the digging of the plant. In this manner the plant was not subjected to too rapid drying and its normal functions were unimpaired. After the plant had fully recovered from any slight disturbance due to digging, it was elevated slightly in order to increase the rapidity of the drying process. The wire-basket method made the plant portable, a very desirable feature in field work since the plant could easily be removed from the field during showers and when in a wilted condition prior to soil sampling and placed under shelter — in this case in a carefully-placed 14-ounce canvas tent — and thus protected from direct effects of wrind and sun when the specimen might recover its turgor if not wilted excessively. The other method of ascertaining the water requirements was to dig away the soil on all sides of the plant, leaving in place the central core of soil supporting the roots, the size of which would depend upon the spreading habit of the root system (see Plate I, fig. 2\ This method was used especially for certain species with deeply pene- trating taproots, such as wild celery (Ligusticum oreganum) and wild buckwheat (Polygonum pJiytolaccaefolium). These, it was found, would not respond normally to the wire-basket method of treatment. The drying process brought about in this way, owing to the fact that the water supply was not wholly cut off from below, was slightly more gradual than in the case of the wire-basket method, but the results of the tests for species which did not have a distinct taproot, such as grasses, proved to be virtually the same as those secured for the same species by the wire-basket method. When the plant reached a con- dition of pronounced wilting and turgor could not be recovered, two representative soil samples were taken, weighed immediately to avoid possible discrepancy due to evaporation, placed in a soil-drying oven and subjected to a temperature not exceeding 212° F. for several hours until they were dry, then reweighed. The difference between the dry weight of the samples and the weight when taken at the time the plant was in a wilted condition represents the amount of moisture remaining in the soil at a time when the root hairs were unable, under the conditions, to absorb moisture rapidly enough to maintain the form of the plant and finally to recover its turgidity. The depth and location at which soil samples were taken were regulated by the depth of penetration and position of the roots. This operation was followed by protecting the specimen from the direct effect of sun and wind by placing a small tent shelter over it. In all cases the soil moisture figures given are based upon specimens which failed to recover their turgor, unless otherwise stated. All moisture require- IMPORTANT RAX<;K PLANTS. 63 ment determinations of species were made from two to four weeks after the flower stalks began to show. Since the character of the soil and the nature of the habitat play an important role in the amount of water the substratum may yield to the plant, the wilting of species was tested as nearly simultaneously and under as nearly the same topographic features as possible. The results therefore are comparable. To ascertain the germination per cent of the seed crop, matured seeds were collected in the fall of each year for three years from typical situations, and germination tests were made in the seed- testing laboratory of the United States Department of Agriculture. o BERMUDA GRASS SAMUEL M. TRACY Agronomist, Office of Forage-Crop Investigations FARMERS' BULLETIN 814 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. May, 1917 BERMUDA grass is the most important perennial grass in the Southern States. It was introduced into the United States at least as early as 1806. Besides the common Bermuda grass, there are several varieties, the most important of which are the Giant, characterized by a very large growth, and St. Lucie grass, similar to ordinary Bermuda grass, but lacking underground rootstocks. Bermuda grass grows well mixed with lespedeza for a summer crop. Bur clover, black medic, and hairy vetch as winter crops alternate well with it. The best Bermuda-grass pastures of the South will usually carry two head of cattle per acre for eight months of the year. On poor soils the carrying capacity is not more than one cow per acre. On rich bottom land Bermuda grass grows tall enough to cut for hay. Under exceptional circumstances three or more cuttings may be se- cured in a season, giving total yields of from 6 to 10 tons of hay per acre. It will grow well on soils so alkaline that most other field crops, as well as fruits, will fail. The feeding value of Bermuda-grass hay compares closely with that of timothy hay. Bermuda grass frequently is used to bind levees and to prevent hillsides from washing. The grass usually can be eradicated by growing two smother crops, a winter one of oats or rye, followed by a summer crop of cowpeas or velvet beans. BERMUDA GRASS. CONTENTS. Page. [ Page. Introduction 3 Description of Bermuda grass 3 History 4 Climatic adaptations 5 Adaptations to soil 5 Distribution in the United States 6 Varieties 7 Seed production 8 Propagation 8 Pasture value 10 Bermuda grass for hay 13 Bermuda grass for turf 13 Bermuda grass for soil binding 14 Market value 14 Feeding value 15 Eradication 18 Summary 18 INTRODUCTION. Bermuda grass * is the most common and most valuable pasture plant in all the Southern States, being of the same relative importance in that region that Kentucky bluegrass is in more northern States. In many sections of the South it is one of the best grasses for hayj and it is the most common grass used for lawn purposes. It makes a vigorous and persistent growth in nearly all the warmer parts of the world, and its value depends on the region in which it is grown and the purpose for which it is to be used. In India it is known as sacred grass and is there believed to have been the gift of some benevolent deity for the support of the cows, which are also held as sacred in that country. In sharp contrast with that, however, in the southwestern part of the United States it is known as devil grass on account of the trouble which it gives in irrigated fields and on ditch banks. DESCRIPTION OF BERMUDA GRASS. Bermuda grass is a perennial, spreading by runners or by rootstocks, or by both, and also by seeds. The runners are usually from a few inches to 3 or 4 feet, though sometimes more than 20 feet in length, creeping ^over the surface of the ground and often rooting at the joints. The erect flower-bearing branches are usually 6 to 12 inches in height, though reaching 2 feet or more in some varieties ; the leaf blades are narrow, flat, 1 to 4 inches in length, each bearing a ring of minute white hairs at the base; the flowers are in slender spikes, three to six in a cluster, radiating like those of crab-grass, each spike 1 to 2 inches long. (Fig. 1.) 1 Cynodon dactulon or Capriola dactylon. FARMERS BULLETIN 814. The stems of this grass are peculiar in that they often appear to have from two to four leaves at each joint. There is really only one leaf at each joint, but in many cases two to four contiguous joints are very short and so bear as many leaves close together as there are short joints. The two or more short joints are succeeded by a longer joint, 1 to 3 inches in length, which, in turn, may be followed by two or more short joints. While this arrangement of alternating long and short joints is very common, it is far from being uniform. HISTORY. Bermuda grass is un- doubtedly a native of the Old World, probably of India, but it is now com- mon in all tropical and sub- tropical parts of the world. It is not known when it made its first appearance in America, but in Mease's Geological Account of the United States, published in 1807, it is mentioned as one of the most important grasses in the Southern States. It is now common in all parts of the United States from Virginia to Florida and westward to Arizona and California. In the United States it is commonly known as Ber- muda grass, which suggests that it may have come to America by way of the islands of that name, though there is no definite published record of such a source. ^ In some localities it is known as wire-grass, scutch-grass, dog's-tooth, or Bahama grass, and in California and Arizona it is often called devil grass. In Australia it is commonly known as couch or Indian couch. In the Hawaiian Islands it is known as manienie, while in India it is called doob, and in southern India hariali. The many names which have been given to it in different parts of the world show that it has a wide distribution and that it has long been regarded as an important plant. FIG. 1.— Bermuda grass. BERMUDA GRASS. 5 There is a grass which is often called " water Bermuda" or "ditch Bermuda."1 It is better known as knot-grass, or ditch-grass, as it commonly grows on the sides and bottoms of ditches and on other damp soils, where it gives a considerable amount of grazing but is of no value for hay. It is easily distinguished from true Bermuda grass, which has three to six seed spikes, while this has but two. CLIMATIC ADAPTATIONS. Bermuda grass requires warm weather during its growing season. It bears intense summer heat without injury, but is seriously injured by a moderate degree of cold and is seldom persistent where the tem- perature often falls much below zero F., though the rootstocks may withstand a somewhat lower temperature. It often winterkills hi western Kentucky and Tennessee. It usually does not bear heavy freezing, though it has lived through a temperature of — 10° F. in Kentucky and in Washington, D. C., and - 18° F. in Oklahoma. On the Atlantic coast, southeastern Virginia is about the northern limit of its profitable growth, and there it is not sufficiently aggressive to interfere with the growth of alfalfa. On the Pacific coast it makes little growth north of California. Bermuda grass does best with abundant moisture, but will not grow well where the ground is not thoroughly drained. In the arid region of the Southwest it is of little value if not irrigated, not making as vigorous a growth as curly mesquite, buffalo grass, and some other native species. It bears a long and hot summer with little injury, though it makes little growth when the weather is very dry and it is not irrigated. It will bear flooding for some weeks, but will not grow weh1 where the soil is constantly saturated with stagnant water. It does not bear shading well, even when all other conditions are favorable, and planters often take advantage of this fact to secure its eradication by growing smother crops. ADAPTATIONS TO SOIL. Bermuda grass will grow well on almost any soil which is fertile and not too wet, but better on soils that are heavy than on those which are light and sandy. On the latter it is likely to be crowded out by carpet grass or other native species. It will grow satisfactorily on light and sandy soils when they are well fertilized with cottonseed meal, dried blood, or some other nitrogenous fertilizer, but it does not do well on soils containing little humus or nitrogen. It will grow well on soils so alkaline that most other field crops, as well as fruits, will fail, as has been shown in California and other Southwestern States. The presence or absence of lime seems to have little effect on the amount of its growth. Careful trials at the Mississippi and Georgia agricultural experiment stations have shown no beneficial effects 1 Paspalum distichum. 6 FARMERS BULLETIN 814. from the application of lime in any form, though similar tests at the Tennessee station have indicated a moderate benefit. While the presence or absence of lime may not influence the yield, it apparently influences the quality. Live-stock dealers and butchers in Mobile and New Orleans have stated repeatedly that they can recognize cattle that have been raised in a limestone region and that these cattle always bring the highest price. Bermuda grass does best on a fertile soil which is fairly moist, well drained, and rich in humus and nitrogen. DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES. The accompanying map (fig. 2) shows approximately the region in which Bermuda grass has become naturalized and is more or less profitable. The shaded portion marks the region where the grass is grown most extensively. In warm valleys and specially favorable locations it often grows for some distance north of the limit shown. Bermuda grass grows well in many parts of California, but is util- ized there mainly for lawns, rarely for hay or pasture. It is often a troublesome weed in alfalfa fields and is objectionable on the banks of irrigation ditches, as its runners often spread so as to obstruct the flow of water. East of the 'one hundredth meridian the northern limit of its profitable growth is about the same as the southern limit for the growth of Kentucky bluegrass, though in many places the ground is occupied by a more or less uneven mixture of the two. It is not common north of the Potomac and Ohio Kivers or north of the Missouri Kiver east of Kansas City. FIG. 2.— Map of the United States, showing the distribution of Bermuda grass. The upper line indicates its northern limit, but the grass is of most value in the shaded area. BERMUDA GRASS. 7 VARIETIES. Bermuda grass is valued principally- for two purposes — for the pro- duction of hay and pasture and for use on lawns. For hay and pas- ture the best variety is that which makes the strongest growth, while for lawns the most satisfactory is one which is dwarf in growth and covers the ground with a dense mat of turf. For use in the northern parts of the Bermuda-grass region the variety planted for any purpose should be one which is not killed by ordinary freezes, while the ability to resist cold needs less, consideration farther south. The variety to be planted should be selected to suit the purpose and locality for which it is wanted. The soil on which Bermuda grass is grown and the treatment which it receives cause great variations in its growth. Plants which may make a rank, erect growth, a foot or more in height and with long leaves, when grown on a rich and moist soil may make only a flat and spreading growth, with stems only 2 or 3 niches high and with very short leaves , when transplanted to a hard clay soil. There are, however, a few varieties which are quite distinct from others wherever they may be planted. The most common variety, the one which is hi almost universal use wherever Bermuda grass is grown, produces stems only about a foot or less hi height, though varying greatly. It produces abundant rootstocks, which often run several inches below the surface of the ground, and also makes surface runners, which may be from a few niches to several feet hi length. The most rank-growing sort yet found is Giant Bermuda grass,1 introduced from Brazil a few years ago. On a rich and moist soil it often makes runners 20 feet or more hi length, with an abundance of erect stems 2 feet or more in height, affording two or three annual cuttings and yielding more than any other variety yet tested. It rarely produces seed heads and has few or no underground root- stocks . Another form from southern Florida is very similar in growth, but has shorter runners and produces seed heads very abundantly. While both these varieties make heavy yields for hay and grazing, they are too coarse for use on a lawn. St. Lucie grass is another variety, with no underground rootstocks. This variety is rather dwarf hi growth, seldom more than 6 inches hi height, with slender stems and small leaves. It is one of the best sorts for lawns and dooryards. It is common in Florida and is not hardy as far north as middle Georgia. Its growth. is too dwarf to make it profitable for hay, but it recovers quickly after frosts and so is valuable for pastures and lawns. Many other varieties may be separated from the common Bermuda grass of the fields, the most important differences being in rankness 1 Cynodon dactylon var. maritimus. 8 FARMERS BULLETIN 814. of growth, the presence or absence of underground roots tocks, hardi- ness, and other characters of less importance. When it is desired to propagate any ^peculiar form which may be found, the plants should be increased by the division of the runners or rootstocks, as seeds rarely produce exact duplicates of the parent form. There seems to be little relation between the growth of roots tocks underground and the growth of the stems above ground. In general, however, those varieties making deep underground rootstocks stand more severe freezes than those with only surface runners and so are more desirable for planting in the northern part of the Bermuda- grass region. The varieties with only surface runners are more easily killed when it is desired to exterminate the grass and use the land for other crops. SEED PRODUCTION. Bermuda grass seeds freely in southern California, Arizona, and New Mexico, and from these States part of the commercial supply of seed is now obtained. Tests of seeds grown in California and Arizona have shown a germination of 95 per cent, which is a much higher percentage than is obtained from most imported seed. Many years ago all the seed used in this country was imported from Australia and sold at a very high price, but now that home-grown seed has proved fully as good the price has steadily declined until seed may be bought for about 50 cents a pound. Bermuda grass also seeds occasionally much farther east, good seed having been found in southern Texas, southwestern Louisiana, North Carolina, and even as far north as Washington, D. C. It does not seed well in any region of heavy rainfall, as on the Gulf coast, and it needs a season of considerable heat and dry weather for the best seed development. It is probable that the occasional development of seed is an important factor in the spread of the grass in all parts of the country where it occurs. PROPAGATION. Bermuda grass may be propagated either by seeds or by " roots" or cuttings. As the seeds are very light and small, the ground should be put in the finest possible condition before they are sown. The sowing should not be done until late in the spring, when the soil has become fairly warm. Immediately after cotton planting is generally the best season for the work. When good seed is used 5 pounds per acre are sufficient. Before sowing, it should be mixed with cotton- seed meal, wood ashes, or some similar material — even fine soil will answer — to increase the bulk and so secure a more even distribution over the field. The seeding should always be broadcast and can BERMUDA GRASS. 9 be done either by hand or by using a wheelbarrow seeder. In any case it is better to sow only half the seed the first time the field is gone over, and then the other half while going over the field at right angles to the direction in which the first half was sown, so as to cover skips and balks. If possible, a roller should be used for covering the seeds, but if that is not available a light smoothing harrow or a drag made of brush may be employed. The covering should always be very shallow; therefore the use of a roller is of great advantage, as it packs and firms the soil without covering the seeds too deeply. When the seed is planted in the spring on well-prepared soil, the plants will cover the ground by midsummer and will give a cutting for hay or a considerable, amount of pasturage in the fall. It is useless to plant seed on poorly prepared land. Ground seeded in the spring should not be pastured until the sod has become so dense that it will not be injured by trampling. When bare spots are found they can be filled in easily by transplanting " roots" from the thicker places at any time during the summer. Roots and cuttings are used in propagation much more commonly than seeds. In planting, fresh sods about an inch in thickness should be taken up, either by using a spade or a plow, and then torn into very small pieces for distribution. It is common practice to plow furrows 4 to 6 feet apart, then drop pieces of sod every 2 or 3 feet and cover with the foot. This method of planting is very inexpensive and answers well where the land is to be used as a pasture, but it leaves the surface of the ground too rough and uneven for a good meadow. When the entire surface is plowed, the pieces may be dropped 2 or 3 feet apart and pushed into the soil with a forked stick, such as is used in planting sweet potatoes, and then stepped on, to firm the soil and prevent drying out. Another method is to plow the old sod very shallow, harrow until the roots are well loosened, rake into piles or windrows, and load into a wagon. The wagon is then driven across the freshly prepared field in which the planting is to be. done and the roots dropped about 2 feet apart in the wheel tracks and covered with the foot. The ground should be gone over twice, lapping the spaces, so that the rows will be only half as far apart as the distance between the wheels. An ordinary wagon box will hold enough roots to plant 1 to 2 acres, depending on how finely the roots are divided and how carefully the work is done. When planted in this way the grass will cover the ground in a few weeks and the total expense, including the prepara- tion of the ground, need not be more than $5 per acre for the labor employed. When a field is to be planted for a meadow it should be prepared as carefully as for seeding. Since it is to be a permanent field for 84445°— Bull. 814—17 2 10 FARMERS' BULLETIN 814. mowing and will be used many years for that purpose, all bumps and hollows should be smoothed off , so that water can not stand in low spots and the mowing machine and rake may run over it smoothly and not be injured by racking. While Bermuda grass will make some sort of a growth in almost any field it can never make a satis- factory meadow if the ground is not well prepared and made smooth before planting. As good soil and as thorough preparation are needed to make a good meadow as to make a good crop of corn or cotton. When roots are used for planting they should always be protected from the sun as much as possible. When loaded into a wagon they should be wet down and covered with a blanket or old sacks to pre- vent them from becoming dry. As is stated elsewhere, different varieties of Bermuda grass vary greatly in hardiness. Some are killed by very moderate frosts, while others, usually those with deep-running rootstocks, bear heavy freezes without injury. For this reason it is safer in the northern parts of the Bermuda region to propagate from near-by old fields, as these plants have proved themselves hardy. While seeds may make an abundance of thrifty plants, many of them are likely to be killed by the first severe winter. Farther south, seeds may be used with greater safety. Whatever method may be followed in planting it will often be necessary to mow the field a few weeks afterwards to prevent weeds from shading and choking out the young Bermuda-grass plants. PASTURE VALUE. Bermuda grass is the foundation of all good permanent pastures in the South. It is the best pasture grass in the region from the Carolinas westward to California on soils of fair fertility and with even moderate rainfall, although on the very dry lands of New Mexico and Arizona it is less productive than curly mesquite and buffalo grasses. It bears heavy grazing and trampling with little injury, recovers quickly when grazed down, and is eaten greedily by all kinds of live stock. Even the rootstocks are so tender and juicy that they are well liked by hogs. It should be used as the principal grass in the making of all permanent pastures in the region shaded in figure 2, and should be supplemented by whatever other grazing plants grow well in each special locality. As it is killed to the ground by the first severe frost, it usually gives good grazing only through the summer and fall months, though in the southern portions of Florida and Texas it frequently remains green and gives good feed through the entire year. In California it furnishes good grazing about nine months. In Oklahoma it is green from April to October. In Virginia Bermuda grass and lespe- BERMUDA GRASS. 11 deza give the best grazing on the low lands. On sandy soils Ber- muda grass does not bear trampling and close grazing as well as on heavier soils. When used for pasture it should be kept closely grazed. If the stems are allowed to become too old they get so dry and wiry that live stock do not relish them. Where there is not sufficient live stock in the pasture to keep the grass well grazed down it will often pay to harvest for hay and so secure a fresh growth for pasturing, which is more palatable and more nutritious than the older stems. The number of live stock which can be carried on an acre of Bermuda-grass pasture varies widely with the soil and climate. On average soils such pasture will carry about one steer to the acre during the growing season, though on thin and hard clay soils as much as 2 acres per steer may be required. In specially favorable localities in the extreme south on very fertile soils 1 acre of Bermuda- grass pasture may support three or four steers nine or ten months. The Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station says this pasture will support at least one steer per acre on ordinary soils and double that number on soils more favorable for its growth. On the rich alluvial soils formed by the overflows of the Mississippi River the growth of the grass is much more rank, some cattle growers hi that region claiming that they can graze as many as six steers per acre for nine months and that the pastures will then support one to three steers per acre during the other three months. Of course, such yields are very exceptional and should not be considered in esti- mating the value of Bermuda grass on ordinary soils. Bermuda grass does not mix well with other grasses, as it either makes a clean sod by itself or is crowded out by other plants better suited to the particular locality. This is especially true on the rather sandy lands along the coast where carpet grass is abundant. There the sod is often spotted, the heavier and richer spots where a stump has been removed or a little fertilizer dropped being densely covered with Bermuda grass, while adjacent spots may be covered with an equally dense mat of carpet grass. Whenever it is planted on a soil suited to its growth, Bermuda grass will crowd out most other grasses and soon occupy the entire field, but the crowding out is usually in very definite areas and not by a gradual mixing. There are, however, a few legumes which grow well when planted on the same ground with Bermuda grass and add largely to its pasture value. Among the best of these are lespedeza, bur clover, black medic, and melilotus. Lespedeza grows only in the summer and fall, bur clover and black medic only in the winter and spring, while melilotus gives more or less1 grazing through the entire year. Lespedeza is the most valuable species for summer and fall grazing and is the best legume which can be used on fairly heavy soils, but it 12 FARMERS' BULLETIN 814. makes only a weak growth on the sandy soils in the piny woods region. It grows well on clay soils which are too dry and hard for most other legumes. Bur clover makes its growth in winter and spring and does well on soils which are quite sandy, and even those which contain little lime. It begins its growth in the fall, soon after the Bermuda grass has been cut by frosts, and ripens its seed and disappears at about the 'time the grass begins its growth in the spring, so it is practically an alter- nating crop. It makes excellent grazing for hogs and calves, but is of less value for grown cattle and is not eaten readily by mules and horses until after the seed begins to ripen. A combination of bur clover and Bermuda grass is one of the best successions for a perma- nent pasture for hogs and calves, as it furnishes good grazing through- out most or all of the year. Black medic has proved of decided value for growing with Bermuda grass in northern Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, and its use is being rapidly extended to other sections. Its growth is not as rank as that of bur clover, but it gives grazing both earlier and later in the season and is eaten more readily by cattle and mules. It grows larger on clayey than on sandy soils and is better adapted to the hardwood region than to' that of the piny woods. These three legumes are all annuals, but reseed the ground freely and so need be planted in pastures but once. Melilotus usually does not bloom until the second season, but in every field there will be a few plants which produce seeds the first year. Many of the seeds of the original sowing do not germinate until the second season, so the crop is practically continuous and needs to be planted but once. Melilotus grows taller and coarser than the other legumes mentioned, but will thrive on soils too thin and barren for the others, provided it is rich in lime. If lime is plentiful it will grow well on very thin and barren spots where the Bermuda grass will make only a weak growth. It has an unusually large and power- ful taproot, and after having been grown on a hard soil a few years causes the soil to become so mellowed and so enriched by the nitrogen and humus left by the decay of the roots that the land is more easily cultivated and more productive. As the soil is brought into a better condition the melilotus gradually disappears and is replaced by a growth of Bermuda grass. All of these legumes have taproots, which by their quick decay at the end of the season make the soil less compact and by their humus- making and nitrogen-gathering work serve to increase its fertility. At the same time their growth prevents the Bermuda grass from becoming sod bound and so tends to increase the yield of this grass. Lespedeza and at least one of the other legumes mentioned should be planted in every Bermuda-grass pasture. BERMUDA GRASS. 13 BERMUDA GRASS FOR HAY. The yield of Bermuda grass for hay, as well as for pasture, varies greatly with soil and location. On dry, clay hills at the Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station, when fertilized with 10 tons of stable manure per acre it has yielded at the rate of 2i tons per acre. On the black prairie lands of eastern Mississippi and Alabama it yields 1 to 1J tons per acre at each of two cuttings, while on the rich alluvial lands along the Mississippi and Red Rivers it gives 2 to 3 tons per acre at each of two or three cuttings. The Report of the Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station for 1907 records a yield of 11,704 pounds of dry hay per acre, and Prof. J. S. Newman, in Bulletin No. 76 of the South Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, reports 13,000 pounds of dry hay per acre. In the South Carolina Report for 1888 Dr. St. J. Ravenel mentions a yield of 10 tons per acre. Other growers report equally good or even heavier yields. In the southern and western parts of its territory and on the immediate Gulf coast, Bermuda grass seldom grows large enough to be profitable for hay, but in the central part of the Southern States it is a valuable and reliable hay plant on all rich and fairly moist soils. Both meadows and pastures are likely to become somewhat sod bound after having been in Bermuda grass a few years. In pastures this may be almost wholly prevented by planting lespedeza, bur clover, melilotus, or some other legume. Legumes, however, are less practicable in meadows, and there the sod must be broken up by plowing or disking. Some growers use an ordinary mole subsoil plow for this purpose, running the plow 3 to 4 inches deep and making the furrows about a foot apart. This is very satisfactory, as it loosens the soil and still leaves the surface smooth. A heavy disking will accomplish the same purpose, but should be followed by a smoothing harrow or a heavy roller to smooth the surface. As long as a meadow or a pasture is giving a satisfactory yield it should not bft disturbed. BERMUDA GRASS FOR TURF. Bermuda grass makes an excellent sod for lawns and golf grounds, as it forms an even turf without clumps or coarse stems. It is easily kept clipped with a lawn mower, and as it recovers quickly it gives a smooth and even surface. The greatest objection to it for the purpose is that it becomes browned after the first severe frost and so is not attractive in appearance during the winter. That, however, can be easily overcome by seeding the lawn with Italian rye-grass in the early fall. This grass comes up very quickly, bears clipping 14 FARMERS' BULLETIN 814. well, is not injured by frosts, and so keeps the lawn green through the winter. It dies and disappears in the spring at about the time Bermuda grass starts into growth. By using such a mixture it is not difficult to keep the lawn in good condition through the entire year. White clover may be used in the same way, and as it is a peren- nial it need be seeded but once. It will add greatly to the freshness of a lawn during the winter and will also improve the growth of the Bermuda grass during the summer. The character of growth in Bermuda grass varies with its treat- ment. When kept clipped or grazed closely and trampled heavily the stems become slender, prostrate, and spreading, with numerous short leaves; but when neglected the plants become much coarser, the stems more nearly erect, and the leaves much longer and broader. A good lawn can be made only with constant care. When Bermuda grass is used for a lawn it is desirable to fertilize liberally with cottonseed meal or ground bone and to water freely. When the grass is used for the putting greens on golf grounds, how- ever, very little fertilizer or water should be applied, since the grass makes a shorter and more satisfactory growth under such treatment. BERMUDA GRASS FOR SOIL BINDING. In nearly all the South erosion, or the washing out of gullies on cultivated and hilly lands, is a serious matter, and Bermuda grass is the best plant which has been found to check the damage from this cause. When planted in newly formed or even in old and large gullies it catches the washed-down soil, holds it in place, and soon makes such a growth that the spread of the gully is stopped and at length filled, so that it becomes cultivable ground again. The planting of the grass in newly formed gullies will soon smooth them off. There is no excuse for the formation of destructive and wasteful gullies in any region where Bermuda grass can be grown. Almost the entire course of the Mississippi River from Cairo southward to the Gulf of Mexico is protected from overflows by a series of levees which have been built with soil from the adjacent lands. These levees must be protected from washing, und Bermuda grass is universally used for the purpose, as its matted rootstocks bind the soil and prevent washing better than any other grass. For this purpose the ordinary variety, producing numerous under- ground rootstocks, is better than those producing only surface runners. MARKET VALUE. The market value of Bermuda hay, like that of all other hays, depends largely on its condition and appearance when offered for sale. The brighter its color and the better the appearance of the bales, the higher the price it will bring. BERMUDA GRASS. 15 No detail in the marketing of hay has more to do with the final profit than the matter of grading. If a customer wants a fancy grade of hay, he must be willing to pay a fancy price, while if he is willing to accept a grade which is less fancy but which is just as good for feeding purposes, he usually will be able to purchase his supply at a much lower price. The National Hay Association standard grades for different hays are now generally used in all leading hay markets. These grades for Bermuda hay are as follows : Xo. 1. Bermuda hay shall be Bermuda grass mixed with not more than 10 per cent of native grasses, color of uniform greenish cast, sound, tender, and well baled. No. 2. Bermuda hay shall be Bermuda grass mixed with not more than one-fourth native grasses, color of greenish cast, "with not more than 15 per cent brownish blades, sound, tender, and well baled. Xo. 3. Bermuda hay shall be Bermuda grass mixed with not more than one-fourth native grass, color of brownish cast, sound, and well baled. While there are no great differences hi the actual feeding values of the three grades, there is a considerable difference in their market selling prices, and the grower should govern his practice accordingly. Hay which has a bright-green color is always hi demand, as it has been well cured. As a matter of fact, as has been shown by many tests in this country and in Europe, hay which has become somewhat browned in curing but which is not moldy or musty is just as valua- ble for feeding as that which is green in color, but it does not sell as well on the market. In the United States green hay commands a much higher price. The grower should always try to make green hay when he proposes to sell the product , while the browned hay can be saved for use on the farm. Horses and mules will eat the latter hay as readily as the former. The greatest value in the green color is as a guaranty that the hay is*well cured and free from dust and mold. The next most important specification is in regard to baling. All grades must be well baled, as no customer wants bales with one or two loose wires. FEEDING VALUE. Little accurate work has been done at any of the agricultural experiment stations in making either feeding or digestion tests with Bermuda hay, though the general experience of feeders in all parts of the South has shown that it is fully as valuable as any other grass hay. Bulletin Xo. 15 of the Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station reports that six lots of cows, five cows in each lot, were fed for testing different rations for the production of milk and butter. One of these lots was fed with Bermuda grass and another with timothy hay, both lots receiving the same grain ration. The financial results of 16 FABMERS' BULLETIN 814. the test were based on Bermuda hay at $12.50 a ton and timothy at $20.80, the actual cost at the time. On that basis the cost of the milk from the Bermuda-fed lot was 7.7 cents a gallon and of the butter 17.4 cents a pound, while the milk from the timothy-fed lot cost 12.8 cents a gallon and the butter 29.5 cents a pound. The bulletin says: "Had the timothy cost no more than the Bermuda hay the cost would have been 9.5 cents a gallon for the milk and 21.9 cents lor the butter." This leaves a margin of about 25 per cent hi favor of the Bermuda hay. This work was continued the following year and the results, as given in Bulletin No. 21, were slightly less favorable to Bermuda- grass hay but indicated that " ton for ton the two hays have practi- cally the same milk and butter producing values" and "at the prices at which they can be purchased in Mississippi, Bermuda hay will produce milk or butter at a much" less cost than will timothy." Bulletin No. 15 of the Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station, in reporting on the values of different hays for mules, says : In order to ascertain the comparative values of Bermuda and timothy hays for feed- ing to working animals, the six working mules belonging to the station were divided into two lots, one mule from each double team being placed in each lot. Both lots received the same amount of corn 'daily and Were given all the hay they could eat, the feeding being continued two months. The results showed that there was practi- cally no difference between the two rations, the food for the lot fed with timothy costing 36 cents more for the entire period than that for the Bermuda-fed lot, the lot receiving timothy gaining 92 pounds during the two months, while the other lot gained 90 pounds. Prof. E. R. Lloyd, director of the Mississippi Agricultural Experi- ment Station, in a recent letter published in the Progressive Farmer, states that another test was made in 1915 with five lots of mules, each lot containing four or five 2 atfd 3 year old mules, the test being continued 89 days. Each lot received the same amount of grain per mule but were fed with different hays. Bermuda grass, Johnson grass, timothy, lespedeza, and alfalfa hays were used and the cost of each was figured at the local market price then prevailing. The cost of feed for each lot for the 89 days was as follows: Bermuda grass $14. 36 Johnson grass 14. 36 Lespedeza 16. 38 Alfalfa 16. 38 Timothy 18.90 The feeding value of any hay is indicated to some extent by a chemical analysis showing the proportions of its several nutritive components, and of these components the protein is by far the most important. These components in Bermuda grass, timothy, and Ken- tucky bluegrass, as given by the Bureau of Chemistry of the Depart- ment of Agriculture, are shown in Table I. The calculations were made on a water-free basis. BERMUDA GRASS. 17 TABLE I. — Chemical analyses of Bermuda grass, timothy, and Kentucky bluegrass. • Crop. Number of samples. Protein. Fiber. Starch, etc. Fat. Bermuda grass 19 Percent. 10.50 Percent. 27.48 Percent. 51.18 Percent. 2.54 Timothy 194 8.19 32.53 49.87 3.18 Kentucky bluegrass . 84 11.89 29.48 47.37 3.57 From the above it will be seen that Bermuda grass contains 2.31 per cent more protein than timothy and 1 .39 per cent less than blue- grass, as well as more starch and less fiber than either. In American literature only a single digestion test with Bermuda hay is recorded, so there is need for further work along this line to determine its feeding value more definitely. A comparison of the digestibility of Bermuda hay, as shown by Bulletin No. 90 of the Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station, giving the results of tests with sheep, and the digestibility of timothy and bluegrass, as shown by various publications of the Department of Agriculture and several of the agricultural experiment stations, is given in Table II. TABLE II. — Comparative digestibility of Bermuda grass, timothy, and Kentucky blue- grass. • Nitrogen- Crop. Protein. Fiber. free Fat. extract. Percent. Percent. Percent. Per cent. Bermuda grass l 64.2 58.9 52 7 39 6 Timothy .... . . . 48 50 62 50 Kentucky bluegrass 57 66 61 52 1 The analysis of the hay used in the work of the Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station was as fol- lows (percent): "Water. 7.87; ash. 7.44; protein, 10.81; fiber. 28.87; nitrogen-free extract, starch, etc., 43.58; fat, 1.42. While these figures indicate the possible feeding value of Bermuda grass, its actual value can be determined only by repeated feeding tests with different annuals. In making such tests the feeder must take into consideration the soil on which the grass was grown, the character of the season, and the age at which the grass was cut, as each of these conditions will influence both the composition and the digestibility of the hay. Timothy was one of the first hay grasses to be grown in this country and by its wide cultivation and extensive use has become the standard by which other grass hays are judged. For this reason many buyers suppose timothy to be the best in quality. Southern feeders, however, are beginning to recognize the value of Bermuda grass. In all the regions where this grass can be grown well a dol- lar's worth of it will furnish more feed than a dollar's worth of timothy. It is therefore the cheaper hay for use in the South. 18 FARMERS' BULLETIN 814. Furthermore, at present prices, on the farms where grown, Bermuda grass is more profitable to the southern farmer than timothy is to the northern grower. ERADICATION. Many farmers hesitate to plant Bermuda grass for fear it can not be killed out when the land is wanted for other purposes. It maybe thoroughly eradicated, however, when advantage is taken of its peculiarities. It is almost impossible to kill Bermuda grass by culti- vation in the summer or by deep plowing at any season. In the north- ern part of the Bermuda-grass region it can be almost or wholly eradicated by a very shallow plowing late in the fall, leaving the furrows on edge as much as possible, so that the " roots " will be frozen during the winter. Few of the "roots" will survive a single heavy freeze when turned up and exposed to the air. Farther south, where frosts are less severe the grass must be killed by smothering. Bermuda grass will bear almost unlimited heat, drought, and sun- shine, but it can not live when shaded. When it is desirable to clear a field it should be plowed in September and planted with oats, rye, barley, or some other winter crop. When that crop is harvested the ground should be disked or, plowed at once, and then planted with cowpeas or velvet beans. When the pea or bean crop is removed, there will be little or no Bermuda grass left. This gives two profit- able crops during the year and leaves the ground in prime condition for corn or cotton the following season. Another method, which is often followed, is to plow the sod very shallow in the fall, harrow thoroughly, and then rake the "roots" into windrows and haul them off. If this process is repeated in the spring little of the grass will be left. A bulletin of the South Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station says that the grass may be killed by disking, cross disking, and harrowing a few times during the winter. In California and other arid regions it can be killed by withholding irrigation a few months. Varieties like the Giant and the St. Lucie, which have no underground rootstocks, can be almost wholly killed by allowing the late fall growth to stand and then burning it off after it has become dry. It is much more easily killed on light than on heavy soils. SUMMARY. Bermuda grass is the most valuable perennial grass in the south- eastern part of the United States and is common in all the warmer parts of the world. It has been grown in the United States for more than a hundred years. It requires a warm climate for its best growth; it does not bear heavy freezing or dense shading, but endures drought better than most other grasses. It grows best on a soil which is fertile, fairly moist, well drained, and rich in humus and nitrogen. BERMUDA GRASS. 19 There are several distinct varieties, differing principally in vigor of growth and in the character of the rootstocks and runners. Of the many forms which have been tested by the United States De- partment of Agriculture the Giant grows most rankly and so is the best for hay. The yield of hay varies greatly with the locality hi which it is grown. In many localities Bermuda grass does not grow large enough to pay for cutting, while on very favorable soils it may yield annually 6 to 8 tons of hay per acre. It is the best permanent pasture grass in most of the South. On soils of ordinary fertility it will support about 1 steer per acre for eight to nine months, while on exceptionally favorable soils it may support four or five steers for a longer time. Pastures may be greatly improved by growing some legume with the Bermuda grass — lespedeza, bur clover, black medic, and melilotus being the species commonly used for the purpose. Bermuda grass is of great value for use in stopping the washing of gullies and in binding levees and other embankments. Its feeding value is fully equal to that of timothy, though its market value is usually less. It can be eradicated either by freezing the "roots" or by keeping the ground heavily shaded by the growing of other crops. •WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1917 : SWEET GLOVER: GROWING THE CROP H. S. COE Assistant Agronomist, Office of Forage-Crop Investigations FARMERS' BULLETIN 797 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. April, 1917 THE cultivation of sweet clover should be preceded by a thorough knowledge of the requirements for obtaining a stand. The white species comprises a very large percentage of the present acreage of sweet clover. Annual yellow sweet clover should be sown in no portion of the United States except the South and Southwest, and then only as a cover or green-manure crop. Sweet clover is being cultivated in practically every State in the Union. At the present time the largest acreage is found in the western North-Central States and in the Mountain States. Sweet clover is adapted to a wider range of climatic condi- tions than any of the true clovers, and possibly alfalfa. Sweet clover will grow on practically all soil types to be found in this country, provided the soil is not acid and is well inoculated. Sweet clover is more drought resistant than alfalfa or red clover. It is quite resistant to alkali. The lime requirement of sweet clover is as high as that of red clover or alfalfa. Maximum growth is obtained only on soils that are not acid. Sweet clover usually will respond to applications of fer- tilizers and manure. In the more humid sections of the country good stands usually are obtained by seeding with a nurse crop. Only seed which germinates 75 per cent or more should be sown in the spring of the year unless the rate of seeding is increased to make up for poor germination. Sweet clover does best when seeded on a well-firmed seed bed which has only sufficient loose soil on the surface to cover the seed. It is very essential that inoculation be provided in some form if success is to be expected. The large number of failures in obtaining a stand of sweet clover are due primarily to acid soils, lack of inoculation, and seed which germinates poorly. Spring seedings in general are satisfactory, but in the South excellent stands are obtained from midwinter seedings also. Fall seedings are usually successful south of the latitude of southern Ohio. A Farmers' Bulletin (No. 820) on the utilization of sweet clover for pasture, hay, and as a green manure is about to be issued. SWEET CLOVER: GROWING THE CROP. CONTENTS. Introduction Species of sweet clover White sweet clover Biennial yellow sweet clover. . . Annual yellow sweet clover Other species of sweet clover History Distribution Climatic adaptations Requirements for obtaining a stand. Soils suitable for sweet clover. . . Resistance to alkali Need of lime on acid soils Fertilizers Use of a nurse crop Choice of seed. . . Page. 3 ID 111 12 12 13 13 14 17 18 19 Requirements for obtaining a stand — Cont. Preparation of the seed bed.. Seeding Hulled sweet-clover seed Unhulled sweet-clover seed Rate of seeding Methods of seeding Inoculation Tne soil-transier method The pure-culture method Treatment of the stand Treatment the first season Treatment the second season Sweet clover in mixtures Eradication of sweet clover . . . Page. 21 22 23 24 25 25 27 28 29 30 30 32 32 INTRODUCTION. Sweet clover is an important forage crop in many regions. Al- though one of the oldest of known plants, not until very recently has it been considered seriously as a forage plant in this country. The principal causes for not utilizing this crop were its aggressiveness on uncultivated land in many localities, the tendency of the stems to become woody as they mature, and the refusal of stock to eat sweet clover before they had become accustomed to the bitter taste. An- other reason was the fact that until recently red clover could be grown in the eastern half of the United States without difficulty. In northern Kentucky the continuous growing of tobacco or of tobacco and wheat impoverished the soil to such an extent that crops no longer could be grown successfully. Upon the abandoned farms in this section sweet clover was introduced as a honey plant. Owing to the remarkable yields of tobacco that were obtained on such farms after sweet clover had been grown for a few years the acreage of this plant increased very rapidly. For a number of years sweet clover has been grown on the Selma chalk (rotten-limestone) soils of Alabama and Mississippi as a soil-improving crop. At the present time it is being cultivated in practically every State, and the acreage is increasing very rapidly. 3 4 FARMERS ' BULLETIN 797. After it had been demonstrated that sweet clover would grow successfully on soils too depleted for other crops, many experiments were conducted to determine its value as forage. It was found that it was not only a valuable soil-improving crop, but that it made an excellent pasture and hay plant, quite palatable and rich in protein. White sweet clover comprises a very large percentage of the acreage seeded to sweet clover at the present time. On this account this spe- cies ordinarily is referred to simply as " sweet clover." The yellow biennial species is designated as yellow sweet clover, and the annual yellow species as bitter clover, sour clover, or annual yellow sweet clover. This usage has been adopted in this bulletin. The cultivation of sweet clover should be preceded by a thorough understanding of the requirements for obtaining a stand. It can not be grown successfully on all soils, as many assume from seeing it growing in uncultivated places. Neither wdll it thrive in many sec- 1 2 3 FIG. 1. — Seeds and seed pods of three species of Melilotus and seeds of alfalfa : 1, White sweet clover ; 2, biennial yellow sweet clover ; 3, annual yellow sweet clover, or sour clover ; 4, alfalfa. The small figures in each drawing show the natural size of the seed. The venation and shape of the seed pods are important characters in distinguish- ing the different species of sweet clover. tions of the country without careful preparation of the seed bed. Sweet clover will not grow successfully in acid soils unless lime is applied, but it will make a good growth in soils too low in humus to grow red clover, provided the soil is neutral or alkaline. Sweet clover is an excellent plant to precede alfalfa, as the large roots do much toward breaking up and aerating the subsoil. Con- trary to the belief of many, it will not inoculate the soil for alfalfa unless inoculation is applied to the sweet clover. If, however, the soil contains but few inoculating germs, the sweet clover will serve as a medium to inoculate it thoroughly. SPECIES OF SWEET CLOVER. A number of species of sweet clover are found throughout the world, and most of them are native to temperate Europe and Asia as far east as Tibet. SWEET CLOVER: GROWING THE CROP. White sweet clover,1 yellow biennial sweet clover,2 and yellow annual sweet clover3 are the only species which have given sufficient promise as forage and green-manure crops in this country to war- rant growing them under cultivation. It is difficult for the average person to distinguish between the different species of sweet clover from an examination of the seeds or seed pods only. The differences are indicated in figure 1. Where there is a question as to the identity of a sample of seed it should be sent to a State agricultural experiment station or to one of the seed laboratories of the United States Department of Agricul- ture for identification. WHITE SWEET CLOVER. White sweet clover (fig. 2) is ordi- narily referred to as melilotus or melilot in the South and merely as sweet clover in other portions of the country. When soil conditions are favorable for germi- nation, sweet-clover seedlings will ap- pear from one to two weeks after seed- ing. On account of the biennial nature of the plants, they do not seem to make much growth above ground the first month or six weeks after germination, but during this time they are develop- ing root systems rapidly and thus be- coming established, so as to be able to withstand adverse conditions. Plants which have made no more than 2 inches of top growth very often have pro- duced roots 6 inches or more in length (fig. 3). The taproot continues to de- velop rapidly throughout the growing season the first year, and by autumn often reaches a length of 24 to 36 inches and a diameter of three-fourths to 1 inch at the crown. After the root system becomes estab- lished the plants produce an upright, branching, leafy growth, which under ideal growing conditions may reach a height of 48 inches the first season, but more often 18 to 30 inches. A large quantity of reserve food is stored in the taproot the FIG. 2. — A branch of white sweet clover, showing the long, loose racemes which bear white flowers. 1 Melilotus alba Desr. 2 Melilotus officinalis (L.) Lam. 3 M eUlotus indica (L.) All. 6 FARMERS BULLETIN 797. first season ; this reserve food enables the plants to make a rapid and vigorous growth early the following spring. Toward the end of the growing season of the first year a number of buds, which serve to produce the second year's growth (fig. 4), are formed on the crowns of the plants. After these buds are formed FIG. 3. — White sweet-clover plants collected from a plat six weeks from the date of seeding. An extensive root system such as is shown here is often developed before much growth is made above ground. the plants may be clipped quite close to the ground, as the buds are not developed until the plants have made sufficient growth to live through the winter. During the second season sweet clover makes a rapid, erect, stemmy, branching growth from 5 to 10 feet in height, the plants SWEET CLOVER I GROWING THE CROP. producing only a moderate number of leaves, which drop as the seed matures. A large number of loose racemes bearing white flowers (see fig. 2) are produced during the flowering period, which usually lasts from three to five weeks. Before sweet clover has made a growth of 12 to 18 inches it closely resembles alfalfa. The plants may be distinguished from alfalfa by the absence of pubescence on the under side of the leaves and by their bitter taste. When they are in bloom they may be identified easily by their long, loose racemes of white flowers and their open, coarse growth. Unlike alfalfa, the seeds are ordinarily found singly in the pods. Two seeds may occasionally be found, and very rarely three, in a single pod. STRAINS OF WHITE CLOVER. SWEET A number of different strains of white sweet clover are to be found in the average field, but most of them are not as marked or as con- spicuous as the different strains of red clover. The principal differ- ences between strains of sweet clover are in leafi- ness, habit of growth, and date of blooming. Occasional plants are especially h e a v y seed producers and bear many pods containing more than one seed. Other plants bloom ear- lier than the average date for white sweet clover, and it ma}7 be possible by selecting such strains to find one which matures early enough to produce two crops a season at high altitudes in the northern sections of the United States. Fields of an exceptionally early blooming strain were found in Illinois, Iowa, and Xorth Dakota in the summer of 1916. The plants were different in type of growth from the ordinary white sweet clover, being most conspicuous from the fact that they were FIG. 4. — Buds produced on the crown of a sweet-clover plant at the end of the first season's growth. These buds will produce the first crop the second season. 8 FARMERS BULLETIN 797. in bloom during the first week of June, which is at least three wreeks earlier than the ordinary species should bloom in those localities. An annual white-flowered sweet clover was found in several locali- ties in the fall of 1916. The seed which produced these plants was FIG. 5. — Root of white sweet clover (on the left) and of biennial yellow sweet clover (on the right). These roots were collected on October 28, 1915, at Arlington, Va., from adjacent plats seeded to oats and sweet clover on April 10, 1915. Note the difference in the size of the roots. Tubercles are present on the right-hand side of each root. grown in Alabama. These plants resembled MelUotus alba in most respects except that they were strictly annual. They flowered and matured seed abundantly in South Dakota and North Dakota. It SWEET CLOVER: GROWING THE CROP. 9 has not been determined whether this is a distinct species or merely an annual strain of the species mentioned. BIENNIAL YELLOW SWEET CLOVER. Biennial yellow sweet clover ordinarily is referred to in the seed trade and among farmers in regions where it is grown simply as yellow sweet clover. The plants of this species are somewhat smaller, more decumbent the first year, and ordinarily with more deeply notched leaves than the white-flowering species. Yellow sweet clover usually grows from 3 to 5 feet in height. This plant blooms from 10 to 14 days earlier than the white species, and for this reason it is advisable to sow seed of both plants when they are to be used for bee pasturage. On account of the finer stems of yellow sweet clover it is preferred in some localities for hay, but since it does not produce as much forage as white sweet clover and there is much less demand for the seed, it constitutes only a very small per- centage of the total acreage. The much larger root growth of the white species, as illustrated in figure 5, is desirable because of the additional quantity of humus added to the soil. The seeds of the yellow species may usually be distinguished from those of other species, as some of them are slightly mottled with purple. The shape of the calyx, which is generally present on un- hulled seed, and the venation of the seed pods also distinguish it. (See fig. 1.) ANNUAL YELLOW SWEET CLOVER. Annual yellow swe^t clover, more commonly known as sour clover or bitter clover, is found chiefly in the South and Southwest. This plant is considered a noxious weed in grain fields throughout the Southwest. It is claimed that the flavor of the seed which is im- parted to wheat can not be removed. Bakers decidedly object to this flavor, stating that it injures bread. Sour clover is grown rather extensively as a green-manure crop in orchards in portions of Ari- zona and southern California and when properly handled in these regions it has given profitable results. As the seed is obtained from the screenings of wheat, it is offered on the market at a very low price. Occasionally it is sold for the yellow biennial sweet clover. Seed of this plant should not be sown in any part of the United States except the extreme South or Southwest, and then only as a green hay manure crop. Where it is desired to plant sweet clover for pasturage or for the biennial white or biennial yellow species, should be used. OTHER SPECIES OF SWEET CLOVER. Thirteen species of sweet clover have been tested by the Office of Forage-Crop Investigations to determine their economic value. With 74950°— Bull. 797—17 2 10 FARMERS' BULLETIN 797. the exception of white sweet clover, yellow biennial sweet clover, and yellow annual sweet clover, but four species in the somewhat limited tests have given sufficiently good results to merit special at- tention, and none have so far proved Superior to white sweet clover, which is now extensively grown in many States. A species of Trigonella 1 is often referred to as blue-flowered meli- lotus or blue-flowered sweet clover. While this plant is closely re- lated to the plants belonging to the genus Melilotus, it does not be- long to this genus and therefore should not be called sweet clover. It is an erect, quite leafy, very fragrant annual, which produces a fair growth. It may prove of value as a green-manure crop or as a catch crop under certain conditions, but at the present time it is not to be recommended where sweet clover can be grown successfully. In most tests Trigonella has produced less forage than the better species of sweet clover. HISTORY. Sweet clover has been used as a honey plant and for forage and green manure for more than 2,000 years in the Mediterranean region, although it has never been considered of much importance. The first authentic report ,of sweet clover in the United States was in 1739, when Gronovius stated in his Flora Virginica that it was collected by Clayton. Cutler reported its presence in New England as early as 1785, and Pursh in 1814 stated in his Flora Americse Septentrionalis that it is found on the gravelly shores of rivers from Pennsylvania to Virginia. Elliott reported the presence of yellow biennial sweet clover in his Sketch of the Botany of South Carolina and Georgia in 1824, and Beck found the species Melilotus leucantha 2 in the Northern States in 1833. In 1856 Prof. Tutwiller, of Green Springs Academy, Ala., received a small quantity of white sweet-clover seed from the secretary to the United States consul in Chile. Part of this seed was planted by a young man named Strudwick on his father's plantation on the prairie limestone belt, where it flourished. This plantation later became the property of J. T. Collins, who, realizing the value of this plant, sold seed to persons in many States. Not until recently has sweet clover been grown to any extent as a cultivated crop in this country. DISTRIBUTION. While sweet clover is to be found growing in many countries and on all the continents of the world, it is native to temperate Europe and Asia as far east as Tibet. It is grown to a limited extent in 1 Trigonella coerulea. 2 Undoubtedly meaning Melilotus alba. SWEET CLOVER: GROWING THE CROP. 11 England, while in the eastern part of Scotland a small quantity is considered valuable in hay on account of its agreeable odor. The famous Cruyere cheese of Switzerland owes its flavor to yellow sweet clover. In Germany it has given very good results when used as a green manure, while in parts of Russian Poland and Austria-Hungary it is grown as a green-manure, pasturage, and hay crop on poor soils. This plant is used for forage and as a soil-improving crop in the central provinces of India, while sour clover, commonly referred to as Meluotus i>ari*lfora, is credited with furnishing 75 per cent of the feed for the cattle of King Island. Tasmania, which produce the best beef and butter sold on the Tasmania market. FIG. 6. — Outline map of the United States, showing the localities where sweet clover is grown for forage or for green manure. Each dot or circle indicates a county where 50 acres or more is grown under cultivation. The solid dots represent white or yellow sweet clover ; the circles represent annual yellow sweet clover. At the present time sweet clover is grown rather extensively as a field crop in the limestone regions of Alabama, Mississippi, and Ken- tucky, in northern Illinois, and throughout the western Xorth- Central and Mountain States (fig. 6) ; in fact, it is grown as a culti- vated crop to some extent in nearly every State in the Union. Com- paratively little sweet-clover seed is sown in the Atlantic Coast States, since there the soils are for the most part acid, and heavy ap- plications of lime will be necessary before sweet clover can be grown successfully. It is questionable whether this plant will ever be of much importance in the South Atlantic States, as cowpeas. soy beans, and crimson clover will make a fair growth on those soils in their present condition. The acreage of sweet clover probably will increase 12 FARMERS' BULLETIN 797. in the New England States, where it should prove of value as pasturage, and as a soil-improving crop on soils where red clover no longer can be grown. Sweet clover grows abundantly in the lime- stone regions of northwestern New York. A much larger acreage of sweet clover is grown in northern Illi- nois than in any other of the eastern North- Central States. The con- ditions in the western North-Central States and in the Mountain States appear to be particularly adapted to this crop. It is in that part of the country that the largest acreage is found, and, with the exception of the limestone regions of the South, that the least diffi- culty is experienced in obtaining a stand. In those parts of the Mountain and Pacific Coast States, especially Utah, where it has not been tested carefully or where red clover or alfalfa can be grown successfully, sweet clover is looked upon as a weed. It may rightly be considered a weed in the irrigated regions of the West and Northwest, where it grows luxuriantly on ditch banks. The dissemination of this plant in all parts of the country has been hastened by beekeepers who have seeded it in waste places for the production of honey. CLIMATIC ADAPTATIONS. Sweet clover is adapted to a wider range of climatic conditions than any of the true clovers and possibly alfalfa ; in fact, it may be grown successfully in any portion of the United States except, per- haps, Florida, and in Florida trials with biennial yellow sweet clover, annual sweet clover, and Melilotus suaveolens have been successful. Apparently neither the high temperatures of the South nor the cold winters of the North severely affect the plants, provided there is sufficient moisture in the soil. Comparatively little winterkilling is experienced in Montana, Wyoming, Idaho, and North Dakota when the seed is sown in close drills or broadcasted. Although approxi- mately 50 per cent of the sweet clover seeded in rows 3 feet apart at Moccasin, Mont., was killed by the unusually severe winter of 1915-16, no winterkilling was noted in plats seeded in close drills. Sweet clover thrives in the more humid parts of the country, as well as in the semiarid regions where the rainfall is but three-fifths of that required for the normal growth of such crops as red clover and timothy. In the semiarid regions of the West sweet clover has proved to be somewhat more drought resistant than alfalfa. REQUIREMENTS FOR OBTAINING A STAND. The requirements for obtaining a stand of sweet clover are some- what exacting. It is for this reason that so many failures have been experienced. It must not be assumed, because sweet clover is SWEET CLOVER : GROWING THE CROP. 13 found growing luxuriantly in many waste places and on unculti- vated land, that a stand may be obtained by planting it at any time of the year, in any manner, and under all conditions. Throughout the eastern and southern portions of the country, with the exception of a few regions rich in limestone, much care must be used in the preparation of the seed bed, the selection of seed, and the manner of seeding if success is to be expected. For this reason it is necessary to understand fully the requirements for obtaining and maintaining a successful stand. SOILS SUITABLE FOR SWEET CLOVER. Sweet clover thrives on the adobe and granitic soils of the Pacific coast; upon the gumbo, hardpan. prairie, and sandy soils of the western North-Central States; and upon the heavy clay, loam, lime- stone, and sandy soils of the South and East. In fact, it has been grown successfully on all the principal soil types of the United States where the soils were not acid and were well inoculated. It grows luxuriantly on the Selma chalk (rotten-limestone) soils of Alabama and upon soils rich in calcium carbonate in many parts of the country where the lack of nitrogen and humus has caused large numbers of farms to be abandoned. The plants thrive on newly exposed heavy clay soils and upon steep embankments where little else will grow. Sweet clover is more tolerant of poor drainage, overflow, and seepage conditions than alfalfa. In irrigated sections, especially where the reservoir system is in use, large bodies of land are likely to become useless for the growth of alfalfa because of the rising of the water table. On such areas sweet clover will make a vigorous growth. However, maximum growth is to be expected only on well-drained soil. Sweet clover will do well on many soils which are not fertile enough to grow red clover or alfalfa, and it is on these soils that it will prove most valuable. Like many other plants, it makes its best growth on fertile soils rich in calcium carbonate, although it will make sufficient growth on poor soils which are not acid to warrant planting it on them. Many hilly pastures may profitably be seeded to sweet clover. It will not only make a valuable addition to the forage of these pastures but will improve the soil so that grasses will grow more abundantly. Some of the best pastures in the Middle West are composed of bluegrass. timothy, and sweet clover. RESISTANCE TO ALKALI. Sweet clover grows successfully on soils in the West which appar- ently are too alkaline for grains or alfalfa. The Wyoming Agricul- tural Experiment Station reports that it has obtained good yields of sweet clover on seepage land which is so strongly alkaline that no 14 FARMERS' BULLETIN 797. other plants except some of the native grasses will survive, while the California Agricultural Experiment Station found that sweet clover will withstand alkali to a remarkable degree. Prof. F. S. Harris, agronomist of the Utah Agricultural Experiment Station at Logan, claims that it is one of the most alkali-resistant crops grown in Utah, and that in 1913 and 1914 quite an industry developed in some parts of that State in growing sweet clover for hay and seed on land too alkaline for other crops. In reply to avcircular letter on the culture of sweet clover, approxi- mately 100 county agents and extensive growers of this crop located in many parts of the West state that this plant is one of the most alkali-resistant plants grown in their respective districts. In Crook County, Oreg., a good stand was obtained from April seeding in 1915 on a 20-acre demonstration field of sandy loam bottom land so strongly alkaline from black alkali that only salt grass was growing on it before it was planted to sweet clover. This field pastured from 18 to 28 head of calves, cows, and horses from June 1 to October 1 without being irrigated. Sweet clover generally will grow on soils where salt grass 1 will survive, and it is very much superior to this grass as pasture. After the,drainage of water-logged land on which there is a surface accumulation of alkali, it is the common practice in parts of Utah to grow sweet clover for several years before plant- ing alfalfa. It is often stated that alkali land will grow less tol- erant crops after sweet clover has been grown on it for a few years. The long roots will open up the subsoil and cause better drainage, thereby affording an excellent means for removing the salts from the soil, as they are readily soluble in water. NEED OF LIME ON ACID SOILS. Sweet clover, like many other legumes, requires a soil containing an abundance of limestone if a maximum growth is to be expected. Throughout the world it makes a luxuriant growth only on cal- careous soils. On the black prairie limestone soils of Alabama and Mississippi it grows luxuriantly, although in this region it is very seldom found on the outcroppings of red clay, which are acid. The distribution corresponds sharply with the line of demarkation be- tween the black prairie soils and other soil types. In some places sweet clover makes a vigorous growth on the Selma chalk (rotten- limestone) soils, while none is to be found on red post-oak clay but a few yards away ; yet sweet clover will grow on the red post-oak clay after the soil has received an application of lime. It will thrive on the bald lime- rock spots and rotten-limestone hills of Mississippi, which are so barren that practically no other plants will survive. 1 Distichlis spicata. SWEET CLOVER: GROWING THE CROP. 15 Thus it appears that lime is essential for the maximum growth of sweet clover in this region. The reason for the exceptional growth of sweet clover in north- central Kentucky is undoubtedly the fact that these soils contain an abundant supply of limestone. The Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station states that this area is the only portion of the State where sweet clover is being grown with genera] success without applying lime. Soils on which sweet clover is aggressive are almost invariably alkaline or but slightly acid. This plant is often found in valleys of streams in localities where the soils are supposedly acid, but such streams generally have their origin in limestone areas or flow through limestone regions, and calcium carbonate is thus deposited in these valleys during flood periods with the sedimentary deposits from flood waters. Sweet clover often appears in deep cuts along highways or railroads in localities where the soil is known to be acid and where sweet clover has not previously grown. In many of these cuts the acid soil has been removed and neutral or alkaline subsoil exposed, or limestone has been used in ballasting or road making and the dust has blown on the exposed soil. It is a very common occurrence to find sweet clover making an abundant growth along macadamized roads from which the wind has scattered the finely pulverized lime- stone. An application of burnt lime or finely ground limestone has made the difference between success and failure in most experiments which have thus far been conducted on decidedly acid soils. (Fig. 7.) A number of sweet-clover experiments were performed on acid soils and on adjacent plats or fields of the same type of soil that had re- ceived applications of limestone varying from 1 to 4 tons to the acre. There was a marked difference in the stands obtained and in the growth of the plants on the limed and unlimed areas. In some cases the difference in growth was so marked that the last round of the lime spreader could be distinguished at some distance from the plats. The stands were much heavier on the limed areas and the plants made from two to three times more growth than those on the unlimed plats. Yields of hay were doubled on soils that received only sufficient limestone to neutralize the acids in the surface soil, although the yields were further increased when more limestone was added. Mr. AY. E. Watkins, county agent of Allen County, Kans., made counts of the number of plants which winterkilled during the winter of 1914-15 on given areas of limed and unlimed soil. It was found that from 15 to 35 per cent more plants winterkilled on the unlimed soil than on the limed areas. That portion of the unlimed field on which the fewest plants winterkilled was found to have the lowest 16 FARMERS BULLETIN 797. lime requirement. On the unlimed areas with a low lime requirement 15 per cent more plants winterkilled than on the limed areas ; on those with a high lime requirement the increase in winterkilling was 33 per cent. In the fall of 1914 the hay cut from the limed areas ex- ceeded that from the areas with a low lime requirement by 600 pounds per acre and exceeded that from the areas of high lime requirement by 4,000 pounds per 'M acre. In July, 1915, the increase in hay yield on the limed areas over that from the areas with a low and with a high lime requirement was 2,300 and 9,400 pounds per acre, respectively. The area of high lime requirement returned a small yield in 1914 and no hay in 1915. In spite of the fact that sweet clover is as sensitive to soil acidity as red clover or alfalfa, a large percentage of the acreage thus far seeded in the eastern half of the United States has been com- posed of acid soils, and this soil acidity un- doubtedly is responsi- ble for a very large per- centage of the failures with sweet clover in this section. Where sweet clover is to be sown on acid soils a suf- ficient quantity of lime should first be applied to at least neutralize the acids in the soil to a depth of 6 inches. An application of 1 ton of burnt lime or 2 tons of finely ground limestone will usually be sufficient for this purpose. Fields have been noted where sweet clover was making a fair growth on apparently acid soils. Such fields usually are rich in humus or phosphorus and are exceptional cases rather than the rule. FIG. 7. — Sweet-clover plants, showing the effect of lime upon their growth. The plants at the left represent the average growth on the unlimed portion of a field ; the plants at the right show the average growth on the limed part of the same field. SWEET CLOVER: GROWING THE CROP. 17 Soil types which have slightly acid surface soils and alkaline sub- soils will grow sweet clover successfully, provided the acid soil is not more than 6 to 1'2 inches in depth. FERTILIZERS. Owing to the fact that sweet clover thrives on the barren Selma chalk (rotten-limestone) hills of Alabama and Mississippi and grows abundantly on worn-out, abandoned land in north-central Kentucky, it is often assumed that it will grow on soils too depleted in plant food to produce other crops. These regions represent soils which have become exhausted primarily in nitrogen and humus as the re- sult of continuous cropping with nonleguminous plants. Some of these soils contain sufficient phosphorus and potassium for fair crop production, although this supply may be in such a condition that it will not become available fast enough to supply the needs of most crops. Sweet clover, like all legumes, has the power to extract nitro- gen from the atmosphere, and on account of its extensive root system it is able to obtain phosphorus and potassium from a larger area than most plants. The large roots not only add a quantity of humus and nitrogen to the soil but they also open it up to a considerable depth, thus providing better aeration and improving its physical condition. Improved physical condition causes the bacterial flora to increase and thereby indirectly causes a larger quantity of unavail- able phosphorus and potassium to be made available for plant use. On soils which are known to be low in phosphorus or potassium an application of fertilizer containing the necessary element should be made when sweet clover is sown without a nurse crop. However, when it is sown with a nurse crop or in the late summer or early fall on grain stubble, the residues left in the soil from fertilizers applied to the nurse crop will, under ordinary conditions, be sufficient for the plants. That sweet clover will respond readily to applications of phosphorus on soils low in this element has been well demonstrated by the farmers of Livingston County, 111. In this county finely ground rock phosphate was applied to a portion of a number of fields at the rate of 1.500 to 2.000 pounds per acre. The phosphate \vas thoroughly incorporated with the soil just before seeding oats and sweet clover. In the growth of sweet clover there was a marked difference the following year between the treated and untreated por- tions of the fields. Those portions of the fields which received an application of phosphate not only contained many more plants on a given area, but the vigor and growth of the plants were most marked. On June 1 the plants on the treated areas were 12 to 15 inches taller than those on the untreated parts of the fields. This difference in 74950°— Bull. 797—17 3 18 FARMERS' BULLETIN 797. thickness of stand and the height of plants was so striking that the last round of the phosphate spreader was plainly distinguishable. Yields of sweet-clover hay have been increased as much as 2 tons per acre from applications of barnyard manure. Such an increased yield would be equal approximately to 8 tons of green manure. Some people may consider it poor farm practice to apply manure to such crops as sweet clover, but it is very probable that the cumulative effect of the increased yields of the following corps, especially on soils low in organic matter, will be greater than if the manure is applied to other crops. Heavy applications of manure to the pre- ceding crop should also greatly benefit sweet clover. USE OF A NURSE CROP, If sweet clover is to become an important crop throughout the North-Central States it must necessarily be seeded with grain. Good success has been obtained by seeding sweet clover in the spring on winter grain or with spring grain on soil that was inoculated and not acid. Seed may be broadcasted in the early spring on winter grain when the ground is in a honeycombed condition, or it may be sown later when the ground may be cultivated. A large acreage of sweet clover is sown in the' western North- Central States and in Illinois in the spring with oats, barley, or wheat as a nurse crop. Early varieties of oats and spring wheat have given somewhat bet- ter results in portions of the Northwest than barley. In Illinois oats are used almost entirely. Only a few fields were noted where flax had been used as a nurse crop, but in these fields it was success- ful. In wet seasons the sweet clover may make a growth sufficiently large to interfere seriously with harvesting the flax. On this account this combination should be tested thoroughly in an experimental way before being recommended for general field practice. In those sections of the country where the moisture supply is lim- ited, sweet clover should be sown without a nurse crop. Failure to obtain a stand is more likely to occur when the seed is sown with grain than when it is sown alone, because during dry weather, which is likely to occur when the grain is maturing, the supply of moisture in the soil is apt to be insufficient for both crops. When this con- dition prevails the clover will suffer badly and in some cases be killed. When sweet clover is sown with a nurse crop it is strongly recommended that the grain be seeded at not more than two-thirds the usual rate. This will give the sweet clover a much better chance than when a full seeding is made. When severe droughts occur it may be necessary to cut the grain for hay if the stand is to be saved. SWEET CLOVER: GROWING THE CROP. 19 CHOICE OF SEED. On account of the low germination of much of the sweet-clover seed offered for sale it is very important that seed be tested for ger- mination before planting. Low germination Usually is due to the fact that many of the seeds remain hard after they have been in the germinator or soil for a month or more. The seed coats of hard s\yeet-clover seeds become permeable to water very slowly, if at all, in storage. The germination of such seeds is greatly increased, how- ever, when they are subjected for a time to alternating temperatures, such as freezing and thawing. It is on this account that unhulled seed, which germinates poorly in the laboratory, often will produce good stands when sown during the winter. When sweet clover is to be sown in the spring it is very important that only hulled seed which germinates 75 per cent or more be sown. As explained later under the heading " Seeding/' unhulled seed which has a low germi- nation should be used for seeding only during the winter months, so that there will be sufficient time for the alternating temperatures of winter and early spring to cause it to germinate, during favorable weather. Hulled seed usually germinates much better than unhulled seed. as is shown in Table I. TABLE I. — Germination and hard-seed content of samples of sirect-elovcr seed, hulled and iinhulled, from different sou/ Description. Number of samples. Average percentage of— Germination. Hard seed. Kind of seed: Hulled '237 45 22 •VI 53.25 11.8 14 37 56 18.7 70.9 60 43 12 Unhulled Source of seed: Southern Northern Imported Table I shows that northern-grown seed germinates better than southern-grown seed and imported seed better than either. The low germination of the southern- grown seed is probably due to the fact that a very large percentage of it is flailed out and sown in the hull. Xorthern-grown seed generally is thrashed with either a grain sep- arator or a clover huller. Imported seed always is hulled. In hull- ing seed the rasps or concaves of the machines scratch the seed coats sufficiently to permit water to penetrate them, so that the germina- tion is greatly increased. Apparently there is no reason why south- ern-grown seed when it is properly hulled should not germinate as well as northern-grown seed. 20 FARMERS' BULLETIN 797. Since the Ames scarifying machine (fig. 8)1 has been placed on the market, it is possible to buy scarified seed. This machine is so constructed that the seed is forced through a conveyer, part of which is covered with sandpaper. When the seed comes in contact with the sandpaper it is scratched, so that water will penetrate the seed coats. When this machine is run properly the germination of seed is greatly increased, but when carelessly operated germination may be lessened, as many of the seeds may be broken. The retarded germination of sweet-clover seed may be overcome by soaking it in commercial concentrated sulphuric acid for 20 minutes. It should then be washed quickly, using running water if FIG. 8. — Ames hulling and scarifying machine. possible, as sulphuric acid becomes very hot when mixed with small proportions of water. A great deal of water therefore is necessary in order to lessen the danger of burning. The seed should be dried quickly by spreading it out on a floor or canvas, and it should be stirred at intervals. Unhulled seed should never be treated with sulphuric acid. When only a small quantity of sulphuric acid comes in contact with the hulls a very high temperature will result and the seed will be killed. The treatment of seed with sulphuric acid 1 This machine was invented by Prof. H. D. Hughes, of the Iowa State College at Ames, A United States patent covering this device has been issued and dedicated to the free use of the public. SWEET CLOVER : GROWING THE CROP. 21 for seeding on a field scale is not to be recommended, in view of the fact that as good or better results may be obtained by using scarified seed. It is very important that seed of the desired species be obtained. Many lots of sweet-clover seed offered for sale on the market consist of mixtures of the yellow and white species, and many samples also are adulterated with alfalfa. Seed which is simply labeled sweet clover should never be purchased, as seed so labeled may be any one of the several varieties offered for sale. It is always best to state the specific kind of seed ordered and then submit a sample to either your State agricultural experiment station or one of the seed labora- tories of the United States Department of Agriculture1 for identi- fication before purchasing. The Seed Laboratory of the United States Department of Agri- culture during the winter of 1915-16 obtained 172 trade samples of sweet-clover seed and, as may be seen from Table II, many of the samples were not true to name. TABLE II. — Trade samples reef ircd in response to requests for white sweet dorer seed. Seed when tested found to be— Alfalfa and— Seed labeled— berof samples. White sweet clover. Biennial yellow sweet clover. and biennial vellow sweet clover. Annual yellow 'sweet clover. White sweet clover. Biennial yellow sweet clover. White and biennial yellow sweet clover. White flowering sweet clover, white sweet clover, Bok- hara clover, or Melilotus alba . 147 91 10 28 13 1 4 Sweet clover 22 6 4 2 5 5 Not labeled 3 1 2 Total 172 98 14 30 7 18 1 4 PREPARATION OF THE SEED BED. Sweet clover requires a well-settled and firm seed bed, with just sufficient loose soil on the surface to permit the seed to be well covered. When the seed is sown in the spring on winter grain 1 Samples of seed may be submitted for analysis or identification to the Seed Laboratory of the United States Department of Agriculture at Washington, D. C., or to any of the following laboratories maintained through the cooperation of the Department : Branch Seed-Testing Laboratory, Agricultural Experiment Station, Columbia, Mo. ; Branch Seed- Testing Laboratory, Agricultural Experiment Station, Baton Rouge, La. ; Branch Seed- Testing Laboratory, Oregon Agricultural College, Corvallis, Oreg. ; Branch Seed-Testing Laboratory, Purdue University, La Fayette, Ind. ; Branch Seed-Testing Laboratory, California Agricultural Experiment Station, Berkeley, Cal. 22 FARMERS' BULLETIN 797. the seed bed usually is in good condition. At this season of the year the seed may be sown, so that it will be covered by freezing and thawing weather. It may be sown also when the ground is in condition to cultivate and then may be harrowed or drilled in. When the seed is sowTn with spring grain the seed bed is not as firm as it should be for the prompt germination and establishment of the young clover plants. If sown in this manner the soil should be worked into a fine condition and firmed as much as possible. It is good practice to roll the ground with a corrugated roller after seed- ing. Better stands are usually obtained by seeding on fields that have been disked and harrowed than on those that have been plowed. When sweet clover is seeded without a nurse crop it should not be sown on freshly plowed land which has had no opportunity to settle. The land preferably should be plowed several months before the seed is to be sown, and then worked at intervals with soil packers or harrows. Double disking and harrowing just previous to seed- ing are to be strongly recommended in preference to plowing at this time. When sweet clover is to be seeded in the fall on grain stubble, the ground should be disked and worked into good condition as soon as the grain can be removed. If the seed is sown immediately the field should be rolled after seeding. Fall-plowed ground ordinarily makes an ideal seed bed for spring seeding. Soil which has been previously planted to a cultivated crop, such as corn, is usually put in sufficiently good condition for sweet clover by disking. Good success has been attained by merely broadcasting the seed on sandy soil and scratching it in with a harrow. Such a seed bed appears to be ideal when the seed can be covered sufficiently to insure plenty of moisture. It must be re- membered that young sweet-clover plants are not drought resistant and that every precaution should be taken in seasons of drought or on land which drought affects badly to so prepare the seed bed that the largest quantity of moisture will be conserved. Excellent stands have been obtained at times by double-disking native prairie sod and either covering the seed with a harrow or sowing it with a drill. SEEDING. The proper time to seed sweet clover should be determined by the germination of the seed, the climatic conditions of the region, and the condition of the seed bed at the time of sowing. When growing under natural conditions, seed which has lain in the ground over winter germinates in sufficient quantity during the following spring to produce a stand. It is therefore assumed that since this seed has passed the winter on or in the ground and has produced a good SWEET CLOVER: GROWING THE CROP. 23 stand the following spring, sweet clover may be sown at any time of the year and a satisfactory stand obtained. Little is thought of the enormous number of seeds which shatter from a single plant and fall on an area not exceeding 5 or 6 feet in diameter. Single plants have produced as many as 350,000 seeds (the approximate number in H pounds), or about 10.000 seeds for each square foot of ground covered. It matters little how many of these seeds germinate in the fall they mature or during the following winter, when the seed- lings will be killed by freezing, for there will be enough viable seeds left in the ground to germinate when conditions are favorable in the spring. Conditions are very different when sweet clover is sown on cultivated soil at the rate of 5 to 20 pounds of seed to the acre — 25 to 100 seeds to the square foot. When this quantity is sown, it is necessary that it be planted at such a time that the greatest number of seeds will germinate and produce plants. HULLED SWEET-CLOVER SEED. Hulled seed makes up a large percentage of the sweet-clover seed sown. The germination of hulled seed varies considerably, although ordinarily it is higher than that of unhulled seed. Seeding experi- ments conducted at Arlington, Ya., with seed which germinated 80 per cent show clearly that seed which germinates well should not be sown during the winter months in those sections of the country where midwinter thaws are likely to occur, and especially in sections south of the latitude of southern Ohio. In these experiments seed was sown during each month of the winter. Good stands were ob- tained only on those plats which were sown in the latter part of February and during March and April. At least 75 per cent of the seed sown during November, December, and January germinated on warm days during winter thaws and was killed by later cold weather. Notwithstanding the fact that sweet-clover seedlings will endure fairly low temperatures, seed germinating more than 50 per cent should not be sown during the winter months, and preferably not more than a week previous to the average date for the last severe freeze. No data have been secured on winter seeding in those portions of the United States where open winters do not occur. It is probable that in those sections the winters are sufficiently cold to prevent germination before spring. Good results may be obtained by winter seeding, but as usually no trouble is experienced in those sections in obtaining a stand by seeding as soon as the soil can be worked in the spring, it is strongly recommended that seeding be done with hulled seed, which germinates well at this time of the }rear. Many excellent stands have been obtained by seeding late in the spring, but in most sections seeding at this time is not as certain to 24 FARMERS* BULLETIN 797. produce a good stand as earlier seeding. Late spring seeding may be preferable when the ground is weedy and the clover is to be seeded without a nurse crop. Under these circumstances a crop of weeds may be destroyed before seeding. Very good success has been obtained in the Southern and Central States, and in some of the Northern States., by seeding sweet clover in the late summer or early autumn. When there is sufficient moisture in the soil for germination and when good seed is used, better stands Lave been obtained by seeding about eight weeks before severe frosts are to be expected than from spring sowing. This is particularly true in regions where late spring droughts or severe summer droughts are likely to occur. Seeding at this time may be done after an early crop has been harvested and when weeds are not likely to be trouble- some. Plants from fall seeding mature from 10 days to two weeks later the following season than plants from spring sowing of the same year. The later time of maturing is an advantage, in that the plants will be ready to cut during better haying weather. The root growth is not as large from fall seeding as from spring seeding, and therefore not quite as much humus is added to the soil. Late fall seedings are very likely to be^injured from heaving on wet clay soils. UNHULLED SWEET-CLOVER SEED. Unhulled sweet-clover seed is sown principally in Kentucky, Ala- bama, and Mississippi. On the limestone soils of these regions, which appear to be naturally adapted to sweet clover, very good results are obtained by using unhulled seed. It is not because sout'hern-growTn unhulled seed germinates better than northern-grown unhulled seed that better stands are obtained in the South from it, but it is mainly because southern farmers better understand the somewrhat exacting conditions necessary for obtaining a stand with this kind of seed. Unhulled swreet clover contains a large percentage of hard seeds which will not germinate until they have been in the soil for some time and have been subjected to varying temperatures. Seeding experiments have been conducted at Arlington, Va., where unhulled seed which contained 90 per cent of hard seed was sown during each month of the winter. Good stands were obtained on those plats seeded at the rate of 24 pounds (3 pecks) of seed to the acre during December and January, and fair stands on the plats seeded at this rate in February. Later seedings failed to produce a stand. A large percentage of the unhulled seed sown in the South is seeded during January and the first part of February. Good stands are seldom obtained from unhulled seed south of the latitude of Washington, D. C., when the seed is sown later than the middle of February. SWEET CLOVER: GROWING THE CROP. 25 The use of unhulled seed has usually been attended with failure in the northern portion of the United States, although occasionally good stands have been obtained the following spring from late fall seeding. This failure is in part due to the fact that the seed has been sown in the spring and at a time when only seed germinating well should be used. When unhulled seed is to be sown north of the latitude of Washington, D. C., it should be sown not later than Feb- ruary 15, and preferably earlier. Observations show that fairly good stands may be obtained by seeding during the winter, but care should be taken not to sow seed earlier than necessary on land which is subject to washing. Farmers should have no trouble in purchasing hulled seed, and therefore it is recommended that only hulled seed which germinates well be sown. RATE OF SEEDING. The rate at which sweet clover should be seeded varies with the germination of the seed, the condition of the seed bed, the climatic conditions of the region, and the method of seeding. Throughout the humid sections of the eastern United States sweet clover ordinarily is seeded at the rate of 15 to 20 pounds of hulled seed to the acre. From 12 to 15 pounds should be ample where the seed bed is in good condition and the seed germinates 75 per cent or more. In Illinois, the western North-Central States, the Mountain States, and the Pacific Coast States good stands are generally obtained by sowing 10 to 12 pounds of hulled seed to the acre. In eastern Washington it is claimed that from 5 to 8 pounds to the acre are sufficient for good stands. When sweet clover is grown under irrigation, 8 to 10 pounds of hulled seed usualty are sufficient, and from 2 to 4 pounds per acre are enough when seeded in rows from 2 to 4 feet apart. Of unhulled seed 3 to 6 pecks (24 to 48 pounds) or 20 pounds of hulled seed are usually sown in the South for pasturage or hay. In any region at least 10 pounds more of the unhulled than of hulled seed should be sown to an acre. Unless annual yellow sweet-clover seed is thoroughly cleaned it should be sown at the rate of 25 to 30 pounds to the acre. METHODS OF SEEDING. The methods used for seeding red clover or alfalfa in any par- ticular region will be suitable for seeding sweet clover. Good re- sults have been obtained by broadcasting the seed on winter grain in the spring when the ground is in a honeycombed condition. Per- haps a better method is to wait until the ground can be worked and then to broadcast and cover the seed with a harrow or to sow it with 26 a drill. Unhulled seed is usually broadcasted, since it is necessary to sow it before the ground is in condition to be worked. Unless the hulls have been rubbed smooth, some difficulty may be experienced in seeding it evenly with a drill. When sweet clover is to be sown with spring-seeded grain or when it is to be sown without a nurse crop it may be drilled in or sown broadcast and covered with a harrow. Better stands are generally obtained with a smaller quantity of seed when it is sown with the drill than when it is broadcasted on honeycombed ground. When the seed is sown at the time the grain is planted, the grass-seeder attachment of the drill commonly is used. In some sections the end- gate seeder is used almost entirely. When the seed is sown by either of these methods it may be seeded alone or mixed with the grain. When only the clover seed is sown with a drill, the alfalfa and clover seed drills are to be preferred. Sweet-clover seed may be mixed with some inert substance of ap- proximately the same size and weight and sown with an ordinary grain drill. Finely cracked corn, cracked wheat, or coarse bran often are used for this purpose. When one portion of sweet clover is mixed writh two portions of a filler and the drill is set to sow one- half bushel of wheat, it will usually sow from 15 to 20 pounds of sweet clover to the acre. As this quantity will vary with the differ- ent types of drills, it is necessary to test each drill, so that the seed may be mixed with the filler in such proportions that the desired quantity will be sown. The drill may be tested by blocking it up, so that the geared wheel is off the ground, and this wheel may be turned a sufficient number of times to equal a definite portion of an acre. The seed that runs through can then be weighed and the rate per acre determined. The rate may be determined more accuratety by plugging up the grain tubes or by tying a small sack on each tube and pulling the drill for a specific distance over the field to be sown. The jar of the drill will cause it to drop more seed than when it is blocked up and run by hand. It is often desired to seed sweet clover on land which can not be cultivated. When sown on such land it is recommended that un- hulled seed or seed that contains a large percentage of hard seed be used and that it be broadcasted during the winter. The subsequent freezing and thawing will cover many of the seeds and cause them to germinate. It is a good plan to scatter in deep gulleys mature plants that have not shattered ail their seed. The branches of these plants will help to hold the seed in place until it germinates and the young plants become established. Seed may be scattered on native prairie ground in the late winter, but unless it is trampled into the ground by live stock disappointing SWEET CLOVER : GROWING THE CROP. 27 results are likely to be obtained at first. Fair results have been secured by planting seed with disk drills on prairie sod after it had been double-disked in the early spring. This method should be used in preference to broadcasting the seed and depending on cattle to trample it in. Mr. George Hummer, of Prairie Point, Miss., re- ports good success in his locality by simply broadcasting 1 peck of unhulled seed on Ber- muda-grass sod not later than January 1. INOCULATION. Excepting soil acidity. lack of inoculation prob- ably is responsible for more failures with sweet clover than any other one cause. When sweet- clover plants are not in- oculated they must de- pend upon the available nitrogen in the soil for their supply, and as the crop is grown for the most part on soils low in nitrogen the plants can not be expected to make more than a small growth. (Fig. 9.) Arny and Thatcher, at the Minnesota Agricul- tural Experiment Sta- tion, obtained 10 times as much dry matter in the tons and" seven timps ? - 1^ 1 i — . — — /&' - * — i- - I i % b > * & ^ 1 i -f --C j _*"_ ° T t i FIG. 4. — Plans for a pap to be placed under the opening between the platform and lower elevator of a grain binder in order to save the sweet-clover seed which falls on the platform and on the extension to the rear elevator plate A, Size and shape of the metal before bending; B, general plan of the pan when completed, as viewed from the top; C, cross section of the pan and outline of the support which holds it in position; D, stirrup which hooks over the inside sill and to which the support is fastened; E, door. SWEET CLOVER: HARVESTING AND THRASHING SEED CROP. 9 the most part it need not be heavier than one-eighth inch in thickness and seven-eighths inch in width. The supports for the pan under the binder deck preferably should be one-quarter inch thick, as this pan will have much more strain on it than the pans under the elevators. Where bolts are to be used, ordinary stove bolts will suffice. The plans for making the pan which should be placed under the opening between the platform and the lower elevator are illustrated in figure 4. The material to be used for this pan should be cut to conform to the size and shape shown in figure 4, A; the sides should then be bent upright along the dotted lines, so that the pan will be YIG. 5. — Rear view of a grain binder, showing a cross section of the pans and supports and the parts of the machine to which they are attached. A , Pan under the opening between the platform and lower elevator; B, support of the pan; C, stirrup which fits over the inside sill and to which the support is bolted; D, angle iron under the end of the platform and over which one end of the support is hooked; E, cross section of pan under the binder deck; F, support of the pan; G, stirrup which hooks over the outside sill and to which the support is bolted; H, angle iron which supports the guard at the end of the deck; 7, guard which directs the seed that falls on the binder deck into the pan below; J, binder pipe over which one end of the support is hooked. 18 inches wide at the top. One end, which should be solid, may be made so by bending the center portion upright and then bending the sides against it. The side and center pieces should be riveted to- gether. (Fig. 4, 0.) Any suitable door which will prevent seed from falling out of the pan will suffice for the other end. A door is highly desirable, so that the seed may be removed more easily when the pan is full. A convenient type is shown in figure 4, E. A top view of the pan when completed is given in figure 4, B. It will be necessary to brace the pan, and this may be done by riveting strips of strap iron, preferably one-eighth inch thick and one-half inch wide, on the outer edges of the sides. 99161°— Bull. 836—17 2 10 FARMEES BULLETIN 836. This pan is held in position by two supports made of strap iron, preferably seven-eighths inch wide and one-eighth inch thick, which have been bent to conform to the outside of a cross section of the pan. (Figs. 4, C, and 5, B.} The ends of these supports which fasten under the platform should be bent to a sharp angle and the tip of each slightly flattened, so that they may be pushed between the angle bar at the end of the platform and the bottom of the platform. The other end of each support should have a hole drilled in it, so that it may be bolted to the stirrups, which should be made to hook over the inside sill. (Figs. 4, 0, and 5.) These supports should be placed about 6 inches from the ends of the pan and riveted or bolted to it. This will serve to brace the pan and to hold it in place. The pan may be attached to the machine by hooking the supports over the angle iron on the bottom of the platform and by bolting them to the stirrups on the sill. By supporting the pan in this manner it may be easily and quickly attached or removed. H£Gl Of&. AGRICULTURE tWIVeRJITV OFCAUFORNIA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION SOUTH DAKOTA STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND MECHANIC ARTS Contribution from AGRONOMY DEPARTMENT A. N. Hume, Head of Department SORGHUMS FOR FORAGE IN SOUTH DAKOTA BROOKINGS, SOUTH DAKOTA Bowen Pub. Co. <3^& Huron, S. Dak. GOVERNING BOARD. Hon. T. W. D wight, President Sioux Falls, S. D. Hon. August Frieberg, Vice-Pres Beresf ord, S. D. T. A. Potwin Lemmon, S. D. Hon. Frank Anderson Webster, S. D. Hon. J. W. Campbell Huron, S. D. STATION STAFF. T. W. Dwight Regent Member J. W. Campbell Regent Member Ellwood C. Perisho President of College James W. Wilson .... Director and Animal Husbandman N. E. Hansen Vice Director and Horticulturist James H. Shepard • Chemist C. Larsen Dairy Husbandman A. N. Hume Agronomist and Supt. of Sub-Stations Harry C. Severin Entomologist J. G. Hutton Associate Agronomist Manley Champlin . . . r Assistant Agronomist and Collaborator Howard -Loomis Agronomy Analyst Matthew Fowlds. Assistant Agronomist V. R. Jones Assistant Dairy Husbandry E. H. Hungerford Dairy Analyst George Winright Assistant Agronomist Harry Rilling Assistant Agronomist Fred C. Stoltenberg Assistant Horticulturist Reginald Sherwood Assistant Chemist J. M. Eldridge Assistant Dairy Husbandry J. D. Morrison, Scientific Assistant, Detailed by U. S. Department of Agriculture. R. A. Larson Secretary P. W. Hanson Bulletin Clerk and Stenographer EXPERIMENT FARMS. Brookings Brookings County Cottonwood Jackson County Eureka ...,.- McPherson County Highmore Hdye County Vivian Lyman County SUMMARY. 1. Sorghum as a forage crop is worth considering carefully in South Dakota because it may be used as a catch crop due to the fact that it matures quickly, yields fairly well and is adapted to hot weather and limited moisture conditions. Sorghum as a forage crop is not superior to corn in seasons that are reasonably favorable to corn. 2. Several difficulties are encountered in growing sorghum due to the small seed, danger of planting too deep and the slow growth of the young plants. 3. Variety tests of sorghums in South Dakota in- dicate that Sudan grass is best for hay, the amber canes for coarse fodder and dwarf milo for silage. 4. The soil preparation necessary for corn is suf- ficient for sorghum. 5. Where moisture is plentiful Sudan grass gives best results drilled in 6 or 12-inch rows. It can be used as an intertilled crop if desired. 6. All varieties of sorghum except Sudan grass gave best results in method of seeding test when drilled in rows 36 or 42 inches apart and cultivated. 7. In date of seeding experiments Sudan grass gave best results wlipn seeded between May 20th and June -1st. It is safe to assume that these dates are also best for the amber canes and dwarf milo, as these sorghums have practically the same temperature requirements. 8. Head selection should be practiced in securing sorghum seed. 9. Sorghum drilled in 36 or 42-inch rows may be harvested with an ordinary corn binder. Shocks must be built small. 10. Sorghum drilled in 6 or 12-inch rows or sown broadcast may bo harvested with a mower or grain binder. SORGHUMS FOR FORAGE IN SOUTH DAKOTA. 1 By Manley Champlin and George Winright. Sorghum is commonly used for forage in South Da- kota. In the United States, three-fourths of the total herbage produced by all sorghums is consumed as coarse forage. Forage sorghums include the species that are more valuable for their edible fodder than for their seed. The most promising of these are the black and red seed- ed amber canes and Sudan grass. Dwarf milo, feterita, kafir, shallu and some others are also grown in some lo- calities. It is the purpose of this bulletin to give the results of comparative trials of the producing power of these crops and to give directions for growing the crop based on our experience at the South Dakota Experiment Sta- tion farms at Brookings, Cottonwood, Eureka, Highmore and Vivian. In order that the reader may form a cor- rect idea of the value of sorghum, comparisons of vari- ous sorghums with such well known crops as corn and millet are inserted. Reasons for Growing Sorghums. One of the principal reasons for growing any of the sorghum crops is the fact that they may be used as catch crops. When cut worms, spring floods, poor seed or any other cause prevent one from securing a stand of corn or other crop, sorghum is a valuable substitute. They grow well during hot weather of midsummer and will often make a good yield of forage even though planted as late as the first of July. For some parts of the state this crop is desirable because of its adaptability to hot weather and limited moisture conditions. Sorghum gives good results in seasons which are too dry for corn as it is able to remain dormant during short periods of I. The experiments reported iwere conducted on the Brookings, Cottonwood, Eureka and Highmore farms of the South Dakota Ex- periment Station under cooperative agreement between the Agronomy Department of the South Dakota Experiment Station and the Office of Forage Crop Investigations of the U. 'S. Department of Agriculture, until 1915, when cooperation was discontinued and the work has since 'been carried independently >by the 'South Dakota Experiment Station. 626 drought and begin growth with the advent of favorable weather conditions. This power to resist drouth is thought to be partly due to the fact that the sorghum has an extensive root system in the upper 18 inches es- pecially well adapted to use moisture in the upper lay- ers of the soil promptly before it is lost by evaporation. Figure 1. Kaoliang, S. D. 289, is a valuable grain sorghum for South Dakota but it is not as good as amber cane for fodder or dwarf milo for silage. 627 Difficulties in Growing the Crop. One of the chief difficulties encountered in growing sorghum is that the seeds are small and susceptible to cold moist weather. The remedy for this consists in waiting until the ground is warm and sufficiently dry before seeding. This will allow time for surface culture with disk and harrow, thus warming the soil and killing the first crop of weeds before seeding. On account of the small size of the seed, care must be taken not to seed too deeply. In our experiments we have found that when the seed is sown more than one inch deep many of the seeds fail to germinate or fail to penetrate to the surface. If a heavy beating rain crusts the surface, the same is true. For this reason it is very difficult to secure good stands by planting in hills with a corn planter. It is better to drill the seed rather close- ly in the drill row. Even if the stand resulting is too thick, it is preferable to one • that is uneven. Good stands have been secured year after year where suffic- ient care was taken to plant the seed shallow in drill rows, but hill planting has usually resulted in poor stands, largely due to planting the seed too deep. The early growth of sorghum is very slow. That is another reason for late planting after killing the first weed growth by surface cultivation. Comparative Yields of Varieties. The following tables show the comparative values of the different varieties which have been tested at the various experiment farms. 628 Figure 2. Three varieties of sorghum growing at the High- more substation. The row in the center is dwarf milo, that to the left is Minnesota amber and on the right pink kaffir. Picture taken July 25, 1912. TABLE I. ANNUAL AND AVERAGE YIELDS OF FODDER IN COMPARISON WITH CORN IN VARIETY TEST AT BROOKINGS, IN 1914. 1915 AND 1916. CROP S. D. No. YiHd in pounds per acr 6 Average Rank 1914 | 1915 | 1916 Minnesota Amber Sudan - -- 740 4»%* 8850 7440 5760 5760 7320 4560 44401 4732 4200 2280 5110 2580 3720! 4580 3180 300 4000 2880 1 720) 36SO 3480 ! 180q 3680 2940 1200! 3300 1740 600; 3220 2340 6001 2500 132« 240| 2000 H'40 71401 6637 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 White Amber Freed Sorg-o. . Dakota Amb Kaoliansr Dwarf White Feterita Kaferita.. .. Brooking^ 13, . . . 479 jr Kafir Corn '.'.'.'. - . 744 ..... 887 .....| 9q 741 431 . ... 743 ..... NI 629 TABLE II. ANNUAL AND AVERAGE YIELDS OF FODDER SORGHUM IN COM- PARISON WITH CORN AT EUREKA IN 1915 AND 1916. CROP S. D. No. Yield in pounds per acre Average Rank 1915 1 1916 Dakota Amber Eureka 13 Corn. 887 86 469 5320 6570 1750 4710 2780 3030 5015 4675 2390 i 3 Sudan Grass Figure 3. Feterita, S. D. 481, has been widely advertised and is quite commonly grown in Kansas. It cannot be de- pended upon to mature a grain crop in South Dakota and as a forage crop it is easily out-classed by the amber cane and Sudan grass. 630 TABLE III. ANNUAL AND AVERAGE YIELDS OF FODDER IN VARIETY TEST OF SORGHUM AND ONE OF CORN AT HIGHMORE IN 1912 TO 1916. No. CROP >.D. Yiplrl in pounds per acre Yrs. Average in IDS. per acre \o. |9j2 1913 i 1914 1915 UM6 Grown 2 4 •2 4 2 5 2 years 1 4 years 5 jears Sudan Grass 469 3057 341 4255 235S .... 2235 2300 2600 . 1450 1213 44S '. 4747 2866 3U02 !."."." 2072 -633 m 3656 3673 2625 210T 1097 1175 830 6210 3747 •'600 3523 Minnesota Amber Dakota Amber Red \mber 4^3 1624 4»7 544 479 9UO Minnesota Amber Feterita ir— .. White \mber Kaferita HigrhmorelS Corn 4216 4126 TABLE IV. ANNUAL AND AVERAGE YIELDS OF SILAGE AND FODDER IN VARIETY TEST OF SORGHUM COMPARED WITH CORN AT VIVIAN IN 1915 AND 1916. CROP Yield in pounds per acre Av. yields *per acre Fodder 1 Silasre s "• 1915 1916 iN°- Fodder Silage I Fodder Silage 1 Dwarf Milo 332 I960) 4360 655 920 2280 469 4*00 3280 887 250 1580 -6 480 5720 1280 5220 1830 34001 3250 3500 3060 1040 7290 1620 4790 1375 2840 4025 3390 615 4640 760 6505 Kaolianp « Sudan Grass Dakot a Amber Vivian 13 Corn 631 Figure 4. Dwarf Kafir, S. D. 741, is more valuable as a grain crop than as forage and since it cannot be depended upon to mature seed it is not a desirable crop for our condi- tions. G32 Figure 5. White Amber, S. D. 479, has not proved quite as good a producer of forage as its black seeded relatives, the Minnesota and Dakota Amber. The above data show that corn outyields all the sorghums in all cases when an average of two years or more are considered. For that reason we do not consid- er it advisable to plant sorghum of any kind instead of corn in any part of the state, but, as stated before, there are occasional conditions when it is desirable to grow some kind of sorghum, as a catch crop or to insure hav- 633 ing some roughage in a very dry hot season. It is worth while to consider carefully which kind of sorghum to grow. Our experiments show that Sudan grass is most promising of all for forage purposes. Fortunately it is one of the highest yielding sorghums and is finer in qual- ity and easier to grow and harvest the crop than is the case with the coarser sorghums. The black seeded amber canes, including Minnesota amber and Dakota amber, are -also of value under some conditions. While the dwarf milo gives encouraging yields, it will probably not become popular in this state owing to the difficulty experienced in securing viable seed, as it very rarely ripens seed under our conditions and it is necessary to use southern grown seed. It appears safe to conclude that Sudan grass is the best sorghum for hay or fine forage and amber cane for coarse dry fodder. Figure 6. Red Amber, S. D. 483, at Highmore. Picture taken July 25, 1912. This variety yields heavily but is not advisable for this state as it does not mature seed here. 634 Figure 7. This Sudan grass at Brookings was seeded May 1, 1912. The picture was taken September 1. Figure 8. The Sudan grass on the left is the same as that shown in Figure 7. 635 GROWING THE CROP. Soil Preparation. Land is prepared for sorghum in much the same way as for corn. The land may be plowed either in the fall or spring. Fall plowing should be done as early as possible and left rough until spring. As early as pos- sible in the spring the land should be harrowed and lat- er, when the weeds are started, it should be double disc- ed, lapping half to avoid ridging the ground. The land can then be left until seeding time when it should be rolled and given another harrowing. Spring plowing should be harrowed as promptly as possible and then treated the same as fall plowing. Method of Seeding. Tests have been conducted at Brookings and Eure- ka for the purpose of determining the best method of seeding. The following table shows the results obtain- ed. TABLE V. METHOD OF 'SEEDING TEST FOR SUDAN GRASS AT EUREKA METHOD OF DEEDING Yield in tons per acre 1912 1916 Averages Drill rows 6 inches . .... 3 62 2 06 2.84 Drill rows 12 inches • . 3.8 1.56 2.63 Drill rows 36 inches 2 05 2 22 2 14 Drill rows 42 inches 1 82 2.16 1.99 Double drill rows 36 inches •• 2 15 2 09 2 12 The above data indicates that the largest yield of Sudan grass can be obtained by seeding in drill rows six or twelve inches apart and that if one desires to grow it as an intertilled crop, the best yield is obtained by sow- ing two rows six inches apart with 36 inches between each pair of rows for cultivation. The closer the drill rows were placed, the finer was the quality of the forage as the stems grew smaller and the proportion of leaf to stem was greater. While it is true that under favorable moisture conditions both yield and quality of forage is improved by solid planting, the 636 Figure 9. Feterita, S. D. 481, on plot 243 at the Highmore sub- station. Picture taken July 25, 1912. row planting method may still be recommended for the central and western portions of the state in order to in- sure a crop in dry seasons and to put the land in better shape for the crop of the following year. Sudan grass is a crop that may be grown either as an intertilled or a solid drilled crop. Thus one may ad- just its use to his individual farm needs. The coarser stemmed sorghums such as amber cane, dwarf milo, etc., should be grown in cultivated drill rows either 36 or 42 inches apart. This insures a fair yield in dry seasons and leaves the land in good, condition for the next year's crop. Furthermore, the experimental evidence which we have indicates that a higher yield of forage is obtained by cultivation. A test of solid planting as compared with drilling in cultivated rows 44 inches apart was conducted at High- more in 1912 with four varieties. The results as shown in Table VII were so conclusive in favor of the culti- vated rows that it was not considered necessary to con- tinue the test. 637 TABLE VII. COMPARISON OF CULTIVATED ROWS AND SOLID PLANTING AT HIGHMORE IN 1912. CROP S. D. Yield in Ibs. per acre for each method of seeding No. Drilled in 44-inch rows Broadcast plats Red Amber Minnesota Amber White ^mber Feterita 483 341 479 4M 1 9800 7300 6000 5600 2580 2500 1875 1000 Figure 10. Two rows of Sudan grass on plot 253 at Brookings. The above picture shows the method of seeding this crop in single drill rows. Rate of Seeding. The usual amount of Sudan grass seed required when sown in drills six inches apart is from 25 to 30 pounds per acre. With drills 12 inches apart 15 pounds is sufficient and less in proportion when the rows are wider spaced. Amber cane grown in rows far enough apart to permit cultivation should be planted at the rate of from 4 to 6 pounds per acre. When amber cane is sown broadcast, 40 pounds of seed per acre is required but as stated above, amber cane is not usually a desirable 638 crop for broadcast seeding in this state. Sudan grass is better for that purpose. Time of Seeding. Special tests have been conducted at Brookings and Highmore for the purpose of determining the best time to seed Sudan grass. The following table shows the re- sults obtained at various dates of seeding. As amber cane is very similar to Sudan grass in its temperature requirements it is safe to assume that the results of these tests will apply to it also. TABLE VIII. ANNUAL AND AVERAGE YIELDS IN A DATE OF SEEDING TEST OF SUDAN GRASS AT HIGHMORE IN 1913, 1914 AND 1915. D \TF ^EFPFP Yield in pounds per anrp A veraeres in Ibs. per acie 1914 1915 1916 May 1 • • 1860 3230 3430 3450 2250 2270 Kilki by frost MayfS 1697 1767 2325 2250 1710 May 15 1Q~0 June 1 . 1725 1800 3250 1150 June 15 1°51 July 3 Figure 11. White Amber, S. D. 479, at the Highmore substation. The picture was taken on July 25, 1912. This vari- ety is of secondary importance in South Dakota as a for- age sorghum. 639 TABLE IX. ANNUAL AND AVERAGE YIELDS IN A DATE OF SEEDING TEST OF SUDAN GRASS AT THE BROOKINGS EXPERIMENT STATION IN 1913, 1914 AND 1915. DATE SEEDED Yield in pounds per acre Averages 1013 1914 1915 May 1 7455 5541 7850 8052 5280 7320 8760 8880 7080 3840 5520 5940 5820 2040 2520 1260 6085 6267 7474 6324 5100 2406 May 15 • • • • • . June 1 June 15 July 1 July 15 • •• 2117 The above data indicates that the best time to seed Sudan grass is about June 1. The averages show an in- crease for later seeding from May 1 to June 1 and after June 1 a decrease in vield for later seeding. Figure 12. Minnesota Amber, S. D. 341, is the most widely grown sorghum crop in South Dakota. It grows very tall and produces an abundance of leaves. This variety and a pedigreed selection from it named Dakota Amber, S. D. 887, are the best of the coarser kinds of sorghum for forage in this state. 641 Cultivation. If the sorghum is planted in rows, with the inten- tion of cultivating, there should be space enough between the rows to permit the use of the same machinery that would be used in cultivating corn, that is from 36 to 42 inches. Sudan grass has been cultivated in single, double and treble drill rows. This has a tendency to make the hay coarse and has not given as high average yields as closer drilling, but insures a crop in dry seas- ons and puts the land in better shape for the next crop. A six or eight shovel riding, cultivator is very satisfact- ory for cultivating sorghum. As with all cultivation the main object is to control the weeds and put the soil in good condition for the next year's crop. When cultivat- ing double or treble rows it is often necessary to remove the two inner shovels. Seed Selection. Since forage sorghum will be harvested before the seed is fully ripened it is necessary to grow a few rows to maturity or purchase new seed each year. In selecting seed from the stalk considerable atten- tion should be given to the selection of the best heads. There is a great deal of variation in the heads, some of them being poorly filled and light while others are com- pact and heavy. The heavier heads on sturdy, leafy plants should be selected for seed, tied up in bunches and hung up to dry. When cured the seed heads can be beat- en out. A good plan is to take a metal lined box, such as is used under a fanning mill, and then pound or tramp out the seed. Since it requires but 4 to 6 pounds of seed per acre for cultivated sorghum a comparatively small number of heads will be sufficient to seed a considerable area. When a large amount of seed is required, the entire crop grown from the selected heads may be threshed for seed purposes with an ordinary thresher. The seed to be planted is selected from the bulk by cleaning and grad- ing with a fanning mill. Figure 13. Dakota Amber, S. D. 887, is a pedigreed selection from Minnesota Amber, S. D. 341, originated by A. C. Dillman at the federal experiment farm at Newell. It is early and drouth-resistant and has somewhat shorter, finer stems than its parent variety. 643 Good seed can usually be obtained on the market or from special seed growers but there are many advant- ages in selecting and growing one's own seed as it gives a chance to improve the crop. Harvesting. Sorghum in cultivated rows is harvested much the same as corn, being cut either with a corn binder or with a corn knife. The crop is commonly cut for forage when the seed is in the early dough stage. Where sorghum is sown broadcast or in close drill rows it may be cut with a mower the same as hay or in dry regions it can be cut with a grain binder and the bundles allowed to dry in the field. Sudan grass can be cut with a mower or binder the same as millet. The best time to cut the first crop is when it is in full bloom. The second crop, if any, is cut about September 1st to 10th to avoid danger of frost. Due to the thick juicy stems, amber cane cures with Figure 14 A growing crop of Minnesota Amber, S. D. 341, at Highmore. This variety and its daughter variety Da- kota Amber, S. D. 887, give the best results when a coarse fodder crop is desired. 644 difficulty. For this reason it is best to begin the curing by having the stalks in small shocks. The shocks may then be stacked in long, narrow stacks or fed directly from the shock. The shocks will stand up well for sev- eral weeks if well set up and tied with a band near the top of the shock. The same will apply to Sudan grass when cut with a grain binder or corn binder. When cut with a mower the Sudan hay is handled the same as mil- let. The time required to cure the hay will depend up- on the yield and weather conditions. If the growth is very heavy it should be allowed to lie in the sun for about one dav before raking. It should then be raked into Figure 15. Dwarf milo, S. D. 747, ranks first in trials at Vivian as a silage sorghum but is not as desirable as amber cane for fodder. 645 small windrows and allowed to dry another day before stacking. A light or medium growth can usually be stacked after drying for one day. Sorghum is often used for silage. The same method is used with this crop as with corn except that if sweet varieties such as amber cane are used it is advisable to mix in a load of hay or straw every third or fourth load as the silo is filled the amount to be regulated according to the maturity of the crop. This will absorb part of the juice from the sorghum and help to prevent the sil- age from souring. Sorghum silage is not as good as that made from well matured corn but it is succulent and palatable and when supplemented with gOod hay and some concentrate it makes an excellent feed for dairy cows or other stock during the winter months. CONCLUSIONS. In conclusion the facts established by these experi- ments may be stated briefly as follows: 1. Sorghum is a profitable crop to grow when weather conditions are unfavorable for corn. 2. Sudan grass has proved the best sorghum for hay purposes and for solid drilling or broadcasting. 3. Varieties of amber cane, such as Minnesota am- ber and Dakota amber, are best to grow when a high ton- nage of coarse forage is desired. 4. Sudan grass gives best results when drilled in rows six inches apart but can be grown as a cultivated crop if desirable. 5. Amber cane and dwarf milo give best results when grown in rows far enough apart to permit culti- vation similar to that given drilled corn. 6. It is best to seed sorghum from May 20 to June 1, after corn planting is finished, but good yields are ob- tained from later seeding, making it possible to use the sorghums as catch or substitute crops. 7. Sorghum seed should be planted shallow, the ob- ject being to put the seed as close to the surface as pos- sible and still be covered with soil. \ UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA: AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION TIMELY HINTS FORFARMERS No. 135 FEBRUARY 1, 1918 SOAPWEED OR PALMILLA (YUCCA HLATA) AS EMERGENCY FORAGE In parts of southern Arizona, particularly about Willcox. some stockmen are feeding the chopped stems of the plant commonly known as soapweed, yucca or palmilla as an emergency forage to cattle. As many as 1500 head of cattle in the Sulphur Spring Valley were fed on soapweed or yucca stems, at least as a partial diet, during the past winter and spring, and it is stated that about one-half that number were fed during the previous winter season, i. e., 1915-1916. In some in- stances this feed constituted an almost exclusive diet, since the open ranges were very closely grazed, as is generally the case at this season of the year. In other cases cattle were fed, in addition, some kind of concentrate or else grazed in winter pastures where there was consid- erable feed. Various statements have been made concerning the relative feeding value of yucca or soapweed forage. Some of these have un- doubtedly been overestimated, but the general impression is that the experiments have been successful and that the feeding will be continued. In company with Professor G. W. Barnes, livestock specialist of the University Extension Service, the writer visited the country about Willcox last March and made observations on the preparation and feeding of the yucca forage to stock. The winter of 1916-1917 was colder than usual and the spring was backward. At the time that the visit was made there was little fresh growth upon the range and some of this, unfortunately, was loco. The perennial grasses had scarcely begun growth. It was stated that Messrs. Cook and Johnson, near Willcox, were feeding about 500 head of cattle exclusively on yucca forage, and W. H. McKittrick was feeding about 300 head. At the J. H. ranch, the manager, Mr. Brookerson, was feeding about 300 animals of all sizes. The latter were grazing on a winter pasture about two miles from the J. H. ranch and they were given all the chopped yucca stems they would eat in addition to the grass they grazed. 2 TIMEXY HINT 135 There was considerable grass in this fenced area and the stock would have been able, in all likelihood, to get along at least for a time without additional feed. To be sure, the grass was dry and weathered, but nevertheless grazable. The yucca forage, as will be noted later, was a real addition to this kind of feed. The commonest grasses were represented by galleta or cracker grass, also called tubosa grass (Hila- ria mutica), false needle grass (Sclcropogon brevifolius), alkali sacaton or fine-top alkali grass (Sporobolus airoides), aparejo or cushion grass (Sporobolus utilis), wire grama or woolly foot (Bouteloua eriopoda), hairy grama (Bouteloua hirsuta), side-oats grama (Bouteloua curti- pendula), and a species of Triodia. Besides these were scattered shrubs of winter fat (Eurotia lanata), chamiso or shadscale (Atriplex canes- cens) and one other species of saltbush. These latter are considered excellent winter and early spring browse plants. The stock were in fair to good condition considering the hard winter through which they had passed. The droppings of these animals indicated that they were not badly constipated, though the condition of some of them could have been improved. The feeding of yucca forage helps to some extent, at least, to regulate the condition of the bowels. It is not uncommon for cattle grazing on the open range to become badly bound up or constipated during the winter season. This is due to the lack of succulent forage and to the large proportion of dry, leached out grass and weeds along with such browse as saltbush, Mormon tea (Ephedra spj, mesquite and palo verde twigs that stock are driven to eat at this season. The grazing of cactus forage in winter largely overcomes this condition. When eaten in quantity it acts as a purgative. Excessive constipation is responsible for losses of stock on the ranges far in excess of what is generally understood. It is now time that this should receive attention from stockmen. Such losses are often considered to be due to stock eating poison plants, when in reality they result from constipation caused by the dry feed stock are often forced to subsist upon. A small amount of alfalfa, oil cake, cotton-seed meal, singed cactus, chopped yucca or silage fed to cattle, along with what they can graze on the open range, will very much improve this condition. Botanical information: Soapweed or palmilla (Yucca elata) belongs to the subfamily Dracencae of the Lily family. It is one of eight species of this group of plants in our State and it is more abundant and widespread with us than any of the other species. It belongs to the group of yuccas having narrow, thin leaves and dry, capsular fruits. The individual plants vary much in size, according to age, soil and moisture conditions. Occasional plants grow to heights of 12 feet or more and are often branched above. The average plant, however, is 4 to 7 feet high with two to several unbranched stems from a common base. The stems are clothed for their full length with a dense mass or coat of leaves. They vary from 3l/2 to 4l/2 inches in diameter, exclu- sive of the thick leaf bases which form a layer nearly an inch thick all around. In section the stems consist of numerous stout, white fibers lying in a mass of softer and somewhat succulent tissue. SOAPWEED OR PALMILLA AS EMKRC.EXCY FORAGE 3 The leaves vary from 18 to 24 inches long and have short, flattened and abruptly broadened bases. The blades are % to l/2 inch wide, green, very tough and woody, with narrow white margins. They are tipped with a spine. There are numerous stout white fibers along the edges or margins of the leaves. These are occasionally collected and woven into stout cords or ropes by Indians and Mexicans. The leaf bases, already noted, are whitish in color and quite juicy, though tough and leathery. The old leaves, j. e., those on the lower half of older stems are usully dead and abruptly bent downward ; on the upper half of the stems they are green and spreading, ascending or erect in position. Yuccas are characteristic plants in the landscape in the spring and early summer during their blossoming period. The flowers are rather large, showy and cream-white in color ; they are borne in large stalked panicles or clusters which grow from the ends of the leafy stems just noted. The flower stalk is often 3 to 5 feet long in addition to the flower cluster which may be 3 or, 4 feet long. In Yucca elata the flower stalk with its flower cluster begins to grow rapidly about May 1, and in this succulent condition is much relished by horses and cattle. One can find occasionally hundreds of plants in a locality with their flower stalks eaten by stock. After the flowers disappear and the seed pods mature, the stalk dies back to the leafy stem of the plant. Accord- ingly, a yucca may blossom many times without the stems or plant dying, while the sotol (Dasylirion IVhceleri) and the Agave or Century Plant (Aga-re spsj die entirely soon after flowering. The soapweed or palmilla, in common with other of our native yuccas, is of slow growth and when the main stem is cut back to the ground several young shoots commonly begin growth from the base. In the University Cactus Garden, where occasional irrigation is given, the stem of a rather mature soapweed plant was cut back to the base four years ago, having been previously burned. At this time eight shoots of various sizes are growing, the largest of which is 20 inches high, exclusive of the leaves. It would require probably 10 years at this rate for a yucca stem to grow to a height of 3l/2 or 4 feet from an old base, and of course, a much longer period from seed. There is an abundant growth of young leaves from this cluster of shoots, but these are too tough and woody almost from the start to be eaten by stock even with great shortage of feed. Yuccas are rather deep rooted and very difficult to eradicate in cultivated areas, as many farmers in dry farming communities can testify. They propagate readily from root cuttings. Yucca elata is quite common throughout southern and eastern Ari- zona and it extends eastward through southern and central New Mexico into western Texas, and northern Mexico. Over considerable parts of this large area it is one of the most conspicuous and abundant of the larger plants. In Arizona its growth is most abundant between the altitudes of 3,000 and 5,000 feet on rather level, gravelly or sandy clay soils. It is usually accompanied with scattered growth of bunch grasses and shrubs. Below altitudes of 3,000 feet it seldom occurs in 4 TIMELY HINT 135 any quantity except in occasional swales or storm water areas, while above altitudes of 5,000 feet it gives way to oak, juniper and other woody growth. In addition to being used as an emergency forage, considerable quantities of this yucca have been shipped from New Mexico and western Texas to El Paso and other points to be utilized in soap- making. A dark, rather coarse wrapping paper may be made from the leaves of this plant, though, as yet, this has not been manufactured in commercial lots. The paper is made from the green leaves, the growth of which is stimulated by cutting back the old stems to the base. The roots, called amole, are fleshy; they are used by the Mexi- cans and Indians as a substitute for soap. Preparation of yucca forage for stock: There are several ways to prepare yucca stems for feed. The method used at the J. H. ranch consists in cutting the stems with the leaves on in pieces about two feet long and then splitting these lengthwise with a sharp axe. Two or three strokes of axe are necessary to cut a stem in two and four or five well directed ones to split it lengthwise. About a minute is required on an average to do this and the material is then ready for the chopper. The stems are hauled in from the surrounding country and one to two hours is required, according to the distance and the abundance of the plant to get a wagon load of these. The older parts of the stems, i. e., those covered with old dead leaves, are too fibrous to be of value for feed and are rejected. The yucca chopper at the J. H. ranch consists of a discarded, vertical-acting pump-jack. A stout, moderately sharp iron blade with a cutting edge of about six inches is bolted to one arm of this. The blade is so adjusted that in the downward movement of the arm the cutting edge comes in contact with a thick block of wood below. The yucca stems, cut in pieces and split as just noted, are laid on this block and chopped into small irregular pieces one to two inches in thickness and about two inches in length, the stems being handled by the leaves. .No attempt is made to chop the leaves since these would not be eaten under any circumstances. Stock eat readily this prepared yucca forage, which consists of the stems and the adherent flattish leaf bases. This material is whitish in color, somewhat succulent, and has a pronounced sweetish taste. Enough material may be chopped at one time to last for several days. After being chopped the material is loaded on a wagon and hauled away to the stock. A silage cutter answers as well or better than the device described above for chopping the stems, and one of these machines was used about Willcox last year. The power to run the chopper is furnished by a 3 or 4-horsepower gasoline engine. Chemical and microscopical analyses of chopped yucca forage: Samples of yucca stems as prepared for feed at the J. H. ranch were taken for chemical analyses. This material represented young or me- dium aged stems, i. e., stems whose leaves are green, and is designated No. 1. Similar material was collected near Tucson, Arizona, to repre- sent somewhat older stems, i. e., those mostly with dead leaves; this is SOAPWEED OR PALMILLA AS EMERGENCY FORAGE designated sample No. 2. These samples were analyzed by the chemists of the Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station, with the results given below. As would be expected the sample representing the younger material shows a larger amount of moisture, crude protein, and fat ; and a smaller amount of ash, crude fiber and carbohydrates than the sample from the older stems. Sample No. 1 contains less than one- half as much ash, slightly more than one-half as much crude fiber and A mature plant of Yucca elata growing at an altitude of 3000 feet. almost twice as much crude protein as Sample Xo. 2. The analyses showed saponin present in some quantity, which is not surprising. This substance is considered by some authorities as a poison when occurring in considerable quantity in plants. Thus far no ill effects have been noted from saponin in the feeding of yucca over a period of two seasons, and in all probability none are to be expected. 5 TIMELY HINT 135 In addition to the chemical analyses made by the Experiment Sta- tion, the writer made a microscopic study of the stems and leaves. Curiously enough, no starch was noted in any instance. In place of starch, there was a rather large amount of glucose or grape sugar. This accounts for the sweet taste of the forage. The sugar was present both in the stems and in the leaf bases. The leaves are composed of an unusually large amount of woody cells or fiber and give but a slight test for sugar. Only a trace of oils could be found in occasional cells. An unusually large amount of crystals of calcium oxalate was present. In chemical analysis this would appear as ash. ANALYSES OF SAMPLES OF YUCCA FORAGE. No. 1 No. 2 Young stems Old stems Moisture 72.10% 63.50% Ash 1.55% 3.34% Crude protein .' 2.09% 1.12% Fat (ether extract) .43% .34% Crude fiber 4.50% 7.15% Carbohydrates (nitrogen-free extract) 19.33% 24.55% 100.00% 100.00% Comparison of yucca forage with native cacti forage as emergency feed: The moisture varies from 63.5 per cent to 72 per cent in the yucca samples, which is about 9 or 10 per cent less than in stems of native cacti. Moisture can be dismissed as of no importance from a standpoint of food value. The ash averages 2.45 per cent for the yucca forage as compared with 4.35 per cent for cactus forage. The ash content, therefore, is about one-half that of cactus stems. Ash is of no food value, but the ash in cacti is abnormally high and probably acts as a purgative. Yucca forage has no purgative effect on animals, even when fed in quantity. The crude protein averages 1.60 per cent for the two samples of yucca as compared with 1.42 per cent for native cactus forage. The protein content of cactus forage is notably low and the analyses show yucca forage to be about as deficient. Protein is an animal food and good alfalfa hay often contains as high as 12 or 15 per cent. The fat, or ether extract, averages .38 per cent for the yucca samples as against .40 per cent for samples of native cacti. Dr. Vinson states that this is composed only in part of true fats and that it may include some resins. This amount of fat is low at best. The average of the yucca samples gives 5.83 per cent crude fiber as compared with about 2.28 per cent for native cactus forage. Even the younger samples of yucca contain practically twice as much fiber as cacti. Fiber has almost no nutri- tive value. The carbohydrates or nitrogen-free extract averages 21.94 per cent for the two samples of yucca as against 15 per cent in cactus stems. As already noted the carbohydrates in yucca are rep- resented largely by glucose or grape sugar, which is a valuable food. Carbohydrates supply heat and energy for the body and produce fat. With protein they are essential for good stock feed. As compared with cactus forage, yucca forage appears to contain about the same amount of crude protein, less water and ash, and more SOAPWEED OR PALMIIyLA AS EMERGENCY FORAGE 7 crude fiber and carbohydrates. Aside from the fact that yucca forage acts somewhat as a succulence when fed during the winter and spring seasons along with dry range feed, its food value lies chiefly in its car- bohydrates in the form of glucose. From the analysis given it appears to have a considerably greater nutritive value than cactus forage. The cost of preparing yucca forage as already described, including cutting and hauling to the chopper, chopping, loading and hauling out again to stock, is in excess of the cost of singeing native cacti on the ranges with a cactus burner. However, the feed is of somewhat higher quality and the expense is fully justified for emergency feed. This expense is no greater than that of choppnig prickly pears, as practiced in parts of western Texas where these plants are abun- dant. There, the cacti are cut, loaded on wagons and hauled to a chopping machine. The chopped material is again loaded up and hauled out to the stock. Yucca forage is to be regarded as a roughage similar to cactus forage. It serves well as such to be drawn upon by stockmen during periods of short feed. At these times its use will assist materially in carrying stock over famine periods with greatly reduced losses. In quantity on the range it may be compared to a stack of hay to be used only in time of need or to reserve silage supplies. Like cactus forage it undergoes almost no depreciation on the range with age, and it is not subject to grazing by stock except when prepared for feed. Its growth, though slow, accumulates year after year on the range without interrup- tion. As a reserve food supply, it can be called upon at once, with nominal expense, during a famine period. Since it does not grow in quantity in cactus country, it plays the same part as emergency forage on the higher mesas that cactus does over some of the lower mesa country. Because of the expense of preparation it will not be utilized during periods of good feed. For best results it is recommnded that a: little cotton-seed meal or oilcake be fed to animals along with the chopped yucca. J. J. THORNBER, Botanist. UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA^ AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION TIMELY HINTS FORFARMERS No. 93 MARCH 1. 1912 THE INTENSIVE CULTIVATION OF ALFALFA f REPRINTED AND REVISED, DECEMBER 1, 1917) In December. 1908. the writer, desiring: to employ profitable a small block of ground near Yuma. decided to plant it to alfalfa. This ground, a fine sandy loam with a few patches of alkali, consists of 7.93 acres of fertile bottom land, irrigated bv water from the Colorado river. The field, nearlv square, is divided into three portions of which the middle one. marking the site of an old slouch, is depressed 18 to 20 inches below the other two. The tract is irrigated from a lateral running across the north end, connecting; with the "Reclamation Service water supply. The field slopes from north to south about two inches in 100 feet; and was laid off for large heads of water in wide lands with broad, oval borders about six inches high between. The work was in charge at different times of E. L. Crane and C. J. Wood, well known for their knowledge of Colorado Valley farming. Seeding: Nineteen pounds per acre of clean, homegrown alfalfa seed was broadcasted in the recently irrigated, plowed, and harrowed soil, and then brushed in. The seed was sown in December and. the winter being mild, germinated nromptlv, even on the low borders, for- tunately helped by a timelv fall of rain. In southern Arizona, Sep- tember and October are ideal months to sow alfalfa which, along with weeds, germinates and grows until frost. The weeds are then killed by the cold, leaving the alfalfa readv to resume its growth in the spring to the exclusion of the weeds. New and clean land may be seeded successfully in spring and summer : but in foul land weeds, especially Bermuda grass, compete detrimentally with spring and summer sown alfalfa. Irrigation : The field was irrigated at first by water pumped by the V '. S. Reclamation Service from the Colorado River : and later by TIMELY HINT 93 gravity water from the same source. The sediments and fine sand from this muddy supply accumulated in two years to a depth varying from about twelve inches at the upper end of the first land, to one- quarter to one-half inches at points farthest from the supplying lateral. This heavy silt blanket in time became a serious inconvenience near the ditch, disturbing the land levels, making it increasingly difficult to get water from the ditch over the ground ; and throughout the field blanket- ing the surface more or less deeply, hindering access of air and water to the roots of the alfalfa. To dispose of these sediments, partly, an embankment was thrown across the north end of the low middle portion of the field, thus making a settling reservoir of .42 acres, into which the irrigating supply was conducted from the main ditch ; thence by branch laterals to the field. Samples taken from inlet and outlet of a similar reservoir showed that on one occasion the sediments were decreased from 1245 to 422 parts in 100,000 of water. During the first year this reservoir was in use it filled to an average depth of nine inches with sediments, which if distributed over the field would have made a deposit .52 inches deep over the whole field. In due time this reservoir will be I'tTCH* — • — * .._* — " * 1 : 1 ^ :~^"*> =1 T T : Q 1 ; ; 1 I Rl *L3£.R.VO1B. it ^ \ FO a, *SKDiME.rirjj? 0 O.4Z jA. /? 3 ^tf g li4/K Z; = 'M = 5 = flj = : | ^ HIGH £> \LO V &OR.DC:K\ Hit H &OR*D ^Av5 r s 1 AJLF, r^ *X 7.36\ACO.E.^ E I = I 1 \ 1 ^ >, -STACK YAB.D ; 66/ Ft. Diagram of field, showing ditch, settling reservoir and subdivisions filled to grade with rich soil which may then be planted and another portion of low ground used in its' stead. This procedure lessens the expense of ditch cleaning, fills in low lands, and lessens the excess of sediments deposited on the surface of the alfalfa field. THE INTENSIVE CULTIVATION OF ALFALFA 3 The number of irrigations varied from none in the winter months to as many as three in June, averaging fourteen irrigations a year. At times in hot weather more water could have been used to advantage than was received. Quantitative data relating to irrigation for the first three years are as follows: 1909 1910 1911 1st yr. 2nd yr. 3rd yr. Acreage 7.75 A. 7.75 A. 7.36 A. Number of irrigations 11 14 16 Depth of water applied 4.51 ft. 7.07 ft. 7.91 ft. Cost of pumped water per acre-foot $1.00 $1.01 $1.01 Cost of water per acre irrigated 4.68 7.13 7.95 Tons of hay cut per acre 6.00 9.25 9.33 Cost of water per ton of hay S .78 $ .77 $ .85 Pounds of water to make 1 pound of hay 1023 1040 1153 The ratio of irrrigating water to hay produced is very satisfactory, being not far below the ratio of 750 pounds of water transpired to one of dry matter produced stated to be required in arid regions, under average cultural conditions. With ground water at about ten feet, however, it is possible that this alfalfa drew part of its moisture from this source, and that the real ratio of water to hay is therefore higher. Cultivation: Alfalfa, like most other crops, requires constant cul- tural attention for best results. Weeds must be kept out; bare spots must be reseeded; and accumulations of sediments on the soil surface must be broken up from time to time. Bermuda grass, at Yuma, is the worst weed in alfalfa, seeds and fragments of grass floating into the held with the irrigating water, bare spots and edges being constantly invaded in this manner. We have found, however, that after each cut- ting of alfalfa, regular attention with a sharp shovel, and a sharp eye, to small patches of Bermuda starting here and there, will feasibly and easily keep the grass under control. The cost, for field and ditch, with labor from $1.50 to $2.50 a day was as follows for three years: COST OF KEEPING AN 8-ACRE ALFALFA FIELD FREE FROM BERMUDA Year Alfalfa, per acre Ditch, per 100 ft. ^work"' "S^t* 1909 $1.86 $ .68 99 $18^94 1910 3.22 1.53 183 3499 1911 2.12 1.33 111 24'.30 Ave., 3 yrs. $2.40 $1.18 At this cost, the field was kept free from Bermuda, with very little additional expense for other weeds ; while other fields not so cared for, at the end of three years, are so occupied with Bermuda as to be de- preciated at least forty per cent in yield of hay, which would have amounted to a gross loss in our own field of approximately $55.00 per acre for the third year, and more later. In August, water grass grows aggressively in both ditches and alfalfa fields at a time when the alfalfa is least vigorous — a condition which tends to depreciate the August and September cuttings in both amount and quality. Alfalfa should be disked or renovated twice a year, for several rea- sons: (1) To break up the silt blanket deposited by the muddy irri- 4 TIMELY HINT 93 gating waters; (2) to kill shallow rooted weeds and annual grasses; and (3) to destroy egg deposits, larvae and pupae of insects such as the alfalfa caterpillar. The summer cultivation should be done in August or September when worms and feebler growth depreciate the value of the cutting. The winter cultivation should be done in January after pasturing the ground for available forage. Disks should be set straight to avoid cutting off crowns. Specially constructed alfalfa renovators and cultivators, adapted to penetrate and stir the surface, are also used for the purpose. Alkali spots in our alfalfa have been removed by plowing them, scraping away surface soil, refilling with fresh soil and reseeding, with abundant irrigation, to alfalfa. Alfalfa should under no circumstances be pastured in the summer, as close pasturage and the hot sun on naked crowns will kill many of the plants. It is an excellent practice, however, to mow the small August cutting and let it lie for awhile, thus at the same time cheating the worms and mulching the crowns against the summer sun. In September, after a short season of rest and renovation, with worms out of the way, irrigation will start vigorous growth in time for one or two fall cuttings. Pests: Gophers and the alfalfa butterfly have constituted the only serious pests of alfalfa in our experience at Yuma. The gophers were easily cared for by a weekly distribution of raisins, each containing a small dose of powdered strychnine inserted with a penknife or tooth- pick. One or two raisins to a hole are sufficient. Alfalfa butterflies and their consequent broods of worms, which increase to a pest in August and September, are not easily controlled. It is not practicable to spray the crop with arsenicals. Close cutting of the alfalfa when the worms are most numerous in August will result in the death of great numbers ; but enough will remain to eat down the new growth ; and in cloudy weather an army of starving worms will migrate to the nearest green vegetation. For several reasons, worms among the number, our experience shows that it is good economy to withhold irrigating water for about thirty days, beginning August 15, resuming operations in September when the worm season is past. During this interval the alfalfa may be disked or renovated to good purpose. The advantages of this procedure are economy of water, destruction of worms by restricting growth of their food plant, and restraint of weeds by lack of water and by cultivation. Cuttings and yield: At Yuma the dates of cutting alfalfa during three years were as follows, irrigations between cuttings being shown by black faced type: Year 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 1909— (1)3-24 (1)5-3 (2)6-14 (3)7-19 (1)8-24 (1)9-29 (2)11-17 1910— (*)3-29 (2)5-10 (2)6-9 (2)7-19 (1)8-23 (1)9-26 (2)11-26(1) 1911 — (3)3-28 (2)5-12 (3)6-20 (3)7-27 (2)8-25 (0)9-11 (2)10-30(1) THE INTENSIVE CULTIVATION 01 ALFALFA 5 The average weight per acre of hay for each cutting, recorded for two years, was as follows : Year 1st March 2nd May 3rd June 4th July 5th Aug. 6th Sept. 7th Xov. Total 1910. 1911 1.77 1.80 1.90 2.00 1.65 2.00 1.82 1.82 .98 .89 .38 .14 .75 .68 9.25 tons 9.33 " Ave. l./"8 l.Vo 1.83 1.82 .94 .26 .71 This record shows the unprofitable character of the September cut- ting, grown at the season when alfalfa is least vigorous, and when the alfalfa butterfly worms are most active. After the last cutting, in No- vember, winter pasturage is available in December and January, at which times irrigating water may be withheld, the alfalfa pastured, and the field finally disked in preparation for next season's irrigation. Shrinkage: Three observations were made on shrinkage in weight of alfalfa between baling and marketing the crop. The baled crop of 1910, as a whole, shrank 5.9 per cent. In 1911 a number of tagged bales, scattered through a large stack, shrank 3.5 per cent between bal- ing and sale. In 1912 the shrinkage was 2.4 per cent. The stacks were not protected, and it is likely that hay sheds would slightly reduce this item of loss. THREE YEARS' STATEMENTS OF LOSS AND GAIN Following the practice outlined above, the financial outcome may be of interest to the reader. The statements for three years are made to show returns as they would have been realized by a small farmer who, with the help of his family, does most of his own work, hiring labor only in haying time ; and charging no interest on an investment of capital which, ordinarily, he is not able to obtain. FOR THE YEAR 1909 Cost of seed and water required to sow the field (1908) $ 22.25 Labor hired for haying, men 36 days, team 4 days 62.67 Labor of farmer and family ; men 56^ days, team 24 days, not charged. Water, 11 irrigations; 35^4 head hrs., dues 40c 35.65 Baling, 35.85 tons, at $2-50 89.73 Mower, $57.50; netting, $19.58; stack cover, $22.30; taxes, $25.69 125.07 Sales: 27.3 tons damaged hay $226.50 7 tons good hay ... 89.80 $316.30 Small farmer's net loss on investment of $2100.00 in 7.93 acres of land, team, machinery and improvements 19.07 $335.37 $335.37 The investor's loss, hiring all teams and labor, but not deducting interest on $2100.00 invested in land, team, tools and improvements, would have been $198.24. This unfavorable showing was due to lack of a hayshed ; and to a downpour of rain in August, which turned prospective profit into loss. Three hundred dollars insurance in the form of a hayshed could easily have been afforded, even for this small field. 6 TIM KLY HINT 93 FOR THE YEAR 1910 Labor hired for haying and making settling rcscrv7oir ; men 41 days extra team, 2V2 days $ 76.69 Labor of proprietor and family, 64 days, of team 23l/2 days not charged Water, 15 irrigations, 55^4 head hours, dues 75c 56.00 Baling, 62.93 tons at $2.50 157.06 Miscellaneous: Stack cover, $33-15; taxes, $19.65., etc 56.12 Bad debt, not collected 15.00 bales of hay : 64.46 tons at $13.00 $839.74 Pasturage 16.50 Small farmer's profit in wages and returns on investment 495.37 $856.24 $856.24 The investor's profit, hiring all teams and labor, but not deducting interest on $2100 invested in land and tools, would have been $301.05, or 14.3 per cent on the investment. FOR THE YEAR 1911 Labor hired for haying and making reservoir ; men 38 days, extra team 4 days .' $ 84.80 Labor of proprietor on crop, 79 days, team 23 ^ days, not charged Water, 16 irrigations 58.88 Baling, 62.6 tons at $2.50 156.62 Taxes and incidentals 22.45 Interest on loan to carry crop 15.00 Sales of hay : 57.345 tons at $15.00 $ 860.17 Miscellaneous sales 123.95 Pasturage 20.00 Small farmer's profit for labor, and returns on investment of about $2300 in 7.93 acres of land, team and machinery 666.37 $1,004.12 $1,004.12 The investor's profit, hiring all labor and teams, but not deducting interest on $2300 invested, would have been $444.90, which is 19.3 per cent on the investment. Cost of producing one ton of baled hay: Working somewhat expen- sively, on a small scale and without improved hay stacking machinery, the costs of making a ton of baled hay, not including interest charges on the investment, were as follows : 1909 1910 1911 Water $ .77 $ .78 $ .86 Weed control 61 .52 .68 All other labor haying, irrigation and miscellaneous 4.00 3.26 3.78 Baling, by contract 2.50 2.50 2.50 Incidentals .48 .46 .05 Total costs $3.36 $7.52 $7.87 With more efficient haying machinery and closer management the labor costs should be reduced to about $2.00 a ton, making the average total cost of production about $6.00 per ton. With baled hay selling at $11.00 to $15.00 a ton during a normal season, a liberal margin of profit remains. THE INTENSIVE CULTIVATION OF ALFALFA ALFALFA SEED For several years the yields of alfalfa hay were well maintained upon this little field, being- for 1912. 10.00 tons per acre; for 1913, 9.47 tons; for 1914, 10.53 tons; and for 1915, 8.63 tons per acre. Follow- ing the low yield of 1915, it was decided to reseed vacant spaces by means of a seed crop the following year. The third crop, in 1916, was therefore allowed to go to seed and this was harvested in July, yielding 6020 pounds of seed "in the dirt." The young alfalfa plants resulting from seed shattered from this crop did not endure well the hot weather of August and September, but the fourth crop, which was also harvested as'seed in late September, gave a dense stand of young alfalfa in vacant spaces, besides yielding 2088 pounds of crude seed. The first seed crop gave 5746 pounds of recleaned seed, most of which was sold for $16.35 per hundredweight; and the second crop yielded 1677 pounds of recleaned seed which sold for $13.00 per hundred. The total yield of recleaned seed was 1009 pounds per acre. Aside from the valuable crop of seed, incidental advantages are that seed crops require less labor than hay, and also less irrigation, thus economizing outlay on the part of the owner. Following is the financial statement for the year from the view- point of a small farmer contributing his personal labor and team to the crop ; Labor hired for harvesting hay and seed crops $ 46.63 Labor of proprietor on crop 52 days; team 17% days, not charged Water, 10 irrigations ' 15.91 Baling 7.92 tons at $2.50 19.80 'ihreshing and recleaning seed 209.55 Sacks, twine and weighing 11.20 lools and sundries 3.90 Telegraph and auto service 7.16 Taxes 30.76 Sales : 20.54 tons of alfalfa hay $ 214.68 10 tons of alfalfa straw 37.50 5743 pounds recleaned seed at 16.35c 938.98 1677 pounds recleaned seed at 13c 218.01 Small farmer's returns for labor, and profit on 7.93 acres of land . 1,064.26 $1,409.17 $1,409.17 The investor's profit, hiring all labor and teams but not deducting interest on the investment, was $809.04. CONCLUSIONS The facts briefly submitted in the preceding pages clearly demon- strate several things of importance both to the individual farmer and to the region at large. First, the intensive cultivation of alfalfa pays. By intensive cultivation is meant the complete occupation of the ground, including borders and to the fence lines, with alfalfa; the 8 TIMKIA HINT 93 elimination of weeds ; and at least two renovations a year with disk or harrow, in August and in January. The cutting out of weeds, chiefly Bermuda, at Yuma, is particularly worth while, costing an average of $4.68 an acre, including ditch cleaning, during three years of observations. Had it not been for this expenditure the gross sales of hay would probably have been 3% tons or over $50.00 per acre less in the third year of operations. Second, the sixth or September cutting, attacked by worms and depreciated by the hot humid weather, is not profitable. At this time irrigating water should be withheld, the field disked and the scant cutting of alfalfa left for the time being as a mulch on the ground. This procedure will save expense, improve a later crop, and defeat both worms and weeds. Third, hay, loose or baled, should be protected under good substantial sheds. The unex- pected storm of August, 1909, turned the profits of that year into loss, and this is an ever present liability in a region whose eccentric rainfall often finds the hay farmer unprepared. Fourth, an abundance of irri- gating water is necessary for hay production. We applied an average of 6.5 acre-feet annually to our ground and could probably have used more to advantage. Fifth, seed is a very profitable crop, where it may be grown successfully, and requires less labor and water than hay. Sixth, in a general way, the financial statements for these three crops show that the highest profits per acre are to the small farmer whose personal time and care are available for his own benefit, rather than to the investor, or large farmer, who hires practically all of the labor required. It is doubtful that the advantage of wholesale operations on large tracts can overcome the advantages of concentrated attention of an interested owner to his own crops. The maximum of prosperity for the community in general, therefore, is to to be achieved through the sub-division of large tracts into small, (though not too small) inten- sively cultivated farms — a condition peculiarly well suited to the ad- ministration of an irrigated region. R. H. FORKKS. Director. UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA^ AGRICULTURAL EXPLIUMENT STATION TIMELY HINTS FORFARMERS No. 132 DECEMBER 15, 1917 HAIRY PERUVIAN ALFALFA Hairy Peruvian alfalfa was introduced from Peru into the United States by the Department of Agriculture about the year 1899, and, al- though it has been under experimentation on the farms of Arizona and the Southwest, and also at various experiment stations since that time, its acreage at present is very limited. While the total area in Arizona at present planted to alfalfa, according to statistics compiled by the Ari- zona Council of Defense, is about 185,000 acres, estimates from the most reliable sources indicate that the area devoted to genuine hairy Peruvian alfalfa is not much above 3000 acres. Economic qualities of hairy Peruvian alfalfa: The one quality of hairy Peruvian alfalfa which especially recommends it to the alfalfa growers of Arizona, and the Southwest in general, is its ability to grow in cool weather. It has been shown that this variety will grow when the temperature is as low as 49 degrees Fahrenheit, while the common varieties of alfalfa do not begin growth until a temperature of about 58 degrees Fahrenheit has been reached. While hairy Peruvian alfalfa will thus grow at temperatures considerably lower than the common varieties, it is not to be inferred from this that it is to be classed among the hardy varieties. In 'fact, when it is planted in regions where the temperature during the winter falls below 10 degrees Fahrenheit, the plants winter-kill very badly, and therefore cannot compete with the common varieties in such regions. In the low irrigated valleys of Southern Arizona it has demon- strated its ability to make some growth throughout the winter, and cuttings have been secured as early as March 1st, usually having attained by that time a height of about two feet. Hairy Peruvian alfalfa also recovers very quickly after cutting and is a vigorous grower, so that a few days' less time is required for each cutting of 2 TIMELY HINT 132 this variety than is the case with common alfalfa, excepting during sum- mer months when the difference is practically negligible. In the fall when cool weather begins, this difference in growth is again shown, and as winter months approach, the growth of the common alfalfa is almost entirely checked, while that of the hairy Peruvian is relatively more active throughout the winter. Its growth during winter is, of course, not as rapid as in the late spring and early fall. Occasionally, in December and January when the temperature falls below 49 degrees Fahrenheit, its growth is temporarily checked, but in no case have the winters of Southern Arizona been cold enough since its introduction to stop permanently its winter growth or kill the plants. It is upright in habit and few stems are left after each cutting. Stockmen have pastured this variety to a very limited extent through the winter, but usually good results are not secured in this way as the plant is some- what handicapped in its early spring growth, being considerably weak- ened by the continual winter grazing. It never makes as rapid growth in the spring after it has been winter-grazed as where it has been permitted to grow, so that the- total annual yield of hay secured where grazing is practiced is considerably less than where no grazing is allowed. However, where green pasturage is an important item, rather than total yield, this variety will perhaps serve the purpose better than any other. As a result of its growth during the cooler parts of the year, hairy Peruvian alfalfa has uniformly produced greater yields than any other variety that has been grown in comparison with it. At least one more cutting, and, in some cases, two more cuttings have been secured than from ordinary alfalfa growing adjacent and under similar conditions. Its total annual yield when grown in comparison with seven other varieties of alfalfa, including Italian, Baltic, two types of Algerian, Turkestan, Siberian and French, has been uniformly greater than either. YIELDS OBTAINED IN 1916 OF HAIRY PERUVIAN ALFALFA IN COMPARISON WITH SEVEN OTHER VARIETIES ARE AS FOLLOWS I Pounds per acre Average total yield of hairy Peruvian on 4 plots 15,676 Average total yield of the 7 other varieties 14,371 Average yield of hairy Peruvian on 4 plots, cutting Dec. 8 2,217 Average yield of the 7 other varieties, cutting Dec. 8 1,701 /vverage yield of hairy Peruvian on 4 plots, cutting March 23 5,500 Average yield of the 7 other varieties, cutting March 23 4,738 This table shows that in spite of the fact that all these plots were cut at the same time throughout the year the yield of the hairy Peruvian is greater than that of the other varieties. During the previous year the hairy Peruvian was promptly cut when about one-third of the plants were in bloom and one more cutting for the year was obtained from the hairy Peruvian than from the other varieties. It was thus shown that to obtain the highest yields of which this variety is capable it must be promptly cut at the proper time, which is in the early blooming stage. This is necessary not only to obtain the highest yields, but also if per- mitted to grow too long the stems have a tendency to become woody and therefore produce an inferior quality of hay. HAIRY PERUVIAN ALFALFA 3 Moreover, it is seen from this table that the yields from cuttings of hairy Peruvian made in late fall and early spring are greater than those obtained from cuttings of the other plots at the same times. The yield from the hairy Peruvian which was cut December 8 was at the rate of 2217 pounds per acre, while the average yield from the seven other varieties was 1701 pounds per acre. The yield obtained from the hairy Peruvian plots cut March 23 was at the rate of 5500 pounds per acre, while the average yield of the seven other varieties cut at this time was 4738 pounds. Appearance of hairy Peruvian alfalfa: The young plants differ but little from other alfalfas, but as they approach the cutting stage they differ from common alfalfa in a number of ways. They have fewer stems per plant and are less branching. They grow taller and stand more upright. The stems are larger than those of common al- falfa, especially when the stand is thin. Ihe character which most distinguishes this variety from the others is the hairiness of the entire plant, especially in the adult stage. The hairs are somewhat sparse at the base but the number increases on ascending the plant, so that at the top both the stem and leaves are covered with a dense growth of fine hairs. The veins of the leaves are of a somewhat whitish color, and serve to intensify the grayish green appearance of the plants. Hairy Peruvian alfalfa is easily distinguished from other varieties growing adjacent, both by the hairiness of the plant and by the grayish green color which it displays when seen at a distance. The common variety is quite smooth except that it has a few hairs near the top. When viewed at a distance the common alfalfa has a greener appear- ance and even when no alleyways separate the two varieties it is easy to distinguish where the one begins and the other leaves off. Hairy Peruvian hay, also, is said to have a characteristic grayish or "musty" color, but where it has been cut from fields having thick stands, this grayish color is not so apparent owing to the fact that trie plants have very few hairs, except at the top, when the stand is thick. The flowers of the hairy Peruvian alfalfa have a somewhat dark purple color, while those of the common alfalfa are violet. The seeds of hairy Peruvian alfalfa cannot be distinguished from those of other varieties. The only sure mark of identification is the hairiness of the plant. The seeding qualities of hairy Peruvian alfalfa: In general, hairy Peruvian alfalfa produces seed about like other varieties so far as quantity is concerned. The seed crops taken from it during its trial at this Station for the past six years have shown that, on the average, it seeds as abundantly as the seven other varieties under trial. A seed crop was taken from all the alfalfa plots at the Yuma Date Orchard in 1915, and the average yield obtained from the hairy Peruvian was 488 pounds per acre, while that from the seven other varieties was 329 pounds per acre. The highest yield obtained from any one of these four hairy Peruvian plots during the same year was 960 pounds per acre, while the highest yield obtained from any one of the seven other 4 TIMELY HINT 132 varieties was 765 pounds, which was secured from a plot of Baltic alfalfa. In 1916 the yields of seed obtained from the hairy Peruvian as compared with the other varieties, were practically reversed. The average yield per acre from the hairy Peruvian alfalfa was 578 pounds, while that from the seven other varieties was 674 pounds. The highest yield obtained from any one of the four hairy Peruvian plots was 613 pounds per acre, while the highest yield from any one of the seven other alfalfas was 787 pounds per acre, which was obtained from an Algerian plot. Reports from several growers of hairy Peruvian al- falfa in the Yuma Valley give results somewhat as shown above; that is, some credit hairy Peruvian as producing about the same quantity of seed as common alfalfa, while others state that it yields more. The evidence at hand, therefore, seems to indicate that hairy Peruvian alfalfa produces seed in about the same quantity as other varieties. Water requirements of hairy Peruvian: Since the attention of alfalfa growers has been called to the importance of hairy Peruvian, quite a number of inquiries have been made as to whether it is drought resistant. While no definite "experiment has been carried out to test the actual water requirements of hairy Peruvian alfalfa, yet it has been shown that if water is withheld from the plants too long when growing under irrigation the stems become very hard and woody be- fore they reach the proper stage for cutting. As previously stated, this variety, even with an abundance of water, has large stems and if allowed to stand too long before cutting produces an inferior quality of hay owing to the hardness of stems. For this reason hairy Peruvian is not recommended as a drought resistant variety nor is it suited to dry-farming regions. Owing to the fact that it grows through the cooler parts of the year the total amount of water used by this variety is probably somewhat greater than that of ordinary alfalfa. Regions where hairy Peruvian alfalfa may be profitably grown: As stated above, hairy Peruvian alfalfa can be grown profitably only in regions having mild winters, where thorough irrigation is possible or where there is an abundant rainfall. The non-hardiness of this variety will always confine it to the warmer alfalfa districts. The sections in Arizona particularly adapted to this variety are the low irrigated valleys of the State, especially in the Salt River arid Yuma valleys. It cannot be grown with profit in regions having an eleva- tion above 5000 feet since the winter temperatures at this altitude are low enough to produce severe winter-killing; nor can it be grown under dry-farming conditions because, as before stated, the hay pro- duced is too stemmy and not of the best grade. Planting and the amount of seed: Although hairy Peruvian al- falfa is a very vigorous plant and very rapid in its growth, the best results cannot be expected with it unless the usual care is taken to prepare the land for seeding. Land which has too much fall or which is very irregular in its elevations always produces low yields. What- ever slope the borders may have lengthwise, they should be perfectly level crosswise because this condition permits the water to spread HAIRY PERUVIAN ALFALFA 5 uniformly over the entire border. The slope should be uniform be- cause where the land has a great number of high and low places an uneven growth of alfalfa is always obtained, since more water will be secured by the plants in the lower places. Hairy Peruvian should be planted in the fall of the year when other varities are planted — usually from September to November inclusive. Evaporation is less during this period and throughout the winter, than it is in the spring and summer months, so that little irrigation will be needed while the plants are small, provided the land was well irrigated before planting. When planted in the fall the roots have plenty of time to make a good growth and get well down into the soil before the hot weather begins the following summer. If hairy Peruvian is planted in the spring, al- though its growth is very rapid, it will not be able to produce sufficient root growth to hold its stand when the hot weather of the summer comes on. Owing to the fact that hairy Peruvian is less branching and pro- duces fewer stems to the plant than other varieties, even when the plants are standing very thinly on the soil, it is necessary to plant more seed per acre of this variety than with the other more branching types. There are other reasons for this thick planting. It has been found that when hairy Peruvian stands very densely on the soil the stems do not grow so large nor do they become so woody before cutting time. When grown in dense stands, only, the tops of the plants have any great amount of hairiness. About 15 pounds of seed of common al- falfa are sown to the acre. With hairy Peruvian at least 20 pounds per acre should be sown as this will give a thick stand in the begin- ning, and as the plants gradually thin out from year to year a good stand will be insured even after the plants are several years old. It is important to guard against poor stands with this variety because any vacant space will not be taken up by the production of an extra number of stems. Unoccupied space will be taken up by weeds which will serve both to reduce the quality of hay and also the yield, especially of the early spring cuttings. Testing alfalfa seeds: Since regions where hairy Peruvian alfalfa is grown are almost entirely confined to the Southwest, alfalfa seed locally marketed as hairy Peruvian is grown exclusively in the South- west. For this reason any growers desiring to plant hairy Peruvian alfalfa should never buy seed which has been imported from other sections of the country, although it may be recommended as genuine hairy Peruvian seed. Before buying alfalfa seed of any kind the grower should be absolutely certain about three points ; viz., the variety, the section of the country in which it was produced, and the quality of the seed with regard to both germination and purity. As stated elsewhere, it is impossible to distinguish hairy Peruvian seed from seed of the common varieties ; therefore it is important to have the dealer certify that the seed is genuine hairy Peruvian, and also that it has been grown in the Southwest in regions to which hairy Peruvian alfalfa is adapted, and to have dealings only with thoroughly reliable and intelligent dealers and growers. The viability of seed, or its 6 TIMELY HINT 132 ability to germinate, is indicated to some extent by its appearance. Seeds which are plump and of a bright olive green color almost al- ways give a high percentage of germination; while a brownish color usually indicates old seed, and, especially, if a large number of shriv- eled seeds are found a low percentage of germination may be expected. In any case where the viability of the seed is questionable a germina- tion test can be made with very little trouble. This test may be made by placing one hundred or two hundred seeds between moist cloths or blotting papers and keeping them at a temperature of about 70 degrees Fahrenheit. At the end of a period of six days the number germinated may be counted and from this the percentage of germination may be determined. Frequently at the close of a germination test with alfalfa seed it will be found that there are a number of seeds which are ap- parently in good condition but which have failed to germinate. These are called "hard seeds" and will not germinate as soon as the others because of the thickness and hardness of the seed coats, but will finally germinate if kept in a moist place for several days longer. For this reason seed analysts usually add one-third the number of these hard seeds to the number which have actuallv germinated. Before pur- chasing the seed, especially on the open market, it should always be carefully examined for weed seeds, as no variety of alfalfa will produce maximum yields when the field is heavily infested with noxious weeds. When the grower is about to buy alfalfa seed which is of good appear- ance so far as viability is concerned but which has weed seeds in it, he should determine before buying just what these weed seeds are, and if such noxious weeds as Johnson grass, foxtail, and pigweed are found, it should be rejected. This is especially important for those who are growing alfalfa for seed purposes on a commercial scale be- cause when an alfalfa field once becomes infested with noxious weeds, especially of those kinds which do not readily separate from the alfalfa seed, it is either rejected by other alfalfa growers, or sold at a low price. "Smooth" Peruvian: Since the introduction of the genuine hairy Peruvian alfalfa another variety of so-called "smooth" Peruvian al- falfa has been originated. The "smooth" Peruvian is but another name for alfalfa of the ordinary type coming from Peru, Argentina, and other South American countries. Tests at this Station have shown that this type is quite distinct from the true, or hairy Peruvian alfalfa, and that they are little or no better than our common alfalfa. It is the opinion of some growers that this "smooth" Peruvian strain originated by crossing genuine hairy Peruvian alfalfa with common alfalfa planted near. W. E. BRYAN, Assistant Plant Breeder. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE "NJ' IDC «"««"• "«»'«•" THOMAS FOKSYTH HUNT. DEAN AND DIRECTOR BERKELEY H- c- VAN NORMAN, VICK-DIHCCTON AND DEAN UNIVERSITY FAMM SCHOOL CIRCULAR No. 167 AUGUST, 1917 FEEDING STUFFS OF MINOR IMPORTANCE BY F. W. WOLL The prevailing high prices for hay and other common feeding stuffs are leading farmers to look for materials that may serve as partial substitutes. The object of this circular is to describe briefly a number of such materials that are not generally used for stock feeding by our farmers at the present time, but which can be so used to a considerable extent, without affecting appreciably the production of the stock, and with a resulting reduction in feed cost. The problem of cheapening the cost of production of animal products by the use, in part, of low-grade feed materials is so much the more important since normal conditions with regard to feed prices are not likely to return for at least several years and as prices for the products of the farm have not increased in proportion to the increase in feed prices, and this condition may not be changed in the near future. The farmer and stockman must, therefore, feed more cheaply than in the past, or keep stock that will give better returns for the feed consumed than that now commonly kept, or both. This circular deals with the former method of increasing the profits from stock raising, but it should be distinctly understood that improvement along both lines suggested is possible, and should be made in order that animal husbandry may pay as well or better in the future than it has in the past. Most of the materials discussed in the following pages are only of medium or low feeding value compared with standard cattle feeds, and cannot make up the entire ration for growing or producing farm animals. Stock that is idle or maintained at an even weight, on the other hand, can be kept in a good body condition on rations composed wholly of some of these materials, at a minimum feed cost, and ex- pensive standard feeds thus saved for the producing herd or flock. The materials referred to as partial substitutes for common feed- ing stuffs are straw from small grains, rice, or leguminous crops, stalks of Indian corn or grain sorghums, grain and rice stubble, sugar- beet tops and leaves, cannery refuse, by-products from the orchard or truck gardening, etc. The average chemical composition of these materials for which analyses are available, with estimated digestible components, will be seen from the following table. For the sake of comparison, this also includes corresponding figures for alfalfa hay and barley. COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS OF MINOR IMPORTANCE, IN PER CENT (VARIOUS AUTHORITIES) N-free Digestible Carbo- Pro- hydrates Moisture Proteiiv Fat Fiber extract Ash tein and fai Barley straw 14.2 3.5 1.5 36.0 39.0 5.7 .9 41.5 Oat straw 9.2 4.0 2.3 37.0 42.4 5.1 1.3 41.3 Wheat straw 9.6 3.4 1.3 38.1 43.4 4.2 .8 36.1 Eice straw 7.5 3.9 1.4 33.5 39.2 14.5 .9 38.5 Lima bean straw .... 10.0 10.7 1.9 21.1 46.7 9.6 5.4 41.5 Horse bean straw .... 9.2 8.8- 1.4 37.6 34.3 8.7 4.3 41.3 Soy bean straw 10.1 4.6 L7 40.4 37.4 5.8. 2.3 42.4 Foxtail hay 7.5 7.0 2.0 27.4 47.3 8.8 4.0 50.9 Indian corn stalks .... 19.0 5.7 1.2 27.7 40.9 5.5 2.1 44.0 Kafir stalks 19.2 4.8' 1.6 26.8 39.6 8.0 1.6 44.5 Milo fodder ...'. ... 11.1 12.0 4.5 18.4 44.1 9.9 1.9 42.6 Sugar beet leaves and tops 83.8 2.3 .4 1.6 7.4 4.8 1.7 7.7 Cull potatoes ., 79.1 2.1 .1 .4 17.4 .9 1.1 15.9 Potato tops 78.0 2.3 1.0 6.0 9.7 3.0 1.0 9.4 Artichoke tops, air- dried 25.8 4.2 .9 22.0 40.1 7.0 2.7 51.5 Cull apples .-... 80.8 ,7 .4 1.2 16.6 .4 .8 17.0 Apple pomace 83.0 1.0 .9 2.9 11.6 .6 .5 10.7 Cull raisins 19.0 4.5 67.7* 2.2 3.4 65.2 Grape pomacef 67.0 4.3 2.1 7.8 16.3 2.5 Olive pulpf 11.1 4.6 13.1 39.2 30.4 1.6 Almond hullsf --»- 17.3 2.0 .8 17.0 57.3 5.6 Carob pods 11.9 8.0 1.0 5.6 71.8 1.7 2.4 66.5 Acorns 55.3 2.5 1.9 4.4 34.8- .1.0 2.1 . 38.2 Spineless cactus 92.8 .5 .1 .9 4.5 1.2 .3 3.9 Alfalfa hay 17.1 Barley 10.8 14.0 12.0 1.9 1.8 25.0 4.2 34.7 68.7 7.3 2.5 10.4 9.4 38.2' 75.9 * Chiefly sugar, f Digestibility not known. Cereal Straw. — Straw of small grains, especially that of oats, bar- ley, and wheat, may take the place of hay to a limited extent in feeding farm animals. About one-third of the roughage is generally fed to cattle in European countries, and one-half or more to horses. This is either fed whole or chopped, the former as a rule to cattle and the latter to horses, being fed wet and mixed with grain or sliced roots. It does not appear that the nutritive effect of the ration is reduced by substituting straw for common hay to this extent. Fine bright oat straw has an approximately similar feeding value to a medium quality of wild hay. Barley and spring wheat straw rank next in feeding value. Other kinds of straw or poorer grades of the cereal straws mentioned may be used for bedding after cattle or sheep have picked it over. By chopping and feeding the straw wet, mixed with grain, roots, or molasses, even coarse old straw may be utilized for stock feeding and aid in reducing the amount of valuable hay required to keep animals in good condition. In these days of high feed prices, it is more than ever inexcusable to burn straw to get rid of it. By feeding it to stock, as suggested, at least one-half a similar amount of hay may be saved, and the full manurial value of the straw saved at the same time. Rice Straw. — With the growth of the rice industry in the state during recent years, the proper utilization of the rice by-products has become more important than formerly. Rice straw has a fair feeding value, only slightly below that of oat and barley straw, and may be fed to horses and cattle with good results, as a part of their roughage. If fed as sole roughage, as is sometimes done, the allow- ance of grain must be somewhat increased over the amount fed with hay. Rice straw alone does not furnish sufficient nutriment for pro- ductive purposes although it makes a good maintenance feed. Accord- ing to reports received, it can also be successfully made into silage if plenty of water is added as the cut mass goes into the silo. Legume Straw. — Straw from leguminous crops, beans, peas, etc., is somewhat higher in nutrients than cereal straw, but is generally coarse-stemmed and less palatable to stock than the latter. Lima bean straw is commonly fed to cows, horses, and sheep in the south coastal counties of the state and is considered of nearly similar feeding value as good grain hay or fair grades of alfalfa or clover hay. In order to avoid waste in feeding, it is preferably run through a cutter and either fed alone or mixed with feeds, like silage, sliced roots, or concentrates. Alfalfa straw obtained as a by-product in alfalfa seed production can be used for feeding horses and, if chopped, for cattle and sheep. It is low in protein and high in fiber (below 10 per cent and above 30 per cent, respectively), and has about one-half the feeding value of ordinary alfalfa hay. Grain stubble furnishes feed for large numbers of hogs, sheep and other stock in this state during the late summer and early fall. The value of ordinary stubble pasture is generally recognized by farmers. Bice stubble fields also supply valuable pasture for farm animals, including horses and turkeys, and have been extensively utilized for stock feeding in rice-growing sections during late years. Foxtail, at an early stage of growth, while the beards are still soft and silky, compares favorably with grain hay in composition and feeding value, but it seems impossible to avoid difficulties in pastur- ing this crop or feeding such hay, from even early cuttings, to stock on account of the stiff beards.- When old weedy alfalfa fields cannot be cut early for hay, the only method of utilizing the crop is to make it into alfalfa silage ; even then the crop must be cut before the foxtail beards have become stiff, in order to make satisfactory silage. Indian corn stalks form an important source of feed for farm animals in eastern and central states. Cattle and horses are either allowed to harvest the stalks (stover) in the field or the stalks are fed whole in the barn or corral. In some cases, they are run through a cutter or shredder before being fed to stock. This is by far the better way of handling the stalks, as the nutrients contained in them may thus be fully utilized. Chemical analyses and digestion trials have shown that about one-third of the total digestible nutrients in the corn crop is found in the stalks. It is, therefore, a matter of great economical importance to our country that the enormous feed supply present in corn stalks be not allowed to go to waste. They furnish a good feed for farm animals, especially young stock, winter- ing cattle or ewes, and horses doing light work. If fed whole, con- siderable waste will occur, even if the stalks are fed in the corral or the manger, and they are, therefore, preferably fed chopped or shredded, in which case stock will eat them practically without waste. Stalks of grain sorghums, milo, Egyptian corn, feterita, etc., con- tain similar amounts of nutrients as Indian corn stalks, and should be utilized for stock feeding in the same way. Where the crop is not grown especially for grain, either for seed or hog feeding, the more economical method of preserving the sorghum crop, as well as the Indian corn crop, for feeding farm animals is to make it into silage. The greatest feeding value is secured by this method of preservation and the cost of feeding the crop thereby reduced.* The silo furnishes the most economical method of utilizing standard forage crops, like Indian corn, sorghum varieties, Sudan grass, cereal grains, etc., for feeding cattle and sheep. It also renders it possible to change materials of minor or very little value for stock feeding, like many of those described in this circular, into palatable feeds of considerable feeding value. Cannery refuse furnishes large amounts of feed available at or near canneries, mainly pea and corn canneries. It is ordinarily siloed and used for feeding sheep, milch cows, or beef cattle. Pea cannery refuse (pea vines) is also sometimes cured into hay and fed to stock as such, with good results. Sugar beet tops and leaves are available in large quantities during the late summer and fall in beet-growing sections, and are generally fed in the field to cattle and sheep. On account of the large content of oxalic acid in the leaves, they are preferably fed in limited amounts only, along with some dry roughage. The best way to utilize this by-product for stock feeding is to silo the tops and leaves after run- ning them through a cutter. They may be siloed alone or mixed with dry materials, like corn stalks, milo stalks, etc. They can also be siloed by being buried in a trench in the field and covered with straw and dirt, but the losses of nutrients are heavy in this case, amounting from one-third to one-half. Silage made from beet tops and leaves only has a rather offensive odor, but makes a palatable stock feed. It is a standard feed for dairy and beef cattle in Euro- pean beet-growing countries. Cull potatoes are of special value as a feed for fattening hogs; they can also be fed to advantage to other classes of stock, to horses, sheep, and milch cows, as a partial substitute for grain. Six pounds of potatoes have a similar feeding value as one pound of grain; if steamed and fed to hogs, they have been found equal to about one-fourth their weight of grain. The latter method of prep- aration is to be recommended in feeding potatoes to hogs. Potato tops can be utilized as roughage for stock after the leaves have turned yellow. They should not be fed to stock while still green as they may contain poisonous substances at that time, the same as sprouted potatoes. If cut a few days before the potato harvest and * See Circular 138 and Bulletin 282, California Agricultural College. 6 cured into hay, they are said to furnish a feed fully equal in feeding value, although not in palatability, to meadow hay (or similar to grain hay or stock hay). Potato vines may also be made into silage by being placed in a silo or a trench in the field, as in the case of beet tops. Such silage makes a more palatable feed for stock than the dried tops. Orchard Products.—^ Apples, grapes, oranges, and other orchard fruits are frequently fed to stock, especially swine, in fruit-growing sections. Broadly speaking, their feeding value varies from one- fourth to one-sixth of that of common grain feeds. The by-products obtained in the manufacture of apple cider, wine, olive oil, etc., have a distinct feeding value, as indicated by the analyses given in the table, and should be utilized for stock feeding, if possible, being especially adapted for feeding market hogs. Raisins that are not marketable will make an excellent feed for fattening hogs if they do not make up over one-half of the grain ration ; fed more heavily, they arc- likely to cause scouring and will produce unsatisfactory gains. According to experiments conducted at the University Farm, raisins fed as stated possess a similar feeding value as barley, pound for pound. The same holds true in the case of carob pods, the fruit of the carob tree. This grows readily in the southern part of the state, giving annually when fully established a crop of pods which are greatly relished by stock on account of their high sugar content. Rolled pods are especially valuable as a component of grain mixtures for calves. Almond hulls are only of value for feeding hogs and sheep on account of the nuts present therein. If the huller has done poor work, hogs will gain weight on rooting over a pile of almond hulls. Otherwise, this will not furnish sufficient nutriment to main- tain the animals at an even body weight. Acorns are used in parts of the state as a feed for fattening hogs. According to the testimony of packers and butchers, the quality of acorn-fed pork is, however, very inferior, and their use cannot be recommended except when fed with at least an equal amount of grain. The quality of the pork produced is soft and undesirable from both the packer's and consumer's standpoint, even if grain (barley) is fed for several weeks prior to slaughter. Spineless cactus is included in the preceding list of feeds, mainly because of the interest which has been created regarding it through occasional favorable newspaper reports. A single trial with cows in the University dairy herd showed it to have no more merit than sug- gested by its chemical composition. It proved unpalatable to our cows, but undoubtedly in some cases it has been eaten by cows and hogs with a relish and in considerable amounts. As one hundred pound contain less than eight pounds of dry matter and but slightly over four pounds digestible nutrients, it may be looked upon mainly as an appetizer to stock that have become accustomed to it, and can- not, as a general rule, be considered a substitute for either roots or silage, as is sometimes claimed. STATION PUBLICATIONS AVAILABLE FOE FREE DISTRIBUTION REPORTS 1897. Resistant Vines, their Selection, Adaptation, and Grafting. Appendix to Viticultural Report for 1896. 1902. Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station for 1898-1901. 1903. Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station for 1901—03. 1904. Twenty-second Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station for 1903-04. 1914. Report of the College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station, July, 1913-June, 1914. 1915. Report of the College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station, July, 1914-June, 1915. 1916. Report of the College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station, July, 1915-June, 1916. No. 230. 241. 242. 244. 246. 248. 249. 250. 251. 262. 253. 255. 257. 261. 262. 263. 264. 265. 266. No. 82. 107. 108. 109. 113. 114. 115. 117. 118. 121. 124. 126. 127. 128. 129. 130. 131. 132. 133. 134. 135. 136. 137. 138. 139. 140. 141. Enological Investigations. Vine Pruning in California, Part I. Humus in California Soils. Utilization of Waste Oranges. Vine Pruning in California, Part II. The Economic Value of Pacific Coast Kelps. Stock-Poisoning Plants of California. The Loquat. Utilization of the Nitrogen and Organic Matter in Septic and Imhoff Tank Sludges. Deterioration of Lumber. Irrigation and Soil Conditions in the Sierra Nevada Foothills, California. The Citricola Scale. New Dosage Tables. * Melaxuma of the Walnut, "Juglans regia." Citrus Diseases of Florida and Cuba Compared with Those of California. Size Grade for Ripe Olives. The Calibration of the Leakage Meter. Cottonv Rot of Lemons in California. A Spotting of Citrus Fruits Due to the Action of Oil Liberated from the Rind. BULLETINS No. 267. 268. 270. 271. 272. 273. 274. 275. 276. 277. 278. 279. 280. 281. 282. 283. 284. 285. CIRCULARS No. 142. The Common Ground Squirrels of California. Spraying Walnut Trees for Blight and 143. Aphis Control. Grape Juice. 144. Community or Local Extension Work 145. by the High School AgWcultural De- partment. 146. Correspondence Courses in Agriculture. Increasing the Dutv of Water. 147. Grafting Vinifera Vineyards. 148. The Selection and Cost of a Small 150. Pumping Plant. 151. The County Farm Bureau. 152. Some Things the Prospective Settler Should Know. 153. Alfalfa Silage for Fattening Steers. Spraying for the Grape Leaf Hopper. 154. House Fumigation. Insecticide Formulas. ^T5. The Control of Citrus Insects. Cabbage Growing in California. 157. Spraying for Control of Walnut Aphis. 158. When to Vaccinate against Hog Cholera. County Farm Adviser. 160. Control of Raisin Insects. 161. Official Tests of Dairy Cows. 162. Melilotus Indica. Wood Decay in Orchard Trees. 163. The Silo in California Agriculture. The Generation of Hvdrocyanic Acid 164. Gas in Fumigation by Portable Ma- 165. chines. The Practical Application of Improved 166. Methods of Fermentation in Califor- 167. nia Wineries during 1913 and 1914. 168. Standard Insecticides and Fungicides versus Secret Preparations. Experiments with Stocks for Citrus. Growing and Grafting Olive Seedlings. A Comparison of Annual Cropping, Bi- ennial Cropping, and Green Manures on the Yield of Wheat. Feeding Dairy Calves in California. Commercial Fertilizers. Preliminary Report on Kearney Vine- yard Experimental Drain. The Common Honey Bee as an Agent in Prune Pollination. The Cultivation of Belladonna in Cali- fornia. The Pomegranate. Sudan Grass. Grain Sorghums. Irrigation of Rice in California. Irrigation of Alfalfa in the Sacramento Valley. Control of the Pocket Gophers in Cali- fornia. Trials with California Silage Crops for Dairy Cows. The Olive Insects of California. Irrigation of Alfalfa in Imperial Valley. The Milch Goat in California. Practical and Inexpensive Poultry Ap- pliances. Control of Grasshoppers in Imperial Valley. Oidium or Powdery Mildew of the Vine. Suggestions to Poultrymen concerning Chicken Pox. Jellies and Marmalades from Citrus Fruits. Tomato Growing in California. "Lungworms." Round Worms in Poultry. Feeding and Management of Hogs. Some Observations on the Bulk Hand- ling of Grain in California. Announcement of the California State Dairy Cow Competition, 1916-18. Irrigation Practice in Growing Small Fruits in California. Bovine Tuberculosis. How to Operate an Incubator. Control of the Pear Scab. Home and Farm Canning. Agriculture in the Imperial Valley. Lettuce Growing in California. Potatoes in California. White Diarrhoea and Coccidiosis of Chicks. Fundamentals Affecting the Food Sup- ply of the United States. Small Fruit Culture in California. Fundamentals of Sugar Beet under California Conditions. The County Farm Bureau. Feeding Stuffs of Minor Importance. Spraying for the Control of Wild Morn- ing-Glory within the Fog Belt. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BENJ. IDC WHEELER, PRESIDENT COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE THOMAg FORSYTH HUNT DEAN AND D|RECTOR BERKELEY H- E- VAN NORMAN, VICE-DIRECTOR AND DEAN UNIVERSITY FARM SCHOOL CIRCULAR No. 189 JANUARY, 1918 WINTER FORAGE CROPS BY P. B. KENNEDY The crops that may be grown in this state during the winter season for forage purposes are: Canada field peas Bur-clover Common vetch Sweet clover Sand or hairy vetch Italian rye grass Horse beans English rye grass Rape Orchard grass Kale Crested dog 's-tail grass Giant marrow cabbage Tall meadow oat grass White mustard Rye Root crops Barley FIELD PEAS Field peas are adapted to moderate temperatures and will with- stand frost, but not severe freezing weather. They will also grow at high altitudes. Where the winters are cold they must be sown in spring under irrigation or on land that has previously been pre- pared so as to conserve the moisture. On the coast and in the interior valleys, fall sowing on well-drained land is recommended. The crop may be grown for hay, soiling, silage, pasture or seed. It is palatable to all classes of stock in any of its forms. The soil should contain an abundance of lime and where this is not present naturally, 1000 to 2000 pounds of burned lime or double this quantity of ground limestone per acre should be applied. There are about 100 varieties of field peas, differing in earliness, amount of herbage and the size and color of the flowers and pods. The seeds of some varieties are round and smooth while others are wrinkled and angular. In color they vary from light yellow to green, brown, black or speckled. Some of the best varieties are Colo- rado White, Black-eye Marrowfat, Arthur, Golden Vine, Prussian Blue. The weight of a bushel of peas varies from fifty-two to sixty- eight pounds, depending upon the variety and the quality of the seed. The seed will germinate well, even when several years old. In some regions the pea-weevil is a serious pest. The larva eats out a hole in the seed, reducing its food value and interfering with germination. To destroy the weevil, place the seeds in an air-tight receptacle (garbage can will do for small amounts) and treat with carbon bisulphide. Allow about three pounds of the bisulphide for 1000 cubic feet of space. Place the liquid in pans on the top of the seed and it will volatilize, the gas penetrating downward as it is heavier than air. Leave for about twenty-four hours and spread the seed out or admit plenty of fresh air. Be careful with fire. Field peas may be broadcasted or drilled alone, or sown with a cereal crop, preferably oats or rye. Drilling insures more even and certain germination. On heavy soils sow to a depth of from two inches to as much as four inches on the lighter soils. A disk drill having a revolving cup type of feed is to be preferred as less of the seed is crushed. Stop up the holes so as to plant in double rows, sixteen inches apart. Where cultivation is necessary for the con- servation of moisture the rows should be placed at a greater distance. Fair success can be obtained by broadcasting on fallowed land or on land that has been previously in a hoed crop and disking or plowing- under the seed lightly. The rate of seeding varies according to the method and locality where the crop is to be grown and whether it is to be sown alone or with a cereal. If alone, one and a half bushels is required for the small-seeded varieties to three bushels for the large-seeded ones. In humid regions one bushel of peas and two bushels of oats is the most satisfactory for the production of hay, while in dry regions two bushels of peas and one of oats have proved the most successful. For seed purposes the amount should be consider- ably less, namely, one bushel of peas to twenty pounds of oats which are mixed before seeding. The best time to cut for hay is when the plants have the first pods well grown but not matured and the vines still blossoming. This will result in the largest amount of protein and the highest yield. When grown for hay it is nearly always advantageous to sow the peas with oats or rye. This has a tendency to maintain the vines erect and will make mowing and curing easier. A distinct advantage is to have an attachment to the mower known as a pea harvester which consists of guards which lift up the peas and permits the cutter bar free passage. It costs from $12 to $15: Ten tons or more of green fodder or about three tons of hay per acre may be expected on good land. Sheep, particularly lambs, will increase in weight rapidly if allowed to pasture the crop when mature. A good crop of peas will fatten from ten to fifteen lambs per acre, the lambs gaming about eight pounds per month. From seventy to ninety days will place them in excellent market condition. On small farms movable fences are a distinct advantage and reduce waste in feeding. The crop may also be' * hogged off " in a similar manner and an excellent quality of bacon produced. Wherever corn is desirable in the animal economy, peas will be found an excellent substitute. Silage may also be made from the green vines by stacking them or putting them into the silo. It may be fed all classes of stock. The mature crop should be harvested before the seed is hard in the pod to lessen the loss from shattering. The seed may be flailed or thrashed with an ordinary grain thrasher, or by a pea huller, of which there are several on the market. Trampling the seed out with horses or passing a concrete roller back .and forward over the vines has also proved satisfactory. One ton of seed per acre would be considered a good yield. The straw lias considerable food value and will be readily eaten by stock, particularly sheep. It should never be burned, as it will add considerable humus to the soil if plowed under. A ton to a ton and a half of straw per acre may be expected. COMMON VETCH Common vetch is adapted to the same general conditions of soil and climate as the field pea. In different parts of the country it is known by the following names : Smooth vetch, English vetch, Oregon winter vetch, spring vetch and tares. It will grow on a variety of soils but seems to be best adapted to well-drained rich sandy or gravelly loams. Unlike most other legumes its lime requirement is low. The seed bed should be well prepared but left firm. Go over the land with a roller or subsurface packer so as to firm the soil and then harrow again very lightly. Gypsum at the rate of 100 pounds per acre has been found to increase the yields of hay on some soils. Fall planting is the general rule on the coast and valley sections where the winter temperature keeps above 15° F. Where the sum- mers are hot and dry it is useless to sow in the spring. Lack of inoculation may cause the crop to be a failure. In remote districts or new regions where vetch has not been well established it would be advisable to provide inoculation. Secure about five hun- dred pounds of soil for each acre to be planted, from an old field in which vetch has been successfully grown. Spread the soil evenly over the surface, preferably on a cloudy day and have someone follow with the harrow immediately as the legume bacteria are destroyed by exposure to bright sunshine. For various reasons this method cannot always be carried out. Reluctance on the part of the farmer to have his fields disturbed, the labor of hauling and the replacing of the soil taken away are the chief hindrances. Where vetch is to be grown extensively it is advisable to sow a small area first on good well-manured land, treating the seed with one or another of the com- mercial cultures now on the market and using the soil from this area for larger plantings. The rate of seeding varies considerably. Where there is apt to be danger from winter killing, heavy seeding is desirable. One hun- dred and twenty pounds per acre under poor conditions of soil and climate to as low as sixty pounds per acre under favorable conditions are necessary. The same holds true when sown with oats, a heavy seeding being ninety pounds of vetch and seventy pounds of oats. As low as forty pounds of vetch and ten pounds of oats have produced good crops. The present price of common vetch seed is about five cents per pound. Seed one year old will probably germinate better than fresh seed and little difference is noted up to three years, when it rapidly deteriorates. In ma'ny coast sections vetch that has proved a failure the first year has produced large yields the second year. Thousands of acres in California now producing a scanty weedy pasture or a poor crop of oats could be sown to vetch or vetch and oats, with the result that there would be more and better feed for stock and the soil greatly benefited. Dairy farmers not growing alfalfa should utilize their farm manure for growing large crops of vetch. The seed may be drilled or broadcasted in a similar manner to that described for field peas. The crop may be used as pasture, cut and fed green daily, put into the silo, or made into hay. Stock eat vetch with relish. Vetch should be pastured only when the land is dry, as otherwise much of the feed is destroyed by trampling and the soil unduly packed.. As in the case of peas, the vines should be cut when the first blossoms have formed pods and the new growth still well in bloom. An ordinary mower may be used, with two men fol- lowing the mower to fork it out of the way of the next swath. It is more satisfactory, however, to use a swather attachment which takes the place of the men. The hay should remain for at least a day before being bunched and shocked, but care must be taken that the leaves do not get too dry. From two to four tons of hay may be expected. A fair pasturage is produced at the base of the stems after soiling. By sowing at different dates, from October to February, a succession of green feed may be secured. Because of the palatability of the vetch hay and its high protein content, averaging 15 per cent, it is highly prized as a dairy feed. Steers being fed vetch may be expected to gain from two to three pounds daily. SAND OR HAIRY VETCH The hairy vetch is more drouth- and cold-resistant than the common vetch and may be sown in early fall in cold regions where irrigation is practiced. The young plants should be well established before winter sets in or they will winter-kill badly. On well-prepared ground where the moisture has been conserved it may be sown in the spring. Because of its drouth-resistant qualities it is better adapted to poor gravelly or sandy soils than the common vetch. It is much more tolerant of heat than the common vetch and makes its most rapid growth during warm spring weather. The methods of seeding prescribed for common vetch may also be applied to the hairy vetch. As the seed is about one-half the size of the common vetch, much less is required per acre, twenty to thirty pounds being sufficient. The forage is relished by all classes of stock. The leafage remains green during the coldest weather of Lassen and Modoc counties and we have grown it in Nevada, where the ther- mometer reached ten degrees below zero and yet only the tender tips of the vines were frozen. One drawback is the cost of the seed, being usually three or more times that of the common vetch. As most of the seed came from Europe it is difficult to secure it in this country now at a reasonable price. Seed could, however, readily be grown in California and would be a profitable crop at the present time. HORSE BEANS The horse-bean plant is a tall coarse erect-stemmed vetch. The large-seeded flat varieties are preferred for human food and the smaller, more oval-seeded varieties for stock. The seed may be sown broadcast, alone, or with peas or vetch, or drilled in rows eight to fourteen inches apart. About four bushels of seed per acre are required. Fall planting is desirable as the plants dislike hot weather and under such conditions readily succumb to aphis or turn black. The best method of utilizing the leafage is by soiling, cutting the plants when in full bloom. If left for seed it should be cut when the lower pods turn black and put into shocks for about two weeks before threshing. Horses are very fond of the beans which are especially valuable to mix with oats in the feed ration where hard work is required. RAPE There are a number of kinds of plants known as rape. One called summer rape or colza is grown chiefly for the oil which is extracted by pressure from the seed, and the residuum, the rape-seed cake of commerce, used as concentrates. Another kind is called winter rape or cole seed and produces large leaves which make succulent forage. One of the best forage varieties is the Dwarf Essex which is well adapted to cool moist climates and loamy soils, rich in humus, although it will grow in any ordinary cultivated soils that are well drained. Where the winters are severe it must be sown in the spring, but on the coast and in the interior valleys winter sowing is more satis- factory. It will withstand about six degrees of frost without injury when established, but the young growth is more tender. Even if the tops are frozen the roots survive and send up new shoots and pro- duce a crop. The land should be plowed deep and a thorough seed bed prepared. As the yield depends upon the fertility of the soil, the application of from ten to twenty tons of decomposed farm manure will bring good returns. The manure is spread evenly over the surface, disked into the surface soil thoroughly and then plowed under. Another method where the crop is to be grown in rows is to use a double mold-board plow and ridge up the land twenty-four inches apart. The manure is then placed in the bottom of the fur- rows, the ridges split and new ridges formed directly over the manure. Where the land has been cropped to beans, sorghums, potatoes, or similar crop and is already in fair tilth, the land could be ridged without a preliminary plowing. The ridge method will be a saving in manure and provide ample drainage. If the soils are light and apt to dry out it would be best not to ridge the land. Three methods of seeding may be used, namely, cultivated rows, in close drills, or broadcasted. The first requires two pounds of good seed per acre with the rows twenty-four inches apart, the second four pounds and the third, five pounds. A grain drill may be used. The seed should not be covered more than one-half inch. Where con- servation of moisture is necessary cultivated rows are to be preferred. Kape is commonly utilized by pasturing to sheep and hogs. Cattle are apt to be wasteful as they destroy much of it by trampling, especially when broadcasted or close-drilled. It may also be used as a soiling crop and occasionally it has been put in the silo with success. Like a number of other forage plants care should be taken to avoid bloating. In order to prevent excessive purging salt should be sup- plied freely. Animals will do better on rape if they have access to some dry feed as straw, or stubble pasture. When used as a soiling crop for milch cows it should be fed just after milking, as it will otherwise taint the milk. The average yield of rape is about ten tons of green forage per acre. Under very favorable conditions, thirty tons have been obtained. It is ready to pasture from two to three months after seeding. An acre of rape will carry approximately fifteen sheep or hogs for one month. In regard to its feeding value it contains about 87 per cent water, 2 per cent ash, 8 per cent diges- tible carbohydrates and fat (fat formers) and 3 per cent digestible protein (flesh formers). KALE Kale is similar to rape in its requirements. The variety Thousand Headed is best for forage. It grows to a height of from three to five feet and produces heavy and continuous succulent feed. With irrigation it may be planted in early fall and will produce abundant feed during the winter and following summer. Without irrigation the land should be fallowed to conserve the moisture and the seed planted with the first rains, in hills about three feet apart each way. A few seeds are put in each hill and the young plants thinned out when they appear above ground. By this method cross- and length- wise cultivation is possible and the moisture conserved throughout the summer. Cattle will eat the leaves and sheep the leaves and stalks so that there is no waste. So far as known it is the only forage plant that can be utilized for greed feed both summer and winter without irri- gation in California. For this reason it is prized by poultrymen. GIANT MARROW CABBAGE Giant marrow cabbage comes from the Island of Jersey and is said to be a hybrid secured by crossing kohl-rabi, thousand-headed kale and the Jersey chou. It is similar to kale except that the stems become very tall, thick and fleshy. The crop has given excellent results in Western Washington and may do well in the north coastal region of this state. MUSTARD White mustard may be sown broadcast in January or February on the poorer soils and furnish fair sheep feed in April or May. It may be grown in the interior valleys or coastal region and with or without irrigation. ROOT CROPS Roots are well adapted to the humid belt along the Pacific Coast without irrigation. They require clean land of good deep tilth. The land may be prepared in a similar manner to that described for rape. Seaweed is abundant on the coast and directly adjacent to many farms on which roots could be grown successfully. Where farm 8 manure is not available seaweed may be plowed under by placing it in the furrows as the plow makes its rounds. Carrots and parsnips prefer the lighter soils, and mangels, turnips, swedes and rutabagas, the heavier soils. About four pounds of seed per acre are required except mangels, of which about twelve pounds are required. Sow in rows so as to cultivate and thin out to from six to two feet according to size of roots. Mangels are related to the sugar beet and should be selected for growth in the south and interior valleys as they are more tolerant of heat. From ten to twenty-five tons per acre or more may be expected according to the fertility of the land and the kind of crop grown. To be sure root crops are mostly water, so that if their chemical composition alone is to be considered little could be expected. For centuries, however, it has been known that the adding of a succulent easil.y digestible food to the Cation is both healthful and economical. The dry matter of all root crops is of the same general feed value, but different kinds of root crops differ greatly in the amounts of dry matter and water that they contain. A pound of dry matter in mangels and other root crops is equivalent to about one pound of grain and mangels can be substituted for about one-half of the neces- sary grain ration in the proportion of about twelve to fifteen pounds of mangels per pound of grain. Root crops may be fed to milch cows, sheep or steers with good results. They will prove a valuable factor in increasing the flow of milk where cows have access only to dry hay or dry pasture. A steer being fattened on dry feed will make better use of the ration when some roots are included. Their value for fattening lambs and maintaining a supply of milk in breeding ewes is well known. SWEET CLOVER Sweet clover has been grown to a considerable extent in the eastern and middle western states for a number of years. Only recently, however, has its merits as a forage crop been recognized in California. Two factors have militated against it, namely, its bitter taste which makes stock dislike it until accustomed to it, and the uncertainty of securing a stand. There have been many failures with sweet clover, mostly due to one of the following causes : 1. Lack of lime in the soil. 2. Lack of inoculation. 3. The loose character of the seed bed. The physical texture of the soil seems to be of little consequence as bountiful crops have been grown on very light sandy soils and on stiff adobe lands. Its tolerance for white alkali is well marked. When well established the roots withstand extremes of both heat and cold. Young seedlings are injured if a period of dry cold weather follows soon after germination, although a sufficient number of plants will usually survive to produce a good stand. Sweet clover is extremely drouth-resistant on good deep well- prepared lands, maintaining bright green foliage to a height of several feet throughout the hottest months of the year. On poor shallow soils the growth is sometimes sparse and many of the leaves turn brown and fall off. Gravelly stream beds and banks seem to be its natural preference and we find it taking these areas without any intentional seeding or cultivation. This may perhaps account for the fact that it does not require good drainage on cultivated land. Lands too poorly drained for the successful growing of alfalfa can be profitably planted to sweet clover. Fall seeding is desirable in the coast and valley sections and early spring seeding in the northern counties and in the mountains. It is best to wait until the soil is thoroughly saturated and the winter rainy season established. Too early sowing may result in the germination of the seed by the first light rains. This followed by a protracted dry period may result in the loss of many seedlings and a subsequent poor stand. The rate of seeding is from ten to twenty-five pounds per acre. Ten pounds per acre of good, clean, well-scarified, hulled seed are suf- ficient on a firm seed bed. Where unhulled seed is to be sown fifteen pounds per acre is desirable. Larger amounts of seed are necessary according to the quality of the seed and the condition of the seed bed. Shallow seeding, about one inch, is generally more successful than deep plantings. The roots grow rapidly during the cool winter season descending into the soil with a strong tap root which soon becomes more or less branched. The power of the roots to force their way into hard stiff soils is very great and herein lies one of its most beneficial features when grown on such soils. The roots are quite fleshy and when they decay at the end of the second season they leave humus channels which open up the soil and deposit large quantities of nitrogen. The weight of the green roots from an acre of good sweet clover is estimated at twenty tons, so that even if the crop is cut for hay, large quantities of humus and nitrogen remain in the soil. The weight of the tops may be as high as thirty tons of green matter per 10 acre. If this is plowed under as a green-manure crop rapid improve- ment in the texture and the humus content of the soil will take place. The forage value of sweet clover is nearly equal to that of alfalfa. Much depends, however, on the character of the growth. If the plants have an abundance of space in which to grow the stems become too large and woody and are rejected by stock. For hay and green manure a thick stand of slender stemmed plants is the ideal. The crop may be utilized as hay, pasture or soiling. Care should be taken not to set the mower too low as the buds for succeeding growths and for the second year are located on the lower branches. Too close pasturing by sheep may bring about a similar result, although hogs do little damage in this respect. In order to get the best results from pasturing, the plants should be kept down below one foot in height. This will result in a suc- cession of new tender palatable shoots being produced. Stock seldom bloat on sweet clover. Mr. C. S. Frazier, in the* Nebraska Farmer, gives in a concise way an experience which has been duplicated hundreds of times by others : Last March the clover appeared, and -by the second week of April the plants were eight inches tall with a dark-green color. Right at this time I had occasion to turn a herd of cattle onto that part of the farm to feed off a field of corn- stalks. This sweet clover field was near the gate where the stock were turned into the field. To my surprise they never stopped to take a smell of the sweet clover at first. However, in a day or two I noticed three of the animals feeding on the clover, and in less than a week the whole herd was doing the same thing. From that time on they stayed right on the clover until they had it eaten off close to the ground. I was somewhat concerned as to the safety of the clover and thereafter denied the cattle the right of grazing on that field. After the cattle were taken off, the sweet clover came on and made a heavy crop of seed. At no time during the past dry, hot season did it show any signs of being affected by the unfavorable weather. From one to two or more cuttings of hay may be obtained each season. Where the growing season is a long one and irrigation pos- sible, much larger yields may be obtained. A ton and a half to the acre per cutting may be expected. On poor lands too much must not be expected of it the first season. Sweet clover will do much to bring back to life the unproductive wheat lands in California. BUR-CLOVER Bur-clover is well adapted to the coast and where not already abundant may be scattered on hill and pasture land in the autumn 11 and scratched in lightly with a harrow or disk. It grows as a volun- teer crop in grain fields, and makes a most valuable pasture for cattle, sheep and hogs. GRASSES The grasses that will respond if the seed is sown in the rainy season are : Italian rye-grass, English rye-grass, orchard grass, crested dog 's- tail grass, tell meadow oat-grass, red top and velvet grass. In order to get the best returns a clean, well-prepared, firm seed bed should be made. Orchard grass prefers the shade, but the others will do well both in the open and in the shade. Tall meadow oat-grass is extremely drouth-resistant and will grow on poor soils, but the leafage at the base is meager. Ked top does well in the seepage areas on the hillsides in the neighborhood of springs. Velvet grass delights in fog. Orchard grass, rye grasses, crested dog's-tail and velvet grass are especially adapted to sowing in the ashes of burnt-over redwood lands without treatment of the soil. The amount of seed to sow is about thirty pounds per acre for all except velvet grass, which takes ten, it being extremely light, weighing only seven pounds to the bushel. RYE The cereal rye may be sown in the fall on cultivated land and will provide good sheep and hog pasture by mid-winter. BARLEY Barley may be disked into irrigated alfalfa fields in the extreme southern counties and excellent sheep and hog pasturage provided by Christmas. The alfalfa does not seem to be injured in any way by this method of treatment. The use of one or another of the above forage plants on the farm, together with a proper division of the range so as to permit each part to get a period of rest, will enable us to utilize California's winter rains and generally mild winter climate for an increased production of feed for stock. STATION PUBLICATIONS AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION REPORTS 1897. Resistant Vines, their Selection, Adaptation, and Grafting. Appendix to Viticultural Report for 1896. 1902. Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station for 1898-1901. 1903. Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station for 1901-03. 1904. Twenty-second Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station for 1903-04. 1914. Report of the College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station, July, 1913-June, 1914. 1915. Report of the College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station, July, 1914-June, 1915. 1916. Report of the College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station, July, 1915-June, 1916. 1917. Report of the College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station, July, 1916-June, 1917. BULLETINS No. 230. 241. 242. 246. 248. 249. 250. 251. 252. 253. 255. 257. 261. 262. 263. 264. 265. 266. 267. 268. No. 113. 114. 115. 121. 124. 126. 127. 128. 129. 181. 133. 134. 135. 136. 137. 138. 139. 140. 141. 142. 143. 144. 145. 147. 148. 150. 151. Enological Investigations. Vine Pruning in California, Part I. Humus in California Soils. Vine Pruning in California, Part II. The Economic Value of Pacific Coast Kelps. Stock-Poisoning Plants of California. The Loquat. Utilization of the Nitrogen and Organic Matter in Septic and Imhoff Tank Sludges. Deterioration of Lumber. Irrigation and Soil Conditions in the Sierra Nevada Foothills, California. The Citricola Scale. New Dosage Tables. Melaxuma of the Walnut, "Juglans Citrus Diseases of Florida and Cuba Compared with Those of California. Size Grade for Ripe Olives. The Calibration of the Leakage Meter. Cotton Rot of Lemons in California. A Spotting of Citrus Fruits Due to the Action of Oil Liberated from the R>nd. Experiments with Stocks for Citrus. Growing and Grafting Olive Seedlings. No. 270. 271. 272. 273. 275. 276. 277. 278. 279. 280. 281. 282. 283. 284. 285. 286. 287. CIRCULARS Correspondence Courses in Agriculture. Increasing the Duty of Water. Grafting Vinifera Vineyards. Some Things the Prospective Settler Should Know. Alfalfa Silage for Fattening Steers. Spraying for the Grape Leaf Hopper. House Fumigation. Insecticide Formulas. The Control of Citrus Insects. Spraying for Control of Walnut Aphis. County Farm Adviser. Control o-f Raisin Insects. Official Tests of Dairy Cows. Melilotus Indica. Wood Decay in Orchard Trees The Silo in' California Agriculture. The Generation of Hvdrocyanic Acid Gas in Fumigation by Portable Ma- chines. The Practical Application of Improved Methods of Fermentation in Califor- nia Wineries during 1913 and 1914. Standard Insecticides and Fungicides versus Secret Preparations. Practical and Inexpensive Poultry Ap- pliances. Control of Grasshoppers in Imperial Valley. Oidium or Powderv Mildew of the Vine. Siifrerestions to Poultrymen concerning Chicken Pox. Tomato Growing in California. "Lungworms." Round Worms in Poultry. Feeding and Management of Hogs. No. 152. 153. 154. 155. 156. 157. 158. 160. 161. 162. 164. 165. 166. 167. 168. 169. 170. 171. 172. 173. 174. 175. 176. 177. 178. A Comparison of Annual Cropping, Bi- ennial Cropping, and Green Manures on the Yield of Wheat. Feeding Dairy Calves in California. Commercial Fertilizers. Preliminary Report on Kearney Vine- yard Experimental Drain. The Common Honey Bee as an Agent in Prune Pollination. The Cultivation of Belladonna in Cali- fornia. The Pomegranate. Sudan Grass. Grain Sorghums. Irrigation of Rice in California. Irrigation of Alfalfa in the Sacramento Valley. Control of the Pocket Gophers in Cali- fornia. Trials with California Silage Crops for Dairy Cows. The Olive Insects of California. Irrigation of Alfalfa in Imperial Valley. The Milch Goat in California. Commercial Fertilizers. Vinegar from Waste Fruits. Some Observations on the Bulk Hand- ling of Grain in California. Announcement of the California State Dairy Cow Competition, 1916-18. Irrigation Practice in Growing Small Fruits in California. Bovine Tuberculosis. How to Operate an Incubator. Control of the Pear Scab. Home and Farm Canning. Lettuce Growing in California. Potatoes in California. White Diarrhoea and Coccidiosis of Chicks. Small Fruit Culture in California. Fundamentals of Sugar Beet under California Conditions. The County Farm Bureau. Feeding Stuffs of Minor Importance. Spraying for the Control of Wild Morn- ing-Glbry within the Fog Belt. 1918 Grain Crop. Fertilizing California Soils for the 1918 Crop. The Fertilization of Citrus. Wheat Culture. Thp Construction of the Wood-Hoop Silo. Farm Drninage Methods. Progress Report on the Marketing and Distribution of Milk. Ho? Cholera Prevention and the Sejum Treatment. Grain Sorghum Seed. The Packing of Apples in California. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF A*R BULLETIN No. Contribution from the Forest Service HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester Washington, D. C. November 15, 1917 INCREASED CATTLE PRODUCTION ON SOUTH- WESTERN RANGES. By JAMES T. JARDINE, Inspector of Grazing, and L. C. HURTT, Grazing Examiner. CONTENTS. Page. Better range management 1 Jornada Range Reserve 2 Range improvement by natural revegetation. 4 Water development 9 Carrying capacity :..'.. 12 The reserve as a whole 16 Grama-grass (winter) range 16 Jornada Reserve 10 Unfenced range 18 Summer range 19 Mjuntain range 19 Increase in calf crop and improvement in grade of stock 20 Prevention of loss 23 Holding range f jrage f~r use during criti- cal spring months 23 Prevention of loss— Continued. Concentrated feed (cottonseed cake) to supplement range forage 1 Providing roughage Prevention of blackleg Total loss : Conclusions Range improvement by natural revegeta- tion Water development Carrying capacity Increase in calf crop and improvement in grade of stock Prevention of loss I List of publications BETTER RANGE MANAGEMENT. This bulletin presents the results of experiments which bear directly on the problem of how to produce more and better cattle on western range lands, a matter of pressing importance in view of the present need for increasing the Nation's food supply. It is generally conceded that the carrying capacity of the remaining areas of public range is at least 25 per cent less than it was originally, the result of grazing stock at improper seasons and overstocking. It is also a fact that the productiveness of many privately owned ranges, both fenced and unfenced, has been reduced through faulty management. To work out a system of range management and improvement practicable for large grazing units, which will build up the depleted areas and insure the maintenance of the whole range in good condition, is one of the important objects of grazing studies .5546°— 17— Bull. 588 1 2 BULLETIN 588, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. made by the Forest Service on the Jornada Range Reserve, a unit comprising some 200,000 acres in southern New Mexico. The prob- lem involves: (a) Finding the system of management that will best bring about natural reseeding of the existing forage plants ; (&) find- ing new plants suitable for seeding on the ranges of the Southwest; (c) determining the number and distribution of stock-watering places necessary for efficient use of the range, taking into account cost of construction and returns expected; and (d] determining the carrying capacity of the range as a means of preventing its being overstocked. Other and related range problems also have been studied on the Jornada Reserve. One of these has to do with improving the average grade of stock and the average calf crop under range conditions, the possibility of which is generally recognized. Another is how to reduce the losses of stock from lack of feed and water in times of drought and from disease and straying that ordinarily occur in the Southwest. Such losses are a big drain on the profits of the stock industry and often retard, or even prevent, the development of desirable breeding herds. ' The studies on the Jornada Reserve are by no means completed: when the length of time during which they will be carried on is con. sidered, it might be said that they are hardly begun. The results so far secured, however, seem to have an important enough bearing on the problem of increased meat production to justify their pres- entation in a bulletin, to constitute a progress report. They may be modified, of course, by study over a longer period. In estimating the possibilities for improvement, therefore, every effort is made to be conservative. The results are discussed in detail in the body of the text and are summarized at the end. Naturally, in working with so large a range unit the results are lacking in the degree of refinement obtainable in feed yards and small-scale experiments. This, however, is more than offset by the fact that each experiment, when completed, constitutes its own demonstration on a practical scale. JORNADA RANGE RESERVE. The Jornada Range Reserve is located in Dona Ana County, N. Mex., in the Rio Grande trough, about 50 miles north of the Mexi- can boundary. It is typical of a large territory in the South- west which, owing to natural and climatic conditions, will probably always be best adapted to the production of live stock on compara- tively large holdings. The Reserve was created by Executive order, May 3, 1912, at the request of the Department of Agriculture, with the idea of securing a complete range unit for conducting experiments INCREASED CATTLE PRODUCTION. 3 • and demonstrations in range management under conditions existing in southern New Mexico and similar country in adjoining States. The boundaries were slightly modified by Executive order of April 24, 1916, and at present include about 200,000 acres. The eastern portion of the area, comprising about one-fourth of the total, is rough and broken and includes the west slope of the San Andreas Mountains, which reach a maximum elevation of about 7,600 feet, both slopes of a narrow belt of rough, gravelly hills just west of the main mountains, and a series of narrow, poorly defined valleys between the two. The remainder of the Reserve is a com- paratively flat, or slightly rolling, plain, lying between elevations of about 4,100 and 4,700 feet, and broken only by a small mass of igneous mountains, the Dona Anas, at the southwest corner. The locality is one of the most arid in the Southwest. Records for 55 years at Mesilla Park, about 15 miles southwest of the Reserve, show an average annual precipitation of 8.63 inches, with precipita- tion for individual years as much as 17 inches and as little as 3.50 inches. Temperatures as high as 106° are common in summer, and the region is subject to almost continuous high winds and, conse- quently, high evaporation. The soils of the plain are rather coarse to medium textured wind-blown sands, with patches of heavy adobe clay, usually with a rather high percentage of alkali, where water often stands until evaporated. The soils of the mountains and the outwash plains flanking them are coarse sands and gravels. Naturally, with this combination of poor soils, low precipitation, high temperatures, and high winds, the vegetation is comparatively thin and made up of drought-resistant, semidesert species. By far the greater part of the forage, perhaps 80 per cent, is furnished by perennial grasses, of which the most important are the grama grasses, three-awn, tobosa, drop-seed, muhlenbergias, burro grass, and wolf tail.1 On large areas of the foothills and mesa, black brush, creosote bush, and mesquite predominate; but black brush and creosote bush are worthless as forage, and the mesquite is of low value. In figure 2 the vegetation is classified into range types for all of the Reserve except the mountain portion. i Black grama (Bouteloua eriopoda) is the most important grass on the reserve. Tlue grama grass (B. gracilis) and hairy grama grass (B. hirsuta) are found only in the mountains and foothills- E. curtipendula is found in the mountains and on the mesa. Next to the grama grasses in importance are three-awn grasses (known locally as "needle grasses")— Aristida longiseta, A. pcnsa, and A. purpnrea. Tobosa grass (Hilaria mutica). The drop-seed grasses include several species, the most important being Sporobolvs cryptandrus, S. flex- uo&us, S. wrightii, S. airoides, S. auriculatus. The most important species of muhlenbergias are Muhlenbergia gracillima, and Af. porteri. Burro grass (Sclcropogon brevyolius), Wolftail (Lycufus phUcides). Blackbrush ( Flourensia cernua). Creosote bush ( C'ovillea glvtinosa). Mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa). 4 BULLETIN 588, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. • Originally the only water on the lands now within the Reserve was in a number of mountain springs, few of which furnish any consider- able flow. Stock water for the plains and mesa, both on the Reserve and on the adjacent range lands, is pumped from deep wells by wind- mills and engines or is provided by tanks which catch the flood waters. As a usual thing, there is not enough water for the stock. Before the lands were placed under reservation in 1912 a number of individuals had attempted to establish permanent stock ranches on them. But the difficulty and cost of sinking permanent wells, the prevalence of droughts, and severe losses discouraged the small owners, and their range rights were purchased eventually by a single stockman.1 Up to the time the Reserve was created, however, no adequate provision had been made to prevent overgrazing or to effect improvement of the stock. Also, the area lacked adequate facilities for handling and caring for the breeding stock in a way to increase the calf crop and prevent losses. Occasionally a small quantity of con- centrated feed was used to supplement the range forage, but for the most part the efforts along this line were unorganized. RANGE IMPROVEMENT BY NATURAL REVEGETATION. If the best results are to be secured in range management, both the requirements of the vegetation which makes up the forage crop and the practical demands of the stock must be kept in mind. These two factors are especially important on year-long ranges of the Southwest, where the time during which there is sufficient moisture for plant growth is so short. Figure 2 shows that the range in the western portion of the Reserve is largely grama and mixed grasses, which make their main growth during July, August, and September. This forage is usually preferred by animals while it is green, but it cures well on the stalk and is good feed at any time of the year. Consequently it is especially valuable as winter range. The forage of the middle portion of the Reserve is composed principally of grasses 2 which furnish a good class of forage when green, but which have li ttle value as feed when mature and dry. This class of range is therefore of value primarily during the growing season. 1 Mr. C. T. Turney, who is cooperating with the Forest Service in carrying on the studies. At the time the Reserve was created the 200,000-acre range unit was conceded to Mr. Turney by neighboring stockmen under common or range rights established through the construction of watering places and the purchase of prior rights and improvements of other owners. He leases all State lands and owns certain private lands around the wells. The Government furnishes the public lands under reservation for a period long enough to reimburse Mr. Turney for expenditures in conducting the experiments. The investigations are planned by the Government and the stockman. All fencing, water development, and other construction work, as well as extra labor in handling the stock for experimental purposes, are paid for by the cooperator in lieu of grazing fees on the Government lands. The Government furnishes the men to keep proper records of all experiments and to aid in planning new investigations. 2 Tobosa grass, drop-seed grasses, muhlenbergias, and burro grass, INCREASED CATTLE PRODUCTION. 5 Naturally, therefore, when stock were free to choose between the two classes of range at all times of the year, the grama grass was overgrazed. Further, the grama-grass forage usually was consumed before January, when, if possible, it should have been saved for the period of range shortage from January to the beginning of the summer rains, usually in July. Mainly to provide for improving the overgrazed grama grass by giving it an opportunity to grow and reseed itself, but in part to reserve a supply of forage for the stock during the critical spring months, the grama-grass range was fenced off from the summer range and divided into pastures. An area of 34,545 acres, designated on the classification map as Pas- ture 2, was" fenced in the fall of 1912. This area has been used mainly for pasturing steers and poor cows taken from the main herd during the period from January to July. Each season, during the main vegetative growing period of three to four months following the summer rains, beginning in 1913, the number of stock has been re- duced to a little less than one-half the average carrying capacity of the pasture. This reduced number is kept well distributed in relation to the four watering places, in order to avoid as far as practicable having any portion of the area grazed heavily. In this way the forage plants are given a chance .to develop and produce seed. During the other eight or nine months of the year, mainly after the vegetation has matured, the pasture has been stocked to about 80 per cent of its estimated maximum carrying capacity. Its full capacity has not been utilized, partly as a means of preventing its being overstocked while in course of improvement, but mainly with the idea of insuring a supply of good feed for poor cows from January to July, or later, in case of prolonged drought. Adjoining this pasture on the west is a large area of unfenced public range, similar in character, but with a larger proportion of the pure grama-grass type. If anything, therefore, it might be consid- ered as a little better than the pasture area. Prior to the comple- tion of the pasture fences in 1912 both areas were grazed throughout the year, with a resulting overstocking during the growing season. Both areas also had suffered as a result of prolonged drought, which killed out a good deal of the grass. They were, therefore, near enough alike in character and condition for purposes of comparison. Year- long grazing has been continued on the outside range. It is believed, however, that the area has not deteriorated appreciably since 1912, because the seasons of 1913 and 1914 were more favorable than the .average for plant growth. Table I compares the amount and character of the vegetation on these two areas in 1916, after three years' light grazing of the pas- ture during the growing season. 6 BULLETIN- 588, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUEE. TABLE I. — Comparison of vegetation on grama-grass range lightly grazed during the grow- ing seasons of 1913, 1914, and 1915 with that on similar adjoining range grazed year- long. Distance All vegetation.1 Good forage.1 Medium forage.1 watering places. Pasture 2. Outside range. Pasture 2. Outside range. Pasture 2. Outside range. Miles. I 506 138 325 0 170 138 1 484 345 445 148 32 196 1J 556 213 517 117 38 94 2 497 322 481 168 14 145 2i 567 340 511 268 54 70 3 517 328 481 222 21 101 3J 529 375 487 208 41 165 4 477 351 120 5 549 516 18 1 Figures represent square centimeters of vegetation on each 10,000 square centimeters of area, based on measurements 1 inch above soil surface. The chpnges in amount and kind of vegetation on the Pasture 2 range as compared with the outside range during the three years are shown graphically in figure 1. The striking features in connection with total vegetation are (1) that in the Keserve pasture' it is higher from water out and is as great at less than one-half mile from watering places as that on the outside range about 4J miles from water, and (2) that on the outside range it is as great at a point about 5 miles from the watering places as it is at any point in the pasture. This last point shows that the out- side range is naturally as productive as the pasture, if grazed under the same system of management. Grazing at improper seasons and overstocking, however, have kept the total vegetation at 70.3 per cent of that inside the Keserve. Total vegetation alone is not, however, a good index of carrying capacity or condition of a range, since on overgrazed areas the ten- dency is for good forage plants to be replaced by ones of less value. The curves for the amount of good forage plants on the two areas show that there is more good forage one-half mile from watering places in the Reserve pasture than at any point within 3f miles from water on the outside area, while Table I shows that there is only 49 per cent as much good forage on the outside range as in the pas- ture. As in the case of total vegetation, the amount of good forage on the outside range gradually increases with distance from water until at a point 5 miles from water it is as great as at any point in the pasture. The most striking features in connection with medium forage are (1) that there is more on the outside range than in the pasture, except near water, and (2) that the amount on the outside range begins to decrease at about 3 J miles from water, the point at which the good forage begins to increase rapidly. It will be noted also that in the INCREASED CATTLE PRODUCTION. pasture the amount of medium good forage begins to decrease rapidly at about the same distance from water that the good forage begins to increase rapidly. This fact is important in showing that the good forage plants will eventually crowd out the less valuable species if given a chance to grow. Besides increasing in density and forage value, the plants on the pasture range have regained their vigor until they produce about 20 per cent more leaves and stems per plant than do similar plants on the outside range. 7 Tofaf if -ego-fa >> or i If < -3 " £ O g I- TJ UJ - C3 °3 u d > -2 a 3 Bui. 588, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE X. INCREASED CATTLE PRODUCTION. 21 to time until, by the end of March, 225 head were being fed a small quantity of cottonseed cake each time they came to water. The feeding was discontinued April 19, when the grass started to grow. The spring was a dry one, however, and range forage practically stopped growing in early June. Consequently, 146 cows with small calves were again started on cottonseed cake on June 7 and fed to to July 19. The cows were not in danger of starvation, but were thin. The feeding was done primarily to keep them in thrifty con- dition so as to insure, if possible, a good calf crop the following year. During the feeding from February 1 to April 197 a total of 18,850 pounds of cottonseed cake was fed in 15,588 feeds, or slightly over 1 pound per head at each feeding. A total of 6,800 pounds was fed in 3,528 feeds during June and July, making a total of 25,650 pounds of cake fed during the year. If all of the 500 cows and 20 bulls are considered, this would amount to slightly less than 50 pounds per head. In the matter of range the special herd had no advantage over the other stock except to be by themselves. This made it possible to watch them more closely and pick out those in need of special feed. Approximately half of one man's time was spent in caring for the herd. This involved riding the fences, looking after watering places, feeding, and general care. From the beginning of the herd record, November 17, 1915, to November 17, 1916, a total of 406 calves were branded. With a herd of 500 cows, this amounts to a calf crop of 81 per cent. Over 96 per cent of the calves had good Hereford color and markings and for the most part had good backs, straight tops and underlines, and as a whole showed up well. It is true that the experimental herd were selected cows, and it is possible that the selection of a number of 2-year-old heifers slightly increased the number of calves. This advantage, however, was probably offset by the extra handling of the stock when they were selected, dehorned, and branded, and by the dry year. It is hoped that an average calf crop of 81 per cent or better can be produced without materially increasing the quantity of supplemental feed. The loss for the year amounted to five cows and, so far as known, five calves, four of which died before branding. This loss of approxi- mately 1 per cent is exceptionally small and probably will be ex- ceeded slightly in future years, even with more favorable range con- ditions and better care. It is believed, however, that the average loss in this herd can be kept within 2 per cent for cows and 4 per cent for calves. Selection of the 500 cows for the special breeding herd left about 1,450 female stock of breeding age in the main herd on the Reserve. 22 BULLETIN 588, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Most of these were run throughout the year on Pasture 1 (fig. 2), containing 74,714 acres, mainly of the black-brush and creosote-bush type, and rolling mesquite and sandhill range, with a small propor- tion of tobosa-grass flats. During the summer of 1915, 325 low- grade, off-color, and otherwise undesirable cows were cut out and sold in one bunch, and a number of others were butchered for the local market. In the fall of 1916 a lot of 101 head were cut. out and sold as "canners." The culling of nearly 500 head and their replacement by heifers of good Hereford grade has improved vastly the appearance as well as the average grade and value of the breeding herd. Similar culling has been done among the bulls and will be continued each year. Sales will be made primarily from the culls and from the less desirable heifers produced, reserving selected heifers for the ranch herd. The management of this main herd was similar to that of the special herd, but less intensive. About 75 per cent of the bulls and 2 per cent of the poorest cows were fed cottonseed cake at the rate of 1J pounds per head each time they came to water, usually every day, during February, March', and April. The stock of this herd were not maintained in as thrifty condition as those of the special herd during the early spring, but were equally as good in late sum- mer and fall. From 1,522 cows, 1,053 calves, or 69.2 per cent, were branded in 1916, as against 81 per cent for the special herd, making an average of 72 per cent for the Reserve as a whole. The known loss from this herd was 8 cows, a little over one- half of 1 per cent, and 11 calves, a little over 1 per cent. The pas- ture is large and rather rough and brushy, making it difficult to determine the loss with absolute accuracy. The whole area was worked thoroughly several times during the year, however, and it is not probable that any appreciable loss was overlooked. On a unit as large as the Jornada Range Reserve it is difficult to get accurate records of the calf crop, even when under fence, and next to impossible to secure corresponding data for large herds on adjoining unfenced range. From such data as could be secured it seems doubtful whether the average calf crop on range lands in southern New Mexico in 1916 was as high as 60 per cent. This figure is believed to be rather high for the calf crop over a period of years back. Even taking as an average the 66 per cent calf crop reported by stockmen for New Mexico as a whole, the average calf crop of 72 per cent for Jornada Reserve, with 81 per cent for the special herd, shows marked possibilities. The most important single factor influencing the calf crop under conditions such as those on the Jornada Reserve is the condition of the breeding stock. Cows which are barely able to totter to and INCREASED CATTLE PRODUCTION. 23 from feed and water can not be expected, after dropping a calf, to breed as soon again, or in as large proportion, as those which are kept in thrifty condition. Unless the range is supplemented by concentrated food, a large percentage of cows, especially those suckling young calves during the winter, are very thin in flesh and low in vitality by the time green grass comes on southern New Mexico ranges. The biggest possibility for increasing the calf crop lies in keeping these cows, not fat, but strong and thrifty enough to enable them to breed promptly, and in feeding the bulls so that they will be able to do the work expected of them. Although the one year's results at the Jornada Range Reserve do not justify final conclusions as to the results, over a period of years, from better care and the use of sup- plemental feed, they do justify serious consideration by stockmen of employing this means to increase the calf crop. Beginning in 1917, from 50 to 75 of the least desirable cows orig- inally selected for the 500-head special breeding herd will be culled out and replaced by heifers selected from the 1915 calf crop of this herd. These heifers will be kept from the bulls until approximately 20 months old, since it is believed that the general practice in the Southwest of breeding yearling heifers has a tendency to decrease the average size of the stock and to increase loss, without increasing the number of calves produced over a period of years sufficiently to compensate for the disadvantages. This point will be carefully observed. Each year part of the original 500 head will be replaced by selected heifers, with the idea of building up the grade of the herd. The cows taken out and the surplus of heifers from the increase will be used to replace less desirable breeding animals in the main herd of the Reserve. PREVENTION OF LOSS. All things considered, the biggest hazard of the stock industry on the desert and semidesert ranges of the Southwest is the occurrence of heavy losses during years when there is little or no rainfall. In the past such losses often have wiped out in one season the accumu- lated profits of years. The southwestern range stockman is con- fronted constantly with the possibility that next year may be a bad one. HOLDING RANGE FORAGE FDR USE DURING CRITICAL SPRING MONTHS. In average years the most dangerous period is from February to the beginning of the summer rains, usually in July. When no rains come and the dry period extends throughout the year, the situation is critical. The first step in providing for both the average and the emergency year should be to save a good portion of the grama-grass range for use from February to July. Some range must be available 24 BULLETIN 588, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. for this period, and it is economy to hold the grama grass, since it retains its feeding value better than other range. This practice has worked well at the Jornada Range Reserve. Pasture 10, of 12,293 acres, mainly grama grass, is reserved largely for the 500-head breeding herd from November or December tmtil green feed comes the following year on the summer range. This means that the bulk of the feed of Pasture 10 is available for the critical part of the year. Pasture 2, of 34,545 acres, mostly grama grass, is grazed lightly during the growing season, mainly by steers and by breeding cows which need extra care during winter and spring. About 250 thin cows and their calves from the main breed- ing herd were carried through the critical dry period of spring and summer in 1916 by the dry grama grass reserved in Pasture 2. Without this feed a number of them would undoubtedly have died. The special breeding herd of 500 was held mainly in Pasture 10 until July. Loss from starvation was prevented by supplementing the dry grama grass with a small quantity of cottonseed cake. In order to have additional range for the breeding stock in espe- cially critical years, about one-third of the carrying capacity of the Reserve in average years is used for steers. In good years the steer stock can be increased as a means of completely utilizing the forage and in bad years, if necessary, part or all of the steers can be sold, thus releasing one-third more range for the breeding stock. There is usually a ready market during the spring and summer for steers for shipment to northern ranges, so that sales can be made without any great sacrifice. In addition to preventing loss, this plan makes it possible to build up the breeding stock without interference from forced sales of female stock. This plan worked well in 1916. Range conditions were observed carefully during the dry spring, and on May 1 1,573 head of steers were sold. In average years they would have been replaced by pur- chase of yearling steers, but owing to the unfavorable season this was not done. The extra feed was held for the breeding stock. CONCENTRATED FEED (COTTONSEED CAKE) TO SUPPLEMENT RANGE FORAGE. Although the plan of reserving range feed and, when necessary, reducing the number of steers by sale will aid a good deal in reducing the loss from starvation; it will not do away with it altogether, nor will it prevent the breeding stock from getting too thin, nor insure that the growth of calves and young stock will not be retarded greatly. It will be necessary, even in average years, to supplement the range forage with some concentrated feed, such as cottonseed cake. The percentage of the stock which will need feed and the period of feeding will depend largely upon the year. Jul. 588, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XI. Bui. 588, U. S. Dept of Agriculture. PLATE XII. INCKEASED CATTLE PRODUCTION. 25 The spring and summer of 1916 were more severe than the average and, although there was a good deal of dry grama grass available up to the time the rains came, it was advisable to feed considerable cake, mainly to breeding cows, weaned calves, and bulls. A total of 25,650 pounds of cake was fed to the special herd of 500 breeding cows and 20 bulls. About 75 per cent of the herd were "caked" at one time or another. The cake cost approximately $40 per ton, or a total of $534 at the feed yards on the Reserve. As a result of this feeding not a single animal was lost from starvation, the calves were kept growing in spite of the fact that many of them were mothered by 2-year-old heifers, and the cows and bulls were kept in fair breeding condition. There is some question as to the advisability of feeding cake to calves weaned in the fall from the time of weaning until green grass comes. The advantages of such feeding are that it keeps the calves growing, or in condition to make rapid growth when green feed comes; that it prevents loss from starvation; and that it makes it possible to take the calves from thin cows at an earlier age than is advisable where the calves must winter on dry range alone. These considerations are important, but it is difficult to measure them in dollars and cents for comparison with costs. Observations over several seasons, however, indicate that such feeding pays. During the fall and winter of 1915-16 about 700 head of weaned calves were fed on cake to supplement the range feed. The quantity of feed used and costs were as follows: 37.2 tons cottonseed cake at $36 per ton at railroad $1, 361. 50 Hauling cottonseed cake to Reserve from railroad at $3 per ton . 111. 60 145 bales alfalfa hay 72. 50 Hauling alfalfa hay to the Reserve 9. 00 Labor and board for feeding, 6 months at $40 per month 240. 00 1, 794. 60 Average cost per head for 700 head 2. 56 The alfalfa hay was used in mixture with the cake until the calves learned to eat the cake alone. The average- feed of cake was 1.8 pounds. The value of keeping the calves growing is apparent in the sales of steers. From the 700 head caked, 100 head of long yearlings were cut out and placed with the 2-year-old steers for sale May 1, 1916. The steers were sold by the head, with the privilege of a 10 per cent cut. When the cut was made, 101 of the older steers were cut back and finally sold at $10 per head less than the sale price for the herd. Not one of the caked yearlings was included in the cut. The 2-year- olds cut back had not been caked as calves following weaning. The remainder of the steer calves fed during the winter of 1915-16 were 26 BULLETIN- 588, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. held on the Reserve during the summer and winter and were sold for May delivery, 1917, at from $2 to $2.50 per head more than was paid by the same buyer for other steers of the same age in the vicinity of the Reserve. It would seem, therefore, that the increased value of the calves as a result of caking more than paid for the cost of feed and feeding, to say nothing of the small loss of calves and the advantage to thin cows in having their calves weaned early. The total loss of calves and yearlings from starvation on the Reserve during 1916 was three head, two of which were "dogie" calves not fed, and the third appar- ently died of starvation in the pastures through failure to come in to feed and water. Up to April 1, 1917, equally good results have been secured in eliminating loss from starvation. PROVIDING ROUGHAGE. The feeding of cottonseed cake does not do away with the necessity for roughage, either in the form of range forage or in some other form. The dry cured forage on the range will usually meet this need, but in case of prolonged drought, sucli as occasionally comes in the south- west, the supply of range feed may become exhausted. To meet such emergencies, it would be a distinct advantage to accumulate a reserve supply of roughage in the form of hay or ensilage during the more favorable ytears. With this in view, two pit silos, lined with cement, were constructed in 1915. In August, one of about 20 tons' capacity was filled with tobosa grass and a small quantity of soap weed. The tobosa grass was cut just before it matured and was run through an ensilage ma- chine into the silo. Late in the winter of 1916 the silo was opened and the ensilage fed to 2-year-old steers and milk cows. Even though the stock were thin, they refused to eat the ensilage to any extent. A small quantity of tobosa grass was cut and put up as hay. This also the stock refused to eat unless starved to it. It is doubtful if tobosa grass will be of any real economic value, either as hay or ensilage. The other silo has a capacity of about 200 tons. In early December, 1915, about 150 tons of soap weed (Yucca elata) was gathered and run through an ensilage cutter into this silo. The top was covered with straw and earth and left closed until March, 1916. The silo was then opened, and a few poor cows were fed a ration of the soap- weed ensilage once a day. Most of them learned to eat it quickly and with relish. About 10 tons of the ensilage was fed with en- couraging results. The pit was then closed; it will be opened later, when there is need of supplemental feed. During the short interval between filling and opening the silo the coarse fiber of the soap-weed leaves had softened a good deal; but it INCREASED CATTLE PRODUCTION. 27 was still rather tough, and the stock had difficulty in eating it. This was due, in large part, to the fact that the ensilage machine used would not chop the thick, tough leaves fine enough. Portions 6 inches long were not uncommon. A machine which would chop the leaves into smaller pieces would improve the ensilage a good deal. The soap weed can be cut, hauled, and put into the silo at a cost of $2 to 82.50 per ton, not including cost of the silo. It takes two or more years after the first cutting for the plants to produce a growth of leaves large enough for a second. It would not be practicable therefore to fill a silo each year in the same place. This, of course, is something of a disadvantage. Though the test has just begun, it seems probable that soap weed may prove of considerable value as ensilage. Further tests will be made to determine feeding value and secure more complete data on costs and returns. PREVENTION OF BLACKLEG. During the month of May, 1915, more than 50 head of young steers out of approximately 1,000 head in one pasture of the Reserve died of blackleg. Prior to this time losses were rather heavy among the weaned calves. A campaign for systematic vaccination of all stock between the ages of approximately 5 months and 20 months was started in the fall of 1915 and has been continued to date. The vaccination is done, for the most part, during the fall round-up and again during the early spring. The idea is to vaccinate twice a year as a preventive of blackleg, not as a cure. About 2,500 doses of the Government blackleg vaccine were administered during 1916. The vaccine was prepared carefully and administered carefully and every reasonable precaution taken to insure thoroughness. The area is large, however, and it is next to impossible to get all the ani- mals for vaccination at the proper time. Consequently a small loss is expected. The test, however, is a demonstration of what can be accomplished under range conditions on a large scale. A loss of 27 head during 1916 was attributed to blackleg; but in the case of at least three of these there was some doubt as to the cause of death, since the animals were not found until several days after- wards. This means a loss for the year of approximately 1 per cent of the average number of stock between the ages of 5 and 20 months, but less than 1 per cent of the total stock of susceptible age. On the basis of the average number of stock on the Reserve during the year, it is equivalent to a loss of a little over one-half of 1 per cent. One stockman on range adjoining the Reserve reported a loss of 100 head from blackleg during the first half of 1916 from approximately the same number of stock as are on the Reserve. 28 BULLETIN 588, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TOTAL LOSS. The total losses on the Reserve from June 1, 1915, the time that the department representatives began an active part in the campaign against loss, until December 31, 1916, was 54 head of all classes, or at the rate of 1.9 per cent annually. The total losses from January 1, 1916, to December 31, 1916, were 66 head, or 1.5 per cent. The 1916 losses included 13 cows, 2 bulls, 35 yearlings, 4 branded calves, and 12 unbranded calves. Possibly a few head were missed, so that the total might be slightly higher, but not appreciably so. Reports received from stockmen in connection with the investi- gation of live-stock production on western ranges in 1914 showed average losses for New Mexico as follows: Calves up to 12 months of age, 10.6 per cent; yearlings, 5.6 per cent; stock over 2 years old, 5.8 per cent. If these figures are approximately correct, and it is believed that they are, the small losses at the Jornada Range Reserve since June 1, 1915, show decidedly encouraging possibilities for reduc- ing losses from starvation, blackleg, straying, and other causes. Records for a period of years will be necessary for comparison with the figures cited for New Mexico as a whole. The results at the Reserve to date, however, justify serious consideration by stockmen. Systematic vaccination is possible under range conditions. It should be done as a preventive, and not as a cure after the disease is prevalent in a herd. Much can be accomplished also in preventing loss from starvation, even on the open range, though it can not be handled with the same efficiency as on fenced areas. CONCLUSIONS. RANGE IMPROVEMENT BY NATURAL REVEGETATION. Primarily as a result of (1) reducing the number of stock during the main growing season of about four months — July to October — to about half the average number the area will carry for the year, (2) not over- stocking during the other eight months, and (3) better distribution of stock watering places, grama-grass range on the Jornada Range Reserve has improved in three years at least 50 per cent, as com- pared with similar adj oining unf enced range grazed yearlong. Obser- vations to date indicate that range thus lightly grazed during the main growing season has improved approximately to the same extent as similar range protected from grazing the entire year. On fenced grama-grass ranges of the Southwest where the stock are carried mainly on range feed throughout the year, light stocking during the growing season is profitable. It will probably not reduce the total animal-days' feed furnished on a given area during the year, and will reserve feed for the critical period from February to July, or later in case of- prolonged drought. INCREASED CATTLE PRODUCTION. 29 Where the whole of a range unit is made up of grama or similar grass, about one-third of the area should probably be reserved for light grazing during the growing season two years in succession. Each third in turn should be given as nearly as practicable this amount of protection. By light grazing is meant grazing by not more than half the average number of stock that the area will carry for the year as a whole. WATER DEVELOPMENT. Fairly efficient use of plains and mesa range in the Southwest can be secured where stock do not have to travel more than 2% miles to water. This means one watering place for each 13,200 acres. Such an acreage of grama-grass range will carry about 500 -cattle through- out the year if properly managed. As the distance in excess of 2J miles which stock have to travel to water increases, the barren area around water increases, as does also the partly used forage beyond 2| miles from water. Con- sequently the number of stock the range will support is reduced. When feed is short, a long distance between feed and water tends to increase the loss of stock, to decrease the calf crop, and to retard development of the young animals. Observations to date appear to justify one permanent watering place for each 500 head of cattle. Where conditions are favorable, the construction of tanks to catch flood waters for the purpose of supplementing the permanent watering places will be a paying investment. They will aid (1) in getting more green feed for the stock during the year, (2) in more even utilization of the range as a whole, (3) in the protection of feed and range near permanent water, and (4) in reducing the cost of maintenance and operation of wells. CARRYING CAPACITY. During 1916 the Jornada Range Reserve as a whole supported one animal, not including un weaned calves, on an average of 41.45 acres. The estimated maximum carrying capacity of the Reserve in its present stage of development is 38.1 acres per head. The estimated carrying capacity of similar unfenced range in its present average condition is at least 50 acres per head. The range on the plains, where grama grasses form the bulk of the forage, will support stock throughout the year at the average rate of one head to from 20 to 30 acres, depending upon the proportion of the real grama-grass type. This figure is for range in good condi- tion, fairly well supplied with stock water, and which is lightly stocked during the growing season. The range comprising tobosa-grass flats, along drainage lines, and slopes back to the foothills will support stock throughout the year at the average rate of one head to from 38 to 45 acres, depending 30 BULLETIN 588, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. upon the percentage of tobosa flats which receive flood water. Such areas are of higher forage value than the average for this class of range as a whole. The mountain range of the Jornada Range Reserve will support stock at the rate of approximately 60 acres per head in its present stage 'of development. All of the foregoing estimates are on the basis of carrying the stock through average or slightly less than average years in fairly good condition. If loss from starvation is to be eliminated, a small per- centage of the poor stock will have to be fed cottonseed cake or other feed to supplement range forage. INCREASE 'IN CALF CROP AND IMPROVEMENT IN GRADE OF STOCK. From 500 selected cows and 20 bulls, held in pastures away from other stock since August, 1915, an 81 per cent calf crop was branded in 1916. It is expected that this figure will probably be an average one over a period of years. From the remaining cows of breeding age, amounting to 1,522 head run "together in one pasture of 74,714 acres, a 69.2 per cent calf cr&p was branded. The average calf crop for the Reserve was 72 per cent. It is doubtful whether the average calf crop on adjoining unfenced range in 1916 reached 60 per cent, and this figure is believed to be a high average for the calf crop on these ranges for a period of years past. A total of approximately 50 pounds of cottonseed cake per head was fed to the 500 cows and 20 bulls of the selected breeding herd on the Reserve. The work of caring for this herd took half of one man's tune. AH of the bulls and perhaps 75 per cent of the cows were fed cake. To this special care and the fact that they were unmo- lested by other stock is attributed the large calf crop. In the herd having 1,522 head only 2 per cent of the cows and only 75 per cent of the bulls were caked. This and the fact that so many animals were run in one large brushy area, making adequate bull service difficult, are believed to be largely responsible for the difference of 11.8 per cent in the calf crop of the two herds. If so, the extra calves in the special herd far more than pay for the extra feed and labor. The big opportunity for increasing the calf crop is to keep poor cows in thrifty condition. This can be done by not overstocking the range usecj. by breeding stock and by feeding a small quantity of cottonseed cake or other supplemental feed to the cows that need it. Indications are that this is a good business proposition. All bulls should be fed during the whiter and early spring. By avoiding overstocking and by uaing supplemental feed the improvement of the average animal should pay, at least in part, for the decrease in number of stock and increase in cost of care. The INCREASED CATTLE PRODUCTION. 31 increase in the calf crop will pay for the greater part, if not all, of the increased expense. Marked improvement hi average grade is noticeable among stock of the Jornada Reserve as a result of selling off about 25 per cent of the poor-grade, off-colored, and otherwise undesirable stock, and replacing them by good grade heifers. PREVENTION OF LOSS. The average loss of stock on the Jornada Range Reserve, June 1 to December 31, 1915, was at the rate of 1.9 per cent for a year; the average loss in 1916 was 1.5 per cent. The average losses for New Mexico are approximately 10.6 per cent for calves to 12 months of age, 5.6 per cent for yearlings, and 5.8 per cent for other stock. The small loss at the Jornada Reserve is attributed to careful, systematic vaccination against blackleg, to the reservation of grama- grass range for poor stock during the critical spring months, to feeding the animals a small quantity of cottonseed cake, and to prevention of straying. In order to provide for extra range for the breeding stock in poor years, one-third of the stock on a range unit should be steers. , It is then possible to reduce the number of stock, when necessary, by selling steers, without great sacrifice and without interfering with the breeding stock. In good years the number of steers can be increased and in bad years decreased. To provide against loss in extremely bad years, some land of roughage to supplement the range forage, for feeding with cottonseed cake or other concentrated feed, would be a decided advantage on southwestern ranges. Ensilage made from soap weed (Yucca elata) has been tried, and the results are promising, but not extensive enough to warrant definite conclusions. Feeding cottonseed cake to calves weaned during the late fall, winter, and Dearly spring is an important factor in cutting down loss and increasing the size of the stock, as well as in increasing the calf crop. Where this is done, young calves can be taken from poor cows, thus reducing loss from starvation among both cows and calves and stimulating earlier breeding. Indications are that such feeding is a good business venture from the standpoint of increased value of the calves, aside from decreasing the loss from starvation. Range feed not more than 2^ miles from water is a big factor in cutting down loss from starvation, especially where little or no sup- plemental feeding is done. The possibilities of decreasing loss justify more attention on the part of stockmen to careful, systematic vaccination as a preventive of blackleg and to picking out and feeding stock in need of special care. 32 BULLETIN 588, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUBE. LIST OF PUBLICATIONS RELATING TO THIS SUBJECT. (Arranged chronologically.) Div. Agros. Bull. 16, ''Grazing Problems in the Southwest," by J. G. Smith, pp. 47. 1899. Bur. Plant Indus. Bull. 4, "Range Improvement in Arizona," by David Griffiths, pp. 31. 1901. Bur. Plant Indus. Bull. 67, " Range Investigations in Arizona," by David Griffiths, pp. 62. 1904 (Oct. 6). Bur. Plant Indus. Bull. 117, "The Reseeding of Depleted Range and Native Pas- tures," by David Griffiths, pp. 27. 1907 (Dec. 13). N. Hex. Agr. Expt. Sta. Ball. 66, "The Range Problem in New Mexico," by E. O. Wooton. pp. 44. 1908 (April). Bur. Plant Indus. Bull. 177, "A Protected Stock Range in Arizona," by David Griffiths, pp. 28. 1910 (Apr. 19). Ariz. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 65, "The Grazing Ranges of Arizona," by J. J. Thornber. pp. 245-360. 1910 (Sept. 21). Proc. Soc. Amer. For. VII: 160-7, 1912. "Range Improvement and Improved Methods of Handling Stock in National Forests," by J. T. Jardine. N. Mex. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 81, "The Grasses and Grass-like Plants of New Mexico," by E. O. Wooton and P. 0. Standley. pp. 176, 1912 (iss. December, 1911). Farmers' Bulletin 578, "The Making and Feeding of Silage," by T. E. Woodward et al pp. 24. 1914 (May 18). Farmers' Bulletin 592, " Stock- Watering Places on Western Grazing Lands," by Will C. Barnes, pp. 27. 1914 (June 11). Journ. Agr. Res. iii: 93-147. 1914 (Nov. 16). "Natural Revegetation of Range Lands Based upon Growth Requirements and Life History of the Vegetation," by A. W. Sampson. Farmers' Bulletin 655, "Cottonseed Meal for Feeding Beef Cattle," by W. F. Ward, pp. 8, 1915 (Apr. 10). (Some references to feeding in the Southwest). U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 211. "Factors Affecting Range Managementin New Mexico," by E. O. Wooton. pp.39. 1915 (May 26). The National Wool Grower for Oct., 1915. "Deferred and Rotation Grazing," by L. H. Douglas. Bur. An. Indus. Circ. 31 (6th rev.), "Blackleg- Its Nature, Cause, and Preven- tion," by V. A. Norgaard and J. R. Mohler, pp. 22. 1915 (Nov. 8). U. S. Dept. Agr. Y. B. Sep. 678, "Improvement and Management of Native Pas- tures of the West," by J. T. Jardine, pp. 299-310. 1916 (from 1915 Yearbook). U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 367, "Carrying Capacity of Grazing Ranges in Southern Arizona," by E. 0. Wooton, pp. 40. 1916 (June 23). U. S. Dept. Agr., Sec. Rept. 110, "Meat Situation in the U. S., Part II. Live Stock Production in the Eleven Far Western Range States," by Will C. Barnes and James T. Jardine. 1916. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FEOM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 15 CENTS PER COPY UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 580 Contribution from the Forest Service HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER December 21, 1917 EFFECTS OF GRAZING UPON WESTERN YELLOW-PINE REPRODUCTION IN THE NATIONAL FORESTS OF ARI- ZONA AND NEW MEXICO. By ROBERT R. HILL, Grazing Examiner. CONTENTS. Page. Importance of protecting pine reproduction . . 1 Scope and method of study 2 Extent of damage to western yellow-pine reproducf'on from grazing 4 Factors influencing damage 9 Page. Effects of grazing injuries upon western yel- low-pine reproduction 16 Summary 23 Application of results to range management in the Southwest 25 IMPORTANCE OF PROTECTING PINE REPRODUCTION. The best summer forage in Arizona and Xew Mexico is found among the open stands of yellow pine, mainly at elevations above 6,000 feet, and covering more than 8,800,000 acres, or 6 per cent of the total area of the two States. (See map, fig. 1.) Every economic consideration requires that this forage, one of the region's most important resources, should be converted into meat. At the same time, it is important that this should be done with the least possible injury to the yellow pine, which is by far the most important timber of the Southwest. In many places the tree is not reproducing satis- factorily, hence it is very necessary to protect the young growth (which in any event has to contend with severe winters, dry springs, and parasites and insects) from damage by stock. The problem is especially important in the Xational Forests, which are created primarily to conserve the timber supply and to protect the vegetative cover on the watersheds. *In the Forests is the bulk of the yellow pine in Arizona and Xew Mexico, and on the Xational Forest range are grazed approximately 30 per cent of all the range stock in the two States. Stock use the Forest range mainly during the summer, from April to Xovember. This bulletin presents the results of a study to determine the character and extent of the damage to young growth of western yellow pine in the Southwest from the grazing of live stock, and to find out the best means of keeping such damage at a minimum while permitting proper utilization of the range. 4205°— 17— Bull. 580 1 BULLETIN 580, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. V \ i % Approx area of the two states .... 151.000.000 A *-x^_ \ ^) | JApprox area, of Western Yel low RnefiSOO.OOOA. FIG. 1. — Yellow pine in Arizona and New Mexico. SCOPE AND METHOD OF STUDY. An intensive study was ma.de on the Coconino National Forest, in the north-central portion of Arizona, where grazing and timber conditions are typical of the forests of the Southwest, and where the problem of securing satisfactory timber reproduction is often serious. This was supplemented by general observations, covering a period of two years, on other Forests in Arizona and New Mexico. The observations were confined chiefly to the yellow-pine type, but for purposes of comparison some observations were made in the Douglas fir and pinon-juniper types. Early in the season of 1910 a preliminary reconnaissance was made on the Coconino Forest. This was followed during that year by a detailed study, in which observations were made upon 150 plots. Further observations were made in 1912 on additional plots. Alto- gether 250 plots were observed within a radius of 25 miles of Flag- staff, in the heart of the Forest. The plots were located so as to include the following range condi- tions : (1) Areas embracing all conditions of range normally grazed by different classes of stock. (2) Areas embracing all conditions of range overgrazed by dif- ferent classes of stock. (3) Areas supporting a good stand of forage normally grazed by all classes of stock. (4) Areas supporting a poor stand of forage normally grazed by all classes of stock. (5) Areas supporting chiefly bunch grasses, grazed by different classes of stock. (6) Areas where cattle congregate. EFFECT OF GKAZINU ON WESTERN YELLOW PINE. 3 (7) Areas where sheep congregate. /. £., along driveways and on bed grounds. The plots were selected where representative rather than abnormal injury was in evidence. In order to secure maximum results from a limited amount of work, the plots were located where the stand of seedlings was fair to good. They were laid out in quadrangles, vary- ing in size from 10 feet by 30 feet to 30 feet by 90 feet, depending upon the size and density of reproduction. All seedlings and saplings of a size subject to grazing were counted. An attempt was made at first to classify the damage ac- cording to such divisions as " leader destroyed," " needles removed," etc., but it was found that this did not give an accurate idea of the amount of damage actually done without a great deal of qualification. For this reason, it was decided to base the classification upon the permanent effect upon the development of the tree which, in the opin- ion of the observer, the damage would cause. Plants on which the leader, side shoots, and needles had been so severely grazed that the growth of the plant would be seriously interfered with for at least a number of years, were classed as "injured." Where the damage was not so severe, but if continued would seriously interfere with the development of the tree, the plants were classed as "severely browsed." Where the damage was severe enough to interfere to a very considerable extent with the development of the tree for a period of from one to three years, but not so severe as to affect its ultimate development even though the usual amount of damage were to con- tinue, the tree was classed as "moderately browsed." Where the damage was so slight that its effect wTould not be noticeable after the current year, the plant was classed as " lightly browsed." The trees were classified according to height by ocular estimate as follows : Below 6 inches Seedlings. 6 inches to 1.5 feet 1-foot class. 1.6 feet to 2.5 feet 2-foot class. 2.6 feet to 3.5 feet 3-foot class. 3.6 feet to 4.5 feet 4-foot class. 4.6 feet to 5.5 feet 5-foot class. 5.6 feet to as high as were subject to grazing Above 5-foot class. Four examinations were made in 1912 and in 1913 at intervals during the grazing season to show the amount of seasonal damage. The first examination was made during May, to record the amount of damage at the beginning of the grazing period; the second ex- amination was made early in July, to indicate the amount of damage that occurred during the spring dry period ; the third early in Sep- tember, to determine the amount of damage done during the best growing period; and the fourth early in November, at the close of the grazing season, to record the damage done during the fall drying BULLETIN 580, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. period and also the total amount of damage during the entire graz- ing season. An examination was made also at the close of the 1914 grazing season. Thus data on seasonal damage are available for two years, and data on total annual damage for three years. A supplemental study was undertaken in 1912 to determine the effects of protection from grazing upon the establishment, growth, and recovery of yellow-pine reproduction, and incidentally of forage plants. In each of five areas subject to close grazing and represen- tative of soil classes and forage types in the western yellow-pine belt, 2-acre plots were fenced so as to exclude all grazing. Check plots, established in the immediate vicinity of the fenced plots, were left to the usual amount of grazing. The height and spread of crown of the young trees within the plots wyere measured, and the location of each tree was recorded. In addition, the severity and probable date of past grazing injuries were noted. These data were secured in 1912, 1913, and 1914. It is planned to repeat the exami- nation every third year until a period of 10 years has elapsed, or until conclusive results are obtained. EXTENT OF DAMAGE TO WESTERN YELLOW-PINE REPRODUC- TION FROM GRAZING. AVERAGE ANNUAL DAMAGE. The average annual damage to western yellow-pine reproduction due to grazing under existing practice is shown in Table I. The figures are those obtained during the final examinations at the close of the grazing seasons of 1912, 1913, and 1914. It will be seen that 42 per cent of the total number of trees observed are damaged to some extent annually. TABLE I. — Annual damage to western yellow-pine reproduction from grazing. Year. Number of trees ob- served. Injured. Browsed. Severely. Moderately. Lightly. Num- ber. Per cent of total. Num- ber. Per cent of total. Num- ber. Per cent of total. Num- ber. Per cent of total. 1912 8,945 8,945 8,945 853 492 448 9.5 5.5 5.0 1,035 871 589 11.6 9.7 6.6 2,240 1,301 698 25 14.5 7.8 896 915 382 10 10.2 4.3 1913 1914. . - Average annual. . . 8,945 598 6.7 832 9.3 1,413 15.8 731 8.2 EFFECT OF GRAZING ON WESTERN YELLOW PIXE. 5 TABLE I. — Annual damage to western yellow-pine reproduction, etc. — Continued. Year. Number of trees ob- served. Rubbed. Dead. Severely. Moderately. Lightly. Num. ber. Per cent of total. Num- ber. Per cent of total. Num- ber. Per cent of total. Num- ber. Per cent of total. 1912 8.945 8,945 8,945 10 54 125 0.1 .6 1.4 5 46 36 0.1 .5 .4 1 20 1 0.0 .3 .0 50 94 105 0.6 1.0 1.2 1913 1914. Average annual. . . 8,945 63 . 7 29 .3 7 .1 83 .9 In order to arrive at the number of trees damaged to such an ex- tent as seriously to retard their growth, it is necessary, under the plan of classification, to include only the injured, the severely browsed, and the severely rubbed trees. Estimated on this basis, 1,493 trees, or 16.7 per cent of the total number examined, are sub- ject to severe damage by grazing. It is this class of damage, rather than the total damage, that is of serious importance. It is believed that the figures given represent fairly the actual damage over approximately one-half of the yellow-pine type on the Coconino Forest and that similar damage will occur elsewhere under like conditions. Conditions under which the damage is greater or less than the average are pointed out in the later discussions. DAMAGE BY HEIGHT CLASSES. The extent of damage done to trees of different sizes is shown in Table II. The conclusions drawn from this table are that damage is most severe in the seedling class and gradually shades off as the plants increase in size; that injuries and serious browsing constitute nearly all of the important damage to trees below 3.5 feet high, but that above this height most of the serious damage is due to rubbing, which becomes more acute with increase in height up to 5.5 feet. Figure 2, which is constructed from the data in Table II, shows graphically the basis for these conclusions. 6 BULLETIN 580, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE II. — Damage by height classes. Height class. Num- ber of tr§es. Character of injury. Damage. Year. Average for three-year period. 1912 1913 1914 Total trees dam- aged. Per cent of total trees in each class. Dam- age of all classes. Severe dam- age only.* Seedlings 2, 153 3,294 1,468 1,212 324 293 201 Injured Num- ber. 272 322 166 91 Num- ber. 152 352 212 121 Num- ber. 131 143 43 19 Num- ber. 185 272 140 77 9 12 7 4 21 18 \ 15 1 12 9 6 Severely browsed Moderately browsed... Lightly browsed 1-foot class Severely rubbed Moderately rubbed Lightly rubbed Injured 385 365 553 293 232 365 587 351 203 229 301 119 273 320 480 254 8 10 14 8 Severely browsed Moderately browsed... Lightly browsed Severely rubbed 2-foot class 3-foot class Moderately rubbed Lightly rubbed Injured 135 195 356 207 69 75 212 159 1 1 81 125 154 54 1 95 132 241 140 1 6 9 16 11 Severely browsed Moderately browsed. . . Lightly browsed Severely rubbed Moderately rubbed.. . Lightly rubbed Injured 55 104 238 165 2 1 37 73 229 183 23 6 4 1 9 30 73 9 7 32 96 156 84 26 4 41 91 208 144 17 4 3 8 17 12 1 Severely browsed Moderately browsed... Lightly browsed 4-foot class Severely rubbed Moderately rubbed Lightly rubbed Injured . 5 11 35 89 3 1 11 29 42 40 3 2 10 31 68 17 3 1 3 10 21 5 1 Severely browsed Moderately browsed... Lightly browsed Moot class Above 5-foot class Severely rubbed Moderately rubbed. . . Lightly rubbed Injured 1 3 21 40 20 9 2 1 Severely browsed . . . Moderately browsed Lightly browsed Severely rubbed Moderately rubbed. . Lightly rubbed 2 20 36 18 7 3 1 5 14 42 35 6 3 18 39 24 7 2 1 1 7 15 9 3 1 Injured Severely browsed Moderately browsed.. 1 16 9 20 12 1 21 14 22 1 20 12 22 7 Lightly browsed Severely rubbed Moderately rubbed . Lightly rubbed 72 12 25 9 10 6 11 3 1 Determined by adding per cent injured, severely rubbed. per cent severely browsed, and per cent EFFECT OF GRAZING ON WESTERN YELLOW PINE. 7 DAMAGE BY PERIODS. To determine the damage caused during different periods of the grazing season, four examinations were made of all plots during the seasons of 1912 and 1913. The first examination was made at the beginning of the grazing season: the second early in July at che Height of Reproduction - Foot C/asses FIG. 2. — Extent of damage to reproduction of different heights. close of the early summer drought ; the third in the fore part of Sep- tember, following the period of maximum plant growth; and the fourth early in November at the end of the grazing season. Results for the two years are summarized for the respective periods in Table III. BULLETIN 580, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE III. — Periodic damage. Peria 1. Per cent of trees Average per cent Average per cent No. of period. Begin- ning. Ending. Number of weeks. Year. Total trees observed. found damaged at each exami- nation. of trees damaged each grazing season. damaged per week each grazing season. 1912... 8.945 0.3 First Apr 15 May 20 5 1913 8,945 .4 0.35 0.07 Average. 8,945 .35 1912 8 945 14 0 1" Second May 21 July 8 7 1913 8,945 22.0 17.6 2.5 Average. 8,945 18.0 f912 8 945 35 0 Third July 9 Sept. 12 9 913 8^945 36.0 17.5 1.9 Average. 1912... 8,945 8,945 35.5 46.0 Fourth Sect. 13 Nov. 6 8 1913 8,945 40.0 7.5 .9 Average. 8,945 43.0 The observations indicate , that the greatest amount of damage occurs during the latter half of June and early in July, or during the severest portion of the early summer dry period, and that the least damage occurs during the first few weeks of the grazing period, or before June 1. A considerable amount of damage occurs during the main growing season and a smaller amount during the fall drying period. The fact that a relatively small amount of damage occurred during 1914, which was unusually favorable for the growth of forage, gave support to the theory that the severity of damage varies inversely as- the amount of succulent feed available. The record of periodic damage, however, indicates that there is an important factor besides* the amount of available succulent forage which determines the severity of damage. This is believed to be the condition of the cur- rent year's growth of pine shoots. All observations substantiate the belief that, except in unusual cases, stock will not injure coniferous shoots of a previous year's growth. It has been noted particularly that during the early summer practically no damage occurs until new shoots appear, and that damage in any year is confined largely to that year's growth. Yellow-pine vegetative buds start active growth on the Coconino Forest about May 15, and by June 20 have formed succulent shoots with well-developed needles. From that time until about the middle of August the shoots are tender and more palatable than at other periods. Thus the season of best forage growth is also the period when yellow-pine shoots are most palatable. This and the probability that during the severe spring dry period stock develop a taste for the pine shoots which continues during the early portion' of. the summer growing period may explain the rather severe dam- EFFECT OF GRAZING ON WESTERN YELLOW PINE. 9 age tnat continues through the season of abundant forage growth. The fact that the needles and stems become tough and therefore less palatable by September seems to account for the relatively little damage that is done during the fall period, when ordinary forage becomes dry and usually is closely grazed. In 1912 the time of making the first count extended until early in June and in the preliminary study during 1910 until June 20. In neither of these counts was serious damage recorded. In view of this fact and of the indications based upon phenological observa- tions, it is safe to say that very little serious damage is done to the reproduction before the middle of June. FACTORS INFLUENCING DAMAGE. INTENSITY OF GRAZING. Casual observations indicate that the amount of damage to repro- duction is greater on heavily grazed areas than on those lightly grazed. In order to determine the extent to which this apparent relation holds and the intensity of grazing which may be permitted without causing an undue amount of damage, plots were observed on ranges representing various degrees of utilization. NORMAL GRAZING. Normal grazing, as the term is used here, implies that the class and number of stock are well adapted to the character and amount of forage. Observations during 1912, 1913, and 1914 on 92 plots, representing a variety of forage types on ranges normally grazed by sheep, cattle, and horses, showed that out of a total of 3,352 trees an average of 126 were injured, 258 were severely browsed, and 1,023 were moder- ately to lightly browsed each year. Thus 384 trees, or 11 per cent of the entire number, were severely damaged. Observations on 14 plots, containing 571 trees, on ranges normally grazed by cattle and horses only, showed no trees injured during the three-year period, none severely browsed, and only 11 moderately to lightly browsed. The number of plots in this series is perhaps insufficient to form the basis of general conclusions, but extensive observations elsewhere bear out the belief that cattle and horses, under proper conditions of grazing, do a negligible amount of damage to forest reproduction. OVERGRAZING. By overgrazing is meant grazing by an excessive number of stock, with consequent injury to the palatable forage. Of 1,792 trees on two plots on ranges overgrazed by all classes of stock, an average of 298 were injured annually, 335 were severely browsed, 4205°— 17— Bull. 580 2 10 BULLETIN 580, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and 474 were moderately to lightly browsed. Thus 633, or 35 per cent of the total number, were subject to severe damage. Of 522 trees on 14 plots on an overgrazed range open to cattle and horses only, an average of 11 were injured annually, 55 were severely browsed, and 194 were moderately to lightly browsed. Thus 66 trees, or 13 per cent of the total number, were subject to severe damage. This injury is not excessive in itself, but when compared with the negligible injury which cattle and horses cause on nor- mally grazed areas, it forms an* additional reason for insisting upon the protection of the range against overgrazing, especially on areas where all of the established reproduction is needed. The general conclusions from these observations are: (1) That on ranges properly grazed by sheep as well as by cattle and horses, a very considerable amount of damage occurs, but that where only cattle and horses graze under such conditions a negligible amount of damage results; and (2) that where overgrazing occurs serious damage is caused by any class of stock. DENSITY, AMOUNT, AND CHARACTER OF FORAGE. DENSITY OF FORAGE. Since the intensity of grazing has a direct relation to the severity of the injury to tree reproduction, the inference might be drawn that on a range supporting a scattered stand of forage plants the percentage of trees damaged would be materially greater than on a range where the stand of forage is good. In order to determine whether this is so, observations were made on ranges where the average density of forage plants was less than two-tenths, and on ranges where the average density was four-tenths of the ground surface. The plots were selected as representing all degrees of graz- ing. On 39 plots supporting a good stand of forage and 1,010 trees, 31 trees were injured, 119 were severely browsed, and 255 were mod- erately to lightly browsed. Thus 150, or 15 per cent of the total, were subject to severe damage. On 92 plots, containing 3,678 trees, on range poorly stocked with forage, 157 trees were found to be injured, 500 severely browsed, and 882 moderately to lightly browsed. Thus 18 per cent of the total were being severely damaged. These comparisons indicate that under average conditions there is not a great deal of difference in the amount of damage done on ranges well stocked with forage plants and on ranges poorly stocked. In general, therefore, it may be concluded that in a given forage type, with the same amount of forage allotted each animal, the density of the forage has little relation to the amount of damage to pine reproduction. EFFECT OF GRAZING ON WESTERN YELLOW PINE. 11 AMOUNT OF FORAGE BY SEASONS. The fact that a greater amount of damage occurs during the dry period of early summer, when ordinary forage is scarce, than during other periods of the grazing season suggests the probability that dur- ing a season when feed is unusually abundant the amount of damage will be relatively small. This supposition is confirmed by a com- parison of the damage done in 1914 with that done in 1913. Ordinarily not enough precipitation occurs during May and June 10 support the vegetative growth, and as a result not enough forage is produced to meet the needs of stock. This was the ca§e in 1913 ; but in 1914 the dry period was broken in June by sufficient rainfall to revive the forage, and this was followed by abundant rainfall in July and August. Since the three months from June to August form the main growing period, 1914 was an unusually favorable year for the production of forage, and 1913 an unusually poor one. (See Table IV.) TABLE IV. — Precipitation during the growing periods of 1913 and 1914* Average for yellow-pine type. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. 1913. . .. Inches. 0.01 Inches. 0.08 Inches. 2.25 Inches. 2.83 Inches. 2.13 1914 - - .49 1.45 4.54 2 47 74 A verage for 11 vears (1902-1912) .77 .47 3.1 4 39 2 02 i The monthly rainfall is an average for the entire yellow-pine type, based upon the records at Fort Valley, Flagstaff, and Walnut Canyon. TABLE V. — Comparison of the Kerioufs damage caused on grazing during 1913 and 1914. Trees seriously damaged. Number. Per cent of total. 1913 1 417 15.8 1914 .... 1 162 13.0 Table IV indicates that vegetation could not have made any con- siderable growth in 1913 before July, and the record of periodic damages shows that more than one-half of the total annual damage for that year occurred during this dry period. Xo record of periodic damage was kept in 1914, but a summary for the year (see Table V) reveals 13 per cent of the entire number of trees seriously damaged, as compared with 15.8 per cent for 1913. The lower per cent of damage for 1914 is believed to be due chiefly to the greater abundance of feed during that year, particularly during June and early in July. 12 BULLETIN 580, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. This suggests the conservative use of forage as a means of preventing excessive injury to reproduction. CHARACTER OF FORAGE. Observations were made to determine the relative amounts of damage to reproduction in the principal forage types of the yellow- pine belt. Two main classes of forage are found in the yellow-pine type of the Southwest. These are the mountain bunchgrasses (Muhlen- bergia gracilis, Festuca arizonica, and Blepharoneuron tricholepis) and blue gram& grass (Bouteloua gracilis), which occurs usually on the more level mesas. Both types, with variations, are prominent on the Coconino Forest. The blue grama is very palatable to all classes of stock. The bunchgrasses, though very nutritious, are not generally preferred by any class of stock because of. their accumu- lation of coarse, dry foliage. The general conclusions regarding the relation of the intensity of grazing to the amount of damage to tree reproduction are believed to apply in the case of the grama range. But in the case of the bunchgrass type, a serious amount of damage occurs on some por- tions, even though the type is not grazed closely. A study was there- fore made to determine which class of stock is responsible for such damage. Since no bunchgrass areas are grazed exclusively by sheep, it was necessary, in order to determine the damage done by this class of stock, to compare the amount of damage done on bunchgrass areas by both sheep and cattle with that on similar areas grazed by cattle only. Accordingly 72 plots were selected in the bunchgrass type grazed moderately by both classes of stock. These plots contained 2,372 trees subject to grazing. During 1912 and 1913 counts on these plots showed an average of 428 trees injured and 320 trees severely browsed, or a total of 32 per cent which, if present conditions con- tinue, may be expected to become seriously injured. On a number of the plots practically every tree had been killed by grazing. As compared with these figures there were no injuries or severe browses on the 15 plots in this type located on areas grazed closely by cattle only. Of the total of 618 trees only 7 were even moderately browsed. The obvious conclusion that sheep are chiefly responsible for the severe damage is substantiated by the fact that the serious damage noted was characteristically that of sheep, that is, the needles were cropped closely along the stems, instead of the end of the shoot being eaten off. It is not assumed that the injuries on the sheep-grazed areas aiv representative of the bunchgrass type as a whole. All of the plots studied were located in the north half of the Forest, where the bunch- EFFECT OF GRAZING ON WESTERN YELLOW PINE. 13 grasses occur in much purer stand than over the remainder. In the rest of the Forest blue grama, Gambel's oak, and succulent weeds form a considerable percentage of the vegetation comprising the bunchgrass type. Extensive observations in this portion, supple- mented by many others in the yellow-pine type in the Southwest, bear out the conclusion that where sheep are not forced to depend upon the rank growth of bunchgrasses for the main part of their feed, but have access to plenty of browse and palatable weeds, they will not cause such severe damage to yellow-pine reproduction in the bunchgrass type. If, however, the browse and weeds are not suf- ficient to supply the bulk of their feed, they are likely to cause very severe injury to young pines. The portion of the bunchgrass type on the Coconino Forest, over which the damage is excessive, includes about one-third of the total, or 130,000 acres. A circumstance which makes the injury to repro- duction here a serious matter is the fact that where the worst damage occurs reproduction is scattered, and for that reason is in special need of protection. CLASS OF STOCK AND METHODS OF HANDLING. CLASS OF STOCK. It is comparatively easy to determine the amount of damage for which cattle, horses, and burros are each responsible, because fre- quently these classes of stock are handled in pastures where each may be observed separately. In the case of sheep, however, which are not handled in pastures on the Coconino Forest, but share the open range with other classes of stock, it is difficult to determine the proportion of the damage with which they can properly be charged. To arrive at a conclusion it was necessary to compare the amount of damage found on range occupied by both cattle and sheep with the amount of damage under similar grazing conditions on areas from which sheep are excluded and in pastures. This measure of sheep damage is believed to be fairly accurate, since there is no evidence that cattle do more damage to reproduction on a range which they share with sheep than on a range which they graze alone. Sheep injuries, furthermore, are characteristic and may be readily distinguished from those of cattle and horses. It is believed that horses and burros may be eliminated from the classes of stock responsible for severe injuries to reproduction. The many saddle horses, in all kinds of physical condition, ridden in the yellow-pine type, have shown no disposition to eat coniferous repro- duction. In a pasture 4 miles southwest of Flagstaff about 30 head 14 BULLETIN 580, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of horses were grazed from May until November, 1910. The only other stock using the pasture were from three to five head of cattle and two or three head of sheep. The number of stock was greater than the carrying capacity warranted, and in the fall all forage was cropped very closely and the horses were poor and rough. Counts made in October showed that of 365 trees only 8 trees, or 2 per cent of the total, were seriously browsed. In a grama-grass weed pasture at Fort Valley, containing approximately 360 acres, about 12 horses were kept during the grazing season of 1910. Observations on 15 plots showed practically no damage. Burros form a very small proportion of the total number of stock on the Forest. However, the fact that they often show little dis- crimination in the selection of their feed raises the question of the amount of damage which they do to forest reproduction. At the Kees's sheep-headquarters camp, located in the bunchgrass type on the north slope of the San Francisco Peaks, five burros were run during the seasons of 1913 and 1914 in a pasture containing about 160 acres. Observations made* in October, 1914^ upon 200 trees less than 4 feet in height showed no damage whatever by grazing. The amount of damage under different range conditions on sheep- grazed areas and on areas from which sheep are excluded has already been discussed. In order, however, to estimate the relative damage chargeable to sheep and to cattle under average conditions in the yellow-pine type, range conditions has been given a weight in per cent representing the importance of each to the whole. The per- centage of severe damage attributable to cattle and to sheep has been multiplied by the number representing the importance of each range condition and an average arrived at which represents the relative amount of damage for which these two classes of stock are responsible and the total per cent of damage which each class is believed to be causing over the entire Forest. The results are given in Table VI. TABLE VI. — Comparison of cattle and sheep damage. Condition of range. Com- para- tive im- portance. Percent of total. Amount of serious damage (per cent of total stand). Condition of range. Com- para- tive im- portance. Percent of total. Amount of serious damage (per cent of total stand). Cattle. Sheep. Cattle. Sheep. Normally grazed 38 6 12 28 15 0.008 .78 .04 .08 .001 4.18 2.10 .31 .62 1.50 In flats 0.92 .05 .03 0.20 .03 .02 0.20 .03 .02 Overgrazed Poorly stocked with for- age Around water and salt lu-ks Corrals, ranches, and bed grounds Total Well stocked with forage. 100.00 1.159 8.96 Bui. 580, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I. FIQ. 1.— UNINJURED THRIFTY YELLOW-PINE REPRODUCTION FROM 4 INCHES TO 4 FEET TALL AND FROM 3 YEARS TO 14 YEARS OLD. FIQ. 2.-A YELLOW PINE 41A FEET TALL, WITH LATERALS SEVERELY GRAZED BY SHEEP. LEADER OUT OF REACH OF THIS CLASS OF STOCK. Bui. 580, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. F-3 RRH FIQ. 1.— TYPICAL SHEEP DAMAGE. SHOOTS EATEN AND NEEDLES PULLED. FIG. 2.— TYPICAL CATTLE DAMAGE. SHOOTS SEVERELY EATEN, BUT NEEDLES LEFT LARGELY INTACT. Bui. 580, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. FIG. 1.— WESTERN YELLOW-PINE SAPLINGS, 4 FEET AND 6 FEET TALL, SEVERELY INJURED BY CATTLE RUBBING. FIG. 2.— A THRIFTY STAND OF REPRODUCTION IN A PASTURE AND A SCATTERED STAND OF BADLY INJURED REPRODUCTION ON THE OUTSIDE. EFFECT OF GRAZING ON WESTERN YELLOW PINE: 15 According to this table the ratio between the severe damage caused by cattle and that caused by sheep is approximately as 1 to 7.7. Striking variations from this ratio may be noted on the normally grazed areas and on the bunchgrass range. Over these portions of the type the damage caused by sheep is far out of proportion to that caused by cattle. On the other hand, in flats, around camps, and near water and salt licks the damage caused by each class of stock is about the same. On areas representative of the rest of the yellow- pine type the ratio of damage caused by cattle as compared with that caused by sheep approximates the average ratio of 1 to 7.7. This ratio is thought to be fair to the sheep. The proportion of reproduc- tion severely damaged by both sheep and cattle is approximately 10 per cent. While this is not so high as the figure estimated for the half of the yellow-pine type under observation, which, according to Table I, amounts to 16J per cent, yet it is probably more nearly representative of the yellow-pine type as a whole. The foregoing data point to the conclusion that stock do not eat yellow-pine reproduction through preference : that where the palatable forage is sufficient, reproduction will not suffer seriously from graz- ing; but that, on the other hand, where the palatable feed is not sufficient for the class of stock using the range, yellow-pine repro- duction is likely to be seriously damaged. METHODS OF HANDLING. • From the conclusions reached under the preceding heading it is plain that the way stock are handled on the range has a most im- portant bearing on the amount of damage that is done to reproduc- tion. It has been pointed out, for example, that on bunchgrass range, which, under the methods of handling stock on unfenced range, at least is poorly suited to sheep grazing, this class of stock is likely to injure one-third of the stand of reproduction, as com- pared with an injury of 10 per cent of the stand on range well suited for sheep grazing and that the injury on an overgrazed range varies from three times the amount of damage on a normally stocked range to total destruction of the reproduction. Further evidence as to the relation between the handling of stock and the amount of damage to reproduction is brought out by a study of the damage on areas where stock congregate. Rubbing by cattle. — Over the Forest, as a whole, the principal damage caused by cattle is by rubbing. This damage is serious where cattle are accustomed to congregate, principally at the edges of parks, in alluvial flats, along drainage lines, and in the vicinity of watering places, corrals, and salt licks. 16 BULLETIN 580, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Counts were made on 17 plots located in situations subject to this kind of injury. Of 165 trees above 3 feet in height, and so of a size subject to severe damage by rubbing, 36 were seriously injured. Fif- teen were so badly rubbed that they would become worthless if the rubbing continued, and 2 were moderately rubbed. Thus 22 per cent of the trees subject to this class of damage had been severely in- jured, and 9 per cent were being subjected to severe damage. In all, a total of 31 per cent would in time be killed. This indicates a seri- ous condition over certain parts of the yellow-pine type. The sites on which such damage is most likely to occur support the best quality of timber. Damage along sheep driveways. — In the southern part of the Forest the only places where pine reproduction seems to be injured are around watering places, near the lower boundary of the yellow-pine type where reproduction is scattered, and along the Mud Tank sheep driveway. This driveway, with an average depth of 1 mile, extends about 30 miles through the yellow-pine type. About 75,000 sheep are driven over it each year. ' Besides its use as a driveway, the strip is included in sheep and cattle allotments, and would be fairly well grazed by stock throughout the season without the additional use by transient stock. The first few bands find sufficient feed, but before the total number have crossed the feed is so short that sheep are forced to eat whatever growth is available, including a great deal of yellow-pine reproduction. The damage caused in this way is so severe that the boundaries of the driveway can readily be traced by the line of severe damage. Conditions on this trail are typical of a number of trails in Arizona and New Mexico. Good management re- quires that this damage be reduced to the minimum. Around watering places and ranches where stock are allowed to congregate it is very common to find a majority of the reproduction badly deformed and stunted, as a result of browsing and rubbing. EFFECTS OF GRAZING INJURIES UPON WESTERN YELLOW-PINE REPRODUCTION. ESTABLISHMENT OF REPRODUCTION. INJURIOUS EFFECTS. Abundant reproduction is often found in pastures, while just out- side, with no apparent change in natural conditions, it is relative^ scarce. In all such cases observed the outside range had been subject to severe grazing by all classes of stock for a number of years after the pasture had been constructed. A comparison of the ages of reproduction within and those adjacent to the pastures indicates that the effect of severe grazing outside has been not only to prevent the establishment of reproduction, but also to kill many of the trees already established at the time the fences were built, This conclu- EFFECT OF GRAZING ON WESTERN YELLOW PINE. 17 sion is supported by detailed observations made on small fenced areas on overgrazed ranges. One of these fenced areas, including about 2 acres, is located near the Bottomless Pits, 6 miles southeast of Flagstaff. At the time when the fence was constructed, in the spring of 1912, all reproduction in the vicinity had been badly injured by grazing for a number of years. During the three years from 1912 to 1911 the trees inside the fence were entirely protected, while those outside were subject to the same degree of grazing as formerly. A record was kept of the reproduction located within the inclosure and also of that on a check area of the same size near by. Of 57 trees within the inclosure only 5 died during the three years, whereas of the 45 trees on the check area 32 had died. Thus a loss of 9 per cent occurred among the protected trees, as compared with a loss of 71 per cent among the trees subject to continued grazing. While this contrast is unusual, it indicates the possible effects of very severe grazing. Along most pasture fences which mark the line between good reproduction and scanty reproduction are also areas which have not been severely grazed. Where these begin the scanty reproduc- tion ends. It is asserted frequently that stock destroy a great many 1 and 2 year old seedlings. While this doubtless is true, it is also a fact that in inclosures entirely protected from grazing nearly all of the reproduction that germinates is killed by adverse natural agencies. Only during a series of favorable years does any considerable amount of reproduction become established. Observations in pastures and on sheep-excluded areas indicate that cattle and horses ordinarily do very little damage to reproduction of the seedling class, even though the larger trees suffer as a result of overgrazing. Though sheep probably do more or less damage to young pines during the first year, by far the greater number of such seedlings would die in any event during the following winter or spring. At 2 years of age a seedling may be said to be well enough established to give it an even chance of survival against adverse natural agencies. For this reason the influence of grazing injuries after this period increases in importance. Table II indicates that injury to trees of the seedling class or to trees between the ages of 2 years and 6 years is more serious than in the case of larger trees. The fact that 21 per cent of trees of the seedling class are severely damaged indicates that grazing seriously handicaps young trees in becoming thoroughly established. Thus, though grazing is not a prime factor in the establishment of a seedling during its first or second year, it may seriously interfere with its growth after that age. 18 BULLETIN 580, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BENEFICIAL EFFECTS. Probably the only important ways in which stock aid in the establishment of reproduction are by helping to plant the seeds and by reducing the fire menace. Sheep aid very materially in covering the seeds of grasses, thus helping to insure their germination.1 It is reasonable to suppose that they aid in planting the seed of yellow pine. However, this aid is not very important, because the important problem in establishing a stand of reproduction is not to secure germination but to resist freezing during the following winter and starvation during the long dry period of the following spring. Grazing, by preventing the accumulation of rank growth, plays no small part in preventing severe ground fires. HEIGHT GROWTH. The extent to which the growth of young trees is retarded forms the most obvious index of the severity of the effects of grazing injuries. The effects upon height growth, however, indicate the immediate results of injuries and may or may not be a guide to the more permanent effects. On Taylor's ranch, 9 miles northwest of Flagstaff, is a pasture in which the reproduction is abundant and free from injury. Just outside of the pasture damage by grazing has been very severe. Measurements of the height growth of saplings for the last five years within and outside the pasture gave the results shown in Table VII. Twenty trees form the basis for each height class. TABLE VII. — Comparison of height groivth of trees in and outside of pasture. Height class. Growth of the av- erage tree dur- ing last 5 years. In pasture. Outside of pasture. Feet. 1 2 3 4 Feet. 1.02 1.45 1.97 2.53 Feet. 0.6 84 97 1.26 The growth outside of the pasture is scarcely more than 50 per cent of that inside. Measurements of 75 representative trees selected from three of the inclosures fenced in connection with this project in 1912 revealed an 1 Journal of Agricultural Research, Department of Agriculture, Vol. Ill, No. 2, " Natu- ral Revegetation of Range Lands Based upon Growth Requirements and Life History of the Vegetation," by Arthur W. Sampson. KFFECT OF GH.\XIN(i OX WKSTKHN YELLOW PINE. 19 average growth of 0.7 foot for the three-year period, 1912-1914. Measurements of a similar number of trees growing in the check plots just outside these fenced areas showed an average height growth of 0.2 foot for the three-year period. The rate of growth of 46 badly grazed saplings at Fort Valley, 9 miles northwest of Flagstaff, and 59 uninjured saplings of the same age in a pasture on Observatory Hill, just outside of Flagstaff, the two sites being very similar, are given in Table VIII. TABLE VIII. — Comparative urotrth of trees in pasture and on overgrazed range. Location. Number of trees. Average age. Average height. Average annual growth. To pasture... 59 Years. 17.2 Feet. 5.2 Feet. 0.36 Overgrazed rang** 46 17.0 2.1 .12 , * : The foregoing comparisons, which are believed to be representa- tive, indicate that grazing injuries decrease the rate of growth of young trees from one-half to two-thirds. From the standpoint of the production of a crop of timber this check in the growth of reproduction is. not a serious matter, provided the trees have a chance to outgrow the injuries before their vitality is destroyed. The addition of 20 or 30 years to the period of rota- tion is not in itself a vital consideration in the management of yel- low pine. Retarded growth is a serious matter, however, when it is considered that grazing conditions are generally stable and that where severe damage occurs the trees have no opportunity to out- grow their injuries, but are slowly killed. FORM OF TREE. It is generally thought that the bole of a young tree that is severely injured is likely to become crooked or forked. This belief appears to have little basis in fact. The probable cause of crooked boles in nearly all instances is that the trees have at some time been over- topped or suppressed and in that condition have grown at an angle toward the strongest light, later becoming dominant or codominant and attempting to grow upright. Forked boles serious enough to be objectionable are formed at a height above that affected by grazing. Observations of a great many young trees recovering from severe injuries revealed no deformities that promised to be at all prominent when the trees mature. Nearly all grazing injuries occur at a height of less than 4-| feet, and the trees, when protected, very quickly de- velop a leader which gradually outstrips all others. The laterals of 20 BULLETIN 580, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, young trees made bushy by injuries contribute to the more rapid growth of the main bole. PERMANENT EFFECTS. It is important to know what becomes of the seriously injured sap- lings. If they recover and become normal trees, then the ultimate effects of such damage are unimportant. But if a considerable por- tion of them die, and if others remain dwarfs or develop into 'de- formed trees, then the need for applying protective measures is ap- parent. Owing to the slow growth of yellow pine, effects of grazing injuries upon the later development of reproduction requires a good many years to determine. Observations so far made, however, indi- cate clearly the effects that may be expected where injured reproduc- tion is protected and where it remains subjected to continued severe grazing. Observations of a great many trees formerly injured but later pro- tected from grazing indicate .conclusively that young injured pines have remarkable recuperative powers. Even though they have been eaten off repeatedly for as long as 10 years, a few years' protection will enable them to recover. Unless the injuries are particularly severe, the subsequent growth is as rapid as in the case of younger uninjured trees of the same height. Ordinarily, trees subjected to repeated grazing develop many laterals capable of supporting vigor- ous height growth at the first opportunity. When protection is afforded to such trees, the ultimate effects of the injuries appear to be simply the retardation of growth equivalent to the period of serious injury plus 5 to 10 years required for the plant to regain its normal vitality and to develop a well-defined leader. If, however, the young trees are defoliated, as is characteristic of severe sheep injuries, recu- peration is necessarily very slow. The ability of injured trees to recuperate if protected is well illus- trated at the Fort Valley Ranger Station pasture. Previous to three years before the observations were made, the pasture had been greatly overstocked with cattle during certain portions of the year, but since that time it has been grazed only moderately. Reproduction is abundant, but during the period of overgrazing the saplings were severely damaged. Practically no damage was done in the three years preceding the observations. A comparison of the last three years' growth of saplings in the pasture previously injured, but showing no damage during this period, and of the growth during the same period of injured saplings just outside the pasture where severe grazing conditions prevailed, gave the results presented in Table IX. Twenty trees in each of four height classes were ex- amined. EFFECT OF GRAZING ON WESTERN YELLOW PINE. 21 TABLE IX. — Comparative growth <>f protected and unprotected saplings. Height classes. Average growth during 3 years. In pastures. Outside of pastures. Feet. 1 Feet. 0.8 1.1 1.2 1.4 Feet. 0.2 .3 .4 .4 2 3 4 Average 1.1 .32 The results show that the growth of tjie protected saplings is more than three times as rapid as that of the unprotected ones and indi- cate a marked ability of young pines when protected to recover from injuries. This conclusion is substantiated by the results of measure- ments of trees previously injured within the fenced plots and of trees outside subject to continued injury (p. 18). As stated in that case, the ratio of growth between protected and unprotected trees was as 7 to 2. Even though protection against severe grazing may enable seri- ously injured saplings to recover, such protection may not be advis- able unless the loss of young trees on unprotected areas is excessive. Reference to Table I shows that an average of only 0.9 per cent of the total number of trees were found dead during the three years covered by the study. While this loss probably represents the aver- age mortality from grazing over the Forest as a whole, yet it does not adequately express the seriousness of the losses in certain impor- tant parts of the Forest. Areas exist where more than 50 per cent of the total number of young pines have been killed. Such areas include many sections of the bunchgrass type south and west of Lake Mary, the edges of parks, bedgrounds, driveways, the vicinity of headquarter ranches and water holes, and range areas that have been overgrazed for a long period. It is estimated from a comparison of the age and height of 265 trees that a yellow pine will ordinarily, if uninjured, reach a height of 4.5 feet — above which it can withstand severe grazing injuries — when 15 years old, but that if it is subject to repeated grazing injuries it may require 35 years to reach this height. If it may be assumed that under average conditions which prevail over the Forest it re- quires 17 years for reproduction to reach a height of 4.5 feet, and that, as shown in Table I, 0.9 per cent of all trees observed die an- nually as a result of grazing injuries, it is safe to conclude that the loss of trees during the period when they are subject to severe grazing is approximately 15 per cent of the stand, or nearly as many as are 22 BULLETIN 580, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUEE. seriously damaged each year in the north half of the yellow-pine type. This poor showing of the injured trees would not be such a serious matter were it not for the fact that even though an injured tree does not die immediately, the needles, after repeated grazing, become dwarfed and turn yellowish, and the whole plant becomes stunted. If injury is continued the vitality is so weakened that a severe season or an attack by natural enemies is very likely to kill the tree. It is not uncommon to find saplings so impoverished by continued defolia- tion that they can readily be pulled out of the ground by hand. The destruction of young trees is not such a serious matter where more reproduction has become established than is necessary to insure a complete regeneration of the stand. But where the reproduction is more or less scattered, the loss of a considerable percentage of young trees becomes decidedly important. SUSCEPTIBILITY TO FUNGOUS AND INSECT ATTACKS. It is commonly supposed that young trees injured by grazing are more susceptible to attack by fungi and by insects than are unin- jured trees. The extent to which this danger actually exists, and under what circumstances, is a subject which deserves careful con- sideration. Dr. W. H. Long, forest pathologist for Arizona and New Mexico, who has made a special study of fungi attacking western yellow pine, has expressed the opinion that— The fungi and diseases known at the present time to cause serious damage to yellow pine in the Southwest normally do not enter trees through ordinary injuries caused by grazing. The spores of certain species of rust (Perider- mium spp.) may enter through wounds in the living bark of pines, and it would be entirely possible for such spores to enter through wounds caused by grazing. However, the total damage due to such a rust entering through grazing wounds and finally girdling the trunks of yellow pine is probably very small. No heart-rotting fungus is known which is apt to start growth through grazing wounds other than in cases where the bark is removed or where the heartwood and sapwopd are exposed by breaking and twisting. Since injuries of this character form a very small part of the total amount of damage, the danger of fungus attack due to them does not require serious consideration. Injuries that favor this kind of rot are caused by lightning, fire, deep blazes, etc. It might be presumed that mistletoe (Razovntofskija spp.) would be liable to attack grazing wounds, but a knowledge of the circumstances under which this parasite attacks tissue leads to the conclusion that this danger is relatively unimportant, for while it is true that mistletoe berries start growth where new tissue is exposed, such as on the calloused edges of blazes, and while the wounds to tender shoots such as are caused by grazing might afford favorable conditions for germination of these berries, the conditions are probably no more favorable than they are on the tips of uninjured stems. EFFECT OF GRAZING ON WESTERN YELLOW PINE. 23 Certain needle diseases exclusive of rusts are believed to attack dwarfed and unhealthy needles more readily than vigorous needles. Since the effect of moderate grazing wounds is to stimulate the growth of plant tissue, these needle diseases are not apt to secure a foothold more readily because of them. How- ever, when persistent and severe wounds reduce the vitality of the trees until the needles reflect the weakened condition, certain needle diseases are apt to find favorable hosts. The total amount of damage caused by needle diseases or the increase in this character of damage which may be attributed to grazing is not known, although it is believed to be relatively unimportant. During the last two years studies of the extent of damage by in- sects on the Forests of Arizona and New Mexico have been made a special study by A. J.» Jaenicke, forest assistant in charge of insect studies. Mr. Jaenicke has expressed the opinion that grazing in- juries are not responsible for a serious amount of insect damage to western yellow-pine reproduction. He states that — Western yellow-pine reproduction in Arizona and New Mexico suffers particu- larly from the following insects: 1. Tip moths of the genus Ret into. These kill the terminal shoots of the reproduction, causing it finally to assume a bushy form, but rarely kill it. 2. Engraver beetles of the genus Ips, particularly Ips confusiis Leo. These insects are responsible for the death of considerable reproduction in various parts of the district, particularly on cutting areas. 3. Small scolytid beetles, which work in the thinner bark of the young trees and occasionally cause their death. 4. Flat-headed borer of the family of Buprestidw. These were found doing serious damage on only one Forest in the district. During the past field season careful attention was given the relation of graz- ing injuries to attacks by the above-named insects. It was found that only in localities where serious overgrazing has taken place for a number of years is there ever any material increase in insect damage. The tip moth kills the terminal shoots of healthy and unhealthy reproduction with equal ease. Grazing injuries, therefore, are an unimportant factor in infestations by this insect. Wherever the vitality and health of reproduction has been seriously lowered by overgrazing or any other cause, particularly on areas recently cut over, en- graver beetles may become responsible for the rapid death of the injured seed- lings. The" same is true of attacks by various small scolytids. Both the en- graver beetles and small scolytids breed in slash, and so it is on the, areas where there has been recent cutting that reproduction injured by grazing suffers most from these insects. It is not believed that attacks by flat-headed borers are increased by grazing injuries. The minor injuries caused by regulated grazing, therefore, are of little importance in augmenting insect attack. Even . serious injuries are rarely responsible for insect damage of any consequence, except on recently cut- over areas. SUMMARY. (1) Of 8,945 trees of a size subject to grazing, observed over a period of three years, 1,493, or 16.7 per cent, were severely damaged each year and 1,442, or 16.1 per cent, were moderately damaged. 24 BULLETIN 580, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (2) The most injured are the seedlings, 21 per cent of which are seriously damaged. The damage gradually decreases with an increase in the size of the trees. Trees above 4.5 feet in height are free from severe injuries from browsing, but those between 3 feet and 6 feet in height are likely to be rubbed severely. (3) The greatest amount of damage occurs during the latter half of June and the first part of July, or when the effects of the spring dry period are most pronounced. The least damage occurs during the first few weeks of the growing period, or before June 15. A very considerable amount of damage is done during the main grow- ing season and during the fall drying period. • (4) Under normal conditions of grazing cattle and horses, and incidentally burros, do an inconsiderable amount of damage to reproduction. Sheep under the same conditions may be responsible for severe injury to 11 per cent of the total stand. On overgrazed areas all classes of stock are apt to damage small trees severely. Cattle and horses may damage about 10 per cent of all reproduction. Where sheep are grazed along with them, how- ever, at least 35 per cent of the total stand may be severely damaged. Cattle and sheep are responsible for practically all of the grazing damage to yellow pine on the Coconino forest. Ordinarily sheep cause about seven and a half times as much damage as cattle. (5) The density of forage does not affect the amount of damage that may be caused on a given area. (6) The suitability of the forage to the class of stock using a range has an important influence upon the amount of damage to timber reproduction. Because of the suitability of the pure bunch- grass type to sheep grazing, the reproduction over approximately one-third of the bunchgrass type on the Coconino Forest, or over 130,000 acres, is being seriously injured. (7) The amount of palatable feed available during the grazing season, and especially during June and July, has an important bear- ing upon the amount of damage that grazing will cause to reproduc- tion. During a favorable year the damage may be 18 per cent less than during a subnormal year. (8) The manner in which stock is handled has much to do with the severity of grazing damage. Cattle are likely to injure 22 per cent of the trees between 3 feet and 6 feet in height that grow on areas where they are accustomed to congregate. Sheep severely injure reproduction along driveways and on bed grounds. (9) Grazing is believed to have a largely neutral effect upon the germination and early establishment of reproduction, but to have an important effect in reducing the destruction of reproduction by fire. EFFECT OF GRAZING OX WE&TERN YELLOW PINE. 25 (10) The effect of grazing upon the height growth of reproduc- tion is marked. Severely injured trees grow only from one-half to one-third as fast as uninjured trees. (11) Grazing injuries are not responsible for the common deformi- ties of mature trees. (12) The permanent effects of grazing injuries upon the develop- ment of the trees damaged are not serious, provided the damaged trees have a chance to recuperate. If grazing is unrestricted, about 15 per cent of the total stand is likely to be killed during the period required for reproduction to become established. (13) Reproduction that has been impoverished greatly by grazing is more likely to be attacked by some fungi and insects than unin- jured and vigorous reproduction. However, the ordinary grazing injuries are not believed to increase seriously the danger of such attacks. APPLICATION OF RESULTS TO RANGE MANAGEMENT IN THE SOUTHWEST. The conclusions arrived at in this study are believed to be appli- cable over the entire yellow-pine type of the Southwest. Since for- age composition, class of stock using a range, intensity of grazing, and methods of handling stock vary on different Forests, it is not advisable to attempt to prescribe specific suggestions for certain areas, but rather to prescribe definite remedies for certain conditions. Under present conditions all reproduction should be protected against severe damage by grazing. Where immediate cutting of the mature stand is contemplated, the reason for protection is obvious, since the prime purpose should be to insure a stand of reproduction. Where reproduction on an area not to be cut over in the near future is being injured, protection is needed to assist nature in maintaining a forest cover. Reproduction generally occurs naturally in openings made by the death of mature trees. Unless this reproduction is pro- tected, the gaps will tend to increase and the regeneration of the forest be made constantly more difficult. Moreover, under the most favorable conditions it is only through the combination of a good seed year with two or more good growing years following that any considerable amount of reproduction becomes established. Such a combination is so rare that it is not safe to depend upon it. The grazing of stock on National Forests must be so regulated that the number of stock shall not decrease, but, if possible, shall increase. Under proper grazing management reproduction does not suffer an unwarranted amount of damage; in fact, the advantages. of conserva- tive grazing in reducing the loss of reproduction by fire probably offset the injury from stock. The application of conservative graz- ing throughout the western yellow-pine type, then, is the basis for the protective recommendations which follow. 26 BULLETIN 580,, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUEE. Since overgrazing is the cause of the most severe grazing -dam age. it should be avoided by all means. An overgrazed condition may exist even though the general appearance of the range does not indicate it, as, for instance, on a bunchgrass range allotted to sheep. The principal grasses may be largely uneaten, while sheep feed, con- sisting of palatable weeds and grasses, and, too often, of yellow-pine reproduction, may be largely destroyed. Overgrazing may result from allotting too many stock to a range, or from poor distribution of a proper number of stock due to lack of sufficient well-located watering places, poor salting arrangements, or, in the case of sheep, to poor herding. In any case the cause should be determined and removed. Sheep should not be depended upon primarily to utilize the bunch- grass range. This type should be utilized chiefly by cattle and horses, held in pastures if possible. On this type, wherever the bunchgrass species occur in nearly pure stand during early spring, sheep should be run in May and the fore part of June while the grasses are tender and most palatable. Where the succulent weeds and browse species occur in -mixture with the bunchgrasses, sheep may be grazed season long together with cattle and horses. Sheep should be excluded from cutting areas on which they are causing severe damage until reproduction is well established, usually for a period of from 15 to 20 years. They should be excluded also for a period of from two to five years from cutting areas where the stand of reproduction is deficient but has been supplemented by an abun- dant crop of seedlings which, having survived the first winter and spring, promise to become established, even though injury to the reproduction already established is not severe. All stock should be worked and handled as little as possible around watering places, salting grounds, and headquarter ranches. Sheep should be bedded as seldom as possible on any one bed ground, prefer- ably for one night only. It is very difficult to avoid the damage caused by cattle rubbing. In exceptional cases, where complete reproduction is desired within a short period, as on a cutting area, flats might be fenced and cattle excluded from them during the fly season. However, if overgrazing and excessive handling are avoided, it is believed that the damage caused by cattle will not be excessive. One of the most serious menaces to reproduction as well as to forage occurs on stock driveways. Even at best, an excessive number of stock must use these strips of range and injury can not be avoided. However, all practicable means should be used to conserve the stand of forage and by furnishing sufficient feed for the stock using the driveways to reduce the injury to reproduction to a minimum. In order to accomplish this, it is recommended that driveways be used EFFECT OF GRAZING ON WESTERN YELLOW PINE. 27 as little as possible; that, wherever. practicable, they be closed to grazing except by passing stock; that a sufficient number be estab- lished to prevent overgrazing ; and that water be furnished in abun- dance at proper intervals along them. Every effort should be made to protect yellow-pine reproduction in the "twilight" zone between the yellow-pine type and the juniper- pinion type. Conditions here are unusually unfavorable for yellow- pine reproduction, and such seedlings as become established should by all means be protected against grazing. Stock, especially sheep, should not be held in the yellow-pine type during the winter, when they would be forced to eat reproduction. Advantage should be taken of grazing as a means of fire control by securing proper utilization of all range where at present an accumulation of inflammable unused feed occurs each year. Such areas are common on the bunchgrass type and on other types of range far removed from water or located on rough ridges and slopes. PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO THE SUBJECT OF THIS BULLETIN. PUBLICATIONS AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION BY DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Range Improvement by Deferred and Rotation Grazing. (Department Bulletin Xo. 34.) Native Pasture Grasses of the United States. (Department Bulletin No. 201.) Carrying Capacity of Grazing Ranges in Southern Arizona. (Department Bulletin No, 367.) Improvement and Management of Native Pastures in the West. (Separate No. 678 from Yearbook, 1915. ) PUBLICATIONS FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERN- MENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. The Reseeding of Depleted Grazing Lands to Cultivate Forage Plants. (Department Bulletin No. 4.) Price, 10 cents. Grazing Industry of the Bluegrass Region. (Department Bulletin No. 397.) Price, 5 cents. The Utilization of Logged-off Land for Pasture in Western Oregon and West- ern Washington. (Farmers' Bulletin No. 462.) Price, 5 cents. Stock- watering Places on Western Grazing Lands. (Farmers' Bulletin No. 592.) Price, 5 cents. Grazing and Floods : A Study of Conditions in Manti National Forest, Utah. (Forestry Bulletin No. 91.) Price, 10 cents. WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1917 AMDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY LIVE-STOCK CLASSIFICATIONS AT COUNTY FAIRS S. H. RAY Animal Husbandry Division FARMERS' RULLETIN 822 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry A. D. MELVIN, Chief Washington, D. C. June, 1917 Additional copies of this bulletin may be obtained free from the Division of Publications, U. S. Department of Agriculture ONE of the principal objects of a live-stock exhibition is to bring before the stockmen and the public a standard of excellence toward which all may strive in the improvement of domestic animals. The educational value of such an exhibition will depend largely upoa two things, namely, the classification of the animals to be exhibited and the judgment of the official who passes upon the merits of the exhibits. The two are absolutely dependent upon each other in presenting the lessons which the exhibition should teach. The classification of live stock used at many of the county fairs is such that it is of little instructive value to the public and often causes criticism alike of the judges and of fair officials. As an example, the following class is not uncommon : " Best aged stallion, any breed." In this case all aged stallions, regardless of whether they are of the pony type, saddle type, light-harness type, or draft type, are brought into competition without any qualifications whatever. Should a pony stallion be placed first, a saddle stallion second, and a draft stallion third, there is sure to be confusion in the minds of the audience and criticism of officials. Each class at a live-stock show should represent a definite type of animals which have some definite function or purpose. It is hoped that this publication will aid very mate- rially in standardizing the classifications at county fairs and that it will be of assistance to fair officials and prospective exhibitors. LIVE-STOCK CLASSIFICATIONS AT COUNTY FAIRS. CONTENTS. Page. ! Page. Educational value of live-stock exhibitions . . 3 Cooperation with live-stock organizations... 3 Uniformity of classification 4 Special features 4 Selection of superintendents, judges, etc 5 Arrangement of exhibits 5 Announcement of judges, prize winners, etc. 6 Exhibition of prize winners 6 Rules 6 Premiums 7 Classifications... 8 EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF LIVE-STOCK EXHIBITIONS. THE chief value of live-stock exhibitions or shows, whether under the auspices of community, county, State, or larger organiza- tions, lies in their educational features. Live-stock shows and fairs have been an important factor in the improvement of farm animals, since it is the show ring which designates the types and standards that breeders of animals strive to produce. These standards gen- erally are based on market and economic demands. The absorbing interest of competition in the show ring stands as the chief incentive for the breeder to exhibit his animals. If he an- nually enters into competition with other breeders, he will surely improve the quality and type of his herd or flock. The great value of the live-stock show ring for the less experienced breeder, how- ever, is in the demonstration of standards which may be followed. The best qualified persons obtainable are found officiating as judges at the large exhibitions. These men know the requirements for the animals which they judge, and through them breeders become better acquainted with the standards for the breed in which they are inter- ested and also with the faults and good points of their own exhibits. While the chief value of exhibitions is educational, the live-stock exhibits at county fairs are often so poorly classified that frequently the educational value is largely lost. It is the purpose of this bulletin to discuss in a general way some of the factors which, if properly handled, will help to increase the value of the county live- stock exhibit. COOPERATION WITH LIVE-STOCK ORGANIZATIONS. The county fair officials should enlist every aid possible to make the live-stock show a success. To be successful it must by all means have the backing of the breeders of the county, and of other counties 3 if possible. Cooperation with. the county live-stock association, if such an organization exists, and with the county agricultural agent is essential. If the live-stock association advocates a certain kind of breed of live stock, then the officials should provide liberal prizes for such classes. In a great many cases it will be advisable for the county fair officials to meet with the county live-stock association before the premium list and classification are announced. In most instances it would be well to allow the association the privilege of offering suggestions in making up the premium list and classifica- tion. In this way their interests will be represented and their support consequently will be stronger. UNIFORMITY OF CLASSIFICATION. The county fair classification should be uniform from year to year and, as far as possible, the classifications of different county fairs in the same State or section should be uniform. County fair secre- taries should be careful that their show dates do not conflict with those of neighboring counties. To provide for uniformity in classi- fications, to arrange fair dates, and for other purposes an associa- tion composed of the county fair officials in the State is very helpful. Such organizations generally meet once a year for discussion. A good place and time for this meeting is at the State agricultural col- lege during some farmers' meeting. SPECIAL FEATURES. The county fair secretary can introduce many features which will tend to make the live-stock exhibit better each year. He should by all means endeavor to have some special feature with a good-sized purse so as to stimulate discussion and create enthusiasm. , The following brief mention of two such features may be useful. FUTURITY CONTESTS. One very effective feature which may be adopted is the futurity contest. In this the breeder names the animal which he will exhibit soon after or even before it is born ; in case it is not yet born, the dam of the animal is named. In this contest, each breeder entering should be required to put up a sum of money which is to go into the general purse. He may be required to put up another sum just before the date of the fair, and at some shows the exhibitor is required to pay still another fee at the time of the actual contest. The amount re- quired from each exhibitor should not be too great; but the nomina- tion fee, even though it be small, is essential for the success of the futurity contest. All the money received through the nomination of animals is put into the general purse, which may be divided into three or more prizes. Generally the fair association adds additional LIVE-STOCK CLASSIFICATIONS AT COUNTY FAIRS. 5 money to the purse. The more money in the purse the keener the competition. The animals nominated are judged during the fair week just as are the other classes. Full information concerning futurity contest rules may be obtained from the secretaries of different State fairs and from the secretaries of live-stock breeders' associations. JUDGING CONTESTS. The live-stock judging contest for boys and girls is a feature which always draws interest and helps to enlarge the attendance at the county fair. In such a contest teams from different districts or from different schools may compete against one another or the contest may be fcr individuals. The former is the better method, since the outside interest will be greater. School teachers should be en- couraged to enter teams, and with the assistance of the county agri- cultural agent may train the teams cr individuals for the contest. The teams generally are composed of five contestants. Both team and individual prizes should be given. The county agent, agricultural college officials, or other competent persons may be called upon to help in drawing up the rules of such a contest and to help train the contestants and manage the contest. SELECTION OF SUPERINTENDENTS, JUDGES, ETC. The fair officials should select capable men to act as superintend- ents of the different kinds of live stock. It is better that these should be prominent local live-stock men, and, if possible, the same men should act each year. In choosing the judges only men of known ability should be se- lected. These men should have had special training and experience along such lines. In most States the agricultural colleges will furnish competent judges. If the judges do their work well they should not only place the classes correctly, but should explain to the exhibitors and the audience after each class is placed why the animals were so placed. The advantage of having men with special training as live- stock judges is that such men can give in detail the reasons for the placing of each class, which is a feature that should not be overlooked. ARRANGEMENT OF EXHIBITS. Nothing so adds to the attractiveness of a live-stock exhibit as good arrangement supplemented with liberal placarding. The differ- ent kinds of live stock should be in separate divisions and the dif- ferent breeds should also be kept separate. Each barn or section should be marked with a large sign, such as " Beef cattle," " Sheep," " Horses," " Swine," " Dairy cattle," " Poultry." etc., denoting the 6 FARMERS' BULLETIN 822. kind of live stock in each. The location of each breed should be plainly marked also, and the exhibitors would be performing a great service if they would put up a placard before each animal indicating its sex, breed, name, sire, dam, age, weight, etc. Fair secretaries are overlooking a very important feature when they fail to see that this is done. In some instances it would be well to offer prizes to the exhibitor with the best kept and best placarded exhibit. After the animals have been judged they should be kept unblank- eted for a specified time each day, weather permitting. ANNOUNCEMENT OF JUDGES, PRIZE WINNERS, ETC. A suitable board should be erected in the judging arena and on this board should be posted the name of the officiating judge, the breed being judged, the catalogue number, etc., of the class which is being judged, and also the winners in the previous class. The interest in the judging will be much greater if this information is given. If a program is printed, there should be placed in a con- spicuous position on each animal or on the attendant a number which corresponds with the program or catalogue number. In announc- ing the prize winners on the bulletin boards, if programs are printed and distributed, the numbers may be announced instead of the names. EXHIBITION OF PRIZE WINNERS. A live-stock parade always attracts much attention and interest and in all cases should constitute a portion of the regular program. When possible a short talk by the live-stock judge or judges con- cerning each of the prize- winning animals and a few of those that did not win would be highly appreciated by the audience. Such features have great educational value, but few fairs take advantage of such opportunities. RULES. The rules governing a live-stock exhibition should be as few and as explicit as possible. Too many rules and rules which can not be enforced are worse than none at all. There are some, however, governing certain points which should be made. A few such rules are as follows: 1. The final date for entering should be announced, and no entries should be received after this date. 2. The time at which each class is to be shown should be announced and the program should be followed explicitly. Nothing so disgusts an audience as to sit and wait for a feature which does not appear according to the announced schedule. LIVE-STOCK CLASSIFICATIONS AT COUNTY FAIES. 7 3. After arrival at the show grounds all entries are under the supervision of the fair officials, live-stock superintendent, etc., and no animals should be allowed to leave the grounds without special per- mission. The live-stock superintendent has the right to call out any or all animals for parades or other special purposes. Other officials may exercise this privilege only through the superintendent of live stock. 4. The live-stock superintendent and the fair officials (the latter acting through the former) have the right to determine whether or not an animal may compete in any class, and the superintendent should verify the ages of all entries, their registration papers, health, etc. 5. The placings made by the judges are final unless protested in writing, and all protests should be made within a limited time and should be accompanied by a stipulated sum of money which is for- feited in case the protest is not sustained. 6. No barren animals should be permitted to compete in breeding classes, and the following rules may be used in governing this point : (a) All cattle 3 years old or over entered in the breeding classes must have produced living progeny within 18 months of the first day of the exhibition. (b) All swine 2 years old or over entered in the breeding classes must have produced living offspring within 12 months prior to the date of exhibition. (c) All horses 5 years old or over entered in the breeding classes must have produced offspring within 18 months previous to the date of the show. This also applies to jacks and jennets. 7. All males 1 year old or over entered in the breeding classes should be registered. Females 1 year old or over should be registered, except in cases where grades are permitted to compete in the breed- ing classes. This rule should be followed in all cases. Breeders should be required to show their registration papers on demand of the fair officials. 8. Animals shown in breeding classes should not be permitted to show in fat classes. PREMIUMS. The division of the money offered as prizes depends upon the amount of money available for all prizes and upon other conditions. Ordinarily the prize money at county fairs on each class is divided into three premiums. In cases where three prizes are offered, the money is often divided in the proportion of 3-2-1. If only two prizes are given the proportion of 3 to 2 is suitable. Nicely lettered ribbons should also be given. The colors generally used are blue for first prize, red for second, white for third, and 8 FARMERS' BULLETIN 822. royal purple for champions. In nearly all cases the ribbon is suffi- cient for champion animals. This enables the county-fair officials to give more money on the remainder of the classifications. Some of the classifications suggested later do not contain classes for certain groups of animals commonly shown at large fairs. While prizes for such classes have a value where competition is strong among professional breeders, it is believed that smaller fairs can give more encouragement to beginners and small breeders by using most of the money offered on a breed for increasing the number and value of prizes in the single classes. At some fairs sweepstakes prizes are given. This involves the showing of animals of different types or breeds, as beef and dairy animals, in the same class. The placing of such classes very seldom gives satisfaction, and under no conditions is such a classification advisable. CLASSIFICATIONS. The following classifications, are general and can be varied to suit local conditions. It must be kept in mind, however, that animals which are of different types — that is, used for different purposes — should not be classified or shown together. The light breeds of horses should not be shown with the draft breeds, the lard type of swine with the bacon type, etc. These are common errors of county fair classifications. If the number of animals exhibited is small, the dif- ferent breeds of the same type of animals may be shown together, such as the breeds of mutton sheep, the breeds of beef cattle, etc., and, if necessary, the classification by ages may be reduced. BEEF CATTLE. The ages of cattle should be dated from September 1. Thus, all cattle born after September 1 in any year may be shown in the under-one-year classes for the remainder of that year and during all the next year. Such cattle would then be shown in the under-two- year classes during the year following, and so on. If more prizes are to be given than is indicated in the classifications which follow, two classes may be made for the calves and for yearlings. These are known as the juniors and seniors. The juniors consist of all animals born between January 1 and August 31, and the seniors consist of all animals born between September 1 and December 31, inclusive. For instance, a calf born on September 1 of the present year and shown in the fall of next year would be a senior calf, while one born Janu- ary 1 of next year and shown at the same time would be classed as a junior calf. The same dates hold for the junior and senior year- lings. There may be junior and senior classes for both bulls and heifers. LIVE-STOCK CLASSIFICATIONS AT COUNTY FAIKS. 9 The classes for beef cattle which are given below are intended for pure-bred animals, with the exception of the classification indicated for fat animals. Only pure-bred bulls should be allowed to compete. If there are few pure-bred beef cows in the county and a larger number of good grade cows, it may then be advisable to offer prizes for grade beef cows, in which case the classification given for pure- breds may be used. This classification may be used for each breed : Bull 3 years or over. Bull 2 years and under 3. Bull 1 year and under 2. Bull under 1 year. Cow 3 years and over. Cow 2 years and under 3. Heifer 1 year and under 2. Heifer under 1 year. Champion bull, any age (only first-prize winners to be shown). Champion cow, any age (only first-prize winners to be shown). Get of sire — 4 animals got by same sire (sire need not be shown). Herd — 1 bull and 4 females ; bull, 1 year or over ; females any age. FAT CLASSES. At most county fairs all steers, pure-breds, grades, and cross- breds should be shown together. Spayed or free-martin heifers, and in some cases open heifers, should be allowed to compete with the steers. Steer 2 years and under 3. Steer 1 year and under 2. Steer under 1 year. Champion fat steer, any age (limited to first-prize winners in previous classes). DAIRY CATTLE. The ages of dairy cattle should be reckoned the same as those of the beef breeds. The same classification as indicated for breeding beef animals may be used for dairy cattle. In these classes only pure-bred bulls should be allowed to compete, but if there are not large numbers of pure-bred cows in the county all breeds may be shown together and grade cows may be admitted. If grades are shown, only those which are sired by pure-bred bulls should be admitted. DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE. At some county fairs the dual-purpose breeds, such as the Eed Poll and the milking Shorthorn, may be shown together. However, if sufficient numbers are available for separate classes, these breeds should be judged separately. The same classifications as indicated for beef and dairy cattle may be used for dual-purpose cattle unless conditions warrant changes. 88980°— Bui. 322—17 2 10 FARMERS ' BULLETIN 822. SWINE, LARD TYPE. The dates for computing the ages of breeding classes of swine are fixed as September 1 for senior classes and March 1 for junior classes. Generally it is advisable for the county fair to have both junior and senior classes for swine. The following classification may be used for each breed for which prizes are offered : Aged boar 2 years and over. Senior yearling boar over 18 months and under 2 years. Junior yearling boar over 12 months and under 18 months. Senior boar pig over 6 months and under 12 months. Junior boar pig under 6 months. Champion boar any age (limited to first prize winners in previous classes). The same classification is used for sows, but in addition a prize may be offered for best sow and suckling pigs. Group prizes may be offered as follows : Best herd — 1 boar and 3 sows, any age. Get of sire — 4 pigs, any agev the get of 1 boar. FAT CLASSES. Pen of 3 fat barrows over 12 months. Pen of 3 fat barrows under 12 months. Champion pen barrows, any age. Barrow over 12 months. Champion barrow, any age. SWINE, BACON TYPE. The same classification as indicated for the lard type of swine may be used for the bacon type, but the two types should never be shown together. SHEEP. The ages of sheep date from January 1 except in the case of Dorset Horns, the age of which may be dated from September 1. All sheep showing should have been shorn after March 1 of the year in which they are shown. The following classification is suggested for each breed for which prizes are offered. If grade ewe classes are shown, they should be the same as for pure-bred ewes. Ram 2 years or over. Ram 1 year and under 2. Ram under 1 year. Ewe 1 year and under 2. Ewe under 1 year. Champion ram (only first-prize winners to be shown). Champion ewe (only first-prize winners to be shown). Pen of 3 ram lambs. Pen of 3 ewe lambs. FAT SHEEP. Pen of 3 wether lambs. LIVE-STOCK CLASSIFICATIONS AT COUNTY FAIKS. 11 GOATS. Only a few county fairs in sections where goats are raised will have need for a classification of Angora or other goats. The one given here may be reduced or enlarged as conditions necessitate. Buck 2 years or over. Buck 1 year and under 2. Buck kid (under 1 year). Doe 2 years or over. Doe 1 year and under 2. Doe kid (under 1 year). Champion buck (only first-prize winners to be shown). Chamion doe (only first-prize winners to be shown). Pen of 4 kids under 1 year, either or both sexes. HORSES., The ages of horses should be dated from January 1. All horses should be shown at the halter unless otherwise specified. Prizes offered for stallions should be for registered pure-breds only. In case grade mares are to be shown, the classification suggested for pure-bred mares may be used. Where there are but a few pure- bred mares in a community, pure-breds and grades may be shown together, in which case only those sired by pure-bred stallions should be allowed to enter. The following set of classes will serve for each breed shown : ANY BREED OF HORSES SHOWN AT THE HAI/PSB. Stallion 4 years and over. Stallion 3 years and under 4. Stallion 2 years and under 3. Stallion 1 year and under 2. Mare 4 years and over. Mare 3 years and under 4. Mare 2 years and under 3. Mare 1 year and under 2. Foal under 1 year, either sex. Mare and foal. Champion stallion, any age (limited to first-prize winners). Champion mare, any age (limited to first-prize winners). Get of sire — 4 animals by same sire — any age (sire need not be shown). SPECIAL CLASSES (NO REQUIREMENTS AS TO BREEDING). Light harness stallion, mare, or gelding, any age, shown to proper vehicle. Heavy harness stallion, mare, or gelding, any age, shown to proper vehicle. Pair light harness horses, any age, shown to proper vehicle. Pair heavy harness horses, any age, shown to proper vehicle. Combination stallion, mare, or gelding, to be shown in harness, unhar- nessed, and saddled in the ring, and to show 5 distinct saddle gaits. Three-gaited saddle stallion, mare, or gelding. 12 FARMERS ' BULLETIN 822. JACKS. All jacks entered in these classes should be registered. Jack 4 years and over. Jack 3 years and under 4. Jack 2 years and under 3. Jack 1 year and under 2. Jack under 1 year. Champion jack. Get of sire — 4 mules by same jack, any age (sire need not be shown), The same classification may be used for jennets. MULES. Mule 4 years or over, either sex. Mule 3 years and under 4, either sex. Mule 2 years and under 3, either sex. Mule 1 year and under 2, either sex. Mule under 1 year, either sex. Champion mule. Span mules hitched to wagon. PONIES. Pony stallion, any age. Pony mare, any age. Pony foal, either sex. Pony in harness. Pair ponies in harness. Pony under saddle, any age. POULTRY. Secretaries of fair associations, in preparing the poultry classifica- tions for their premium lists, are requested to use the classification as shown in the American Standard of Perfection, which is published by the American Poultry Association. This also should be the guide used by alt judges when placing awards on poultry. For single entries the classification should be cock, hen, cockerel, and pullet, and the different ages should be judged separately. The classification also can be made to include pairs, trios, and pens of old and young birds, the old and the young birds competing separately. WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1917 Administration of National Forests AN ADDRESS DELIVERED BY A. F. POTTER, Associate Forester In Charge of Grazing BEFORE THE Sixteenth Annual Convention of the American National Live Stock Association At Phoenix, Arizona, January 15, 1913 SHOWING: Volume of Live Stock Grazing in National Forests Beneficial Changes in Regulation Through Co-oper- ation with Stockmen Improvements in Grazing Conditions Increase in Value and Quality of Stock Greater Protection Given Small Stockmen PUBLISHED BY AMERICAN NATIONAL LIVE STOCK ASSOCIATION 909 Seventeenth Street, Denver, Colorado February, 1913 OFFICERS OF THE Ammratt National ffituf ^tnrk Afianrtatum FOR THE YEAR 1913 PRESIDENT H. A. Jastro . . . Baker sfield, California FIRST VICE-PRESIDENT Dwignt B. Heard .... Phoenix, Arizona SECOND VICE-PRESIDENTS J. B. Kendrick .... Sheridan, vv yommg C. M. O'Donel. . . Bell Ranch, New Mex. M. K. Parsons . . . Salt Lake City, Utah I. T. Pryor San Antonio, Texas C. B. Rhodes .... Orchard, Colorado TREASURER John "VV. Springer .... Denver, Colorado ATTORNEY Sam H. Cowan .... Fort \VortL, Texas SECRETARY T. *^N. Tomlmson . . . Denver, Colorado EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE HUGH CAMPBELL Flagstaff, Ariz. F. T. COLTER. Springerville, Ariz. B. H. CRABB Flagstaff, Ariz. L. L. HARMON Phoenix, Ariz. JAMES A. JOHNSON Williams, Ariz. CHARLES P. MULLEN Tempe, Ariz. W. H. NEEL McNeal, Ariz. M. A. PERKINS Junction, Ariz. FRED A. BIXBY Long Beach, Cal. H. S. BOICE Pasadena, Cal. O. B. FULLER Los Angeles, Cal. ROMIE JACKS Monterey, Cal. H. W. KLIPSTEIN, JR. . .Maricopa, Cal. A. T. LIGHTNER Bakersfield, Cal. H. s. STEPHENSON...LOS Angeles, cai. ISAAC BAER Meeker, Colo. D. D. CASEMENT. Colorado Springs, Colo. A. E. de RICQLES Denver, Colo. H. GLAZBROOK Higbee, Colo. WILLIAM GREEN Trinidad, Colo. JOHN MacBAIN Trinidad, Colo. M. J. GRAY St. Anthony, Idaho A. SYKES Des Moines, Iowa HORACE ADAMS Plains, Kan. M. C. CAMPBELL Wichita, Kan. T. M. POTTER Peabody, Kan. W. J. TOD Maple Hill, Kan. ABRAM RENICK Winchester, Ky. E. C. HOUGHTON Corralitos, Mexico C. K. WARREN Three Oaks, Mich. W. D. JOHNSON Kansas City, Mo. R. J. KINZER Kansas City, Mo. L. F. WILSON Kansas City, Mo. J. M. BOARDMAN Helena, Mont. WALLIS HUIDEKOPER....Wallis, Mont. KENNETH McLEAN. . .Miles City, Mont. D. W. RAYMOND Helena, Mont. P. J. SHANNON Hamilton, Mont. B. L. BURKE Omaha, Neb. W. G. COMSTOCK. ...... Ellsworth, Neb. A. H. METZGER Merriman, Neb. A. R. MODISETTE Rushville, Neb. ROBERT TAYLOR Abbott, Neb. HARRY PETRIE Golconda, Nev. H. W. ADAMS Vermejo Park, N. M. GEORGE W. BAKER Folsom, N. M. W. E. CURETON Steeplerock, N. M. W. H. JACK Silver City, N. M. w. c. MCDONALD carrizozo, N. M. C. W. MERCHANT Roswell, N. M. G. H. WEBSTER, JR. . . .Cimarron, N. M. G. HOWARD DAVISON..Millbrook, N. Y. W. E. HALSELL Vinita, Okla. D. E. CLARK Portland, Ore. O. M. PLUMMER N.Portland, Ore. E. STEWART Dayville, Ore. BURTON C. MOSSMAN.Eagle Butte, S. D. P. H. O'NEIL Faulkton, S. D. F. M. STEWART Buffalo Gap, S. D. JULIAN M. BASSETT.-.Crosbyton, Tex. L. C. BRITE Marfa, Tex. S. B. BURNETT Fort Worth, Tex. JAMES C ALLAN Menardville, Tex. JOHN LANDERGIN Vega, Tex. KD. C. LASATER Falfurrias, Tex. J. H. NATIONS El Paso, Tex. J. H. PARRAMORE Abilene, Tex. AL POPHAM Amarillo, Tex. W. D. REYNOLDS Fort Worth, Tex. A. B. ROBERTSON Slaton, Tex. JAMES ANDRUS St. George, Utah J. M. CUNNINGHAM La Salle, Utah ROBERT D. CAREY Careyhurst, Wyo. W. C. IRVINE Cheyenne, Wyo. A. R. READER Dixon, Wyo. W. M. SPEAR Sheridan, Wyo. J. C. UNDERWOOD.... Underwood, Wyo. C. N. WALTERS Buffalo, Wyo. FRANK YODER Phillips, Wyo. OFFICE OF THE ASSOCIATION 909 SEVENTEENTH STREET DENVER. COLO. TO THE CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES BY RESOLUTION OF THIS ASSOCIATION, IT WAS ORDERED THAT THIS ADDRESS OF MR. POTTER'S BE TRANSMITTED TO CONGRESS, "WITH THE STATEMENT THAT THE INFORMATION CONTAINED THEREIN, RELATIVE TO GRAZING IN THE NATIONAL FORESTS, IS IN COMPLETE ACCORD WITH OUR KNOWLEDGE, AND THAT THE GENERAL ADMINISTRATION OF THE GRAZING IN THE NATIONAL FOR- ESTS AND THE PLANS FOR IMPROVEMENT THEREOF MEET WITH OUR ENDORSEMENT." IT IS BECAUSE OF THE SUBSTANTIAL BENEFITS TO THE ENTIRE COUNTRY, AS WELL AS TO THE STOCKMEN, FLOWING FROM THE FED- ERAL ADMINISTRATION OF THE NATIONAL FORESTS— SUCH AS ELIMI- NATION OF RANGE DISPUTES, CONSERVATION OF GRASSES, INCREASED CARRYING CAPACITY OF THE RANGE, AND THE GENERAL SATISFAC- TION OF THE GREAT MAJORITY CONCERNED— THAT THIS ASSOCIA- TION STRONGLY URGES SIMILAR CONTROL OF THE SEMI-ARID, UNAP- PROPRIATED, PUBLIC GRAZING LANDS, BY LEASE OR OTHERWISE, UN- DER THE JURISDICTION OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE OR THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, AS PROVIDED IN H. R. BILL NO. 19857, NOW PENDING BEFORE THE COMMITTEE ON PUBLIC LANDS IN THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. SUCH FEDERAL ADMINISTRATION OF THE SO-CALLED OPEN RANGE WOULD, WE CONFIDENTLY ASSERT, LARGELY INCREASE THE PRODUCTION OF LIVE STOCK IN THE WEST. WE INVITE ATTENTION TO THE FOLLOWING RESOLUTIONS, UNANI- MOUSLY ADOPTED BY THIS ASSOCIATION AT ITS ANNUAL MEETING AT PHOENIX, ARIZONA, JANUARY 15, 1913, WHERE EVERY IMPORTANT LIVE-STOCK ASSOCIATION OF THE WEST WAS REPRESENTED. WE ALSO INVITE CAREFUL CONSIDERATION TO THE EXTRACT FROM THE ANNUAL ADDRESS OF HENRY A. JASTRO, PRESIDENT OF THIS ASSOCI- ATION, ON THIS IMPORTANT SUBJECT. RESPECTFULLY SUBMITTED, EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE, AMERICAN NATIONAL LIVE STOCK ASSOCIATION. T. W. TOMLINSON, SECRETARY. RESOLUTIONS UNANIMOUSLY ADOPTED AT THE SIXTEENTH ANNUAL CONVENTION OP THE AMERICAN NATIONAL LIVE STOCK ASSOCIA- TION, AT PHOENIX, ARIZONA, JANUARY 14 AND 15, 1913. INDORSING THE ADMINISTRATION OF NATIONAL FORESTS. We believe that the administration of the national forests throughout the West is conducted along most efficient and just lines. Many matters of detail, which at first occasioned some discontent among stockmen, have been satisfac- torily adjusted, or are being remedied with consistent rapidity, and there is a very evident intention on the part of the officers of the service to manage the forests so as to obtain from them the greatest amount of reasonable use con- sistent with their preservation. The American National Live Stock Association, in convention assembled, at Phoenix, Arizona, January 14 and 15, 1913, therefore heartily indorses the administration of this service as being of distinct advan- tage to the stockmen of the West. We further believe that the live stock industry is best served through owner- ship and control of the national forests by the federal government, and we are opposed to any proposition which contemplates their transfer to the states. URGING FEDERAL CONTROL OF THE UNAPPROPRIATED AND UNRESERVED SEMI-ARID GRAZING LANDS. The American National Live Stock Association, in convention assembled, at Phoenix, Arizona, January 14 and 15, 1913, hereby declares that: We believe that the prosperity and development of the stock-raising industry on the public grazing lands of the arid and semi-arid West is seriously threatened by the present indiscriminate methods of grazing, and that thereby the perma- nent value of such lands is greatly impaired, and we strongly recommend the early passage by Congress of a bill providing for federal control of these unappro- priated public grazing lands and a just and reasonable method of leasing such lands. We favor a bill to operate either under the jurisdiction of the Department of the Interior or of Agriculture, and along the general lines definitely recommended by this organization at its annual convention in Denver in 1908, and approved at all its conventions since that date. This measure would be of great practical advantage to the stockmen and farmers of the West; would give full protection and encouragement to the actual settler and home-maker, and, through the distri- bution of the net revenues received in the construction of schools and good roads in the districts from which the funds are obtained, would be of great public benefit. We also vigorously urge Congress to provide without delay for the classification of the unappropriated unreserved public lands into grazing and agricultural districts. Co-operation in Range Management MR. A. F. POTTER: Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen — The administration of grazing in our national forests involves many differ- ent phases, and I am going to talk to you mainly this morning about ''Co-operation in Range Management." The success which the Forest Service has had in regulating the use of the range, and in bringing about more satisfactory conditions in the national forests, has been due very largely to the hearty co-operation it has received from the stockmen. One of the first steps taken after the transfer of the national forests to the Department of Agriculture was to request the associations representing the owners of the different kinds of live stock to appoint a committee to meet with members of the Forest Service for the purpose of discussing proposed changes in the grazing regulations. The invitation was accepted, and a conference was held at Denver, Colorado, in December, 1905. This brought out many good sugges- tions from the stockmen, and led to the adoption of a definite policy which was to govern the regulation of grazing in the national forests. The most important points were: (1) that priority in the use of the range would be recognized, and the grazing privileges in the beginning allowed those who were already using the range; (2) that any changes which were found necessary, either in the number of stock grazed or in the methods of handling it, would be made gradually, after due notice had been given; (3) that small owners would be given a prefer- ence in the allotment of permits, and be exempted from reduction; (4) that the checking of damage to, and the improvement of, the forest would be brought about so far as possible without total exclusion of the stock; (5) that the forage resources of the national forests would be used to the fullest extent consistent with good forest management; and (6) that the stockmen would be given a voice in the making of rules for the management of their stock upon the range. Recommendations were made to the Secretary of Agriculture, which resulted in the promulgation by him, on March 31, 1906, of a regulation providing for the recognition of advisory boards repre- senting associations whose members were users of the forests, such boards to be entitled to receive notice, and have an opportunity to be heard in reference to increase or decrease in the number of stock to be allowed for any year, the division of range between different kinds of stock, or the adoption of special rules to meet local conditions. Under this regulation, eighty-four advisory boards, representing the stockmen using the national forests, have been recognized, and are now co-operating with the Forest Service in an effort to bring about better conditions in the live-stock industry and the best possible use of the range. At this time it might be well to call attention to the extent of the forage resources in the national forests, in order that the importance of their use may be realized. Approximately 75 per cent of the national-forest land, or about 110,000,000 acres, is, or may be, used for the pasturage of live stock. The lands covered by the more open stands of timber, the exposed slopes of otherwise timbered hills or mountains, the narrow valleys along the streams, the areas above timber-line, and the cut-over or burned-over areas, all produce crops of forage, and are particularly desirable grazing grounds for cattle, horses, swine, sheep, and goats, during the seasons of the year when the various areas may safely be used. The money value of this forage crop is enormous. Each year the treasury of the United States is enriched to the extent of almost one million dollars, which is paid by stock-growers for the privilege of grazing their stock upon the national-forest lands. Each year the stock grazed under permit produces beef, mutton, wool, hides, and pelts to the value of more than thirty millions of dollars. Throughout the western states there are innumerable communities whose welfare and general prosperity are vitally dependent upon the systematic utilization of the forage products of the forest lands. The favorable effect which these low-priced and permanently productive ranges have upon the general question of meat supply and cost to the con- sumer is too pronounced to be doubted, and is of first importance to every consumer of meat products. During the grazing season of 1912 the national forests provided pasturage for approximately 14,000,000 head of stock. More than 100,000 head of milch and work stock were grazed free of charge and without permit by settlers within and near the national forests. Permits for which a fee was paid were issued, allowing the grazing of 1,403,025 cattle, 95,345 horses, 4,330 swine, 7,467,890 sheep, and 83,849 goats. The natural increase of this stock, for which no permit or fee was required, amounted to approximately 300,000 head of calves and colts, 5,000 swine, and 4,000,000 head of lambs and kids — nearly 14,000,000 in all. In addition, forage was provided for 89,877 head of cattle and horses, and 5,174,052 head of sheep and goats, while this stock was being driven over national-forest lands to unreserved public lands or to lands in private ownership. The stock which to a greater or less extent is dependent upon the national forests, and is affected by their administration, reaches a grand total of almost 20,000,000 head each year. The national forests have been established primarily for the protection and production of timber, and the protection of the drain- age basins constituting the principal sources of water supply. The utilization of the forage resources must necessarily be subordinated to the accomplishment of these principal and more vital purposes. Before the establishment of the national forests the lands included were parts of the unreserved public domain, and as such in many localities had been subjected for years to every form of overgrazing, misuse, and depletion attendant upon the unrestricted use of the public lands. One of the most complex problems connected with the administration of the national forests was that of devising a plan of management by which the forest cover and the watersheds could be adequately protected, and all of the lands be restored to a normal condition of forage productivity, without large permanent reductions in the number of stock grazed, or irreparable hardship upon the settlers and stock-growers who were dependent upon the forest ranges for the maintenance of their homes. With the assistance and co-operation of the stockmen, a system of range management has been built up under which a vegetative cover of valuable forage plants is rapidly extending over the denuded lands and displacing worthless weeds. The grazing capacity of the forests is increasing with each year. As shown by the Forester's annual report, there were increases of over 50,000 cattle, 3,800 horses, 96,000 sheep, and 6,000 goats last year on an area which was decreased 346,000 acres by eliminations. Damage to tree growth has diminished to a marked extent, and it is increasingly apparent that properly regulated grazing not only reduces the fire hazard by removing vast quantities of inflammable material, but, by the removal of competing vegetation and the exposure of the type of soil essential to the germi- nation of tree seeds, aids appreciably in the extension of the forest cover. This means that our efforts have been worth while, and shows what can be accomplished by earnest co-operative work. In bringing about this change, one of the first things which made themselves apparent was the need of fences to properly control the grazing of cattle and horses. One of the greatest drawbacks to the range-cattle business had been the loss from straying, and the large 8 amount of riding which must be done to prevent it. Fences were needed to keep the cattle upon their natural ranges and to enable the stockmen to handle them to advantage. Therefore, the Secretary of Agriculture issued regulations allowing the construction and main- tenance of drift and division fences upon the national forests. This gave the stockmen a lawful method of securing one of the privileges which were most needed for the success of their business. Where fences had already been built which did not give the stockmen owning them more than a fair share of the range, they were allowed to remain. Where new fences were needed the stockmen were permitted to construct them. Whenever these fences would materially assist in the administration of the forest, posts and poles were given free of charge, and in many cases also the wire and staples. In co-operation with the stockmen, the Forest Service has constructed over 650 miles of drift fences, and over 1,500 permits have been issued to stockmen for the maintenance of fences on the national forests. In addition to drift fences, the stockmen also needed small pastures for saddle horses, for' use in gathering stock for shipment, and for pure-bred stock. Strictly speaking, the construction of these pastures cannot be classed as co-operative work, as the government has made no actual contribution to the cost of the fences. Still, by classifying and surveying the land suitable for pasturage purposes, and by granting the exclusive use of such lands under permit, the government has made it possible for the stock-grower to protect him- self against many of the hazards of the industry, and to greatly lessen the costs of handling his stock. Almost 5,000 permits of this class have been issued, and the national-forest lands enclosed within pastures amount to over 500,000 acres. Where the ranges were overstocked to an extent which was causing damage, one of three things had to be done: Either the growth of forage on the lands under use had to be increased, new areas opened to grazing, or the number of stock reduced. Areas not in use were mostly ranges which were inaccessible on account of the absence of the trails or bridges needed for stock to reach them, or because of the lack of a water supply. The Forest Service immedi- ately took up the problem of opening these ranges and, as funds were available, began the construction of the necessary improvements. In this work, as in all other ways, the stockmen have given hearty co-operation and assistance. All told, a total of over 13,000 miles of trails have been constructed in the national forests. In addition to making many areas of virgin range accessible to stock, this has facili- tated the movement of stock in and out of the forest, to and from shipping points, and from feed to water, and has greatly reduced the difficulty of securing supplies. Since 1908 the Forest Service has developed over 800 sources of water supply, mainly by improving springs, building reservoirs, and opening trails to inaccessible waters. During the same period over 750 sources of water supply were developed under permit by stock- men. Of these, about 570 were for reservoirs or tanks, and 180 for the development of springs and sinking of wells. While the Forest Service exceeded the stock-growers in number of projects, it is prob- able that the amount expended by it was less than that spent by the stockmen. Bridges were not strictly a range improvement, but they contribute greatly to the use of the range, and you will be interested to know that over 380 bridges have been built by the Forest Service. One of the stockman's greatest enemies is the predatory wild animal. Hundreds of thousands of dollars' worth of live stock are destroyed each year by wolves, coyotes, and mountain lions. It has been the desire of the Forest Service to assist in every possible way in the extermination of these pests. The forest rangers and guards have been supplied with traps and ammunition, and in localities where it was known that the depredations were serious, practical hunters have been employed as guards, and have spent their entire time in hunting predatory animals. The result has been that during the past four years forest officers have actually killed and found the bodies of over 27,500 wolves, coyotes, lions, bears, lynxes, and wild cats. These figures do not include the animals shot or poisoned but not found, and therefore it is safe to say that over 30,000 predatory animals have been killed; and the reduction in stock losses effected by this means has gone far to compensate the stock-growers for the grazing fees they have paid. Requests have been made that the Forest Service extend its co-operation to the payment of bounties, but it has been unable to do so for the reason that there is no law which authorizes such action. Last August a bill was introduced in Congress by Senator Catron, of New Mexico, which provides an appropriation of f 200,000 to enable the Secretary of Agriculture to co-operate with any state containing national forests which shall provide by law for the destruction of predatory wild animals, in the organization and maintenance of a plan for the destruction of such animals upon the national forests, under the condition that the state shall expend a proportionately equal amount. On the day following the introduction of this measure in the Senate, Mr. Mondell, of Wyoming, introduced a similar bill in the 10 House of Representatives. These bills are now before the committees of the two branches of Congress, and without question will be given very careful consideration. While this would not obligate the Secre- tary of Agriculture to pay bounties, it would provide a means by which he could do so if it was deemed advisable. It is a well-recognized fact that many of the bounty laws have been unsatisfactory and in- effective, and I think we all agree that an effort should be made to bring about a better and more uniform system. Favorable action upon this proposed law would enable the Secretary of Agriculture to co-operate in working out the right kind of a plan and in putting it into effect. Since taking charge of the national forests, the Forest Service has been endeavoring to perfect methods of handling stock upon the range / which, while protecting the forests from injury, will appeal to the stockmen by their practicability. The essential requirements of an ideal administration are that the various ranges shall be used by the kinds of stock adapted to them, during the periods when the removal of the forage crop will not lessen the productivity of the range; that trailing, trampling, and the congregating of stock be minimized, and that the stock be evenly distributed over the entire range; and that the ranges be used in rotation, so that within every two or three years each portion shall have opportunity to reseed itself. With cattle and horses the problem has been largely one of permanent improvements, supplemented by new methods of distributing salt; with sheep it has necessitated the introduction of some innovations in herding, bedding, and trailing. The changes in method have not been arbitrarily imposed upon the stock-grower, but to a large extent have been developed by him out of the fruits of his own experience. In no instance has a change in method advocated by the Forest Service failed to justify itself by increased returns to the stock-grower. The drift fence, to hold cattle off the summer range in the spring and off the winter range in the fall; the newly developed waterhole, elim- inating the need for trailing several miles to water; the new salt ground, away from water and compelling use of previously wasted feed; the dividing fence between steers and stock cattle, all have repaid the stockmen by producing better beef, at a lower cost. With the sheepman the loose, open herding, without excessive use of dogs, and the bedding of the sheep where night overtakes them, rather than the return over barren trails to semi-permanent camps, have resulted in better ranges, better sheep, and larger profits. 11 It is an old saying that "money talks," and I am going to take the liberty of reading a few extracts from our forest supervisor's report for the season of 1912, showing the results of regulated grazing. From the Humboldt Forest in Nevada it is reported that, when the Independence District was put under management, and for several years prior thereto, four or five bands of sheep, aggregating not more than 10,000 head, and those not doing very well, was the extent of the grazing, and the cattle belonging to the settlers grazed on the low flats and in the fields. Now 20,500 sheep and 5,000 cattle find excellent grazing during the entire season. From the Beaver Head Forest in Montana it is reported that formerly the bands of sheep on this forest numbered 3,000 head up. Now they do not number over 1,600 ewes and lambs, or 2,100 dry sheep. This grazing in smaller bands has made a noticeable improve- ment both in the range and the condition of the lambs. From the Madison Forest in Montana the supervisor reports that the sheepmen are unanimous in their belief that "blanket herding" is increasing the feed on the ranges. Mr. T. F. Jenkins, of Twin Bridges, Montana, sold 260 spring lambs that averaged ninety-seven and one-half pounds. Twenty others averaged 112% pounds. These lambs came from the forest ranges. One buyer paid five cents flat for all lambs coming from the forest ranges, and four and one-half and four cents for those from outside the forest. The buyer said the forest lambs averaged from six to nine pounds more than the others. From the Beartooth Forest in Montana it is reported that this year's lambs are from eight to twelve pounds better than outside lambs. The supervisor of the Tahoe Forest in California reports that excellent results were obtained from the burro system of herding; but, while the owners are well satisfied, the herders do not like it, and only follow the methods under the direct eye of the owners. On the Modoc Forest in California it is reported that out of fifty- nine permittees all but seven are using the burro system in handling their herds. There has been a great improvement in the carrying capacity of the ranges, and also in the weight of the lambs. In one instance the owner informs us that he believes he gained ten pounds' weight on each of his lambs. From the San Isobel Forest in Colorado it is reported that the Tompkins Cattle Company sold 500 three-year-old steers, half natives and half southern, which averaged 1,000 pounds, at |60 per head flat. Sixty graded shorthorn, two-year-old steers from the Rio 12 Grande Forest in Colorado averaged 1,300 pounds, and brought their owner $71.50 per head net. The Wood Live Stock Company sold 400 dry cows from the Targhee Forest in Idaho, which netted f 48.70 per head. From the Jefferson Forest in Montana it is reported that Mr. D. N. Hart, of Two Dot, Montana, sold a bunch of steers which averaged 1,400 pounds on the Chicago market, and brought $9.50 per hundred, or $133 per head. This caps the climax, and shows whether it pays to regulate the use of the range. In conclusion, I wish to say that it is our aim to continue a con- structive policy in the management of grazing upon the national forests, and to use every effort to bring about a better and more complete use of the forage resources. Many beneficial changes have been made through the assistance which you have given us during the past, and with a continuance of your co-operation I am sure that we shall be able to make further improvement and to better meet the needs of the live-stock industry. (Applause.) EXTRACT FROM ANNUAL ADDRESS OP H. A. JASTRO, PRESIDENT, AT THE SIXTEENTH ANNUAL CONVENTION OF THE AMERICAN NATIONAL LIVE STOCK ASSOCIATION, AT PHOENIX, ARIZONA, JANUARY 14 AND 15, 1913. The establishment of the national forests, and the grazing thereon under federal supervision, have met with general approval in this state as elsewhere, and I do not believe that the permanently established stockmen of Arizona, using these reserves, would be willing to return to the old system. Some similar administration of the open ranges of Arizona would, I am confident, meet with equal favor, and would add prosperity to the live-stock industry. Not only would it mean stability to the range business, but it would be an incentive to the users of the range to rest and reseed the ranges, which method would in time result in an increased production of live stock. This has been demon- strated beyond any contradiction by the very thorough experiments conducted at the Experiment Station in Tucson regarding the regeneration of the range grasses. Under a lease law, the country now used for nomadic grazing would be converted into a prosperous breeding country instead of a half-waste. I will not dwell longer on the merits and necessities of the lease law as applied to the semi-arid open range, for this is one of the leading questions for discussion at this meeting, and you will hear some very interesting talks regarding it. I wish, however, to comment on the economic side of the lease-law proposition. The United States has today less live stock per capita than ever in its history. Various reasons have been advanced for its shortage. Indeed, there are many causes which, in a greater or less degree, have contributed to bring it about. But of all the influences which have tended to lessen the production of live stock in the West, I believe the most potent is the very unsatisfactory range conditions arising out of indiscriminate grazing, and the scramble to secure what is left of the already depleted ranges. There is no business in the country so fraught with harassing and annoying difficulties as the handling of cattle under a free-range regime. Therefore, stockmen quickly embraced the opportunity to quit the business as soon as prices for stock warranted them in doing so. In my judgment, this is the chief cause why the free-range states of the West have so few cattle today. Congress is now trying, through the removal of the import duty, to cheapen the cost of live stock and meat in this country. This may give some temporary relief — and of that I am quite doubtful; but I am certain it will not cure the evil. The trouble is deeper-seated than the tariff, and is chargeable to the in- difference of Congress to the needs of the West, and to its failure to pass ade-v" quate laws protecting and conserving western ranges. This is not a new question. It has been agitated for many years. As early as 1900, at the annual convention of this Association in Fort Worth, Texas, a resolution was adopted urging Congress to classify and lease the semi- arid public grazing lands of the West. In 1903, at the annual meeting in Kansas City, this Association memoralized Congress to appoint a special Land Commission to investigate western land conditions. Pursuant to that memorial, the President of the United States appointed a Land Commission, which met in Denver, with 105 representative stockmen of the West, in a three days' con- 14 ference, in August, 1904, at which meeting I was present. That conference favored a classification of the public lands, and government control, by lease or otherwise, of the public grazing lands through the Department of Agriculture, Said commission rendered an exhaustive report along these lines, but no action was taken by Congress. In January, 1908, our Association formulated a specific bill for the leasing of the semi-arid, unappropriated, public grazing lands, fully protecting all the rights of the homesteader. That bill, with some slight modifications, has been introduced in both branches of Congress every session since 1908. None of the bills were ever reported out of the committees to which they were referred. In fact, there have been various bills designed to solve this land question introduced at every session of Congress for the past fifteen years. Last sum- mer lengthy hearings were held in May and July, before the Committee on Public Lands of the House of Representatives, on H. R. Bill No. 19857, known as the Lever Bill, and endorsed by this Association. Despite our efforts to have this bill reported favorably, it still lies dormant in that committee, as other bills have in previous sessions. In the past decade there have been land conventions which have considered and resoluted on this question; governors of the western states have conferred about it; and while many different rem- edies were proposed, no definite action has been taken, although there seems to be no division of sentiment on j;he point that some legislation must be had for the live-stock industry to derive the full benefit of the open range. The great difficulty in securing this much-needed legislation lies in the fact that the West is divided on the question. The majority of the stockmen of the West favor a law similar to that formulated by this Association, and those stockmen who oppose it are mostly nomadic stockmen who profit by pres- ent existing conditions. Then there is the opposition of those who think all the government land should be turned over to the state in which it is located. As the states have always followed the plan of leasing state lands, they would probably do the same with any open-range land turned over to them by the government, the only difference being that the state would lease the land instead of the federal government. Those who have had experience with both incline to the belief that the federal government would more equitably handle the land than the different states. However, the claim of those who want the land turned over to the states need not be seriously considered, because there is no likelihood of eastern legislators agreeing to such a disposition. Some others insist that a lease law would impede settlement of the West, and interfere with the rights of homesteaders. On the contrary, the history of the operation of lease laws all over the world proves that they promote the settlement and development of the country. That was true in Texas, and it will be true of other states. In view of this varied opposition on the part of some of the people of the West, it is not strange that western congressmen and senators should also entertain divergent views; for, as a rule, congressmen try to please their con- stituents and to offend none of them; so that explains their inactivity on this question. The land problem is strictly a western one, and representatives in Congress from all other sections claiming to have no direct interest in this matter have always preferred that any measures concerning range legislation should ema- 15 nate from our western representatives. And, for the reason I have mentioned — that our western senators and congressman will not unite on any plan that will suit the majority of them — Congress has been dilatory in acting upon this proposed legislation. However, since the eastern representatives to Congress have become more familiar with the situation, and this question has now be- come nation-wide, I believe that at this time we should urge all representa- tives in Congress and all senators to take up this matter in earnest, and enact some laws that will result in the greatest good to the greatest number. There will always be some opposition; that is true of every bill that passes Congress. Unanimity of opinion on this or any other subject is almost unattainable. It being evident that the shortage of live stock in the West is in a great degree traceable to the present range conditions, I hope our Congress will awaken to a just conception of a situation which we have sought for many years to make plain. The legislation we ask for concerns the East as much as the West; the consumer as well as the producer. It has been pigeonholed in committee-rooms long enough. I hope this convention will pass some strong resolutions on this important question, and that you will follow them up by again sending a strong representative committee to Washington to urge the passage of this much-needed legislation. ^ OF FOR I COLLEGE OF £ AGfilCULTL'ffr UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI COLLEGE OF* AG^flLf URE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE A. J. Meyer, Director CIRCULAR 33 COLUMBIA, MISSOURI AUGUST, 1917 Community Livestock Breeding S. T. Simpson Organized community breeding in Missouri is comparatively new. It has been practiced a long time in many communities in an unor- ganized state, because that is the natural trend of the livestock busi- ness. Most successful community breeding involves organized and specialized production. Because some persons have felt that they would be forced to adopt breeds and breed standards which they would not choose, the practicability of community breeding has been hampered in many places where it might otherwise thrive. Individuals who can lay aside personal preferences sufficiently to conform to the community ideals are not only laying the cornerstone for personal success, but are anchoring the community to one of the most progressive steps, co-operation, in livestock production Co-operation Necessary. — No individual or group of individuals should hope to attain success in a day, working alone, or co-opera- tively, but by working co-operatively the possibility of building an early reputation and founding a profitable and permanent breeding industry is greatly increased. The stimulus of community breeding is felt far beyond the actual limits of the organization. The greater the success and progress of such operations the more rapidly the spirit of co-operation and community building will be spread. The results of producing better livestock of a given breed or class, if kept before the public, will cause new breeders to join the ranks who CD 2 UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE will profit by the successes and mistakes of their fellow producers. Thus may community breeding form the basis for demonstrations in breeding, especially in livestock improvement. The growth of the Harmony Shorthorn Breeding Circle in Northwest Missouri, which started with twelve members and in a little more than a year grew to fifty, shows how the spirit of community livestock improve- ment may develop. All members of this organization use Shorthorn bulls and own, or plan to own, one or more registered cows. Helps the Small Breeder. — Certain improvement, uniformly good individuals, and constructive breeding are the results of mating fe- males with superior sires. Small breeders and those just beginning in the breeding business frequently find the best sires apparently too expensive. As a result such breeders must either be satisfied writh mediocre sires, pay a heavy service fee for a good one, or co-operate in the purchase of a sire. Unfortunately, too many choose the eas- iest and ultimately, the most disastrous route — the cheap, inferior sire. In most instances a few sacrifices in personal fancies, regard- ing type and character and in convenience in breeding, will afford the use of a good sire. Organized community breeding offers oppor- tunities for the small breeder to improve his herd and flock by the use of the best sires, owned co-operatively. The disadvantages, such as possible transmission of disease, can be controlled. Exchange of Sires. — Community breeding offers further oppor- tunity thru the exchange of sires. While using mature sires fre- quently does not appeal to some persons, it should be remembered that their real value seldom becomes known until their get have developed. This means that many sires are disposed of before their value is known. Constructive breeding and permanent improvement are the results of keeping the best healthy, tried sires of good dis- position and exchanging them within the communities. Aside from the economic consideration this is another step in constructive breed- ing. The secretary of the local breeders' organization should have a record of every sire and his performance and make this available to each member. Affords Co-operative Marketing. — Perhaps the most outstanding advantage of community breeding is the opportunity for disposing of surplus stock. In offering livestock for sale other things being equal, the individual or community which offers large numbers to select from usually is visited first. For this reason organized community COMMUNITY LIVESTOCK BREEDING breeding may attract buyers where the same number of individuals working independently in the same community would not be visited. Advertising Helps. — Successful community marketing is made possible only by the production of high class animals, advertising, fair treatment of customers, and unselfish effort. Effective publicity may be had by co-operative advertisments in general farm and breed papers and in descriptive pamphlets. Where Plan Has Succeeded. — The agricultural representative of a southern railroad, who visits Missouri several times each year to purchase livestock, said that he always went to Carroll County,, for Aberdeen Angus cattle, because there he found the breeders, the cat- tle, a livestock organization which could place the cattle with no' trouble or expense to him and which stood back of their sales. This particular county has done no more than other counties can do if livestock men will make the effort. Several Missouri counties have thoroly demonstrated the effi- ciency of organized effort. In one day, Johnson County, Missouri, Shorthorn breeders sold fifty-three head .of bulls, cows and' heifers, for more than $7,000. This number came from eight different herds. The number contributed from each herd ranged from one to eighteen head, which shows how the breeder with only one had equal oppor- tunity with larger breeders. Another instance of the same sort oc- curred when the St. Francois County Hereford Breeders' Association sold eighty-three bulls in one group to a single buyer. Missouri has a reputation for mule production, but apparently this industry is cen- tralized in a few counties. The "Kingdom of Callaway" (Callaway County), among other counties, has become noted as a mule produc- ing and feeding center. Buyers visit such places because they have the numbers and different types from which to select. These are only a few instances in which community effort has brought reputa- tion and wrealth to the respective communities. Opportunity exists for still further effort. How to Begin. — Persons interested in any one breed of livestock should meet and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of com- munity breeding and how it is best conducted. After selecting the breed or class of livestock which they desire to produce they should institute a local campaign to interest at least ten others whom they know to be capable of handling such livestock. At thi» time it is well to elect temporary officers and adopt a constitution and bylaws, and 4 UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE then to perfect the organization by electing executive officers and a board of directors. Members may meet at regular intervals for a discussion of business affairs, and to become better informed upon subjects pertaining to the production of the class or breed of livestock they have chosen. Farm Clubs Can do It. — An excellent opportunity for commun- ity breeding is offered by the farmers' clubs. Much valuable infor- mation and experience may be had by exchange of ideas in club meet- ings. It should be a part of every farmers' club's business to make a survey of the community and determine the breeds and classes of livestock being produced and preferred by men contemplating breed- ing. Such information is invaluable in organizing for community breeding. Much enthusiasm and stimulus can be gained by fre- quent discussions of breeding topics in club meetings. New Ideals. — Members of breeding organizations frequently plan inspection trips to fairs and breeding farms where some of the best specimens of the breed may be examined. Such trips enable members to recognize correct types and gain new ideas which enable them to be more critical in the selection and mating of breeding ani- mals. Too much emphasis cannot be placed upon beginning with modern types, good blood, and correct ideals. Community breeding organizations may make further use of the organization in shipping livestock, conducting educational cam- paigns for more and better livestock and promoting livestock exhi- bitions which are educational and instructive and which afford a profitable means of advertising. This discussion of community breeding is intended to emphasize the importance of concerted effort in the production of the more specialized and improved types of livestock, such as the markets and breeders are demanding, and the opportunities which exist for those who will organize and co-operate in this particular field. It is not supposed that breeders of established reputations will dispose of their holdings and adopt other breeds just to conform to the community idea. Building a breeding business requires a great expenditure of energy and effort and changes in breeds are seldom satisfactorily made. Constitution and bylaws for community breeding may be had by addressing thg College of Agriculture, Agricultural Extension Serv- ice, Columbia, Missouri. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 573 Joint Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief, and the Bureau of Animal Industry A. D. MELVIN, Chief Washington, D. C. August 4, 1917 THE SHEEP INDUSTRY ON THE MINIDOKA RECLA- MATION PROJECT.1 By E. F. RINEHART, Agriculturist, Demonstrations on Reclamation Projects, Bureau of Plant Industry. CONTENTS. Page. Importance of sheep production on Govern- ment reclamation projects Agricultural conditions on the Minidoka project History and present status of the sheep indus- try on the Minidoka project Relationship of farm sheep production to the range sheep industry Sheep population of the Minidoka project Agricultural diversity of farms producing sheep Methods of sheep management Relationship of sheep production to other industries on the farm Foundation stock Breeding practices Page. Methods of sheep management— Continued. Lambing 12 Docking and castrating 13 Weaning 14 Feeds and feeding 15 Buildings and equipment 18 Diseases, pests, and minor ailments 20 Shearing 23 Marketing 24 Future development of the industry 25 Conservative practices 26 Relationship of sheep production to other industries 26 C ommunity cooperation 27 Stabilizing the industry 27 IMPORTANCE OF SHEEP PRODUCTION ON GOVERNMENT RECLAMATION PROJECTS. Two of the leading factors influencing the development of agri- culture on the Government reclamation projects are the isolated location of these irrigated regions and the local conditions neces- sitating or favoring the production of forage and grain crops, which ordinarily will not bear the cost of transportation to the large con- suming centers. It follows that the development of these irrigated lands requires the establishment of live-stock industries, in which 1 This bulletin has been prepared under the direction of Mr. F. D. Farrell, Agriculturist in Charge of the Office of Demonstrations on Reclamation Projects of the Bureau of Plant Industry, as a part of the work of that office in the development of agricultural industries on the Government reclamation projects. That part of this work which relates to live-stock production is conducted in cooperation with the Bureau of Animal Industry. The suggestions made in this bulletin, while based primarily on the results of observa- tions on the Minidoka Reclamation Project, are applicable to several other irrigation projects in the north- western United States having similar climatic and agricultural conditions. 104987°— Bull. 573—17 1 2 BULLETIN 573, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the chief crops produced can be utilized locally and the products marketed at a profit. The failure in recent years of live-stock production in the United States to keep pace with the rapidly increas- ing demand for live-stock products has resulted in high prices for these commodities, and this has intensified the irrigation farmer's interest in animal industries. The national deficiency of live-stock products has been more acute with respect to sheep than any other class of farm animals. The strong demand for wool and mutton, together with a decreas- ing national supply, has resulted in extremely high prices during recent years. These facts have directed the attention of an increas- ing number of irrigation farmers to the possibilities of sheep produc- tion on irrigated lands. The interest in sheep production has been particularly noticeable on the Minidoka Reclamation Project. Since the writer was sta- tioned on the project in October, 1914, there has been a rapidly in- creasing demand for information regarding methods of sheep pro- duction, and the local sheep industry has experienced steady develop- ment. During the past two years, special attention has been paid to sheep production, and information has been secured bearing on the problems with which irrigation farmers are confronted in the development of the industry. This bulletin has been prepared with special reference to the Minidoka project, but it should also be of value to farmers interested in sheep production on other reclamation projects where the condi- tions are similar. In order to give a general understanding of the conditions under which sheep are produced on the Minidoka project, the more important climatic and agricultural features of the district are briefly described. . AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS ON THE MINIDOKA PROJECT. The Minidoka Reclamation Project is situated in the Snake River Valley of Idaho, 70 miles west of the town of Pocatello. The project contains approximately 120,000 acres, somewhat more than half of which lies on the north side of the river under the gravity irrigation system, the remainder lying on the south side being irrigated by pumping. Surrounding the project on all sides are wide sagebrush plains, large areas of which are now being settled and reclaimed by dry farmers. On the north lies an area approximately 90 miles wide including sagebrush plains, a small irrigated valley, and a moun- tainous range area, beyond which the Sawtooth National Forest is located. To the south there is an area of public land which is being taken up by dry farmers, and beyond this is a mountainous range area, including the Minidoka National Forest. Cattle and sheep are grazed in the mountainous ranges during the summer. On the THK SHEEP INDUSTRY ON THE MINIDOKA PROJECT. 3 sagebrush plains the grass is good from April to June, and again after the fall rains, usually from October to December. The average elevation of the irrigable area of the project is 4,225 feet. The annual precipitation averages 14 inches, most of which occurs during the winter months. The annual range of temperature is from — 20° to 100° F. The irrigation season extends from April 1 to October 31. The principal soils are a heavy clay loam, a sandy loam, and a sand, approximately 11 per cent of the project being made up of sandy soils. The farm unit in most instances is 80 acres. A few farms are smaller than this and a few somewhat larger. As is generally true in the reclamation of arid lands by irrigation, alfalfa is one of the principal crops produced on the Minidoka project. This crop is important both because its growth increases the produc- tivity of the soil and because of its value in live-stock production. Other important crops grown on the project are grains, sugar beets, and potatoes. In 1916 crops were harvested from approximately 80,000 acres on 1,849 farms. Alfalfa hay was produced on 37,300 acres and clover hay on 880 acres, the areas devoted to these two crops being about 47 per cent of the total cropped area of the project. About 20,000 acres, or 25 per cent of the cropped area, were devoted to grain crops, chiefly wheat, oats, and barley. These hay and grain crops in ordinary times can be utilized most advantageously when fed to live stock. The 8,666 acres of pasture on the project in 1916, together with the acreage in alfalfa and grains, amounted to more than 80 per cent of the total cropped acreage. Thus, the importance of estabh'shing live-stock industries on the project is evident. Not only have the direct results of live-stock farming proved profitable, but the benefits in the way of soil improvement have been marked. Almost without exception the farms that pro- duced maximum crop returns in 1916 are those where live stock is kept and fed. There are inch' vidual instances of crop-yield increases as great as 60 per cent resulting from a single application of manure to the land. Because of these facts the interest in all kinds of live stock is great, and the live-stock population has increased rapidly during recent years. Table I, which has been compiled from data furnished by the United States Reclamation Service, shows the number of live stock on the project at the beginning and at the close of the year 1916. Owing to the unusually high prices of grain it was found profit- able to sell spring pigs during the summer of 1916 as stock hogs and serum hogs. For this reason, the swine population decreased materi- ally during the year, and a large proportion of the hogs on the farms in December were breeding stock. 4 BULLETIN 573, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE I. — Live stock on farms on the ^finidoka Reclamation Project in 1916. Item. Jan. 1. Dec. 31. Increase. Horses 6. 557 7,174 Per cent. 9 5 Dairy cattle .... 6,902 7,314 6.0 Beef cattle 1.220 2,304 89.0 Hogs 42,933 23,610 -46.2 Sheep 16, 748 21,029 24.0 All kinds of live stock are proving profitable on the project, and sheep are becoming particularly popular. The high altitude and the dry climate are well adapted to the production of sheep, which in this section have been remarkably free from internal parasites and diseases. Sheep have been found useful in checking the growth of weeds on ditch banks and in fence rows, and they are also relatively easy to care for, especially during the irrigation season when the farmers are busy with other work. HISTORY AND PRESENT STATUS OF THE SHEEP INDUSTRY ON THE MINIDOKA PROJECT. RELATIONSHIP OF FARM SHEEP PRODUCTION TO THE RANGE SHEEP INDUSTRY. In the early years of the development of the Minidoka project sheep were kept on very few farms. As the project produced large quantities of alfalfa hay and was situated in the midst of extensive grazing areas, it soon became the winter feeding ground of large numbers of range stock, chiefly sheep. The number of sheep win- tered on the project during recent years has varied from 60,000 to 195,000. Permanent headquarters for range sheepmen have been established on a number of farms, where lambing sheds have been built and large quantities of hay fed. The range sheep are used extensively in cleaning up hay and grain fields after harvest, as shown in figure 1. For a long time there was a belief that irrigation farmers could not compete with the men on the ranges in the production of either wool or mutton. The fallacy of this belief, however, has long been shown by successful farm sheep producers. Because of the hazards of the range sheep business and of the difficulties resulting from settlement by dry farmers of areas formerly used as grazing lands, the rangemen in many sections are coming to favor sheep produc- tion on farms. As the difficulties of range sheep production increase and with increasing demands for wool and mutton, the possibilities for producing sheep on irrigated farms should become increasingly attractive. Under certain conditions, particularly where irrigated pastures have not been successfully developed, the ewes from several differ- ent farms are sometimes combined into a cooperative band and sent THE SHEEP INDUSTRY ON THE MlNIDOKA PROJECT. FIG. l.— A band of sheep grazing on the aftermath in hay and grain fields on the Minidoka Reclamation Project. Range sheep are used extensively for this purpose and also to consume surplus alfalfa hay produced on the irrigated lands adjacent to the range country. to the range under the care of a competent herder. Where a good summer range is available this is a desirable arrangement, especially when individual flocks include more than 100 head. It is believed, however, that this practice, while important to a comparatively small number of farmers, is not likely to be generally adopted. One important deterrent to extensive development in this direction is the lack of available range. There are two features in which the range sheep industry has a definite relationship to the production of sheep on irrigated farms. These features relate to the farm production of pure-bred rams for use on the range and the use by small farmers of orphan and disowned lambs from range herds. Both of these features will be discussed more fully later. SHEEP POPULATION OF THE MINIDOKA PROJECT. The number of sheep kept on farms on the Minidoka project increased from 3,599 in 1911 to 21,029 in 1916. The highest number in any year previous to 1916 was 19,965, in 1913. During that year the prices of sheep advanced materially, and a large number of farmers on the project sold out, believing that they could restock their farms later at low prices. Since that time, however, the prices have continued to advance, and the sheep population of the pro- ject has increased but slowly. In 1916 the 21,029 sheep on the pro- ject were kept on 289 farms, the average number per farm being 72. If from the total number the few relatively large bands which are kept on the range a part of the time were eh'minated, the aver- age number per farm would be about 50. The farms where sheep are kept are fairly evenly distributed throughout the project, although there is a tendency for them to be grouped in the vicinity of lambing 6 BULLETIN 573, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. camps. This grouping is to be explained largely by the fact that the settlers have been quick to adopt the practices which have been found successful by their immediate neighbors, who in these instances are the men who have been in the sheep business longest and hence have established rather elaborate sheep-producing enterprises. Of the 289 farms where sheep were kept in 1916, 133 carried fewer than 10 sheep each; 46 carried from 10 to 20 sheep; 49, from 20 to 50; 23, from 50 to 100; 28, from. 100 to 200; and 10 carried more than 200 each. The flocks containing fewer than 10 head are chiefly those where a start is being made in the sheep industry. AGRICULTURAL DIVERSITY OF FARMS PRODUCING SHEEP. As a rule, the farms where sheep are kept are well improved and have a wide diversity of crops and live stock. Of the 289 farms keeping sheep in 1916, 263 also carried dairy, cattle, the average number of dairy stock on these farms being eight head. A total of 253 of the farms carrying sheep also carried hogs, the average num- ber of hogs being 27 head. Of the 289 farms carrying sheep, 61 carried an average of 11 head of beef cattle. A total of 270 of the sheep-producing farms produced alfalfa, 179 produced grain, 88 produced either beets or mangels, and 219 had irrigated pastures. The average areas per farm in these crops were 10 acres of pasture, 27 acres of alfalfa, 17 acres of grain, and 9 acres of root crops. As the country is new, there are few definite or well-established systems to follow, as is the case in older communities. There is every reason to believe, however, that a diversity of industries on the farm on these irrigation projects is greatly to be desired, and it appears that the farmers producing sheep on the Minidoka project are gradually approaching a system of desirable diversity. METHODS OF SHEEP MANAGEMENT. RELATIONSHIP OF SHEEP PRODUCTION TO OTHER INDUSTRIES ON THE FARM. The methods whereby sheep are produced on the Minidoka project fall into two classes — those practiced on the majority of sheep farms where the flocks are small and those practiced on a few farms which are either specialized sheep farms or where the major portion of the agricultural activity is directed toward the production of feed for range sheep during the winter. It is to be expected that most of the sheep growers on the project will continue to raise sheep in con- nection with other agricultural industries rather than as a specialty. Except in special cases, it is doubtful whether sheep should be made the major industry of a farm. On the average farm, a flock of from 20 to 50 ewes can be kept with advantage to the farm and with a profit to the owner. For those who wish to make more of a specialty of sheep production, a flock of from 60 to 100 head is a popular and THE SHEEP IXDUSTEY ON. THE MINIDOKA PROJECT. 7 desirable size. Such a flock requires special pastures, winter feed yards, and a lambing shed. It is questionable whether in the long average of years it will be desirable to use an entire farm for sheep production, as has been the tendency in a few cases. A flock of 100 ewes will require on the average the entire production of 20 acres of land. A flock of 350 or 400 ewes would require the entire production of an improved 80-acre farm. With one of these large flocks there would be no inexpensive waste feeds and no by-products of other agricultural industries, which are so profitably utilized by sheep on farms where sheep production is not the exclusive industry. The importance of sheep in the utilization of waste materials should receive special emphasis. It is largely through such utilization that the economical production of sheep on irrigated farms is possible. It is important, therefore, that farmers who contemplate engaging iii sheep production on these irrigated lands should carefully consider the relationship of sheep to other industries of the farm and should pay special attention to the utilization of waste materials. Of the 289 farms on the project carrying sheep in 1916, only 38 carried more than 100 head each. This indicates the general tendency to keep sheep in relatively small bands, and such a tendency is to be encour- aged. FOUNDATION STOCK. Getting started. — There are various methods whereby a farmer can secure a start in the sheep industry on the Minidoka project. Experience here and elsewhere has led to the conclusion that for the inexperienced man the foundation stock should be grades. The successful production of pure-bred stock requires expert knowledge both in the selection of stock and in its management. It is also important to consider that the cost of starting with pure-bred ewes is much greater than that of starting with grade ewes. So far it has been possible for farmers on the project to secure a start in the sheep business by obtaining orphans and disowned lambs from range sheep camps on the project. These lambs usually may be had for the asking. There are numerous instances in which such lambs have been taken from the camps, fed cows' milk, carefully handled during the first few weeks of their lives, and thus become the origin of successful farm flocks. Good results are secured by feeding cows' milk from a bottle with a small rubber nipple attached. Lambs when obtaining their feed by natural methods receive their milk in small quantities at frequent intervals. This should be kept in mind in the early feeding of lambs secured from range bands. The milk should be clean and of uniform temperature, as determined by a thermometer. Farmers who are successful in raising lambs on bottles feed two or three tablespoonf uls of milk every two hours for the first few days and then 8 BULLETIN 573, IT. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. gradually increase the quantities of milk and the intervals between feedings. Where a number of lambs are fed from a few bottles, it is convenient to have the vessel holding the milk heated and carried in a receptacle containing hot water, which keeps the milk at the proper temperature, so that it is not too cold when the last few lambs are fed. For a large number of lambs a barrel or tank equipped with a number of rubber nipples at the base is very convenient. Carelessness in any detail of feeding is likely to result in scours. The lambs should not be given too much. The temperature of the milk should be about 92° F. The bottles and nipples should be kept scrupulously clean. Scours are best overcome by boiling the milk for a few feeds after the trouble appears. Other common remedies successfully employed are the feeding of a small quantity of charred flour or a teaspoonful of lime water in the milk. For severe cases, a tablespoonful of castor oil is given. Boiled milk should not be fed continuously, as it causes constipation. Breeds. — Because of the intimate relationship which has existed between the farm sheep industry on the project and sheep production on the adjacent ranges, the, breeds grown on the project are those of the surrounding range. In this section the popular range ewes are grades of the C type Merino and the Rambouillet or the crossbreeds of a long-wool buck (Lincoln or Cotswold) and fine-wool ewes. Some range bands contain three-fourths or more of the long-wool blood. As a rule, however, the range ewe that is most popular is the one carrying from one-half to three-fourths of fine-wool blood and the remainder long-wool blood. While there are some differences of opinion among the rangemen, the method followed by most of them is to use Rambouillet and long-wool bucks to keep the desired pro- portion of fine-wool and long-wool blood in the range band. The ewe lambs from these matings are kept to replenish the flocks, while the males are marketed as wether lambs. For the ewes which are to produce mutton lambs, black-faced bucks are used, and the entire lamb crop, both male and female, is marketed, usually early in the season. The difficulties of range sheep production have been so acute in recent years that only the more efficient of the range sheepmen have remained in the business. These men are usually progressive and quick to grasp opportunities for increasing their profits. One result of this is that the bucks now used are practically all pure-bred animals of the best quality obtainable. This has resulted in a strong demand for pure-bred bucks from the Minidoka project and has presented good opportunities to sheep growers on the project. The production of registered sheep was started on the project by the establishment of a flock of pure-bred Hampshires in 1911. At that time sheepmen were beginning to realize the value of this large THE SHEEP INDUSTRY OX THE MINIDOKA PROJECT. 9 black-faced breed as a first cross on the range ewes for the production of choice early-maturing mutton lambs. The Hampshire flock started at this time was selected and owned by an experienced sheepman, who was an expert judge of sheep; consequently, the flock ranked high as to both type and breeding. As most of the Hamp- shire flocks at present on the project have descended from this foundation stock, the Hampshires as a whole, both grade and pure bred, are of uniformly good quality. In 1912 several farm flocks of pure-bred and high-grade Lincolns and Cotswolds were established for the purpose of raising rams to sell to the range sheepmen. The farmers who started properly and gave their flocks good care and attention and have become well informed regarding sheep hus- bandry have been very successful. Their example is being followed by other enterprising farmers. So far, the Rambouillet breed has not been popular among the farmers. The irrigation farmer quite properly has had in view mutton production as a first consideration. Consequently, mutton breeds — Lincolns, Cotswolds. Hampshires, and Shropshires — are the most popular at present. There is an excellent opportunity, however, for the establishment of pure-bred Rambouillet flocks, chiefly for the production of rams for use in range bands. The 21,029 sheep on the project at the close of 1916 are classified in Table II, which shows the number of both grades and pure breds of each of the breeds represented on the project. TABLE II. — Breeds of sheep on the Minidoka Reclamation Project in 1916. Breed. Number of— Total. ££. «— • Unclass- ified. Hampshire 246 0 209 300 40 0 820 106 344 3,353 444 250 1,066 106 553 3,653 484 250 14,917 Shropshire Cotswold Lincoln Rambouillet Delaine Merino Mixed breed^ 14,917 Total 795 5,317 14,917 21,029 Of the crossbred or range type of sheep kept, there are some flocks that are being graded up. Others are bred so as to maintain the cross- bred type, as it is popularly supposed that the ewes of this mixture are hardier and are better mothers than those of straight breeding. Other arguments advanced in favor of crossbreds are that the ewes of this type will yield more wool than the Down breeds and that if a good buck is used good mutton lambs will be produced. There is some justification for these arguments, but it is also true that these flocks can never attain the high standard of individual excellence 104987°— Bull. 573—17—2 10 BULLETIN 573, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. that is being reached by grading up through the use of well-selected, pure-bred rams of a chosen breed. With the exception of the case of a few men whose sheep production is carried on on the range as well as on the farms, it is believed that the continuous production of crossbreds is inadvisable. Selection of ewes .—Summer or early fall is the best time for selecting a flock. At this time the breeders are cutting down their flocks for the winter. From many of the range bands good ewes can be purchased at reasonable prices. In selecting, it is important that the desirable type be borne in mind. Essential points indicating good breeding are a feminine head; deep body with good spring of ribs; a wide, level back, carrying out well on the rump; a good fleece, covering the body uniformly; sound teeth; and good udders. Common mistakes made in bands otherwise well selected are the failure to determine the age by looking at the teeth and the over- looking of barren ewes. The age is easily determined by examining the front teeth. Lambs, up to the time of the first shearing, are easily distinguished, usually by general appearance; otherwise by their milk teeth. About the time of the first shearing, the middle pair of milk teeth are replaced by permanent teeth, which are prac- tically twice as broad as the milk teeth. Sheep with four permanent teeth are designated as 2-year-olds, those with six teeth as 3-year-olds, and a full set of eight permanent teeth appears when the sheep is 4 years old. At varying ages, depending on the breed, care, and individu- ality of the mature sheep, the teeth become spread, and the sheep is called a ''spread-mouth;" or a part of the teeth may be lost, and the sheep is called a "broken-mouth;" or all the teeth may be gone, in which case the sheep is called a "gummer." Careful attention should be paid to these points when ewes are being selected. Selection of the ram. — Although most of the farm flocks on the project are grades, the general custom is to breed to a registered ram. Examples of improvement and increased value brought about in range bands by the use of good pure-bred rams are so numerous and so obvious that practically all the farmers breed their ewes to pure-bred males. Generally speaking, grade rams are used only when it is impossible to secure a satisfactory pure bred. The good results of using pure-bred rams on the farms are becoming very marked. As the ram is "more than half the flock, " extra care should be used in his selection. Perhaps the most common mis- take made in this connection is to overlook the fact that a pedi- gree in itself is not an absolute guarantee of individual excellence. Purity of breeding, as indicated by the pedigree, is important, and no ram without it should be selected ; but in addition to good breed- ing, the ram should have the desirable individual characteristics of his breed. He should be masculine, healthy, and vigorous. He THE SHEEP INDUSTRY OX THE MIXIDOKA PROJECT. 11 should have a wide, deep chest, a good spring of rib, good bone, and carry out uniformly. The fact that all undesirable characteristics of the ram may influence the entire lamb crop should not be lost sight of, but shoidd prompt the fanner to exercise great care to see that the individual selected is uniformly good in all respects. BREEDING PRACTICES. As the climatic and other conditions of the Minidoka project are favorable to the production of early lambs, it is the common practice to breed for February and early March lambing. As the gestation period of ewes is 147 days, February and early March lambing re- quires that the ewes be bred in September or early October. It is seldom necessary in this locality that the ewes be "flushed" — fed heavily in order to make them come in heat. Breeding mature ewes. — For the small farm flock of 10 to 25 ewes a ram lamb maybe used. In the flocks containing 25 to 60 ewes it is necessary to use an older ram . It is the general practice to allow bucks to run with the ewes during the breeding period, but where a large number of ewes are to be bred to one ram, he is turned with the ewes only in. the morning and in the evening. Some flockru asters make a practice of marking the ewe when she is bred, the mark indi- cating the time of breeding. The same mark can be used throughout the breeding season, provided its location is changed so as to indicate the week during which the ewe was bred . Such marking is convenient at lambing time, when it is desirable to isolate the ewes which are about to lamb. A further use of marking is that, in case the ram is not a sure breeder, it enables the flockmaster to determine early in the season which ewes have failed to conceive. Some sheep growers paint the breast of the ram with a paint that ultimately fades from the wool. By a change in color of the paint used each week the approximate time of lambing is indicated. Breeding ewe lambs. — Owing to the present demand for sheep and the consequent desire on the part of flockmasters to see their flocks increase rapidly, the ewe lambs are sometimes bred. This practice is confined mostly to the Hampshire breed, but it is followed to some extent with the long wools as well. Usually the lambing per- centage obtained with ewe lambs ranges from 50 to 60. Ewes which have been bred as lambs are not as large when they are yearlings as ewes which have not been bred early. The difference in size is usually small, however, by the tune the ewes are 2 years old. The breeding of ewe lambs can be practiced only in those flocks where the lambs come early and where growth is rapid from the beginning. As size in ewes is a very important consideration, the breeding of ewe lambs is to be regarded as an undesirable practice. 12 BULLETIN 573, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Care after breeding. — After breeding, the ewes ordinarily require no special care or feed until winter. If the waste feeds in the fields are sufficient, there is no better practice than to allow the ewes to run in the fields until snow falls. It is important to remember, however, that the effect of inadequate feed may not be readily ob- served at this season because of the long fleece on the ewes. Methods of feeding ewes during the whiter are further discussed in the chapter on feeds and feeding. Care of the ram. — In summer, a small separate pasture is usually provided for the ram. The farm orchard is a convenient and satis- factory place for this purpose. During the breeding season, if there are a large number of ewes to be bred to one ram , he is kept by him- self during the day and is fed oats and bran in addition to hay or pasture. The care of the ram in winter is much the same as that for ewes, except that only a few flockmasters feed roots to the ram, and these only sparingly, whereas a large number of sheepmen feed roots to ewes. LAMBING. Lambing ordinarily occurs in February or early in March. A few days before lambing the ewes are placed in a sheltered yard or shed. The grain rations are greatly reduced. In some cases, when the ewe shows signs of lambing within a day or two, she is placed in a pen by herself. If there are any loose, dirty locks of wool around her udder they should be removed. The ewe is carefully watched but not disturbed. If she has had plenty of exercise and has been well cared for, little trouble should be experienced in lambing. The lambing period is one of the most important of the year, and successful lambing requires almost constant attention by the herds- man. Occasionally it is necessary to assist the ewe because of a diffi- cult presentation of the lamb, but the chief need is to assist the weak lambs immediately after birth. If the lamb is chilled, it is taken to a room where a fire is kept burning and warmed by blankets and rubbing. A common practice is to dip the chilled lamb into a pail of water as hot as the hand can bear. The lamb is then carefully dried, given a few spoonfuls of its mother's milk, and returned to the ewe. The use of warm blankets is to be preferred to dipping in hot water. Milk, freshly drawn from the mother ewe, should always be given a weak lamb as soon as possible. A tub or half barrel, bedded with straw and containing a jug of hot water covered with a blanket, is a good place for keeping the lambs while they are being warmed and fed. As soon as possible, the lamb should be returned to its mother. In many cases, particularly with young ewes and those which have been fed a ration of hay only, there is difficulty in inducing the ewe to allow the lamb to nurse. In such a case, the ewe should be held THE SHEEP INDUSTRY OX THE MIXIDOKA PROJECT. 13 and the lamb assisted. If the ewe persists in fighting the lamb, it may be necessary to tie her with a small halter or confine her in a stanchion made by driving two stakes in the ground. Some of the permanent sheds on the project have small stanchions provided in the slats of the hayrack along the wall. It is customary to leave the ewe and her lamb in the pen two or three days, until they get to know each other thoroughly and the lamb becomes strong and active. During this period the ewe should be fed but little grain. After the first few days the ewe and the lamb are turned into the larger pens with other ewes and lambs of the same age, or if the weather is favor- able they are turned into a dry, sunny, wind-protected yard. A few days later they may be turned into the larger yard with the band. Special care should be exercised in keeping the lambing sheds and yards clean. It is not sufficient that the lambing quarters be given the customary one cleaning a year. Each pen should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected before the ewe and her lamb are placed in it. This is a necessary safeguard to the health of the young lamb, par- ticularly with reference to white scours, from which serious losses sometimes result. DOCKING AND CASTRATING. The lambs are docked and castrated when they are from: one to two weeks old. The work is best done in the morning of a clear, bright day. While it is the general practice to castrate and dock at the same time, it is better to do the docking a few days after the castrating, as the shock of two simultaneous operations is severe and is likely to give the lambs a serious setback. Docking is usually done with a sharp knife. From the results secured by the use of hot docking-irons and pinchers in certain sections of Idaho, it appears that this method should be adopted by sheep growers on the Mini- doka project. It has been ascertained that lambs docked with a hot P755RP FlG. 2.— Part of a farm flock of sheep on irrigated pasture on the Minidoka Reclamation Project. From 6 to 10 ewes and their lambs ean be carried through the summer on an acre of this pasture. 14 BULLETIN 573, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUBE. iron average about a pound more in weight a week after docking than lambs which have been docked by the ordinary method and have lost considerable blood. Castrating is done by cutting off the lower third of the scrotum and pulling out the testicles, cords and all. WEANING. In the pure-bred flocks, or where it is desired to keep the ewe lambs for breeding purposes or for the fall and winter markets, weaning takes place when the lambs are 4 to 5 months old. By separating the lambs from the band and allowing them the run of good pasture, they do as well as if allowed to run with the ewes all summer. In some instances they do better. Moreover, if the ewes are allowed a summer's rest, they will breed earlier and produce a higher percent- age of lambs. A common method of weaning lambs on irrigated pasture is to leave the lambs in the same field but to remove the ewes to poor feed out of sight and hearing of the lambs. At the same time the ram lambs should be separated from the ewe lambs. A few flockmasters wean the lambs gradually, ^allowing them to be with the ewes for short periods twice each day. This method has some advantages, the chief of which is that the milk of the ewes dries up gradually. However, the practice can be continued too long, two or three days probably being the best time. Whatever method of weaning is pur- sued, it is necessary to watch the ewes carefully and to draw the milk from the udder in case of congestion. FIG. 3.— Sheep grazing on a canal bank on the Minidoka Reclamation Project in August, 1910. Tsed in this way, sheep are helpful in eradicating weed growth, and at the same time they produce mutton and wool at small cost. THE SHEEP INDUSTRY OX THE MIXIDOKA PROJECT. 15 FIG. 4.— A farm flock of sheep on an alfalfa field in winter, eating mangels fed whole. The feeding of roots in this manner is a common practice on the Minidoka Reclamation Project. FEEDS AND FEEDING. The feeds for sheep on the Minidoka project may be divided into three general classes: Pastures, waste products, and the feeds used in late fall and winter. While there are some variations in the peri- ods of utilizing the different feeds, in general the irrigated pastures are the basis of summer feeding; the waste products are utilized in late summer and early fall, and hay and grain are fed in the winter. Pasturing. — Irrigated pastures are becoming increasingly popular among sheep growers on the project. Of the 289 farms carrying sheep in 1916, 219 contained pasture, the average pasture area being 10 acres per farm. A part of a farm flock on irrigated pasture is shown in figure 2. There is a variety of pasture mixtures in use. Nearly every pasture, however, contains bluegrass and white clover. Perhaps most of the pastures at present in use were originally seeded to the mixture recommended by the Idaho •Agricultural Experiment Station,1 containing the following, at the rates of seeding in pounds per acre indicated: Kentucky bluegrass, 8 pounds; orchard grass, 5 pounds; smooth brome-grass, 5 pounds; meadow fescue, 4 pounds; timothy, 4 pounds; and white clover, 2 pounds. The total quantity of seed in this mixture is 28 pounds per acre. These special pasture mixtures, which are in general use on the Minidoka project, provide rich feed and are ready early in the season. On these pastures the lambs make such rapid growth that they are ready for market early in June. In 1916, the first shipment of spring lambs was made on May 27, when two carloads left the town of Kupert. These lambs were bought to weigh between 65 and 80 pounds. The best lot in the shipment was a flock of 74, averaging 73 \ pounds each at the loading station. These lambs had been born during the latter part » Welch, J. S. Grass pastures for irrigated lands. Idaho Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 80, 15 p., illus. 1914. 16 BULLETIN ;">7:J, T. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE. of February and had received no grain. Their mothers, however, had received good feed and excellent care. Where the pasture has been well started and properly cared for, on ^e heavier soils of the project as many as 10 ewes and their lambs af «r carried on 1 acre for the entire season. The average pastures, however, will not carry so many stock, seven ewes and their lambs being a common carrying capacity. The best results are secured by having the pasture divided into three parts, so that the stock are off the pasture during irrigation and for some time afterwards. Neither horses nor hogs should be allowed in the pasture with the sheep, but excellent results are secured where sheep and cattle graze together. Pure drinking water and salt should be provided at all times. It is desirable, also, that shade be provided in each pasture, as this adds to thp comfort and thrift of the animals. When, as the result of overstocking or unfavorable growing weather, the pasture becomes temporarily over- grazed, it should be supplemented by feeding some grain to the lambs. In some instances the ewes become too fat on irrigated pasture, so that they do not breed satisfactorily. This difficulty can be elimin- ated by turning the ewes into stubble fields or otherwise providing a relatively scanty feed for a short time. There are occasionally instances in which it seems advisable to pasture clover and alfalfa, although the practice is somewhat hazard- ous on account of bloat. There are many theories as to the best method of preventing bloat. The safest practice appears to be to have the sheep well filled with hay or other feed before they are turned on the alfalfa and clover pasture. Some farmers maintain that if no shade is provided bloat is less likely to occur. They argue that when shade is provided the sheep remain in the shade too long on hot days and then consume large quantities of succulent feed in a P932RP FIG. 5.— Typical shed and winter yards for a farm flock of sheep on the Minidoka Reclamation Project. A common and -satisfactory practice, is to have the closed shed used for lambing face to the south, and the open shed, for general uses, face the east. THE SHEEP INDUSTRY OX THE MIXIDOKA PROJECT. 17 FIG. 6.— A popular type of lambing shed on the Minidoka Reclamation Project, having .a large sliding door at each end and large open windows on the south side. Feeding racks of the box type are illustrated at the left, and the v. inter yards are shown in the foreground. short time. The use of alfalfa and clover as sheep pasture must be regarded as dangerous. Experienced sheepmen make the statement that unless a flockmaster is willing to risk a loss of 10 per cent he should not attempt to pasture his flock on alfalfa during the entire season. A few sheepmen cut and cock the third cutting of alfalfa and then turn the sheep into the field. So far, no unfavorable results have been reported. Utilization of waste products.- — The sheep is a very efficient animal in utilizing certain waste products on the irrigated farm. On all these farms there is much waste feed, including weeds and native grasses on ditch banks and in fence rows, the waste hay and after- math in hay fields, grain and weeds hi stubble fields, and the beet tops left after the sugar-beet harvest. As the growth of the irri- gated pasture crops begins to dimmish, these waste materials begin to become available, so that the sheep are gradually moved from the pastures to the fields, ditch banks, etc., where, in ordinary seasons, they are well fed until December. The sheep oftentimes can be used for temporary periods in summer in cleaning up weeds from ditch banks (as illustrated in figure 3) and other similar places on and about the farm. By these methods, the sheep assist in keeping down unde- sirable vegetative growtu and in removing waste material, at the same time producing valuable mutton and wool. Late fall and vrinterf ceding— Alt& the first snowfall, which usually comes in December, it is necessary to feed the flock. It is a desirable practice to allow the sheep the run of the fields during the winter feed- ing period so as to avoid the difficulties resulting from the lack of exer- cise. Approximately half the flockmasters on the project feed only hay during the winter. About one-fourth of the sheep growers pro- duce and feed mangels, beets, or beet pulp, and about one-fourth feed 18 BULLETIN 573, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. a grain ration. A few flockmasters feed both roots and grain. There are no silos on the project at present, but elsewhere in southern Idaho corn silage is fed to the breeding flocks with excellent results. As it is popularly believed that the excessive feeding of roots may result in the productin of soft, flabby lambs, the quantity of roots fed during the winter is not large, from 2 to 4 pounds per sheep being the daily allow- ance. Roots commonly are fed whole and in the field, as illustrated in figure 4. In some instances where grain is used, grain feeding begins a month or six weeks before lambing. Other flockmasters do not feed grain until after lambing time. There is, perhaps, no better grain ration to supplement alfalfa than a mixture consisting of two parts oats and one part bran. A half pound to a pound of this mix- ture per head each day is sufficient. Unthrashed sheaf oats is a popu- lar and desirable feed to use in connection with alfalfa. The practice of feeding some supplement with alfalfa is rapidly gaining in popu- larity. Where such feeding is not practiced, it is frequently found that young ewes refuse to own their lambs and that neither young nor old ewes produce sufficient milk to feed the lambs properly. It is important to provide the flock with fresh water and salt at all tunes. The practice of forcing the flocks to drink from stagnant ponds or dirty drinking troughs is to be condemned. BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT. Except at lambing time, shelter is not absolutely necessary, although open sheds and windbreaks are desirable, as there is need for protection against west winds. A dry yard with an open shed or windbreak or with an open shed and a closed lambing shed joined FIG. 7.— A popular type of combination hay and grain rack for feeding sheep. THE SHEEP INDUSTRY ON THE MINIDORA PROJECT. 19 together in the shape of an L, so as to give protection from the north and west winds, is desirable. A typical L-shaped shed is illustrated in figure 5. Lambing sheds. — There are several types of good lambing sheds in use on the project. One of the most popular is a shed 18 or 20 feet wide, extending east and west. This shed is 5 feet high at the eaves on the north and 6 feet high on the south. Large open windows, which can be closed with muslin or canvas, are placed in the south side. Large sliding doors are provided in both ends. Sheds of this type are permanent and are of value during the entire winter. The east door may be left open, so that the sheep may enter or leave the shed at will. A shed of this type is shown in figure 6. Other types of sheds are open, facing either the east or south; while others are partly open and partly closed, and one popular type has a skeleton roof open to the east or south, which is covered with canvas when the shed is in use. Many successful flockmasters house their flocks in tent houses or in straw sheds. When properly made, these are entirely satisfactory, and if the necessary care is given a high per- centage of lambs is saved. There is a too common tendency to make sheds too warm, too dark, and too poorly ventilated. Dryness, sunlight, and good ventilation without drafts are essential to the comfort of the flock. Where sheds are built with insufficient ventilation, catarrh, pneumonia, and other similar ailments are common. A typical interior arrangement of sheds extending east and west and 20 feet wide is as follows: On the north side there are large pens, 13 feet wide and from 15 to 25 feet long. The side of the shed forms one side of these pens, and panels form the other sides. Parti- tions between the pens are made in the form of hayracks or com- bination hay and grain racks, so that the ends of the pens contain the feed. Water troughs are also provided. On the south side of the shed there is a row of small individual pens. These commonly are made of panels 4 feet long and 3 feet high, two of which are hinged together so as to form a half pen. These two, placed in a corner of the shed, make a complete pen 4 feet square. Additional individual pens adjoining these are made by the use of similar hinged panels provided with hooks for setting up and taking down easily. When not in use the panels are folded together and piled in one corner of the shed. Some of the large pens on the north side are used by the ewes which are within a week of lambing, and others are occupied by owes with lambs a few days old. Just before or imme- diately after lambing the ewe is placed in one of the individual pens and kept there until the lamb is 2 or 3 days old. Another common arrangement is to have the entire shed filled" with these individual pens. This is undoubtedly a good arrangement, but it entails 20 BULLETIN 573, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. more labor in feeding than the one here described, so that it seems preferable to keep some of the ewes in larger pens. In all well- planned sheds a room is provided in one end for the shepherd. A stove is placed in this room, so as to keep the room warm during the lambing season. Racks and troughs. — There are two common types of hayracks. One is a V-shaped rack made of 1 by 4 inch pieces alternating at the base or 1 by 2 inch pieces 4 inches apart. By the use of a 10-inch board for the base these racks are often made into a combination grain and hay rack, as illustrated in figure 7. The base also catches much of the chaff and the leaves that break off from the hay. An objection to this type of rack is that some of the chaff falling from above gets into the sheep's wool. This objection can be overcome largely by the use of 1 by 12 inch boards put together lengthwise over the upper part of the rack. Another objection to the combination rack and trough is that the troughs are not usually kept clean. The other popular type of rack is a long, rectangular one, 2 feet wide and 2J feet high. The baseboards are 16 inches high. Above these is an 8-inch space through which the sheep insert their heads, and above this is a 6-inch board. If desired, a bottom is easily provided. This type of rack is used commonly for feeding chopped hay, although the self-feeder type i* becoming popular. For the best results separate grain troughs are provided. The sheltered board-bottom trough, swinging on bolts in a frame so it can be turned and cleaned easily, is very satisfactory. When it is desired to feed the lambs by themselves, creeps can be provided to admit them to the troughs while excluding the ewes. There is a wide choice of types of water troughs. The chief consideration in this connection is that the trough be so arranged that the water can be kept clean. DISEASES, PESTS, AND MINOR AILMENTS. There is unfortunately a common belief that little can be done for a sheep that becomes sick or unthrifty. In many cases, particu- larly in pure-bred flocks and in well-managed range bands, the fallacy of this belief has been shown. The flockmaster should not hesitate to secure the services of a competent veterinarian at the first indications of unthriftiness or disease. A brief discussion of pests, diseases, and minor ailments which have been found or may occur on the Minidoka project is given below. Dogs and coyotes. — On farms near the open range the coyote is still a menace. On, these farms and near the towns the dog also does considerable damage. For some reason the Idaho flockmaster has been loath to believe that dogs kill sheep, coyotes commonly being blamed for the work of dogs. So long as dogs are allowed to run at large and while coyotes are as prevalent as at present, some THE SHEEP INDUSTRY ON THE MINIDOKA PROJECT. 21 kind of protection must be provided for the sheep. High fences which are proof against coyotes or dogs furnish effective protec- tion. In some parts of the project it is necessary to confine the flock ji a good corral during the night. It is important that present and prospective sheep growers have clearly in mind the possibility of damage by dogs. In certain sections of the United States the damage from this source has become serious, and it is therefore recommended that irrigation farmers provide ample protection for their sheep. External parasites. — The common external parasites of sheep are lice, ticks, and the scab mite. Of the three, the scab mite is the most important. This mite burrows under the skin of the sheep and causes the formation of scabs. Suspected cases should be reported to the State or Federal inspectors, who will examine the sheep and if scab is present superintend the dipping.1 The sheep louse is rarely found on the Minidoka project, but ticks are very numerous. By sucking the blood of the sheep, these pests reduce the animal's vitality, interfere seriously with the thriftiness of the flock, and retard the growth of lambs. In view of the serious damage caused by these parasites, it is surprising to note that on many farms the flocks are allowed to go unprotected year after year. Some of the farms are now equipped with dipping vats, made of wood, galvan- ized iron, or concrete, in which the flock may be dipped. These vats are 16 inches wide at the bottom, 24 inches wide at the top, 4 feet deep, and 5 feet long at the bottom and 10 feet long at the top, with an inclined bottom at one end. Any of the standard sheep dips used according to directions will destroy both lice and ticks. It is best to dip the flock just after shearing. If any sheep are added to the flock during the summer or if the presence of ticks is noticed, the flock should be dipped again in the fall, as the ticks increase rapidly during the winter. Internal parasites. — Important internal parasites are stomach worms and small and large tapeworms. Although the stomach worm has not been reported on the project, it is believed that its absence is due merely to the "fact that it has not yet been introduced and not to any local conditions unfavorable to the worm. In some sections of southern Idaho stomach worms are becoming common. A satisfactory method of treatment for this parasite is to drench the sheep with a solution made by dissolving 1 pound of copper sulphate (blue vitriol) in 10 gallons of water, 1 dram of the copper sulphate being sufficient to treat one sheep. Gasoline, adminis- tered in doses of from 1 to 3 drams in linseed oil or milk, is another effective remedy in general use. To be effective, these treatments 1 A detailed discussion of sheep scab is given in United States Department of Agriculture Fanners' Bulletin 713, entitled "Sheep Scab." 22 BULLETIN 573, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. must be repeated. The appearance of stomach worms sometimes can be prevented to some extent by the use of copperas or turpen- tine, which may be fed with salt. Equal weights of copperas and salt may be used, or the salt may be saturated with turpentine. The small tapeworm 1 is at present the most serious internal parasite on the project. This worm is usually found to be 4 or 5 inches in length, although a few reach a length of 6 inches. Usually it produces no bad effect until the sheep are changed from green feed to dry feed in the fall. At this time the worms enter the sheep's bile duct and cause death. While the worms are still in the intestines the same treatments that are valuable in expelling stomach worms are effective in expelling the small tapeworm, but no known treatment is effective after the tapeworms enter the bile duct. The, life history of this parasite is not well understood. So far, the worm has been found on the project only in those flocks that have been kept on certain summer ranges. The large tapeworm 2 is not common on the project. Where this worm is present it is easily removed from the mature sheep through the administration of a dosje of 2 drams of extract of male shield- fern in half a cup of milk. Lambs are given sqmewhat smaller doses. The treatment is followed two hours later by a dose of castor oil. Foot-rot. — Fortunately foot-rot has been extremely rare on the project. So far as known, it has not occurred where the yards used in winter have been kept dry and clean and where the sheep have not been grazed in wet pastures in summer. A remedy which is popular in Idaho consists of the application to the affected parts every four days of a solution of 1 pound of copper sulphate in 1 gallon of vinegar. Digestive disorders. — The three principal digestive disorders among sheep on the project are scours, constipation, and bloat. Sheep fre- quently suffer from scours shortly after they are turned on fields to clean up beet tops. The difficulty may be prevented if the sheep are given some feed in addition to the beet tops. This feed may be hay, or it may be provided through giving the sheep access to stubble fields in connection with the beet-top pasture. Some farmers over- come the difficulty by pasturing the sheep in other fields and hauling the beet tops to them. This practice is not common, however, because of its labor requirements. The remedy usually applied is a teaspoonful of ginger in a cup of warm water. In severe cases, the remedy is 1 teaspoonful of laudanum administered in milk to mature sheep and somewhat smaller doses for lambs. Constipation ordi- narily occurs among the older, broken-mouthed sheep in the winter in the flocks which are fed hay alone. A dose of Epsom salts or castor * Tacnia fimbriatc, - Taenia expansia. THE SHEEP INDUSTRY ON THE MINIDOKA PROJECT. 23 oil, followed by a change of feed, is the only remedy that has been found generally effective. Bloat occurs rather commonly. One of the best remedies is to administer from a pint to a quart of cows' milk, freshly drawn and warm. A half-pint of warm, sweet cream has also proved effective, as have the Common remedies used in cases of bloat in cattle. Tapping should be attempted only as a last resort, as it is seldom that an animal so treated thrives afterwards. Miscellaneous ailments. — There are a number of miscellaneous ail- ments which cause some damage. Catarrh, or "sniffles," is common among the open-wooled breeds when the animals are exposed to the rains. It is also common in flocks that are kept in warm, poorly ventilated stables or that are forced to sleep in snow or in wet, muddy yards. Garget, or caked udder, is usually caused by the congestion of milk in the udder, but it may result from chilling, from bruising the udder, or from improper feeding. There is also a contagious form, which, however, has never appeared on the project. If the udder is carefully attended to before lambing time and again when the lambs are weaned, garget seldom occurs. Effective remedies to use are bathing the udder with water as hot as the hand can bear, massage, and applying a mixture of lard and turpentine. Lip and leg liberation is occasionally brought in from the outside. By prompt treatment and rigid quarantine, it so far has been pre- vented from becoming widespread in this section. Usually the atten- tion is first attracted by lameness or perhaps by scabs on the nose and lips of the affected animal, from which a greenish pus is exuded. This gets on the ground and feed and in the water troughs and thus spreads the infection throughout the flock. Affected animals lose flesh rapidly, and if treatment is not given heavy losses may result. It is necessary to resort to hand dressing, in which the scabs are removed and the affected parts treated with a solution of nitric acid, 1 part of the acid to from 5 to 9 parts of water. One other difficulty which occasionally occurs is gravel stones (calculi). This difficulty usually occurs in rams and wethers that are ranged on beet tops or fed beets or mangels heavily. Ewes are not so affected. As no effective remedy is known, it is best, in feed- ing male sheep, to restrict the quantities of the feeds mentioned. Broken pasterns and crippled or deformed feet are commonly caused by allowing the hoofs to become overgrown. This can be prevented by trimming the hoofs once or twice a year. Pruning shears or a sharp knife may be used for this work. SHEARING. The month of May is the popular tune for shearing the farm flock. Earlier shearing permits the fleece to make such a growth by July and August that the thrift of the animals during these warm 24 BULLETIN 573, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. months is interfered with. If shearing is delayed later than May, the sheep may shed a part of the wool and the fleece become ragged. When shearing, a clean floor should be provided. The wool should be clipped off close to the body, and as smoothly as possible, all the fleece being kept in one piece. The tag wool should then be removed and the fleece neatly rolled with the flesh side out and tied with paper twine. It is advantageous to sack the wool of the rams and black sheep separately. The tag wool should be sacked separately and labeled.1 In some of the long-wool flocks, where lambs have come early and the shearing is done late, the lambs are sheared. This undoubtedly is advantageous to the lambs, as they are thriftier, more active, and attain greater size. The practice, however, has a disadvantage at the time the lambs are sold, as, because of the ap- pearance of the wool, the buyer is likely to mistake the lambs for yearlings and quote prices accordingly. After the shearing is com- pleted, the sheep should be dipped if lice or ticks are present in the flock. MARKETING. Marketing lambs. — The first early lambs that have received good care are marketed late in May or in June. Practically all are shipped to the large markets of the Middle West, chiefly Omaha. The freight rate from the Minidoka project to Omaha is 68 cents per hundred- weight on a minimum of 23,000 pounds to the double-deck car. Marketing methods have not yet become well established. There is some informal cooperative shipping in a few districts where car- load lots occasionally are sent to market by groups of neighboring farmers. This is a practice that could well be increased, as marketing from the small bands is sometimes difficult. If sold before other ship- ments from farms or from the ranges arrive, small numbers of lambs must be held by the buyer until a full carload has been secured. This is an expensive system and results in a wide variation in price, even for lambs of the same market type. Shipments of farm lambs usually are made in connection with shipments from the ranges. Table III shows the number of cars of sheep and lambs shipped from the project each month from May 1 to December 31, 1916. Included in these shipments, approximately 5,500 head of lambs were marketed from the farms. Marketing wool. — As there is no wool exchange or other public mar- ket on the project, each individual owner ordinarily attends to the marketing of his own wool. By shearing time most of the range sheep have been taken to the ranges. The clip from a large number of 1 Useful detailed information regarding shearing, classing, and marketing wool has been given by Mar- shall and Heller. (Marshall, F. R., and Heller, L. L. The woolgrower and the wool trade. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 206, 32 pp., 1 fig., 11 pis. 1915.) THE SHEEP IXDrsTRY OX THE MIXTDOKA PROJECT. 25 these is pooled and sold cooperatively. As yet the owners of small farm flocks have not adopted the cooperative method, but sell inde- pendently to a local or a traveling buyer. As a shipment of wool bought from a large number of men varies greatly as to the grade and quality, as well as to the methods of classifying and packing, the price must necessarily be lower than if uniform systems of shearing, grading, classif ying, and tying were used and the combined clips from the different farms pooled and sold together. Wool is bought in the field at any time from February until after shearing. Table IV shows the prices received for a number of representative carload shipments of wool loaded at project points in 1915 and 1916. TABLE III. — Shipments of sheep and lambs from the Minidoka Reclamation Project from May 1 to December 31, 1916. Month. Number of cars. Range in weight. Average weight. Prices f. o. b. project points. 4 Pounds. 60 to 74 Pounds. 68 Per cwt. $9. 00 to $9. 50 June 8 64 to 108 77 6. 50 to 9.00 July 13 60 to 95 68 7. 50 to 8.25 Vugust - 13 50 to 90 74 7. 00 to 8.50 September 70 65 to 105 93 7. 00 to 7 75 October 22 70 to 98 90 6. 00 to 8.50 November 35 68 to 97 82 8. 00 to 9 25 December - 60 74 to 107 84 8. 00 to 9.50 Total 225 50 to 108 6.00to 9.50 TABLE IV. — Range of prices received for representative shipments of wool on the Minidoka Reclamation Project in 1915 and 1916, 1 915 19 16 Month. Number of cars. Prices per pound. Number of cars. Prices per pound. \Diil 2 Cents. 23 to 24 3 Cents. 28 to 29 May " 5 17 to 24? 1 25 to 30 June 3 22* to 26 2 28 to 32 There is need for much improvement in the methods now practiced in marketing both lambs and wool, and it is expected that numerous improvements will be made as the industry 'develops. FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDUSTRY. Judging by the demand for information regarding the problems of sheep production on the Minidoka project during the past year, it is probable that the industry will experience a marked expansion. Many farmers who formerly were apathetic have become interested and are seeking inf crmation. All the factors influencing the extension of the farm sheep industry on the project are favorable. The farmers 26 BULLETIN 573, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. are becoming increasingly interested and better informed; the climatic and agricultural conditions furnish excellent opportunities for sheep production, and there is every reason to believe that prices for both mutton and wool will continue to be high. In developing the indus- try it is important to keep in mind the relationship of sheep pro- duction to the other industries of the farm and to the range sheep industry. It is desirable that conservative methods be followed. The importance of community action should not be overlooked, and serious efforts should be made to stabilize the industry. CONSERVATIVE PRACTICES. For the man who is inexperienced in sheep husbandry it is undoubt- edly desirable that the start should be made in a small way and with grade ewes. If he desires, he can later work gradually into pure- breds. In this way the common mistakes of the beginner are made with relatively inexpensive grade sheep, and by the time the pure- breds are secured the requirements of good care and management can have been learned. The most successful breeders of pure-bred sheep at present are for thejnost part those who gained their early experience with bands of grades or with range sheep. The success of the registered flock will depend entirely upon the owner. Before securing pure-bred stock the flockmaster should be prepared to give the flock every advantage. By the time the necessary experience and knowledge have been gained through handling a flock of grade sheep the shepherd will have learned whether or not the work is to his liking and whether he will be willing to devote the care and atten- tion necessary to success with pure-breds. Such procedure requires time, but it seems to be the only safe method to follow. RELATIONSHIP OF SHEEP PRODUCTION TO OTHER INDUSTRIES. There are but few farms on the project where a small flock of sheep can not be kept with profit. It is believed that the absence of sheep from many farms is due to ignorance of the farm owners regarding the possibilities of sheep production. Another reason is a lack of definite knowledge of the lore of sheep husbandry. It must be admitted that some men can never make a success with sheep. It is questionable whether the hasty, impatient, quick-tempered, or careless man can succeed in any live-stock industry, particularly with sheep or dairy cattle; but to the man who has an inherent interest in farm animals and to whom it is a pleasure to see stock kept thrifty, comfortable, and contented, the small farm flock of sheep is a source of both profit and pleasure. The production of such flocks fits in well with the other industries of the irrigated farm in this section, as already has been pointed out. It is necessary, however, for the farmer to adjust his sheep-production activities to his other farming operations, THE SHEEP INDUSTRY ON THE MTNIDOKA PROJECT. 2? so that his farm will not become overstocked on the one hand or his sheep receive too little attention on the other. The proper relation- ship of sheep production to other industries on the farm can be developed only with practical experience, and this is best gamed through the patient practice of conservative methods. It is impor- tant, also, that the sheep grower keep in mind his relationship to the more extensive sheep producer who makes use of the range lands. Possibilities of mutually profitable cooperation between these two classes of producers already have been pointed out. COMMUNITY COOPERATION. During the las.t few years the demand for sheep and wool has been so strong as to make it appear that community cooperation in the various enterprises of sheep production is not necessary. Perhaps this explains the absence of extensive cooperative activities in sheep production on the Minidoka project. It has been noted in other sections of Idaho, however, that sheep growers are cooperating in both production and marketing and that the results are more satis- factory than those secured by fanners on the Minidoka project. There are good opportunities for community cooperation in such matters as securing breeding stock, purchasing supplies, marketing wool and mutton, and the general dissemination of useful information. The importance of cooperation in these matters will be increasingly apparent as farm sheep production in the western United States increases, and it would be advantageous for communities already engaged in the industry to begin early to develop cooperative relation- ships. STABILIZING THE INDUSTRY. It has been pointed out repeatedly that the development of satis- factory methods of management requires experience. The successful establishment of farm sheep production is possible only through the persistent application of the best methods of management. The experience of the farmers on the Minidoka project during the last five years has shown clearly the undesirability of getting into or out of the sheep business suddenly because of market fluctuations. The men who have remained in the business are demonstrating that the industry will be permanent on most farms. On almost half the farms the care, attention, and general methods of management are far above the average for other sections of southern Idaho and are of a character which insures success. The natural advantages of the high altitude, the dry climate, the many clear days, the abundance of irrigated pasture with other cheap feeds, and the short whiter feeding period are all favorable to the development of the industry. Good care, a study of the habits of the flock, and an earnest effort to satisfy 28 BULLETIN 573, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. its natural requirements, together with a desire to keep the animals in a thrifty and contented condition, are bringing success to many men whose problems and methods have been investigated. When all the facts are considered, including the local and general economic conditions, it seems certain that, if properly carried on, sheep pro- duction on the farms of the Minidoka project is potentially one of the most profitable agricultural industries. The extent to which the industry will realize its possibilities will depend very largely upon the exercise of persistent endeavor, through which the necessary stability can be secured. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY. WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1917 FARM SHEEP RAISING FOR BEGINNERS F. R. MARSHALL and R. B. MILLIN Of the Animal Husbandry Division FARMERS' BULLETIN 840 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry A. D. MELVIX, Chief Washington, D. C. July, 1917 Show this bulletin to a neighbor. Additional copies may be obtained free from the Division of Publications, United States Department of Agriculture WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE '. Itl7 EiMBS and wool are in strong demand and pros- pects are good for profit in raising sheep on the farm. Several million acres of land in the United States which produce good summer feed for sheep are not grazed at present. Sheep raising does not require expensive equip- ment or heavy labor, but does require study and continuous attention. Early fall is the bjsst time to start a flock. Good- grade ewes and a pure-bred ram are the best for beginners. The beginner may acquire experience with less than 20 ewes, but for economy of time and fencing, and to assure proper care, flocks of 60 or more ewes are better. In most cases lambs are most profitable if made ready for market at about 4 months, weighing 65 to 75 pounds. Unless the flock has a very large territory to range over it is necessary to make divisions of the pasture or to use seeded forage crops. This per- mits the change of grazing ground necessary to insure the health and thrift of the lambs. FARM SHEEP RAISING FOR REGINNERS. The outlook for sheep raising CONT Page. 3 4 5 7 8 10 ENTS. Management at breeding time Page. 11 Sectional prospects for sheep production Requirements for sheep raising The flock in winter 12 The lambing season 14 Returns from sheep raising Starting the flock The flock in summer 17 Preparing lambs for market 22 Size of flock.. THE OUTLOOK FOR SHEEP RAISING. A\ IMPORTANT change in the extent and character of the American farm sheep industry began in 1915. Higher prices for lambs and wool in that year and the years following attracted wide attention to this branch of animal husbandry. Agricultural de- velopments of former years, with their cheaper grains and lower values of meat animals, had not shown the economical advantages of the mutton and wool sheep as a quick source of income, produced mainly from pasture, forage crops, or roughages, and with a very low labor requirement. FIG. 1. — Such pasturage as is shown in this illustration is excellent for sheep. The • grazing of sheep on such land yields a good income and improves the pasturage for larger stock. 4 FARMERS' BULLETIN 840. The higher prices of sheep products following 1914 were caused in part, but not mainly, by market conditions resulting from the war. The supply of lamb and mutton had been decreasing for some time in spite of the growing demand, particularly for lambs. Wool values were advancing before the outbreak of the war. Although the world consumption of wool was increasing, no foreign country, with the exception of South Africa, seemed able to increase its exports. Increased supplies of wool in the future must come chiefly from farm flocks. In the United States conditions for farm sheep raising are more favorable than in any country which has not already developed to the point at which sheep are necessary for intensive farming. Prospective values for lambs and wool and the special economies incident to their production insure for farm sheep raising a large and permanent place, either on those farms where sheep raising is made a specialty or where flocks form a permanent part of a system of mixed farming. SECTIONAL PROSPECTS FOR SHEEP PRODUCTION. In the Eastern States the large and numerous flocks of earlier years were kept almost entirely for wool production. Subsequently the increasing wool supplies from other sections and from abroad, together with the demand for other agricultural products of higher value, brought about a decline in the number of farm sheep in these States. The market demand for mutton and lamb at that time was very limited, and when it became broader the cheaply produced western supplies were for some time equal to all requirements. To-day the western shipments have not only ceased to increase but have actually grown less as a result of the reduction of the range area. In New England particularly, while many new flocks have re- cently been started, hesitancy has been due to a wrong interpreta- tion of former statistics of farm sheep in that section. The decline that once occurred in New England flocks has but slight relation to present conditions and prospects. The sheep raising of the pres- ent is planned to market lambs at from 4 to 5 months of age, and wool, though important, is not the primary consideration. The full and economical utilization of New England farm labor, pastures, hay, and silage calls for more and larger flocks to supply the near-by markets. The present production can probably be multiplied three times without materially lessening other live-stock production. Throughout the entire length of the Appalachian Mountain Range in Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia^ West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, and North Carolina there are large areas of land com- paratively low in value and well suited for sheep raising. SHEEP RAISING FOR BEGINNERS. 5 In the hillier sections of northern Arkansas and southern Missouri, and in the cut-OA~er timber regions of the Gulf States, there are also large areas of comparatively cheap lands which furnish favorable conditions for the keeping of large flocks of sheep at comparatively low cost. Similar opportunities are found in the cut-over timber- lands in Michigan, Wisconsin, Washington, and Oregon. On the higher priced lands of the corn belt a profitable system of sheep raising is being worked out along the lines followed on the intensively farmed areas in England and Scotland. While land values in this section are much higher on the acre basis than in the regions above referred to, there is comparatively little difference in the value of the amount of land required per head for sheep. While few farms in this section are likely to be devoted exclusively to com- mercial sheep raising, the different labor requirements for cattle and swine make it desirable to keep at least 1 ewe to 2 acres. This should add materially to the net income from the farm. On western irrigated farms there seems likely to be developed an intensive sheep industry. The alfalfa and other forages produced on these lands come nearer to being satisfactory as a sole ration for sheep than for any other stock. The use of irrigated pastures or the rotation of forages will provide excellent summer feed and at the same time avoid the cost of labor for harvesting where there is not an opportunity of using the open range or forest reserve for grazing at that time of year. REQUIREMENTS FOR SHEEP RAISING. SOIL AND CLIMATE. Sheep are naturally the inhabitants of high and dry areas. They thrive, however, on any except wet, swampy land. The fine-wool breeds especially prefer drier lands, while one or two of the British breeds are particularly adapted to lowlands. Sheep raising has been successfully carried on in areas of tropical temperature with low rainfall, but their rearing in high temperatures with a high rainfall has not been fully demonstrated. PASTURE AND FEED. Sheep naturally graze over rather wide areas and seek a variety of plants. This habit particularly adapts them to being kept in large numbers on lands of sparse vegetation or furnishing a variety of grasses or other plants. They do better on short and fine grasses than on coarse or high feed. They will eat a good deal of brush and, if confined to small areas, will do a fair job at cleaning up land. When used in this way, or on land producing only brush, they can not be expected to prove very satisfactory in the production of good lambs or good wool. 6 FARMERS' BULLETIN 840. The cheapest and best feed for sheep is pasture such as described, or sown forage crops of cereals, rape, etc. Frequent changes of grazing ground are necessary to health and maximum thrift when pastures do not offer a wide range. This calls for fencing to sub- divide permanent pastures, or for tight fencing around large runs in which they are to be kept. Movable fences may be largely used for carrying sheep on smaller areas of forage crops. Grain feeding is seldom profitable when good grazing is to be had. Under some conditions flocks can be kept in good condition and lambs marketed without the use of any grain. One hundred pounds of grain in a year for one ewe and her lambs is the maximum that is likely to be used profitably under any conditions. The largest quantity may be used with ewes dropping lambs before pasture is ready and for the lambs at that time, but the feeding that is most economical and most likely to keep the flock in good condition is that which provides frequent changes of good pastures and grazing crops and winter rations mainly of good leguminous hays, with some suc- culent feeds, reserving what grain is to be used to feed in winter and after the lambs are born. Silage or roots furnish cheap feed and are especially useful in keeping ewes in good condition during the winter. Too free use of roots for ewes in lamb is sometimes considered to increase the losses of young lambs, and the exclusive use of silage as a roughage has been shown to be unsafe, either for the ewes themselves or for the lambs to be dropped.1 BUILDINGS AND FENCES. In any part of the United States the main essentials of sheep barns are dryness and freedom from drafts. Unless lambs are to be dropped in cold weather, no expense to provide warmth is neces- sary, as the buildings should seldom be closed. Protection from winter rains and heavy snowfalls is desirable, but the best results may be expected when ewes are allowed access to a dry bed in the open. Fences to hold sheep should be of woven wire, boards, or rails. Barbed or smooth wire can not be used satisfactorily, though a 36- inch woven-wire fence at the ground with two or three strands of wire is commonly used. The construction, planning, and cost of a variety of barns and sheds for sheep and of dog-proof fences is discussed fully in Farmers' Bulletin 810, " Equipment for Farm Sheep Raising." LABOR. The amount of labor required to keep a farm flock in the condition necessary to insure maximum returns and lowest cost of production 1 Pennsylvania Experiment Station Bulletin 144. SHEEP RAISING FOR BEGINNERS. 7 varies according to systems followed in different sections. In all cases the amount of labor is small in proportion to that required by other live-stock products of equal value. Feeding the sheep in winter is light labor, and the manure need not ordinarily be removed from pens oftener than once in six weeks during the time the flock is housed. However, sheep raising should not be engaged in with an idea that little attention is required. The wants of sheep are numerous and varied, and frequent attention is required to forestall conditions that will result in ill health or lack of thrift. With a large flock at lambing time frequent attendance day and night is necessary to avoid losses of ewes and young lambs. While their habits are quite different from those of other farm animals, sheep are an interesting study. Sheep management can be learned and understood by anyone who is willing to observe carefully and think and attend to the details as attention is required. RETURNS FROM SHEEP RAISING. The gross annual returns from ewes of breeding age may be expected to range from $8 to $15 a head, depending upon the percentage of lambs raised, the weights of the fleeces, and the values for these products. The lamb and wool yields depend largely upon the breed selected. With ewes of any one of the medium-sized mutton breeds 115 per cent of lambs can be raised, and 150 per cent is not infre- quently reached. Lambs are most in demand when fat at a weight of from 65 to 80 pounds. These weights and sufficient fatness can be obtained at from 4 to 5 months of age with very little grain feed- ing, and before the lambs eat much of the forage in pasturage, if the ewes' feed produces a continuous and plentiful supply of milk. The wool returns vary from 7 to 11 pounds per ewe. The larger mutton breeds yield more, as do also the fine wools, but the value per pound of the latter is usually less on account of the greater propor- tion of natural grease or yolk present, It is difficult to estimate satisfactorily the net returns from a flock of ewes. In comparison with cattle and swine, sheep can be made to yield practically the same net returns on the value of the land, if well cared for, and if kept on lands reasonably well adapted for sheep raising. For farms of all-arable land the Illinois Experiment Station 1 has recommended a plan of live-stock production which includes 80 ewes (1 ewe to 2 acres) along with 22 breeding cows and 12 brood sows. Arable land of the best class when used exclusively for sheep can be made to support from 5 to 8 ewes (with their lambs until marketed) UlttVl Circular entitled " Facts Regarding Mixed System of Farming." 8 FARMERS BULLETIN 840. per acre. On pastures suitable for either cattle or sheep five ewes may be considered the equivalent of one cow or steer, and the winter feed required for one breeding cow not in milk would be equivalent to that needed for about eight ewes. STARTING THE FLOCK. TIME TO START. Late summer or early fall is the most favorable time to make a start in sheep raising. Ewes can be procured more readily at this time, and when purchased can be kept on meadows, grain stubble fields, or late-sown forage crops to get them in good condition for breeding. Experience with the ewes through fall and winter will also render a beginner more capable of attending to them at lambing time. It is seldom possible to buy any considerable number of bred ewes at reasonable prices. SELECTION OF STOCK. The inexperienced sheep raiser should begin with grade ewes of the best class available and a pure-bred ram. The raising of pure- bred stock and the selling of breeding rams can best be undertaken by persons experienced in sheep raising. The selection of the type and breed of sheep should be made by considering the class of pas- ture and feeds available and the general system of farming to be followed, along with the peculiarities of the breeds and the condi- FIG. 2.. — A good type of a pure-bred mutton SHEEP RAISING FOR BEGINNERS. tions and kind of feeding and manage- ment for which each has been especially developed.1 It is highly advan- tageous for all, or a majority, of the farms in a neighbor- hood to keep the same breed of sheep, or at least to continue the use of rams of the same breed. After a decision has been made as to a suitable breed, the aim should be to obtain ewes that are individually good and that have as many crosses as pos- sible of the breed selected. With such a foundation and the continuous use of good pure-bred rams of the same breed, the flock will make con- tinuous improvement. In lookino" for ewes FlG- 3- — A 2-year-old mouth. The two large teeth in the of desired types and breeding it will often be found impossible to get them near at home at a reasonable price. Ewes from the west- ern ranges can be obtained directly from a stockyard market. For the most part the n.nge ewes are of Merino breeding. First-cross ewe lambs and less often older stock bred on the range and sired by rams of the down or long-wool breeds are sometimes obtainable. These, or even the Merino ewes, furnish a foundation for the flock that can be quickly graded up by using rams of the breed preferred. The lambs from Merino ewes and mutton rams grow wrell and sell 1 Farmers' Bulletin 576. entitled " Breeds of Sheep for the Farm," discusses the adaptability of each of the common breeds. It is obtainable from the Department of Agriculture upon request. 100707°— Bull. 840—17 2 center are the first pair that come in at about 12 months of age. The next, or 2-year-old pair, show one on each side of the center pair. The two small teeth on the right are lamb teeth. 10 FARMERS' BULLETIN 840. well if well cared for, but the yield is less than when ewes with some mutton blood are used. The sheep from the range are less often infested with internal parasite than are farm sheep, and in the large shipments there is opportunity for closer selection. AGE OF EWES. Yearling or 2-year-old ewes are preferable to older stock. Ewes with " broken mouths '• — that is, those that have lost some of their teeth as a result of age — can be purchased cheaper than younger ones, but are not good property for inexperienced sheep raisers. Until a sheep is 4 years old its age can usually be told within a few months. The lambs have small, narrow teeth, known as milk teeth. At about 12 months of age the two center incisors are replaced by two large, broad, permanent teeth. At about 24 months two more large teeth appear, one on each side of the other pair (see fig. 3) . An- other pair appears at 3 years of age, and the last, or corner teeth, come in at about the end of the fourth year, and the sheep then has a full mouth. Heavy or light feeding has considerable effect upon the exact time of appearance. After a* sheep becomes 4 years old the exact age can only be estimated. As age advances, the adult teeth become shorter and the distance between them increases. The normal num- ber of teeth may be retained until 8 or 9 years of age, but more often some are lost after the fifth year. In buying ewes, particularly those from the range, it is desirable, when possible, to examine the udders to see that they are free from lumps that would prevent the ewes from being milkers. It is necessary to guard also against buying ewes that are useless as breeders because of the ends of the teats having been clipped off at shearing. SIZE OF FLOCK. Persons wholly inexperienced with sheep will do well to limit the size of the flock at the start. A beginner can acquire experience quite rapidly with 8 or 10 ewes. It is very doubtful, however, whether anyone should make a start with sheep unless the arrange- ment of the farm and the plan of its operation allow the keeping of as many as 30 ewes, and in most cases 60 or more will be handled better and more economically than a very small flock. The number of ewe lambs that can be kept for breeding each year should be about one-half the number of breeding ewes. Old ewes should be discarded when 5 years old. When this is done and the poorest of the ewe lambs are sold a flock will ordinarily double in size in three years. After two seasons' experience it will be a good plan to buy more ewes when good ones can be obtained at a fair price. The economical disadvantage of a very small flock lies in the fact that the hours of labor are practically the same for a dozen or 20 SHEEP RAISING FOR BEGINNERS. x 11 ewes as for the larger flock. The fencing to allow desirable change of pastures or to give protection against dogs is about the same in either case, so that the overhead charges per ewe are much smaller in the case of the larger flock. Furthermore, the small flock on a farm having larger numbers of other animals is unlikely to receive the study and attention really needed or that would be given to one of the chief sources of the farm income. MANAGEMENT AT BREEDING TIME. THE EWES. The period of gestation in sheep is 145 days. Ewes should be mated to drop their first lambs when about 24 months old. The first few cool nights in late summer or early autumn cause the ewes to come in heat, although some breeds come in heat at almost any time of the year. These periods in which the ewes will breed last from 1 to 3 days and recur at intervals of from 14 to 19 days. At the time the ewes are bred they should be gaining in weight. Feed- ing to produce this condition for breeding is commonly called " flush- ing." The main purpose of flushing the ewes is to secure a larger lamb crop and to have the lambs dropped as near the same time as possible, but it also brings the ewes into good condition for the winter. To accomplish this the ewes are changed from scant to abundant pastures of timothy, bluegrass, or rape. Rank watery fall growths of clover are of little use for this, as they often bring the ewe in heat several times and are not particularly fattening. Often some grain is fed as a supplement to the pastures. Corn is not especially good for this, oats being much better. Pumpkins strewn over the fields are excellent. At this time any large locks of wool or dung tags about the tail should be removed. THE RAM AT BREEDING TIME. Beginning about a month before the breeding season, the ram should be given some extra grain. Two parts of oats and one of bran by bulk form an excellent mixture. Oats alone are also very good. If the ram is thin the following mixture is excellent: Corn, 5 parts ; oats, 10 ; bran, 3 ; and linseed-oil meal. 2 parts, by weight. The number of ewes a ram will serve depends largely upon his age and the way he is handled. A ram lamb may serve from 5 to 15 ewes, depending upon his maturity. A yearling may serve from 15 to 25, while a mature ram well cared for should serve from 40 to 60 if allowed to run loose with the flock. By permitting him to be with the ewes an hour morning and evening more ewes can be bred. If the ram is old or injured or is to be bred very heavily, another ram may be used to locate the ewes in heat and thus save the older ram 12 FARMERS' BULLETIN 840. from the necessary work of circulating through the flock. A bag or a piece of cloth tied under the belly prevents the " teaser " from serv- ing the ewes. If the ram is allowed to run in the field with the ewe* he may be made to mark the ones lie has served, so that the approxi- mate dates of lambing can be determined. A daub of special brand- ing paint that later will scour out of the wool can be applied every day or two to the left side of his chest and brisket for the first two weeks, on the right side for the next two, and on the middle for the last two weeks of the season. Different colors of paint may also be used, but under no consideration should any mixture containing tar be used. When the ram is not in the flock he will be quieter and more easily handled if one or two ram or wether lambs or bred ewes are kept running with him. FALL FEEDING. Stubble and stalk fields may well form the principal means of sustenance for the breeding flock in the fall if they are used before the rains injure their feeding value. Fence strips in plowed fields may also give good grazing for a few days. Clover and grass pas- tures may well be left until the stubble and stalk fields have been used. For regions where the winters are open a heavy stand of well-cured bluegrass will help very much in carrying the .flock through the winter in good condition. Green rye pastures in the late fall give considerable succulence and furnish exercise for the flock. In the South velvet beans will be found of great help in carrying the flock into January. The shepherd should train himself to read the condition of his sheep by feeling the bone of the loin or back. At no time while they are in lamb should ewes be allowed to lose in weight. In open wet fall seasons there is danger of waiting too long to start feeding. A rank growth of soft grass may appear to be good feed, but the real need of the flock should be determined by a closer examination of the actual condition of all or a representative number of the ewes. THE FLOCK IN WINTER. WINTER FEED. Winter management has a very important relation to the returns from the flock. The feeding should be such as will produce the most vigorous lambs and at the same time keep the wool in good condition. Leguminous hays, straws, and cornstalks usually form the main part of economical winter rations. Clover, alfalfa, or cowpea hay, if of good quality, may be used as the sole feed until near lamb- ing time, from 3 to 3J pounds being sufficient for ewes weighing less than 150 pounds. Oat and wheat straw are better than rye or barley straw. The beards of the latter are likely to prove trouble- SHEEP RAISING FOR BEGINNERS, 13 some. Cornstalks placed where the ewes can eat off the leaves may be used as a part of the roughage ration. If this ration is made up largely of cornstalks or straw, a nitrogenous concentrate should also be used. Timothy hay is not good sheep feed. Such succulent feeds as roots or silage are desirable in keeping the ewes in gocd health. The use of silage will often materially reduce the cost of the ration, but silage can not safely be used without any hay. Only silage from well-matured corn should be used for sheep, and caution should be exercised to guard against feeding spoiled, frozen, or moldy silage. It is not advisable to feed more than 3 pounds per head daily of this feed. For bred ewes, roots, particularly turnips, should be used sparingly until after lambing. Each of the following rations contains approxi- mately the amount of the variou.s nutrients required daily for ewes of from 120 to 145 pounds in weight : (1) 2 pounds alfalfa or cbwpea hay, 2 pounds corn silage. \ pound shelled corn. (2) '2 pounds alfalfa. 2 pounds corn stover (amount eaten) . (3) 2* pounds alfalfa. 2 pounds silage. 1 pound oat straw. 2 pounds corn silage, Jt pound oil meal. (4) pound corn. Where the ewes can run on fall wheat or rye during the winter months the pasture should be supplemented by some dry or concen- trated feed. Silage or roots are not desirable when the pasturage is soft or green. One-half pound of cottonseed meal contains the daily requirement of protein for pregnant ewes. When price sug- gests the use of this concentrate, the other feeds should be of a car- bonaceous character. One-quarter pound of cottonseed meal per day and a selection of other feeds will be better than a ration con- taining a larger amount of cottonseed meal. EXERCISE IN WINTER. If the lambs are to be born strong and vigorous, a moderate amount of exercise is necessary for the ewes during the winter. This can be obtained by scattering their roughage over a field and allowing them to work back and forth over it while eating, or by feeding some of the roughage some distance away from their shelter. If winter pastures are used, no other arrangement for exercise is necessary. At no time should the pregnant ewes be forced to wade through deep mud or snow, neither should they be chased by dogs nor forced to jump over boards nor to pass through narrow doors, as such treatment is sure to cause loss of lambs or of both ewes and lambs. If fleeces are allowed to become soaked with rain or wet snow, colds and pneumonia will surely result. Dry snow, on the other hand, has no ill effect, as the ewes readily shake it off. 14 FARMERS' BULLETIN 840. THE LAMBING SEASON. IMPORTANCE OF CARE DURING LAMBING. The lambing season is the shepherd's harvest time, and the size and quality of the crop practically determine the profits. A large crop of good lambs is the base of good financial returns, while a small crop of lambs means less profit, and if they are inferior in quality great skill and care are necessary to make any profit. At this time extra attention must be given to the ewes and lambs. In no other way can time be used to better advantage on the farm. If a record of the date of service has been kept, the approximate date of lamb- ing can readily be foretold, for the ewes will generally carry their young about 145 days (five days less than five months). CARE OF THE EWES. Heavy grain feeding just before lambing is likely to cause udder troubles. At this time the wool around the udder should be clipped short to allow the lamb to find the teats readily. Just before lamb- ing the ewe becomes restless and appears sunken in front of the hips. She should be put into a separate pen, which may be made of two light panels fastened together by a hinge and set in a corner.1 These panels permit the ewe to see the other members of the flock and prevent her from becoming excited or nervous. Their use also prevents other sheep from trampling on the lamb, and the ewe has a good chance to get acquainted with her lamb at the start, thus avoiding the danger of disowned lambs later. These lambing pens should be in a well-ventilated room that is free from drafts and as warm as it can be made without artificial heat. In very cold weather a blanket thrown over the lambing pen will insure sufficient warmth to give the lamb a good chance in the first few hours, which are important ones. TROUBLES AT PARTURITION. Well-fed ewes seldom have much trouble in lambing, but there may always be need of assistance- for a few ewes. If the ewe strains for half an hour without delivering the lamb, aid may then be given. The normal position of the lamb at birth is to have the forelegs extended with the head lying between them. If the lamb is not in the proper position, the shepherd should correct it by inserting the hand and arm into the vulva and effecting the change. When such assistance is needed the shepherd should first trim his finger nails and rub vaseline or oil upon his hand. In either case, when the position is correct the lamb can usually be successfully 1 These panels are described in Farmers' Bulletin 810. SHEEP RAISING FOR BEGINNERS. 15 delivered by looping a string around the front feet and pulling outward and downward as the ewe strains. If the womb and vagina have been lacerated by the operation, it is well to use a solution com- posed of \ ounce of zinc sulphate and 2 ounces of tincture of opium in a quart of water at blood heat. This should be poured into the womb by means of a rubber tube and funnel. If the ewe seems weak a stimulant should be given. WEAK LAMBS. The lamb that is born strong and vigorous, with a good dam, will need little care. If the shepherd is present at the birth of a weak lamb, he should wipe away the phlegm or membrane from the nostrils of the lamb, and, if not already broken, the navel cord should be severed. Blowing into the mouth and nostrils and slapping gently on the ribs, first on one side and then on the other, will often save the life of a lamb that is apparently dead. In cold weather lambs may get chilled and die unless prompt remedies are used. Wrapping the lamb in hot flannel cloths, which are renewed as often as necessary, is an excellent method of warming it. Another method is to place it for a few minutes in water as hot as the hand can bear; then remove, dry with cloths, and wrap up for an hour or two in fresh cloths or a sheepskin to complete the drying process. In any case milk should be given freely and the lamb returned to the ewe and allowed to suck as quickly as possible. If it does not suck when held to the teat, an infant's nursing bottle and nipple may be used. A few teaspoonfuls each hour for a few hours will usually give strength to enable the lamb to nurse without assistance. DISOWNED LAMBS. Little trouble is experienced with disowned lambs where lambing pens are used. With a ewe that refuses to own her lamb it is some- times sufficient to draw some of the milk and rub it upon her nose and also upon the rump of the lamb. A heavy milking ewe with only one lamb can sometimes be made to adopt an orphan or the disowned lamb of a lighter milking ewe. When there is difficulty in having a ewe adopt another lamb after losing her own, the skin of the dead lamb may be fastened over the lamb to be adopted. YOUNG-LAMB TROUBLES. Well-nourished lambs from well-fed ewes have few troubles, but some troublesome conditions are to be expected in any flock. The causes and remedies of the more common ones are given below. Constipation is indicated by straining and distress and may be remedied by a teaspoonful of castor oil. White scours can best be 16 FARMERS ' BULLETIN 840. cured by giving one-fourth of an ounce of cooking soda, 1 ounce of sulphate of magnesia, and a pinch of ginger in a small quantity of flaxseed tea or gruel. This should be followed in about four hours with 2 ounces of linseed oil. Indigestion is shown by distress and frothing at the mouth. A liberal dose of castor oil will effect a cure in most cases. Sore eyes are of rather common occurrence. The eyes appear covered with a milky scum, or, in bad cases, become an angry red. In either case tears are apt to flow profusely. An eyewash of silver nitrate or 15 per cent argyrol will clear them up in a few applica- tions. A very tiny drop of pure sheep dip is also recommended. Sore mouths are sometimes caused by scabs around the lips. These scabs should be rubbed off and sheep dip or a medium-strength solu- tion of copper sulphate applied. DOCKING THE LAMBS. Docking, or removing the tail, is best done at the age of 10 to 14 days. When correctly done it adds much to the appearance and cleanliness of the lamb and -raises the selling price at the market. For this purpose knives, either sharp or dull, chisels, and patented docking irons have all been used and recommended. When a sharp- edged tool is used the pain is slight, but unless some care is taken the lambs may lose considerable blood. Docking irons which burn through the tail may be used, and thus reduce the loss of blood to a minimum; but if used too hot the wound will be slow in healing. With any of these instruments the cut should be made about 1 inch from the body as measured on the underside of the tail. The lamb should be held with the rump resting upon the top of a panel or pen partition or upon a board if the hot irons are used. When docking with the hot iron the operator should work with the right hand, holding the tail in his left and pushing it toward the body. This will leave loose skin above the cut to close over the wound. Pine tar may be applied if flies are bad. CASTRATION. The ram lambs may well be castrated at the time they are docked. Both operations should be done early on a bright, cool morning. In castrating, the lamb is held in the same position as for docking. The hands and knife or shears should be disinfected. Unless both testi- cles can be felt, the operation should be delayed. The lower third of the scrotum should be cut off. The testicles then may be removed by pulling them straight out. In large flocks the testicles are re- moved by pulling with the teeth, as it is very difficult to grasp them with the fingers and it is necessary to do the work as quickly as possible. SHEEP RAISING FOR BEGINNERS. 17 TREATMENT OF EWES AFTER LAMBING. The shepherd should watch the ewe's udder closely to see that it is in good condition, for good lambs can not be raised from ewes not milking freely. Ewes that have lambed should be kept in lambing pens from one to three days and then turned in a pen by themselves where they can be given special feed and care. After lambing they should be fed lightly at first, being put on full feed about the third or fourth day. At this time it is economy to feed heavily enough to produce a large flow of milk for the lambs. Heavy-milking ewes can make good use of from 1 to 2 pounds of grain per day. Experi- ments conducted at the Wisconsin experiment station showed that when ewes were on good pasture there was no extra gain made by the lambs when the ewes were fed grain. THE FLOCK IN SUMMER. SHEARING. Shearing is generally done in late spring or early summer, after lambing. It should be done on a warm day, so that the ewes may not become chilled. Formerly shearing was done mostly by the use of hand shears, but in most flocks of large size power shearing ma- chines are now used. For small flocks under 50 head hand-power machines are the most economical. The machines are more rapid, smoother work is done, and the ewes are injured less. It is easier to learn to use them, and more wool is obtained than where hand shears are used. The tags or dung locks should be removed from the fleece, and then it should be rolled up, not too tightly, skin side out, and tied with paper twine. Wool buyers prefer this method of tying to that done with wool boxes. If the lambing is late the ewes may be sheared before lambing, but great care must be used in handling them. It is better to do the shearing after lambing. In either case it should be done before hot weather sets in. DIPPING. Sheep are dipped to free them from ticks, lice, and other skin parasites. A convenient time for dipping is shortly after shearing in the spring. Less dip per animal is needed and the weather is usually more favorable at this time than at any other season. The dipping should be done in the morning of a clear, quiet, warm day, so that the sheep will be dry by night and will not catch cold. Every member of the flock should be dipped, and it is well to spray the inside of the sheep barn with dip at this time. Any standard dip solution can be successfully used, if the manufacturer's direc- tions are followed. To insure the eradication of sheep ticks the 18 FARMERS BULLETIN 840. sheep should be dipped a second time about 24 days after the first dipping. About 10 days should be allowed to elapse after shear- ing, so that shear cuts may have time to heal before dipping. CULLING THE EWE FLOCK. The summer or early fall, soon after the lambs have been weaned or marketed, is the best time to dispose of ewes that are not con- sidered desirable for another year's breeding. The ewes that are to raise the next crop of lambs can then be prepared for fall breeding. Ewes of the mutton breeds do not ordinarily breed well nor keep in good condition after 5 years of age. Their usefulness, however, depends more upon the condition of their teeth than upon their actual age. Fine-wool ewes usually remain useful to a later age. It is a good plan to sell aged ewes before they become too run down to be valuable to the butcher. The ewes that give the most milk and raise the best lambs are likely to be quite thin at this time and should not be judged by their appearance. Nonbreeding ewes, poor milkers, light shearers, and mothers of inferior lambs should be marked as their defects are discovered and should be disposed of at this time. Their places should be filled by the best individuals among the yearling ewes and from the best breed- ing older ewes. WEANING THE LAMBS. If lambs are sold at from 3 to 5 months of age, they may run with their dams until that time. The lambs to be kept for breeding pur- FIG. 4. — A group of yearling ewes kept to replace the older ones culled out in the fall. These ewes have been cared for to produce good fleece and full development for use as breeders. SHEEP RAISING FOR BEGINNERS. 19 FIG. 5. — Sheep on good summer pasture with shade. Sheep need shade in summer days. They graze most toward evening and early in the morning. The sheep shown are part of a Louisiana grade flock having two crosses of mutton sires on native ewes. The average fleece weight of the native ewes was 3 pounds and of the three-quarter breds 5.6 pounds. (Photograph from Louisiana Extension Service.) poses should be weaned at the same time and put on fresh pastures where there is no danger of stomach worms. When the weaning is done at this time the ewes can be put in better condition for the fall breeding. Earn lambs left in the flock worry the ewes and may get some of them in lamb. When lambs are to be kept on the farm the best method of weaning is to leave them on the old pasture for three or four days and remove the ewes to a scanty pasture to check their milk flow. As soon as the lambs cease fretting for their dams they may be moved to fresh pastures where the ewes have not been. Ewes with large udders should be partially milked once every three days until they go dry. SUMMER PASTURES. The breeding flock in summer needs little but good pasture, shade, salt, and plenty of fresh water. Bluegrass is one of the most popular pastures, but is likely to be too dry in late summer and too unbalanced in its food nutrients for ideal feed. It is at its best when used in the spring and fall and supplemented by forage crops in the summer. Alfalfa is sometimes pastured in the summer, but is better used when cut and fed as hay in the winter. There is serious danger of loss from bloating when sheep are grazed on alfalfa or clover. Sweet clover is worse than the red and alsike in this regard. Rape makes an excellent supplement for bluegrass, but is a forage crop rather than a summer pasture, though it may well supplement bluegrass. Soy beans are good, and if the flock is changed to another part of the field when most of the leaves have been eaten off, the plants will 20 FARMERS' BULLETIN 840. make further growth for later use. Cowpeas are good for the older sheep, though unpalatable to lambs. Bermuda grass, when kept short, is especially good when reinforced by lespedeza and bur clover, which grow at different seasons from the Bermuda grass and here find their best use as a sheep pasture. The aftermath of grain and timothy fields furnishes feed for many flocks and helps greatly to bring down the cost of carrying the flock through the summer. AVOIDING STOMACH WORMS. In many farming sections the flockmasters most serious troubles are likely to be caused by internal parasites, the effects of which are particularly evident during the later part of the pasture season. Of these parasites the stomach worm is the most common and trou- blesome. It occurs wherever climatic conditions and methods of keeping the flock are favorable for its development, which means on most farms, and probably all. No practicable means of entirely avoiding infection with this parasite has been discovered, but by proper arrangement of the summer pasturage it is possible to keep the numbers of the worms below the danger point. A knowledge of the development of this parasite affords a basis for the changing of pastures that insures a healthy condition of the flock. The stomach worms live in the fourth stomach.1 They are from one-half to 1J inches long and have a fine red stripe running in spirals from end to end of the body. Their eggs pass out in the droppings of the sheep and hatch in a few hours, days, or weeks, according as the temperature is high or low. At temperatures lower than about 40° F. development is arrested. The larva which hatches from the egg crawls up on the grass blades when they are moist, and after attaching itself to the blade may be swallowed by some animal. The eggs are frequently killed by freezing or drying, but the larvae will sometimes live for months and can withstand re- peated freezings. After being taken into the body of a ruminating animal they develop into the mature worms. Cattle and goats also act as hosts to these worms but usually are not so seriously affected as sheep. The injurious action of stomach worms may be attributed to two things : First, the loss of blood extracted by the parasites and the loss of nutritive materials which may be absorbed by them from the ali- mentary fluids; and, second, the destruction of red corpuscles by a poisonous substance secreted by the parasites which is absorbed into the blood. Lambs that are affected become pale, thin, and weak and may either die or continue for a long time in poor condition and fail to grow as they should. The absorption of blood from the lambs 1 The information here given with regard to stomach worms is mostly taken from Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 157, written by B. II. Ransom. SHEEP RAISING FOR BEGINNERS. 21 by the parasites is most easily shown in the white paperlike appear- ance of the skin and membranes of the mouth and eyes, while watery swellings often develop under the jaws. Treatment of infected lambs will bring about recovery if given in time, although, as before indicated, the safest and cheapest way of combating the trouble is by preventing it. Young lambs are very unlikely to become seriously infected by larvre from eggs dropped by older sheep in barns or yards bare of grass. On a noninfected pasture the Iarva3 will not ordinarily develop in any considerable numbers to the stage which Avill result in injury in less than 10 days or two weeks. If the flock is moved to fresh noninfected ground by that time, the danger is avoided for a further period of the same length. It is not known how long larvae of this parasite will continue to be dangerous, but, since freezing commonly kills unhatched eggs, a pasture in cold climates that was not used in summer and fall until after frost will be practically safe for occupancy by lambs for a limited time the following spring or summer, provided the old sheep are removed from it before the winter is over. This fact, and the desirability of obtaining the maximum amount of grazing from small areas, thereby reducing the amount of fencing needed, makes it advisable to adopt the plan of having a rotation of forage crops for summer use. Land on which fall wheat or rye has been sown will be safe for spring use and, if plowed and sown to rape or other crops for later grazing, is then also free from serious stomach- worm infection. On farms where sheep have not been previously kept trouble from stomach worms is not likely to be serious until the second or third summer. FIG. 6. — A flock of lambs on the way to be loaded on cars for shipment to market. These lambs are the combined lots of several members of a Tennessee shipping club. 22 FARMERS' BULLETIN 840. PREPARING LAMBS FOR MARKET. ADVANTAGES OF EARLY MARKETING. Under ordinary farm conditions lambs should be made ready for market at from 3 to 5 months of age. When young they make a higher rate of gain and will put on the same amount of flesh for less cost than when they are older. Then, too, they will make but small gains during the heat of summer, and at this time parasites are most troublesome and they are thus more liable to losses from this cause. Risk of accidents is always higher when the lambs are held for a long time. More feed is saved for the breeding flock, and less labor is needed, if the lambs are sold early. Better prices are obtained in the spring because of not having to meet the competition of the western lambs that are marketed during the summer and fall, and in addition the grower gets the use of his money sooner by pushing the lambs to a marketable condition as fast as possible. TEACHING THE LAMBS TO EAT. Every effort should be made to keep the lambs growing from the start. The first essential is to teach them to eat. Liberal feeding of lambs dropped before pastures are ready is profitable under any ordi- nary grain prices. This is best done through the use of a small inclosure known as a " creep," to which the lambs have access at all times, but into which the ewes can not come. The creep should con- tain a rack for hay and a trough for grain, so arranged that the lambs can not get their feet into them. All feed given, especially ground feed, should be clean, fresh, and free from mold. The lambs will begin to nibble at the feed when from 10 to 16 days of age. Pea-green alfalfa of the second or third cutting is one of the most relished feeds. Flaky, sweet wheat bran probably ranks next. For the first few days these are the ideal feeds. A little brown sugar on the bran at first will make it more palatable. Linseed meal is also good when mixed with the bran. Until the lambs are 5 to 6 weeks old all their feed should be coarse ground or crushed. The Ohio Experiment Station l has found that for young lambs that are to be marketed a grain ration of corn is of about the same value as one of corn 5 parts, oats 2 parts, bran 2 parts, and oil will be safe for spring use and, if plowed and sown to rape or other meal 1 part. Oil meal is especially relished by lambs at this time and would be especially valuable in promoting growth rather than fat. Such feeds as middlings are too floury for extensive use. Rye is less palatable than oats or barley. Soy beans may replace the lin- seed meal if they cost less. Cleanliness is an important factor in keeping the lambs growing. Always feed to an empty trough, and if it becomes soiled scrub it out with limewater. 1 Ohio Experiment Station Bulletin 270, SHEEP RAISING FOE BEGINNERS. 23 RAISING ON PASTURE ALONE. The plan of having lambs dropped after ewes go to pasture and marketing them without the use of other feed for the flock can no longer be recommended for general use. The main advantages of this plan lie in the small amount of care needed and the lower feed cost. The cost, however, depends upon the quality of the pasture and the value of the land. Late lambs that have never received grain are particularly likely to be injured by stomach worms. Lambs make smaller gains in hot weather, and there is the possibil- ity of droughts drying up the pastures and decreasing the ewes' milk at the time of the lambs' greatest need. Feeding grain to lambs on pasture is only partially satisfactory and is particularly unlikely to be profitable with lambs that have not learned to eat before going to pasture. Unless grass is very good and cheap, and grain very high, this plan of raising lambs can not be expected to prove continuously profitable. When grass pastures are to be used for a flock turned out when the lambs are 5 to 8 weeks old, it is desirable to have suffi- cient divisions to allow frequent changes without the lambs being re- turned to any ground previously grazed in the same season. Lambs that are 6 weeks old when sent to pasture and have received some grain can withstand a considerable degree of parasitic infection. THE DRY-LOT METHOD. Some breeders of pure-bred sheep have practiced a dry-lot method of raising lambs, mainly to avoid stomach-worm troubles. Under this plan the lambs do not leave the sheds or yards until they are weaned, when they are put on clean, fresh pastures. In the mean- time they are fed hay and grain, and their dams are returned from the pastures two or three times each day to allow the lambs to nurse. Because they do not graze, the lambs have slight chance of becom- ing seriously infected with stomach worms. Some raisers of market lambs follow the plan of keeping both ewes and lambs in dry lots. This plan also prevents serious stom- ach-worm infection. Where green feeds or soiling crops are grown near by and fed in the lot, the ewes milk well and the lambs grow at a profitable rate. The main advantage from such a soiling system is that it insures freedom from injury by internal parasites. Less fenc- ing is needed if the ewes can be grazed elsewhere after the lambs are sold. If this can not be done, as much fencing will be needed for the ewes in the fall as would have been required for the spring flock. This plan is most likely to work well where alfalfa is the main crop. Feeding in the yards prevents loss from bloat, and there is no need for plowing the land, as would be necessary if sheep were to graze on it a number of times each season, 24 FARMERS BULLETIN 840, THE FORAGE-CROP METHOD. The practice of grazing the flock on forage crops until the lambs are sold is becoming popular where lands are high in price and where stomach worms cause trouble. Under this plan the ewes and lambs are first grazed on fall-sown wheat or rye. The land is divided to avoid the necessity of keeping the flock longer than 10 days upon the same ground. By the time the second lot of this crop is grazed down, spring-sown peas and oats can be ready and the fall- wheat ground plowed and reseeded to another cereal or to rape or soy beans for later use. Such a plan requires some labor in pre- paring and seeding the land, but it produces the largest amount of feed per acre and prevents trouble from the stomach worms. In 1915 three lots of ewes with lambs were reared at the Illinois Experiment Station to test the value of the grass-pastures, dry-lot and forage-crop methods. All of the lambs were dropped about the middle of March. The lambs running on grass ate an average of 0.3 pound of grain per head daily from March 27 to July 15, those in the dry lot 0.7 pound, and those on forages 0.3 pound. The gains made and the market value of the lambs when sold are shown in the following table: Comparison of three methods, of feeding lambs at the Illinois Experiment Station, 1915. Method. Average weight Selling price. Ratio of net re- turns. Dry-lot Pounds. 66.1 U7at?8 X Per cent. \ 100 Pasture (with grain) 64.4 \3at $7.00... /15at J7.75... } 131.8 Forage 72 4 \5at $7.00.... 20 at $8 50 195 7 o THE PLAGE OF SHEEP ON NEW ENGLAND FARMS F. H. BRANCH Assistant Agriculturist FARMERS' RULLETIN 929 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY Contribution from the Office of Farm Management W. J. SPILLMAN, Chief Washington, D. C. Issued March, 1918 Show this bulletin to a neighbor. Additional copies may be obtained free from the Division of Publications, United States Department of Agriculture WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : HIS CONDITIONS CREATED by the European war ^^ have made sheep raising on a small scale a very profitable enterprise for the New England farmer so situated as to take advantage of the economic conditions.. Prior to the recent remarkable advance in prices of wool and mutton, sheep raising in New England was comparatively unprofitable, but now, under certain conditions, a revival of the industry seems desirable. This bulletin tells briefly how the industry was organized in 1914, and discusses the difficulties to be met in expanding the business, with special ref- erence to improvement in breeding stock, better care, and more efficient disease control. THE PLACE OF SHEEP ON NEW ENGLAND FARMS. CONTENTS. Page. Improvement of the sheep industry 13 Possibility for expansion 16 Care of sheep in New England 17 Adverse factors 23 Size of flock 25 Questions of breeds and breeding 26 Sheep on large ranges 28 Page. Purpose of bulletin 3 Conclusions ' 5 Present status of the sheep industry in New E ngland 5 How the business is conducted 8 The profitableness of sheep as compared with dairy cattle prior to 1916 9 The relative profitableness of sheep and dairy cattle at present prices 12 RAPIDLY CHAXGIXG economic conditions, such as the increase in the cost of commercial feeds, scarcity of labor, and the increase in prices of wool and mutton, have induced many farmers in Xew England, as well as those in other North Atlantic States, to turn their attention with renewed interest to sheep raising. Those already keeping sheep intend to increase the size of their flocks, while others are thinking of putting on sheep, some to the exclusion even of dairy cattle. Present prices of sheep products are attractive and in themselves likely to stimulate interest in sheep raising, and there is no doubt that there are conditions in the eastern part of the country under which an increase in the number of sheep kept is justifiable. However, no material reduction in the number of dairy cows to make place for sheep should be made without a careful con- sideration of the limitations of the sheep business and the relative returns from each of these live-stock enterprises. PURPOSE OF BULLETIN. Farm management studies conducted in Xew England during the summer of 1015 by the Office of Farm Management have made avail- able figures which show what the returns from sheep and dairy cattle have been on many farms, and which, when considered in the light of present-day prices, give an excellent indication of what may now be expected from each industry. It is the purpose of this bulletin to show : 1. The relative importance of the industry and the place that sheep now occupy on Xew England farms. 2. The returns from sheep as compared with dairy cattle. 3. The more important difficulties experienced by sheep growers and the practices followed in handling these troubles. 3 FARMERS BULLETIN 929. The conclusions arrived at are based on actual figures obtained from a large number of farms representing the three States in Xew England in which most sheep are found, and upon the opinions of farmers keeping sheep under present-day conditions. The locations of the areas studied are shown in figure 1. S^reas visited in which sheep were found to be of some importance Areas visrted in which sheep were found lobe of little, or no importance . FIG. 1. — Location of areas in New England visited in farm management study of she«>p. AREAS IX WHICH SHEEP WERE OF SOMl" IMPORTANCE. State. County. Township. State. County. Township. Maine Penohscot... Corinth. New Hampshire . . Cheshire . . Walpole. Hancock Bucksport. .. do. .. Surrey. do Franklin do Orland. Farmington. Wilton do do do .. Gilsum. Westmoreland Keene. .....do Kennebec . . . Jay. WTinthrop. Vermont do Orleans Swansey. Irasburg. do ... Monmouth do . Brownington. New Hampshire . . . Coos ...do... Stewartstown. Colebrook. do Windham...-. Barton. Wilmington. do Columbia . do... W hitingham. AREAS IX WHICH SHEEP WERE OF LITTLE OR XO IMPORTANCE. Maine Cumberland Gray. New Hampshire... Hillsboro . . . Milford. do . New Glouces- do Hollis New Hampshire... Grafton do do Merrimac . . . do ter. Bath. Haverhill. Piermont. Louden. Pittsfield Vermont Franklin do do do do Caledonia Franklin. Berkshire. Sheldon. Enosburg. Baker sfleld. Peacham. do ...do... Chichester. Epsom. do do Barnet. Ryegate. .. do.... Pembroke Orange Randolph. Hillsboro.... do Lyndesboro. Amherst. SHEEP ON XEW ENGLAND FARMS. 5 CONCLUSIONS. Following, in brief, are the more important conclusions drawn from this study : 1. Sheep raising in New England is, at the present time (1917), a relatively small, but, highly profitable business if properly man- aged. 2. It is believed that the sheep industry could be greatly increased without a material decrease in the number of profitable dairy cows. 3. On most farms adapted to sheep raising, sheep should be kept in small flocks, though much larger than the present average, in conjunction with other kinds of live stock. • 4. Sheep, because they require comparatively little grain and labor, are particularly well adapted to many farms located far from mar- ket or to such as have abandoned other forms of live-stock farming because of the high cost of these commodities. 5. As conducted at present, there is great need for the improve- ment of the sheep industry in Xew England, particularly with ref- erence to more careful selection of breeding stock, better care, and disease control. G. Good care is a vital factor in its bearing upon the profitable- ness and development of the New England sheep industry, and its importance can not be overemphasized. Except possibly for disease, it is believed more failures in the sheep business are due to lack of proper care than to anything else. 7. The disease factor is one of paramount importance, which, to- gether with low prices, seems to have had much to do with driving the sheep business from the East, and which is still of much con- cern to the Xew England sheep breeder. 8. The dog question is a serious one still, but a marked improve- ment in public sentiment is evident and there is good prospect of further legislation designed to protect the sheep grower in this regard. 9. The question of breed seems comparatively unimportant so long as the sheep kept are of one of the mutton breeds, careful selection and good care counting for more than the breed. PRESENT STATUS OF THE SHEEP INDUSTRY IN NEW ENGLAND. At present less than one-eighth as many sheep are kept in Xew Eng- land as were kept from 65 to TO years ago. In 1850, according to the Federal Census, there were approximately 2.:2r)7,600 sheep (exclusive of lambs) in Xew England, whereas in 1910 there were only 306,400, the decline having been rather constant during that interval. Since 1910 the decline has continued as previously, and, as estimated by the Department of Agriculture, the number of all sheep in Xew 6 FARMERS* BULLETIN 929. England on January 1, 1918, was but 360,000. The ratio of this number to the number on hand in 1850 is as 1 to 6.3. Figures obtained for this study check very closely with 1910 census data in showing that at present about seven-eighths (86.7 per cent) of all sheep in New England are found in Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont. Of these three States, Maine has more sheep than New Hampshire and Vermont combined, or nearly one-half of all in New England. In Maine practically 1 farmer in every 5 (18.6 per cent) keeps sheep ; in New Hampshire and Vermont 1 in every 10 (10.1 per cent), while in the rest of New England as a whole an average of only 1 farmer in 50 keeps sheep. As will be shown later, sheep in any of these States are confined to certain regions, so that the ratio of farmers with sheep to all farms would be somewhat greater in regions where sheep are found than is indicated by the figures given, which apply to the States as a whole. On the farms on which sheep are kept these animals constitute about one-fifth of all productive live stock (all live stock except work animals), and at prices prevailing prior to 1916 contributed slightly less than 6 per cent toward total farm receipts. At present prices this percentage would probably be about doubled. SHEEP KEPT IN REGIONS RELATIVELY UNFAVORABLE FOR DAIRYING. Reference to the map (p. 4) shows eight districts visited in which sheep were comparatively important and seven other districts in which sheep were of very little or no importance. A study of these regions and of the kind of farming carried on in them shows that for the last few years, at least, sheep in New England have not been kept to any great extent in regions well adapted to dairying and that those regions in which sheep have been most extensively kept are somewhat lacking in the natural advantages of a typical dairy section. It must not be inferred from this that dairy farming is of no ac- count in regions where sheep are found. Dairying is carried on on many farms in these regions and, as will be seen later, on farms with sheep, but for the regions as a whole it was found that the keeping of beef cattle was much more common and that the business of dairy- ing was of relatively small importance. Fewer cows were kept in these regions ; a considerable portion of the cows kept were of beef breeds, and dairy products contributed far less toward the total farm receipts than in areas where sheep were of no importance.1 In the regions with the sheep one farmer in every five kept beef breeds of cattle, while these breeds are scarcely to be found in the areas 1 Areas with sheep as a whole had an average of only 9 cows per farm, and receipts from dairy products amounted to but $510, while areas where sheep were of no account had an average of lf> cows per farm and receipts from dairy products amounted to $1,070. SHEEP ON NEW ENGLAND FARMS. 7 studied with no sheep. The relative unimportance of dairying in regions where sheep raising is more common is in large measure due to rougher pasture not so well suited to the needs of dairy stock, remoteness of farms from market, and generally poor market facilities. KEPT MOSTLY IN SMALL FLOCKS WITH OTHER LIVE STOCK. Sheep in Xew England are kept mostly in small flocks. A few large flocks consisting of 200 or more ewes are known, but such cases are indeed rare. Farm flocks usually number from 15 to 30 ewes, the average number on the 137 farms from which records were obtained being 23. A few farmers kept less than 15 ewes while only about 1 farmer in 5, in the regions studied, kept more than 30 ewes. Practically all flocks are kept on farms with other live stock. An occasional small farmer who derives the most of his income from the sale of crops or fruit, or from labor off the farm, keeps a small flock of sheep (in addition to a little other stock for family needs) as the only kind of live stock yielding cash income. About one-tenth of the flocks upon which records were obtained were kept in this way; one-half were kept on dairy farms, while the remaining two-fifths were found on farms which kept beef cattle as the principal kind of live stock. DO NOT DISPLACE OTHER KINDS OF LIVE STOCK. Kept in these small numbers, sheep do not displace other kinds of live stock, but are kept in addition to the regular quota of other stock on such farms as have extra pasture available. It was found that, regardless of whether sheep were kept in conjunction with dairy or with beef cattle, farms with sheep had practically the same kinds and numbers of other live stock as did farms without sheep.1 More- over, farms with the sheep had an average of 15 more acres of pasture than did farms without the sheep,2 warranting the conclusion that sheep in Xew England have not been kept to the exclusion of other live stock, but have been kept on farms with large pasture areas to utilize the extra pasture available. 1 In making this determination it was first found that swine and poultry, which do not usually require pasture as kept in Xew England, were kept in about the same numbers on farms regardless of sheep. All cattle were then reduced to a mature animal basis (count- ing 2 head of young cattle as the equivalent of a mature cow) and the average number of pasturable animals (mature animal basis) determined for farms with and for farms without sheep. Following this method, it was found that 68 dairy farms on which sheep were kept had on an average the equivalent of 16.1 mature cattle in addition to 22 sheep, while 298 dairy farms of comparable size, but without the sheep, had the equivalent of 16.3 mature cattle. Likewise 54 farms keeping sheep in conjunction with beef cattle had on an average the equivalent of 15.4 mature cattle in addition to 24 sheep, while 60 beef-cattle farms without the sheep had the equivalent of 15.5 mature cattle. 2 Farms with sheep had an average of 85 acres of pasture, while those without sheep had 70 acres. 8 FARMERS' BULLETIN 929. SHEEP FOUND ON LARGE FARMS WITH LOW-PRICED LAND. Pasture is a prime essential to sheep raising, and it has been shown that only such farms as have pasture above the needs of other stock have kept sheep. As would be expected from the nature of New England land, such a pasture excess is to be found on the larger farms only. In the areas studied sheep are scarcely ever kept on farms of under 100 acres.1 On farms above this size, flocks gradually became more common, occupying the most prominent place as a farm enter- prise on farms of 200 acres or more, where they are kept on about one farm in every three and in comparatively large flocks. The 122 farms keeping sheep with the other stock had an average area of 219 acres, while 358 farms, falling within the same sized limits and similarly organized except for the sheep, had an average area of only 179 acres. It was found, moreover, as to character of the land area, that these larger farms with sheep have, for the most part, practically the same acreage in crops as farms without sheep, but a relatively higher percentage of pasture and woodland, resulting in a lower land value per acre. Land values on farms on which sheep were found in all three States averaged $25 per acre, whereas the average value on the small farms without sheep was $29 per acre.2 HOW THE BUSINESS IS CONDUCTED. For the year 1914, 30 per cent of the receipts from sheep on the 13T farms studied were derived from the sale of wool ; 62 per cent from lambs, and the remaining 8 per cent from the sale of old ewes and increase in inventory value above purchases. At present- day prices with the same production (1917), the receipts from wool would increase to about 40 per cent of the total and those from lambs and ewes decrease proportionately, since the price of wool has in- creased more rapidly than that of mutton. These figures give an idea of the kind of business carried on. Practically all breeders included in the study were producing spring lambs which were marketed in the late summer or fall at the age of 5 or 6 months, though an occa- sional breeder was supplying a special trade with fall or early winter lambs marketed in the spring. Practically all sheep were grades, the medium-wool "down" breeds being the most common, though some of the flocks were badly mixed and, as their owners said, they Iwpt " just sheep." 1 The few flocks previously referred to as being kept by small farmers were kept on farms of this size. 2 Only from one-fourth to one-third of the land area of New England farms is suitable for cultivation. SHEEP ON NEW ENGLAND FARMS. 9 REPLACEMENT AND DEPRECIATION. The transactions and changes affecting the 137 flocks of sheep give an idea of the depreciation, and of the replacement necessary in order to maintain a flock of sheep in a normal year when little disease occurs. Of all the sheep on the 137 farms at the beginning of the year (Apr. 1, 1914) 10.9 per cent were sold as old sheep, 4.4 per cent died, and 0.8 of 1 per cent were slaughtered, making a total of 16.1 per cent, nearly 1 sheep in every 6, which were either disposed of or died during the year. Of the sheep in the flocks at the end of the year (Mar. 31, 1915) 11.3 per cent were yearlings (lambs of the pre- vious year), while 3.4 per cent were purchased, the total replace- ment being slightly less than the sales and casualties and resulting in a slightly decreased inventory. These figures, which are believed to be representative for a year in which little disease occurs, show that in order to maintain a flock of sheep without any decrease in number, it is necessary to replace about one-sixth of the flock each year and that, except for the rams, this re- placement consists largely of lambs raised on the place. A loss by death of slightly less than one sheep in 20 can be normally expected, while slightly more than one lamb in 20 dies after having made con- siderable growth, to say nothing of the deaths occurring at and shortly after birth. PRODUCTION AND PRICES. As to production in 1914, each sheep sheared an average of 6.5 pounds of wool, and 75 lambs were raised for every 100 sheep kept.1 Eleven of the 75 lambs raised were retained in the flock to replace old ewes, leaving only 64 lambs to be marketed for every 100 sheep kept. In addition to the receipts from the sale of wool and lambs, an average of 11 old ewes were sold for every 100 sheep kept. The average price received for wool was 22 cents, arid lambs at that time brought from 6 cents to 6^ cents per pound, live weight, averaging $4.63 each for all sold. The average inventory price for mature sheep at the beginning of the year, April 1, 1914, was $5.24, and $5.50 at the end of the year, March 31, 1915. Discarded ewes were sold at an average price of $4.10 each, while $7.04 was the aver- age price paid for sheep purchased, which were mostly bucks. THE PROFITABLENESS OF SHEEP AS COMPARED WITH DAIRY CATTLE PRIOR TO 1916.2 THE ANIMAL UNIT AS A BASIS OF COMPARISON. In order to compare the relative returns from the various kinds of live stock some standard of comparisicn has to be adopted, and to 1 This number probably included about 10 yearling ewes which bad no lambs, and in addition to the 75 lambs raised, 4 died after having made considerable growth, so that the lambing rate for tho ewes bred was nearer 88 per cent than 75 per cent. - While th<- study is based on figures pertaining to the 191-1 business year, prices of sheep products did not change materially until 1916, so that the figures apply to the year 1915 as well as 1914. 33388°— 18— Bull. 929 2 10 FARMERS* BULLETIN 929. this end use has been made of what is termed an animal unit. An animal unit as here used is a standard unit to which all classes of stock are reduced for means of comparison, and is based upon the amount of feed required by each class of animals when kept under usual farm conditions. It has been found that 1 mature horse or cow, 2 head of young cattle, 7 sheep, or 5 hogs consume in the course of a year approximately the same amounts of feed, hence those numbers x for the classes of stock given are taken as constitut- ing one animal unit. In the discussion to follow an animal unit of sheep may be thought of as 7 ewes (6 of breeding age and 1 yearling) in addition to their lambs raised to the age of 5 or 6 months. An animal unit of dairy stock in a similar way consists in part of young cattle as well as mature animals, and it is the animal unit of dairy stock rather than a single cow that should be kept in mind in the following pages. RECEIPTS FROM THE TWO ENTERPRISES. With prices and production as previously given, the average re- ceipts per head of sheep kept (yearlings included) were $4.78. * At this rate, assuming 7 head of sheep equivalent to an animal unit, the receipts per animal unit of sheep under prices and production prior to 1916 were $33.46. The receipts3 per animal unit of dairy stock, on the other hand, were $67.12, not including $8.40, the esti- mated value of unmarketed skim milk which could have been sold at 40 cents per hundred weight,4 making a total of $75.52. 1 While the numbers given hold in a general way, adjustment has sometimes to be made to meet the varying breeds and conditions of different regions under which stock is kept. For example, in the case of sheep, where a considerable portion of the lambs' growth is made on feeds other than their mother's milk, requiring extra feeding of either the lambs or ewes, allowance has to be made, in which case, figured on the basis of mature sheep, the number constituting an animal unit would be somewhat less than seven. After hav- ing given this point careful consideration it has been decided that as sheep are kept in New England, most lambs being born in the spring of the year and marketed in the fall, seven ewes (yearlings included), raising what lambs they may, is the right number to use as constituting one animal unit. 2 Includes the following : Wool, 6.5 pounds at $0.22 $1.43 Lamb, 64 per 100 sheep at $4.63 2. 96 Old ewes and inventory increase- _. . 39 Total per sheep 4. 78 3 The average production of dairy cows in the regions in which sheep were kept and with which the comparison of profits is made was slightly less than 200 pounds of 'butter fat, or a little less than 5,000 pounds of 4 per cent milk. (Jream and butter constituted by far the most important classes of dairy products sold, though some whole milk was marketed on a butter-fat basis. Where cream or butter was sold the skim milk was fed on the place and an estimate of the value of that fed to stock other than the cattle made as contribut- ing to receipts. About 75 per cent of all receipts from the dairy were derived from the sale of milk, butter, or cream, and the remaining 25 per cent from sales of stock. The average price received for butter fat for the year in question was $0.345, and butter sold at a proportionate price. 4 The average price paid for skim milk in 1914 by creameries in the localities studied, in addition to that paid for butter fat included when buying whole milk. SHEEP ON NEW ENGLAND FARMS. 11 COSTS. While the data furnished by the survey study are not complete enough to make possible a detailed study of the cost of conducting either the sheep or the dairy industry, taken with other data ob- tained for the purpose it is sufficiently complete to give a fair indi- cation of the major expense items which are of most concern to the average farmer and have the most pronounced bearing upon profits. Hence the discussion of costs to follow, which is admitted to be incomplete, is presented only as an intermediate step in determining relative profits of the two industries. Figures available representing the average value of feed con- sumed per animal unit by all stock on farms with and without sheep, indicate that an animal unit of sheep and dairy stock in New England each consume in the course of a year practically the same amount of roughage other than pasture, but that the dairy stock require many times more grain than do the sheep. As nearly as can be esti- mated from the data at hand, the total average feed cost per animal unit of sheep above pasture for the year 1914 was $32.20.! The esti- mated feed cost per animal unit of dairy stock on the other hand was $48.90.2 As to pasture, the value of that furnished the sheep in late sum- mer and not furnished the cows has already been included in the feed cost under the head of supplementary forage crops. Further than this no attempt will be made to estimate the value of pasture, as it is believed that this cost per animal unit is practically the same for either sheep or dairy cattle and that for the purpose of compar- ing returns it can well be omitted. Labor, as nearly as can be estimated, cost about $6.30 per animal unit of sheep as compared with $18.45 per animal unit of dairy stock. This allows for 4.2 days of man labor per year per animal unit of sheep and 12.3 days for the dairy stock, the rate in either case being $1.50 per day, which, according to survey figures, was the average prevailing day wage paid in those regions in 1914. The feed and labor costs together total $38.50 per animal unit of sheep, and $67.35 per animal unit of dairy stock. 1 Includes : Hay. 2 tons, at $11.40 $2:2. SO Straw and stover, 0.2 ton, at $5 1. 00 Roots, 7 bushels, at $0.10 .70 Supplementary forage crops 3. 50 Grain feed, 280 pounds, at $1.50 per hundredweight 4. 20 32. 20 2 Includes : Hay, 2 tons, at $11.40 $22.80 Straw and stover, 0.2 ton, at $5 1.10 Silage, 1.1 tons, at $3.75 4. 10 Grain feed. 1,400 pounds, at $1.50 per hundredweight 21.00 "78790 12 FARMERS BULLETIN 929. RELATIVE PROFITS. Subtracting the combined feed and labor costs ($38.50 per animal unit for the sheep and $67.35 for the dairy cattle) from the respec- tive receipts1 ($33.46 and $75.52), it is found that the receipts 'from sheep lacked about $5 ($5.04) per animal unit of paying for the feed and labor cost, while the dairy stock left a margin of slightly more than $8 ($8.17) over these costs. In other words, if home-grown feeds be charged at farm value,2 with feeds purchased at cost and labor at the prevailing wage, sheep, under price and production con- ditions prevailing prior to 1916 scarcely more than paid for the feed consumed during the fall, winter, and spring months (to say nothing of labor, summer pasture, and other costs),3 while dairy stock paid for both feed and labor and left a margin just about equal to the value of unmarketed skim milk, which would go a considerable way in offsetting the pasture and overhead costs. ' Had the production of lambs been at the rate of 100 per cent rather than 75 per cent, and the clip of wool been 1 pou-nd greater per sheep, the returns from sheep would have compared much more favorably with those from dairy cattle. It was the opinion of the majority of farmers that sheep were paying better during the period to which the data per- tains than formerly. This evidence, together with the figures pre- sented, indicating that dairy cattle were relatively more profitable than sheep for the period just prior to 1916, strongly indicates at • -4east one good reason why the sheep industry declined in the East. THE RELATIVE PROFITABLENESS OF SHEEP AND DAIRY CATTLE AT PRESENT PRICES. The figures given above showing relative returns from sheep and dairy cattle are based on prices and production prevailing prior to 1916. From a recent interview the same production still holds, but under present prices, quite another story as to relative profitableness of the two industries would be told. For the present season wool has about trebled in price,4 while the price of lambs has about 1 These receipts include no estimate of the value of manure produced, but it is believed that this is about the same per animal unit of sheep as per animal unit of dairy stock. and that this would in no way change the conclusions as to relative profits of the two kinds of live stock. 2 Market value less the cost of marketing. In case of hay, less the cost of baling and hauling to market. 3 Includes interest, use of buildings, and any minor special costs. Depreciation and use of sire, other expense items usually included in the cost of conducting a live stock enterprise, are eliminated, as with the method employed they are taken account of in figuring receipts : that is, the sire in each case has been included with the rest of the stock in figuring animal units, and the receipts per animal unit represent returns over losses and decreased value of breeding stock. 4 While a few farmers in New England have icceived as high as 70 cents per pound for this season's wool, others who sold early received no more than 55 cents, so th.it it is believed that the bulk of the 191 7 clip was sold for no more than 66 cents per pound, which is three times as great us the 1914 price. SHEEP OX XEW ENGLAND FARMS. 13 doubled. The price received by farmers for dairy products, on the other hand, has increased by about 40 per cent during the same period.1 As to costs, grains most commonly fed in these regions have in- creased in price by about 75 per cent;2 roughage has remained at about the same price (due probably to the large hay crops of the last two years in the regions studied) ; while labor has increased by about 33^ per cent 3 of the former cost. At present prices, then, assuming the same production from sheep on the one hand and from dairy stock on the other, the gross returns per animal unit of sheep would be $76.93 instead of $33.46, and from the dairy stock $101.37 instead of $75.52. The combined feed and labor costs for the sheep, assuming the same amounts but present prices, would increase from $38.50 to $43.75 and for the dairy stock from $67.35 to $88.65. At these prices the net profit over feed (except pasture) and labor cost per animal unit of sheep are approx- imately $33.18, as compared with $12.72 from dairy stock, showing that at present, sheep are far more profitable, in small flocks at least, than dairy stock. Prices for sheep products, due no doubt to condi- tions caused by the war. have increased far more in proportion than have those for dairy products: and furthermore, sheep stand de- cidedly in favor at present because of requiring relatively little grain feed and labor, the costs of which have increased greatly, while roughage, which forms by far the greatest expense in the cost of keeping sheep, has not increased materially in value — in New Eng- land at least. IMPROVEMENT OF THE SHEEP INDUSTRY. Though sheep raising as now conducted on the farms studied is a profitable business at present prices, the writer, judging from the 1 For the two periods of nine months each, ending Aug. 31, 1914, and Aug. 31, 1915, respectively, the Turner Center Creamery, at Auburn, Me., paid an average price of $1.78 per hundredweight for whole milk testing 4 per cent butter fat, while for the same period ending Aug. 31, 1917, the average price paid by the same concern for the same grade of milk was $2.49 per hundredweight, or an increase of practically 40 per cent. A large part of the dairy products in the regions studied in Maine were sold to the concern men- tioned, and it is believed that this increase in price of milk is representative of the in- crease in areas studied in New Hampshire and Vermont as well. A nine months' period instead of a full year was used in making the comparison, as only that length of time up to Sept. 1, 1917, had elapsed since the price of milk had increased materially. 2 These increases are based on figures obtained at the time the survey was made, together with a knowledge of the prices paid during the past spring and summer. The price paid for grain feed in 1914 was about $30 per ton. An increase of 75 per cent over this amount, to $52.50 per ton, is believed to represent not far from the average price paid for what feed was purchased in the regions studied during a nine months' period ending Aug. 31, 1917. 3 The average value of labor (farmer's time included) in the regions studied for the ypar 1014 was about $36 per month, including that part (about one-half) of a man's board not produced on the farm. An increase of 33g per cent, or $48 per month, is believed to cover fully the value of labor spent on the two classes of live stock concerned during the past year. 14 FARMERS ' BULLETIN 929. experiences of many growers, is convinced that there is much room and great need for the improvement of the sheep industry in New England and that the average grower could, with better care, make the business a much more profitable one, even under normal condi- tions and without the artificial stimulus to prices given by the war. INCREASING THE LAMBING RATE. One way of increasing profits is by increasing the lambing rate, which, as will be remembered, was only 75 per cent (on basis of all sheep kept and lambs raised) for the year to which the data pertain. This low rate seems due to three or four reasons, all of which could with better care and closer attention be easily obviated. In the first place, some breeders are careless about breeding and often fail to get the ram with the flock at the proper time, with the result that many ewes go unbred. Others fail to provide sufficient and suitable feed to keep their stock at all times in good condition, which is as essential at and before breeding time as during preg- nancy. Some fail to give the close attention necessary at lambing time, while still others are cfareless about the selection of breeding stock, keeping in their flocks small, immature ewe lambs (in many cases selling their best ones) and old decrepit ewes which might bet- ter have been discarded. It is known that loss results from all these sources and that each contributes toward decreasing the number of lambs born, to say nothing of the deaths that occur at and after birth. Also it is believed that much could be accomplished in the way of increasing the lambing rate through selection, retaining for breeding the offspring of the more prolific ewes that are sure breeders, good milkers, and good mothers. With closer attention to the factors enumerated it is believed that the lambing rate can be increased so that 100 lambs can be raised per 100 sheep kept rather than 75, as was the case in 1914. In order to attain this standard, assuming a sixth of the flock to be yearling ewes, which in most cases would not be bred, and allowing for a nor- mal death rate of 5 per cent after lambs are started, it will be neces- sary for every ewe of breeding age to raise at least one lamb and about a quarter of the number to raise a pair. Many of the better breeders are already raising considerably more than this number, and the standard seems a reasonable one to strive for. Such an increase in lambing rate (from 75 to 100 per cent) would allow 25 more lambs to be marketed for every 100 sheep kept, which at present prices would mean an increase in receipts of $2.32 per sheep, or $16.24 per animal unit of sheep. INCREASING THE CLIP. The average fleece clipped per sheep in 1914 was only 6.5 pounds. It is believed that by closer selection of stock, eliminating, as before SHEEP ON NEW ENGLAND FARMS. 15 suggested, all small, immature ewe lambs, as well as old ewes, and with better care, that this average could be raised by at least 1 pound, especially where sheep are kept in such small flocks as in New Eng- land. Growers agree that sheep well fed and cared for throughout the year shear more wool than do those not well cared for, and it is generally realized that in order to produce a good fleece it is essential to keep a sheep in good condition. They also think that sheep kept in small flocks, probably because of the better care received, produce more wool than when kept in larger flocks, and it is known that some of the growers, even with the mutton breeds, average over 8 pounds of wool per head. An increase of 1 pound of wool per head at pres- ent prices means an increase of about 66 cents per sheep, or $4.62 per animal unit of sheep. EFFECT ON PROFITS. A one-third increase in lamb production (from 75 to 100 lambs per 100 sheep) and a 15 per cent increase in wool clipped per head (from 6.5 to 7.5 pounds) means, at present prices, an increase in receipts of nearly $3 per sheep, or $20.86 per animal unit. It is not expected that this increased production can be attained without an increase in cost, which, however, would be nowhere near in propor- tion to the increase in receipts. Allowing for the increased labor and feed believed to be necessary1 increases the feed and labor cost at present prices from $43.75, the estimated cost with present produc- tion, to $50 per animal unit. The estimated receipts being increased from $76.93 to $97.79 as a result of the increased production, leaves a profit over feed and labor cost of $47.79 per animal unit of sheep instead of $33.18, the profit at present production. In order to do the dairy industry no injustice in making this com- parison, an increased production of 20 per cent, or cows producing 6,000 pounds of 4 per cent milk, which i* as reasonable an increase as that assumed for the sheep, has been assumed. Allowing for the increased feed necessary2 with this production increases the cost as estimated at present prices from $88.65 to $99.85 per animal unit. The receipts being increased from $101.37 to $117.60 as a result of increased production leaves a profit over feed and labor cost of $17.75 per animal unit instead of $12.72, the profit at present produc- tion. Increasing the production of the sheep and of the dairy cattle as indicated, while not changing the relative profitableness of the two industries, increases the profits over feed and labor cost in either case 1 In making up this estimate of feed and labor cost necessary for the increased produc- tion, allowance for the following increases per 7 sheep (animal unit) were made : Roots, from 7 to 35 bushels ; grain feed, from 280 to 350 pounds ; labor, from 4.2 to 5 days. 2 Allows for a slight increase in the amount of silage and increases the amount of grain from 1,400 pounds to 1,800 pounds. 16 FARMERS ' BULLETIN 929. by about 40 per cent, making these profits from the sheep business, which it must be remembered is a relatively small industry, $47.71) per animal unit as compared with $17.75 per animal unit of dairy stock. POSSIBILITY FOR EXPANSION. A considerable expansion of the sheep industry in New England is no doubt justifiable. The above figures and previous ones show that sheep, in small flocks at least, are more profitable than dairy cattle at the present time (1917). It must not be inferred from this that the sheep industry should to any great extent displace the dairy industry, but it is believed that expansion can be made through other channels without decreasing the output of dairy products or disturbing the economics of the region so far as the dairy business is concerned. One's decision to keep sheep must not be based entirely upon the strength of the profit figures shown, as either business is sub- ject to constantly changing prices which at the present time point to a far narrower difference in profits from the two industries than is indicated by the figures given.1 Also it must be remembered that the figures given are based on records from comparatively small flocks only. Displacing any great number of dairy cows by their full equivalent in sheep means keeping sheep in large numbers, and, as will be shown later, there seems plenty of evidence to support the belief that sheep thus kept in New England are in no wise as profit- able as small flocks. As to channels of expansion, it is known that there are many unprofitable dairy cows in New England and that many of these could probably well be replaced with sheep. However, where poor care on the part of the owner is the main reason for the unprofitable- ness of the COWT, it is likely that sheep would be quite as unprofitable, and before making any replacement the cause of the unprofitableness should in all cases be determined. Some farms are located so far from market as to make their operation as dairy farms impracticable, while other operators have abandoned the dairy business because of the difficulty of securing help. These two classes of farms offer much room for the expansion of the sheep industry and, if rightly man- aged, there is little doubt that sheep would prove much more profit- able than beef cattle, which at present constitute most of the live stock on such farms. Some other farms in addition to the classes mentioned could carry a small flock of sheep in addition to the regu- lar amount of stock, but careful consideration should be given the pasture requirement to make sure that this does not lead to over- stocking. 1 The price of milk in New England was advanced 1 cent a quart, or about 50 cents per hundredweight, for the months of August and September and the first half of October, while a still further advance of 1 cent a quart was made to be effective from Oct. 15 to Dec. 1, 1917. sm:i:ij ox XK\V KNCLA-XD FA K.MS. i< CARE OF SHEEP IN NEW ENGLAND. IMPORTANCE OF GOOD CARE. Judging from the experiences and observations of the growers in- cluded in this study, it would appear that care is the most important factor bearing upon the profitableness of the sheep business in New England, and its bearing upon several sources of loss has already IKMMI touched upon. Excepting possibly disease, which is to a large extent avoidable, it is believed that more losses in the sheep business are due to lack of good care and feed than to any other one thing. Although sheep may be said to function to some extent as scav- engers— and too many make the mistake of feeding on the assumption that sheep can thrive eating weeds and cleaning up fence rows and wastelands — like any other animals they must have good care if good results are to be expected from them. The requisites of good caiv for sheep 1 may be briefly enumerated as follows : Plenty of wholesome feed at all times: dry quarters, good ventilation, and an opportunity to exercise while being stabled: and close attention at lambing time. Occasional inspection and regular dipping is also essential to insure freedom from lice, ticks, and skin diseases. SUMMER FEEDS. As to feeds, in most cases sheep in Xew England require during the summer months nothing but good pasture. In the more favored sections of Xew England, where natural grazing land (see fig. 2) FIG. 2. — Sheep grazing on a luxuriant bluegrass pasture in Vermont. Such pastures, which are the exception rather than the rule in Xew England, do not need to be supplemented with forage crops until late in the season, and sometimes carry the breeding stock through the entire pasture season without supplementary pasture. 1 The care of the farm flock is fully discussed in Farmers' Bulletin S40. which is obtain- able upon n-quest from the Department of Agriculture. 18 FARMERS BULLETIN 1)29. FIG. 3. — A flock scene at salting time. The rough, stony pasture, which is more typical of New England than the one shown in figure 2, affords considerable feed, hut has to he supplemented hy other feed much sooner. The mistake is often made of leaving sheep on such pastures too late in the season, which is good for neither the sheep nor the pasture. is to be had, but little other pasture is necessary. In less favored sections, where pastures do not hold out throughout the summer (see fig. 3), other feed should be provided. It has been found im- practical in most cases to keep sheep in New England unless pas- turage can be depended upon during the entire pasture season, or at least until after the field crops are harvested, when the sheep can be allowed for a time the run of the entire farm. Some make a prac- tice of pasturing sheep with other stock, while others prefer to have them alone. Sheep are known to eat a great variety of herbage, and the majority agree that sheep render a valuable service in keeping down weeds that cows will not eat. On the other hand, it is known that sheep crop much closer than do cows, and it is agreed by the majority -that for this reason cows do not do as well, unless the pasturage is luxuriant, when pastured with sheep. It is especially important that plenty of pasture be provided dur- ing the late summer and fall when the lambs need to be put in shape for market and the rest of the .flock kept in the best of condition for breeding. At this season of the year the regular pastures usually afford but little feed, and- that of an inferior quality, so that it is necessary for good results to make provision for other than the regular pasture. A good practice among many growers is to sep- arate the lambs from the ewres about a month before marketing time, pasturing the lambs on second-growth clover, or in many instances SHEEP ON NEW ENGLAND FARMS. 19 allowing them the run of the entire farm, and keeping the ewes on the old pasture until after the lambs have been turned off, when the ewes also are allowed the run of the farm. This practice works out satisfactorily where extra fencing for the sheep is not necessary and where the old pasture affords sufficient feed to keep the breeding stock in good condition until they can be allowed the run of the place. A safer practice, which is already being followed by a few of the more successful growers and which is to be highly recommended, is the growing of some forage crop for late summer and early fall pas- ture. Rape makes an excellent crop for this purpose and is one well adapted to Xew England conditions. To give best results rape should be sown on good land, loam preferred, which is not subject to drought, since the crop often fails in dry seasons. If raised on weedy land the seed should be sown in drills 30 inches apart at the rate of 1 to 1J pounds per acre and the plants regularly cultivated, while if on land free from weeds, broadcast seeding at the rate of from 2 to 3 pounds per acre gives satisfactory results. The crop can be grown alone or, if on clean land, with another crop such as oats or rye or following a crop of corn (see fig. 4), in which case the seed is sown broadcast or in drills between the rows of corn at the last cultivation. Where earlv feed is desired, and the land can FIG. 4. — Rape grown in corn to be used for fall pasturage in fattening lambs. The seed was sown in the corn at the last cultivation at the rate of 1 pound per acre. Two acres of such feed will normally fatten 40 lambs. 20 FARMERS' Brr.T.KTix «.)2i>. FIG. 5. — Ewes and lambs pasturing on rape, which has been practically all eaten off. This crop, which was sown alone for early fall feeding, was used to supplement the typical New England pasture shown in the background. be spared, it is probably best to raise the crop alone (see fig. 5), but if the feed is not needed until some little time after corn is normally cut, the latter practice answers the purpose as well. In New England a period of from 8 to 12 weeks should be allowed from the time of sowing the seed until the crop is ready to feed. If sown alone in early May and cultivated, feed should be afforded by the latter part of July, while a seeding in corn from July 1 to 15 ought to provide October and later fall feeding as long as needed, much of the growth being made after the corn is cut. Cultivation induces growth and in- creases the yield, though the results obtained by seeding corn on good land are very satisfactory. One acre of the crop grown alone, or 2 acres following corn, is usually sufficient to fatten from 30 to 40 lambs if allowed the run of other fields, as is usually the practice where rape is grown. Care should be taken in regard to bloating, when first turning sheep into a field of rape, but after the first few feeds no trouble need be ex- pected. This crop, if more generally grown would do much toward solving the fall feed question and should be more extensively used where sheep are kept. WINTER FEEDS. As to winter feeds, any one of the finer hays makes good forage for sheep. Legumes are to be preferred if not too coarse, coarse hays making poor feeds for sheep. Alsike Clover in particular is to be .-in; HP ON XKW I:X<;LAXD FARMS. 21 recommend '(1. while large Mammoth Clover is too coarse. Some make use oi this, however, by allowing the sheep to pick it over and eat only what they want, feeding the coarser parts to other stock. "Rowen." a> it is known in New England, or the aftermath from hay lands, is said to make an excellent feed for sheep, and many plan to save their rowen to feed the sheep just prior to and at lambing time. Redtop, fine lowland hay. and what is known locally in many places as June grass, all make good sheep hays, whereas " Herds Grass " (timothy), millet, and other coarse hays are not to be desired. In addition to dry roughage, some form of succulent feed should be provided. This form of feed is too often lacking; but it is par- ticularly essential in keeping sheep in good condition during the winter, and if fed with the right kind of hays probably reduces con- siderably the amount of grain required. For New England, prob- ably nothing is better than rutabaga turnips (see fig. 6) for this class of feed. Sweet apples are sometimes fed in the place of or to supplement roots, with gcod results. Corn silage is available on many farms and could be used as a succulent feed for sheep much more extensively than it is. Practically the only grain fed to the farm flock in New England is fed just prior to and at lambing time, and most growers agree that some grain at that time is essential. Whole or ground oats and wheat bran, sometimes with a little oil meal, is the grain mixture FIG. U. — -A crop ui" rutabaga turnip* UTOWU in i\et lira ire plentiful. Farmers' Bulletin 840 points out that at least 30 ewes, or, better still. 60 or more, can be much more economically handled than a very small flock, and that because of its being a much more important part of the farm business the large flock is likely to receive more atten- tion and better care than the very small one. In a few instances large flocks of sheep are being kept in Xew England with good success, but these cases are the exception rather than the rule, and occur where practically the entire business of the farm is caring for sheep. One of the largest breeders in Xew Hamp- shire keeps on an average from 225 to 250 breeding ewes, keeping them both summer and winter in three separate flocks. Where close 1 In this discussion the term '• small flock " includes numhrrs up to 40 or 50 head. 26 FARMERS' BULLETIN 929. attention can be given, such as these flocks receive, results from large flocks are satisfactory, but such flocks are not to be recommended for the general farmer, who has not the time to devote to giving them the close attention required. While it is no doubt possible, under certain conditions, especially at present prices, to make sheep in large flocks pay, it is more than likely that the small flock — consisting of from 20 to 50 head, depend- ing upon housing space and available summer pasture — kept in con- junction with dairy cattle as a general farm proposition, is the most desirable flock for New England. The figures given show that, with but few exceptions, sheep are kept in practically no other way; the experiences of growers lead to the same conclusion, and farmers themselves are of the same opinion. QUESTIONS OF BREEDS AND BREEDING. Sheep of the middle- wooled " down " breeds are the most numerous in New England, and of these the Shropshire and Hampshire are probably the most common.' Dorsets and Cheviots are important in some regions, and other breeds to a less extent. Traces of Merino blood are also to be found in some flocks, especially among the older flocks, whose owners were in the business when the production of wool was the main reason for keeping sheep. Most of the flocks are "grades," the better breeders keeping pure-bred rams and grading up their flocks to some particular breed, while in a few flocks, whose owners say they keep " just sheep," it is difficult to detect the marks of any particular breed. As to the comparative merits of the different breeds * there is great diversity of opinion. All agree that the " down " breeds are more easily handled in regard to fencing, but it is claimed that some of these breeds are less hardy and do not withstand the rigor- ous New England climate as well as some other breeds. Any number of instances are known, however, where the breeds condemned for this reason are being kept with good success, so that something other than the breed is evidently at fault with those who claim poor success. The Cheviots, on the other hand, are noted for their hardi- ness, and some prefer to cross in with the Cheviots in order to secure this hardiness, while the same advantage is claimed for the Merinos by those who still have that blood. Dorset crosses are kept where early lambing qualities are desired. For a general farm proposition New England needs a dual-purpose sheep that will produce a good heavy lamb in a reasonably short time and grow a good fleece of wool in addition. The middle- wooled 1 Fully discussed in Farmers' bulletin 570, to be obtained from the Department of Agri- culture upon request. SHEEP ON NEW ENGLAND FARMS. 27 mutton breeds seem to come the nearest to fulfilling these require- ments, and it is known that these breeds do well if careful selection of breeding stock is practiced and good care given at all times. Within this class it is a matter of choosing one's favorite breed, pick- ing out good strong ewes each }rear and occasionally introducing new blood, preferably of the same breed. Crosses do well in some in- stances, but the promiscuous mixing of breeds is in nowise to be recommended, and under usual circumstances it is the best practice to stick to the same breed, aiming at all times to keep none but strong, healthy stock. EARLY VERSUS LATE LAMBS. As to the best time to have lambs come, whether early or late spring, there is great diversity of opinion, and numerous growers can be found who are following each method, apparently with equally good results. Either method has its advantages and disadvantages, and which practice one should follow depends to a large extent upon market demands and the facilities of individual breeders for handling sheep. Early lambs are said to be less subject to attacks of parasites1 than are late lambs, which is a very important factor where stomach worms have given trouble. It is claimed by those who have their lambs come early that by getting an earlier start they make larger lambs, which can be turned off earlier than when they come later. It is also pointed out that early lambing permits of dipping, docking, and castrating before the lambs are turned away to pasture, important operations which are likely to go undone if the lambs do not come until the ewes have gone on grass. Those who have their lambs come late claim, on the other hand, a great saving in expense for grain, the lambs requiring no grain and the ewes but little as compared with that fed to both for a long period under the other method. With this method it is said that scarcely any trouble is experienced with ewes not having milk and disowning their lambs, a trouble which occurs to a considerable ex- tent where lambs are dropped early. Also with late lambs less attention is required at lambing time, and it is claimed that if pastures are good and the season not cold the lambs begin to grow at once and make a much better and quicker growth than where the lambs come earlier. From the writer's observations, while late-dropped lambs may make a quicker growth, in regions where this method is practiced lambs are not marketed until a month or so later than in other re- gions, and where the market demands summer and early fall lambs, it is doubtful if late lambs will make a profitable growth. 1 Farmers' Tulletin 840, p. 22. 28 FARMERS' BULLETIN 929. BREEDING YOUNG EWES. While many young ewes are bred to lamb at yearling age, the ad- visability of the practice as a general one is questionable. Many breeders are of the opinion that the growth of the average ewe lamb is greatly impaired if she is bred to lamb at yearling age, and that, while many young ewes can be bred to lamb at that age, small stock will result if this practice is followed. Others, however, say that if their lambs have been born early in the spring and have made good growth, the ewe can be bred to lamb at one year of age with no evil results. The writer knows of a few breeders who take exception- ally good care of their flocks and raise strong early lambs, and who are following this practice with apparently good success. It is likely, however, that the practice is not to be recommended for the average grower, whose lambs are born none too early in the spring to make the growth essential, and that an increased lambing rate can better be achieved b}T other means. SINGLE- VERSUS TWIN LAMBS. In the preceding pages it has been shown that in order to increase the lambing rate to 100 per cent on the farms studied about one- fourth of the breeding ewes must raise twin lambs. Many growers prefer to have their ewes raise but one lamb, saying, in most cases, that " one good lamb is better than two poor ones," but here again it seems a matter of care more than anything else, and the best breed- ers see no objection to a good strong ewe raising a pair of lambs, nor do they think that twin lambs are likely to be much smaller than those dropped singly. They prefer, in most cases, to have young ewes and old ewes raise but one lamb each, but do not object to strong medium-aged ewes having more than one lamb. The more success- ful growers aim to get as many lambs as possible, and one of the best ways of increasing the lambing rate seems to be by selecting along this line. SHEEP ON LARGE RANGES. The writer's attention has been called to a couple of large ranges; one, embracing upward of 4,000 acres, a large part of which affords fair grazing, being cited as a possibility for a large sheep proposition ; the other, which was said to carry 500 or GOO «heep, as a striking ( xample of failure due, as nearly as could be determined, to diseass and lack of care. One drawback to the first proposition, and without doubt to others of its sort, was its lack of tillable land, or at least enough of such land on which to grow the necessary forage for wintering the breeding stock. This difficulty could perhaps be obviated by operating the range in conjunction with tillable farm land in the same or other localities, utilizing the range as pasture SHEEP OX NEW ENGLAND FARMS. 29 during the summer and housing the breeding stock during the winter on the farms growing the forage. Such a proposition should be care- fully considered from all angles, however, before making the venture, and especially in reference to suitable feeds and trouble from disease. These two factors are of vital importance with the small flock, but their importance is magnified many fold when it comes to keeping sheep in large numbers. The small farm flock can be handled in connection with other stock with but little trouble, and, if well cared for, under present prices at least, it is a valuable asset to its owner. The large flock, on the other hand, calls for close attention, and re- quires the services of a shepherd who thoroughly understands his business if success is to be expected. PUBLICATIONS OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO SHEEP RAISING. PUBLICATIONS AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION BY THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Breeds of Sheep for the Farm. (Farmers' Bulletin No. 576.) Sheep Scab. (Farmers' Bulletin No. 713.) The Sheep Tick and Its Eradication by Dipping. (Farmers' Bulletin No. 798.) Equipment for Farm Sheep Raising. (Farmers' Bulletin No. 810.) Farm Sheep Raising for Beginners. (Farmers' Bulletin No. 840.) The Sheep Killing Dog. (Farmers' Bulletin No. 935.) The Woolgrower and the Wool Trade. (Department Bulletin No. 206.) The Chemical Composition of Lime-Sulphur Animal Dips. (Department Bulle- tin No. 451.) The Use of Energy Values in the Computation of nations for Farm Animals. (Department Bulletin No. 459.) Suggestions from Australasia to American Sheep Raisers. ( Separate 645 from Year Book 1914.) Karakul Sheep. (Separate 673 from Year Book 1915.) PUBLICATIONS FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERN- MENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. Sheep Killing Dog. (Farmers' Bulletin No. 652.) Price, 5 cents. Management of Sheep on the Farm. (Department Bulletin No. 20.) Price, 10 cents. Domestic Breeds of American Sheep. (Department Bulletin No. 94.) Price, 25 cents. Features of the Sheep Industries of the United States. New Zealand, and Australia, Compared. (Department Bulletin No. 313.) Price, 10 cents. Experiments in Vaccination Against Anthrax. (Department Bulletin No. 340.) Price, 5 cents. Larkspur Poisoning of Live Stock. (Department Bulletin No. 365.) Price, 25 cents. Grazing Industry of the Blue-Grass Region. (Department Bulletin No. 397.) Price, 5 cents. Sheep Scab, Its Nature and Treatment. (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin No. 21.) Price, 15 cents. Prevention of Losses Among Sheep from Stomach Worms, Haemonchus Con- tortus. (Bureau Animal Industry Circular No. 157.) Price, 5 cents. Pasturage System for Handling Range Sheep. Investigations during 1909. (Forestry Circular No. 178.) Price, 5 cents. Special Report on History and Present Conditions of Sheep Industry. (Bureau of Animal Industry.) Price, $1.40. 30 THE SHEEP-KILLING DOG J. F. WILSON Animal Husbandry Division FARMERS' BULLETIN 935 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry JOHN R. MOHLER, Chief Washington, D. C. February, 1918 Show this bulletin to a neighbor. Additional copies may be obtained free from the Division of Publications, United States Department of Agriculture WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1918 WOOL AND MUTTON are commanding higher prices than ever before, and supplies of wool are being depleted so rapidly that it will take some time after peace is declared to restock the wool trade. The sheep-killing dog constitutes one of the great- est menaces to the success of the sheep industry. The dog not only kills sheep but keeps out of the sheep business men who are otherwise inclined to go into it. The most effective method of dealing with the sheep-killing dog is through efficient legislation. Notable progress has been made by several States in enacting good dog laws, and others are expected to take similar action. No law, however well worded it may be, can be effective unless it is enforced and has the moral support of the people who are affected by it. Uniform State dog laws are desirable. THE SHEEP-KILLING DOG.' CONTENTS, Page. Present status of the sheep industry 3 Number of sheep killed by dogs 4 Habits of the sheep-killing dog 4 How dog lovers can aid 5 Dog-proof fences 5 Page. Dog laws 6 Digest of existing State dog laws 11 Complete dog laws of Pennsylvania and West Virginia 23 PRESENT STATUS OF THE SHEEP INDUSTRY. Advancing prices for mutton, lamb, and wool have proved a stimu- lus for increasing the number of sheep kept on farms in the United States. Farmers in the East and in the Middle West are beginning to realize that sheep fit in well with any system of intensified farming and can be profitably kept without replacing other farm animals. Scientific management has demonstrated that parasites of sheep, once a source of great loss among flocks, are now within control by the farmer. The use of pastures and forage crops as supplements to the grain rations has been shown to be one of the most economical methods of fattening lambs for market. The 70-pound lamb is more popular today than ever before. Wool is in great demand at the highest prices in the history of the country. The war needs of the United States and her allies make it imperative that the numbers of live stock be substantially increased. The whole of Europe is contending with a great shortage of all classes of live stock and is facing a problem in the rehabilitation of the supply of farm animals that will not be solved for years after the war is over. The entire world is in need of wool, and it will take some time after peace is declared to restock the wool trade. The need of an increased meat supply and the necessity of a greater wool supply should make the sheep one of the most profitable of farm animals. In the past various reasons have been ascribed as the causes for the constant decrease in the number of sheep kept on farms. The competition with western range sheep, low values for both mutton and wool, parasites internal and external, and greater profits to be derived from dairying have all had their part in discouraging flock- masters. But men who have entered the sheep business and have failed to find the keeping of sheep profitable are agreed that one of the greatest causes for their discouragement has been the sheep- killing dog. The sheep-killing dog at the present time is still recognized as the greatest enemy of the eastern sheep owner. Thousands of sheep i This bulletin supersedes Farmers' Bulletin 652. 4 FARMERS' BULLETIN 935. are ruthlessly killed every year by dogs, causing a monetary loss to sheep owners of well over a million dollars annually. Yet the great- est setback of all which the dog causes to the farm sheep industry as a whole consists in keeping out of the business men who are other- wise inclined to go into it. No farmer who wants to raise sheep is likely to attempt it while his neighbors' flocks are being killed out- right or chased to death. The moral effect upon all persons who have seen sheep which have been wantonly destroyed or maimed by dogs is even more destructive to the industry than is the actual dam- age sustained. The humanitarian point of view alone should be of sufficient import to cause steps to be taken to put a stop to the depre- dation of the dog. NUMBER OF SHEEP KILLED BY DOGS. That dogs are a real hindrance to the sheep industry is not only acclaimed by the testimony of thousands of sheep owners, but is veri- fied by actual conservative satistics. An investigation by the United States Department of Agriculture among sheep owners in 15 States east of the Rocky Mountains shows that out of a total of 6,836,492 sheep in the 502 counties reporting there were 34,683 killed by dogs in one year (1913) and paid for by the counties. At the same rate of loss in other farm States the total annual destruction of sheep by dogs would be 107,760 head. But these figures are based only upon the number actually paid for, and it is more than probable that the true losses far exceed this. It is known that many sheep are killed which are never reported to the county officials. In 1913 crop reporters in 36 farm States submitted estimates which showed that the number of sheep in those States could be increased 150 per cent without displacing other live stock. Such an increase would place approximately 34,000,000 more sheep in these States than there are now. Of 1,411 answers received to the question as to whether sheep raising is profitable in the farm States, 887 answered " Yes." Of 894 answers as to the causes preventing increase in the numbers of sheep, 531 said " Dogs. " HABITS OF THE SHEEP-KILLING DOG. Sheep-killing dogs work both singly and in groups, but usually in twos or threes. They do not limit their attacks to the flocks of the immediate vicinity in which they are kept, but travel for miles in all directions, spreading destruction in the flocks with which they come in contact. Because their work is so often done under the cover of darkness it is almost impossible to catch them in the act of worrying sheep, hence they can seldom be positively identified. The ways in which different dogs attack and destroy sheep vary greatly. Some dogs simply kill one or two in a flock, while others continue the attack until all the sheep are either destroyed or THE SHEEP-KILLING DOG. 5 crippled. In many cases where large numbers are killed they are neither bitten nor wounded but simply chased until they die from exhaustion. After a dog has once formed the habit of killing sheep it seemingly becomes a mania with him and he is seldom if ever broken of it. He not only destroys sheep himself but leads other dogs to the work. No consideration should be given such dogs ; if additional losses from this source are to be avoided, they should be killed as soon as their habits are known. HOW DOG LOVERS CAN AID. The dog rightfully holds a strong place in the minds and affec- tions of men. The owner of a good dog finds in him a most faithful friend. But it sometimes happens that the dog most highly esteemed is also one that kills and worries the most sheep and is the most cunning in obscuring the evidences of his guilt. A well-bred dog's habit of lying innocently asleep in the front yard during the daytime is no proof that the same dog does not kill sheep at night. Be- cause of the economic loss occasioned by sheep-killing dogs, and because such dogs bring the whole of their kind into bad repute, the true admirers and friends of this animal should help to further any steps likely to result in the limitation of the activity of these dis- crediting members of a noble race. One of the most practicable methods of accomplishing this result seems to be to place upon dogs such a tax as will reduce the number of superfluous ones and result in fewer being kept by persons who can not or will not give them the attention necessary to prevent the formation of habits and associa- tions that lead to sheep killing. DOG-PROOF FENCES. A fence constructed in such a way as to be proof against dogs and coyotes has been designed and tried out by the Forest Service of the United States Department of Agriculture. A diagram showing the construction of such a fence is shown in figure 1. Small holes ap- pearing after the wire is stretched can be filled in with dirt or other material. Specifications for the dog-proof fence : Posts 7£ feet in length, set 1\ feet in the ground and 16 feet apart ; a barbed wire stretched flat to the surface of the ground; 3 inches higher a 36-inch woven-wire fence having a 4-inch triangular mesh; 5 inches higher a barbed wire; 6 inches higher a second barbed wire; 7 inches above this a third barbed wire. Total height, 57 inches. It is essential that the bottom barbed wire be stretched flat on the surface of the ground at all points. This is accomplished by grading the ground before the fence is built and by filling in the small holes afterwards. 6 FARMERS ' BULLETIN 935. The farmer who does not object to placing his flock in a corral each night may eliminate the expense of building dog-proof fences around his entire farm by inclosing a small area with such a fence and making a practice of placing his flock therein at night. For such a purpose a 6-foot woven-wire fence such as that shown in figure 2 is suitable, but the coyote-proof fence constructed partly of barbed wire (fig. 1) is more efficient. Both dogs and coyotes are very shy of barbed wire. DOG LAWS. The desirability of a maximum increase in the number of sheep is generally admitted, and steps are being taken at the present time toward a rehabilitation of the sheep industry. It is recognized that 57IN X 'M 4\ FIG. 1. — A dog-proof fence. one of the most effective means of insuring the farmer a profit on sheep is to make and enforce laws against the sheep-killing dog. Sev- eral States have recently passed laws which adequately protect the farmer's flock, but in most of the States the present dog laws fail in their purpose. Failure may also be caused by the nonenforcement of a good law already in existence, but more often it is caused by the nonexistence of a good law. The following general discussion of those phases in the present dog laws of the farm States which should aid in the solution of the dog problem as related to the sheep industry will suffice to give an idea of the text of such laws. Many of the States now levy dog taxes directly through the legis- lature, but there are still a number which empower cities and towns to tax dogs at their discretion. A State law which provides com- pensation for damages done by dogs has an advantage over municipal THE SHEEP-KILLIXG DOG. 7 dog laws in that it gives the farmer compensation for damages done by dogs which live in the cities. Fortunately, most of the States where dogs are taxed only by the cities and towns are found in the western range country where the dog menace to the sheep industry is not nearly so pronounced as it is east of the Missouri River. The annual tax on dogs varies from 50 cents to $6 a head. Unspayed females usually are taxed at a higher rate than either males or spayed females. There is no general method employed by the States in collecting dog taxes. Many States assess dogs along with other property and collect the tax as a personal one. This method enables the assessor to call personally on all the taxpayers, and it seems logical to suppose that a more complete list of dog owners can be obtained in this way. Fn;. 2. — A dog-proof fenced lot in which sheep may be placed at night. That is the case also where dog owners are required to visit the town clerk's office and present their dogs for registry. If the law levies a sufficiently high tax on dogs the collection of the tax is one of the most vital points in insuring the success of the law. IDENTIFICATION OF LICENSED DOGS. Xot all of the States require that licensed dogs be identified. In those requiring it they are usually identified upon the registry books of the office issuing the license, by a statement of the breed, sex, and age. and a description giving color markings. To the public they are identified by a collar bearing a metal tag upon which is stamped the registry number of the dog, the year for which the license is issued, the place of issue or the State issuing the license, and in some cases the name of the owner of the doff. Xearlv all of the States furnish 8 FARMERS' BULLETIN 935. such tags when the dog tax is paid, and a few furnish collars also. The practice of requiring the name of the owner of the dog to be stamped on the tag is to be commended, as it aids materially in estab- lishing the identity of any dog caught in an act of wrongdoing. It is an easy matter for anyone to misread the number of a license. DESTROYING THE SHEEP-KILLING DOG. With few exceptions, the State laws allow anyone to kill a dog caught in the act of chasing, killing, or worrying sheep on land not owned by the owner of the dog. It is a provision which should be included in all State laws. Other conditions under which some, of the States permit such dogs to be killed by anyone are : 1. When found at large unattended and without a collar bearing the registry number. 2. When found at large after having been proved to be sheep killers. 3. When found at large and unattended, between sunset and sun- rise, on a farm where sheep are kept. Many States have laws making it a misdemeanor punishable by fine or imprisonment to keep* a dog which is known to have killed sheep. A clause such as that found in Pennsylvania's dog law (enacted in 1917) requiring all dogs not under control to be confined between sunset and sunrise is highly desirable. Most of the damage by dogs is done at night, and it would seem that if such a law is effectually carried out the menace to the live-stock industry will be materially curtailed. Well-bred dogs and dogs highly prized by their owners are usually kept confined or restrained by their masters voluntarily ; consequently such a clause works no great hardship on the owners of such dogs. COMPENSATION TO SHEEP OWNERS. The most recent laws provide for compensating the sheep owner from the dog-tax fund for losses caused by dogs. Damages are usually appraised by two or three disinterested persons appointed by the justice of the peace and residing in the locality wherein the loss has been sustained. In appraising the damage it is desirable to allow the full value. Practically all of the States hold the dog owner liable for damages done by his dog. While this is a good clause, it should not supplant compensation by the State. The dog owner should be held liable to the State for damages paid out by the State. To one unfamiliar with the workings of dog laws it may seem that holding the dog owner liable is an effective method of protecting the flockmaster, but it must be remembered that in very few instances is it possible to ascertain the owner of the dog which has done the damage. Without compensation by the State the sheep owner has small protection from the dog nuisance. THE SHEEP-KILLING DOG. 9 Some of the State laws provide for the payment of damages only once a year and for prorating the damages if the dog fund is insuffi- cient to allow for full compensation. The danger of having to pro- rate the amount paid out can be partially eliminated by increasing the dog-tax fund. Possibly the most important consideration to bear in mind in drawing up a good dog law is to have a law that will command the moral support of the people. A poor law well enforced may be more protection to a sheep owner than a good law the enforcement of which is ignored by the people. A law must have behind it the will of the people if it is to be enforced by the authorities. The ideal law is one which makes prevention of damage the major consideration rather than compensation for damage already sus- tained. Cooperation by the people and the publishing and distribu- tion of copies of the law can be made of great benefit. Ignorance of such laws as do exist is often accountable for the little attention paid them. UNIFORM STATE DOG LAWS. It is believed that similar laws for all States, so enacted and en- forced as to prevent damage to flocks by controlling and limiting the number of dogs and at the same time allowing the farmer greater leeway in protecting his flocks, will go far toward encouraging sheep raising and bring about a proportional increase in the number of sheep. With this in view an outline for a suggested dog law, com- bining parts of various State laws with some added features calcu- lated to give the sheep owner the benefit in cases where proof of facts is difficult, is here presented. This is not the text of a complete dog law that will fit conditions in all States, but is intended as a sugges- tion which may be helpful in the preparation of future State dog laws. OUTLINE FOR A SUGGESTED STATE DOG LAW. 1. All dogs over six months old to be listed by the county tax assessor at the time of listing other taxable property. (A more complete list of dog own- ers is obtained in this way than is the case when the dog owners are required to list their dogs.) Tax to be as follows : One male or spayed female $2 Each additional male or spayed female 3 Each unspayed female : 5 Kennel licenses to be issued with restrictions. 2. Dog owners to pay their dog: tax and obtain a dog license at the same time other taxes are paid, unless proof is furnished that the dog has been disposed of. 3. Counties to furnish metal tags bearing the registration number of the dog and the name of the dog's owner. (This would eliminate any question arising as to the owner of a dog found at large or in the act of worrying stock. ) 4. Provide for the impounding and, after a reasonable term of impound- ment, the humane destruction of dogs found at large without collars bearing license tags. 5. All dogs to be confined from sunset to sunrise unless under leash or un- der reasonable control of their owners. 33755°— 18— Bull. 935 2 10 FARMERS* BULLETIN 935. 6. Dogs found at large between sunset and sunrise to be impounded and owner notified. Owner to regain custody of dog on paying a fine for viola- tion of the law. 7. Any dog, registered or unregistered, may be killed by anyone when caught in the act of chasing, worrying, injuring, or killing sheep. Dog owner to have no recourse for the killing of such dog. 8. Any dog found running at large upon the inclosed lands of a person other than the owner of the dog may be killed at the time of finding him by the owner of the land, his agent, tenant, or employee. 9. Stock owners suffering losses from dogs to report the same to the local justice of the peace. Justice of the peace to appoint a committee of two or three disinterested farmers residing in the locality where the loss has been incurred, to appraise the damages. Committee to give the sheep owner a cer- tificate showing in detail what the damages consist of and the amount. Dam- ages beyond the value of the sheep actually killed outright should be allowed. Farmer to present the certificate to county commissioners to be passed on at the next session. 10. Compensation to be taken from money derived from the dog tax. Ac- cess to be had to State fund if dog-tax fund is insufficient to pay all claims. 11. Dog owner to be held liable to the county for all money paid out by the county for damages done by his dog, plus all costs of suit. 12. Reward of at least $10 to be offered by the county for the identification and proof of a sheep-killing dog. 13. Owner of a dog known to kill sheep to be required to kill, or cause to be killed, such dog within within 48 hours after notification under penalty of $5 and $1 per day thereafter until such dog is killed. 14. Sheep owner to be allowed to set out poison on his farm if he gives public notice of same. 15. Enforcement of the law to be the duty of every police officer in the State. State to furnish sufficient assistance, if necessary, to carry out all of the provisions of the act. The suggestion is offered that sheep-breeders* associations or wool- growers associations prepare mimeographed copies of the State dog law or a digest of the law featuring its salient points, and make ar- rangements with the officials issuing dog licenses to furnish each dog owner with a copy. Farmers should post in some conspicuous place on the farm the essential features of the law in order to warn the public of the rights which the law gives the farmer to kill dogs. DIGEST OF EXISTING STATE DOG LAWS. For the guidance of those who are interested in promoting legis- lation against sheep-killing dogs, there is presented here a digest of the existing dog laws of each State. This resume does not set forth every item of the laws, but features the more important clauses as related to the protection of sheep. ALABAMA. Enacted 1915. All dogs in Alabama over four months old are taxed $1 per head. The dogs are listed by the tax assessor and the taxes are collected as other taxes are. The law provides that owners of sheep who suffer losses from dogs report the loss to the district justice of the peace. The justice of the peace appoints two disinterested freeholders to examine and appraise the damages and the county pays the farmers the amount of the appraisement. Dog owners are held liable for damages done to persons if the damage is done off the dog owner's premises. Licensed dogs are given the same protection as other live stock. No person is allowed to keep a dog which has been known to kill or worry sheep and no action can be maintained against anyone for killing such a dog. Persons knowingly keeping a sheep-killing dog are liable for double the amount of the damages sustained. Indemnities for damage are taken from the dog tax fund. A further provision is that dogs must be confined at all times unless accompanied by their owners, but this provision must be adopted by the courts of the different counties before it is in force. ARIZONA. Revised Statutes of 1901 and Code of 1913. The owner or keeper of any male dog four months old or over within one mile of the postoffice of any town of 1,500 population or more is required to pay a fee of $1 and for females $2. The constable of each precinct lists the dogs. Licensed dogs are required to wear a collar bearing a metal tag with the current year stamped on it, and the law requires that all dogs found at large without collars and tags be killed. No one can shoot, cripple, or poison a licensed dog. Moneys derived from the dog tax are used toward the public school fund. Cities and towns may also impose a license tax and adopt ordinances re- straining dogs from running at large. No provisions are made to compensate owners of sheep for losses sustained through dogs. ARKANSAS. Enacted 1887. From " Digest of Statutes," 1916. Arkansas empowers the council of any municipal corporation to place a tax on dogs, prevent them from running at large, and to authorize the destruction of dogs at its discretion. The owner of a dog is held liable for damages to sheep which are committed by the dog. If the sheep owner recognizes the dog and knows to whom it belongs, he takes action against the owner through the justice of the peace. Dog owners are liable for double the amount of damages done to sheep for a second offense committed by a dog belonging to the same owner. CALIFORNIA. 1872. Civil Code, 1915. All male dogs in the State which are over four months old are subject to a tax of $1, and all females over four months of age, $3. The dogs are listed by the assessors and taxes collected as other taxes. For each additional male 11 12 FARMERS7 BULLETIN 935. there is a tax of $2. Dog owners are held liable for damages and costs of suit for all sheep, goats, or poultry killed or injured. It is not necessary for the dog owner to have had previous knowledge that the dog would worry, kill or wound sheep. If the dog is found in the act it may be killed at the time by anyone and the owner of the dog has no recourse. No provision is made for compensation to sheep owners unless the owner of the dog is known or is ascer- tained. COLORADO. Revised Statutes, 1912. City councils are empowered to restrain dogs from running at large and to impose a license fee upon them. "Any dog found worrying or injuring sheep or cattle may be killed and the owner or harborer of such dog shall be liable for all damages done by it." CONNECTICUT. As amended in 1911. Dogs are to be registered when 6 months old. Male dogs and spayed females are taxed $1 and unspayed females $5. The dogs are registered at the town clerk's office by the owners. An additional fee of 25 cents is charged for registration of the dog and issuance of the license tag. The license tag bears the name of the town where tag is issued and the license number, and must be worn by the dog at all times. The selectmen of each town appoint a dog warden whose instructions are to impound every dog found without a collar and plate. If the owner of such a dog is known he is notified and given an opportunity to reclaim the dog, otherwise the dog is killed after 72 hours or sold for not less than $5. Dogs found " pursuing, harassing, wounding, or worrying " any sheep, lambs, or other domestic animals may be killed by any- one. Dogs found at large between sunset and sunrise on a farm where sheep are kept may be killed unless the dog is owned by the occupant of the farm next adjoining that on which the sheep kept or next adjoining any highway which abuts such farm, or unless the dog is under muzzle or is accompanied by or within call of his owner. But even such a dog may be killed if there is reasonable apprehension that if not killed he will cause damage to domestic animals or if he has not a collar and plate. Damages from dogs are reported by the sheep owner to a selectman of the town. The selectman and one other person who is named by the sheep owner appraise the damages. The town wherein the dog is registered pays the ap- praised damages and may recover from the dog owner if the owner is known. When the identity of such dogs has been established the "selectman shall order that such dogs shall be killed forthwith." The commissioner of domestic ani- mals may make further regulations. DELAWARE. 1893. From Revised Code of 1915. Delaware's dog laws cover only two of the three counties in the State, the counties of New Castle and Sussex. In New Castle County the dogs are listed by the county assessors. Male dogs are taxed 50 cents and females $2. There is a further tax of $1 on each additional male dog. Sheep owners who suffer losses from dogs notify three " disinterested farmers " residing in the " hun- dred " where the loss occurs, and this committee of three appraises the damages. The committee gives the sheep owner a certificate showing the amount of the. loss sustained. The sheep owner presents the certificate to the county treasurer, who pays the amount out of the collected dog taxes. The maximum amount which may be paid for losses is $5 for a sheep and $3 for a lamb. Any person may kill any dog not on the assessment list which is found at large without an owner. Any person may kill any dog caught in the act of killing or worry- ing sheep or lambs. THE SHEEP-KILLIXG DOG. 13 FLORIDA. Compiled Laws, 1914. The city and town councils are empowered to license and restrict the running at large of dogs. " Owners of dogs shall be liable for any damage done by their dogs to sheep or other domestic animals or live stock." " It shall be un- lawful for any dog known to have killed sheep to roam about over the country unattended by ;i keeper. Any such dog found roaming over the country un- attended shall be deemed a run-about dog and it shall be lawful to kill such dot:." No provision is made for the compensation of sheep owners who suffer losses other than making he dog owner liable. GEORGIA. Enacted 1912. Code of 1914. In the State of Georgia all dogs are made personal property and are given in and taxed the same as personal property. This clause makes the dog tax op- tional with each county. The only clause in the law which covers the entire State is one which states that owners of dogs are liable for damages and full costs of suit for injury done to live stock. IDAHO. 1908 and 1915. The session laws of Idaho for 1915 empower cities and villages to impose a tax on dogs of not less than $3 or more than $10 and to destroy any dog whose owner refuses to pay such tax. The 1908 law provides that "The owner, pos- sessor, or harborer of any dog or animal that kills, worries or wounds any sheep * * * is liable to the owner of the same for the damages and the cost of suit to be recovered before any court of competent jurisdiction. " It is not necessary in such a suit to show that the dog owner had knowledge of the fact that the dog would kill sheep. Any person finding any dog off the premises of its owner killing, wounding, or worrying sheep may kill the dog at the time of finding him. ILLINOIS. 1907. From Revised Statutes 1915-16. Amended 1917. In Illinois dogs are listed by the county assessors and taxed as other per- sonal property. The assessor issues tags to be worn by dogs for which license is obtained. Males and spayed females are taxed $1 and unspayed females $3. City councils are also empowered to tax dogs and restrain them. Sheep owners may put poison on their farms for sheep-killing dogs. Owner of a dog is liable for all damages to sheep and if damages do not exceed $200 they may be recovered before a justice of the peace. Dogs discovered in the act of chas- ing sheep or in a condition showing that they have recently been engaged in chasing or killing sheep may be immediately killed by anyone. Moneys col- lected from dog taxes are used to pay for damages done to domestic animals by dogs. The owner of the sheep who suffers damages appears before a magistrate and makes affidavit as to the extent of his losses. The proof of damages must be made by at least two witnesses who are freeholders of that county. Recov- ery of damages from the county is possible only when the dog owner is un- known or is insolvent, but the payment of damages by the county does not bar the sheep owner from recovering damages from the dog owner. The amount cf damages paid by the county shall not exceed $10 per head for sheep killed or injured. INDIANA. Revised Statutes 1914. Dogs are listed by the township assessor and the dog owner pays immediately to the assessor $1 for each male or spayed female, $2 for each additional male or spayed female, or $3 for each unspayed female. It is unlawful for anyone 14 FARMERS' BULLETIN 935. to keep an unlicensed dog. Any dog known to have chased or worried or killed sheep may be killed by any person if found unaccompanied by its owner or keeper and if anyone keeps a dog which he knows to have chased, worried, or killed sheep, such owner is subject to a fine of from $10 to $50. " If any dog shall be found roaming over the country unattended by his master or owner or his owner's agent, it shall be lawful to kill such dog." Money derived from the dog tax is used to pay for damages to stock. The sheep owner reports his loss within 10 days to a township trustee and makes affidavit for losses, sup- ported by two witnesses who are freeholders of the township. The distribution of funds is made only once a year and if the balance on hand is insufficient to satisfy all the claims presented, the money is prorated. IOWA. As amended 1917. The county auditor of each county charges a registration fee of 50 cents on all dogs and furnishes a license tag to each dog owner. No dog is allowed to run at large between sunset and sunrise except while in the chase or accom- panied by the owner or trainer. It is unlawful for any dog to run at large between sunset and sunrise unless it has been registered by the county auditor. "Any dog found at large and upon the lands of one other than its owner con- trary to the provisions hereof shall be deemed a trespasser and may be lawfully killed by the owner, agent, employee, or occupant of said lands." The act, however, does not apply to dogs ownqd in cities which have their own dog regu- lation, while running at large within the limits of such city or town. In the Code of 1913 provision is made that sheep owners may recover damages done by dogs from the county. Losses are reported within 10 days to the board of supervisors and must be verified by 2 witnesses. The board authorizes pay- ment or disallows payment of damages at its next meeting. Payments are made twice a year and the dog fund is prorated if insufficient. KANSAS. General Statutes, 1915. Dogs 3 months old and over are listed by the assessor. Males and spayed females are taxed $1 and unspayed females $2. The tax is collected as other taxes are. Cities are also empowered to tax dogs and to restrict them. If the owner of a dog disclaims ownership he may avoid the dog tax by killing the dog in the presence of the assessor. The 1911 law makes a dog owner liable for damages done to sheep, damages to be recovered in court by the sheep owner. The law of 1868 legalizes killing any dog at any time which may be found worrying or injuring sheep. KENTUCKY. 1906. General Statutes, 1915. Dogs over 4 months old are listed by the assessor and taxed $1 for either sex. Dog tax funds used to indemnify losses of sheep. The sheep owner notifies the magistrate of the district of his damage. The magistrate appoints two dis- interested freeholders of the neighborhood to appraise the damages and report same. The report is filed with the county clerk and acted upon by the fiscal court. Dog fund is prorated if insufficient to compensate all damage claims allowed. The dog owner is liable for the damages if they occurred off his premises and court may order such a dog killed. There is a fine of $10 for failure or refusal to list a dog with the assessor. Unlicensed dogs are to be killed. LOUISIANA. Amended 1910. From Revised Statutes, 1915. Dogs are listed by the assessor. The police juries of the State are required to impose a tax on dogs not to exceed $2. Dog tax fund is given to school THE SHEEP-KILLING DOG. 15 boards. Police juries are authorized to pass ordinances for the protection of sheep and to impose fines and penalties as they deem proper. There is a heavy fine or imprisonment or both for violating a police jury ordinance. A petition signed by 50 taxpayers of any parish will force the police jury of that parish to pass ordinances regulating dogs. Anyone may kill a sheep-killing dog. A dog owner is liable to a sheep owner for 10 times the damages caused to sheep. Persons knowingly keeping sheep-killing dogs are liable to a $25 fine or 30 days imprisonment or both. MAINE. 1909. Tax assessors list all dogs. Owners must register same with the town clerk. The tax is $1.15 for males and spayed females and $5.15 for-unspayed females; kennel license $10.15. Dogs must at all times wear a collar showing the name of owner and dog's registry number. All dogs not licensed are to be killed by police officers. " Whenever any sheep, lambs, or other domestic animals owned by a resident of this State are killed or injured by dogs, such owner may make complaint thereof to the mayor of the city, or to one of the municipal officers of the town or plantation where such damage was done, within seven days after he has knowledge of the same, and thereupon the municipal officers shall investi- gate the complaint and if satisfied that the said damage was committed by dogs within the limits of their city, town, or plantation, they shall estimate the damage thereof according to the full value and fifty per cent additional, for the purpose for which they are kept, whether as breeders or for other purposes, and direct that the same shall be paid from the town treasury." The town has right of action against the dog'owner to recover the amount so paid out. Any person who keeps a dog that kills or injures sheep or lambs is subject to fine of $50 to $100 unless dog is killed before case is disposed of. If the dog owner is unknown the State reimburses the owner. Any person may kill any dog caught chasing sheep off the dog owner's land. MARYLAND. 1912 and 1916. The State dog laws are applicable only to certain counties. The boards of county commissioners are empowered to levy taxes at the rate of not less than $1 for males and $2 for females, with the exception of Hartford County, where a uniform tax of $1 may be levied. In Allegany County any person may kill any dog found chasing or killing sheep, cattle, or poultry upon the lands of any person other than the owner of the dog, or the dog may be killed if found un- attended in an inclosure where sheep are kept, except on the farm of the dog owner. No person has the right of action to recover the value of a dog so killed. The county commissioners pay $10 to anyone identifying a sheep-killing dog and the owner of the dog is notified to kill it. Failure to kill a dog after being notified to do so subjects the owner to a fine. Montgomery County per- mits the appointment of appraisers to estimate the damage done by dogs and the county awards compensation to sheep owner. Owner of dog is held liable if he is known. If a dog is known to kill animals or fowls any person may kill the dog and dog owner has no recourse. MASSACHUSETTS. As amended 1917. Under the existing law male dogs and spayed females over 3 months of age are taxed $2 and unspayed females $3. Each dog must wear a collar and a license tag showing the name of the owner and the dog's registration number. Any dog found out of the care of its owner and worrying, wounding, or killing sheep on land owned by one other than the owner of the dog may be killed. Cities and towns are empowered to offer rewards up to $25 for anyone killing 16 FARMERS' BULLETIN 935. a dog which is found harrassing or killing sheep. Damages are appraised and paid for by the county. In 1917 a provision was added whereby persons who obtained dog licenses promise to restrain the dog from "killing, chasing, or harassing " sheep. Dissatisfaction with the existing statutes led the 1917 legis- lature to adopt a resolution whereby a commission is to be appointed to inquire into the advisability of amending or supplementing the existing laws. The commission's report is to be ready in January, 1918. MICHIGAN. As amended 1917. Owners of dogs over 4 months old must secure from the clerk of the village "or township a metal registration tag and law provides that said tag shall be " securely fastened to the collar of the dog and constantly worn by such dog." Males and spayed females are taxed $2 and unspayed females $5. County assessors are also required to list the dogs in each county. Sheriff shall kill dogs for which tax is not paid. Damages to live stock are ap- praised by a local justice of the peace, who gives a certificate stipulating the amount of the damages to the local clerk of the township or village. The clerk then issues an order, payable to the stock owner, drawn on the treas- urer of the township or village. Surplus funds at the end of the year go to the school fund. " Nothing in this act contained shall be construed as limiting the common-law liability of the owner of a dog for damage committed by it." Act does not apply to cities already having ordinances providing for the dis- position of fees derived from dog taxes. MINNESOTA. As amended 1915. Village councils are empowered to license dogs and to restrain them from running at large. Dog owners are liable to owners of domestic animals for damages done by their dogs, even though dog owners are unaware of the dogs' bad habits. Persons knowingly keeping a dog which has bitten any domestic animal are liable to a fine of $5 a day for every day that the dog is kept on such person's premises thereafter. Any dog found injuring or worrying sheep may be killed by anyone and " any owner of sheep may kill any dog found on his premises where sheep are kept, if not under the restraint or control of his owner or other person." MISSISSIPPI. Enacted 1910. The board of supervisors of each county is empowered to tax dogs 6 months old or more. If the dog tax is adopted in a county the rate is to be $1 for males and $3 for females. The dogs are recorded by the tax assessor and the taxes collected are used for the repair and improvement of public schoolhouses. All dogs in counties requiring a license must wear a collar bearing the name of the owner. If the board of supervisors refuses to levy the tax, a petition from 20 per cent of the qualified electors of the county will grant the people in that county a special election on the subject. When any county levies a tax it must be levied each year thereafter unless voted down in the foregoing manner. In counties requiring the license any person may kill any dog found at large without a collar and license tag, and the dog owner has no right of action. MISSOURI. Revised Statutes of 1909. Municipalities are empowered to tax dogs at their discretion. If sheep or other domestic animals are killed by dogs the owner of the stock so lost may recover against the owner of the dog the full amount of the damages THE SHEEP-KILLING DOG. 17 and the dog owner must kill the dog or forfeit $1 for every day he refuses to do so. Under " general application " in the " Revised Statutes of 1909 " it is held that anyone may kill a dog which has killed sheep, except that no one may kill such a dog on the dog owner's property. In order to recover damages for sheep killed by dogs, it is necessary to allege and prove that the owner of the dog knew of his vicious character. "A person has no right to put poisoned meat on his premises to kill dogs merely trespassing. But if the dogs have killed his sheep, he has the right to poison them." MONTANA. 1903. Municipalities are empowered to tax dogs at their discretion and to restrict them from running at large. The law makes it a misdemeanor for a dog owner to allow his dog to chase any live stock on the public range which does not belong to himself. The penalty for such misdemeanor is a fine not to exceed $50. NEBRASKA. From Code of 1913. Dogs are considered personal property. The municipal authorities of the counties, cities, towns, and townships are empowered to impose a tax on each dog of not more than $5. Any person may kill any dog found doing damage to any domestic animal except dogs, and any one having reasonable grounds to believe that a dog has been killing, wounding, chasing, or worrying sheep may kill such a dog. Every dog must wear a collar bearing a metal plate on which is inscribed the name of the owner. It is lawful to kill any dog found at large without such a collar. Dog owners are liable to stock owners for damages done by their dogs and are also subject to fine for allowing the dog to damage stock. The damages, however, must be obtained through an action brought against the dog owner in court. Funds raised through the taxation of dogs are in most cases to be used for compensation for damages done to stock by dogs, but in certain of the larger cities the dog fund is turned over to the city treasurer to be used as the council directs. NEVADA. Revised Laws of 1912. City councils are empowered to tax dogs and to regulate the destruction of all unlicensed dogs. A heavy fine is imposed on any one who keeps a vicious dog. It is unlawful to poison any dog intentionally. NEW HAMPSHIRE. 1913 and 1915. All dogs over three months of age are to be taxed. The tax on males and spayed females is $2 and on unspayed females $3. Dogs are required to wear a collar bearing the owner's name and the registry number of the dog. No self-hunting dogs allowed to run at large " in woods or fields inhabited by game birds or quadrupeds or on lands where sheep are pastured between April first and December first of any year." When a dog is discovered " pursuing or harassing " sheep " or injuring any domestic creature " notice is given the owner of the dog and on second or any subsequent offense the dog owner may be fined $5. A dog found out of the care of its owner wounding, worrying, or killing sheep may be killed by anyone. Sheep owners may recover damages done to sheep from the " town or city wherein such damage was done." NEW JERSEY. As amended 1911-15, 1916-17. All cities, towns, and villages tax male dogs at SI and females $2. but town- ships may levy additional dog taxes up to $5. Dog owners are required to 18 FARMERS' BULLETIN 935. register their dogs with the town clerk. Each municipal corporation is required to make ordinances for the seizure and killing of all dogs not claimed by any person. All municipal corporations required to enforce the State law by ordinance. Licensed dogs are required to wear a collar containing the license number of the dog and the name of the owner. Owners of dogs are liable for damage done to sheep. If any dog is known to be a sheep killer the owner must kill the dog or cause it to be killed ; penalty for failure to kill a dog after being notified to do so subjects the owner to a fine of $10. Dogs caught killing, wounding, or chasing sheep may be killed by any one, and a dog found at large without a collar may be killed. The 1916 amendment provides for the appraisal of damages to live stock by two freeholders and compensation for such damages from the dog-tax fund. The 1917 law prohibits dogs running at large during certain seasons, except when accompanied and controlled by their masters or being trained. NEW MEXICO. Codification of 1915. The State law requires all cities, towns, and villages to collect a tax of $1 on each male dog and $2 on each female, for municipal purposes. A fine of $10 is imposed on persons who keep a dog and do not pay the tax. A sheep owner has a right of action on the owner of a sheep-killing dog and such dog must be killed by its owner. Each municipality is required to make ordinances regu- lating the running at large of dogs. No one is allowed to keep a sheep-killing or a vicious dog. NEW YORK. Enacted 1917. Male dogs over four months old are taxed $2 and females $3. The license is obtained from the town or city clerk. Every licensed dog is required to be tagged and unlicensed dogs to be killed. Any person may kill any dog while it is " attacking, chasing, or worrying " any domestic animal or is attacking fowls. If the commissioner of agriculture decides that the State regulations are inadequate, he may publish an order that the dogs in such town be confined at night from May 1 to November 1, or any shorter period of time within these dates. The owner of a dog is liable for all damages done by it. '* The fact that a dog is without a tag attached to a collar * * * shall be presumptive evidence that such dog is unlicensed and that a tag was not issued and attached as so required. An action shall not be maintained for an injury to or destruc- tion of a dog without a tag" unless the owner can prove that the dog had a tag wrhich was removed without his knowledge or consent. The commissioner of agriculture on his own motion or the application of at least two residents may issue an order restraining the owner of a dog which is " dangerous to per- sons, domestic animals, or fowls " to run at large outside the premises of the owner, for any length of time specified in the order. If dog owner permits his dog to run at large after receiving such an order he is subject to a fine of $25. Failure to have a dog licensed causes the dog to be killed if tax is not paid by the owner within five days after the dog is impounded. Dog owners are held liable for all damages done to live stock and in the case of sheep there is added to the amount of the damages $2 for each ewe of the age of one year or upwards, in the flock " attacked, chased, or worried by such dog." Owners of stock which has been " attacked, chased, worried, injured, or killed by a dog " may present a claim for damages to the commissioner of agriculture, and the com- missioner causes an investigation and determines the amount to be paid. Reim- bursement is made from the State treasurer's office. Anyone killing a dog must report the same to some village or city official or pay a fine of $10. Dam- ages paid for by the State are taken from the dog-tax fund. THE SHEEP-KILLING DOG. 19 NORTH CAROLINA. 1913. North Carolina has no State-wide laws on the dog question. The law must be accepted by each county before it is in force. Upon application of one-third of the qualified voters of a county an election may be held to determine whether or not the dog law is wanted. No dogs can be taxed less than $1 or more than $5. Failure to register dogs in counties which have adopted the dog law is a mis- demeanor punishable by fine. Anyone can kill a mad dog, sheep-killing dog, or egg-sucking dog on sight, and the owner of the dog can not recover damages. The dog owner is held liable for all damages done to sheep by his dog. NORTH DAKOTA. Compiled Laws of 1913. Municipalities are empowered to tax dogs at their discretion. Dogs caught in the act of killing, wounding, or chasing sheep, or dogs showing that they have recently been engaged in killing, wounding, or chasing sheep may be im- mediately killed by any person. The owner of a dog is held liable for all damages done to sheep or to other domestic animals. OHIO. Enacted 1917. All dogs over three months of age are to be taxed. The tax on males and spayed females is $1 and on unspayed females $2. The certificate of registra- tion is obtained from the county auditor. Unlicensed dogs are to be killed. Licensed dogs must wear their metal tags at all times, and failure to wear the tag is evidence of lack of registration. County sheriffs are instructed to seize and impound all dogs found without registration tags and to sell or destroy such dogs if they are not redeemed within four days. Claims for damages to live stock are presented to the township trustees and must be verified by the testimony of at least two freeholders. Sheep owner must make it known that he does not know the owner of the dog which did the damage, or that damages could not be collected from the dog owner. The county commissioners pass on claims and pay them in June or in December. The dog fund is prorated if insufficient. If stock owner is dissatisfied with the allowance made by the commissioners he may appeal to the probate court. It is lawful to kill any dog caught worrying or chasing sheep. Dog owner is liable for damages done by his dog. OKLAHOMA. Revised Laws of 1910. The dogs are taxed and restrained at the option of city councils. The State law empowers the city councils to prevent dogs running at large. A dog found off his owner's premises in the act of killing or worrying sheep may be killed. OREGON. Enacted 1917. Sheep owners suffering losses present claims for damages to the board of county commissioners. The board allows or disallows the claims and if passed upon favorably the damages are paid by the county out of the dog-tax fund. The law has been attacked as unconstitutional and is at present in litigation. The State law as passed refers only to certain portions of Oregon specified as " lying west of the summit of the Cascade Mountains with the exception of the counties of Josephine, Jackson, Coos, Curry, Lincoln, Tillamook, Clatsop, and Columbia." A tax of $1.50 is imposed on all males over six months of age and spayed females, and $3 on unspayed females of the same age. The tax is collected by the constable of each district. The law does not apply to cities hav- ing a population of 100,000 or over. Compensation is made to stock owners for losses incurred through dogs. 20 FARMERS' BULLETIN 935. PENNSYLVANIA. Enacted 1917. The license fee for dogs is determined by the county commissioners of each county, but may not exceed $2 for each male or spayed female, or $4 for each unspayed female. No dog is allowed to run at large unaccompanied by its owner. "Unlicensed dogs are to be killed unless claimed by the owner after being impounded. "Any person may kill any dog which he sees in the act of pursuing, worrying, or wounding any live stock or poultry or attacking human beings, whether or not such dog bears the license tag required." "Any un- licensed dog that enters any field shall constitute a private nuisance, and the owner or tenant of such field or their agent or servant may kill such dog while it is in the field without liability or responsibility of any nature for such killing." Licensed dogs accompaned by the owner are not subject to the fore- going clause unless caught in the act of worrying, wounding, or killing any live stock or poultry. No one is allowed to put poison out for dogs. Every dog is required to be confined or secured by collar and chain or other device between sunset and sunrise every day. Owners of dogs are responsible for damage done to live stock by their dogs. Damages to sheep are appraised by a justice of the peace or by an alderman and are paid for by the county. If the owner of a dog which has committed damages is known he must pay the amount of the damages to the county or kill the dog. (Full text of law on page 24.) RHODE ISLAND. As amended 1916. Owners are required to register their dogs with the town clerk in April of each year. The tax is $1.15 on males and spayed females and $5.15 on un- spayed females Licensed dogs are required to have at all times a collar bear- ing the dog's registry number and the name of the owner. There is a fine of $10 for owning or keeping a dog not registered. Dogs kept for breeding purposes only and confined or kept in charge of owner at all times need not be registered if a kennel license is paid. It is lawful to kill any dog found off the premises of its owner unattended and without a collar. The dog owner is liable for all damages done by his dog, same to be recovered by an action in court. The dog owner is liable for double the amount of damages to live stock for a second offense committed by the dog and for a second offense the dog is ordered killed. Towns annually appoint appraisers to appraise damages to live stock. These appraisers give a statement of the amount of damages to the sheep owner. The sheep owner presents the .statement to the city council and the city council draws an order on the town treasurer for the amount. The town may recover from the dog owner or the sheep owner may recover from the dog owner, but if the sheep owner prefers to sue the owner of the dog he can not recover from the town. SOUTH CAROLINA. Code of 1912. The State law requires that dogs be listed as personal property at the time other assessments are made. A tax of 50 cents is imposed on all dogs except those in Harry County where the tax is $1. The law specifies that " It shall be lawful for any person who may find a dog in the act of worrying or de^troy- in.tr any sheep in this State to kill said dog, and he shall not be held to answer for any action, civil or criminal." The owner of a dog is liable for double the damages that may be inflicted by the dog on sheep, but the damages must be recovered at the suit of the party sustaining the loss. THE SHEEP-KILLING DOG. 21 SOUTH DAKOTA. Code of 1903. Dogs are listed in each county by the county assessor and a tax of $1 on each dog is levied by the county commisioners. "Any person keeping, owning, or harboring " a dog which " chases, worries, or kills " sheep is liable for all damages committed by such dog. Any person may kill any dog which is found off the premises of its owner in the act of chasing or worrying sheep. TENNESSEE. 1907. From 1917 edition of Shannon's Code of 1896. Female dogs three months of age or over must be registered with the county clerk. The tax is $3 and a collar and a tag bearing the name of the county and the registry number is furnished. There is a fine of from $5 to $25 for not registering a female dog. It is unlawful to allow any dog to run at large un- controlled by its owner except when in the chase. It is a misdemeanor for anyone to keep a dog after notice has been served that such dog has chased or killed sheep. The owner of a dog is liable for all damages done to live stock and ignorance of the dog's habits does not free his owner from liability. TEXAS. Revised Civil Statutes of 1911. The State empowers each county to place a tax on dogs at its discretion, and to prevent dogs from running at large. The law contains no clause regarding damages to sheep. UTAH. Amended 1911. Counties, cities, and towns are empowered to tax. The law is essentially the same as that of Texas. VERMONT. As amended in 1912. All dogs which are four weeks old or over on April 1 are to be registered with the town clerk by their owners. At the time of registry a tax of $1 is levied on owners of male dogs and spayed females and a tax of $6 on unspayed females. Dogs not four weeks old on April 1 are registered the following year. If a dog which is known to be vicious is registered, the owner of the dog is subjected to a fine of $20. Licensed dogs are required to wear collars and unlicensed dogs are to be killed. Sheep owners suffering damage from dogs report their losses and the damages are appraised either by a selectman of the town or by two disinterested parties. Reparation is made by the town from the dog tax fund. If the dog or dogs which have done the damage are identified they are to be killed. Villages may offer rewards for the identification of a sheep-killing dog. The owner of a dog is liable to the town for all damages done by his dog which the town paid for. If the sheep owner wishes he may sue the dog owner instead of recovering damages from the town, and in such instances the owner is liable for twice the amount of the damages plus twice the cost of suit. VIRGINIA. 1914 and Code of 1916. The commissioners of revenue list all dogs as personal property and to be taxed as such. Males and spayed females are taxed 50 cents and unspayed females $1. Damages, not to exceed the value of sheep, appraised by three qualified voters chosen by the justice of peace, are paid from dog tax by the county, the fund being prorated if insufficient. The law does not apply to municipalities having their own dog laws, to counties having special dog tax, or to Caroline, Xansemond. Isle of Wight, or Lancaster Counties. An act of 1916 provides the same measure for Clarke, Frederick, and Charlotte Counties, 22 FARMERS' BULLETIN 935. but taxing all dogs 75 cents and applying fund to expenses of enforcing the law, damages for sheep, and the destruction of predatory animals. A law of 1914, which does not apply to any city or town requiring a license tax and must be adopted .by each county before becoming effective therein, makes it a misdemeanor to fail to confine a dog to the limits of the premises on which he is regularly kept, when unaccompanied by the owner. WASHINGTON. Code of 1915. Amended 1917. The law as given in the 1915 code empowers cities or townships to license dogs and to make ordinances restraining dogs from running at large. The 1917 amendment states that any person can kill any dog found "chasing, biting, in- juring, or killing" sheep off the dog owner's premises, but if not killed the dog shall thereafter be kept in leash or confined. If the dog thereafter runs at large any person can kill it. The owner of a dog which has been identified as a sheep killer is notified to kill it within 48 hours and failure so to do imposes a fine on the owner of not less than $5, and $1 per day thereafter until such dog is killed. The act does not apply to cities of the first or second class, which regulate the licensing of dogs by ordinance. WEST VIRGINIA. Enacted 1917. County courts and municipal councils issue license to dog owners upon ap- plication. There is a tax of 25 cents on all dogs. It is unlawful for anyone to allow his or her dog to run at large on any inclosed land or to trespass upon any land belonging to another. If any dog is permitted to run at large or to " kill or assist in killing, injuring or chasing " sheep the proof that the dog was at large at the time and at place of the injury complained of, is evidence of the guilt of the dog. Any dog found at large in any public place without owner or keeper is seized. No unnaturalized resident (?an own a dog. Anyone violating the law is subject to fine. The dog owner is liable for all damages done to sheep if the sheep owner successfully prosecutes him. (Full text of law on page 31.) WISCONSIN. General Statutes 1915. The State empowers towns and municipalities to tax dogs not less than $1 nor more than $10 and also to make regulations concerning dogs running at large. "Any person may kill any dog * * * found killing, wounding, or worrying" sheep, lambs, or other domestic animals. The owner of a dog is liable for all damages done by his dog even though said owner is ignorant of the disposition of the dog to kill, wound, or worry farm animals. If a dog owner is notified that his dog is worrying or killing live stock he is required to keep the animal confined. After being notified to confine the dog, the owner is liable for double the amount of the damage done by the dog in a second offense, but the damages are to be recovered by the owner of the live stock who suffers the loss. Also the dog, after the first offense may be killed if found off the owner's premises. Neither the State nor the counties make compensa- tion for losses incurred through dogs. WYOMING. Towns and 'municipalities are empowered to tax at their discretion. Dogs used in the forest reserves for the purpose of hunting must be licensed and tagged. On such dogs the tax is $1. Dogs caught in the act of chasing live stock may be killed in cases where the safety of the stock is threatened, pro- vided the stock so threatened is not upon land belonging to the owner of the dog. COMPLETE DOG LAWS OF PENNSYLVANIA AND WEST VIRGINIA. The complete laws of the States of Pennsylvania and West Vir- ginia are given as being examples of modern laws which really offer protection to flockniasters. While the text of these laws will not be suited to every State, their principles could be adopted to advantage. THE DOG LAW OF PENNSYLVANIA. AN ACT relating to dogs, and the protection of live stock and poultry from damage by dogs ; providing for the licensing of dogs ; regulating the keeping of dogs, and authoriz- ing their destruction in certain cases ; providing for the protection of licensed dogs, and for dogs temporarily imported for trial, show, and breeding purposes ; prescribing certain privileges for hunting dogs, and dogs owned or used by the Board of Game Commission- ers ; providing for the assessment of damages done by dogs, and payment thereof by the proper county to the owners of live stock and poultry, and of damages to licensed dogs; imposing powers and duties on certain State, county, city, borough, town, and township officers and employees, and on city councils of cities of the first and second class ; and providing penalties. SECTION 1. Be it enacted, etc., That this act shall be known and may be cited as the Dog Law of One Thousand Nine Hundred and Seventeen. SEC. 2. For the purpose of this act the following terms shall have the fol- lowing meanings respectively designated for each : The term " live stock " shall include horses, stallions, colts, geldings, mares, sheep, rams, lambs, bulls, bullocks, steers, heifers, cows, calves, mules, jacks, jennets, burros, goats, kids, and swine. The term " poultry " shall include all domestic fowl. The word " person " shall include State and local officers or employes, indi- viduals, corporations, copartnerships, and associations. Singular words shall include the plural. Masculine words shall include the feminine and neuter. The word " owner," when applied to the proprietorship of a dog, shall in- clude every person having a right of property in such dog, and every person who keeps or harbors such dog or has it in his care, and every person who permits such dog to remain on or about any premises occupied by him. SEC. 3. The term " kennel " shall mean any establishment wherein or whereon dogs are kept for the purpose of breeding, sale, or sporting purposes. The term " police officer " shall mean any person employed or elected by this Commonwealth, or by any municipality, county, or township, and whose duty it is to preserve peace or to make arrests or to enforce the law. The term includes game, fish and forest-wardens. SEC. 4. On or before the fifteenth day of January, one thousand nine hundred and eighteen, and on or before the fifteenth day of January of each year there- after, the owner of any dog six months old or over shall apply to the county treasurer, either orally or in writing, for a license for each such dog owned or kept by him. Such application shall state the breed, sex, age, color, and markings of such dog, and the name and address of the last previous owner; and shall be accompanied by a fee of not less than one dollar, nor more than two dollars, for each male dog and each spayed female dog ; and by a fee of not less than two dollars, nor more than four dollars, for each unspayed female dog. The license fee shall be determined by the commissioners of the several counties of the State, and shall be the only license or tax required for the ownership or keeping of said dog or dogs. SEC. 5. Such license shall be issued on a form prepared and supplied by the county commissioners. Such license shall be dated and numbered, and shall bear the name of the county issuing it and a descriptor of the dog licensed. All licenses shall be void upon the fifteenth day of January of the following year. The county commissioners shall also furnish, and the county treasurer shall issue, with each license, a metal tag. Such tag shall be affixed to a sub- stantial collar. The collar shall be furnished by the owner, and with the 23 24 FARMERS' BULLETIN 935. tag attached shall at all times be kept on the dog for which the license is issued, except when confined in the kennel ; and except, also, that dogs owned or used by the Board of Game Commissioners of the Commonwealth, or their special deputy game-protectors, servants, agents, and employes, shall not be required to wear the collar and tag aforesaid when used in hunting wildcat and bear during the winter months of December, January and February in each and every year. SEC. 6. The county commissioners shall prepare, and furnish annually to the county treasurer, metal tags to be given by the county treasurer to the owners of dogs when such owners shall pay the license fee for said dogs. Such tags shall be of metal, and shall bear the name of the county issuing it, and a serial number corresponding with the number on the license issued to said owner, as provided in the preceding section of this act. Such tags shall also have impressed thereon the calendar year for which such tag is issued, and shall not be more than one inch in length, and shall be equipped with a sub- stantial metal fastening device. The general shape of said tag shall be changed from year to year. If any such tag is lost it shall be replaced without cost by the county treasurer, upon application by the person to whom the original license was issued, and upon production of such license. SEC. 7. Any justice of the peace within the county who has qualified by having applied to the county treasurer, and having received and receipted for necessary blanks and tags, may issue such dog license and tags in like manner as prescribed for the issuance of licenses by the county treasurer. When a license is issued by a justice of the peace the person applying for the license shall pay fifteen cents to the said justice, in addition- to 'the other fees pre- scribed as the cost of said license., Said fifteen cents shall be retained by the justice of the peace as his fee for the issuance of said license and reporting the same and remitting payment therefor to the county treasurer. Such report and remittance shall be made by the justice of the peace within twenty-four hours after the issuance of any license by him ; whereupon the county treasurer shall make a record of, and otherwise treat, said license as though it had been issued from his office, except that he shall also note upon his record the name of the justice issuing the license. Every justice of the peace shall deliver the book or books from which he has issued licenses, together with the stubs therein properly filled out and show- ing the names of each licensee and the number of the license issued to him, to the county treasurer before the fifteenth day of January of each year. SEC. 8. Any person becoming the owner, after the fifteenth day of January of any year, of any dog six months old or over which has not already been licensed, or any person owning or keeping a dog which becomes six months old at any time after the fifteenth day of January of any year, shall forthwith apply for and secure a license for such dog in the same manner as the annual license is obtained under the provisions of this act. If any such application is made at any time after the fifteenth day of July of any year the license fee shall be, — for each male or unspayed female dog, one-half of the amount fixed as the annual license, by county commissioners, for male or spayed female dogs ; for each unspayed female dog, one-half of the amount fixed as the annual license, by the county commissioners, for unspayed female dogs. SEC. 9. No license or license tag issued for one dog shall be transferable to another dog, except as provided in sections eleven and twelve of this act. Whenever the ownership or possession of any dog is permanently transferred from one person to another within the same county, the license of such dog may be likewise transferred, upon notice given to the county treasurer. This act does not require the procurement of a new license, or the transfer of a license already secured, when the possession of a dog is temporarily transferred for the purpose of hunting game, or for breeding, trial, or show, in this Commonwealth. SEC. 10. Whenever any dog licensed in one county is permanently removed to another county, the county treasurer of the county where the license was issued shall, upon the application of the owner or keeper of such dog, certify such license to the treasurer of the county to which the dog is removed. Such treasurers shall thereupon, and upon the payment of a fee of twenty-five cents, issue a license and tag for such dog in the county to which it is removed. This section does not apply to dogs used during the hunting season for hunting game, or temporarily for breeding, trial, or show, in the Commonwealth ; nor THE SHEEP-KILLING DOG. 25 for the transportation of dogs for hunting, breeding, trial, or show purposes, the home county license holding good for such purposes throughout the Common- wealth. SEC. 11. Any person who keeps or operates a kennel may, in lieu of the license for each dog required by this act, apply to the county treasurer for a kennel license entitling him to keep or operate such kennel. Such license shall be issued by the county treasurer, on a form prepared and supplied by the county commis- sioner*, and shall entitle the licensee to keep any number of dogs six months old or over, not at any time exceeding a certain number to be specified in the license. The fee to be paid for each kennel license shall be five dollars for ten dogs or less, and ten dollars for more than ten dogs, permitted to be kept under the kennel license. With each kennel license the county treasurer shall issue a number of metal tags equal to the number of dogs authorized to be kept in the kennel. All such tags shall bear the name of the county issuing it, the number of the kennel license, and shall be readily distinguishable from the individual license tags for the same year. SEC. 12. The licensee of a kennel shall, at all times, keep one of such tags attached to a collar on each dog six months old or over kept by him under a kennel license. Such tags may be transferred from one dog to another within the kennel whenever any dog is removed from the kennel. No dog bearing a kennel tag shall be permitted to stray or to be taken anywhere outside the limits of the kennel. This section does not prohibit the taking of dogs having a kennel license outside the limits of the kennel temporarily and in leash, nor does it prohibit the taking of such dogs out of the kennel temporarily for the purpose of hunting, breeding, trial, or show. SEC. 13. Any person may bring or cause to be brought into the State, for a period of thirty days, one or more dogs for show, trial, or breeding purposes. SEC. 14. The county treasurer shall keep a record of all dog licenses, and all kennel licenses, and all permits issued during the year. Such record shall con- tain the name and address of the person to whom each license or permit is issued. In the case of an individual license, the record shall also state the breed, sex, age. color, and markings of the dog licensed ; and in the case of a kennel license, it shall state the place where the business is conducted. The record shall be a public record and open to persons interested, during business hours. Whenever the ownership or possession of any dog licensed under the provisions of this act is transferred from one person to another, except the temporary transfer of dogs for hunting purposes, or for breeding, trial, or show, as provided in section nine of this act, such transfer shall be noted on the record of the county treasurer. SEC. 15. An accurate record of all license fees collected by the county treas- urer, or paid over to him by any justice of the peace, shall be kept as a matter of information ; but all such funds shall be turned into the county funds. All moneys at present in the " dog fund " derived from taxation of dogs, under the existing law, shall be turned into the county fund. All bills incurred under this act, or clue at the time of the passage of this act, shall be paid out of the county fund, and any excess moneys collected under this act shall be used for other county purposes. SEC. 16. The assessors for taxation purposes in each township, borough, town, and city of this Commonwealth shall annually, at the time of assessing property as required by law. make diligent inquiry as to the number of dogs owned, har- bored, or kept by any person so assessed. The assessor shall annually, on or before the thirty-first day of December, make a complete report, on a blank form furnished by the county commis- sioners, to such commissioners, setting forth the name of every owner of any dog or dogs, how many of each sex are by him owned or harbored, and if a kennel is maintained by any person such fact shall also be stated. It shall be the duty of the assessor, at the time of making the assessment, to notify the owner of such dog or dogs that he must obtain a license for the same as pro- vided for in this act ; but the neglect or failure so to notify such owner shall not relieve the owner from his duty to obtain such licenses. SEC. IT. On and after the fifteenth day of January, one thousand nine hun- dred and eighteen, it shall be unlawful for any person to own or keep any dog six months old or over unless such dog is licensed by the treasurer of the county in which the dog is kept ; and unless such dog at all times wears the collar and tag provided for by this act, unless such dogs are temporarily brought into the State for breeding, trial, or show purposes. 26 FARMERS' BULLETIN 935. SEC. 18. It shall be the duty of every police officer to seize and detain any dog or dogs which bear a proper license tag, and which are found running at large and unaccompanied by its owner or keeper. It shall be the duty of every police officer to kill any dog which does not bear a proper license tag, which is found running at large. The chief of police or his agents, of any city, the high constable of any borough, or the constable of any borough not having a high constable, and the coristable of any incorporated town or township, shall cause any dog bearing a proper license tag and so seized and detained to be properly kept and fed, and shall cause immediate notice, either personal or by registered mail, to be given to the person in whose name the license was procured, or his agent, to claim such dog within ten days. The owner of a dog so detained shall pay all reasonable expenses incurred by reason of its detention, under the pro- visions of this section, before the dog is returned. SEC. 19. If, after ten days from the giving of such notice, such dog has not been claimed, such chief of police or his agent, constable, or high constable shall dispose of such dog by sale, or by destruction in some humane manner. No dog so caught and detained shall be sold for the purpose of vivisection. All moneys derived from the sale of such dog, after deducting the expense of its detention, shall be paid to the county treasurer and by him placed in the county fund. For services under sections eighteen and nineteen of this act, such officers shall be paid the sum of one dollar for detaining a licensed dog, and the sum of one dollar for the killing of a dog. All expenses incurred under this act or the pre- ceding section, and not otherwise provided for, shall be paid by the proper county. SEC. 20. For failure to perform his duty under the provisions of this act, such police officer shall be liable to a penalty of two dollars for each offense, which amount shall be deducted from any amount due such police officer from the county, at any settlement between such officer and the county commis- sioners. SEC. 21. Any person may kill any dog which he sees in the act of pursuing, worrying, or wounding any live stock, or attacking human beings, whether or not such dog bears the license tag required by the provisions of this act. There shall be no liability on such person in damages or otherwise for such killing. Any unlicensed dog that enters any field shall constitute a private nuisance, and the owner or tenant of such field, or their agent or servant, may kill such dog while it is in the field, without liability or responsibility of any nature for Such killing. Licensed clogs when accompanied by their owner or handler shall not be included under the provisions of this section, unless caught in the act of worry- ing, wounding, or killing any live stock, or attacking human beings. SEC. 22. All dogs are hereby declared to be personal property and subjects of larceny. Except as provided in section twenty-one of this act, it is unlawful for any person, except a police officer, to kill, injure, or poison, or attempt to kill, injure, or poison, any dog which bears a license tag for the current year. It is unlawful for any person to place any dog-button, or any poison of any description, in any place on his own premises or elsewhere where it may be easily found and eaten by dogs. It shall be unlawful for any person, except the owner or authorized agent, to remove any license tag from a dog collar, or to remove any collar with a license tag attached thereto, from any dog. It shall be unlawful for any person to harbor, or permit to remain about his premises, any dog not having a license. This section does not prohibit the Board of Game Commis's loners, or any of its officers and agents, from placing poison, under the provisions of the game laws of this Commonwealth. SEC. 23. It is unlawful for the owner or keeper of any female dog to permit such female dog to go beyond the premises of such owner or keeper at any time she is in heat, unless such female dog is held properly in leash. SEC. 24. The owner or keeper of every dog shall at all times, between sunset and sunrise of each day, keep such dog, — either (a) confined within an en- closure from which it can not escape, or (b) firmly secured by means of a collar and chain or other device so that it can not stray beyond the premises on which it is secured, or (c) under the reasonable control of some person, or when engaged in lawful hunting accompanied, by an owner or handler. SEC. 25. Whenever any person sustains any loss or damage to any live stock or poultry by dogs, or any live stock of any person is necessarily destroyed because of having been bitten by a dog, such person, or his agent or attorney, THE SHEEP-KILLING DOG. 27 may complain to any township auditor, or to any justice of the peace, magis- trate, or alderman of the township, town, borough, or city. Such complaint shall be in writing, shall be signed by the person making such complaint, and shall state when, where, and how such damage was done, and by whose dog or dogs, if known. Such township auditor, justice of the peace, magistrate, or alderman shall at once examine the place where the alleged loss or damage was sustained and the live stock or poultry injured or killed, if practicable. He shall also examine, under oath or affirmation, any witness called before him. After making diligent inquiry in relation to such claim, such township auditor, justice, magistrate, or alderman shall determine whether any damage has been sustained and the amount thereof, and, if possible, who was the owner of the dog or dogs by which such damage was done. Any owner or keeper of such dog or dogs shall be liable to the owner of such live stock or poultry in a civil action for all damages and costs, or to the county to the extent of the amount of damages paid by such county as herein- after provided. SEC. 26. Upon making the examination required in section twenty-five of this act, the township auditor, justice, magistrate, or alderman shall immediately make a certificate thereto, signed and sealed by him, that such appraisement was regularly and duly made. If, by such examination, it appears that any damage has been sustained by the complainant, the township auditor, justice, magistrate, or alderman shall deliver the report of such examination, and all papers relating to the case, to the claimant, or his agent or attorney, upon pay- ment of the costs up to that time. Such report shall be delivered to the county commissioners to be filed in their office. SEC. 27. Township auditors, justices of the peace, magistrates, and aldermen, for the special service required under sections twenty-five and twenty-six of this act, shall receive two dollars for each case, and five cents per mile for each mile traveled, to be paid by the claimant in each case. In all cases where damages are awarded, the fees paid by claimants shall be included in the amount of such damages. SEC. 28. Upon the commissioners of the county receiving such report, if it appears thereby that a certain amount of damage has been sustained by the claimant, they shall immediately draw their order on the treasurer of the county in favor of the claimant for the amount of loss or damage such claimant has sustained according to such report, together with necessary and proper costs incurred. Such amount shall be paid by the proper county. No person shall receive any order for any claim until the township auditor, justice of the peace, magistrate, or alderman before whom the claim was made has certi- fied that due diligence was made to ascertain whose dog or dogs did the damage, and that the carcasses of the live stock or poultry killed, and for which damages have been assessed, were buried within twenty-four hours after the assessment of damages. The owners of any live stock or poultry killed by dogs, or live stock necessarily destroyed because of having been bitten by a dog, shall be paid fifty cents each for burial of such live stock or poultry killed, to be paid as other damages under this section. Upon payment by the county of damages to live stock or poultry by dogs, the rights of the owner of such live stock or poultry against the owner of the dog, to the extent of the amount of damages so paid by such county, shall enure to the benefit of the county. SEC. 29. No payment shall be made for any item which has already been paid by the owner of the dog or dogs doing the injury. The fact that no such payment has been made shall be certified by the township auditor, justice of the peace, magistrate, or alderman. When any payment is made by the county for any live stock bitten by a dog, such payment shall not exceed one hundred dollars for each horse or mule, forty dollars for each head of cattle, or six dollars for each head of swine. SEC- 30. Any valid claims or parts thereof for loss or damage to sheep, horses, mules, cattle, or swine, which have accrued under any general or local laws at any time prior to the passage of this act, shall not abate by reason of the repeal of such general or local act, but shall be paid out of the general fund of the proper county. All claims or parts thereof remaining unpaid for any reason at the close of any year shall not abate, but shall continue as claims until paid in full. SEC. 31. If, in the report of the township auditor, justice of the peace, magis- trate, or alderman, the name of the owner of any dog or clogs having caused loss or damage to any live stock is definitely and conclusively shown, the 28 FARMERS* BULLETIN 935. county commissioners shall notify such owner or keeper immediately to kill said dog or dogs; and if said dog or dogs be killed in accordance with such notice or order, the owner or keeper of said dog or dogs shall be exempt from all further liability. Upon failure, however, of such owner to comply with such order within a period of ten days, he shall be liable for the damages caused by said dog or dogs; and the chief of police or his agent of the township, town, borough, or city in which said dog or dogs are kept shall, upon notice from the county commissioners, kill such dog or dogs wherever found. For such service he shall be entitled to one dollar for each dog so killed, to be paid by the proper county, upon a certified statement to the commissioners that such dog or dogs luive been killed by him. The county commissioners shall issue an order on the county treasurer for such amount, unless payment has been made by the owner or keeper of the dog or dogs. Provided, however, That the owner or keeper of any licensed dog or dogs that have caused loss or damage to poultry shall not be obliged to kill said dog or dogs unless said dog or dogs are mad, but shall be liable for said loss or damage. SEC. 32. It is unlawful for any person knowingly to make any false state- ment or to conceal any fact required to be disclosed under any of the provisions of this act. SEC. 33. In any proceedings under this act the burden of proof of the fact that a dog has been licensed, or has been imported for breeding, trial, or show purposes, or that a dog is under the age of six months, shall be on the owner of such dog. Any dog not bearing a license tag shall prima facie be deemed to be un- licensed. SEC. 34. The Secretary of Agriculture, through his officers and agents, shall have the general supervision over the licensing and regulation of dogs and pro- tection of live stock and poultry from damage by dogs in all counties of the Commonwealth. The commissioners of each county shall enforce, within their respective jurisdiction, the provisions of this act. To this end the Secretary of Agriculture may employ all proper means for the enforcement of this act. Any other State department, bureau, or commission may, on request of the Commissioner of Agriculture, assist in the enforcement of the provisions of this act. SEC. 35. Any person violating, or failing or refusing to comply with, any of the provisions of this act shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction shall be sentenced to pay a fine not exceeding one hundred dollars, or to undergo an imprisonment not exceeding three months, at the discretion of the court. All fines collected under the provisions of this act shall be forthwith paid to the treasurer of the proper county. SEC. 36. This act is intended as a complete and uniform system throughout the Commonwealth for the licensing of dogs and the protection of live stock and poultry from injury by dogs ; but nothing in this act shall interfere with any law for the protection and preservation of game. Except where such acts or parts of acts are specifically repealed, this act does not repeal or affect any acts or parts of acts relating to mad dogs or dogs affected with any disease. SEC. 37. Nothing in this act shall be construed to prevent the owner of a licensed dog from recovery, by action at law, the value of any dog which dog has been illegally killed by any police officer, farmer, stockman, or other person within this Commonwealth, from said police officer, farmer, stockman, or other person. In case such police officer or other person fails to pay the value of such dog so killed, the same shall be paid by the proper county. Said value of said dog to be ascertained in the same manner and form as provided in section twenty-five of this act for assessing the damage done to live stock by dogs. Nothing in this act shall be so construed as to prevent the killing of a dog caught chasing deer at any time of the year, on either public or private lands ; or to prevent the killing of dogs by any officer empowered to enforce the game laws of this Commonwealth when said dogs are pursuing game during the closed season for the training of dogs on game, providing said dogs are not under the immediate control or accompanied by their owners or keepers, and also provided that legal notice has previously been given said owner or keeper as required by the game laws of this Commonwealth. SEC. 38. In the event that any one or more of the provisions of this act should be decided to be unconstitutional, the court's decision holding the same uncon- stitutional shall not affect the validity of the remaining provisions of this act, THE SHEEP-KILLING DOG. 29 it being the intention of the Legislature that the provisions of this act are severable. SK< -. 39. The powers and duties given to and imposed upon county commis- sioners and other officers by this act shall not extend to cities of the first and second class. In cities of the first and second class the power and duty to fix and collect the license fees provided in section four of this act, and issue* license and otherwise perform and carry out the provisions of this act within the limits of such cities shall be, and are hereby, given to and imposed upon the council or councils of each of said cities respectively. SEC. 40. This act does not repeal or in anywise affect any of the provisions of the following acts : The act. approved the first day of May, one thousand nine hundred and nine (Pamphlet Laws, three hundred twenty -five), entitled "An act to provide for the protection and preservation of game, game-quadrupeds and game-birds, and song and insectivorous and other wild birds, and prescribing penalties for viola- tion of its several provisions." The act, approved the fifteenth day of April, one thousand nine hundred and fifteen (Pamphlet Laws, one hundred thirty-three), entitled "An act to amend section twenty-one of an act. entitled ' An act to provide for the protection and preservation of game, game-quadrupeds and game-birds, and song and insectivo- rous and other wild birds, and prescribing penalties for violation of its several provisions,' approved the first clay of May, Anno Domini one thousand nine hundred and nine, by extending the season during which dogs may be trained." The act, approved the first day of June, one thousand nine hundred and fif- teen (Pamphlet Laws, six hundred forty-four), entitled "An act to give addi- tional protection to wild birds and animals and game within the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania ; prohibiting the hunting for, or capture or killing, of such wild birds or animals or game by unnaturalized foreign-born residents; for- bidding the ownership or possession of dogs by any unnaturalized foreign-born resident within the Commonwealth; and prescribing penalties for violation of its provisions." SEC. 41. The following acts and parts of acts are hereby repealed : The act, approved the eighteenth day of May, one thousand eight hundred and seventy-eight (Pamphlet Laws, seventy-two), entitled, "An act extending the provisions of an act relating to dogs in Allegheny, Chester, Northampton, Schuylkill and Lancaster Counties, approved the sixth day of April, Anno Domini one thousand eight hundred and fifty-four, to all the counties of this Commonwealth." The act, approved the twelfth day of June, one thousand eight hundred and seventy -eight (Pamphlet Laws, one hundred ninety-eight, number two hun- dred thirty-one), entitled "An act for the taxation of dogs and the protec- tion of sheep." The act, approved the fifteenth day of May. one thousand eight hundred and eighty-nine (Pamphlet Laws, two hundred twenty-two), entitled "An act for the taxation of dogs and the protection of sheep." The act, approved the twenty-fifth day of May, one thousand eight hundred and ninety-three (Pamphlet Laws, one hundred thirty-six), entitled "An act for the taxation of dogs and the protection of sheep." The act. approved the seventh day of June, one thousand eight hundred and ninety-seven (Pamphlet Laws, one hundred thirty, number one hundred five), entitled " A supplemental to ' An act for the taxation of dogs and the protec- tion of sheep,' approved the twenty-fifth day of May, Anno Domini one thou- sand eight hundred and ninety-three, providing for the payment of claims which have accrued under local laws." The act. approved the eleventh day of April, one thousand nine hundred and one (Pamphlet Laws, seventy-three, number forty-three), entitled "A sup- plement to an act, entitled ' An act for the taxation of dogs and the protection of sheep.' approved the twenty-fifth day of May, Anno Domini one thousand eight hundred and ninety-three, providing that the fund raised by the taxation of dogs be applied, in addition to the loss of sheep, for the loss of other domestic animals bitten by mad dogs." The act, approved the twenty-third day of April, one thousand nine hundred and one (Pamphlet Laws, ninety-two), entitled "An act to amend the ninth section of an act. entitled 'An act for the taxation of dogs and the protection of sheep,' approved the twenty-fifth day of May. one thousand eight hundred and ninety-three." The act, approved the first day of March, one thousand nine hundred and five (Pamphlet Laws, twenty-eight), entitled "An act to amend the fifth section 30 FARMERS' BULLETIN 935. of an act, entitled 'An act for the taxation of dogs and the protection of sheep,' approved the twenty-fifth day of May, Anno Domini one thousand eight hun- dred and ninety-three, by requiring proof of the burial of the carcasses of sheep killed by dogs." The act, approved the first day of June, one thousand nine hundred and seven (Pamphlet Laws, three hundred sixty-two), entitled "An act supplemen- tary to 'An act for the taxation of dogs and the protection of sheep,' approved the twenty-fifth day of May, Anno Domini one thousand eight hundred and ninety-three; requiring all dogs to wear a collar to be provided by the owner, together with a tag to be attached thereto showing payment of tax ; imposing certain duties upon constables, tax collectors, and county commissioners ; and providing for the killing of dogs whose owners fail to comply with this act and the act to which this is a supplement." The act, approved the twenty-third day of April, one thousand nine hundred and nine (Pamphlet Laws, one hundred seventy), entitled "An act to amend the tenth section of an act, entitled 'An act for the taxation of dogs and the protection of sheep,' approved the twenty-fifth day of May, Anno Domini one thousand eight hundred and ninety-three, by making the act applicable to counties having over one hundred and fifty thousand, and less than two hun- dred and fifty thousand inhabitants." % The act, approved the fifteenth day of June, one thousand nine hundred and eleven (Phamphlet Laws, nine hundred sixty-eight), entitled "An act supple- mentary to 'An act for the taxation of dogs and the protection of sheep,' approved the twenty-fifth day of May, Anno Domini one thousand eight hun- dred and ninety-three; requiring all dogs to wear a collar to be provided by the owner, together with a tag to be attached thereto showing payment of tax, said tag to be provided by £he county commissioners; imposing certain duties upon constables, tax collectors, and county commissioners; and provid- ing for the killing of dogs whose owners fail to comply with this act and the act to which this is a supplement ; and providing penalties for failure to com- ply with the provisions of this act." The act, approved the twentieth day of May, one thousand nine hundred and thirteen (Pamphlet Laws, two hundred fifty-nine), entitled "An act to amend the first and third section of an act, approved the fifteenth day of June, one thousand nine hundred eleven, entitled 'An act supplementary to "An act for the taxation of dogs and the protection of sheep," approved the twenty-fifth day of May, Anno Domini one thousand eight hundred and ninety-three; requiring all dogs to wear a collar to be provided by the owner, together with a tag to be attached thereto showing payment of tax, said tag to be provided by the county commissioners; imposing certain duties upon constables, tax collectors, and county commissioners ; and providing for the killing of dogs whose owners fail to comply with this act and the act to which this is a sup- plement ; and providing penalties for failure to comply with the provisions of this act,' by making its provisions apply to all dogs of four months old and upwards ; and to provide that the payment of the proper tax, and the giving of a tag by the collector, shall be sufficient assessment for all purposes." The act, approved the third day of June, one thousand nine hundred and fifteen (Pamphlet Laws, seven hundred ninety, number three hundred fifty), entitled "An act for the protection of sheep and the incidental destruction of certain dogs." The act, approved the third day of June, one thousand nine hundred and fifteen (Pamphlet Laws, seven hundred ninety-one), entitled "An act amending an act, entitled 'An act supplementary to "An act for the taxation of dogs and the pro- tection of sheep," approved the twenty-fifth day of May, Anno Domini one thousand eight hundred and ninety-three ; requiring all dogs to wear a collar to be provided by the owner, together with a tag to be attached thereto showing payment of tax, said tag to be provided by the county commissioners ; imposing certain duties upon constables, tax collectors, and county commissioners ; and providing for the killing of dogs whose owners fail to comply with this act and the act to which this is a supplement, and providing penalties for failure to comply with the pro- visions of this act,' approved the fifteenth day of June, one thousand nine hun- dred eleven, as amended, so that assessors of the several cities, wards, boroughs, townships, or other assessment districts of this Commonwealth, shall collect an annual license fee for said dogs at the time of the annual assessment and issue a receipt and tag therefor ; providing for the publication of the assessor's list of licensed dogs ; requiring that all unlicensed dogs be killed, and fixing penalties for the violation of this act." THE SHEEP- KILLING DOG. 31 The act, approved the twenty-fourth day of April, one thousand nine hundred and three (Pamphlet Laws, two hundred ninety-six), entitled "An act to amend section one hundred and fifty-four of the act of March twenty-one, one thousand eight hundred and sixty, entitled 'An act to consolidate, revise, and amend the penal laws of this Commonwealth,' " is hereby repealed in so far as it relates to dogs. Section 42. All other acts or parts of acts, general, local, or special, incon- sistent with or supplied by this act, are hereby repealed. THE DOG LAW OF WEST VIRGINIA. Enacted May 25, 1917. Effective 60 days from passage. AN ACT relating to the protection of sheep and the conservation of the food supply necessary for the maintenance of .the people. SECTION 1. It shall be unlawful for any person to suffer or permit any dog in his possession or kept by him about his premises, to run at large on any unenclosed land, or trespass upon any enclosed or unenclosed lands of another. If any dog be suffered or permitted to run at large or trespass as afore- said, or kill or assist in killing, injuring, or chasing any sheep or other domestic animals out of the enclosure of the owner or keeper of such dog, proof that such dog was at large at the time and place of injury complained of shall be prima facie evidence of liability and guilt, as hereinafter provided. SEC. 2. The county court of every county and the council of every munici- pality, shall prepare and deliver to its assessor, sheriff, constables, or other police officers, consecutively numbered substantial aluminum or brass tags, bearing the calendar year and the name of the county or municipality issuing such tag which shall be delivered by them to any citizen of the county or municipality who may apply therefor and pay into its treasury a fee of not more than twenty-five cents for each tag, which tags shall be fastened upon the collars worn by the dogs owned or kept by such citizens, and for which fee such officer shall issue a receipt showing the name and address of the citi- zen and the year and number of the tag. Such officer shall also keep a record book showing the name and address of each citizen to whom such tags are issued, the number of such tag so issued and the year thereof. Any citizen may, and the sheriff, constables or other police officers of any county, district or municipality, shall seize any dog found unaccompanied by its owner or keeper and running at large on any road, street or other public place, or trespassing on any premises other than the premises of the owner. If such dog is wearing a collar bearing such tag, it shall be impounded and the citizen or officer so seizing and impounding said dog shall immediately there- after by written notice notify the owner of such dog as disclosed by the rec- ords herein provided for to be kept that such dog has been seized and im- pounded by him and unless such owner or keeper of such dog shall, within seven days from the receipt of said notice claim such dog, and pay such citizen or officer a fee of two dollars for seizing, and a fee of ten cents for each day it is impounded, it shall be killed forthwith in any humane manner. Provided, that any citizen or officer may kill any dangerous or vicious dog, or any dog not registered as herein provided for, or any dog permitted to run at large after the owner or keeper shall have had notice not to permit such dog to run at large, if such dog be off the premises and out of the control of its owner or keeper. No citizen or officer shall be liable in damages or to prosecution by reason of killing any dog as herein provided. For every dog seized and not claimed by its owner or keeper as aforesaid, the county court shall pay the citizen or officer entitled thereto said fees and costs upon due proof of the seizure, impounding and killing of such dog ; and the owner or keeper shall be liable therefor in any action before the court or justice having jurisdiction ; provided, further, that it shall be the duty of the common council of every incor- porated city, town or village in this state, to provide a suitable pound for such dog or dogs so seized under the provisions of this act. SEC. 3. It shall be unlawful for any unnaturalized foreign-born resident of this state to own or keep a dog of any kind in this state. SEC. 4. Nothing in this act shall be construed to prevent any citizen of this state from lawfully hunting with a dog or dogs on any land owned by him or by any person from whom such citizen has first secured permission to hunt with a dog or dogs ; and no citizen shall hunt with a dog or dogs upon the land of another without written or verbal permission from the owner or lessee thereof. 32 FARMERS7 BULLETIN 935. SEC. 5. Any person violating any provision of this act or failing or neglecting to perform any duty imposed by it, shall be liable, in an action or prosecution before any court or justice having jurisdiction, for the amount of damage sustained, and also for a fine of not less than five or more than one hundred dollars and the cost of prosecution, or to imprisonment in the county jail not more than thirty days, or to both fine and imprisonment; and any person who shall remove from any dog a collar bearing a tag as provided for in this act, or who shall alter or remove any such tag from a dog properly registered as herein provided for shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and, upon conviction shall be fined not to exceed five or more than one hundred dollars and the cost of the prosecution, or to imprisonment in the county jail not more than thirty days, or to both fine and imprisonment and shall be liable to the owner or keeper of such dog in a civil action for the amount of damages sustained. SEC. 6. All acts and parts of acts inconsistent herewith are hereby repealed. PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRI- CULTURE RELATING TO SHEEP RAISING. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION BY THE DEPARTMENT. Breeds of Sheep for the Farm. (Farmers' Bulletin 576.) Sheep Scab. (Farmers' Bulletin 713.) The Sheep Tick and Its Eradication by Dipping. (Farmers' Bulletin 798.) Equipment for Farm Sheep Raising. (Farmers' Bulletin 810.) Farm Sheep Raising for Beginners. (Farmers' Bulletin 840.) ' FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. The Management of Sheep on the Farm. (Department Bulletin 20.) Price, 10 cents. Domestic Breeds of Sheep in America. (Department Bulletin 94.) Price, 25 cents. The Wool Grower and the Wool Trade. (Department Bulletin 206.) Price, 15 cents. Features of the Sheep Industries of United States, New Zealand, and Australia Compared. (Department Bulletin 313.) Price, 10 cents. Our Present Knowledge of the Distribution and Importance of Some Parasitic Diseases of Sheep and Cattle in the United States. (Bureau of Animal In- dustry Circular 193.) Price, 5 cents. TEXAS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN NO. 205 JANUARY, 1917 DIVISION OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY Sheep Breeding and Feeding B. YOUNGBLOOD, DIRECTOR, COLLEGE STATION, BRAZOS COUNTY, TEXAS. A54-217-12M TEXAS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN NO. 205 JANUARY, 1917 DIVISION OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY Sheep Breeding and Feeding BY J. M. JONES, Animal Husbandman, Breeding Investigations B. YOUXGBLOOD, DIRECTOR. COLLEGE STATION. BRAZOS COUNTY, TEXAS AUSTIN, TEXAS: TON BOECKMANN-JONES CO., PBINTBHS, 1917 AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL COLLEGE OF TEXAS W. B. BIZZELL, A. M., D. C. L., President TEXAS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BOARD OF DIRECTORS JOHN I. GUION, President, Ballinger Term expires 1919 L. J. HART, V ice-President, San Antonio Term expires 1919 E. H. ASTIN, Bryan Term expires 1919 J. R. KUBENA, Fayetteville Term expires 1921 A. B. Davidson, Cuero Term expires 1921 WILL A. MILLER JR., Amarillo Term expires 1921 JOHN C. DICKSON, Paris Term expires 1923 T. E. BATTLE, Marlin Term expires 1923 H. A. BREIHAN, Bartlett Term expires 1923 MAIN STATION COMMITTEE L. J. HART, Chairman WILL A. MTLLER, JR. GOVERNING BOARD, STATE SUBSTATIONS P. L. DOWNS, President, Temple Term expires 1919 CHARLES ROGAN, Vice-Preiident, Austin Term expires 1923 W. P. HOBBY, Beaumont Term expires 1917 J. E. BooG-ScoTT, Coleman Term expires 1921 STATION STAFF* DIVISION OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY R. N. HARVEY, B. S., Poultry man in Charge DIVISION OF PLANT BREEDING E. P. HUMBERT, Ph. D., Plant Breeder in Charge J. S. MOGFORD, B. S., Graduate Assistant DIVISION OF DAIRYING J. E. Harper, M. S., Dairyman in Charge DIVISION OF FEED CONTROL SERVICE JAMES SULLIVAN, Executive Secretary J. H. ROGERS, Inspector W. H. WOOD, Inspector T. H. WOLTERS, Inspector S. D. PEARCE, Inspector W. M. WICKES, Inspector ADMINISTRATION B. YOUNGBLOOD, M. S., Director A. B. CONNER, B. S., Vice Director CHAS. A. FELKER, Chief Clerk A. S. WARE, Secretary DIVISION OF VETERINARY SCIENCE M. FRANCIS, D. V. S., Veterinarian Charge H. SCHMIDT, D. V. M., Veterinarian in DIVISION OF CHEMISTRY G. S. FRAPS, Ph. D., Chemist in Charge; State Chemist W. T. P. SPROTT, B. S., Assistant Chemist H. LEBESON, M. S., Assistant Chemist CHARLES BUCHWALD, M. S., Assistant Chemist in DIVISION OF HORTICULTURE H. NESS, M. S., Horticulturist in Charge W. S. Hotchkiss, Horticulturist DIVISION OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY J. C. BURNS, B. S., Animal Husbandman, Feeding Investigations J. M. JONES, A. M., Animal Husbandman, Breeding Investigations DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY F. B. Paddock, M. S., Entomologist Charge; State Entomologist H. J. REINHARD, B. S., Assistant Ento- mologist County Apiary Inspectors R. C. Abernathy, Ladonia; William Atch- ley, Mathis; J. W. E. Basham, Barstow; Victor Boeer, Jourdanton; T. W. Burle- son, Waxahachie; W. C. Collier, Goliad; E. W. Cothran, Roxton; G. F. Davidson, Pleasanton; John Donegan, Seguin; A. R. Graham, Milano; J. B. Kins, Bates- ville; N. G. LeGear, Waco; R. A. Little, Pearsall; M. C. Stearns, Brady; S. H. Stephens, Uvalde; M. B. Tally, Victoria; James W. Traylor, Enloe; R. E. Watson. Heidenheimer; W. H. White, Greenville; W. P. Bankston, Buffalo: F. C. Belt, Ysleta. DIVISION OF AGRONOMY A. B. CONNER, B. S., Agronomist in Charge A. H. LEIDIGH, B. S., Agronomist Louis WERMELSKIRCHEN, B. S., Agronomist DIVISION OF PLANT PATHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY J. J. TAUBENHAUS, Ph. D., Plant Patholo- gist and Physiologist in Charge A. D. JOHNSON, B. S., Graduate Assistant J. M. SCHAEDEL, Stenographer DAISY LEE, Registration Clerk W. F. CHRISTIAN, Stenographer ELI7.ABETH WALKER, Stenographer E. E. KILBORN, Stenographer SUBSTATION NO. 1: Beeville, Bee County E. E. BINFORD, B. S., Superintendent SUBSTATION NO. 2: Troup, Smith County W. S. HOTCHKISS, Superintendent SUBSTATION NO. 3: Angleton, Brazoria County N. E. WINTERS, B. S., Superintendent SUBSTATION NO. 4: Beaumont, Jefferson County H. H. LAUDE, B. S., Superintendent SUBSTATION NO. 5: Temple, Bell County D. T. KILLOUGH, B. S., Superintendent SUBSTATION No. 6: Denton, Denton County C. H; MCDOWELL, B. S., Superintendent SUBSTATION NO. 7: Spur, Dickens County R. E. DICKSON, B. S., Superintendent SUBSTATION NO. 8: Lubbock, Lubbock County R. E. KARPER, B. S., Superintendent SUBSTATION NO. 9: Pecos, Reeves County J. W. JACKSON, B. S., Superintendent SUBSTATION NO. 10: (Feeding and Breed- ing Substation) College Station, Brazos County E. R. SPENCE, B. S., Animal Husbandman, in Charge of Farm G. F. JORDAN, B. S., Scientific Assistant SUBSTATION NO. 11: Nacogdoches, Nacog- doches County G. T. McNESS, Superintendent **SUBSTATION NO. 12: Chillicothe, Harde- man County R. W. EDWARDS, B. S., Superintendent SUBSTATION NO. 14: Sonora, Sutton County E. M. PETERS, B. S., Acting Superintends | CLERICAL ASSISTANTS C. L. DURST, Mailing Clerk A. T. JACKSON, Stenographer CARL ABELL, Scientific Assistant F. C. MARC HJLIDES, Stenographer *As of February 1, 1917. **In cooperation with United States Department of Agriculture. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page. Introduction 5 Object of Test 5 Stock Used 5 The Experiment 9 The Management of the Breeding Flock 11 The Fattening Period 18 Table 1 — Showing Total Feed Consumed by Lambs 13 Table 2— Showing Gains, Also Cost of Gains 15 Table 3— Showing Birth Weights, Gains, Sales Eeceipts 17 Table 4 — Showing Lambs, Gains, Sales Eeceipts, etc 18 Prize Pen of Lambs at National Feeders and Breeders' Show 20 Financial Statement 21 Financial Statement on Sheep Breeding and Feeding 22 Summary 23 SHEEP BREEDING AND FEEDING. BY J. M. JONES, A. M., ANIMAL HUSBANDMAN, BREEDING INVESTIGATIONS. "Which breed of sheep shall I place upon my farm?" or "Which is the most profitable breed of sheep for Texas farms?" are questions of much concern to the farmers of Texas who are beginning to realize the important role that sheep production actually plays in the most suc- cessful farm operations. Almost every tract of land in the State, whether large or small, has some land in the form of pasturage which is nat only failing to return any revenue to the farmers, but in a great many instances is a burden on their hands. The feeding and breeding test reported in this bulletin was conducted for the purpose of securing information that might be of some value to parties interested in the breeding and feeding of sheep in Texas. OBJECT. The object of this test\was to determine which of the most common mutton breeds of rams when crossed with fine-wooled ewes would pro- duce the most thrifty and desirable lambs grown and fattened under Texas conditions. All items of expense were to be accurately recorded so that it could be determined with what degree of profitableness sheep raising could be conducted. THE STOCK USED. Rams. The several rams used in this test with the exception of the half-blood Karakule-Lincoln were registered and although good individuals they were not high-priced. They were just such registered rams that the ordinary progressive flockmaster would use. The Eambouillet. The Eambouillet ram used during this test was purchased from Graham. & McCorquodale for $20. He was two years old at the time of the purchase, and was selected from a flock numbering approximately one hundred head of ordinary registered Eambouillet range rams, such as are used on our western ranges. In the selection of the Eambouillet ram, the point uppermost in mind was to secure an individual possess- ing some scale and a good mutton conformation. This ram weighed 6 TEXAS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 160 pounds in breeding- condition and sheared ten and one-half pounds of wool. The Shropshire. The Shropshire* ram used in this test was purchased for $30 from Mr. A. D. Turner, Denton, Texas. Although this individual was slightly under size, being a late lamb, he was, nevertheless, a good representative of the breed. This sire was active and of splendid mutton conforma- tion, the body being compact and close to the ground. In prime con- dition this ram weighed 140 pounds. He proved to be a light shearer, yielding only six and one-half pounds of wool. Figure 1. — Rambouillet Lambs After Fattening. The Hampshire. The Hampshire ram used in this test was given to the Texas Experi- ment Station by the late James McClay,f the former superintendent of' the live stock farm at the Wyoming Experiment Station. This ram represented some of the best Hampshire blood in the United States, and although less than one year of age at the time of delivery to the Texas Station he showed the strong points of a desirable Hampshire sire. On account of the Hampshire's lack of development, due to his young age, the fanciers of the Hampshire breed will be inclined to feel that *The picture of the Shropshire-Rambouillet cross failed to do justice to the pen. fOne of the writer's former teachers in animal husbandry. SHEEP BREEDING AXD FEEDING. Figure 2. — Ha nips • t •'•- ambouillet Lambs After Fattening. Figure 3. — The Southdown-Rambouillet Lambs After Fattening. 8 TEXAS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. the Hampshire lamb was at a disadvantage as compared with the rest of the sires. Close attention upon the part of readers to the figures and details that follow, however, will reveal that the lambs from this side did exceptionally well. The Hampshire ram sheared seven pounds of wool. The Southdown. The Southdown ram used in this test was purchased at a price of $25 from Mr. J. A. Kuykendall, Eoyse City, Texas. This ram was three years of age at the time of being placed on the Experiment Station farm at Spur. He was of good mutton conformation, although for a Southdown he was a trifle leggy and the body possibly a little light. He was a good individual, however, and the offspring resulting from this cross exhibited strongly the characters of the Southdown .Figure 4. — The Lincoln-Rambouillet Lambs After Fattening. breed. This Southdown in breeding condition weighed 150 pounds. He sheared six pounds of wool. The Lincoln. The Lincoln ram used in this test was presented to the Texas Experi- ment Station by Mr. Alex Albright, Dundee, Texas. This was a good specimen of Lincoln type, two years of age, but was lambed late and consequently had become stunted. At his best, this Lincoln ram did not weigh over 175 pounds. This ram sheared only eight pounds of wool with an eleven months' growth. SHEEP BREEDING AND FEEDING. 9 Half-blood Karakule-Lincoln. The half-blood Karakule-Lincoln ram was purchased from Mr. Alex Albright for $35. At his best this ram weighed 185 pounds. He sheared twelve pounds of wool after his first season at Spur. At the time of the inception of the test herein reported, this ram was two years old. He was a hardy, active individual, of good mutton con- formation. The Ewes. The Eambouillet ewes used in this test were purchased from the firm of Graham & McCorquodale of "Woodson, Throckmorton County, Texas, at a cost of $5.00 per head delivered at the railroad at Albany. Figure 5. — The Karakule-Rambouillet Lambs After Fattening. These ewes were large-bodied individuals of uniform type and breeding. Although they were unregistered, Mr. John McCorquodale claimed that the entire flock was eligible to registry. These ewes ranged between the ages of three and five years. They were selected from a flock numbering above 800 head, and accordingly displayed a remarkable degree of uniformity and type. THE EXPERIMENT. One hundred and forty-eight good Eambouillet range ewes, of uni- form type and breeding, were divided into six lots and bred to regis- tered rams of the different mutton breeds as follows: Lot 1, Eambouillet; Lot 2, Shropshire; Lot 3, Hampshire; Lot 4, 10 TEXAS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. •;:";* Southdown; Lot 5, Lincoln, and Lot 6, a half-blood Karakule-Lincoln. The ewes in each lot were marked with a special brand designating to which lot the respective ewes belonged. Kemp's Australian branding fluid was used in marking the ewes. The breeding season began during the latter part of October, 1914,. and the rams instead of remaining with the ewes continually were turned with the respective lots of ewes at night and removed the next morning. The breeding continued for a period of six weeks. During the breeding season the six lots of ewes were grazed upon separate pasture — no additional feed being furnished at this season of the year. After the breeding season was over, the entire breeding flock was again placed together and carried through the winter, no additional feed being supplied in the fall and winter months except during periods of almost incessant rains, when a small amount of Sudan hay was pro- vided for them. The lambs began to drop March 17, 1915, and parturition continued until well toward the first of May. As soon as the lambs reached the age of two to three weeks they were given access to a "creep7' wherein was provided tender alfalfa leaves and a concentrated grain ration consisting of one part cotton- seed meal to six parts threshed milo. The lambs had access to the "creep" throughout the summer months. The ewe flock received one- half pound threshed milo. daily from lambing time until June 15. During this period and throughout the summer, the entire flock grazed the several pastures together, the management of all being identical. The lambs were weaned in September and placed upon an increased grain ration and upon a better pasture. Owing to the shortage of pasture and limited feeding facilities, it was necessary to feed all of the lamb? together during the fattening period; hence the data herein presented do not compare the cost of gains made by the several lots.* All of the lambs were numbered individually and were weighed at regular inter- vals from birth until the termination of the test. *At the Iowa Station (Iowa Station Bulletin 35) Curtiss and Wilson con- ducted a feeding test with lambs with the primary object of determining the relative economy of production and the value of mutton and wool compared— and the adaptation of some of the leading breeds. These investigators reported on the Southdown, Shropshire, Oxford, Suffolk, Lincoln, Cotswold, Dorset, Merino, and a Shropshire and Merino cross. The investigation covered a period of two years the first test extending over a period of ninety days, and the second one hundred and six days. The average cost per pound of gain for the two testa was as follows: Cotswold, 2.65 cents; Lincolns, 2.88 cents; Rambouillet (one test), 2.91 cents; Leicester, 2.93 cents; Southdown, 3.02 cents; Shropshire, 3.02 cents; Oxford, 3.15 cents, and the Suffolk, 3.16 cents. At the South Dakota Station (South Dakota Bulletin 127) Wilson conducted a test similar to that herein reported, averaging the results of six tests with a total of 344 lambs. Wilson found that the amount of concentrates required 'to produce one pound of gain for the respective crosses was as follows: Cotswold, 5.24 pounds; Oxford, 5.43 pounds; Rambcuillet, 5.63 pounds; South- down, 5.64 pounds; Shropshire, 5.75 pounds, and the Hampshire, 5.87 pounds. SHEEP BREEDING AND FEEDING. 11 THE MANAGEMENT OF THE BREEDING FLOCK. The sheep used in this test were taken to Spur, Dickens County, dur- ing the latter part of September, 1914, and were grazed upon the native grass pastures, which consisted principally of grama, mesquite and buffalo grasses. As this pasture land had not been heavily grazed earlier in the year and as the growing season had been most favorable, the grass was plentiful. During the fall of 1914 the rainfall in Dickens County was excessive and upon several occasions the flock had to be kept under the sheds and supplied with Sudan hay. These ewes having been raised under range conditions did not take readily to the hay and shelter, but in the course of a few weeks they were more successfully managed in this respect. During a period of two weeks previous to the inception of the lamb- ing, the ewes due to lamb shortly were separated from the main portion of the flock and supplied with a ration of threshed milo and Sudan hay, one-half pound of the milo and threshed Sudan hay being supplied per head daily. As the season progressed heavy ewes were added to the pen a few days previous to parturition. During the latter portion of March and all through April the ewes and young lambs were grazed for a few hours daily on a small patch of winter wheat which had been sown between the trees in the Station orchard the preceding fall. The ewes did splendidly on this green forage crop and as a result of the increased milk flow the young lambs made rapid growth during this period. There was no more green wheat available for grazing after May 1, and accordingly the grazing was again limited to the native grasses. The spring season had been a little backward and in order to keep the ewes in a thrifty condition so as to properly nourish the lambs, a half- pound of threshed milo was supplied daily until June 17, after which time the grain allowance was discontinued. The lambs were given access to the lamb "creep" throughout the summer and were supplied with one-quarter of a pound per head daily of a mixture of one part of cotton seed meal to six parts of threshed milo. This amount of concentrates was small, but it helped materially in keeping the lambs in a fair growing condition during the long hot summer months. Salt was liberally supplied to the flock throughout the entire test. A simple and yet novel salt trough was constructed by the writer, the object in mind being to perfect a trough, a portion of which after having been smeared with pine tar would leave some of this liquid on the nose and face of the individual sheep as they came daily to the troughs to lick the salt. The object in mind was to keep the gad-fly away from the nasal cavities of the different members of the flock by means of the repel] ant odor of the pine tar. The trough above mentioned is of simple construction, yet effective. Brieflv, it was nothing more than a trough four inches deep by six inches wide by four feet in length. At a dis- tance of three inches from the bottom of the trough was placed a board 12 TEXAS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. three and one-half inches wide running the entire length of the trough. This left a two and one-half-inch space through which to place the salt, and the same amount of space from which to lick it. A strip of sheep skin with the wool side out was tacked to the edge of this three and one-half-inch piece of board and was smeared with tar every evening just prior to bringing the sheep into the lots. This scheme seemed to be effective as the flock did not appear to suffer from grubs, which de- velop from the deposition of the small gad-fly eggs at the entrance of the nasal cavities. THE FATTENING PERIOD. The lambs t were weaned during the early part of September and placed on a field of headed milo stalks. The grain ration was at this time increased to one-third of a pound per head daily, and the lambs began to regain some of the flesh that had been sacrificed during the latter part of the hot summer. The feeding period proper was begun October 12, 1915, at which time the concentrated ration was increased and more liberal foraging provided for the lambs. The lambs were grazed from October until December 15 on the fields that had produced milo, feterita, and Sudan crops, some splendid foraging being provided on the headed milo and feterita stalks as well as on the Sudan grass and the limited tract of winter wheat that was available. Had the lambs not been managed as above stated practically all of the roughages consumed during these two months would have been partial waste. The lambs were removed from the fields on December 15 and placed in the dry lot, and in addition to the concentrated ration, received all the roughage in the form of Sudan hay, sorghum fodder and feterita stover that thev would consume. SHEEP BREEDING AND FEEDING. 13 J • H 00. occ.g ggSS SS2SS S 9 « 4 i* * 4 L ggg ^gog S823 83SS5 s 38- ^^S05 r^ooooo rH CO 03 T) SS8 §888 8888 88888 * C i ill S2§l Sli§ SsSli "8" * caoco^ cacq^- W — CO i «- 09 a o .0 ggg| t^NCDTf MCSOOS ggisi 1 u I °I 1-1 1-1 C fl B C C C c p g 222222 888888 2 55 •o : : : round a stover round a stover : • :Ss 1 I 3 . BO 8 •« oo A •0 - g 2 P P a r-l O 3 •.s ;•§ ;jg " S ^ :"§ 1 Cotton seed meal Threshed milo. . Alfalfa hay Cotton seed meal Milo and feterita Sudan hay Sorghum fodder a »J_O ^ ££ |j| 2 i i il 1 1 1? il s« •§ :« B * i 1 ft S § g CO 00 || _ | !| "" **" "° £«2 ' ° >> C>J «O m"OT3 a f r* 1 c j 1 pi T-l 1 2 .c 1 October 13 — January 5 (85 days) i ^•o January 18 — March 8 (51 days) Average cost of feed for 1 Average cost of feed for 3 *Cost of Feed: Cotton Threshe Milo an Sudan h Sorghun Alfalfa 1 14 TEXAS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. Table 1 shows the total feed consumed by the lambs from birth until the time of marketing. The first division of this table shows the total amount of feed consumed by the lambs from birth until October 12 previous to fattening. The second division, from October 13 to Jan- uary 5, 1916, shows the total feed consumption during that period. Thirty-six show lambs were separated from the main flock January 5, and placed on a different ration, although the total feed consumed by all of the lambs during this period has been figured together, the object in so doing being for the purpose of figuring the total cost of feed per lamb from the time of birth until marketing the main portion of the flock January 20. The period January 18 to March 8 shows the amount of feed con- sumed after the first shipment of lambs had gone to market in January. By referring to the final column of Table 1, one will observe that the cost of feed per lamb from birth until January 17, was exactly $1.60 per head. It is also interesting to observe that during the period January 18 to March 8, the cost of feed per lamb amounted to $1.60, or just twice the cost of feeding the lambs from birth until January. It will be observed by referring to Table 1 that the cost of grain per lamb through the summer months amounted to only 44 cents per head to October 12. Had there been more abundant grazing available it would have been unnecessary to feed any grain prior to the fattening period, but in view of the fact that grazing conditions were not ideal the small allowance of concentrates supplied through the summer was well worth the increased cost incurred. SHEEP BREEDING AND FEEDING. 15 Cost of Feed Per 100 Pounds Gain. •Wox a 3 8 »0 8 (0 *During the first period the lambs were grazed in the field until December 15. •A-Bq BJIBJPV 1 s; 8 M9AOIS B|IJ9^9J pUB jgppbj uinqSJOg co si « ^ 0 •Xsq UBpng Irt •f g s £ 0 •punoo8 'SpB9q B^U9^9J PUB onw T}< ^ 6% s ^ •JB9UI p99S U0^03 fa 0» r^ 1-1 s 0 *Feed Consumed Per 100 Pounds Gain. •Xsq BJIBJIV I s d •J9AO"JS BJU919J pUB jgppoj uinq8aos g 1 I •ABq UBpn§ 2 s g •punojg 'SpB9q B^U9^9J pus OHPM 3 8 3 CO s s CO •(B9UI P99S UOnOO Oi •^ t> OS r» I> o 8 •spunod 'AjiBp p>B9q J9d UIBQ f-5 16 TEXAS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. Table 2 shows the daily gains and the amount of feed consumed per hundred pounds gain in live weight by the lambs from time of being placed on feed until their disposal. The lambs had access to a field of milo and Sudan until December 15, which accounts for the small cost of $3.32 per hundred pounds of gain during the period October 13 to January 5. During the period January 6 to January 17, the cost of gain per hundred pounds increased to $5.03. As shown in the final column the cost of gain per hundred pounds for the' show lambs increased to $6.32 after the disposal of the main portion of the flock. These lambs made splendid gains, the increased cost of gains being largely due to the high-priced alfalfa hay introduced into the ration late in the feeding period. SHEEP BREEDING AND FEEDING. 17 •quiBi J3d J9d "1U30 J3d 'OS '«Bf qiJOAY u es iqSjsM. 3 qniBj J3d UTB8 ^JIBp 38BJ3AV J II H .- o -J- I I ('S^Bp ^1) Yl 'OBf o; 9 -uBf quiBi asd UIBO •UBf squiBj C81 psddiqs sqtaBj 3 •g -UBf squiBi ^8 1 (•sAsp Q8) -g 'UBf iq§I3M 38BJ3AV —Z\ 'V>Q -sqiuoiu 9 0} f g ;B ^q§i3M 38BJ3AV JO •S5J33M Jnoj JO 38BJ3AV OS 1-1 00 r* | co »n si ^ * O N 00 — 00* 00* CO O « 5 9 S C§ W ^ oo* oi oo 00 « ci »-I t^ O O5 O 9 S. 3. S S S O 0 0 0 0 0 CO 1-1 co oo o o 00' CO O 8 8 S 8 S 3 00 O O» C1 S 8 8 S CO CO o "i oo co t*- t^ i-I co in »n o o in o w a f -* CM M oo r^ rj< lOfqo^mo M 00 in rf Tf 05 oot^moo o o d d I-H o O5COOOO5IN NO lO §!OfOO( IOOT-1 OCO4OC4OOO Tj- CO «0<0«0<£> 200 ^> T-< TH 1-1 OMr-*^--! SO •* O5 1>- 00 O t>- TJ< CO 1-1 CM •<* co m ••* m m i-l •rl CO »-l CO CM COO CO O 00 CO MSOOCOOfO Straight Rambouillet Shropshire-Rambouillet. . Hampshire-Rambouillet. . Southdown-Rambouillet.. Lincoln-Rambouillet Karakule-Rambouillet SHEEP BREEDING AND FEEDING. 19 WEIGHTS AND GAINS OF LAMBS. The lambs were weighed at birth and numbered, weekly weights being made of each individual lamb until eight weeks of age. The average birth weights of all lambs as presented in Table 3 shows a com- parison of the several cross breeds of lambs. The records show that the Hampshire lambs averaged the heaviest at birth, weighing 10.3 pounds, with the Lincoln cross a close second with an average of 9.98 pounds. The straight Bambouillet lambs averaged the lightest at birth, this average being 8.4 pounds. It will be observed from the table that during the first eight weeks after the birth of lambs all seemed to make approximately the same amount of gain, the Lincoln cross being slightly in the lead at this age. As shown by Table 3, at the time of being placed on feed, October 12, the Lincoln cross averaged 10.9 pounds heavier than the Hamp- shire cross, which was second in weight. This is a remarkable gain over that made by the other lambs and is worthy of further in- vestigation. By again referring to Table 3, it will 'be observed that during the period October 12 to January 5, the Hampshire cross made the highest daily gain, the average for the period being .34 pound, with the Shropshire second with a gain of .32 pound, while the South- down cross made the smallest, or a gain of .28 pound daily. The gain made by the Lincoln cross during the period was next above the South- down average for the same period. The lambs were divided into two lots January 5, eighty-four being placed in one lot and thirty-six in another. The thirty-six lambs were selected for exhibition at the National Feeders' and Breeders' Show at Fort Worth in March, 1916, six representative "typey" individuals being selected from each of the lots of cross-bred lambs. The show lambs were fed separately after January 5, as the plan was to ship the main portion of the flock during the middle part of Jan- uary, and as these lambs were on full feed at that time it would not have been the best policy to full-feed the show lambs at this time, especially in view of the fact that the Fat Stock Show was still two months away. As may be seen by referring to Table 3, the eighty-four lambs were weighed separately from the show flock after January 5. During the period January 5 to January 17, the Hampshire cross still con- tinued to make the largest daily gain, with the Karakule cross second and the Lincoln third during the period. At the feed lots on the afternoon of January 17 prior to shipment to the Fort Worth market the Lincoln cross averaged 6.4 pounds heavier than the Hampshires, the Southdown cross averaging the lightest at this time. The lambs all carried heavy fleeces, which tended to reduce the dressing percentage. The Lincoln cross-bred lambs dressed the highest percentage of meat to offal with the1 Karakule cross second and the Hampshire cross next to the lowest. The shrinkage enroute market proved interesting. The Lincoln 20 TEXAS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. cross averaged 12.3 per cent, shrinkage, while the Hampshire cross showed a small shrinkage. When the lambs were offered on the Fort Worth live stock market January 20, the packers did not discriminate against any of the dif- ferent pens of the cross-bred lambs. After handling them carefully they declared them all to have an equal amount of finish with one kind just as valuable to the packer as the other. The high price of $9.90 per hundredweight was paid for the entire shipment, there being cnly one 60-pound Rambouillet cull taken out and sold on the market for 6 cents per pound. The average sales receipts of the lambs are set forth in the last column of Table 3. In this table it will again be observed that the Lincoln cross stood first, with the Hampshire cross 22 cents behind, the South- down being at the foot of the list. Table 4 is similar to Table 3, the only difference being that the latter had to do with the weights, gains, shrinkages, dressing per- centages, etc., of the thirty-six lambs held back for the National Feeders' and Breeders' Fat Stock Show in March. By referring to Table 4, it will be observed that the Hampshire cross made the largest gain during the period January 5 to March 8, with the Karakule cross a close second and the Lincoln third, all three crosses showing a gain in excess of one-half pound per head daily. The lambs were weighed at the feed lots March 8, and the Lincoln cross weighed 1.3 pounds more than the Hampshire cross. It is in- teresting to note, however, that after being shipped to Fort Worth and placed on exhibition at the Fat Stock Show for a week the Hampshires showed a smaller shrinkage than the Lincolns, the Hampshire show lambs averaging five pounds more to the packers than the Lincolns. By observing closely the tabulation in Table 4, under shrinkage, it will be noted that the shrinkage of the Shropshire, Hampshire, and Southdown crosses is very low. In spite of the fact that the figures in this table show such a low shrinkage, the dressing percentages of these low shrinkage lambs are correspondingly low which only goes to show that there must have been an error committed somewhere in the weigh- ing of the lambs to the packers. The Lincoln cross dressed 52 per cent., and the judge who made the awards well knew that so far as finish is concerned there was but very little difference between the fleshing qual- ities of the Lincoln, Hampshire, and Southdown lots. LINCOLN-RAMBOUILLET CROSS FIRST IN PEN OF FAT LAMBS CONTEST. The six pens of Experiment Station lambs were entered in the pen of five fat lambs contest, and in what was the best lamb contest ever pulled off at the National Feeders' and Breeders' Show. The respective pens of fat lambs exhibited by the Texas Experiment Station were placed in the following order: First — Lincoln-"Rambouillet cross. Second — Hampshire-Rambouillet cross. SHEEP BREEDING AND FEEDING. 21 Third — Southdown-Kambouillet cross. Fourth — Straight Eambouillet. Fifth — Karakule-Rambouillet cross. Sixth — Shropshire-Kambouillet cross. The pen of Lincolns formed a most attractive exhibit and this pen- was the first choice of all experienced sheepmen. Jhe Hampshires and Southdowns were attractive and well finished, but they did not have as much valuable wool as was displayed by the pen awarded the first premium. FINANCIAL STATEMENT. Table 4 is an itemized statement showing the profit per lamb at the termination of the experiment: t83 lambs. Lbs. 36 show lambs, Lbs. Number of lambs, 120. Average weight of lambs beginning of feeding test. . 60.8 81.3 $ 4.10 1.16 60.8 113.85 * 4.10 2.76 .30 .02 .05 .06 Average weight at end of feeding period Value of lambs October 12 at $6 75 Cost of feed consumed *Cost of freight per lamb . *Cost of feed per lamb on market *Cost of yardage per lamb on market ... ... Selling commission (single deck >$8 00) Total cost per lamb * 5.69 $ 7.29 8.051 11.83 Average selling price per lamb Profit per lamb . . . $ 2.36 $ 9.90 7.00 * 4.54 $ 10.37 6.40 Price per hundred pounds at which lambs actually sold Price necessary to break even ... *Figured on the basis of a deck load. fOne lamb was dressed at.the Experiment Station. This table shows the profits per lamb based upon single deck loads. In this particular test the total cost of shipping, yardage, feed, and sales commission amounted to 63 cents per lamb for the eighty-three head marketed in January, and $1.60 per head for the thirty-six ex- hibited at the National Feeders' and Breeders' Show in March. It is- interesting to note that the net profits per head are $2.36 and $4.54, respect ively. based upon carload lots. Too much significance should not be given the comparison of the two lots as shown in this table because the advantage is with the show lambs throughout, they having been selected from the main flock early in January. It is interesting, however, to observe that the show lambs were placed on a more expensive ration, the average cost of feed consumed by them totaling $2.76, or an increased cost per head of $1.60 over that consumed by the main flock marketed in January. The show lambs made splendid gains from January 18 to March 8, and as shown by the last item in Table 4* could have been sold as low as $6.40 per hundred, while it would have been necessary to secure at least $7.00 per hundred to have broken even at the time of the disposal of the lambs in January. 22 TEXAS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. FINANCIAL STATEMENT ON SHEEP BREEDING AND FEEDING PROJECT CON- DUCTED AT TEXAS SUBSTATION NO. 7, LOCATED AT SPUR, TEXAS. September, 1914— June, 1916. Expenditures. 148 ewes at $5.00 per head $ 740.00 5 rams 125.00 Freight and express on ewes and rams 63.69 Total feed for lambs. 250.13 Total feed for breeding flock 64.67 $1,243.49 Receipts. Sale 120 lambs (net), January and March, 1916 $ 982.56 1915— Sale 840 pounds wool at 22fc, net 179.84 1916 — Sale 696 pounds wool at 27c, less 2£ per cent, warehouse charge -.' 183.23 Sale 50 ewe's at $6.00 per head 300.00 Sale 2 rams 40.00 Premiums Fat Stock Show (Fort Worth), 1916 47.00 $1,732.63 Less principal 1,243.49 $ 489.14 Inventory* — 90 head of ewes at $5.00 per head 450.00 Profit $ 939.14 Per cent, profit on investment, 75.5. The financial statement presented in this bulletin is to impress upon the minds of the readers that when such an investment on the farm returns as high as from 50 to 100 per cent, annually it must be worthy of some consideration. The statement shows the total outlay of capital required to finance this sheep work, exclusive of labor, was $1243.49. Interest has not been charged against the expenditures presented in the preceding finan- cial statement. Under receipts it will be observed that the lambs re- turned a handsome profit. The wool from the Rambouillet ewes during two successive seasons brought high prices and the inventory carries the ninety remaining ewes at the same price paid for them two years ago. This has been made possible only as a result of the upward trend of the sheep market generally during the past two seasons. In the foregoing financial statement the prices of feeds charged •Although the ewes have an 80 per cent, lamb crop that will be marketable during the winter, their value has not been estimated in the above statement. SHEEP BREEDING AND FEEDING. 23 against the account are high. Under the ordinary farm conditions it will not be necessary to feed as much grain as was consumed during the test herein reported. With small flocks numbering twenty-five to seventy-five head, there will be enough waste on the farm to carry them through the winter months in good shape. Some of the progressive farmers of Xorth Texas allow the flocks to graze the winter wheat fields during the winter months. Care is taken not to over-graze, and in the spring the flocks are removed to the native pasture grasses, where they remain until the wheat and other farm crops have been harvested; then they are given access to these harvested fields, upon which they convert into flesh and fat, products that ordinarily go to waste on the great majority of Texas farms. The preceding statement shows that a profit of 75.5 per cent, was realized on the original investment. In other words, the sheep in the test herein reported returned the Texas Experiment Station $489.14 in cash, and today there are ninety ewes on hand and 80 per cent, of them now have lambs at their side ready to go on feed this fall. • ACKNOWLEDGMENT. The author is indebted to Mr. E. E. Dickson, Superintendent Sub- station No. 7, and to Mr. H. E. Evans, the sheep attendant, whose com- bined efforts aided materially in carrying the experiment herein reported to a successful termination. SUMMARY. 1. Each of the several lots of cross-bred lambs studied during the experiment herein reported were thrifty and hardy from birth. 2. The highest average birth weight was attained by the Hampshire- Rambouillet cross. 3. The Lincoln-Kambouillet cross made the greatest total gain. 4. The Lincoln-Kambouillet cross seemed to finish in a shorter period than did the other crosses, although in this respect all the lambs put on a good finish. 5. On the market January 20, 1916, the packer buyers graded the entire offering, with the exception of one Rambouillet, as "choice." With the one exception above enumerated, the six lots sold at $9.90 per hundred pounds live weight, this figure being the highest ever paid on the Fort "Worth market at that season of the year for fat lambs. 6. On this test the lambs made the cheapest gains during the early portion of the feeding period where they secured a great deal of their bulky feed in the fields. 7. With the choice of five of the best lambs from each of the re- spective crosses in competition for honors in the fat lamb class at the National Feeders' and Breeders' Show in March, 1916, the several pens in competition were placed in the following order: Lincoln-Rambouillet cross, first. Hampshire-Rambouillet cross, second. Southdown-Rambonillet cross, third. 24 TEXAS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIOX. Rambouillet, fourth. Karakule-Kambouillet cross, fifth. Shropshire-Eambouillet cross, sixth. -8. Summarizing the entire feeding test from October to March, the lambs consumed 8.06 pounds of dry feed for each pound increase in iive weight. 9. During the several periods of the feeding test, the average cost •of feed per hundred pounds of gain was: October 13 to January 5 $3.32 January 6 to January 17 5.03 Show lambs January 6 to March 8 6.32 PURDUE UNIVERSITY Agricultural Experiment Station BULLETIN No. 202, VOL. XX (Popular Edition) AUGUST, 1917 SHEEP FEEDING VII FATTENING WESTERN LAMBS 1916-1917 Published by the Station: LAFAYETTE, INDIANA U. S. A. FATTENING WESTERN LAMBS 1916-1917 J. H. SKINNER F. G. KING SUMMARY PART I 1. Lambs receiving corn silage alone as roughage did not consume as large quantities of grain as those fed clover hay in addition to silage as roughage. 2. Lambs fed clover hay once every five days, consumed prac- tically the same amount of grain as those fed clover hay according to appetite. 3. Lambs fed silage alone as roughage gained 17.5 pounds per head at a cost of $15.43 per hundred pounds; those fed silage and clover hay once every five days gained 28.6 pounds per head at a cost of $10.97 per hundred pounds; those fed silage and clover hay ac- cording to appetite gained 36.5 pounds at a cost of $9.92 per hundred pounds. 4. Lambs fed shelled corn, cottonseed meal, and corn silage were valued at $13.50 per^cwt. and returned a profit of 83 cents per head; those fed shelled corn, cottonseed meal, corn silage and clover hay every fifth day were valued at $13.90 per cwt., and re- turned a profit of $2.23 per head ; those fed shelled corn, cottonseed meal, corn silage and clover hay according to appetite were valued at $14.25 per cwt. and returned a profit of $3.18 per head. PART II 5. Lambs fed shelled corn and clover hay ate practically the same quantity of corn but slightly more hay than lambs fed shelled corn and alfalfa hay. 6. Lambs fed shelled corn and clover hay gained 34.4 pounds per head at a cost of $9.71 per hundred pounds; those fed shelled corn and alfalfa hay gained 36.6 pounds per head at a cost of $9.12 per hundred pounds. 7. Lambs fed shelled corn and clover hay were valued at $13.75 Per cwt- and returned a profit of $2.69 per head; those fed shelled corn and alfalfa hay were valued at $14.00 per cwt. and returned a profit of $3.22 per head. PART IH 8. The addition of corn silage to a ration of shelled corn and alfalfa hay did not affect the grain consumption, but 1.40 pounds of corn silage replaced .64 pound of hay in the daily ration per lamb. 9. Lambs fed shelled corn and alfalfa hay gained 36.6 pounds per head at a cost of $9.12 per hundred pounds as compared to 34.6 pounds gain at a cost of $9.85 per hundred pounds by lambs fed shelled corn, alfalfa hay and corn silage. 10. Lambs fed shelled corn and alfalfa hay were valued at $14.00 per cwt. and returned a profit of $3.22 per head; those fed shelled corn, alfalfa hay and corn silage were valued at $14.10 per hundred pounds and returned a profit of $2.99 per head. PART IV 11. Lambs fed ground soybeans as supplement to shelled corn, clover hay and corn silage, maintained eager appetites but failed to consume as large quantities of feed as those fed cottonseed meal as supplement to the ration. 12. Lambs fed ground soybeans gained 35.1 pounds per head as compared to 36.5 pounds per head by those fed cottonseed meal as supplement. 13. Lambs fed ground soybeans as supplement made gains at a cost of $9.76 per hundred pounds as compared to a cost of $9.92 per hundred pounds by those fed cottonseed meal as supplement. 14. Lambs fed ground soybeans as supplement were valued at $14.15 per cwt. and returned a profit of $3.09 per head; those fed cottonseed meal as supplement were valued at $14.25 per cwt. and returned a profit of $3.18 per head. PARTY 15. Shorn lambs consumed slightly larger quantities of feed than wooled lambs. 16. Shorn lambs gained 33.8 pounds per head as compared to 36.5 pounds per head by wooled lambs. 17. Shorn lambs made less economical gains than wooled lambs, the cost per hundred pounds being $10.72 and $9.92 re- spectively. 18. Twenty-five lambs sheared 57 pounds of wool. 19. Shorn lambs were valued at $11.75 Per cwt- and returned a profit of 96 cents per head ; wooled lambs were valued at $14.25 per cwt. and returned a profit of $3.18 per head. PART VI 20. Lambs fed in a well ventilated barn ate the same quantity of grain and silage, but slightly less hay than those fed in an open shed. 21. The gain per lamb was 33.1 pounds when the lambs were fed in a barn as compared to 33.8 pounds with lambs fed in an open shed. 22. Lambs fed in a barn gained 100 pounds at a cost of $10.68; those fed in an open shed gained 100 pounds at a cost of $10.72. 23. Lambs fed in a barn were valued at $11.25 per cwt. and returned a profit of 51 cents per head; those fed in an open shed were valued at $11.75 Per cwt. and returned a profit of 96 cents per head. Oi— ICO OOOO? -tflrH OO Tf" tO • OOCO qo to oo co 'cocs 1~!T~J irH CO I sis s|p 8 T-H T- CO 8 ( 10^-5(MJ>.XO 10 CO O^ CO OO -Cv| OKMIO i-Hi-5 * CO V liifl1 XO T— 1 i— 1 C^ T— H O^ cot^ CO "S -5 ^ oSi 8 rH U3 T^rH S>& 8 tO SrH r-i rH CO S5r^l e^-i S! C^l rH Tf tO i— 1 rH ooot oo o rHTfC^I COrH CO rH CO iO rH C^ 1O O1O5O lOCOh; °TH * to S % ^o ^g _. CO s G cj 03 •s flliW^i sss sas *>* loco IOCMOO eooo 3. 4 CM OOCMt— XO l>-r^as COt>- CM CMCMCM 00 l>- co od CM as CM' t^ cocoes co -^ §3 8 S3 as oo CO rt- ocM »— ( CO CO CO ss^ssssss ; CO ^* ^D ^^ CM OO CO CT5 CO CO ^O t—t i— I Tf CO t>- CDI^-C^OO Oi Ot^-(M lOt^CO i ^^ Oi ^^ *-O Oi O5 Is*- CO ^3* OO C1^ \ OOO^CM* O CO CO 00 00 10 CM • Tt« i— I TH o - CM oo co TJH CM CO OO CM O ^ CM CM T— 1 CM CO O O CO t>; iO CM O5 ^H IO ^^ "^ ^J^ OO ^O CO CO CO^f r-lr-ICO CMOO T-IOO co no xo-cM co co as t>-oqCO IO t^; t>; CO ^J i-H CO aicMCD o co TH oo co t^ CM co-<^ ^HT-HCM i-ico I— ICM CO CO - CM CO 0 0 2J 10 00 CM CO CO CO lJ t"» CO OO O CO t>; O CO l>» Ci O5 " COCOCOO5 o o b- as oo as co coTj«r^co o 10 co as co as oo •^ 10 oo co" CM" co* I-H t^ co as CO TH 1O CM T-( rH XO ^" TH c CO iLs!!lg||f ;l! 253g5^>^o^g DISCUSSION OF RESULTS The price of feed or the cost of lambs does not necessarily de- termine the profit to be made from lamb feeding. This is shown by the results of the test reported in this bulletin. The prices of both feed and lambs were the highest ever experienced with ex- perimental stock at Purdue, yet a satisfactorily high market for finished lambs rendered the operation the most profitable of any lamb feeding trials previously conducted. The animals used were choice western lambs bred in southern Colorado and improved by blackfaced rams. They were pur- chased on the Chicago market and were of excellent quality but uneven in size and condition. Before being started on feed they were divided into nine lots of 25 lambs each. All lots were as nearly equal as possible in weight, quality, condition, thrift and sex. They were fed, twice daily at the same hours. Lots i, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 were fed in an open shed facing south, upon different rations. Lots 2, 7 and 9 were fed the same ration, but Lots 2 and 9 were shorn and the latter fed in a well ventilated barn. The following rations were fed : Lot i. Shelled corn, cottonseed meal, corn silage. Lot 2. Shelled corn, cottonseed meal, clover hay, corn silage. (lambs shorn) Lot 3. Shelled corn, clover hay. Lot 4. Shelled corn, alfajfa hay. Lot 5. Shelled corn, alfalfa hay, corn silage. Lot 6. Shelled corn, cottonseed meal, corn silage, (clover hay every fifth day). Lot 7. Shelled corn, cottonseed meal, clover hay, corn silage. Lot 8. Shelled corn, ground soybeans, clover hay, corn silage. Lot 9. Shelled corn, cottonseed meal, clover hay, corn silage. (lambs shorn and fed in barn) All feeding was done at regular hours. All feed was weighed before being fed. The lambs were weighed at regular intervals of 10 days. They were valued at the end of the trial by expert sheep- men from the stock yards. The results of the trial are shown in the table. Corn silage without hay, did not prove satisfactory as rough- age. The lambs did not have as eager appetites, nor make as rapid gains as when hay was fed in addition to the grain and silage. The lambs not receiving hay also made less economical gains and failed to acquire as good a finish as those receiving hay as a part of the daily ration. When clover hay was given once every fifth day, the lambs maintained more eager appetites, made more rapid and more economical gains than when no hay was fed, but less rapid and less economical gains than when hay was fed every day in addition to grain and silage. Lambs fed grain and silage returned a profit of 83 cents per head; those fed grain, silage, and hay every fifth day returned a profit of $2.23 per head; those fed grain, silage, and hay every day, returned a profit of $3.18 per head. Lambs fed corn and alfalfa hay made more rapid and more economical gains than those fed corn and clover hay. The selling value was also higher and the profit larger when alfalfa hay in- stead of clover hay was fed, the respective profit being $3.22 per head and $2.69 per head.. The addition of corn silage to a ration of corn and alfalfa hay failed to increase the rate of gain or decrease the cost of gain. The selling price of the lambs was slightly higher when silage was fed but the additional cost of production was such that the ration of corn and alfalfa hay returned a profit of $3.22 per head as com- pared to a profit of $2.99 per head when corn silage was fed. Ground soybeans fed in comparison to cottonseed meal as supplement to a ration for fattening lambs, produced practically the same results as the cottonseed meal. However, any differences were in favor of the latter supplement. The shearing of lambs at the time of starting them on feed, slightly increased the feed consumption but decreased the rate of gain and increased the cost of gain. Including the sale of wool, shorn lambs returned a profit of 96 cents per head as compared to a profit of $3.18 per head by wooled lambs. Lambs fed in a well ventilated barn gained slightly less and at a slightly higher cost than others fed in an open shed. The lambs fed in the barn were valued at 50 cents per hundred pounds less than those fed in the open shed, and returned a profit of 51 cents per head as compared to 96 cents per head by lambs fed in the open shed. » FOREST! Kentucky COLLEGE of A UN « V Cf? S I T Y O ?- C A Li ?0 S Agricultural Experiment Station University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky A. M. PETER, Acting Director. CIRCULAR No 18 Kentucky's Opportunities As a Sheep State BY L. B. MANN Bulletins and Circulars Available for Distribution September, 1917 (107) CIRCULAR No. is. KENTUCKY'S OPPORTUNITIES AS A SHEEP STATE. By L. B. MANN. The production of sheep in the United States has become of increasing importance, not only to the producers but also to the consuming public in the way of both meat and cloth- ing. Wool and lamb are two indispensable commodities in our present system of living. The sheep industry, however, has not kept pace with our increased population and, as a result, this year sees almost undreamed of prices for both lambs and wool. "With the breaking up of the great western plains region, due to the influx of homesteaders, arid the rapid depletion of the southwestern semi-arid districts, due to large irrigation projects, the sheepman has been pushed farther up the moun- tain sides and on the desert. These conditions, together with considerable loss from disease and hard winters, have wrought great havoc with the large flocks in the West. The past winter and spring, range shepherds suffered losses of 20 to 50 per cent, of their entire flocks, mostly due to cold, stormy weather immediately after shearing. One big firm reported the loss of over 18,000 head out of a flock of 40?000. In order to maintain anything like the normal production of wool and mutton, the sheep industry must find some other region for its further development; it must come back to the small farms of the East and central Southern States. The day (109) 110 Circular No. 18. of the small farm flock is with us and from all indications it is to become of great importance on the waste lands of these regions. Probably no section of the country is more ideally located or adapted to sheep raising than Kentucky and sec- tions of Tennessee and Virginia. Here we find large areas of upland, excellent for sheep grazing, which produce little or nothing in the way of live stock. True, this land is often too rough to cultivate, but left in grass it affords the best of feed for sheep. Sheep raising goes hand in hand with any successful, per- manent system of agriculture. It is a valuable asset to any farm. Sheep are not adapted to a changing, temporary farm- ing enterprise, and for that reason no sheep are found in a community of dissatisfied renters who move every spring. Invariably, it might be said that where these little balance wheels of the farm industry are found, there usually exists a substantial, prosperous, satisfied neighborhood. While it is not desirable to make any state a strictly sheep region, regardless of her other advantages, both agricultural and industrial, yet, in order to develop the most successful system of permanent agriculture, sheep are a real necessity and should be an important factor in the different farm enter- prises. Decrease in Sheep Industry. At the present time, Kentucky ranks sixteenth in line of sheep production in the United States. This State, as well as most of the eastern and middle western states, has been rapidly depleting the farm flocks. In 1903, there were over 64,000,000 sheep in the United States, while today there are less than 49,000,000. Several causes have brought this about, such as low prices for wool and mutton in the past, the tendency toward dairying in some regions and toward grain farming in others, the depletion of the western flocks and the ravages of dogs. Other lines of farming have seemed more attractive during the past ten years and, as a result, the sheep industry has rapidly declined. Kentucky, last year, saw a decrease of 77,000 head and Kentucky's Opportunities as a Sheep State. Ill since 1913, has experienced a decrease of over 165,000 head, or 12.5 per cent, of the entire number. This means that Ken- tucky farmers are rapidly depleting their foundation stock, the hardy mountain ewe, without making any great attempt to replace her. This year has plainly demonstrated that fact, as many farmers were unable to obtain these ewes, except at prohibitive prices. Xot only have our own flocks suffered a decrease but, since the beginning of the war, reports show a world shortage of 54,500,000 sheep. Chief among the causes for this seem- ingly rapid depletion have been the extra demand for meat by all the nations at war, the lack of grain with which to feed live stock and, in England and Scotland, the present policy of the British Government of ordering the breaking up of millions of acres of former pasture land for increased grain produc- tion and necessarily decreased live stock production. Carrying Capacity of Kentucky. Kentucky has an area of 40,400 square miles, or 25,856,000 acres. From the 1916 report of the U. S. Department of Agri- culture, Kentucky had something like 1,155,000 head of sheep, which gives an average of 22.4 acres for each sheep in the State. Reports from England, Scotland and New Zealand show that under practical farming conditions where the to- pography of the land is similar to Kentucky, the amount of land required per sheep ranges from 2 to 2y2 acres. On this basis, instead of one sheep to every 22.4 acres and a total of only 1,155,000 sheep as at present, this State could maintain from 9 to 11 sheep on each 22.4 acres, or a total of from 10,000,000 to 13,705,000 head. This number equals prac- tically one-fourth of the entire number of sheep in the United States today. While these figures are based on intensive farm- ing conditions as practiced in those countries and would not be practical in Kentucky, yet they give an idea as to the maxi- mum possibilities of the industry and the excellent opportunities offered for increased production. These facts all point clearly to 112 Circular No. 18. the practicability of doubling or trebling our number of sheep without interference with any other of the farm enterprises. In some sections of England, Scotland and New Zealand, sheep farming is the principal enterprise, not only on the rougher land but also on the most expensive land in the country. Sheep are adapted not only to extensive farm opera- tions, but more especially to intensive farming, because of their low cost of production and high returns on investment. Advantages of Sheep Production. The advantages of sheep production are self-evident to any thinking person, and only a hurried summary of the most important is necessary: (1) Paying investment. Probably no other line of farm enterprise has paid as high returns during the past five years as sheep raising. Prices have been almost universally high and lambs and wool always in demand. (2) Sheep are a fixture in a permanent system of farm- ing ; they are one of the best soil upbuild ers known. (3) Returns from sheep are twofold; wool and mutton, both of which find an excellent, ready market. (4) Sheep are economical producers and require very little expensive, concentrated feed. (5) Money from sheep comes in at a time of year when other farm products have been sold and when ready cash is hard to get. Both wool and lambs are sold in spring and early summer, just at the time when new repairs and equipment are needed and the farmer's cash is low. (6) Still another advantage is that of cleaning up the weeds. According to Professor A. M. Patterson, of the Kansas Experiment Station, sheep will eat 576 of the 600 varieties of weeds known to man. Turn them into the weedy yards, lanes, fence rows, stubble fields, meadows, roadsides and corn fields and note the difference in a few weeks ' time. In central Kentucky it is common knowledge among farmers who are raising blue grass seed and hay crops for market that sheep turned on meadows in the spring and fall are of great value Kentucky's Opportunities as a Sheep State. 113 iu ridding the fields of weeds. Cleaner seed and hay are thus produced and sold at top prices. Nothing is better for ridding the farm of noxious weeds, and the sheep seem to do well on them. Adaptability of Kentucky as a Sheep State. Kentucky comes very near furnishing an ideal home for sheep, for, with her mild climate, short winters, early springs and long pasturing season, sheep can be maintained for the greater part of the year on pasture alone. No great amount of expensive shelter is necessary and only a limited amount of expensive grain is required to handle the breeding flock. Much of the land is rolling, high, well drained, and furnishes the best of healthful conditions for successful sheep farming. Bountiful water supplies and plenty of luxuriant, well drained pastures are features that tend to make more pronounced this State's advantages. Low Cost of Production. Because of the low price of much of this hilly land, to- gether with the lack of need for expensive feed and quarters, and the long pasturing season, the cost of production is very low. Markets. Not alone from a production standpoint, but also from that of marketing her products, is Kentucky fortunately lo- cated. Very few growers anywhere have such close proximity to such excellent markets as has the Kentucky sheep raiser, if he will only avail himself of his opportunity. In the northern and central sections Louisville and Cincinnati, two of the best spring lamb markets in the United States, offer excellent shipping facilities and well equipped stock yards. In the west- ern and southern sections Louisville and St. Louis, and, in the eastern and northeastern sections, Jersey City, Baltimore, and Pittsburg offer excellent prices for the spring lamb crop. In fact, the markets are at the sheep man's very door. 114 Circular No. 18. Spring Lambs in Demand. Kentucky spring lambs, because of their quality and early entrance on the market, are always in demand and bring fancy prices on these eastern and northern markets. Obstacles to Success. The Kentucky sheep industry has been on the decline for the past fifteen years, a circumstance for which there must be some very logical cause. Ask the general farming public, and without a doubt they would give the same answer, ''the cur dog pest." Probably, in recent years, this one factor has done more not only to keep hundreds of men out of the sheep busi- ness, but also to cause many others to sell out for good. While this problem is, undoubtedly, a very real one, yet, on the other hand, it is the easiest and quickest to remedy and to control. The solution of the "'cur dog problem" rests directly with the farmers themselves. Let them co-operate by communities and by counties and rid their sections of worthless curs; let them elect only men to office who will enforce the laws already on the statute books and require all dogs not taxed to be killed, and the "dog pest" will cease to be. There was a time, in frontier days, when the dog was a necessity upon every farm. Then he had a place in hunting wild game and animals and protecting his master. At the present time there is a very limited use for the dog, and many very successful stock farm- ers have done away with him altogether. While it is not nec- essary to get rid of all the dogs, yet only those for which a legitimate tax is paid should be allowed to exist. It hardly seems fair that the sheep industry in this and other states should be limited for the greatest part, by the number of worthless curs. Other obstacles that tend to limit sheep raising are such parasitic diseases as nodular disease and stomach worms. While these often wreak havoc on infected flocks, yet by means •of rotation of pastures, use of forage crops and the feeding of succulent winter rations, these diseases can be largely pre- Kentucky's Opportunities as a Sheep State. 115 vented. By the dipping of sheep, all trouble from ticks and scab can be eliminated. Feeding and Care. Feeding and care are necessary to successful sheep farm- ing. They go hand and hand and the man who considers his sheep simply as scavengers cannot expect from them a large return. No matter in what line of business one is interested, care and attention are absoultely essential and sheep left to shift for themselves will never be entirely successful. In the management of the flock it is a good plan to cull out the old and diseased ewes every summer and to substitute the best ewe lambs, thus improving the flock. Increasing the Quantity and Quality of Both Wool and Mutton Kentucky's average weight of fleece for 1916 and for sev- eral years previous was five pounds, which is two pounds be- low the average of the United States. This is due, no doubt, to the fact that the majority of the sheep raised are of the mountain type, a mixed breed with a very open, light fleece. By the use of pure bred rams of good wool and mutton qualities, this yield of wool could be very easily and quickly increased. In experimental work done at the Kentucky Experiment Station with thirty-five mountain ewes, w^hose fleeces averaged five pounds, it was found that by using pure bred rams of dif- ferent breeds it is possible to raise the average by first cross to over 8 pounds, or an increase of 3 pounds in one year. If all our scrub ewes were bred in this manner, it would mean that, counting only a two pound increase per head, instead of 025,000 head yielding 3,125,000 pounds of wool, they would produce 4,375,000 pounds, an increase of 1,250,000 pounds. This amount, valued at fifty cents per pound, would bring .$625,000 additional to the wool growers of the State, without at all increasing the number of sheep. Besides the increase in quantity of wool, the lambs sired by pure bred mutton rams are much superior in size, quality and fattening character to the serub lambs. 116 Circular No. 18. Co-operation Necessary. In order to successfully undertake these different prac- tices, the farmers of the State need to acquire one valuable accomplishment, namely, that of co-operation. With co-opera- tion, community breeding can be established and a saving effected by the exchange of breeding stock. Also a reputa- tion can be built up for good stock, and a market readily es- tablished. Co-operation in the marketing of both wool and lambs has been very successful wherever practiced. The past spring, something like eighteen Kentucky counties organized wool pools and sold their wool for much better prices than the average over the State. The same organization will just as successfully handle the shipment of lambs and other live stock, as has been demonstrated by numbers of successful live stock associations thruout Minnesota, Wisconsin, Kansas, Nebraska and Tennessee. With the" presence of the small farm flock in Kentucky, this is essential, in order that the small sheepman may receive a fair price for his product. With a world shortage of sheep and with a greatly in- creased demand for both wool and mutton, the prospects for profitable sheep raising were never more promising. The farmers of Kentucky and of the southeast who avail themselves of the opportunity along the line of increased sheep production will be amply repaid and at the same time will be rendering their country a valuable service. Kentucky's Opportunities as a Sheep State. 117 LIST OF BULLETINS AND CIRCULARS OF THE KENTUCKY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION. Bulletins. No. 100. Inspection and Analyses of Food. February, 1902. 134. Milk Supply of Kentucky — Louisville. February, 1908. 137. The Army-Worm. December, 1908. 142. Carnation Root-Knot. April, 1909. 144. Information on Food and Drug Inspection and Investigation. December, 1909. 148. Seed Testing Apparatus. A Study of the Conditions Under Which Our Germination Tests are Made. May, 1910. 150. Preservation of Drugs. September, 1910. 151. An Outbreak of the Gad-fly in Kentucky. October, 1910. 157. The Dipping of Sheep for Scabies in Tobacco Dips With and Without the Addition of Flowers of Sulphur. September, 1911. 159. A Study of Localities in Which Pellagra is Present. January, 1912. 160. Parturient Paresis (Milk Fever) and Eclampsia; and the Internal Secretion of the Mammae as a Factor in the Onset of Labor. February, 1912. 165. Investigations of the Etiology of Infectious Abortion of Cows and Mares. April, 1912. 169. Woody Plants of Kentucky. January, 1913. 172. Fumigation and Spraying. May, 1913. 173. The Municipal Abattoir. August, 1913. 174. The Sulphur Content of Some Typical Kentucky Soils. Septem- ber, 1913. 175. The Growing and Fattening of Hogs in the Dry Lot and on For- age Crops. October, 1913. . 179. Construction and Equipment of Dairy Barns. June, 1914. 180. The Inheritance of Coat Colors in Horses. July, 1914. 181. Suggestions for the Prevention of Hog Cholera. August, 1914. 182. Hog Cholera and its Control. August, 1914. 183. Some Kentucky Weeds and Poisonous Plants. August, 1914. 184. Six Different Species of Nodule Bacteria. August, 1914. 186. Experiments with the Sharpies Mechanical Milker. December, 1914. 187. The Corn-ear Worm in Kentucky. December, 1914. 188. The Relation of Sulphur to Soil Fertility. December, 1914. 190. I. The Value of Distillers' Dried Grains in Swine Feeding Opera- tions. II. The Value of Wheat as a Feed for Swine. January, 1915. 118 Circular No. 18. 191. The Teachings of the Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station Relative to Soil Fertility. June, 1915. 192. Non-Alcoholic Carbonated Beverages, Sanitary Condition and Composition. June, 1915. 193. The Soils of Kentucky. July, 1915. 194. Soils of Graves County. July, 1915. . 197. The Feeding of Young Chicks on Grain Mixtures of High and Low Lysine Content. January, 1916. 198. The Curing of Blue-grass Seeds as Affecting their Viability. January, 1916. 199. Experimental Fields — Progress Report. January, 1916. 200. The Locust Borer. January, 1916. 201. Hogging Down Soy Beans and Cowpeas. May, 1916. 202. A Preliminary Study of the Marketing of Burley Tobacco in Cen- tral Kentucky. June, 1916. 203. Concentrated Commercial Feeding Stuffs. July, 1916. 204. Further Investigations of the Etiology and Control of Infectious Abortion in Mares. September, 1916. 205. Commercial Fertilizers. December, 1916. 206. Factors and Methods in the Profitable Production of Sanitary Milk. March, 1917. 207. Studies in Forage Poisoning. — V. June, 1917. 208. Studies in Forage Poisoning.— VI. July, 1917. Circulars. 4. Malnutrition in Hogs. July, 1915. 5. A Remedy for Clover Bloat. August, 1915. 6. Inexpensive Appliances and Utensils for the Dairy. August, 1915. 7. Blackhead in Turkeys. September, 1915. 8. Stem Rot of Clovers and Alfalfa as a Cause of "Clover Sickness." September, 1915. 9. County Agents' Calcimeter. October, 1915. 10. Suggestions Relative to the Prevention of Hog Cholera. December, 1915. 11. Hot Beds and Cold Frames. Mafch, 1916. 12. The Egg-Laying Contest. June, 1916. 13. A New Sweetcorn Disease in Kentucky. January, 1917. 14. The Home Garden in Kentucky. March, 1917. 15. Household Insects. July, 1917. 16. A Bekn Disease. July, 1917. 17. Foul Brood of Bees; Its Recognition and Treatment. August, 1917. 18. Kentucky's Opportunities as a Sheep State. September, 1917. 19. Feeding and Care of Sheep. (In press.) MILK GOATS EDWARD L. SHAW Animal Husbandry Division FARMERS' BULLETIN 920 LMTED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry JOHN R. MOHLER, Chief Washington, D. C. February, 1918 Show this bulletin to a neighbor. Additional copies may be obtained free from the Division of Publications, United States Department of Agriculture WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1913 THE PRODUCTION of milk goats has for a great many years been an important feature of the live-stock in- dustry in many European countries, but it has never secured a very strong foothold in the United States. In this country the goat has always been an animal of more or less ridicule, as the majority of the people do not realize the pos- sibilities of certain breeds or types that have been bred for many years along definite lines. In continental Europe milk goats are largely used by fam- ilies unable to keep a cow, and great benefit is derived from having fresh milk at hand and at a low cost. In those coun- tries the goat is often spoken of as the "poor man's cow." During the past several years considerable interest has been manifested in the milk-goat industry in this country. The fact that the goat will supply sufficient milk for the average family and can be kept where it would be impossible to keep a cow is beginning to appeal to many people, especially those living in the small towns and the suburbs of the large cities. The milk-goat industry is only in its infancy in America. This type of goat is adapted to our country, and the industry should become of greater importance every year. MILK GOATS. CONTENTS. Page. J Page. Present status of the industry 3 Feed and management 22 Goats* milk 4 Goat meat and goatskins 32 Goat dairies 8 Prices of goats 33 Breeds and types of goats 9 Goat troubles 34 Methods of breeding 19 Milk goat registry associations 36 PRESENT STATUS OF THE INDUSTRY. MILK-GOAT industry in the United States has not as yet developed to any important extent. The interest shown during the past has come largely from people who were either raised in or at least are familiar with conditions in countries where the milk goat has proved a success. It requires time to educate people to the value of any new industry, especially one that has been so greatly handi- capped as has been the case with the milk goat. In Switzerland, Italy, Germany, France, Norway, and Spain milk goats are largely used by families not so situated as to permit keeping a cow. F. S. Peer, a well-known American importer of live stock, after making an investigation of the industry in Switzerland some years ago, stated that "the goat of Switzerland is the Swiss peasant's cow and Swiss baby's foster mother, a blessing to the sanitariums for invalids, and a godsend to the poor." In England and in many other parts of Europe people who leave the cities during the summer months either for their country homes or for travel often take a milk goat with them so that the infant or other members of the family may have a good supply of milk of uni- form quality. Similar instances have been recorded in this country. Xo other animal is so well adapted for such a purpose, and there is probably no other country where goats are so much needed for such a purpose as in the United States. The industry in the past has been greatly handicapped owing to the scarcity of good goats for foundation herds. Only a few goats have been imported, as will be noted later in discussing the different breeds. Importations can not be made at the present time from most of the countries where desirable goats are produced. But the goats that have been imported have been quite widely distributed and most of them seem to have done well under their new environ- ment. FARMERS' BULLETIN 920. The milk goat is adapted to this country and the industry is likely to become of greater importance every year. The goat is especially useful to those who desire a small quantity of milk and do not have the room, or can not afford, to keep a cow. In fact, a goat can be kept where it would be impossible to keep a cow, and it will consume considerable feed that otherwise would be wasted. The fact that goats are rarely affected with tuberculosis is another point in their favor. The demand for good goats appears to be far greater than the supply. . GOATS' MILK. YIELD. About the first question that most people ask concerning milk goats is, "How much milk will they produce?" This is, of course, a very important consideration, as the value of a doe is estimated largely by her milk production. Even if a doe is pure bred, she is of little value from the utility standpoint unless she is capable of giving a good quantity of milk. Many persons in purchasing pure-bred or even grade goats have been disappointed to find that the milk could be measured in pints and not quarts or gallons as expected. A doe that produces 3 pints a day is considered only a fair milker, while the production of 2 quarts is good, and the production of 3 quarts is considered excelle'nt, provided the lactation is maintained for from 7 to 10 months. There is probably no better way to treat this matter than to state that good does should produce from 8 to 15 times their weight in milk in a lactation period. It is stated by Ger- man writers that many goats yield 10 times their body weight of milk annually, and exceptional animals as much as 18 times their weight. The production of some of the goats in this country will be noted in the section dealing with the different breeds and types. PRICES. The price to be obtained for goats' milk depends upon a number of conditions. If the milk is to be sold for ordinary uses the price will, of course, be much lower than if a special market has been developed. In the past the price has ranged from 10 to 50 cents a quart, and the highest prices have been obtained when the milk has been supplied for the use of infants and invalids. The demand and the cost of production will serve as a guide as to what price should be obtained. Just as long as good goats are scarce and high-priced it will be necessary to get good prices for the products, whether in the form of milk or cheese, to encourage people to engage in the industry. It will be of interest to note that there is a brand of evaporated unsweetened goats' milk upon the market that retails for 20 cents a can of 11 ounces, which is equivalent to about 30 cents a quart for the original milk. MILK GOATS. O CHARACTERISTICS. Goats' milk is nearly always pure white in color. The small size of the fat globules is one of its chief characteristics. The cream rises very slowly and never as thoroughly as in the case of cows' milk. This condition makes the ordinary method of obtaining the cream impracticable. It has been stated that goats' milk will not keep sweet as long as cows' milk, but tests have been made that show that this is not the case. The keeping quality of any milk depends upon the conditions under which it has been produced and handled. In tests made by the Department of Agriculture, it was found that goats' milk could be thoroughly separated in a separator, for when milk testing 4.4 per cent fat was run through the separator the skim milk showed only 0.03 per cent of fat. If goats' milk is properly produced and handled, there should not be any goaty odor. The principal source of the bad flavor and odor in the milk is the dirt and hair which fall into it from the body of the animal. Then again, the goaty odor is often absorbed by the milk when the milking is done near where the bucks are kept. COMPOSITION. At the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, at Geneva, X. Y., with a mixed herd of goats, it was found that the percentage of fat hi the milk varied from 3.2 to 4.4 per cent; the solids (not fat) ranged from 7.72 to 8.61 per cent; and the total solids ranged be- tween 11.4 and 11.9 per cent.1 The composition of milk from the Bureau of Animal Industry's herd of the common American type of goats, as determined by tests made by the Dairy Division, averaged as follows: Specific gravity, 1.0338; fat, 5.99 per cent; total solids, 16.96 per cent; solids not fat, 10.97 per cent; sugar, 4.93 per cent; total protein, 4.63 per cent; and water, 83.04 per cent. For compari- son the following averages of over 5,000 analyses of cow's milk at the New York station are given: Fat, 3.9 per cent; total solids, 12.9 per cent; solids not fat, 9.0 per cent; sugar, 5.1 per cent; and water, 87.1 per cent. At the New York station a chemical study of goats' milk indicated no essential difference between the constitution of its casein and that of cows' milk. Marked differences were observed in the salts of the ash as compared with the ash of both cows' milk and human milk, but the effect of these differences has not been fully studied. GOATS' MILK PRODUCTS. Goats' milk can be utilized for the same purposes as cows' milk, although for some it is not nearly so well suited. For general use, such as for drinking, cooking, and in tea and coffee, the milk has i Bulletin 429, New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y. 6 FARMERS' BULLETIN 920. proved very satisfactory. The milk of one of the largest herds in the country is evaporated and sold in that form. Goats' milk is less satisfactory than cows' milk for making butter, but large quantities of goats' -milk cheese are manufactured, especially in Europe. Prac- tically all publications dealing with milk goats attribute considerable importance to the use of the milk for infants and invalids. BUTTER. Good butter can be made from goats' milk, but ordinarily very little is produced. The cream rises very slowly, and only a portion of it reaches the top. By the use of the separator, of course, prac- tically all the butt erf at could be secured. Unless artificially colored, the butter is very white, and resembles lard in appearance. If colored, it resembles cows' butter in appearance, although it does not have the same texture. It can be used for the table or for cooking. Tests made by the Bureau of Animal Industry proved that a good quality of butter could be produced when the milk and cream were properly handled and no objectionable features were present. It should be noted, however, that when a good price is obtained for the milk, it would not pay to make butter, as cows' butter could be pur- chased much cheaper. CHEESE. Several varieties of cheese, known under various names, are made from goats' milk. In France, goats'-milk cheese is called cheveret, or chevrotin; in Italy, formaggio di copra; and in Germany, Weich- kasen aus Ziegenmilch (soft cheese from goats' milk). Goats'-milk cheese has a characteristic and individual flavor all its own, although the product closely resembles Limburger cheese. It is made either entirely of goats' milk or, better, with from one-fourth to one-third cows' milk; the mixture materially improves the quality of the product. The manufacturing process is simple and requires no special equipment other than a few special forms and a curing room which can be kept at a temperature of 60° F. The fresh milk is set with commercial liquid rennet for about 45 or 50 minutes at a temperature of from 86° to 90° F. It is perhaps advantageous to add a 1 per cent starter. Rennet is diluted about 20 times in cold water and added at the rate of 1 cubic centimeter (25 drops) to 10 pounds of milk. After a thin film of whey has col- lected upon the firm coagulated milk it is cut by means of a cheese knife into pieces about the size of a walnut. After the curd has remained in the whey for five minutes it is gently stirred for an equal length of time, and then placed in forms by means of a cup or a long- handled dipper. These forms are made of 3X tin, and are 4J inches in diameter by 5 inches high. Each form has five rows of holes, the holes being about an inch apart and one-eighth of an inch in diameter. MILK GOATS. 7 The curd remains in the forms undisturbed until it acquires a con- sistency that will admit of turning. After from 24 to 36 hours at a temperature of 70° F. salt is applied to the surfaces, and the cheese is left on draining boards for about 24 hours. It is then placed on plain boards and carried to the curing room, which should have a tempera- ture of 60° F. and a high humidity. A blue mold first appears on the cheese, and should be removed by brushing with a moistened cloth. A slimy, reddish growth, which appears to be needful in bringing about the proper ripening changes, then covers the cheese. While the curd is at first sour, it gradually becomes less so, and finally develops a sweet and agreeable flavor. When the acidity has disappeared, the cheese is in suitable condition for wrapping. The cheese may be wrapped in parchment paper alone or in parch- ment paper and tin foil; the combination seems to be more desirable, as the tin foil aids in preventing desiccation,, promotes ripening, and gives the package a more attractive appearance. The cheese should then be put into regular Camembert boxes. It should take five or six weeks to ripen, and when ripe should have a fine, white color and an agreeable flavor. About 4J pounds of milk are required to make each cheese, which when fully ripe weighs about half a pound. A fairly satisfactory cheese may be made from goats' milk by a method similar to that outlined in Bulletin 79 of the Storrs (Conn.) Agricultural Experiment Station. The type of Roquefort cheese made from goats' milk is quite dif- ferent in both flavor and texture from that made from sheeps' milk. MILK FOR INFANTS AND INVALIDS. A great many cases in which goats' milk has proved especially valuable for infants and invalids are on record. In many of these cases other foods had been tried and did not seem to agree with the patients. The following is taken from Bulletin 429 of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station under the heading " Summary": Extensive study of the use of goats' milk in infant feeding by Drs. Sherman and Lohnes, of Buffalo, showed that the curds of goats' milk when returned from the stom- ach were smaller and more flocculent than those of cows' milk. From the determina- tion of the combined hydrochloric acid in the returned food, the authors conclude that the cows' milk had a greater stimulating effect on the stomach than goats' milk. The absorption of the food and gain in weight in comparing the two milks were indefinite for several reasons. The babies tolerated equally well similar amounts of goats' milk with cows' milk when used with the same diluents. The younger the child the more the evidence pointed toward a greater gain on goats' milk. Goats' milk was supplied to 18 cases of children that were not thriving on any other food that had been tried. In 17 cases a satisfactory state of nutrition was established through the use of goats' milk, the beneficial results in some instances being very marked. With certain of these children their situation was regarded as serious, and their restoration to a satisfactory nutritional condition was good evidence that goats' milk is often a very desirable resort for infant feeding. 8 FARMERS' BULLETIN 920. In a project carried on cooperatively by the Sea View Hospital, New York, and the Bureau of Animal Industry, the value of goats' milk for tuberculous patients was investigated. The cases treated were all pulmonary tuberculosis varying from quiescent with slight infiltration to active, far-advanced cases with extensive infiltration and cavitation. Adolescents were preferably chosen, irrespective of sex, and in order to have as many as possible under treatment at the same time, some were accepted as low as 6 years of age. A control was selected for each case whose condition closely resembled the one under treatment. The results showed that the goats' milk cases and the controls pro- gressed about the same. Ten. of the sick cases under treatment showed a definite improvement, while 11 of the controls were im- proved. The bed cases were not weighed, but the ambulant patients were weighed weekly and showed that the treated and the controls gained about the same weight. These results are therefore entirely negative. The question of the transmission of a passive immunity to tuber- culosis by the transfer of natural antibodies from goats' milk to very young infants or from the use of this milk over a much longer period is a subject of investigation at present incomplete. GOAT DAIRIES. During the past few years a number of goat dairies have been in operation in different parts of the country. These dairies have been established both for the purpose of producing milk and the manufac- ture of cheese. The largest goat dairy in the country, however, is devoted to the manufacture of condensed milk. If only a few goats are kept it is not necessary to have much in the way of equipment, but if a considerable number of does are milked it is best to have the proper equipment for handling the work advantageously. This does not mean, however, that expensive buildings must be provided. Any clean, dry quarters free from drafts may be used. The essentials of a dairy are facilities for the proper handling of both the goats and the milk. This means that the building should have proper ventilation, plenty of light, and arrangements made so that each goat can be properly fed and handled. The illustrations given of the dairy of the Bureau of Animal Industry, located at Belts- ville, Md., give a good idea of how to handle a medium-sized herd (see figs. 1, 2, and 3). As will be noted in looking over this plan, there are pens where the does may be handled together and stalls where they can be fed individually. The does have leather collars about their necks and are tied to the mangers in the stalls by means of a short rope with a snap on the end which fastens to the ring in the collar. At kidding time small temporary pens are easily made by the use of MILK GOATS. 9 hurdles and can be utilized as long as necessary. After the does have kidded and the kids are ready to be taken away, the does are trans- ferred to the stalls. Until the kids are at least a month old they are fed and handled in the temporary pens. • Lx ^ ^ f. - •- * X „ % T \ > { 0 15 /^r/y =• > " * FIG. 1. — Plan of goat dair y at Bureau of Animal Industry experiment farm, Beltsville, Md. The milking room is separated from the main room and has a con- crete floor with the walls and ceiling concrete-plastered so that they can be kept clean by flushing out with the hose. This room is equipped with a sink, milk scales, and milking stand. The milk is handled in another room called the milk room. This room is equipped with a FIG. 2.— A, side view of single stall and manger; B, division between stall and manger. The opening allows the goat to feed and prevents all waste of feed. cooler, a sink, and a sterilizer. The grain is kept in the feed bins at the east end of the main dairy. Hay is stored in another near-by building. BREEDS AND TYPES OF GOATS. Although there are many breeds and types of milk goats in the world, only a few of them have been imported to this country. This 21611°— 18— Bull. 920 2 10 FARMERS BULLETIN 920. is largely due to the fact that there has been a quarantine against most of the countries where the milk-goat industry is one of the important phases of live-stock production. It is not known just how many goats of each breed or type have been imported. Many immi- grants have brought young goats in baskets with them when entering the country. Then again many goats have been imported and the breed or type was not stated upon the records. The breeds that will be discussed in this publication are the Saanen, Toggenburg, Nubian, Maltese, Schwartzenberg-Guggisberger, and the so-called common or American. FIG. 3.— Goat dairy of the Bureau of Animal Industry at Beltsville, Md. SAANEN. The Saanen is one of the leading breeds and takes its name from the Saanen Valley of Switzerland. It is said to be the largest of all the Swiss breeds. Although considered a hornless breed, occasion- ally an animal is found with horns. The color ranges from a pure to a creamy white. The dairy conformation is especially well developed in the Saanen breed. The hair is usually short, with the exception of a strip along the spinal column extending to the flanks and the hind quarters. A Saanen buck is shown in figure 4, and does of this breed are seen on the front page. The first record of the importation of Saanen was in 1904, when 10 head came in through the Canadian quarantine. These goats were MILK GOATS. 11 selected in Switzerland by F. S. Peer, and were imported for other persons. R. N. Riddle, of Xew Jersey, imported 20 head in 1905. An importation of 19 head was made in 1906 by Fred Stucker, of Ohio. The latest importation was of 2 head in 1913 by Mrs. Lee, of Toledo, Ohio. Very little information is available regarding the milk pro- duction of the Saanen breed. The bureau has not yet owned any pure-bred does. Reliable breeders have stated, however, that their best does have produced from 6 to 9^ pounds a day during their best period of lactation. A pure-bred doe at the N ew York Experi- ment Station, at Geneva, produced an average of 1,421.6 pounds a year for three years. In 1911 she produced 1,845.2 pounds. This is an especially good record. FIG. 4.— Saanen buck owned by the Bureau of Animal Industry. Age, 2 years 4 months; weight, 132 pounds. At the Bureau of Animal Industry's Experiment Farm, Beltsville Md.. Saanen bucks have been used for crossing on the common American type of does with excellent results. The Saanen is a very prepotent breed, and in crossing with common does not only is the Saanen color obtained, but the size, conformation, and mammary development show great improvement over the common goat. Cross-bred Saanen does have a longer period of lactation than com- mon goats, which is of considerable importance. From records kept regarding the Government herd, these cross-bred and grade does have milked from 7 to 10 months after kidding and produced an average 12 FARMERS BULLETIN 920. of 3.1 pounds of milk a day. Some of the best averaged about 4 pounds a day for 10 months. The butterfat in the milk has ranged from 4 to 6 per cent, with an average of 5 per cent. In comparing the results of crossing or grading with Saanen and Toggenburg bucks in the bureau's herd, it was found that the Saanen produced the larger kids, but the Toggenburg-bred does have been more prolific and have produced a little more milk, which also tested a trifle higher in butterfat. The average weight of mature half-blood Saanen does in the bureau's herd in 1917 was 129 pounds. This weight was taken FIG. 5.— Toggenburg buck owned by the Bureau of Animal Industry. Age, 2 years 3 months; weight, 151 pounds. about three months after kidding, when the does were in good milking condition. The Saanen is without question one of the most beautiful and val- uable breeds, and as the supply of pure-breds is very limited in this country it will be necessary to grade up herds from common stock by using Saanen bucks of the best breeding obtainable. TOGGENBURG. The Toggenburg is one of the leading breeds of Switzerland and takes its name from the Toggenburg Valley, where they have been bred for a great many years. Although generally considered a MILK <;(>ATS. 13 hornless breed, occasionally one is found with horns. F. S. Peer, after a trip in the Toggenburg Valley, stated that he did not see a specimen with horns, owing no doubt to the prevailing custom there of weeding out those that developed horns. The color of the Toggen- burg is brown with a light stripe or bar down each side of the face. The legs below the knees and hocks are light gray or almost white. The wattles or appendages, two in number, attached to the under side of the neck, are very characteristic of this breed. There are really two types of the Toggenburg , the short-haired and the long-haired. Mr. Peer stated after visiting the Toggenburg Valley in 1904 that he was not able to get a positive answer that one type was any hardier than the other. FIG. 6.— Toggenburg doe. The first record of importations of the Toggenburg into the United States was in 1893, when W. A. Shafor, of Hamilton, Ohio, imported 4 head from England. In 1904 F. S. Peer imported from Switzerland for other persons 16 head, which later became widely distributed. The largest importation of milk goats ever made to this country was in 1905, when K. N. Riddle, of New Jersey, imported 119 Toggenburgs. These goats were sold over a wide territory. Anothei importation of 9 head was made in 1905 by F. S. Peer. In 1906 Fred Stucker imported 13 head. The latest importation was one buck from the West Indies by Dr. Gregg, of California, in 1916. 14 FARMERS BULLETIN 020. The Toggenburg is the most numerous as well as the most popular of the breeds of milk goats in this country. For this reason more has been heard about it and more data are available concerning it. The breed is especially noted for milk production. It is claimed that in Switzerland Toggenburg does produce from 4 to 5 quarts a day, and some of the best even more. Reliable breeders in the United States report does producing from 3 to 5 quarts a day during the best period of lactation, while a few does have averaged from 2J to 3 quarts for a period of from 8 to 10 months. A pure-bred doe in California, weighing 160 pounds, is credited with the production of 2,096 pounds of milk in 10 months. Another doe owned by the FIG. 7.— Half-blood Toggenburg doe No. 114; out of common American doe No. 66 (see fig. 11). Produced 1,429.3 pounds of milk, testing 5.5 per cent fat, in 365 days. same person is credited with producing 2,680 pounds in a lactation period. This doe weighed only 136 pounds. At the United States Experiment Farm, Beltsville, Md., the Bureau of Animal Industry has used Toggenburg bucks in crossing on the common American type of does with excellent results. The Toggenburg is an especially prepotent breed, and the cross-bred or grade offspring not only take of the Toggenburg color and markings but show great improvement in conformation and mammary develop- ment. Records kept of the Bureau's herd show that the cross-bred or half-blood Toggenburg does have milked from 6 to 10 months after kidding and produced an average of 3.2 pounds of milk a day. MILK GOATS. 15 Some of the best does have averaged 4^ pounds a day. The butterf at has ranged from 4 to 6 per cent; the general average for two years has been 5.2 per cent. The average weight of the mature half-blood Toggenburg does in the bureau's herd in 1917 was 103 pounds. This weight was taken about three months after kidding when the does were in good milking condition. The Toggenburg is a very prolific breed; records for three years in the bureau's herd show a little over 200 per cent increase. Owing to the fact that Toggenburg goats are more plentiful hi this country than other breeds, a good many grade goats of the Toggenburg type are found in various parts of the country. In fact, many herds have been established by crossing Toggenburg bucks upon does of the common American type. NUBIAN. The Nubian, although considered a valuable breed, is found in but small numbers in this country. It is a native of Nubia, Upper Egypt, and Abyssinia. Its important peculiarities consist in the length of the large drooping ears and the shape of the head. The outline of the face is convex, the forehead being especially prominent, while there is a depression at the nostrils and the lower jaw projects slightly beyond the upper. The ears are wide at places and of such length that they hang below the jaw and turn slightly upward at the ends. The Nubian is considered a hornless breed, but bucks occasionally develop horns. It is one of the largest breeds of goats. The hair is short and fine, and owing to this condition this breed is less hardy than the leading European breeds and can not stand extreme cold. The color is black, dark brown, or tan, with or with- out white markings. Pure-bred Nubian bucks are said to be free, or nearly so, of the odor so prevalent in the males of other breeds. The Nubian breed is very prolific and one of the best for milk production. Nubian bucks have been crossed on common does with very satisfactory results. An importation of 4 Nubians was made to this country from Mexico by W. W. Carr, of Virginia, in 1909. These goats came from France to Mexico. The Anglo-Nubian, which is a very popular type of goat in England and is found in some sections of the United States, is a cross between the Nubian and the native English goat. These goats are large and valuable for milk production. There is no special fixed color. Black, tan, and red, with or without white, seem to predominate. Occasion- ally some of the goats are found that are either spotted or piebald. All goats of Nubian breeding have similar characteristics. 16 FARMERS BULLETIN 920. In 1896 G. Howard Davison, of New York, imported 4 English goats. It is very likely that these were of the Anglo-Nubian type. In 1909 4 Anglo-Nubians were imported from England by R. I. Gregg, who also imported 2 from England in 1913. In 1906 D. C. Mayers, of Virginia, imported 7 grade goats from Barbados. Some of these goats were of Nubian breeding. The Bureau of Animal Industry has never experimented with the Nubians or goats of Nubian breeding, and so can not give results such as are mentioned for some of the other breeds. FIG. 8.— Nubian buck. MALTESE. Although considered a valuable breed of milk goat, the Maltese is of no special importance at the present time in this country, except that it has had some influence on the type of goats in the Southwest. As the name signifies, it is a native of the Island of Malta. This breed is kept in large numbers on that island. It is usually hornless, but occasionally one is found with horns. The ears are rather long and are carried horizontally. The udders are quite large and in many instances almost touch the ground. The hair is rather long, the color being white and reddish brown or black. For milk production this breed is considered one of the best. MILK GOATS. 17 For a number of years there has been a type of goats in the South- western part of the United States known as the Spanish Maltese. It is claimed that at a former time many Maltese goats were taken into Spain and later found their way to Mexico and finally to Texas and New Mexico. This type of goats is white or grayish in color, but many have brown, bluish-black, or reddish spots. The ears are pendulous. No reliable information is at hand regarding milk pro- duction, although it is claimed that some are very good producers. FIG. 9.— Maltese goats. SCHWARTZENBERG-GUGGISBERGER. The Schwartzenberg-Guggisberger breed was originally from the Simmen Valley of Switzerland. Although it is represented in the United States in only very small numbers, the writer believes that it might prove to be valuable if a sufficient number could be obtained to give it a thorough trial. This breed is not only of good size, but the does show a very good dairy conformation. Hilpert describes it as being built like the Saanen, of fawn color or brownish white, and of very large size. He also says that it is excelled by no other breed of goats in milk pro- duction when under good care and feed. A pure-bred doe at the New York Experiment Station produced an average of 730.8 pounds of milk a year for three years. The same doe produced 913.3 pounds in 1911. An importation of 3 head of these goats was made in 1906 by Fred Stucker, of Ohio. 21611°— 18— Bull. 920 3 18 FARMERS' BULLETIN 920. The general conformation and the leading characteristics may be noted from the illustration (fig. 10). COMMON, OR AMERICAN. Either of the names " Common" or " American" may be applied to a large number of short-haired goats found in many sections of the United States, especially in the South. In many sections these goats have been bred for a great many years without the introduction of outside blood, so that in general conformation they are very uniform. They are of medium size and somewhat short legged, rather meaty in appearance, and do not show the conformation of the Swiss breeds. "•< IG. 10.— Schwartzenburg-Guggisberger doe. Although a few goats of this type are occasionally found that are good milkers, the quantity produced is usually small and the lactation period is for only a few months. One of the greatest objections from the standpoint of utilizing this type of goat for milking is the fact that the teats are usually short and small. Both sexes as a rule have horns; those on the bucks frequently attaining a good size. This type of goats is of various colors ; brown of various shades, brown and white, black and white, bluish gray, and white predominate. The Bureau of Animal Industry selected a shipment of common short-haired goats in the South in 1909 for the purpose of testing them for their milk production. It was found that the does not only pro- MILK GOATS. 19 duced a rather small quantity of milk, but the average lactation period was short. In 1915. 10 of the best selected does produced milk for periods of from 7 to 10 months and gave from 1 to 2 pounds of milk a da\-. The average production for the 10 does was 1 J pounds. The per cent of butterfat ranged from 6.5 to 9.4, the average being 7.6 per cent. These goats are very prolific. In 1912 the rate of increase was a little over 250 per cent, while for a period of several years it was 225 per cent. Owing to the scarcity of good milk goats, the common or American type properly selected offers a good foundation for grading up with either the Toggenburg, Saanen, or Nubian breeds. Since it would require many years to build up a good milking type by the use of the common goats alone, and such excellent results were obtained by crossing Saanen and Toggenburg bucks upon them, the the bureau discontinued the use of the common goat in 1913. Large numbers of goats have been brought in from Mexico, and these have no doubt had some influence upon the type found in many parts of the South and Southwest. METHODS OF BREEDING. SELECTION OF THE BUCK. A buck is always considered half the herd, and in order to make progress in breeding care should be exercised in making a selection. As good bucks are scarce, it is not always possible to procure the type desired, but the best obtainable should be procured even if the cost be a little greater. Select a buck from a good producing doe and a persistent milker. There is nothing so important in the matter of breeding as evidence that the entire family to which the sire belongs is especially good in conformation as well as in performance. The success of breeding any class of animals depends largely upon the selection of the sires. The selection of a single sire has made many herds famous. A buck should be masculine in appearance, of at least medium size for his age, and of good conformation. As regards the latter, a good depth of body is one of the most important considerations. The masculinity * of the buck can be, of course, determined by the size and conformation of the head, size of the legs, amount of beard, and the quality and length of the hair on various portions of the body. The legs should be straight and well placed Always select a vigor- ous buck. Thinness is no objection if the buck is healthy and a good feeder. A good buck is seldom in good flesh, especially during the breeding season. Most breeders at the present time prefer bucks that are naturally hornless. Such bucks are usually prepotent and sire most of their 20 FARMERS BULLETIN 920. kids without these appendages. The class of does to which the buck is bred will of course have some influence in this respect. In cases where only a few does are kept, it would be not only cheaper but more convenient to send them away to be bred. A buck is usually a troublesome individual and must be kept away from the rest of the herd. Many of the leading breeders breed outside does, and the charges made are usually very reasonable. Many small breeders are compelled to use cross-bred or grade bucks; in such cases selections should be made upon conformation and breeding. FIG. 11.— Common American doe No. 66. Dam of doe No. 114, shown in fig. 7. Produced 367 pounds of milk, testing 7.6 per cent fat, in a lactation period of 275 days. SELECTION OF THE DOE. Although it is not always possible, it is much more satisfactory in making selections to see does during their lactation period. This not only gives an opportunity to study their conformation when they are producing, but the udder development, which is so important, can be better considered. A good doe should have a feminine head, thin neck, sharp withers, well-defined spine and hips, thin thighs, and rather fine bone. The skin should be fine and thin when examined over the ribs. She should have good digestive capacity, as shown by the spring of rib and size of stomach. The so-called wedge shape of the dairy cow MILK GOATS. 21 is clearly defined in a good milk doe. The constitution, an impor- tant item, is defined by the depth and width of the chest. The udder should be of good size when filled with milk and very much reduced when empty. A large udder does not always indicate a high milk yield unless it is of the so-called "genuine" type. The teats should be large enough to make milking easy. In selecting a doe the first questions that are naturally asked are; How much milk will she produce and how long will she milk ? While some does will milk for only a few months after kidding, others will continue producing for 8 to 10 months or even longer. In selecting does, especially when they are giving milk, avoid those that are fleshy; this is a strong indication that they are not good producers. Select those of the dairy conformation. Owing to the scarcity of good does, both grades and pure-breds, and the prices asked for them, it is much more economical to start by selecting good common does, such as are found in many sections of the country, and breeding them to bucks of the leading breeds such as those mentioned before. AGE FOR BREEDING. Goats are in their prime when from 4 to 6 years of age, but choice individuals and good breeders may often be kept to good advantage several years longer. As a general rule young does should not be bred until they are from 15 to 18 months of age, at which time they will be practically grown if they have been well cared for. As most breeders have their does kid in the months of February, March, and April, and breed them but once a year, it means that the doe kids dropped during these months should be bred the second fall after birth. Owing to the fact, however, that some people who only keep two or three does desire a milk supply during the entire year, it would be necessary to breed for both fall and spring kidding. The same would be true where goat dairies are operated. In such cases young does, well grown, can be bred to good advantage when from 12 to 15 months of age. The bureau has found that the number of does that will breed in the spring for fall kidding depends a great deal upon the season. More does were bred in 1915 and 1917 than in 1916. Not many does come in heat in the spring. Does will breed when quite young, and care should be taken not to allow them to become pregnant too young. Cases are recorded where does have kidded when less than nine months of age. PERIODS OF HEAT. Does come in heat at all times of the year, but not frequently between the 1st of March and the middle of August. When they come in heat and desire the attention of the buck, they make their 22 FARMERS BULLETIN 920. condition known by uneasiness and constant shaking of the tail. They usually remain in heat from 1 to 2 days. The period between heats varies from 5 to 21 days. From the record kept of the bureau's herd, more does have returned in from 5 to 7 days. Those that run over this time usually go from 18 to 21 days. Bucks are continually in heat from the fall to the spring season. It is during this time that they have such a strong odor. The number of does to breed to one buck depends upon his age and condition. An early spring buck kid, if well grown and properly handled, can be bred to a few does the following fall. A buck from 12 to 18 months of age can be bred to at least 25 does, while a mature buck is sufficient for from 40 to 50 does. GESTATION PERIOD. The gestation period, which is the time between the effective service of the buck and the birth of the kid or kids, ranges from 146 to 152 days. It is usually spoken of as five months. The average gestation period for several ;years in the bureau's herd with does of several types has been 149 days. NUMBER OF KIDS. Milk goats are very prolific. As a rule, very few single kids are pro- duced. The usual number at one time is two, but frequently there are three, and it is not a rare thing, especially among the common American goats, to have does produce four. The annual rate of increase in the Bureau's herd for the past six years with does of sev- eral types has been a little less than 200 per cent. FEED AND MANAGEMENT. THE BUCK. In handling goats the buck problem is one of considerable import- ance. It is the strong odor and the disgusting habits of the bucks that cause many people to take a great dislike to goats. Bucks should be kept away from the does except when desired for service. If they are kept in the same barn or room where the does are milked some of the strong odor is very likely to be absorbed by the milk. The place for the bucks is in a separate barn or shed, with a sufficient lot for exercise and pasture. The best results can be expected only when the bucks are kept in a healthy condition. During the winter months the ration should con- sist of either alfalfa, clover, or mixed hay and corn stover, with some succulent feed in the way of silage, turnips, etc., and a sufficient quantity of grain. For several seasons the bucks in the Bureau's herd have been win- tered on 3 pounds of alfalfa or clover hay, 1 to 1 J pounds of silage or turnips, and 1J pounds of grain per day, the grain mixture consisting of 100 pounds of corn, 100 pounds of oats, 50 pounds of bran, and MILK GOATS. 23 10 pounds of linseed-oil meal. During the breeding season the grain ration for mature bucks is usually increased to 2 pounds. When the bucks are out on good pasture, no grain is necessary. During the breeding season, it is usually necessary to keep the bucks separate or they will fight and are likely to injure each other. A wood lot with plenty of browse is an excellent place for the bucks during the summer. It must be noted that goats are browsers by nature and they prefer leaves and twigs and weeds to grass. The common short-haired American goat or any of the milk breeds are just as valuable for clearing land as the Angora. Under the conditions which many people keep goats it is necessary to protect the trees in the lots and pastures by putting around them a framework covered with close-woven wire. This is especially true of the young trees. If no lot is available for feed and exercise, the buck can be tethered out. This system is practiced by many people who have only a small lot. Vacant lots can very often be utilized to good advantage for this purpose. Fresh feed as well as a variety would thus be afforded. THE DOES. Most of the feeds that are valuable for the production of milk for the dairy cow are also suitable for does. It is ordinarily considered that from 6 to 8 goats can be kept upon the feed required for one cow. When does are in milk, they should be allowed all the roughage that they will consume, such as alfalfa, clover, or mixed hay and corn stover. They should receive a liberal quantity of succulent feed, such as silage, mangel wurzels, carrots, rutabagas, parsnips, or turnips. The grain feeds best suited for their ration are corn, oats, bran, barley, and linseed-oil meal or oil cake. Other feeds that are often available and that can be utilized are cottonseed meal, brewer's grains, corn bran, gluten feed, and beet pulp. A ration that has been used in the Bureau's herd and proved very satisfactory for does in milk during the winter season has consisted of 2 pounds of alfalfa or clover hay, 1J pounds of silage or turnips, and from 1 to 2 pounds of grain. The grain ration consisted of a mixture of 100 pounds corn, 100 pounds oats, 50 pounds bran, and 10 pounds of linseed-oil meal. When the does are on pasture they receive from 1 to 1 J pounds of grain per day of the mixture mentioned, with the exception of the linseed-oil meal. It must be noted, however, that there is a great difference in individual goats; one goat may readily eat a ration that another may not like so well. As in the case of dairy cows, each doe should be studied if the best results are to be obtained. It is best, of course, to feed separately each doe giving milk. This not only gives an opportunity to study each individual but also insures that each one receives the quantity intended for her. 24 FARMERS' BULLETIN 920. In 1916, in the Bureau's herd, with 10 half-blood Toggenburg and half and three-quarter blood Saanen does, during their lactation period it required 1.21 pounds of grain to produce a quart of milk. During the fall and early winter the pregnant does should be allowed all the roughage they will consume, together with 1 pound of silage or roots and 1 to 1J pounds of grain of the same mixture as mentioned for does in milk. Care should always be taken to see that the silage is of good quality; it should not be fed if frozen or moldy. Silage and turnips should always be fed after milking, and if any silage remains in the trough uneaten it should be removed. Pregnant does require plenty of exercise to produce strong, healthy kids. It is safe to figure on 300 pounds of hay and 450 pounds of grain a year for a mature doe; that is, of course, assuming that good pasture is afforded as much of the year as possible. The New York Experi- ment Station at Geneva reports in Bulletin 429 that the average cost of feed per goat for the year 1912 was $11.05. The California station reported in Bulletin 285 that the average cost per year for each of 5 pure-bred and grade does kept at the station in 1914 was $11.24. This agrees very closely with the cost at the Geneva station. The average cost of the feed needed to produce 1 gallon of milk in this experiment was 6.4 cents. Young does should be kept growing, and the quantity of feed needed will depend upon certain conditions. In the spring, summer, and fall, if they have plenty of browse and pasture, no grain is necessary. If no browse is afforded and the pasture is short during certain months it is best to give them a little grain. In winter they should be fed about 1 pound of grain, 1 to 1 J pounds of silage or roots, and all the hay or fodder they will consume. They should have a shed for shelter and protection from the wind. Goats must be kept dry and out of the cold winds. Some goat breeders, make it a practice to gather leaves in the fall and store them for winter use. This is a very good practice, as the leaves are not only readily eaten by the goats but can be used for bedding. If only one or two goats are kept, refuse from the kitchen, such as potato and turnip peelings, cabbage leaves, and waste bread may be utilized for feeding. If necessary, does can be tethered out as mentioned for the buck. All feed offered to goats should be clean. Rations should be made up from the best feeds available and those most relished by the goats. Plenty of rock salt should be kept before the goats, and a small quantity of fine salt should occasionally be mixed with the grain fed. A good supply of fresh water is necessary; goats should not be com- pelled to drink from pools where the water has been standing. MILK GOATS. 25 LACTATION PERIOD. The lactation period, which is the time that a doe produces milk, varies considerably in the different breeds and types of goats. It ranges all the way from 3 to 10 months, or even longer. A lactation period ranging from 7 to 10 months is considered very satisfactory. There are certain conditions which may have an influence upon it, such as the breed, individuality, health, feed, and regularity and thoroughness of milking. Pure-bred does of any of the leading breeds will, as a general rule, milk longer than any of the so-called common, or American, type. The breed that has been developed the longest should, of course, excel in this respect if the animals have been prop- erly selected. There are always individuals in a breed that excel along certain lines, and this is especially true as regards the lactation period. The health of the does while giving milk is of especial importance. Does when out of condition will frequently shrink in their milk yield and in many cases have to be dried up. Proper food and regular feeding have a tendency to extend the lactation period by not only stimulating the production but causing a more uniform flow during this time. The milking must be done regularly and thoroughly if good results are desired. Irregularity and neglecting to draw all the milk from the udder has a tendency to shorten the period. MILKING. As goats are small animals, they can be milked to much better advantage when upon a stand such as shown in figure 12. As young does usually object to being milked at first, the stanchion arrange- ment shown in the illustration is an excellent method of handling them. For the first few times at least it is best to give the does a little grain feed in the box attached to the stanchion. Does soon become accustomed to being milked and after a few times will jump upon the stand and put their heads through the stanchion without being assisted. The doe's udder should always be either washed or wiped thoroughly before being milked. Ordinarily a damp cloth will be sufficient to remove all foreign material. The first milk drawn should not be saved, as the openings in the teats may be partially filled with foreign matter and this will be removed after a little milk has been drawn. It is best to have a room for milking separate from the main goat barn. This prevents the milk from absorbing any goat odors that might be present. There are two systems of milking goats, one when the milking is performed from the side, as is practiced in milking cows, and the other from the rear of the goat. It is claimed that the second system is used because the goat can not be trained to set her right hind foot FARMERS Bl'LLKTlX 020. FIG. 12.— Milking stand and method of milking in the herd of the Bureau of Animal Industry, Beltsville, Md. back as a cow is trained to do. Many of the does in the bureau's herd, however, have been trained to keep the right hind foot back while being milked. FIG. is.— A Pennsylvania goat dairy, showing method of milking. MILK GOATS. 27 There are also two systems of drawing the milk from the udder- one consists in pressing the teat in the hand, as is usually practiced in milking cows, and the other in "stripping." The first can be adopted when the teats are of sufficient size to be grasped by the hand. The other method is followed by most goat milkers and is a very satisfactory way of milking. The teat is grasped between the first finger and the thumb close to the udder and drawn down the entire length, sufficient pressure being exerted to cause the milk to flow freely. A heavy producer may have to be milked three times a day for a short time, but twice is sufficient for most does. The period between milkings should be divided up as nearly equally as possible. Milk should not be used for human consumption until the fourth or fifth day after the doe kids. Some authorities recommend waiting for a longer period, but this is not necessary if everything is normal. Regularity in milk- ing is important, and kindness and gentle- ness should be regard- ed as essential in the goat dairy. It is ad- visable that the milk- ing be done by the same person as much as possible. It may be stated as a matter of interest that in some of the European countries FIG. 14.— MUking pail used in the Bureau's dairy. Capacity, 4 quarts. through the streets from door to door and the milk is drawn by the goatherd as ordered bv the customers. CARE OF THE MILK. All utensils used in handling the milk should be kept clean. As soon as the milk is drawn it should be weighed, strained, and cooled. The weighing is necessary if it is desired to determine accurately how much the doe produces. Milk records are especially valuable to the breeder in selling stock as well as in his breeding operations. The milk should always be thoroughly strained to remove any foreign matter in it. The best method is to use a layer of sterilized absorbent cotton between two cloths, or to pass the milk through several thicknesses of cloth. Cheesecloth is the best for this purpose. To check the growth of bacteria the milk should be cooled to a temperature of 50° F. as soon after milking as possible. This may be 28 FARMERS BULLETIN 920. done by placing the cans in a tank containing cold water. One of the best systems of cooling the milk rapidly, however, is to run it over a cooler inside of which is cold, running water. Milk should be kept cool until wanted for use. Complete information on the production of clean milk is contained in Farmers' Bulletin 602. RAISING THE KIDS. The raising of the kids is especially an important consideration when it is desired either to sell or use the milk for family purposes. Those, however, who do not care to raise the kids can easily dispose of them when a few days old. Kids that are allowed to suck their dams will not only make a good growth but require very little atten- tion as compared with those raised by hand The amount of milk to be fed and the length of time that it should be fed depends upon several conditions. Kids dropped in the spring will not require as much milk and need not be fed for as long a time FIG. 15.— Half-blood and three-quarter-blood Saanen kids. as those dropped in the fall or early winter. The quantity of milk required for a kid can be determined readily from the fact that a doe producing from 3 to 4 pounds of milk a day can easily raise two kids very satisfactorily. This means that each kid would receive 1 J to 2 pounds of milk a day, or, in other words, 1 J to 2 pints. The bureau has tried an experiment in allowing several does with records of a little over 4 pounds of milk a day to suckle three kids. The kids made a fairly good growth, which shows that when some hay and grain is added it does not require as much milk as might be supposed. Kids that are to be raised by hand should be allowed to remain with the doe for two days. This gives them an opportunity to obtain the colostrum milk which is so valuable for them. Kids can be raised satisfactorily on skimmed cows' milk, and some goat breeders adopt this system. They should be changed from whole to skim milk very gradually, the quantity of skim milk MILK GOATS. 29 being gradually increased until it makes up the entire milk ration. After this has been done the kids will usually consume from 2 to 3 pounds a day. They should.be given just as much as they will readily drink, and until they are at least six weeks old they should be fed three times a day. During this time the milk should be warmed and fed at a temperature of 90° F. They can be weaned from milk when they are from 3 to 4 months old. At this age they will consume sufficient hay, grain, or pasture to make a good growth. Some of the leading goat breeders do not wean the kids until they are about 5 months of age. The age for weaning, however, depends FIG. 16.— Feeding kid with milk from pan; method followed in the Bureau's herd. upon the system of raising the kids. If raised by nursing the does, they can be allowed to go for the 5 months, but if raised on skim milk and the supply is limited they can be weaned much earlier. Kids will eat a little hay and grain at an early age, and they should be provided with them. Alfalfa or clover hay should be given in a rack and the grain mixture in a trough. Arrangements should be made so as to keep the kids out of both the rack and the trough. A good grain ration for the kids consists of cracked corn, crushed or rolled oats, and bran mixed in the proportion of one part cracked 30 FARMERS' BULLETIN 920. corn, one part crushed or rolled oats, and one-half part bran. They should be allowed as much as they will clean up in a reasonable time. If the kids are fed by hand, they can either be given the milk from a bottle, using a nipple, or a tank with a number of nipples attached, or they may be fed from pans. The bureau has adopted the pan and trough system, and this has proved very satisfactory. The kids can easily be taught to drink from a pan, and the system is much less troublesome than using a bottle and nipple. Cleanliness is absolutely essential for the successful raising of kids. See that the pans, pails, bottles, and nipples are kept clean. After the kids are a few weeks old they can drink from a galvanized iron trough. Care should be exercised, however, to see that each kid receives its share of the milk. Kids are very playful creatures and require considerable exercise. If they are kept in a small inclosure, it is a good plan to put a box from 18 to 20 inches in height in the center, so that they may run and jump upon it. This will not only afford them considerable amusement, but will give them plenty of exercise, and they will have keen appetites for their feed. Pasture or browse should be afforded as early as possible. CASTRATION. All buck kids not desired to be kept or sold for breeding purposes should be castrated when they are from 10 days to 3 weeks of age. The older they become the more severe the operation. The opera- tion of castration is very simple and can be performed best by cut- ting off the lower third of the scrotum with a clean, sharp knife, forcing the testicles down and pulling them away, one at a time, with the spermatic cords attached. If, however, the kids are over 4 months of age, the cords should not be pulled out, but scraped off just above the testicles. The wound should be bathed after the operation with some good disinfectant. Buck kids should be separated from the doe kids when they are about 4 months of age. Doe kids come in heat when quite young, and the young bucks worry them a great deal when allowed to run with them. Occasionally doe kids become pregnant when they are only from 4 to 5 months of age. MARKING. Each goat in the herd should be marked in some manner for identification. This may be done by the use of metal ear labels, by notching the ears, or by tattooing the ears. In some instances all three of these systems are used. When this is done, the kids' ears are notched as soon after birth as possible, and when they are from 3 to 6 months of age the ear label is inserted and the tattooing done. The ear label is not only numbered, but has either the initials or MILK GOATS. 31 name of the breeder upon it. The only objection to its use is that it is likely to be torn out. Care should always be taken to insert the label rather close* to the head and far enough up into the ear to make it fairly tight. Notching the ears can be done with the punch used for inserting the ear label. Notches upon certain parts of the ears indicate certain numbers, the sum of the numbers represented by the notches being the number of the goat. Numbers up into the hundreds involve a rather complicated system, but these are not usually necessary in a small herd. To avoid a complex system, each crop of kids may be numbered from one upward. The notch system is especially valuable, as it not only serves as a means of identification but it is not always necessary to catch the goats to read their numbers. A person can stand some distance from the goat, and if the goat is facing him the notches can readily be seen. Tattooing on the inside of the ear is a very satisfactory method of marking goats, especially those having light-colored ears. Tattooing instruments are upon the market, having adjustable numbers and FIG. 17.— Methods of marking goat.V ears, a, Metal label; 6, notching; c, tattooing. letters, with which a combination containing three or four of either or both can be made. Some breeders tattoo their initials in one ear and a number in the other. Tattooing is an exceUent method of checking on the ear label, as the same number as is on the label is usually tattooed. India ink, both stick and liquid, special tattooing oil, and indigo can be used for pigment. DIPPING, DEHORNING, ETC. When goats are infested with lice, as they sometimes are, they should be either dipped or washed. If the herd contains only a few head, it is not necessary to go to the expense of dipping, as a careful washing will gain the desired results. Any good, reliable stock dip as advertised upon the market wih1 answer the purpose. The main thing is to follow the instructions regarding the use of the dip selected. Methods of dipping sheep, as described in Farmers' Bulletin 798, "The Sheep Tick," may be followed in the case of goats. Mature goats may be safely dehorned. This is done best by sawing the horns off close to the head with a common meat saw. The operation should be performed if possible when the weather is fairly 32 FARMERS BULLETIN 920. cool and when flies are not troublesome. As soon as the horns are removed it is well to apply a little pine tar to the wounds. The horns on kids can be prevented from developing by using either caustic soda or caustic potash, which may be obtained from the drug store in the form of sticks about the thickness of a lead pencil. These caustics should be used with care, as they may injure the skin of the person handling them. The stick caustic should be wrapped in a piece of paper to protect the fingers, leaving one end uncovered. Moisten the uncovered end and rub it on the horn buttons. Care should be taken to apply the caustic to the horn button only, but it should be blistered well. The application should be made w^hen the kids are from 2 to 5 days old. FIG. 18.— Type of goat fence used at the Bureau of Animal Industry's experiment farm, Beltsville, Md.; 42 inches high. (This fence appears also in the background of fig. 12.) The best fence for inclosing goats is of woven wire, ranging in height from 42 to 48 inches. Care should be taken, however, to have the ends of the braces against the end posts low enough so that the goats can not walk up them and jump over. If goats are more or less confined and not allowed to run upon gravelly or rocky soil their hoofs grow out and should be trimmed. This can be done with either a sharp knife or a pair of small pruning shears. GOAT MEAT AND GOATSKINS. There has always been a rather general prejudice in this country against the use of goat meat as food. However, in some sections a great many goats of the milk type, especially kids, are annually con- MILK GOATS. 33 sumed. In some parts of the South kids are considered quite a delicacy and are in demand. They are sold for slaughter when from 8 to 12 weeks of age. The flesh of young goats, or kids, is palatable and has a flavor suggesting lamb. If properly cooked, the meat from a mature milk goat is also good eating, provided the animal has been properly fed and is in good condition. The prices of goats sold on the market for slaughter are always considerably less than those received for sheep. Goats do not fatten and carry flesh like sheep. Nevertheless it is known that thousands of goats, both old and young, are annually slaughtered and their meat sold as mutton and lamb. Owing to the fact that the United States imports in normal times upward of 40,000,000 goatskins annually, it would naturally be supposed that there should be a ready market for all skins that could be produced. Skins from the short-haired goats, such as the com- mon type of American goats of the milk breeds, are the kind used in the manufacture of shoes, gloves, book bindings, pocketbooks, and like articles. As a rule goatskins from the short-haired goat are worth from 25 to 50 cents each. However, in large lots and properly pre- pared for sale they will bring a higher price. The price depends upon the size and condition of the skin. PRICES OF GOATS. Owing to the excellent demand and the limited supply of milk goats, breeders are naturally asking good prices for stock. Pure-bred bucks of any of the leading breeds cost from $25 to $100, depending, of course, upon the breed, age, conformation, and breeding. Good bucks from record-producing does are usually held at a higher figure. Grade or crossbred bucks may usually be purchased for from $10 to $25. Bucks of such a breed as the Nubian are very scarce and the prices asked for them are usually high. The prices for does not only depend upon the breed, age, con- formation, and breeding, but upon milk production. Pure-bred does cost from $25 to $150, while grade or crossbred does range from $5 to $50. Persons who wish to procure a milking doe to furnish milk for an infant or an invalid are only too glad, as a rule, to pay a fair price and do not caro so much about the breeding of the goat. It is largely milk production in the doe that establishes her value. In some herds, where breeders do not care to raise all the kids and desire to dispose of them as soon as possible after birth, the prices range from a few dollars up to $10 a head. 34 FARMERS BULLETIN 920. RENTING GOATS. It occasionally happens that a supply of goats' milk is desired for only a short time. Under such conditions does are sometimes rented. Sometimes a breeder would not care to sell a doe but would be willing to rent her out. The charges for this service not only depend upon the value of the doe and the quantity of milk she is capable of producing, but upon how badly the goat is needed. The writer recalls one case where a doe was rented for a period of three months at $10 a month, and in case of the death of the doe the owner was to receive her full estimated value. However, a fair basis for the charge of renting out a doe would be a reasonable price per quart for the milk she would likely produce during the period wanted. GOAT TROUBLES. Although considered very healthy, goats are subject to disease and have their troubles as well as any other class of animals. Goats are less subject to disease than sheep, but the two species are so closely allied that the treatment in cases of disease is the same for both. A matter of great importance and one upon which breeders lay considerable emphasis is the fact that goats are rarely affected with tuberculosis. Their freedom from this widespread and dreaded disease is probably due to environment rather than to natural immu- nity. When confined to close quarters with cows that have tubercu- losis, they will, however, contract the disease. Goats that are in good condition are not very likely to be diseased or to contract disease, but there are some maladies which affect them if they are allowed to get in poor condition. In the Federal meat inspection the cause of most of the condemna- tions for goats on both ante-mortem and post-mortem inspections is emaciation. Emaciation may be due to any one or a combination of several conditions or diseases, such as stomach worms, flukes, tape- worms, abortion, and takosis. It is necessary, of course, to find out the real cause of this condition before a treatment can be administered. STOMACH WORMS. Goats become infected with stomach worms, the important symp- toms of which are loss of flesh, weakness, digestive disturbances, diarrhea or constipation, capricious appetite, and paleness of the mucous membranes of the eyes and mouth. Swellings under the jaw are often noticed. Stomach worms are found in the fourth stomach; they are rather small, ranging from \ to 1 J inches long and about as thick as an ordinary pin. There are two methods of treatment, one with the use of gasoline and the other with copper sulphate (bluestone or blue vitriol). Tests made by the Zoological Division of the Bureau of Animal Industry indicate that in sheep the gasoline treatment is not only less efficacious MILK GOATS. 35 and more troublesome than the blues tone or copper sulphate, but is liable to have a more injurious effect upon the animal. The evening before the animals are to be treated they should be kept off feed and water and the medicine administered the next morning. To prepare the copper-sulphate solution dissolve 1 ounce of copper sulphate into 3 quarts of water. Avoid copper sulphate which shows white patches. The solution is administered as a drench. A kid 3 months old should be given three-fourths of an ounce, at 6 months 1J ounces, at 12 months 2\ ounces, at 18 months 3 ounces, and at 24 months 3? ounces. Common salt acts to a certain extent as a preventive against infestation of internal parasites, and the importance of this should be kept in mind in handling goats. The best method of avoiding loss from internal parasites is by good feeding and the use of a series of pastures arranged so as to avoid keeping the animals too long on the same ground, which as a result of contamination with the droppings from goats harboring the para- sites becomes more and more heavily infested the longer it is used for grazing. Where the goats can browse normally there is little danger, but when they are kept on grass pastures the danger increases. Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 157 discusses the life history of the stomach worm and methods of preventing its injurious effects.1 TAKOSIS. Takosis is a disease which played havoc some years ago in a number of Angora herds. The disease has occurred in a few herds of milk goats and is one that is to be greatly dreaded. The symptoms are somewhat similar to those accompanying a parasitic invasion of diarrhea and pneumonia. The disease is discussed hi Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 45. 2 MALTA FEVER. The disease known as Malta fever has been endemic on the island of Malta for many years, and its presence in other parts of the world has been recognized from time to time. In the United States it has been found in Texas and New Mexico. Its origin in these States is indefinite, but it is stated that it prevailed in Texas when the common goat was the only type in the country. The disease can be trans- mitted to man. In localities where the disease is prevalent it is con- sidered best to heat the milk before using it. Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 215 discusses this disease.3 1 This circular may be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing OflBce, Washington, D. C., for 5 cents. 2 For sale by Superintendent of Documents, 10 cents. * For sale by Superintendent of Documents, 5 cents. 36 FARMERS' BTLLKTI.N !»20. ABORTION. Abortion occasionally occurs in the herd. It may be caused by an injury of some kind or it may be of the contagious nature. If a doe aborts she should be placed in a pen by herself, away from the re- mainder of the herd. The fetus and afterbirth should be buried or burned. The doe should be washed out daily with a good antiseptic solution and the pen thoroughly disinfected. It may require several weeks for the doe to return to normal condition. MINOR AILMENTS. Constipation. — Constipation sometimes occurs, especially with the kids. A dose of Epsom salt or castor oil will correct this trouble. Lice. — Goats frequently become infected with lice. This matter is treated on page 31, under dipping. Caked udder, or garget. — Caked udder, or garget, is something that should be looked after very carefully. When this condition is present the udder feels hard and is hot. The best treatment is to bathe the udder thoroughly several times a day with warm water and after thorough drying with a cloth rub on a little lard. It is well also to give a dose of Epsom salt. Sore teats. — This condition may be caused either by the teeth of the kids, warty growths on the teats, or an injury. After washing and drying the teats carbolated vaseline should be applied. Foot rot.~ Unless properly managed, goats may have foot rot. The first evidence of this trouble to attract attention is a slight lame- ness, which rapidly becomes more marked. The foot will become swollen and warm to the touch. The best method of treatment is by the use of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) . The solution is prepared by dissolving 1 pound of copper sulphate in 5 quarts of water. The goat should stand in the warmed solution for several minutes. MILK GOAT REGISTRY ASSOCIATIONS. The American Milch Goat Record Association was organized in 1903. The object of the association was to establish and improve the breeds of milk goats in America; to collect information of the history and pedigree of the best milk goats wherever found and to preserve the record of the same ; to publish as much of such informa- tion as shall be deemed advisable by the board of directors; to ex- hibit milk goats at such times and places and under such regulations as may be decided upon by the directors. The first volume of the register of this association, published in 1914, records 900 head. J. C. Darst, Dayton, Ohio, is the present secretary. The International Nubian Breeders Association was organized in 1916. The object of this association is to promote the interests of the Nubian breed. Archie C. Talboy, Room 512 Central Mortgage Building, San Diego, Cal., is the present secretary. o UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOBNIA PUBLICATIONS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA THE MILCH GOAT IN CALIFORNIA BY EDWIN C. VOORHIES Fig. 1. — Does on the University Farm. BULLETIN No. 285 September, 1917 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS BERKELEY 1917 BENJAMIN IDE WHEELER, President of the University. EXPEEIMENT STATION STAFF HEADS OF DIVISIONS THOMAS FORSYTH HUNT, Director. EDWARD J. WICKSON, Horticulture (Emeritus). HERBERT J. WEBBER, Director Citrus Experiment Station; Plant Breeding. HUBERT E. VAN NORMAN, Vice-Director; Dairy Management. WILLIAM A. SETCHELL, Botany. MYER E. JAFFA, Nutrition. *ROBERT H. LOUGHRIDGE, Soil Chemistry and Physics (Emeritus). CHARLES W. WOODWORTH, Entomology. RALPH E. SMITH, Plant Pathology. J. ELIOT COIT, Citriculture. JOHN W. GILMORE, Agronomy. CHARLES F. SHAW, Soil Technology. JOHN W. GREGG, Landscape Gardening and Floriculture. FREDERIC T. BIOLETTI, Viticulture and Enology. WARREN T. CLARKE, Agricultural Extension. JOHN S. BURD, Agricultural Chemistry. CHARLES B. LIPMAN, Soil Chemistry and Bacteriology. CLARENCE M. HARING, Veterinary Science and Bacteriology. ERNEST B. BABCOCK, Genetics. GORDON H. TRUE, Animal Husbandry. JAMES T. BARRETT, Plant Pathology. FRITZ W. WOLL, Animal Nutrition. WALTER MULFORD, Forestry. W. P. KELLEY, Agricultural Chemistry. H. J. QUAYLE, Entomology. ELWOOD MEAD, Eural Institutions. J. B. DAVIDSON, Agricultural Engineering. H. S. EEED, Plant Physiology. D. T. MASON, Forestry. fFRANK ADAMS, Irrigation Investigations. C. L. ROADHOUSE, Dairy Industry. W~ L. HOWARD, Pomology. WILLIAM G. HUMMEL, Agricultural Education. JOHN E. DOUGHERTY, Poultry Husbandry. S. S. EOGERS, Olericulture. DAVID N. MORGAN, Assistant to the Director. Mrs. D. L. BUNNELL, Librarian. DIVISION OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY GORDON H. TRUE R. F. MILLER F. W. WOLL EDWIN C. VOORHIES J. G. THOMPSON R. P. ROYCE * Died July 1, 1917. t In co-operation with office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering, U. S. ^eoartment of Agriculture. THE MILCH GOAT IN CALIFORNIA BY EDWIN C. VOOEHIES This bulletin is published in response to numerous requests that have been received for information in regard to the value of milch goats under the conditions existing in this state. It has been deemed advisable to include in the discussion some general information on the subject of milch goats, as well as an account of the experimental work done with this class of farm animals at the University Farm up to the present time. The discussions given in the following pages are accordingly pre- sented under two headings, (a) General Information Concerning Milch Goats; (6) Results of Experimental Work, 1914-1916. (A) GENERAL INFORMATION CONCERNING MILCH GOATS Milch goats are kept for milk production in many foreign coun- tries, especially in Continental Europe, Great Britain, Scandinavia, and in the countries bordering the Mediterranean. They are found in limited numbers in different states in the Union, and are doubtless more numerous in this state than elsewhere in the United States. They are generally kept in very small herds that supply the milk used by the family. A relatively small number of large herds is found in California, especially in the southern part. The comparatively dry climate of this state agrees well with milch goats, and they are kept on land differing greatly in topography and feed conditions. If suf- ficient feed is available, hilly and even rocky land can be used for goat keeping. Goats do not thrive well on low, damp, or swampy land as the conditions on such land are conducive to foot rot and other troubles. Provided they are properly cared for, goats will do well on well-drained valley land. Alfalfa furnishes an abundant feed supply in the interior valleys, which could be utilized in goat keeping as at the present time for dairy cattle and other classes of livestock. In most places, where alfalfa cannot be grown successfully, other pasture crops well adapted for feeding goats can be raised to advantage, such as clover, vetch, rape, and peas. To the majority of goat keepers in this state as elsewhere, however, the main sustenance is found in feed growing in waste places, on vacant city lots, along roadways and fences, or on hill lands where there is not sufficient available feed for keeping 88 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION a cow. Goats thus largely derive their living from feed that would otherwise go to waste, which accounts for their popularity among people in urban communities and for the fact that they are generally considered most economical milk producers. The present conditions and possible extension of the milch goat industry in this state will be further discussed in another place in this bulletin. BREEDS OF MILCH GOATS There are many different breeds of milch boats, but comparatively few of these are represented in California, those present in large num- bers being the Toggenburg, Saanen, and Anglo-Nubian. A great variety of crosses and numerous goats of no particular breeding are also found. Toggenburg. — This breed is at the present time the most numerous in this state. It has its native home in the Toggenburg Valley, Switzerland, where it has been bred for centuries. The prevailing color is brown, both light and dark, with white markings. A white bridle mark is always present on each side of the face. White is also present on the underline and on the legs below the knees and hocks. White is also now and then found on the sides of the animal. As a rule, they are hornless, but horns are sometimes developed. The head is rather long, facial lines straight or slightly concave, ears of a medium size, more or less erect, although sometimes held almost horizontally. The neck is somewhat long and slender and there way or may not be wattles at the base of the lower jaw. Toggenburgs usually have a beard, which on the male is long and heavy. The better specimens of the breed are always lean and of medium size, females weighing about 100 to 140 pounds, while bucks as a rule weigh from 110 to 140 pounds. Both long-haired and short-haired animals are often seen in the same herd. It has been our experience that the Toggenburgs are very hardy and make splendid mothers. Saanen. — This is another Swiss breed which is quite similar to the Toggenburg in general conformation. They are a little heavier in weight, mature bucks weighing from 175 to 200 pounds and does from 110 to 140 pounds. They are of a white or cream color, and usually short-haired. The Saanen is considered a hornless breed, but horns often occur as in the case of the Toggenburg. The Saanen may be used to great advantage in grading up herds in this state, as many of the common goats are white in color. Nubians or Anglo-Nubians. — This goat is probably the result of a cross between the common short-haired goat of England and the THE MILCH GOAT IN CALIFORNIA 89 Fig. 2. — Toggcnburg buck Prince Bismarck, No. 159 A. M. G. E. A. (Courtesy of Winthrop Rowland, Redlands, Cal.) Fig. 3. — Toggenburg doe El Chivar's Geneva, No. 637 A. M. G. E. A. Grand Champion Toggenburg doe, P. P. I. E., 1915. Becord, 2158 Ibs. milk in 312 days. 90 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION Nubian, Egyptian, Abyssinian, Chitral, or some other oriental breed of goats. They have a short coat of no fixed color, all colors and combinations being found. The ears are long, wide and pendant or semi-pendant. The facial line is arched with a slight taper toward the muzzle. The eyes are large and full and the forehead wide. The kids are relatively large and grow rapidly. Large numbers of goats are found on the Catalina Islands in a semi-wild state from which occasional specimens have been brought Fig. 4. — Saanen buck King Franz, No. 915 A. M. G. E. A. (Courtesy of L. A. Bridinger, Santa Rosa, Cal.) to the mainland and domesticated. In some cases these have proved good milch animals. The same holds true in the case of goats from Mexico and the Guadalupe Island, off the coast of Mexico. THE MILK OF THE GOAT One of the first questions usually asked about milch goats is in regard to the quantity and quality of milk produced. Milch goats are similar to dairy cows in that some do not yield a sufficient quantity of milk to pay for their keep, while others are profitable dairy animals. THE MILCH GOAT IN CALIFORNIA 91 A good goat should give 800 to 1000 pounds (approximately 400-500 quarts) during a lactation period. Many breeders speak of the pro- duction of their animals in rather uncertain terms, such as a four- quart doe, a three-quart doe, etc. This refers to the production for a single day during the maximum flow of milk. The individuality of the animal is the greatest factor influencing milk production. Breed is also an important factor. The Toggenburg and Saanen are, as a rule, heavy milkers, while but little is definitely known in regard to Fig. 5. — Saanen doe Juare (imported). (Courtesy of R. R. Glahn, Los Angeles, Cal.) the production of the other breeds in this state at the present time. Pegler states that the Anglo-Nubian is a good milker of rich milk, containing more butter-fat than that of Swiss goats, although the yield is not as a rule as large.1 The Toggenburg doe, Fanette, owned by Mr. Winthrop Howland of Rancho El Chivar, Redlands, California, is reported as giving 2680 pounds of milk in twelve months. Five does of the same breed on the University Farm yielded 2148, 1553, 1341, 1283, and 1090 pounds of milk during a lactation period of twelve, eleven, eleven, ten, i Pegler, The Boole of the Goat, p. 31. 92 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION and eight months, respectively. These records are given in detail later on. Again, a common doe in the University goat herd gave scarcely over 550 pounds of milk in a lactation period of six months. Composition of Goats' Milk. — The composition of goats' milk varies as that of cows' milk, with the breed, period of lactation, and the indi- viduality of the animal. But little information is at hand concerning the composition of the milk of goats of different breeds. So far as known, the milk of the breeds of Swiss origin does not contain as high a percent of butter-fat as that from the Anglo-Nubian or even from some of the common goats. As the doe advances in her period of lactation the fat content of the milk increases. This also varies with other conditions, like intervals between milkings, completeness of milking, etc., so that the test of a single sample of milk will not give a reliable index to the average quality of the mirk. This can only be obtained by regular testing of the milk for one or more full days at intervals during the lactation period, in the same way as for dairy cows. A few analyses of goats' milk taken from different sources are given below. .COMPOSITION OF GOATS' MILK (GENEVA, N. Y., AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION) Analyses were made of twenty-three samples of milk from eleven animals : Average Variations per cent per cent Fat 3.82 1.80- 8.40 Total solids 12.12 9.22-17.63 Total proteins 3.21 2.24- 5.21 Casein 2.40 1.56- 4.06 Ash 55 .40- .80 Specific gravity, 1.0294. COMPOSITION OF GOATS' MILK (CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION) Analyses of the milk from the does in the University herd are made weekly. The averages given below are the result of the analyses made weekly during the entire lactation periods. With one exception these does were Toggenburgs. Average Variations per cent per cent Water 88.05 91.5-85.2 Total solids 11.95 9.5-14.8 Fat 3.40 1.7- 5.6 Solids, not fat 8.55 7.8- 9.2 THE MILCH GOAT IN CALIFORNIA 93 Other sources give the composition of goats ' milk as follows : i Casein and Authority Water Fat albumen Sugar Ash per cent per cent per cent per cent per cent Kenessc 85.50 4.80 5.00 4.00 .70 Landweinth 85.60 4.60 4.80 4.30 Hoffman 86.19 4.73 3.68 4.50 .90 Koenig 86.88 4.07* 3.76 4.64 .85 * Variations, 2.29-7.55 per cent (compiled from about 100 analyses). Flavor and Odor of Goats' Milk. — Many people believe that all goats' milk has a peculiar "goaty" odor and taste. This is not, how- ever, necessarily the case. A disagreeable flavor is oftentimes due to the presence of a buck in the milking herd ; it may also come from the feeding of improper feed. Provided good feed and care are given the doe, and the milk is produced under sanitary conditions, no dis- agreeable odor or flavor is found in goats' milk, although it has a distinct flavor, different fram that of cows' milk. Length of Lactation Period. — Some of the common goats milk for only four or five months ; on the other hand, it is not easy to ' ' dry up ' ' many well-bred does even after they have been milking for ten months. The common goat herd may be improved, however, by the use of pure- bred bucks of known milking strains. A good milch goat should give milk for at least eight months. USES OF GOATS' MILK Direct Consumption. — Goats' milk is a common article of diet throughout Europe. Foreign writers agree in attesting to the value of goats' milk for invalids and children. Physicians give testimony as to the beneficial use of goats' milk for infant feeding. The following quotation from the annual report of the Geneva, N. Y., Agricultural Experiment Station for 1915 is of interest in this connection : During the past few years the Station has maintained a herd of milch goats for the purpose of studying not only the cost of maintenance but also the adapt- ability of the milk to certain uses. The most striking results so far secured relate to the feeding of goats' milk to infants. The Station has had the oppor- tunity of supplying this milk to a fairly large number of very young children who were in serious physical condition, due to their inability to properly digest and assimilate either modified cows' milk or any of the commercial infants' foods that were tried. In nearly all cases of this kind, the physical condition of the children has been built up, and satisfactory growth has been brought about by the use of goats' milk. It is not entirely clear why this milk has proved to be so efficient a food in the instances under observation. 2 2 New York (Geneva) Agric. Ex. Sta,, Bull. 413, p. 639. 94 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION Cheese. — Considerable amounts of cheese are made from goats' milk in Switzerland, France, and other European countries. Such cheese as Mont d'Or, Fromage de St. Marcellin, Neufchatel, and St. Claude are usually made by combining some goats' milk with cows' milk. Neufchatel cheese has been made on a commercial scale in this state ; the following directions are given for its manufacture : Fig. 6. — Anglo-Nubian buck Banzai Ben Hur. (Courtesy of Dr. R. J. Gregg, Lakeside, Cal.) NEUFCHATEL CHEESE Neufchatel cheese can be made from either goats' or cows' milk, but the former usually makes a smoother, closer-grained cheese. Good, sweet whole milk from morning's and night's milking should be set in the evening. The milk may be either raw or pasteurized, but pasteurization will insure a more uniform cheese as well as kill all pathogenic organisms. For pasteurization, the milk should be heated to 143° F. and held at this temperature for twenty-five minutes, after which it is cooled to the setting temperature. (It may be started in the morning, but by setting at night the different steps in the process may be handled in the daytime.) It is convenient to set the milk in five-gallon shotgun cans. The milk should be tempered to about 70° F. The setting temperature will depend largely upon the air temperature and the apparatus available for holding constant temperature. THE MILCH GOAT IN CALIFORNIA 95 If the outside air is colder than 70° F. and the milk is likely to cool down during the night, it would be advisable to set at about 75° F., while if the night air is warmer than 70° F. the setting temperature should be below 70° F. Setting: Eennet extract is added at the rate of 2^4 cubic centimeters per hun- dred pounds of milk. The rennet should be diluted with about twenty times its volume of cold water before being mixed with the milk. Starter (curdled milk) should be added at the rate of about 50 cubic centimeters per hundred pounds of milk. For average milk about two cubic centimeters of cheese color per hundred pounds of milk will give the desired color in the cheese. In some cases conditions ±ig. doe kid Inkyo Tolonah at seven months of age. (Courtesy of Dr. B. J. Gregg, Lakeside, Cal.) may be such that no color is necessary, while in other cases a higher rate than that above mentioned may be necessary in order to give the proper yellow color to the cheese. After all ingredients are thoroughly mixed with the milk it should be covered and allowed to set for about fifteen to eighteen hours. The curd is ready to drain when a thin layer of whey shows up at the sides of the can and on top of the curd and the free whey tests from .3 to .4 per cent acidity. A low acidity at the end of eighteen hours indicates too low temperature or insufficient starter; if the acidity is too high it is probably caused by opposite conditions. The curd should then be poured in a draining cloth, using a separate cloth for the contents of each can. Cloth used for this purpose should have a mesh similar to the cloth used for making flour sacks; ordinary cheesecloth allows too much curd to pass through and results in a low yield. These sacks of curd should be suspended and allowed to drain about eight to ten hours. The 96 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION temperature of the draining room should be about 60° F. In some cases the cheese may be sufficiently dry after draining for this period, but ordinarily it is necessary to put it under a light pressure after draining in order to remove the excess moist- use. This can be done by tying the top of the draining cloth close to the curd and placing it between two boards with one or two bricks for pressure. The ordinary Frazer cheese hoop and a follower which can be purchased from any Fig. 8. — Goat brought from Guadaloupe Island. (Courtesy of E. W. Patrick, Pasadena, Cal.) dairy supply house is very convenient for pressing the cheese. After pressing over night the curd should be sufficiently dry. The curd is removed from the cloth and mixed with salt at the rate of two ounces of salt to ten pounds of curd. The salt may be mixed more evenly if the curd is first run through a food grinder. After salting, the cheese should be thoroughly mixed and again run through a food grinder to give it a smoother grain. A good Neufchatel cheese should have a mild, clean flavor and the texture should be smooth and buttery. The moisture should be between 55 and 60 per THE MILCH GOAT IN CALIFORNIA 97 cent. A cheese which is too dry will probably be grainy and lumpy, while one containing too much moisture will be very soft. The cheese is usually molded in a cylindrical form, 1% inches in diameter and 2% inches long, and wrapped in parchment paper and tinfoil. It may be marketed, however, in small three or four-ounce paper boxes. Fig. 9. — The goat at the right of the photograph was brought from the Cata- lina Islands. The next doe, her daughter, sired by a pure-bred Toggenburg buck. The next one is the granddaughter, being three-quarters Toggenburg, while the doe on the extreme left is the great granddaughter, being seven-eighths Toggen- burg. Condensed Milk. — Evaporated milk from goats' milk is now manu- factured in a large condensory in Monterey County in this state. It is largely used for infant feeding. Ices. — Ice cream and ice milk are made of goat cream and milk frozen in the same manner as from cows' milk and cream, and make very pleasing dishes. 98 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION Butter. — It is not likely that butter will ever be made commer- cially from goats' milk. It is, however, occasionally made in a small way; when made by modern methods it has a very good flavor and texture and could be used in the place of ordinary butter. OTHER GOAT PEODUCTS Goats' Flesh. — Goat meat is not generally considered a choice article of diet. The flesh of the kid under three months old is tender and has a pleasing flavor to one who likes game. It is generally sold as venison or lamb and should be cooked in the same way as venison. It does not carry enough fat to make it desirable for roasting or frying. Hides. — The pelts are used in the manufacture of shoes and gloves. The United States imports annually immense numbers of these skins. One of the tanning companies in Napa, California, quotes the follow- ing prices (spring, 1917) : No. 1 skins, large and small, 30c per Ib. This grade must be free from cuts. No. 2 skins, 20c per Ib. (Classes as No. 2 for being badly taken off, holes in them, etc.) Dry salt goat skins, 20c per Ib. Very poor and almost worthless stock, 5c per Ib. MILCH GOATS AS BRUSH DESTROYERS The milch goat, like the Angora, is a destroyer of brushwood, but it cannot be expected that a doe put on rough land with little besides browse to feed on will produce a maximum or even a satisfactory amount of milk of good quality. Kids, on the other hand, are likely to do well on such land. If the goat is merely desired as a destroyer of brush, Angora goats can probably be used to better advantage. GOATS AS CHILDREN'S PETS Wethers make very acceptable pets for children. They can very easily be broken to the harness. For this purpose the Anglo-Nubian is unequalled on account of its size. IMMUNITY TO DISEASE The goat is an extremely hardy animal and is not subject to a great variety of known animal diseases. Most breeders know how to treat minor ailments, and in case of serious trouble a veterinarian should be called. According to Dr. C. M. Haring of the California THE MILCH GOAT IN CALIFORNIA 99 Agricultural Experiment Statioiv tuberculosis in milch goats is ex- tremely rare. Malta Fever in Goats. Malta fever or Mediterranean fever is a matter of most importance to the goat industry in this state. Goats, sheep, cattle, and horses are susceptible to this disease, caused by a special organism, Micrococeus melitensis. Through the goat it is transmitted to man. The disease has been endemic to the island of Malta for a long time, but its occurrence has been noted in almost all tropical and subtropical countries. In the United States the disease has been found in New Mexico and Texas, as reported by the Bureau of Animal Industry. Fig. 10. — Anglo-Nubian wethers make excellent pets for children. (Courtesy of Phillip Sanger, California.) As a rule, the disease has no active effect on goats. The most important symptom which is observed among goats affected by Malta fever is the frequency of abortions which result in the course of the disease. Some authors estimate that expulsions of immature fetuses occur in 50 to 90 per cent of the pregnant animals, and abortions in diseased animals reoccur during the succeeding and even at the third gestation following the infection. The symptoms in other animals are generally imperceptible and the presence of the disease can be determined only by the demonstration of the specific organ- ism in the blood, secretions or excretions. The symptoms in human beings are more pronounced and give rise to a more or less severe affection.3 It is from the standpoint of public health that the disease should be considered. Up to the present time the disease is not known to exist in this state. It is therefore highly important that this disease 3 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Animal Industry, Circular 215 : Malta Fever with Specific Reference to its Diagnosis and Control in Goats. 100 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION is not allowed to enter the state.* Care should be taken to have imported animals tested by the combined agglutination and comple- ment-fixation tests. FEEDING OF MILCH GOATS The underlying principles of feeding dairy cattle also apply to the feeding of the milch goat, which is a single-purpose animal bred for milk production. On most of the large goat ranches some concen- trates are fed, barley, oats, wheat, dried beet pulp, and cocoanut meal being used more lafgely than any others in this state. The heavier milking does receive as much as two pounds of concentrates per day when in full flow of milk, but rarely over this amount. At the Uni- versity Farm the goats have been fed a variety of concentrates, viz., cracked corn, linseed meal, and cotton seed meal, besides those men- tioned above. Some of the concentrate mixtures fed at the University Farm are as follows : I. Parts by weight Kolled barley 1 Wheat bran 1 Dried beet pulp 1 Cocoanut meal 1 II. Dried beet pulp 6 Boiled barley 1 Wheat bran 1 Cocoanut meal 2 III. Dried beet pulp 1 Wheat bran 1 Oats 1 Cocoanut meal 1 IV. Dried beet pulp 3 Kolled barley 1 Wheat bran 1 Alfalfa hay is well liked by goats and they do not usually tire of it, but it is well to supplement it with a little grain hay once or twice a week. Both roots and silage are greatly relished by goats. Thistles make a palatable feed when dry — preference being for the seeds, how- ever. Pasturing is the ideal method of feeding. Goats do well both THE MILCH GOAT IN CALIFORNIA 101 on alfalfa pasture and on some of the native grasses on rocky and hilly land. The goat enjoys variety, hence it is wise to provide as large a pasture as possible. When goats are kept in a corral, leaves and primings are very acceptable to them, and even when on pasture this feed is relished greatly. Clean kitchen garbage will be eaten with a relish. Well-kept goats are quite particular in regard to the cleanliness of their feed and drink, and will only do their best when conditions of cleanliness are maintained. METHODS OF FEEDING Goats in milk should be fed twice daily. The concentrated por- tion of the rations is, as a rule, fed in a small box or pan at milking time. When feeding alfalfa hay it is always best to tie the goats and to feed the hay in a rack to prevent waste. Stanchions similar to those used in feeding calves may be used in feeding hay to milch goats. A feeding box used on some goat ranches is made six feet long, two and one-half feet wide, and one foot two inches deep. This is covered with slats to prevent the goats from tossing the hay into the air and wasting it. The goats are usually fastened to this box with snaps. THE BUCK The buck is often one of the troublesome features of goateries, and if not managed properly may cause difficulty. He should not be allowed to run with a herd of goats in milk, for the milk will then acquire a "goaty" flavor, the does will likely be bred too early, and the time of breeding will not be known with certainty, which fact prevents necessary attention being given at the time of kidding. The best plan is to remove the buck as far as practicable from the does. He should have his own quarters and pasture, if possible. It is neces- sary, however, that he be kept in a good vigorous condition throughout the year. During the breeding season some grain should be given. Several bucks can be kept in one enclosure. An occasional vigorous brushing is greatly enjoyed by the buck. Bucks are often infertile, and the testicles of kids should therefore be examined to see whether or not they are large and well formed. If they are small and growth does not seem to take place it is improbable that the buck will prove fertile. Kids of masculine appearance should always be selected for the head of the herd. The number of does a buck will serve depends largely on his health and robustness ; a well-conditioned buck should be able to breed about fiftv does. 102 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION THE DOE The doe usually comes in heat once every three weeks, except dur- ing the months of July and August. They will breed when very young — before six months of age. However, if early breeding is practiced for many generations, a dwarf stock and mediocre milkers will probably follow. It is recommended that the doe be bred at about eighteen months old, so as to come fresh at two years of age. Fig. 11. — Kids, if given plenty of feed and exercise, grow rapidly. The period of gestation in does is about 152 days. The number of kids at birth is most frequently two, although one, three, or more kids are often dropped. Twins are usually desired because when more come, they are, as a rule, neither as vigorous nor as large as twin kids. Small, unthrifty offspring should be killed at time of birth. It is a good plan to keep the pregnant does alone as much as possible for two or three weeks before kidding. When two or more does are kept together they may fight and hurt each other, causing abortion. At kidding time, warm bran mashes are recommended as being both laxative and cooling. Practically all goat breeders allow the kids to nurse their dams. At first it is probably the best plan to allow the kids to nurse three or even four times daily. If the kids are with THE MILCH GOAT IN CALIFORNIA 103 their dams they should not be allowed to roam over very large areas at too early an age. At the University Farm practically all the kids have been successfully raised on the bottle. Taken from their dams at three or four days of age they thrive very well when raised in this way. In addition to milk the kids have had access to alfalfa hay from the time the}' were about two weeks old. They have also been fed some grain but never more than one-quarter to one-half pound a day. The following grain mixtures have grven satisfaction : I. Parts by weight Boiled barley 1 Oats 1 II. Milo (ground) 1 Oats I III. Dried beet pulp 1 Eolled barley 1 Wheat bran 1 It may require some persistency at first to make the kids take milk from the bottle or small pail. Pail feeding has been successful in some cases, but it requires considerable persistency on the part of the attendant at the start. Only kids from good stock should be saved, while all grade males should be destroyed or raised for "veni- son." The kids should be dehorned when a few days old by using caustic soda. Goats are usually weaned at four or five months of age. Up to three weeks old kids are extremely delicate, but after reaching the age of one month they become hardy and vigorous. They should be kept indoors in dry quarters during rainy weather as they are very sensitive to dampness when young. CAEE OF THE FEET The feet should be trimmed regularly, especially where the ground is soft. In its native habitat (in rocky regions) the goat keeps its feet worn down. Too much stress cannot be laid on .the proper care of the feet. GOAT HOUSES Goat houses of almost every style are to be found in California, ranging from piano boxes to well-constructed houses. The houses should be clean, well ventilated, and easily disinfected. The lots 104 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION around these houses should be dry and clean. Very valuable goats are preferably kept in box-stalls, of a dimension of 4 x 5 ft. The sides are composed of one-inch boards placed two inches apart until a height of three feet; above that they are three inches apart. The sides are about four feet six inches high. A goat house can be made of box stalls surrounding an indoor corral ; this is very convenient where a considerable number of goats are kept, especially when the weather is disagreeable. .Some goat keepers only have a couple of box stalls, in which case a square box-like shed can be built. In such an arrange- ment a wooden bench on which the goats may sleep at night is put about two feet above the ground. The goat does not care to rest upon soft litter. If straw is provided it will often be scratched away until a hard place is reached. Litter is often necessary to absorb the urine, and nothing better than sawdust for this purpose can be found under California conditions. MILKING It is advisable to milk the goat in a place apart from the barn or shed where the does are kept, on account of odors. Either a room boarded off from the remainder of the barn or a milking stand erected in the open does very nicely in this state. Goats are usually milked on a milking stand large enough for the doe to stand upon, and placed about 2y2 feet from tfie floor or ground. At one end of this stand is a stanchion which fastens the doe while being milked. Before milking the doe should be brushed with a stiff brush and her udder wiped with a damp cloth. Care of Milk. — As soon as the milk is drawn it should be removed from the goat house, strained and put in a cool place. If promptly cooled to below 60° the milk will keep for several days. In order to secure definite information as to the milk production of does it is advisable to make a practice of weighing the milk regu- larly one day each month. By multiplying the yield by the number of days in the month and adding the products for each month in the lactation period, a very satisfactory measure of the milk yield during the period will be obtained. PKICE OF GOATS Prices of milch goats vary from $5.00 for does of unknown breed- ing and no particular milking capacity, up to $300 or more for pure- bred animals. High-class grade females bring from $15.00 to $35.00 at five months of age. Pure-bred bucks and does of good breeding will bring up to $75 at the same age. THE MILCH GOAT IN CALIFORNIA 105 Fig. 12. — Imported Toggenburg doe Fanette in milking stand. (Note the construction of the milking stand.) Fanette has a record of 2680 Ibs. of milk in a period of twelve months. (Courtesy of Mr. Winthrop Rowland, Redlands, Cal.) 106 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION EEGISTEATION There are two associations taking care of the registrations of milch goats in this country. The . American Milch Goat Record Association registers all breeds of milch goats, whether pure-bred or grades; Secretary, J. C. Darst, Dayton, Ohio. The International Nubian Breeders' Association confines its efforts to the registration of Nubians or Anglo-Nubians; Secretary, Fred C. Lounsbury, Plainfield, New Jersey. (B) RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTAL WORK, 1914-1916 FEED EEQUIEEMENTS OF MILCH GOATS FOE MILK PRODUCTION An experiment has been conducted with Toggenburg goats at the University Farm during the past three years with a view to determine their feed requirements and capacity for the production of milk, solids, and butter-fat, with special reference to the relative economy of dairy cows and milch goats as milk producers. Four Toggenburg does were loaned to the University of California for experimental purposes in December, 1913, by Mr. Winthrop How- land of Rancho El Chivar, Redlands, California, viz., 1. El Chivar 's Hedda, No. 447 A. M. G. E. A., born December 29, 1909. Pure- bred doe. Bred November 10, 1913, to Prince Tetzel, No. 528 A. M. G. E. A. 2. El Chivar 's Geneva, No. 651 A. M. G. E. A., born January 31, 1911. Pure- bred doe. Bred October 10, 1913, to Prince Bismarck II, No. 653, A. M. G. E. A. 3. Delia, y2 Toggenburg, iy2 years old. Bred September 29, 1913, to Prince Bismarck II, No. 653, A. M. G. E. A. 4. Delphine, % Toggenburg, 1% years old. Bred November 9, 1913, to Prince Bismarck III, No. 988 A. M. G. E. A. While at the University Farm complete records were kept con- cerning their care, feed consumption, and production. The goats were placed in box stalls and fed alfalfa hay ad lib. and from one -to two pounds of grain mixture daily. When the weather permitted they were tethered in the alfalfa fields. Water was before them at all times, and they had access to salt in their box stalls. Records for feed consumption up to the time of kidding are given in the following tables : THE MILCH GOAT IN CALIFORNIA 107 FEED CONSUMPTION AND AVERAGE WEIGHT OF DOES, IN POUNDS DELIA Alfalfa Green Pasture Body Date Grain hay feed days weight Dec. 18, 1913-Jan. 1, 1914.. 23 28 15.5 96 Jan. 1-29, 1914 31 35 15.5 4 104 Jan. 29-Feb. 26, 1914 24.5 28 * 7 106 Feb. 26-Mar. 10, 1914 12 14 7 106 Totals and Averages 90.5 105 31.0 18 103 EL CHIVAR'S GENEVA Dec. 18, 1913-Jan. 1, 1914 .. 23 28 15.5 .. 98 Jan. 1-29, 1914 31 35 15.5 4 107 Jan. 29-Feb. 26, 1914 28 28 7 118 Feb. 26-Mar. 15, 1914 21 21 7 Totals and Averages 103 112 31.0 18 108 EL CHIVAR'S HEDDA Jan. 8-29, 1914 15.2 25 7.0 4 100 Jan. 29-Feb.26, 1914 28.0 28 .... 7 121 Feb. 26-Mar. 26, 1914 34.4 13 .... 24 123 Mar. 26-Apr. 23, 1914 41.4 8 .... 28 125 Apr. 23-May 21, 1914 57.4 8 .... 91 103 Totals and Averages 176.4 82 7.0 91 114 DELPHIXE Jan. 8-29, 1914 18.7 23 7.0 4 90 Jan. 29-Feb. 26, 1914 28.0 28 .... 7 92 Feb. 26-Mar. 26, 1914 35.3 13 .... 24 97 Mar. 26-Apr. 23, 1914 27.9 8 .... 28 103 Apr. 23-May 21, 1914 39.3 8 .... 28 134 Totals and Averages 149.2 80 7.0 91 103 Delia was the first doe to kid, viz., on February 20, 1914, after a gestation period of 154 days. This was her first kidding. Three kids (two bucks and a doe) were dropped, weighing 6.5, 6.4, and 4.9 pounds, respectively. The kids were left with their dam until March 10, after which time they were raised by hand. El Chivar's Geneva kidded on March 11, 1914, after a gestation period of 152 days. She had had previous kiddings. Geneva dropped twin kids (a buck and a doe) weighing 5.8 and 5.9 pounds, respec- tively. The kids were kept with the dam for four days. El Chivar's Hedda kidded on April 11, 1914, after a gestation period of 152 days. Hedda had had previous kiddings. She dropped 108 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION triplets (two bucks and one doe), weighing 5.8, 5.6, and 5.1 pounds, respectively. Hedda's kids were not separated from her until May 21, 1914. Delphine kidded on April 12, 1914, after a gestation period of 154 days. This was Delphine 's fi^rst kidding. She dropped twin kids (a buck and a doe), weighing 5.0 and 4.6 pounds, respectively. These kids were left with their dam as Delphine 's teats were so short that it was next to impossible to milk her. She died from pneumonia shortly after kidding. Records for production and feed consumption for two other pure-bred Toggenburg does have been kept, viz., El Chivar's Gretel, No. 1022 A. M. G. R. A., and El Chivar's Hertha, No. 1023 A. M. G. R. A. The former kidded on April 6, 1915, dropping twins (a horn- less doe and a horned buck). The buck kid weighed seven pounds at birth, while the doe kid's weight was six pounds. El Chivar's Gretel was born March 11, 1914. making her one year and twenty-six days old at the time of kidding. El Chivar's Hertha, No. 1023 A. M. G. R. A., kidded on April 6, 1915, dropping twins. Hertha was born April 11, 1914-, making her just one year old at the time she kidded. The following records give the complete milk yields of the five does during the lactation periods and the amounts of feed consumed during that time : DELIA PRODUCTION FEED CONSUMPTION Date, 1914 3/10- 3/26 Weight Ibs. 103 , Lbs. milk 87.7 Solids Per cent Lbs. 14.0 12.31 Fat Per cent Lbs. 4.67 4.10 Alfalfa Grain hay 24.6 6.0 Green alfalfa Past, days 14 3/26- 4/23 100 175.6 13.0 22.87 3.86 6.79 72.1 8.0 28 4/23- 5/21 108 162.8 12.6 20.63 3.56 5.70 59.4 8.0 28 5/21- 6/18 105 142.2 12.2 17.38 3.49 4.97 12.0 64.4 239.5 7 6/18- 7/16 103 133.5 12.0 16.05 3.56 4.76 54.1 421.0 7/16- 8/12 100 128.0 11.8 15.11 3.35 4.29 34.8 434.0 8/12- 9/10 103 118.9 11.9 14.20 3.30 ,3.93 30.4 430.0 9/10-10/8 103 89.5 12.7 11.35 3.80 3.40 35.9 341.0 10/8 -11/5 105 86.0 13.5 11.60 4.50 3.83 62.0 303.0 .... 11/5 -12/3 101 80.8 14.2 11.46 4.88 3.94 54.0 350.0 12/3 -12/31 103 54.6 14.6 7.98 5.20 2.83 186.0 38.0 1915 12/31- 1/14 109 23.7 14.3 3.40 5.90 1.19 105.0 310 days 104 1283.3 12.88 164.34 3.88 49.73 16.81 648.6 2556,5 77 Total feed units 862.4 Total units per 100 Ibs. milk 67.2 Total units per 1 Ib. fat .„„„„„„„„,„„«„... 17.3 THE MILCH GOAT IN CALIFORNIA 109 GENEVA PRODUCTION FEED CONSUMPTION Date, Weight, Lbs. Sol ids Fat Alfalfa Green Past. 1914 Ibs milk Per cent Lbs. Per cent Lbs. Grain hay alfalfa days 3/15- 3/26 120 67.6 13.8 9.34 4.74 3.21 18.3 3.0 11 3/26- 4/23 123 230.6 12.5 28.80 3.79 8.75 71.5 8.0 28 4/23- 5/21 139 271.9 11.8 32.21 3.19 8.70 55.8 8.0 28 5/21- 6/18 124 260.2 11.6 30.30 2.95 7.68 71.7 56.0 216.9 7 6/18- 7/16 126 260.6 10.9 28.65 2.80 7.29 78.8 50.0 374.5 .... 7/16- 8/12 129 251.2 10.8 27.18 2.75 6.90 26.7 26.7 329.2 8/12- 9/10 134 212.7 11.3 . 24.06 2.93 6.24 56.0 18.2 309.3 9/10-10/8 125 150.4 11.1 17.65 3.30 4.97 50.0 37.8 290.0 .... 10/8 -11/5 127 145.1 12.2 17.60 3.80 5.46 42.0 60.0 289.0 .... 11/5 -12/3 124 124.2 13.3 16.46 4.51 5.59 42.0 64.0 301.0 12/3 -12/31 122 110.2 13.2 14.50 4.40 4.78 35.0 186.0 38.0 .... 1915 12/31- 1/21 135 73.3 15.2 9.60 5.10 3.23 14.0 155.0 312 days 127 2158.0 11.9 256.34 3.37 72.80 615.6 672.7 2147.9 74 Total feed units 1264.2 Feed units per 100 Ibs. milk .___ 58.5 Feed units per 1 Ib. fat 17.3 HEDDA PRODUCTION' FEED CONSUMPTION Date, Weight. Lbs. Solids Fat Alfalfa Green Past. 1915 Ibs milk Per cent Lbs. Per cent Us Grain hay alfalfa days 5/14- 5/21 28.0 12.3 3.44 4.60 1.29 14.0 6.0 7 5/21- 6/18 124 177.9 12.5 22.25 3.59 6.48 14.0 64.4 239.5 7 6/18- 7/16 120 114.3 12.0 20.91 3.44 6.00 54.1 421.0 .... 7/16- 8/12 116 161.3 11.7 18.91 3.18 5.12 34.8 434.0 8/12- 9/10 121 128.3 11.7 14.95 3.02 3.87 30.4 430.0 9/10-10/8 115 110.0 11.7 12.93 3.60 3.93 35.9 341.0 10/8 -11/5 116 102.6 12.7 13.10 4.00 4.14 62.0 303.0 .... 11/5 - 12/3 113 101.8 13.4 13.72 4.23 4.31 54.0 350.0 .... 12/3 -12/31 116 78.5 14.0 11.00 4.50 3.49 186.0 38.0 1915 12/31- 1/21 132 55.3 12.8 7.10 3.80 2.07 155.0 24.1 days 119 1118.0 12.37 138.31 3.64 40.70 28.0 682.6 2556.5 14 Total feed units 642.0 Feed units per 100 Ibs. milk .. 57.4 Feed units per 1 Ib. fat 15.8 110 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION EL CHIVAR'S GRETEL PRODUCTION FEED CONSUMPTION Date, 1915 Weight, Ibs Lbs. milk Solids Per cent Lbs. Fat Per cent Lbs. Grain Alfalfa hay Green Past. alfalfa days 4/15- 5/13 90 208.7 12.6 26.3 3.6 7.53 45.0 112 28.0 5/13- 6/10 90 210.0 11.4 24.0 2.8 5.93 45.3 102 37 17.5 6/10- 7/8 89 187.9 10.8 20.3 2.5 4.71 41.9 69 17.5 7/8 - 8/5 90 181.0 10.8 19.5 2.6 4.75 45.3 74 32 10.5 8/5 - 9/2 97 176.9 9.8 17.4 2.1 3.72 55.6 98 24.5 9/2 - 9/30 104 155.8 10.4 16.3 2.6 3.99 55.6 84 28.0 9/30-10/28 102 122.9 11.0 13.5 3.1 3.81 42.0 84 28.0 10/28-11/25 102 80.7 12.0 9.7 3.6 2.92 42.0 87 25 10.5 11/25-12/23 98 65.0 12.6 8.2 4.0 2.58 19.0 83 25 1916 12/23- 1/20 97 66.3 12.4 8.2 3.5 2.04 19.0 67 1/20- 2/17 95 57.1 11.3 7.7 2.5 1.41 14.0 57 2/17- 3/16 91 40.9 12.5 5.1 3.9 1.61 11.0 44 95 1553.2 11.3 176.2 2.89 45.01 435.7 961 119 164.5 Grain made up as follows: 43.6 Ibs. bran, 160.1 Ibs. barley, 13.3 Ibs. corn, 152 Ibs. oats, 19.2 Ibs. linseed oil meal, 38.7 Ibs. coeoanut oil meal, 7.8 Ibs. dried beet pulp. Total feed units 1081.4 Feed units per 100 Ibs. milk 69.6 Feed units per 1 Ib. fat 24.0 EL CHIVAR'S HERTHA PRODUCTION FEED CONSUMPTION Date Weight, , Lbs. Solids Fat Alfalfa Green Past. 1915 Ibs. milk Per cent Lbs. Per cent Lbs. Grain hay alfalfa days 4/15- 5/13 74 166.6 12.1 20.2 3.1 5.22 27.7 112 28.0 5/13- 6/10 76 160.3 11.3 18.1 2.8 4.45 27.6 102 37 17.5 6/10- 7/8 85 151.5 10.6 16.0 2.4 3.69 27.5 69 17.5 7/7 - 8/5 81 138.9 10.7 14.8 2.6 3.64 27.6 18 • 32 21.0 8/5 - 9/2 82 130.7 9.8 12.8 2.1 2.69 38.4 98 24.5 9/2 - 9/30 89 123.2 10.7 13.1 2.5 3.04 27.6 84 28.0 9/30-10/28 100 92.2 11.4 10.5 2.9 2.71 27.6 84 28.0 10/28-11/25 95 90.1 11.5 10.4 2.9 2.64 27.6 87 •- £5-* _10-5 11/25-12/23 93 88.3 12.6 11.1 3.8 3.33 19.0 83 1916 12/23- 1/20 82 77.8 12.6 9.8 3.8 2.96 25.0 67 .... 1/20- 2/17 84 68.2 12.2 8.3 3.3 2.28 14.0 57 2/17- 3/16 85 53.8 12.6 6.8 3.7 2.021 11.4 46 86 1341.6 11.3 151.9 2.88 38.67 301.0 907 94 175.0 Grain consists of: 26.8 Ibs. bran, 115.1 Ibs. barley, 9.4 Ibs. corn, 109.2 Ibs. oats, 12.1 Ibs. linseed oil meal, 23.3 Ibs. cocoanut oil meal, 5.1 Ibs. dried beet pulp. Total feed units 933.0 Feed units per 100 Ibs. milk 68.1 Feed units per 1 Ib. fat 24.1 THE MILCH GOAT IN CALIFORNIA 111 In calculating the cost of. feeding the goats the following average feed prices have been assumed : Barley $29.50 per ton Corn 29.50 per ton Oats 34.00 per ton Linseed oil meal 38.50 per ton Cocoanut oil meal 24.00 per ton Dried beet pulp 22.00 per ton Wheat bran 27.00 per ton Alfalfa hay 10.50 per ton Green alfalfa 2.50 per ton Pasture .20 per month The following table presents the results of the calculation in regard to the total cost of the feed eaten by the five does during the year, and the feed cost per gallon of milk and pounds of butter-fat : Total cost Cost of feed Cost of feed Name of feed per gal. milk per Ib. fat Delia $9.72 6.5c 19.6c Geneva 16.10 6.4e 22.1c Hedda 7.02 5.4c 17.2c Gretta 12.63 6.9c 28.0c Hertha . 10.71 6.8c 27.6c Average $11.24 6.4c 22.9 It will be noted that the feed eaten by the goats for the entire year cost, on the average, $11.25 per ton at current market prices during the past five years, and that the feed cost of a gallon of milk and a pound of fat was 6.4c and 22. 9c, respectively. The complete records of production of the cows in the University dairy herd are available for the past four years. At the present time, seventy-three entire lactation periods for dairy cows have been completed, in which accurate records of production and feed eaten by the cows have been kept. These lactation periods include those of twenty-two Holstein cows, sixteen Jerseys, nine Guernseys, four Ayrshires, eight grade Holsteins, and fourteen grade Shorthorns. Using the same prices for feed as for the milch goats we find that for the average number of lactation periods given, the feed cost of a gallon of milk was 8.3c, and of a pound of fat 24.4c. A comparison between the feed cost of a gallon of milk and per pound of butter fat for the milch goats and the dairy cows in the University herd, therefore, shows that the former produced a gallon of milk at a cost of 1.9c lower than the cows, a difference of 23 per cent, and a pound 112 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION of butter-fat at a cost of 1.7c lower, a difference of 7 per cent. It should be noted that the goats in this experiment were animals with excellent milk-producing capacity and doubtless considerably above the average for the breed. It is possible that with a large herd the cost of production would be more nearly equal to the cost of pro- duction by dairy cows. It is probable that the interest in milch goats will continue to grow. One of the chief drawbacks to the industry in the near future is likely to be the many poor individuals on the market. The general public should understand that there is a vast difference between the good and the poor producers among milch goats. The main characteristics of a good producer are an angular form, a large barrel (abdomen), which with a strong, muscular jaw indicates good feeding capacity, a large udder of good texture, with good-sized teats. A certain refine- ment and "quality" are further indications of a good milch goat. The future of the goat industry in this state would seem to lie in several directions : ( 1 ) The use of milk for direct consumption of the family; (2) as food for infants and invalids; (3) the making of cheese from the milk; (4) the breeding of high-producing animals. Unlike conditions in European countries, milch goats are not kept in this country to any great extent by laboring people who depend on the goat for their entire milk supply. On the contrary, they are kept by many well-to-do people, especially in southern California. A single milch goat can be fed at a very low cost on kitchen waste, lawn clippings, grass growing on vacant city lots and along roadways, etc., and the only expense will be for a little grain while in milk and for hay when no green feed is available. By depending on the milch goat for its milk supply, a family may reduce the milk bill very materially, and secure for feeding its members a food article of fully equal nutritive value to that of cows' milk, and in the opinion of eminent physicians, superior to the same so far as the feeding of infants and invalids is concerned. The latter point offers another opportunity for profit. Owners of goats can often rent their goats in milk, especially in cases where goats' milk has been prescribed for infants and invalids by physicians. Attention has already been called to the fact that milch goats vary greatly in regard to milk production- and care must therefore be taken to secure good individuals, which must, moreover, be in perfect health. A standard of three or four quarts of milk per day shortly after kidding is none too high. Goats may be kept to advantage on small fruit ranches, and on high-priced land where there is not sufficient feed to support a cow. THE MILCH GOAT IN CALIFORNIA 113 Furthermore, on rocky and hilly land, but little adapted to dairying, a herd of milch goats may be maintained in good production at a small feed cost, which will supply sufficient milk both for the use of the family and neighbors as well. Such conditions prevail in many inaccessible places, like mining and lumbering camps where people now ordinarily depend on con- densed milk for their milk supply. The great advantage of goats in Fig. 13. — Herd of goats in the hills of Southern California. such places is that, unlike dairy cattle, goats ''always come home at night, " There is a strong demand at the present time for milch goats, which is likely to increase in the future. Goat raising for supplying milch animals will therefore undoubtedly prove profitable and is worthy of the attention of interested people who can engage in the business of breeding goats and are familiar with this class of live- stock. Milch goats are likely to be kept in large numbers only by such breeders, and by ranchers who supply goats' milk for the manufacture of cheese or condensed milk. The large majority of people keeping milch goats, whether in towns or in the country, will 114 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION keep one or two animals only for supplying their own needs. The future of the goat industry will depend primarily on the extent to which these people take advantage of the special opportunities for securing a valuable, necessary food product at a minimum cost that goat keeping offers. BIBLIOGRAPHY Information Concerning MUch Goats, by Geo. Fayette Thompson. Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 68, 1905. (May be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. Price, 15 cents.) The Book of the Goat, by Henry Stephens Holmes Pegler. L. Upton Gill, 170 Strand, London, W. C., 1909. Profit and Pleasure in Goat-Keeping, by Fred C. Lounsbury. Published by the author, Plainfield, N. J., 1915. Money in Goats, by W. Sheldon Bull. Published by the author, Buffalo, N. Y., 1915. Goats' Milk for Infant Feeding, by W. H. Jordan and G. A. Smith. Geneva, N. Y., Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 429. The Casein and Salts in Goats' Mttlc, by A. W. Bosworth and L. L. Van Slyke. Geneva, N. Y., Agricultural Experiment Station, Technical Bulletin 46, 1915. Malta Fever, with Special Eeference to its Diagnosis and Control in Goats, by John E. Mohler and Adolph Eichhorn. Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Circular 215. Takosis, A Contagicus Disease of Goats, by John R. Mohler and Henry J. Wash- burn. Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bul- letin 45. STATION PUBLICATIONS AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION REPORTS 1897. Resistant Vines, their Selection, Adaptation, and Grafting. Appendix to Viticultural Report for 1896. 1902. Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station for 1898-1901. 1903. Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station for 1901-03. 1904. Twenty-second Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station for 1903-04. 1914. Report of the College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station, July, 1913-June, 1914. 1915. Report of the College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station, July, 1914-June, 1915. 1916. Report of the College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station, July, 1915-June, 1916. No. 230. 241. 242. 244. 246. 248. 249. 250. 251. 252. 253. 255. 257. 261. 262. 263. 264. 265. 266. No. 82. 107. 108. 109. 113. 114. 115. 117. 118. 121. 124. 126. 127. 128. 129. 130. 131. 132. 133. 134. 135. 136. 137. 138. 139. 140. 141. BULLETINS No. 267. 268. 270. Enological Investigations. Vine Pruning in California, Part I. Humus in California Soils. Utilization of Waste Oranges. Vine Pruning in California, Part II. The Economic Value of Pacific Coast 271. Kelps. 272. Stock-Poisoning Plants of California. 273. The Loquat. Utilization of the Nitrogen and Organic 274. Matter in Septic and Imhoff Tank Sludges. 275. Deterioration of Lumber. Irrigation and Soil Conditions in the 276. Sierra Nevada Foothills, California. 277. The Citricola Scale. 278. New Dosage Tables. 279. Melaxuma of the Walnut, "Juglans 280. regia." Citrus Diseases of Florida and Cuba 281. Compared with Those of California. Size Grade for Ripe Olives. 282. The Calibration of the Leakage Meter. Cottonv Rot of Lemons in California. 283. A Spotting of Citrus Fruits Due to the 284. Action of Oil Liberated from the Rind. 285. CIRCULARS No. The Common Ground Squirrels of 142. California. Spraving Walnut Trees for Blight and 143. Aphis Control. Grape Juice. 144. Community or Local Extension Work 145. by the High School Agricultural De- partment. 146. Correspondence Courses in Agriculture. Increasing the Dutv of Water. 147. Grafting Vinifera Vineyards. 148. The Selection and Cost of a Small 150. Pumping Plant. 151. The County Farm Bureau. 152. Some Things the Prospective Settler Should Know. 153. Alfalfa Silage for Fattening Steers. Spraying for the Grape Leaf Hopper. 154. House Fumigation. Insecticide Formulas. 155. The Control of Citrus Insects. 156. Cabbage Growing in California. 157. Spraying for Control of Walnut Aphis. 158. When to Vaccinate against Hog Cholera. 159. County Farm Adviser. 160. Control of Raisin Insects. 161. Official Tests of Dairy Cows. 162. Melilotus Indica. Wood Decay in Orchard Trees. 163. The Silo in California Agriculture. The Generation of Hydrocyanic Acid 164. Gas in Fumigation by Portable Ma- 165. chines. The Practical Application of Improved 166. Methods of Fermentation in Califor- 167. nia Wineries during 1913 and 1914. 168. Standard Insecticides and Fungicides versus Secret Preparations. Experiments with Stocks for Citrus. Growing and Grafting Olive Seedlings. A Comparison of Annual Cropping, Bi- ennial Cropping, and Green Manures on the Yield of Wheat. Feeding Dairy Calves in California. Commercial Fertilizers. Preliminary Report on Kearney Vine- yard Experimental Drain. The Common Honey Bee as an Agent in Prune Pollination. The Cultivation of Belladonna in Cali- fornia. The Pomegranate. Sudan Grass. Grain Sorghums. Irrigation of Rice in California. Irrigation of Alfalfa in the Sacramento Valley. Control of the Pocket Gophers in Cali- fornia. Trials with California Silage Crops for Dairy Cows. The Olive Insects of California. Irrigation of Alfalfa in Imperial Valley. The Milch Goat in California. Practical and Inexpensive Poultry Ap- pliances. Control of Grasshoppers in Imperial Valley. Oidium or Powdery Mildew of the Vine. Suggestions to Poultrymen concerning Chicken Pox. Jellies and Marmalades from Citrus Fruits. Tomato Growing in California. "Lungworms." Round Worms in Poultry. Feeding and Management of Hogs. Some Observations on the Bulk Hand- ling of Grain in California. Announcement of the California State Dairy Cow Competition, 1916-18. Irrigation Practice in Growing Small Fruits in California. Bovine Tuberculosis. How to Operate an Incubator. Control of the Pear Scab. Home and Farm Canning. Agriculture in the Imperial Valley. Lettuce Growing in California. Potatoes in California. White Diarrhoea and Coccidiosis of Chicks. Fundamentals Affecting the Food Sup- ply of the United States. Small Fruit Culture in California. Fundamentals of Sugar Beet under California Conditions. The County Farm Bureau. Feeding Stuffs of Minor Importance. Spraying for the Control of Wild Morn- ing-Glory within the Fog Belt. ERADICATING TALL LARKSPUR ON CATTLE RANGES IN THE NATIONAL FORESTS A. E. ALDOUS Grazing Examiner FARMERS' BULLETIN 826 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Forest Service HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester Washington, D. C. August, 1917 Show this bulletin to a neighbor. Additional copies may be obtained free from the Division of Publications, United States Department of Agriculture WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1917 POISONING by tall larkspur causes heavy losses of cattle in the National Forests each year. Dur- ing the last three years 5,500 head of cattle were lost annually. The most effective way to prevent this loss is to grub out the plants, a method of eradication which gives permanent results; other expedients are likely to be temporary. The average cost of eradicating larkspur by grub- bing probably falls between $3.65 and $4.15 per acre on range that is comparatively free from rocks, wil- lows, and brush. For willow and rocky areas about $10 an acre probably represents the maximum cost. Results of grubbing work in National Forest ranges, together with the methods of operation, the tools to use, the best time to do the work, and the best way to dispose of the grubbed plants, are given in the following pages. ERADICATING TALL LARKSPUR ON CATTLE RANGES IN THE NATIONAL FORESTS. CONTENTS. Losses of cattle from larkspur poisoning Eradication of larkspur by grubbing Cost of grubbing Practicability of grubbing Method of grubbing Sheep grazing of larkspur areas on cattle Fencing as a protection against loss 21 Summary 22 LOSSES OF CATTLE FROM LARKSPUR POISONING. AT LEAST 5,500 head of cattle have been lost yearly during the last three years from poisonous plants on ranges within the National Forests. The value of the stock lost annually is approxi- mately $300,000. Usually the heavy losses occur on comparatively small portions of the forest ranges. Several plants are responsible, but about 90 per cent of the loss can be charged to tall larkspur. Special effort has been made by the Forest Service in cooperation with stockmen to test on a small scale various methods of reducing or eliminating loss. Where the tests showed promise, the successful FIG. 1. — Cattle grazing on typical mountain weed meadow containing larkspur, Stan- islaus National Forest. 3 FARMERS' BULLETIN 826. methods were then used in actual range management. Grazing sheep on larkspur areas within cattle range has been tried out in a number of localities, many miles of fence have been constructed to keep cattle off dangerous poison areas, and there has been extensive as well as experimental eradication of larkspur. The results of this work, though not yet complete, have changed materially the opinions of both the stockmen and the men admin- istering the grazing lands as to the comparative efficiency of the different methods and the conditions under which a given method is practicable. ERADICATION OF LARKSPUR BY GRUBBING. For National Forest ranges as a whole the most effective way of eliminating loss from larkspur poisoning is to grub out the plants. This method is made practicable by the fact that larkspur grows mainly in isolated patches; on the greater portion of the range there is not enough of it to endanger the cattle. Grubbing, further- more, appears to offer a permanent solution of the problem, while other methods which have been tried are more in the nature of tem- porary expedients. Following careful experiments in 1913 and 1914 in grubbing larkspur on three selected areas in the Stanislaus National Forest eradication work was undertaken in 1915 on some 14,000 acres of cattle range in the same National Forest. The range selected is typical of high Sierra ranges, lying between 6,500 feet and 9,500 feet altitude. The areas of larkspur accessible to cattle totaled approximately 68 acres, distributed in patches varying'in size from a few square yards to 10 acres, located mainly in the small weed and willow meadows, along the main drainage area, and at the heads of small streams. Of the 68 acres of larkspur grubbed out approxi- mately 42 acres were in willowys along drainage lines and around springs. The density of the willows and consequently the diffi- culty of eradication varied considerably. Two areas, of one-half and three-tenths of an acre were selected for special study of eradi- cation in willows. Approximately 12 acres grubbed represented areas where there was enough rock and gravel in the soil to inter- fere materially with grubbing operations. An area of seven-tenths of an acre was selected for special study of eradication on sites of this character. The remaining 14 acres grubbed were open-meadow and park areas where the soil was mainly a gravelly or sandy loam, carrying some rock but not enough to interfere materially with grubbing operations. A plot of one-tenth of an acre was selected for special study of eradication on such sites. ERADICATING TALL LARKSPUR ON CATTLE RANGES. The grubbing in 1915 was done by a crew of eight inexperienced laborers under the direction of a forest officer. The results both as to cost and as to effectiveness of eradication should be applicable to similar conditions elsewhere. The effectiveness of grubbing on the plots selected ior special study is indicated by the data in Tables 1 and 2. The plots estab- lished in 1913 were reexamined and regrubbed in 1914, 1915, and 1916. Those established in 1915 were reexamined and regrubbed in, 1916. TABLE 1. — Effectiveness of eradication by grubbing on selected plots established in 1913. riot. Area. Habitat. Number of plants found on plots. Approxi- mate per- centage of plants on plots com- pared with criminal number. 1913 1914 1915 1916 0 0 24 On plots. Esti- mated number per acre. Seed- lings. From improp- erly grubbed roots missed in 1914. Over- looked in 1913 and 1914. Total. 1914 1915 1916 i 2 Acres. 0.2 4 Weed. Sandy, gravelly loam. (Jo 300 1.500 2,541 1,500 3,750 3,630 18 107 154 3 0 60 15 32 146 1 0 11 19 32 217 6 7 6 6 2 8 0 0 0.9 3 -7 do TABLE 2. — Effectiveness of eradication bij grubbing <>» i>lot* established and grubbed in 1915. Plot. Area. Habitat. Plants found on plots in 1915. Plants found on plots in 1916. Mature plants. Imma- ture plants. Total. Esti- mated number of plants per acre. Over- looked in 1915. From im- prop- erly grubbed roots. Seed- lings. Total. Ap- proxi- mate per- cent- age. 3A... 4... 2A... 5 A cres. 0.1 .72 .3 .5 Weed. S a n d \ , gravelly loam. Rocky.. .. Willows do 235 95.1 693 529 112 137 80 150 347 1,092 773 679 3,470 1,516 2,576 1,358 1 3 35 9 6 14 57 6 14 12 62 10 21 29 154 25 6 2 20 3 On the plots established in 1913 only a little over 6 per cent of the plants were still alive the first year after eradication, while an average of 5 per cent were still surviving the second year. An examination made in July of the third season showed tnat eradication was com- plete on two plots. On the third plot were 24 seedlings. The seed producing most of these had undoubtedly been brought down during 6 FARMERS BULLETIN 826. ERADICATING TALL LARKSPUR ON CATTLE RANGES. 8 FARMERS' BULLETIN 826. a heavy storm the previous season from a larkspur-infested bench located above the plot. When examined on September 27, 1916, no plants could be found on Plots 1 or 2, and only three seedlings on Plot 3. It is believed that the eradication is now complete on these areas. It was much easier to grub out the plants on Plots 1 and 2, where the soil was loose and sandy and contained little rock or gravel, than on Plot 3, which had a moist, gravelly soil. Furthermore, the soil on Plots 1 and 2 becomes dry during the latter part of the season, while on Plot 3 it remains moist. This is a factor to be taken into account, as the grubbed plants are more likely to survive where the soil is moist than where it is dry. The original grubbing of Plots 1, 2, and 3 was done in August and September, when the vegetation was mature, which made it difficult to find all of the plants. Besides, the first regrubbing was done toward the close of the season of 1914, when the skunk cabbage and other thrifty, leafy species growing on the plots had fallen and cov- ered a large number of the smaller larkspur plants. The large number of plants still on the plots, especially Plot 3, in 1915, is attributed to these unfavorable conditions under which the grubbing wTas done. The eradication work on the plots grubbed in 1915, except Plot 2A, was more effective than on those grubbed in 1913. The large FIG. 3. — Tall larkspur growing on Stanislaus National Forest on area adjoining ex- perimental Plot No. 3. Approximately 3,500 plants per acre. Cost of eradication by grubbing, $12 per acre. ERADICATING TALL LARKSPUR OX CATTLE RANGES. PIG. 4. — Larkspur growing on open weed type, on Fishlake National Forest. Approx- imately 1.500 plants per acre. Estimated cost of eradication by grubbing, $5 per acre. number of plants found on Plot 2A is accounted for by the fact that this area was grubbed by two of the less reliable laborers without adequate supervision and, further, by the fact that it was covered with a thick, tangled growth of willows, which made grubbing very difficult. Plot 5 also was covered with willows, yet the grubbing was 97 per cent effective because the work was done carefully. The effectiveness of the work on Plot 4 was due to the grubbing being done by two reliable workmen and to the fact that this plot contained no brush. The absence of brush, however, was partly offset by the presence of considerable rock and gravel. The larger percentage of plants remaining on Plot 3A in 1916, as compared with Plots 4 and 5, was due to this plot having been grubbed by one of the less reliable men of the crew. If the grubbing had been done consistently on all the plots, it would undoubtedly have been most effective on Plot 3A, followed by Plots 4. 5, and 2A in order. In the reexamination of these plots on September 27, 1916, two months after the second grubbing, one plant was found on Plot 3A, none on Plot 4. 15 on Plot 5. and 104 on Plot 2A. Plot 2A was re- grubbed in July, 1916, just after the snow had melted and when the vegetation had barely started to grow. As a consequence, a large number of small plants were overlooked among the willows. 92679°— Bull. 826—17 2 10 FARMERS'* BULLETIN 826. After examining and regrubbing the different areas comprising the 68 acres of larkspur on the entire range selected in 1915, it was esti- mated that the work had been at least 95 per cent effective. On one area of 7.6 acres, containing both willows and open weed areas, only 125 plants could be found, against an original number estimated at over 8,000. In regrubbing Plots 1, 2, and 3 during 1914 and 1915, it was found that TO per cent of the plants came from roots which had not been effectively grubbed, 25 per cent were seedlings, and 5 per cent were mature plants which had been overlooked during former grubbing operations. On Plots 2A, 3A, 4, and 5, regrubbed in 1916, 44 per cent of the plants found were seedlings, 20 per cent were plants which had been overlooked in grubbing the previous year, and 36 per cent came from roots improperly grubbed. The plants coming from improperly grubbed roots showed lack of vigor. They usually came from parts of roots which had been split off from the main root in grubbing or from shallow lateral roots which had been cut not more than an inch from where they left the main crown. Several plants were dug, however, that came from roots which had been cut off at least T inches below the surface of the ground. AYhile most of the regrubbed plants were lacking in vitality, they undoubtedly would have been able to hold their own in competition with other species and produce seed. Extensive work in the eradication of larkspur by grubbing on other National Forest ranges shows results only slightly less effective. On the Fishlake National Forest, in Utah, larkspur was grubbed from 55 acres in September, 1915, and June, 1916. Approximately 80 per cent of the larkspur was killed by the first grubbing. In September, 1916, a careful examination of the grubbed areas showed that approximately 90 per cent of the surviving plants were grow- ing from roots which had not been eradicated completely. A large percentage of the plants were growing from roots which had been struck a slanting stroke, cutting one side of the plant only 1 inch or less below the surface of the ground. Inefficiency from this cause can readily be eliminated by greater care in the work of eradication. On the Sevier National Forest, in Utah, larkspur was eradicated from an area of 5 acres in July, 1916. A careful examination of the grubbed area in September, 1916, showed that approximately 90 per cent of the larkspur plants had been killed. Eighty-five per cent of the plants still growing came from roots improperly grubbed. Further examination of the work showed that where the grubbing was done after the men had had some experience 95 per cent of the plants were killed. On the Durango National Forest, in Colorado, larkspur was grubbed from an area of 55 acres, in September, 1915, and from ERADICATING TALL LARKSPUR OX CATTLE RANGES. 11 40 acres in July, 1916. An examination in September showed that approximately 75 per cent of the plants had been killed. This low efficiency was due to the fact that the vegetation at the time the grubbing was done was very rank and to a considerable extent had fallen down or been trampled down, thereby making it difficult to locate the smaller larkspur plants. The experience gained in doing the grubbing in 1915 was of material advantage in connec- tion with the work done in 1916, and it is estimated that the 1916 work resulted in 90 per cent of the larkspur plants being eradicated. It is believed that at least 95 per cent of the plants should be killed by the first grubbing, and that in the practical application of this method one regrubbing, one year after the first grubbing, should be sufficient. A few plants may escape eradication under this plan, and others may originate from seed, but the total number will not be sufficient to cause loss of cattle from poison nor to justify the expense of a third examination and regrubbing. r Work 95 per cent effective will not necessarily cost any more per acre than work 85 per cent effective. Care must be exercised, how- ever, to see that each plant is grubbed properly and that small plants are not overlooked. Success can be attained largely by employing reliable workers under proper supervision, especially when the work is being stalled, and by doing the work early in the season, when the larkspur plants show up prominently. COST OF GRUBBING. The cost of eradication per unit area varies considerably, depend- ing upon the number of larkspur plants and upon the habitat. The cost of grubbing the Stanislaus experimental plots is given in Table 3. TABLE 3. — Cost of eradicating tall larkspur on experimental plots. Stanislaus National Forest. Plot. Habitat. Area. Number of larkspur Cost of plants on eradica- plots at tion. first grubbing. 3& mt, ™ SfS i-rtromif eradica- ^aXf ttap- per acre. Acres. 1 Weed. Sandv, gravelly 0.2 300 $2.50 1,500 $12.50 loam. 2 do 4 1,500 7.50 3, 750 18. 75 3 do 7 2,541 12.50 3,630 > 17.85 3-\ .do 1 347 1. 55 3, 470 15. 50 4 Rockv 72 1,092 13.75 1,516 19. 10 2-A. Willows 3 773 7. 50 2,576 25.00 5 do 5 679 6. 25 1,358 12.50 2,547 17.31 Plots 1. 2. 3. and 3A have approximately the same soil and vegetation. They are located in an open weed area having a sandy 12 FARMERS ' BULLETIN 826. to gravelly loam soil of sufficient depth to permit the use of a mat- tock in grubbing. The cost per acre for eradication on these plots varies in the main with the number of larkspur plants per acre, though not in direct proportion. The work on these first plots was experimental, and the primary object was effective eradication rather than securing a knowledge of comparative costs. Conse- quently, the rate of wrork was not necessarily the same. The com- parison, however, serves to emphasize the fact that in estimating the cost of any piece of eradication work, the number of plants per acre must be taken into account. Plot 4 is in a park area, on a moist, rocky, gravelly loam soil. It was hardly possible to stick a pick into the ground without striking rock. The estimated cost for grubbing is approximately 2J times greater per plant under such conditions than on the deep, sandy to gravelly loam soils of Plots 1, 2, 3 and 3 A. Figured per acre, however, the cost becomes considerably less, for usually there is a much smaller number of plants per acre on rocky soils than on the better sites. Plots 2A and 5 are located in willows. On Plot 2A it was neces- sary to cut out about half of the willows, roots and all, before the larkspur could be effectively grubbed. The willows on Plot 5 were dense but straight; consequently, less willow cutting was necessary than on Plot 2A. The cost of eradication in the willows is approxi- mate!^ double the cost per plant on the open areas having a sandy to gravelly loam soil, and approximately one-fifth less than eradi- cation on rocky soil, such as Plot 4. The extra cost for chopping out willows is almost offset, however, by the smaller number of larkspur plants per acre, usually about one-third less than on good soils in the open ; by the character of the soil, usually of a fine tex- ture free from rocks; and by the comparative shallowness of the larkspur roots. The costs given in Table 3 are considerably above the average for extensive eradication where experimental data, involving counts of plants and care in following plot lines, are not collected. Fur- ther, experimental plots were selected as more difficult than the average. In eradicating the 68 acres of larkspur from the entire range sur- rounding the special plots, the average cost of grubbing in the open was $9.81 per acre, and in willows $10.26 per acre, with a general average of $10.10 per acre. The 68 acres contained approximately one-third less larkspur plants than the experimental plots. The cost of extensive grubbing on other National Forests was less than that for the wrork on the Stanislaus, as shown by Table 4. The work was also slightly less effective. ERADICATING TALL LARKSPUR OX CATTLE RANGES. 13 TABLE 4. — Cost of extensive larkspur eradication. Total Average Forest. Acreage grubbed. cost of grub- bing. Cost per acre. number of plants per acre. Fishlake 55 $228.00 $4.15 1,000 Sevier 5 21.50 4.30 1,500 95 350.00 3.65 It is believed that from $3.65 to $4.15 per acre represents a con- servative average cost of eradicating larkspur on areas relatively free from rocks, willows, and brush. The average cost of $10.10 per acre for the Stanislaus work un- doubtedly represents a maximum cost for any eradication work, be- cause all conditions making grubbing difficult and costly were en- countered. This figure, therefore, is a conservative one to use in es- timating the expense of grubbing in all willow or rocky areas. The cost of regrubbing the experimental plots was about one-tenth of the cost of the original grubbing. In regrubbing larger areas the cost should not exceed $1 per acre, and in most cases should be about half that. FIG. 5. — Larkspur growing on a rocky habitat on the Fishlake National Forest. Alti- tude 10,100 feet. Approximately l.."»00 plants per acre. Estimated cost of eradica- tion by grubbing, $10 per acre. 14 FARMERS BULLETIN 820. PRACTICABILITY OF GRUBBING. Judged alone, the average cost of $10.10 per acre for eradication on the Stanislaus National Forest, or even the $3.65 per acre for eradication on the Durango National Forest, seems too high to be good business. Whether eradication is good business, however, de- pends upon other things besides the cost; it depends upon the rela- tion between the acreage of larkspur and the cost of eradicating it, the number of cattle the whole range will carry if freed from lark- spur, the average money value of the cattle annually lost from lark- spur poisoning before eradication, and the reduction in cost of han- dling the cattle as a result of eliminating the larkspur. In the Stanislaus Forest, for example, the eradication of approxi- mately 68 acres of larkspur at a total cost for the first and second grubbings of $844.31 saved an annual loss in cattle of 34 head, valued at from $1,200 to $2,000. On the Sevier National Forest the grubbing of 5 acres of lark- spur at a cost of $21.50 cleared an area upon which 15 head of cattle died of larkspur poisoning in 1915, and 9 head prior to the work of grubbing in July, 1916. There was no loss after the grubbing was done. The saving in cattle during 1916, after grubbing in July, FIG. 6. — Two-year-old heifer poisoned by tall larkspur. The poison was secured from the small patch at the upper left-hand side of the photograph. The animal had traveled about 50 yards from the larkspur patch. ERADICATING TALL LARKSPUR ON CATTLE RANGES. 15 FIG. 7.— Larkspur plant showing root system. The dotted line indicates the portion of the root which should be removed in grubbing. 16 FARMERS' BULLETIN 826. amounted to six head valued at $250. It is estimated that $5 ex- pended in 1917 for regrubbing will finish the work. On the Fishlake National Forest the grubbing of 55 acres of lark- spur, at a cost of $228, only partly completed the project. Twenty- nine acres remain to be grubbed, at an estimated cost of $145. The cost of going over the entire 84 acres a second time will be $75, mak- ing a total cost of about $450 for eradication. During 1915, 23 head of cattle, valued at $1,200, died from larkspur poisoning. On the Durango National Forest the annual losses of stock from larkspur poisoning on the ranges from which the larkspur was grubbed in 1915 and 1916 exceeded $1,000 in value. The cost of grubbing out the larkspur was $350. During the season of 1916 four larkspur-infested ranges on the Fishlake National Forest, one range on the Palisade, one on the Ruby, and one on the Sevier were studied to determine the best means of remedying the trouble. All larkspur areas were mapped, the acreage determined, and the number of plants per acre and the cost of eradication carefully estimated. On the Fishlake it was found that grubbing would be the most effective and practical method on three of the ranges. In each of these cases the poison areas could be grubbed for a sum ranging from $700 to $1,500 less than that represented by the annual loss in cattle. On the fourth range a combination of grubbing and fencing was recommended. This range was found to have 920 acres of larkspur, responsible for an average annual loss of 30 head of cattle, valued at $1,500. Ninety per cent of the losses occur on approximately 200 acres which can be grubbed for approximately $900, or $450 less than the value of the stock lost annually. The average annual loss on the remaining 720 acres amounts to only three head, valued at $150, while the estimated cost of eradication is $3,500. A drift fence of approxi- mately four miles, estimated to cost $500, will not only keep the cattle from the poison on this 720 acres, but in addition will im- prove range management as a whole on the range unit involved. Consequently the recommendation in this case is to grub the larkspur from the 200 acres and construct the fence to protect against loss on the remaining 720 acres — a plan clearly practical as a business proposition. On the Ruby National Forest, in eastern Nevada, an area of ap- proximately 10 acres of larkspur causes an average annual loss of 10 head of cattle. The cost of grubbing out this larkspur is esti- mated at $60, less than one-eighth of the value of the cattle lost annually. During the season of 1916 at least 60 head of cattle, valued at about $3,000, died of larkspur poisoning on the range examined on ERADICATING TALL LARKSPUR ON CATTLE RANGES. 17 the Sevier National Forest. Approximately 63 acres of larkspur was responsible for this loss. It was estimated that this can be crabbed out for about $400. This range supports 1,600 head of cattle. The eradication work, therefore, can be done for about 25 cents per head, or a total cost amounting to less than one-seventh the value of the cattle lost in 1916. On the Grand Canyon cattle range of the Palisade National For- est, during the season of 1915, about 65 head were lost out of the 660 cattle grazed. In 1916 only 320 animals were grazed on the allot- ment, principally on account of previous excessive losses, which caused several users to sell their stock rather than have them go back on the range. The larkspur grows in scattered stands in isolated areas, and the entire range can be grubbed for about $1,200. If this is done, it will make possible the grazing of at least 1,000 head of cattle on this range without loss from poisoning. In addition, con- siderable money which is now expended for employing riders to keep the stock off the dangerous areas would be saved. On the basis of the carrying capacity of the range, the grubbing work can be done for $1.20 per head. METHOD OF GRUBBING. DEPTH. To grub tall larkspur effectively, the main part of the root sys- tem, including all of the main roots before they divide into small lateral roots, should be removed. The depth of grubbing necessary to accomplish this depends upon the size of the root. Where the roots average about 2 feet in length, grubbing should be done to a depth of 8 inches. Where the roots do not average more than 1J feet in length, grubbing to a depth of 6 inches is usually sufficient. The very large bunches frequently have large shallow lateral roots. Care should be taken to remove these to at least 4 inches from where they leave the main root. A great number of the plants which sur- vive the first grubbing sprout from these lateral roots that have not been grubbed far enough from the main root. (See fig. 7.) TOOLS. A pick with one end drawn out to a chisel form about 2 inches wide is probably the best tool for use in all kinds of soil. A shovel is unsatisfactory. A mattock is good in sandy soil, but can not be used advantageously in rocky soil. Grubbing hoes are not satisfac- tory because the blade is too short to remove enough of the roots to kill the plants unless extra care and time are taken. 18 FARMERS BULLETIN 826. FIG. 8. — Tools used in grubbing larkspur. — 1. Pick-mattock for use in rocky soil. 2. Spo- cial grubbing hoe for use in loam soils. 3. Special pick used on Stanislaus National Forest. 4. Special mattock used on Fishlake National Forest. The chisel end of the pick is used in fine soils to grub out the roots ; while the pointed end is very useful in loosening the soil in gravelly or rocky areas, after which the plant can be removed with the chisel end. Sometimes the chisel end may be too narrow to remove all of the main root of the large plants with one stroke, in which case extra care is necessary to prevent small portions being left in the soil. A combination pick-mattock is a good tool to use in rocky soils. It has a pick end for loosening the gravel or rocks and a long wide blade for removing the roots. In soils which do not have enough rock or gravel to interfere with grubbing a mattock with the spur cut off has proved to be very good. On the Fishlake National Forest in Utah a special tool, made by welding enough material on a light pick to make a blade 9 by 3J inches and shaping the other end into a spur similar to a mattock, was used. This tool weighed about 3J pounds and was very effective in loamy soils containing little or no gravel. A mattock with the spur cut off to make it lighter and the blade drawn out to about 9 inches in length and a specially made grubbing hoe having a blade of similar length are best for use in loamy soils. In rocky or gravelly soils either the pick with one end flattened, as shown in figure 4, or the combination pick-mattock should be used. Unless the soil is very rocky the pick-mattock is better than the pick. ERADICATING TALL LARKSPUR ON CATTLE RANGES. TIME OF GRUBBING. 19 The best time to grub out tall larkspur is early in the season, as soon as the plants have made sufficient growth to be recognized readily.1 This time varies somewhat in different localities and with altitude. On most areas the larkspur is large enough to be readily recognized one week after growth has started. DISPOSAL OF GRUBBED PLANTS. Probably the best way to dispose of grubbed plants is to scatter them, after shaking most of the dirt from their roots. After being exposed to the sun for one week, the scattered plants dry out so com- pletely that stock will not eat them. It is not a good plan to pile the grubbed plants with the idea of burning them when they dry out. The plants not directly exposed to the sun do not dry out within a reasonable time and are likely to start new growth. This was found to be the case on the Stanislaus National Forest in 1913, even when care was taken to place the roots as far as possible on the outside of the piles. Moreover, to grub the plants and pile them requires one-third more time than to grub and scatter them. REVEGETATION OF GRUBBED AREAS. Larkspur usually grows in soils adapted to other range plants; for that reason the grubbed areas are soon normally revegetated by the associated native species. Comparison of the experimental areas established on the Stanislaus National Forest in 1913 with similar situations where the larkspur had not been disturbed, showed that the native vegetation had replaced the larkspur in two years. The 1 Tall larkspur makes a thrifty, vigorous growth from the time It starts until it reaches its maximum height, which in some plants is 6 feet. Observations made in 1915 on two average-sized plants of larkspur (Delphinium glaucum) on the Stanislaus Na- tional Forest, in east central California, showed the following growth : Height of stalks on— July 14. July 26. August 3. Plant No 1 2 feet 2 inches. 1 foot 11 inches. . Jfeet 3 feet 5 inches. 3 feet 2 inches. Plant No 2 2 feet 10 inches. Number of stalks on— July 14. July 26. August 3. Plant No 1 20 17 56 47 60 56 Plant No 2 These plants were growing on an open weed area in a moist, sandy loam soil, at an altitude of 7,800 feet. They started growth about July 4 ; flower buds were first noticed July 29, and flowers were produced August 10. It is estimated that the seed would have been disseminated about September 1. When the larkspur plants start growth they seldom have more than two or three stalks, but as they mature the number increases, the new stalks coming from near the top of the crown. Sixty stalks was the maximum number found on any one plant. The number varied greatly, depending upon the age and vigor of the plant. 20 FARMERS' BULLETIN 826. revegetation of a large percentage of the patches can be accelerated and their grazing capacity possibly increased by seeding them to cultivated forage species. In the more moist situations timothy and Kentucky bluegrass would be the most satisfactory species to use in reseeding. In the drier situations smooth brome-grass and timothy are suggested. Details in regard to how artificial reseeding can be successfully accomplished are given in Department Bulletin No. 4. SHEEP GRAZING OF LARKSPUR AREAS ON CATTLE RANGES. Since sheep are not poisoned by larkspur, the problem may some- times be solved by running a band of sheep over the poison areas early in the season before the cattle reach them. The success of this method depends largely on whether the sheep will eat the larkspur, whether sheep are available to graze the infested area at the proper time, and whether the infested areas furnish sufficient forage to justify trailing sheep to them. Many National Forest users prefer to raise cattle rather than sheep. This will be true in many places until the sheep industry is placed more on a farm basis than it is at present and the large bands handled under present range conditions give way to small numbers of sheep on farms. It is frequently not possible, therefore, to trans- fer large areas of larkspur-infested range from cattle to sheep. Experimental tests have been made, however, in grazing a few sheep on larkspur-infested cattle ranges. On a cattle range adjoining a sheep range within the Mono National Forest in Nevada a band of sheep were run with the cattle on the range throughout the season. The larkspur poison areas were grazed closely by the sheep early in the season before the cattle reached them. The sheep were then grazed on portions of the range which the cattle did not ordinarily use. In case there was a second growth of larkspur sufficient to cause probable loss of cattle on any of the infested areas the sheep were grazed over these areas a second time. The larkspur in this case was grazed by the sheep in prefer- ence to many other forage species. As a result, the forage on these ureas which previously had poisoned cattle was transformed into mutton. Furthermore, small areas of range previously unused by the cattle were utilized by the sheep. A somewhat similar plan was tried for two years on the Ruby National Forest in Nevada. In two small canyons on separate cattle allotments an annual loss from larkspur poisoning amounted to approximately $800 worth of cattle. Each of these larkspur-infested areas contained about three weeks' feed for a small band of sheep. The plan adopted was to place one band of sheep on each area before the cattle drifted to it. The first year the sheep did not graze ERADICATING TALL LARKSPUR ON CATTLE RANGES. 21 larkspur as readily as they did other forage species. By close herd- ing on the poison areas, however, all of the larkspur was either grazed or trampled down before the cattle reached it. In the second year of the test difficulty was encountered in securing sheep, for the reason that the cattle range in question was some distance from the regular sheep range, and the larkspur-infested areas to be grazed were not large enough to justify removing the sheep from their ac- customed range to the cattle range. This difficulty caused delay in grazing the larkspur-infested areas and as a result four head of cat- tle were poisoned before these areas were grazed by the sheep. Fur- ther, the sheep were not close-herded on the larkspur patches long enough to graze or destroy all of the larkspur, so that there was still danger of cattle being poisoned after the sheep were removed. This case is typical of the difficulty that lies in the way of control- ling loss of cattle from larkspur by grazing the infested areas with sheep. Such areas are often at a considerable distance from regular sheep range and are not large enough and are not properly dis- tributed to accommodate the average-sized band of range sheep for the summer season. To supplement the forage on the larkspur- infested areas by additional portions of the cattle range not infested would make it necessary to reduce the number of cattle below that desired and needed by the cattle owners. On the Fishlake National Forest in Utah sheep grazing of in- fested areas proved impracticable. The sheep grazed nearly all of the other forage plants present in preference to the larkspur. Thus by reducing the amount of forage palatable to cattle and eating only a portion of the larkspur the sheep grazing had a tendency to in- crease the loss of cattle from larkspur poisoning rather than to re- duce it. The only effective way to reduce the loss under such condi- tions would be to hold the sheep on the infested areas until they are forced to eat or trample down all of the larkspur. This would be both detrimental to the sheep and destructive to the range. It would mean excessive trampling and in many cases would lead to erosion. FENCING AS A PROTECTION AGAINST LOSS. Drift fences should be used as a means of controlling losses from tall larkspur only where the cost of eradication is prohibitive, or on areas where " sheeping off " the larkspur is not practicable, or where the fence wrill have additional value in the management of the stock and range. The main objections to the use of drift fences are that they do not offer a permanent remedy for the problem, and that unless horses or sheep are available to place on the fenced areas consider- able feed is wasted. There is also a chance that the stock will get BULLETIN NO. 112 JANUARY, 1917 UNIVERSITY OF WYOMING AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION LARAMIE, WYOMING The Poisonous Properties of the Two-Grooved Milk Vetch (Astragalus bisulcatus) By O. A. BKATH and E. H. Bulletins will be sent free upon request Address : Director Experiment Station, Laramie, Wyoming SUMMARY. I. Milk vetch has been proved to be poisonous to cattle. Suspicion is held regarding its effect upon sheep. II. Eighty to ninety per cent of the animals affected die. III. Water easily removes the active poison from green or air-dried material. IV. All parts of the plant contain poison with a slight ex- cess in the leaves. V. The poison is neither precipitated by basic acetate of lead nor decomposed at the boiling point of water. VI. It can be deprived of its toxicity by boiling with dilute acids (indicating its probable glucosidic character). VII. The poison is non-alkaloidal. VIII. A definite crystalline substance has been isolated, giv- ing chemical reactions common to glucosides. IX. Thus far no chemical antidote has been obtained. X. As indicated by the physiological action of the poison, drugs that stimulate the heart and nervous system should prove beneficial in the case of vetch-poison- ing. The Poisonous Properties of the Two-Grooved Milk Vetch (Astragalus bisulcatus) PART I. CHEMICAL. BY O. A. BEATH. INTRODUCTION. A brief account of the two-grooved milk vetch (Astra- galus bisulcatus) is put in the form of a preliminary bulletin at this time, largely to warn stockmen of its poisonous nature. Authorities on poisonous plants make no mention of this par- ticular vetch as being suspected of producing toxic effects. As a consequence it is safe to conclude that certain conditions un- doubtedly prevail which cause it to be extremely variable in its toxicity. Moisture unquestionably influences the activity of the toxic principle, inasmuch as it is readily soluble in water. Certain stockmen have used this vetch for forage purposes without any apparent ill effects, thereby illustrating the small degree of danger when the plant is well dried. The attention of the research laboratory was called to the plant's probable poisonous character rather late in the season and as a result the data available at this time have to do only with well matured material. Therefore, the seasonal factor is yet to be determined. It is a matter of regret that direct feeding experiments could not have been employed to verify the results obtained by using water and alcoholic extracts. However, the project is to be continued on a larger scale this coming summer. GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE PLANT. Milk vetch is found growing on plains and in valleys throughout the Rocky Mountain region. It appears during the month of May and goes to seed the latter part of July. The following description of the plant is given in Bulletin No. 76 of the Wyoming Experiment Station : 60 Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station. Bulletin No. 112 This is one of the large, coarse vetches, usually growing- ill dense clumps and becoming 2 to 3 feet high. It produces purple blossoms in profusion and these are followed by an abundance of pods from one-half to nearly an inch long and having two rather deep furrows on the upper side. The plant is rather rank scented, especially when young, and, unless other forage is scarce, is not browsed down until the pods begin to mature. The Two^Grooved Milk Vetch. Jan. 1917 Poisonous Properties of Milk Vetch. 61 All parts of the plant contain poison apparently quite evenly distributed throughout. Data gathered from stockmen would indicate that this spe- cies of vetch is poisonous to cattle and sheep. Nothing is known in regard to its effect on horses. The laboratory has obtained no direct evidence that sheep have been killed by eat- ing it, although a number of suspicious cases are on record. During July, 1916, E.*B. Foster of Casper reported a loss of nine calves and ten cows out of a herd of forty-one head. He states, "No two acted in the same way. However, all evir denced signs of craziness. On some the effect would hardly be noticed until one went near them, and then they would sud- denly act frightened and in attempting to get away would stumble and fall or have a fit." All animals which showed signs of milk-vetch poisoning died. EXPERIMENTAL. The plant material submitted for investigation was secured from Mr. Foster of Casper, Wyo. Green plants could have been obtained in the vicinity of Laramie, but it seemed advisable to deal with those authentically known to have given trouble. After drying, the seeds, pods, leaves, and stems, respect- ively, were coarsely ground and placed in air-tight containers. Test for Hydrocyanic Acid. Five hundred grams of air-dried material were placed in a flask and saturated with water. Steam was then passed into the flask for a period of three hours. The distillate gave neg- ative results for hydrocyanic acid. Tests were made upon each part of the plant. The residue remaining in each case was acidified with strong sulphuric acid and again treated as above. Negative results were obtained for combined hydrocyanic acid. The distillates had an odor particularly disagreeable. The distillate from the seeds yielded a small amount of volatile oil which proved to be non-toxic in character. 62 Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station. Bulletin No. 112 Test for Active Enzymes. One hundred grams of finely ground leaves and stems were digested with three liters of water at a temperature of 37.5° C. for a period of 48 hours. The aqueous portion was separated and mixed with an excess of alcohol. A profuse .precipitate was formed which soon settled to the bottom of the flask. The alcohol was removed and the solids remaining were washed with a little cold alcohol and subsequently dried. A portion added to a dilute solution of amygdalin failed to produce hydrolyses to any appreciable extent. This indicates the absence of Beta-glucose or allied enzymes capable of hy- drolyzing Bite-methyl glucosides. Not having any representa- tive of the Alpha-methyl glucosides the presence of Alpha- glucose could not be ascertained. Water Extracts. In carrying out the work of determining the character of milk vetch it was quickly demonstrated that water was a better solvent for the removal of the poisonous principle than alcohol, ether, chloroform, or acidulated water. The concentrated water extracts were invariably dark, resembling plant resins obtained by alcoholic percolation. Res- idues obtained by alcoholic treatment were dark and in general did not differ in appearance from those derived by maceration with water. If to a concentrated alcoholic extract a large volume of water was added, a bulky grayish precipitate was thrown down. This, upon closer examination, proved to be calcium sulphate. With the exception of three extracts, all were given in- ternally to full-grown rabbits. The three administered other- wise were given to an old ewe, a yearling calf, and a female dog. The extracts used in the tests were prepared as follows : No. i. Seeds and pods (dry) 3 oz. Alcohol (95% ) 10 oz. Jan. 1917 Poisonous Properties of Milk Vetch. 63 Mixture digested 24 hours at a temperature of 37.5° C., concentrated to small bulk and diluted with 2 oz. of water. No. 2. Leaves (dry) 3 oz. Alcohol (95% ) 10 oz. Treated the same as No. i. No. 3. Seeds and pods (dry) 3 oz. Water 15 oz. Digested for 24 hours at 37.5° C. Aqueous portion sep- arated and concentrated to 2 oz. No. 4. Leaves and stems (dry) 46 oz. Water 350 oz. Same treatment as No. 3, concentrated to 75 oz. No. 5. Stems (dry) 6 oz. \Yater 12 oz. Treated as in No. 3, concentrated to 5 oz. No. 6. Leaves and stems (dry) 87 oz. Water 150 oz. Same treatment as in No. 3, concentrated to 25 oz. No. 7. Whole plant (dry) 22 oz. Water 1 50 oz. Digested 48 hours at 37.5° C. Aqueous portion sep- arated and concentrated to 25 oz. Treated with slight ex- cess of 'basic lead acetate. Lead precipitate removed, washed, and suspended in large volume of water. Lead precipitated as lead sulphide. Remaining solution con- centrated to 5 oz. Labeled Solution "A". That portion of the original water extract not precip- itated by basic lead acetate was treated with hydrogen sulphide to remove lead and concentrated to a volume of 5 oz. Labeled Solution "B". 64 Wyoming! Agricultural Experiment Station. Bulletin No. 112 No. 8. Leaves, stems, and pods (dry) 3 oz. Water 10 oz. Digested 48 hours at the boiling point of water. Filt- ered. Concentrated to 2 oz. No. 9. Leaves, stems, and pods (dry) 3 oz. Water 10 oz. Sulphuric acid (5%) I oz. Digested 48 hours at 90° C. Filtered. Sulphuric acid removed. Solution concentrated to 2 oz. Results as to Activity of Extracts. Extract No. i. Volume, 2 oz. Given internally to full-grown rabbit at n a. m. No symptoms at 5 p. m. Died during the night. Extract No. 2. Volume, 2 oz. Given to full-grown rabbit at 1 1 a. m. No symptoms at 5 p. m. Died during the night. Extract No. 3. Volume, 2 oz. Given internally to full-grown rabbit at n a. m. De- cided symptoms at i 130 p. m. Restoratives administered. Died at 6 p. m. Extract No. 4. Volume, 75 oz. Given by drench to an old ewe October 4, at 2 145 p. m. No symptoms indicated. Extract No. 5. Volume, 5 oz. Given by drench to dog at 10 a. m. Decided symptoms of nausea at 10:30 a. m. The dog vomited repeatedly with marked straining. In a few hours the symptoms disappeared. Extract No. 6. Volume, 25 oz. Given to yearling calf October 31, at n a. m. No symptoms observed until the following day, at 9:45. An- imal was unable to rise, and had a temperature of 94.5° F., pulse 74, respiration 12. Died at 2 p. m., November i. Jan. 1917 Poisonous Properties of Milk Vetch. 65 Extract No. 7. Volume, 5 oz. Solution "A" given to full-grown rabbit at I p. m. Died at ,6 p. m. Solution "B" given to rabbit at i 130 p. m. No indications of poisoning. Extract No. 8. Volume, 2 oz. Given internally to full-grown rabbit at n a. m. At I p. m. the usual symptoms were observed, such as non- • co-ordinated movements and loss of control. Rabbit died at 4 p. m. Extract No. 9. Volume, 2 oz. Given internally to full-grown rabbit at n a. m. No symptoms indicated. Conclusions. 1. The data so far obtained indicate that a definite active poison is present. 2. In no case did a rabbit live when given freshly pre- pared extracts. 3. Although the old ewe showed no effects from a dose of extractive material equivalent to fifteen pounds of the green plant, yet it is not safe to presume from this experiment that the vetch is not poisonous to sheep, for (i) only one sheep was tested and (2) green plants may produce an effect dif- ferent from that of the extract of the dried ones. 4. On account of the ease with which a dog can empty its stomach by vomiting when irritants are given, we have concluded that in our experiment with the dog not enough of the poison was absorbed to manifest itself. FUTURE WORK. Having studied the general nature of the active poison, our next step will be to conduct feeding experiments, typifying range conditions as far as possible, and to study the problem of milk vetch poisoning from the point of view of symptoms and specific antidotes. 66 Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station. Bulletin No. 112 PART II. PHYSIOLOGICAL. BY E. H. LEHNERT. How THE POISON ACTS. From experiments carried on with extracts and other preparations from this plant, our observations ;both before and after death have led to a few definite conclusions. When sufficient poison to cause death is introduced into the system, whether through the stomach or intravenously, it acts quickly, that is it is quickly absorbed, and very soon produces symp- toms of paralysis, by its action on the nervous system; the action of the heart is also interfered with, and the poison no doubt kills by acting on this organ. When the poison is ad- ministered by the stomach, postmortem examination shows that digestion is stopped immediately, as invariably this organ remains full of food, indicating that the poison is quickly absorbed from the stomach and that the stomach is paralyzed. REMEDIES AND METHODS OF TREATMENT. Attempts at determining an antidote for the poison were made, and, although few in number, certain conclusions have been reached. Thus far no chemical antidote has been ob- tained, but from the obvious action of the poison on the heart and nervous system as a depressant, antidotes of a physiolog- ical nature would be those that stimulate these organs, such as alcohol, ammonia, strychnine, nitro-glycerine, and digitalis, belladonna or atropine. In our experiments we were able to counteract the poison for a considerable time, although in no case were we able entirely to neutralize its action. It appears, however, very probable that the remedies mentioned should prove very valuable where the amount of poison taken into the system is not too great. In the administration of remedies in case of poisoning, the following doses and methods would apply : Immediately give to full-grown animal (cow), as a drench, i to 2 Ibs. of Jan. 1917 Poisonous Properties of Milk Vetch. 67 Epsom salts, dissolved in water; vary dose with size, as in all cases the doses given are for mature animals. Alcohol should be administered in the form of whiskey, brandy, or gin, in 2 to 4-oz. doses, diluted with an equal quan- tity of water, the dose repeated every hour. Aromatic Spirits of Ammonia is one of the best quick- acting heart stimulants, and should be given once an hour in two-ounce doses, diluted with three volumes of water. Belladonna fluid extract may be used as a heart and nerve stimulant in hourly doses of 2 drachms in a little water. This drug would work well combined with either whiskey or aro- matic ammonia. Digitalis. The tincture digitalis may be given, diluted with water, in 2 to 3 drachm doses every 3 to 4 hours. For quick action, drugs should be administered hypoder- matically, that is, injected under the skin. For this purpose the drugs are very concentrated and put up in tablet form, very soluble in water, and should be administered with the hypodermatic syringe, of which there are many varieties on the market at prices from $2.00 up. For hypodermatic uses in poisoning by vetch, I would suggest a compound tablet consisting of strychnine, nitro-glycerine, and digitalin or atro- pine, the quantity of strychnine being not over 2 grains; the quantities of other ingredients will not matter materially, as the compounders put them up in the right proportion to give best results. In using the hypodermatic remedy alone, it should be administered once an hour, using clean boiled water to dissolve the tablet, and disinfecting the skin at the point of puncture with any common disinfectant or tincture of iodine. In the majority of cases the worst stages should be over in 3 to 4 hours, and if the vital organs can be kept active during this period, recovery is possible. UNIVERSITY OF WYOMING Agricultural Experiment Station LARAMIE BOARD OF TRUSTEES Officers TIMOTHY F. BURKE, LL. B President MARY B. DAVID Vice President C. D. SPALDING Treasurer FRANK SUMNER BURRAGE, B. A Secretary Executive Committee A. B. HAMILTON T. F. BURKE W. S. INGHAM Term Appointed Members Expires 1911 HON. ALEXANDER B. HAMILTON, M. D.. ..1917 1911 HON. LYMAN H. BROOKS 1917 1913 HON. CHARLES S. BEACH, B. S 1917 1895 HON. TIMOTHY F. BURKE, LL. B 1919 1913 HON. MARY B. DAVID 1919 1914 HON. MARY N. BROOKS 1919 1911 HON. W. S. INGHAM, B. A 1921 1913 HON. C. D. SPALDING ..1921 1915 HON. J. M. CAREY, LL. B 1921 EDITH K. O. CLARK, State Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion Ex Officio PRESIDENT C. A. DUNIWAY, Ph. D., LL. D Ex Officio STATION COUNCIL C. A. DUNIWAY, Ph. D President HENRY G. KMGHT, A. M Director and Agricultural Chemist F. S. BURRAGE, B. A Secretary C. D. MOIR Clerk A. NELSON, Ph. D Botanist and Horticulturist F E. HEFNER, M. S Research Chemist J. A. HILL, B. S Wool Specialist J. C. FITTERER, M. S., C. E Irrigation Engineer A. D. FAVILLE, M. S Animal Husbandman T. S. PARSONS, M. S Agronomist KARL STEIK, M. A Engineering Chemist J W. SCOTT, Ph. D Parasitologist O. A. BEATH, M. A Research Chemist P. T. MEYERS, B. S. A Assistant Agronomist E H. LEHNERT, D. V. S Veterinarian UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE ™ V,*"."" HU'-"""^.,.. .,..«.. BERKELEY H. E. VAN NORMAN, VICE-DIRECTOR AND DEAN UNIVERSITY FARM SCHOOL PRECAUTIONS AGAINST POISONING BY JOHNSON GRASS AND OTHER SORGHUMS BY C. M. HAEING For many years it has been recognized that green sorghums, when stunted or in the stage known as "second growth," may sometimes be poisonous to stock. In California losses of cattle and sheep from Johnson grass poisoning are frequent, but complaints of poisoning from sorghums are rare. The danger from poisoning by members of the sorghum family, with the exception of Johnson grass, has doubtlessly been overestimated, as the death rate among live stock from this source is low compared with that from other causes. The poisonous property of all the sorghums is due to hydrocyanic acid, popularly known as prussic acid. Fortunately, this compound forms only under certain conditions of growth and moisture and is confined to the green leaves. The following varieties, when green, may contain enough of this poison to cause death in stock: Johnson grass, Sudan grass, sweet sorghum, and kafir. All varieties are said to develop hydrocyanic acid occasionally. When young and green, or when stunted, the following forage plants should also be fed with caution: milo, feterita, kaoliang, dura or Egyptian corn, and shall u or Mexican wheat. Some plants, not belonging to the sorghum family, notably Java beans, Burma beans, and cherry tree leaves, contain a dangerous amount of hydrocyanic acid. Johnson Grass (Andropogon halepensis). — This plant is well known to fanners in California. It was introduced a number of years ago and cultivated as a forage plant, but it soon escaped and assumed the character of a weed. It has become a pest in nearly all irrigated districts of the state. Johnson grass closely resembles Sudan grass in appearance, the leafage being practically the same, but the latter is an annual and easily eradicated, while the former is a perennial with underground root stocks which are extremely difficult to kill. Any portion of these root stocks, when separated from the parent plant, even if only an inch or so in length, is capable of pro- ducing new plants. The root stocks are succulent and lose their moisture very slowly so that it is difficult to kill them even by exposure to drought. Johnson grass may serve as forage for cattle and sheep, but under certain conditions, which as yet are not well understood, it may be- come poisonous. For many years there have been occasional reports of Johnson-grass poisoning in California. This season (1917) stock losses from this cause have been numerous and several samples sub- mitted for analysis have been found to contain hydrocyanic acid. Symptoms and Diagnosis. — Hydrocyanic acid has the most rapidly fatal action of any known poison. There are several vegetable alka- loids which are more poisonous in proportion to their volume and weight, but their lethal action is more prolonged. Instantaneous death results from a very small amount of the free acid placed on the tongue. In dilute form or when contained in sorghum small quantities will cause severe symptoms in a few seconds. The animal staggers or falls, the eyes are motionless, the heart action is slowed, and the respirations are slow and convulsive. All animals are sensi- tive to prussic acid, but sorghum poisoning occurs chiefly in cattle and sheep. Glover and Bobbins of the Colorado Experiment Station report that a cow died in ten minutes after eating a few mouthfuls of poisonous kafir corn. It is said that if an animal lives thirty minutes after the first symptoms develop it stands a good chance of recovery. In non-fatal cases the symptoms observed have varied from slight signs of vertigo and cessation of rumination to severe convulsions. In cattle and sheep bloating may occur as a secondary effect. Re- covery is rapid and most animals that recover appear normal the following day, but in some instances cattle show weakness and a staggering gait for several days. Autopsy of cattle or sheep that have died from poisoning by Johnson grass or other sorghums seldom shows anything character- istic. The diagnosis must be based on the history of the case and the demonstration by chemical analysis of the presence of prussic acid in the forage. Specimens for Laboratory Analysis. — The analysis of the stomach contents or tissues is not practicable because of the rapid disappear- ance* of the poison. On the other hand, a chemical analysis of the suspected sorghum is often the only way to arrive at a positive diag- nosis. If animals have died and the sorghum forage is suspected, a chemical examination to determine the edibility of the remaining crop will be in order. It is useless to submit specimens if the entire crop has been consumed. The College of Agriculture of the University of California is prepared to analyze specimens on certain conditions. Samples should be accompanied by a full description so that the University may judge whether the circumstances justify the service. Specimen plants for analysis should be selected from several different places in the field, as all of the plants may not contain the poison. Collect only the leaves and green stalks, wrap them tightly in paper, pack in a tight tin box, and forward promptly by parcel post or prepaid express. Precautions by Which to Avoid Conditions Under Which Poison- ing May Occur. — The forage is not likely to prove dangerous when grown with an ample supply of moisture. No losses have been re- ported from feeding grain heads, silage, dry fodder, or stover. If it becomes necessary to pasture stock on sorghums which are suspected to be in the dangerous stage, the crop had better be cut and air-dried before being fed to stock, or it may be made into silage. Another plan is to test it first by turning in an animal of inferior value. If it refuses to eat, it is probable that the plants are not safe. Hungry stock are, of course, much more liable to be fatally poisoned than those given some feed previous to turning into the field. The fact that losses have occurred does not justify the con- demnation of the sorghums as a stock food. Further losses may be avoided by a little care. No sorghum fodder should be destroyed, even if proved to contain prussic acid, since further growth and drying may render the vegetation harmless, and it can at any rate be rendered harmless by being made into hay or silage. Treatment. — The rapid action of prussic acid often gives no time for treatment, but in cases of poisoning due to the presence of prussic acid in the forage the symptoms do not develop so quickly as with the free acid and efforts to relieve the animals may be of some value. Cattle or sheep which are down in the hot sun should be protected by an improvised shade. If the ground is sloping, the head should be turned up hill, care being taken not to interfere in any way with respiration. When bloating occurs, it should be relieved by punctur- ing the paunch with a trocar and canula, or a sharp knife, thrust through the left side at a point a hand's breadth in front of the hip bone. The subcutaneous administration of atropine sulphate and other stimulants in doses suited to the size and species of the animal is recommended. Inhalations of ammonia may also be used for the same purpose. Hydrogen peroxide has been recommended by toxicologists as an antidote. The dose for a cow should be at least a pint mixed with an equal quantity of water. In cyanide plants and gold mines, using the cyanide process, it is customary to keep on hand prussic-acid antidote outfits for human use, consisting of two reagent bottles and a drinking glass. Any stock owner can prepare at small expense a similar outfit for use on farm animals. Directions for Preparing Johnson-Grass Antidote Outfit: Bottle No. 1. — Select a strong bottle of at least a quart capacity, having a long neck suitable for use in drenching cattle. Place in this bottle one pint of water and one ounce of sodium carbonate. (Ordinary washing soda will do.) Keep tightly corked. Bottle No. 2. — This should contain one-half ounce of iron sulphate (copperas) dissolved in a pint of water. Keep tightly corked. Directions for Use of the Antidote Outfit. — When needed, pour the contents of Bottle No. 2 into Bottle No. 1, shake and administer immediately. A cow should receive the entire quart of mixture. For a sheep one-half pint of the mixture would be sufficient. This anti- dote would be valuable also for cases of Paris green or other arsenical poisoning. In case it seems desirable to have enough antidote on hand for several head of cattle, larger amounts of the solutions may be stored in demijohns or large glass carboys, but not in metal con- tainers. When needed, empty both reagents into a pail and admin- ister to each animal from the mixture. Attempts to administer the drenches should be cautious to avoid choking, as the animal may be unable to swallow. The antidote may be given to cattle and sheep through a canula inserted into the paunch through the left side in the manner used for relieving bloat. Glucose, corn syrup, and molasses are said to be beneficial to cattle in case of prussic-acid poisoning and may be given in large quantities. Their administration, however, should not take prefer- ence over the antidotes previously mentioned. Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky. BULLETIN NO. 2O7 Studies in Forage Poisoning— V. A Preliminary Report on An Anaerobic Bacillus of Etiologic Significance. BY ROBERT GRAHAM, A. L. BRUECKNER and R. L. PONTIUS June, 1917 (47) INTRODUCTION. By A. M. PETER, Acting Director. The disease of live stock referred to in this bulletin as forage poisoning, sometimes called * ' cerebro-spinal meningitis," "cere- britis," "staggers," "corn stalk disease," "blind staggers," et cetera, has long been known in the United States. It has caused heavy losses to the country, more particularly in horses and mules, but also in beef cattle and dairy cows. Many theories have been proposed regarding the cause of the disease, one of the most plausible being that it is produced by molds or their poisonous growth-products generated in the feed. Extensive experiments in feeding molds to animals, by different investigators, however, have given only negative results. Numerous sporadic outbreaks occurring in Kentucky within the last four years have afforded opportunity for study of the disease and investigation of its etiology. The experiments herein described confirm the analogy suggested by the late Dr. Leonard Pearson, of the University of Pennsylvania, between clinical forage poisoning in animals and meat poisoning in man. The paper deals with the isolation of a pathogenic anaerobic bacillus from an oat hay and the efficacy of an antiserum, prepared against B. botulinus, in protecting animals against a disease having the characteristics of forage poisoning. This bulletin is the eighth paper on the disease emanating from the Laboratory of Animal Pathology of this Station, and the fifth in a series entitled ' ' Studies in Forage Poisoning. ' ' Those which have already appeared are the following : "Forage poisoning or so-called cerebro-spinal meningitis in horses, cattle and mules," Bulletin No. 167, Kentucky Agricultural Experi- ment Station, September, 1912. (49) "Monascus purpureus (Went) not a causative factor in forage poison- ing," Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics, Septem- ber, 1915. "A disease resembling 'forage poisoning' in horses and mules, wherein oat hay incorporated the primary factor." Proceedings of the U. S. Livestock Sanitary Association, December, 1915; and Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, February, 1916. "Studies in forage poisoning: I. Pathologic changes in a disease resem- bling forage poisoning; II. A pathogenic bacillus isolated from oat hay." Journal of Infectious Diseases, Vol. 19, No. 3, September, 1916, pp. 385-394. "Studies in forage poisoning, III." Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics, Vol. 29, June, 1916. "Studies in forage poisoning, IV." Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, May, 1917. Another paper in this series is now in press: "Studies in forage poisoning, VI. An Anaerobic Organism Isolated from Ensilage of Etiologic Significance." This will appear as Bulle- tin No. 208 of this Station. These investigations were carried on mainly during the directorship of the late Dr. Joseph H. Kastle, and their success- ful prosecution was greatly aided by his interest in the work and encouragement to the workers. (50) BULLETIN NO. 2O7. STUDIES IN FORAGE POISONING— V. A Preliminary Report on An Anaerobic Bacillus of Etiologic Significance. By Robert Graham, A. L. Brueckner and R. L. Pontius. Investigations conducted at this laboratory looking to the determination of an. etiologic factor in forage poisoning have in the main been devoted to organisms isolated from an oat hay. The oat hay in question was originally associated with a nat- ural outbreak of this disease among horses and mules in Cen- tral Kentucky. Preliminary feeding experiments with the oats, reported in another paper1, furnished conclusive evidence that this forage, straw and grain (Figs. 1, 2 and 3), incorpo- rated the primary etiologic factor which subsequently to ingestion by horses and mules engendered clinical manifestations of for- age poisoning and death. The oats were found, upon thresh- ing, to be contaminated with chicken feces. These feces proved fatal to a horse when fed, disguised in wholesome feed, as did water in which the oats had been immersed, when freely sup- plied to horses. The feeding of the oat grain to guinea pigs, 1 Proceedings U. S. Live Stock Sanitary Ass'n, 1915, pp. 22-42; Jour. Amer. Vet. Med. Ass'n, Feb. 1916, 48, New Series 1, No. 5, pp. 574-590. (51) 52 Bulletin No. 207. rabbits and swine, and of the unthreshed forage to goats, sheep and a cow for a number of weeks produced no noticeable change in the health of these animals. Various aerobic organisms isolated from the oats were cul- tivated on serum agar, plain agar, Uschinsky's medium and bouillon and administered to both large and small animals. The feeding of Monascus purpureus (Went)2 and B. coli3 species isolated from this forage, to horses, has been mentioned else- where. While a majority of the aerobic organisms from this feed proved to be saprophytic and apparently of no conse- quence, the result of injecting a Gram-negative aerobic rod4 into horses and mules suggested a pathogenic property. Death frequently occurred in these animals following the daily intro- duction per os and per rectum of large quantities of the broth culture of this organism, or of the sterile nitrate in Uschinsky's medium, administered intravenously. Small laboratory animals proved non-susceptible. •*£. A study of the anaerobic organisms found in the oats in question was undertaken, but organisms of a pathogenic nature wf-re propagated with difficulty upon the media first employed. Numerous anaerobes isolated from the oats caused no manifes- tations upon being fed or injected into horses, guinea pigs and rabbits. In this connection the observations of Buckley and Shippen5 upon the effect of administering B. botulinus of re- mote origin to a donkey and to horses are of interest. Their experiments established quite definitely the pathogenicity of this anaerobe for these animals. Furthermore, it was observed that the clinical manifestations in infected horses, as well as the gross anatomic alterations upon autopsy, presented a clinical and gross anatomic analogy to the fatal disease in Iforses and mules commonly termed forage poisoning. They (Buckley and Ship- pen) report the feeding of liberal amounts of B. botulinus to chickens without noticeable effect. The naturally voided f eces of these infected fowls, disguised in wholesome feed and fed to a 8 Jour. Comp. Patho. and Thera., Sept., 1915, 28, No. 3, pp. 185-190. 8 Jour. Bact., 1916, 1, No. 1, p. 115. 4 Jour. Infect. Dis., 1916, 19, pp. 385-394; Jour. Amer. Vet. Med. Ass'n, 1917, 51, New Series 4, No. 2, pp. 164-187. 6 Jour. Amer. Vet. Med. Ass'n, 1917, 50, New Series 3, No. 7, pp. Studies in Forage Poisoning — V. 53 horse, proved fatal, thus indicating that the toxin (unfiltered broth culture) is not altered in the avian digestive tract, or that the bacilli may survive and multiply within the feces after being voided, with the characteristic toxin production. From their observations they conclude that: "... while the few symptoms exhibited by the donkey and horses that succumbed greatly resembled some of the characteristic symptoms of forage poisoning, and while the postmortem findings are yet more characteristic of this disease, it will require. further research to establish a definite relationship to the natural or spontaneous so- called forage poisoning. Certain it is that B. botulinus is capable of producing a form of forage poisoning should conditions exist in nature for the development of the organism and the elaboration of its toxin as on pastures or in masses of feed material. We can see no good reason why such a development may not take place." # Botulism in Man. In 1896 van Ermengem6 demonstrated the etiologic rela- tionship of an anaerobic bacillus, isolated from a ham, to a profound and acute toxemia occurring in a group of persons following the ingestion of this meat. Bacillus botulinus (botu- Ztts^ausage) was the name given this organism. Kerner, Schloss- berger, Weis and Mueller7 previously recorded outbreaks of a similar disease occurring in man after the ingestion of blood and liver sausage. The infection caused by B. botulinus in man is known as botulism, botulismus or allantiasis. In one instance van Ermengem records the isolation of B. botulinus from the stomach and spleen of a person fatally stricken with botulism, altho in most instances the organism has been re- covered directly from contaminated foodstuffs. The presence of an anaerobic bacillus possessing similar biologic characters in meat and other foods has been confirmed by Roemer8 and GaffKy9 and no doubt by others, wherein serious and fatal neu: ropathic disturbances and intoxications followed the ingestion of meat, cheese, salads and other food products. The experi- mental evidence of van Ermengem and other investigators 6 Cent, f . Bakt. XIX, 1896; Zeit. f. Hyg-. XXVI, 1897 (cited by Hiss and Zinsser). 7Handb. d. path. Mikroog., IV, 1912, p. 910. 8 Cent. f. Bakt. XXVII, Bd. 27, 857, 1900 (cited by van Ermengem). 9 Klin. Jahrbuch, Bd. 18, 91, 1907 (cited by van Ermengem). 54 Bulletin No. 207. strongly suggests that B. botulinus does not develop within the body of warm blooded animals, and that the intoxication is the result of toxin generated upon or in the food before consump- tion, rather than a septic infection or intoxication dependent upon development within the body, following ingestion. Brieger and Kempner10 after precipitating and purifying the toxin to a degree show its specificity upon the nerve tissue. Kempner and Schepilewski11 cite the neutralization of the toxin after contact with guinea pig brain tissue, spinal marrow substance, cholesterin, lecithin and even other fatty substances. It is possible that some of the cases of food poisoning in North America are associated with this organism or closely allied pathogenic anaerobes. Sustaining this contention are the observations of Wilbur and Ophuels.12 More recent evidence of the presence of B. botulinus infection in man, independent and remote from the consumption of meat products, is cited by Dickson13 in the report of an outbreak in California following the ingestion of canned vegetables and fruits. Buckley and Shippen in demonstrating the pathogenicity of B. botulinus for horses refer to the origin of a strain of B. botulinus from cheese which had apparently proved fatal to a number of per- sons. Analogy of Botulism to Forage Poisoning. The clinical analogy of forage poisoning in domestic ani- mals to botulism (meat poisoning) in man was first suggested by Pearson14 in 1901. Mohler15 mentioned this analogy to empha- size the probable mode of infection in sporadic outbreaks of forage poisoning as being closely associated with the ingestion of contaminated forage. Shippen recognized a possible rela- tion between clinical botulism in man and clinical forage poison- ing in animals, yet it seems that no definite effort was made to establish this correlation until Buckley and Shippen reported 10 Deutsche med. Wochenschr., 1897, Nr. 32. "Zeitschr. f. H1 12 Arch. Int. Mec iiZeitschr. f.^Hyg-.,^Bd. 27, 213," "Arch. Int. Med., Oct. 1914, p. 589 (cited by Dickson). 13 Jour. Amer. Med. Ass'n, LXV, 1915, pp. 492-496. "Veterinary Journal, 1901, cited by Buckley and Shippen. 15 Bui. No. 65, Bureau of Animal Industry, 1914. Studies in Forage Poisoning — V. 55 their experiments in 1916 with a strain of B. botulinus which ap- parently had superinduced an intoxication in several persons, fol- lowing ingestion. Van Ermengem describes the symptomatology of botulism in man as a neuroparalytic symptom-complex, with disturb- ances of secretion, motor paralysis, general muscular weakness, dysphagia, aphonia, and a disturbance of the internal and ex- ternal muscles of the eye. Hiss and Zinsser16 briefly summarize the symptoms of botulism in man as follows: "Loss of accommodation, dilated pupils, ptosis, aphonia and dys- phagia may occur. Fever is usually absent. Consciousness is rarely lost." Kolmer17 states : "Symptoms of botulism appear only after a definite period of incu- bation, which varies from twenty-four to forty-eight hours. In contra- distinction to the meat poisonings produced by other organisms, those due to Bacillus botulinus may show few or no symptoms directly refer- able to the intestinal tract, the chief symptoms being due to toxic interference with the cranfal nerves; loss of accommodation, ptosis, dilated pupils, aphonia, dysphagia, and hypersecretion of mucus from the mouth and nose." It is evident that the clinical symptoms attributed to botulism in man bear some resemblance to the symptoms ob- served in animals suffering from forage poisoning. Animals naturally affected with forage poisoning are suddenly and often fatally afflicted. The incubation period in forage poisoning is undoubtedly variable, but probably involves a few hours to a few days. The noticeable manifestations may be followed by the rapid development of muscular weakness, decumbency and a moribund condition, accompanied by nervous symptoms. The suddenness of the symptoms and their rapid development is somewhat characteristic. Recovery in horses and mules is comparatively rare in our observations, and when it does occur it is several weeks before complete convalescence. The symp- toms characteristic of the disease may involve neuropathic dis- turbances, accompanied by local paralysis, disturbed vision, paresis of the phartnx, depression, weakness, salivation, olo- 16 Text-Book of Bact., 1912, p. 475. 17 Infection, Immunity and Specific Therapy, 1915, p. 116. 56 Bulletin No. 207. phonia, enuresis, obstinate constipation, decumbency, con- sciousness or semi-consciousness. Barely do affected animals in our observations show a rise in body temperature at any stage of the disease. More often the body temperature is subnormal. The gross anatomic alterations in horses and mules arti- ficially infected with B. botulinus are quite similar to the le- sions observed in animals naturally affected with forage poison- ii?g. In animals peracutely affected but slight gross pathologic change is found, yet in experimental horses infected with B. botulinus the course of the infection may exhibit premonitory symptoms extending over a few days. In subacute botulism in horses gross anatomic alterations at death are variable but may involve changes in the mucous and serous membranes, the meninges, lungs, heart and kidneys. The toxic lesions are quite indistinguishable from the changes observe^ in horses and mules naturally afflicted with forage poisoning. Pathogenesis of B. botulinus. To observe the effect of B. botulinus upon animals, active" cultures of the organism were obtained from Dr. Buckley*, Acting Chief of the Pathological Division of the Bureau of Animal Industry, from Dr. Kligler, of the American Museum of Natural History, and from Dr. Jordan, of the University of Chicago. Horses, Mules and a Jennet: Experimental horses fed 2 to 7 cc. of broth culture of this organism in wholesome feed invariably succumbed in 3 to 10 days. 0.1 cc. of the unfiltered broth culture injected subcutaneously proved fatal. A jennet receiving per os the entire growth of one agar slant succumbed. Repeated large amounts of the unfiltered broth culture fed to chickens produced no noticeable effect, but the naturally voided feces from these fowls when disguised in wholesome feed and given to a mule produced characteristic manifestations and death. The clinical symptoms observed in horses, mules and a jennet varied in intensity. The peracute cases were frequently "The strain of B. botulinus used in the following experiments was ob- tained from Buckley and designated N. B. S, strain.. Studies ill Forage Poisoning — V. 57 found dead without having presented noticeable symptoms. In the less acute cases there were noted varying degrees of loss of appetite, stupor, nervous attitude, accelerated and shal- low respiration, subnormal or normal temperature, paralysis of the tongue and pharynx, salivation, slight watery discharge from nostrils, awkward prehension of feed, yawning, chewing, muscular weakness, obstinate constipation, incoordination in walking, decumbency, decubitic ulcers, accompanied by second- ary infection, rapid horizontal movement of the fore feet as in running, with intervals of coma, until death. The toxicity of the excreta from apparently healthy chickens that had been fed active B. botulinus toxin (unfil- tered broth cultures) disguised in wholesome feed is made evi- dent in experimental mule No. 89. On December 21st, 1916, this animal was fed, disguised in wholesome feed, 95 gms. of excreta from apparently healthy chickens that had received at intervals in their rations liberal amounts of B. botulinus in broth cultures. The ration for this mule from day to day then consisted of wholesome feed and water. The animal appeared normal until the morning of December 26th, at which time there was observed a marked muscular weakness, pha- ryngeal paralysis, restlessness, braying, olophonia; the tongue was edematous, paralyzed and pendulous (Fig. 4). The pho- tograph was made at 10 a. m. and at 3 p. m. the animal was permanently decumbent. At 7 a. m. the following morning, December 27th, the attendant reported the animal dead. The following gross lesions were observed at autopsy: Meninges slightly injected; slight congestion of lungs; hemorrhagic spots on the heart wall : local areas of ramification on the inner wall of great colon, with scattered punctate hemorrhages; liver engorged with blood; kidneys hyperaemic and capsule in- jected. Macroscopic lesions were not observed in other or- gans. • B. botulinus was fed direct to other experimental horses and mules with fatal results. The clinical manifestations and gross pathologic changes observed were analogous to a degree. There was a variation in the period of incubation, some ani- mals being fatally afflicted in 3 days, while in one instance a 58 Bulletin No. 207. period of 9 days elapsed. In some cases death occurred with- out noticeable premonitory symptoms, while other infected animals died in 24 hours after the first symptoms were ob- served or remained decumbent and moribund for 3 or 4 days until death. An individual tolerance as well as the amount of toxin administered were possible factors in the variations observed. The gross lesions in infected horses varied in in- tensity. In animals subacutely affected a gross anatomic pic- ture of the lesions observed in natural outbreaks of forage poisoning was frequently presented. Cattle: Cattle seemed more resistant to B. botulinus than horses and mules. A Jersey calf weighing 250 pounds was fed at 2 day intervals for 4 feedings 5 to 8 cc. of unfiltered broth culture of B. botulinus. The toxin was thoroly mixed with bran and fed immediately. No temperature reaction or external manifestations of discomfort were observed in this animal. A mature Jersey cow weighing 900 pounds received 0.1 cc. B. botulinus in broth subcutaneously on November 14th, 1916. On November 20th, 4 cc. and on November 27th, 20 cc. were given in a similar manner. There was no thermal reac- tion or clinical change noted in this animal following the in- jections, other than a mild transitory edema at point of in- oculation. Sheep: On October 7th, 1916, a mature buck sheep (No. 1) was fed cornmeal in which 7 cc. of B. botulinus in broth culture were thoroly mixed. On the three succeeding days this animal was fed daily 7 cc. of broth culture mixed with wholesome feed. On October llth and 12th, 7 cc. were fed; on October 13th, 14 cc. ; on October 14th, 7 cc. ; on October 16th, 10 cc. On November 2nd, 7 cc. of broth culture were administered subcutaneously ; on November 14th, 0.1 cc. ; on November 27th, 10 cc., followed on December 4th by 10 cc. The amount was increased on December 12th to 15 cc., and on December 16th, to 70 cc. The feeding and injections of B. botulinus as enumerated produced no manifest change other than edema at points of inoculation. A pregnant ewe (No. 2) was given 300 cc. of broth cul- ture of B. botulinus mixed in wholesome feed. Clinical mani- Studies in 'For age Poisoning — V. 59 festations of botulism, i. e., salivation, marked weakness and intermittent decumbency, were observed on the seventh day (Fig. 5). Death occurred on the tenth day. The gross lesions were similar to those in horses fatally afflicted as the result of ingesting many times smaller amounts of the toxin. Goats: A mature goat (No. 1) weighing 95 pounds was fed and injected subcutaneously with B. botulinus at intervals, receiving amounts approximately equivalent to those given sheep No. 1. On one occasion, following the subcutaneous in- jection of a broth culture of B. botulinus, diarrhea was ob- served. Recovery without treatment soon followed and the goat remained apparently healthy. A female goat (No. 2) suckling a kid was given 300 cc. broth culture mixed in wholesome feed and, like the pregnant ewe, manifested symptoms of botulism in 7 days (Fig. 6), followed by death after several days of decumbency. Swine : A thrifty cholera immune shoat, weighing 75 pounds, was fed daily from October 7th to October 16th, 1916, 7 cc. of broth culture of B. botulinus mixed in cornmeal. No ill effect was noted during this time. After October 16th wholesome feed was supplied and the animal remained appar- ently normal. Subcutaneous injections of 5 cc. unfiltered broth cultures of B. botulinus proved fatal in two cholera im- mune shoats, weighing 75 pounds each. Difficult respiration, loss of appetite, salivation, extreme weakness, muscular tremors and decumbency were observed before death. On autopsy engorgement of the liver, ecchymoses on the heart, areas of congestion on the inner wall of the large and small intestines, edematous and congested visceral lymph glands and injection of the mesentery were observed. Guinea Pigs : Guinea pigs proved very susceptible to B. botulinus administered subcutaneously and per os. 0.05 cc. broth culture by the mouth proved fatal in some instances in 24 hours. Smaller amounts of B. botulinus administered sub- cutaneously proved fatal in 36 to 96 hours. Pregnancy seemed to render these animals more susceptible. Equal amounts of toxin proved more rapidly fatal in pregnant than in non- pregnant guinea pigs of equal weight. 60 Bulletin No. 207. Rabbits: Rabbits were susceptible to B. botulinus when administered subcutaneously. 0.5 cc. of broth culture of B. botulinus proved fatal in 20 to 48 hours. Similar amounts by the mouth did not cause evident symptoms. Chickens: Chickens apparently possess a tolerance to B. botulinus administered both by the mouth and subcutaneously. On September 30th, 1916, six chickens were placed in a house with a false elevated floor (Fig. 7). From September 30th to October 9th these birds received at intervals the contents of 4 corn agar slants of B. botulinus and 45 cc. of broth cul- ture of B. botulinus. During the course of the following 35 days they were fed 268 cc. of pork broth cultures of B. botu- linus and 5 cc. of gelatin cultures of the organism. The cul- tures were mixed in cornmeal and fed immediately. The feed- ing of these large amounts of toxin produced no noticeable effect upon the chickens. Subcutaneous injections of 5 cc. unaltered broth cultures of B. botulinus, repeated in 5 days, produced only transitory symptoms in mature chickens. The results of feeding and injecting B. botulinus into an- imals corroborate to a degree the observations of Buckley and Shippen and incidentally suggest the presence of an etiologic entity in some outbreaks of forage poisoning in horses. It is evi- dent from our observations that B. botulinus is pathogenic for horses and mules. The infection in these animals after the inges- tion of unaltered cultures of B. botulinus presents a striking clinical analogy to forage poisoning. This analogy is further suggested by gross anatomic alterations. Horses proved equally as susceptible to B. botulinus as the smaller laboratory animals; indeed, it would seem that horses and mules are more susceptible than guinea pigs, in proportion to body weight, to small amounts of the toxin. There is no characteristic clinical analogy between the pera- cute cases of botulism artificially induced in horses and those observed in forage poisoning, since no definite symptoms oc- cur in the former cases. In animals more mildly intoxicated, as shown by several of our experimental horses, clinical mani- festations were observed not unlike the symptoms displayed Studies in- Forage Poisoning — V. 61 by horses and mules in natural outbreaks of forage poisoning in Central Kentucky. Food Requirements of B. botulinus. A resume of the literature indicates that vegetable as well as meat products may become contaminated with B. botulinus and superinduce clinical botulism in man follow- ing ingestion. The occurrence of a disease in man clinically resembling botulism is cited by van Ennengem following the ingestion of oysters (Feilchenfelt, Brosch), crabs (Boehm, Fischer), corned beef (Dumesnil, Barker), game and duck pies (Quincke, Cohn), dressed geese (Guttmann), smoked or salted fish (Reicz, Schreiber, Hirschfeld, Alexander, David, Tscher- nyschew), sturgeon, caviar and salmon (v. Arep, Arustamoff, N. Schmidt, Smolensky)18; also cited by Dickson of California following the ingestion of home canned pears (Peck19) ; canned string beans (Wilbur and Ophuels20). Original observations seemed to associate B. botulinus infection in man with the ingestion of contaminated meat. The term "botulism" is, however, receiving a broader interpretation from time to time and it seems that the reported clinical cases contribute suffi- cient evidence to incriminate various foods. Quite definitely in this connection Dickson21 of California described outbreaks of clinical botulism in man following the ingestion of canned fruits and vegetables ; in one case from eating home-canned corn, in another from eating home-canned string beans, and in still another from eating home-canned apricots. These observa- tions are made even more significant by the occurrence of fatalities in chickens that incidentally received a portion of these products. From the crops and gizzards of three chickens and from the gizzard of one chicken fatally affected from ingesting canned corn that had apparently been associated with an outbreak of botulism in man, an anaerobic bacillus resembling B. botulinus was isolated (Dickson22) which upon 18 Handb. d. path. Mikroog., IV. 1912, p. 911 (cited by van Ermengem). 19 South California Pract., 1910, XXV, p. 121 (cited by Dickson). 20 Arch. Int. Med., Oct. 1914, p. 589 (cited by Dickson). 21Cal. State Jour. Med., April, 1916. 22 Jour. Amer. Vet. Med. Ass'n, Vol. L, 1917, New Series Vol. 3, No. 5, pp. 612-613. 62 Bulletin No. 207. propagation in suitable media and ingestion by chickens re- sulted fatally. Landmann23 isolated a pathogenic anaerobic bacillus from a bean salad that had produced serious and fatal illness in Darmstadt following ingestion. Gaffky24 is credited with first propagating B. botulinus in puree of beans. Dickson successfully cultivated B. botulinus in canned string beans and peas in which the reaction had not been altered. The development of B. botulinus in media of an acid reaction is reported by von Hibler and Dickson. The observations of van Ermengem, confirmed by Roemer and others, on the pathogenicity of B. botulinus suggest that chickens show very little sensitiveness to the toxin and are considered practically immune. Buckley and Shippen re- ported chickens in their experiments to be highly resistant, and our results on feeding B. botulinus to chickens corrobo- rate these observations. The variations noted in B. botulinus by von Hibler, van Ermengem, Roemer, Leuchs, Dickson, and Buckley and Shippen suggest that the biologic properties of different strains of B. botulinus are subject to modification. Roemer and van Ermengem point out the occurrence of B. botulinus in association with other organisms in meat, and further demonstrate its development in association with B. subtilis under aerobic conditions, with toxin production. Buck- ley and Shippen report the growth of B. botulinus in symbiosis with yeast on slant lactose agar under aerobic conditions. The latter methods of propagation are of particular interest as they offer evidence excluding the necessity of strictly anaero- bic conditions as fundamental for the development of this organism. In studying the possible relation of B. botulinus to spo- radic forage poisoning in animals, the ability of the organism to develop on feeds naturally associated with this disease seemed fundamental. Sterile decoctions of wholesome alfalfa, corn, oats and corn silage, made slightly alkaline, were inocu- lated with one loopful of B. botulinus* and placed at room temperature under anaerobiosis. A feeble growth, with gas 23 Hyg-. Rundschau, 1904, XIV, 449 (cited by Dickson). 24Handb. d. path. Mikroog-., IV, p. 918 (cited by van Ermeng-em). * N. B. S. strain of B. botulinus. Studies in ^Forage Poisoning — V. 63 production, was observed on the third day in the alfalfa de- coction. In the oat and corn decoctions the growth was not characteristic and very slight. The extract of corn silage developed B. botulinus characteristically, revealing cloudiness at the end of 48 hours, gas production for several days, fol- lowed by a gradual clearing of the medium with the growth settling to the bottom of the tube. A guinea pig weighing 500 gins, received by the mouth 2 cc.* of alfalfa decoction containing B. botulinus and suc- cumbed in 18 hours. A guinea pig weighing 550 gms. was given 2 cc. of the corn extract culture by the mouth and suc- cumbed on the 9th day. A guinea pig given 2 cc. of the oat extract culture by the mouth remained healthy. 0.1 cc. of corn silage extract culture administered by the mouth to a guinea pig weighing 600 gms. caused death in 15 hours. The clinical symptoms and anatomic alterations in the pigs artificially infected as indicated above were quite analogous to the symptoms and lesions observed in pigs fatally afflicted subsequently to receiving broth cultures of B. botulinus. Pre- ceding death prostration and salivation were observed. Heavy contamination of feedstuffs with molds has been frequently observed in natural outbreaks of forage poisoning, tho the contention that the common molds are primarily responsible for losses has never been definitely and satisfac- torily provecl. The probable development of anaerobes in nature in association with aerobic organisms prompted some experimental trials on the development of B. botulinus in as- sociation with some of the molds found in samples of feeds sent to this laboratory. A mold identified as Fusarium sp.** was incubated aerobically at room temperature in association with B. botulinus in sterile decoctions of wholesome alfalfa, oats, corn and corn silage, made slightly alkaline to litmus. Tubes of these sterile forage decoctions were also inoculated with the Fusarium sp. alone and incubated aerobically at room temperature. Heavy growth of the mold developed in all the * Comparatively large amounts of forage extracts showing- little growth were administered for the purpose of determining the presence of even small amounts of toxin. """Identification confirmed independently by Prof. F. T. McFarland of the Department of Botany, University of Kentucky. 64 Bulletin No. 207. forage extracts mentioned, and in the alfalfa and corn silage extracts sown with Fusarmm sp. and B. botulinus there was gas production. After 12 days 0.2 cc. from each of the inocu- lated extracts was administered by the mouth to guinea pigs. A pig receiving by the mouth 0.2 cc. of the alfalfa extract of Fusarium sp. and B. botulinus in association died in 45 hours, showing before death extreme weakness and salivation. 0.2 cc. of the corn silage extract culture of Fusarium sp. and B. botulinus, by the mouth, sufficed to cause death in a guinea pig weighing 400 gms. in 40 hours. A pig receiving by the mouth 0.2 cc. of the oat extract culture of Fusarium sp. and B. botulinus in association died in 4 days. There was no evi- dence of disease in the pig receiving 0.2 cc. of the culture of Fusarium sp. associated with B. botulinus in corn extract, nor in any of the pigs receiving cultures of Fusarium sp. alone. The symptoms and anatomic alterations observed upon autopsy as the result of artificial infection of B. botulinus and Fu- sarium sp. in association in the alfalfa, corn silage and oat extracts were similar to those seen in pigs fatally infected with broth cultures of B. botulinus. Growth did not develop in extracts of alfalfa, oats, corn and corn silage, made neutral to litmus, after being sown with B. botulinus and incubated anaerobically. Guinea pigs receiving 0.5 cc. by the mouth remained healthy. Tubes of sterile oat decoction with a reaction to phenolphthalein of +0.8 were inoculated with Fusarium sp. and B. botulinus simul- taneously and incubated at room temperature under aerobiosis for 12 days. The culture, in a dose of 0.2 cc., by the mouth, sufficed to cause the death, in 30 hours, of a guinea pig weigh- ing 500 gms. Corn silage extract, with a reaction to phenol- phthalein of +2.6 when sown with Fusarium sp. and B. botulinus developed growth, with production of gas. When 11 days old 0.5 cc. of this culture was administered by the mouth to a guinea pig weighing 500 gms., followed by characteristic symptoms and death in 6 days. Pork-peptone broth, made distinctly acid to litmus, altho not furnishing a suitable medium for B. botulinus alone under anaerobic conditions, proved favorable for its growth in association with Fusarium Studies in Forage Poisoning — V. 65 sp. under aerobic conditions. A guinea pig weighing 400 gms. received by the mouth 0.2 cc. of the culture of the two organisms in association in this medium and succumbed in 20 hours. Growth in association in acid pork broth showed energetic gas production for several days and transplants by a single loop in distant cultures proved pathogenic to guinea pigs. The fact that B. botulinus may occur in nature as a toxic saprophyte (van Ermengem) — isolated in one instance from the feces of a pig by Kempner and Pollack — and further, that it may develop in other media than meat (i. e. beans, Landmann, Gaffky; canned peas and corn, Dickson; in al- kaline alfalfa, corn and corn silage decoctions) suggests the possibility of this organism, or closely allied anaerobic toxic species, developing on maize or other forage in sufficient amounts to cause fatal toxemia in horses and mules. In this connection it seems possible for B. botulinus to adapt itself to plant food of a more or less acid reaction, in association with other organisms, or the reaction may be modified by fermentation. The possibility of symbiotic development under aerobic conditions, as pointed out by van Ermengem, Roemer, and by Buckley and Shippen, must also receive consideration. Contributive to our knowledge in this connection is its devel- opment in vitro in forage extracts, in association with Fu- sarium sp. Aside from the pathogenic character of B. botu- linus for horses and mules, as originally pointed out by Buck- ley and Shippen, the food requirements of B. botulinus further imply a possible connection with the sporadic occurrence of forage poisoning in horses and mules. An Anaerobic Organism Isolated from Experimental Horse No. 91. In the report of the Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station for the year 1915 the peculiar biologic character of an anaerobic bacillus observed in plate cultures prepared from the suspected oats, was mentioned by the late Director, Dr. Joseph H. Kastle. This organism was lost, notwithstanding repeated efforts to propagate it on a solid culture medium. 66 Bulletin No. 207. In order that further studies might be conducted, portions of the unthreshed straw and grain were preserved in two wooden barrels of a capacity of 50 gallons each. These barrels of forage were placed in a small frame building and held at prevailing temperature. The oats in the barrel remained undisturbed from March 10th, 1915, until January 12th, 1917, or approximately 22 months. The lid was then removed from one barrel and hydrant water of the supply furnished the live stock on the Experiment Station farm was added. The forage was completely submerged in the barrel by weights. Etiologic Factor Water-Soluble. Beginning January 12th, 1917, a healthy bay mare, No. 91, weighing 950 pounds, medium flesh, approximately 14 years of age, was freely allowed water from the barrel of oat hay, and wholesome feed consisting of mixed clover and timothy hay, ear corn and shelled oats. Portions of the wholesome feed were also given a control mule receiving wholesome water. On January 15th horse No. 91 was depressed and did not eat the daily ration of grain and hay and on the following morn- ing at 7 a. m. was reported dead. The control mule remained healthy. Autopsy : At 8 a. m. January 16th the carcass of horse No. 91 was removed to the operating room for gross examina- tion. The arrangement of the bedding in the stall indicated that the animal had moved the feet in a running motion in decumbency. Death had evidently occurred early in the night, the abdomen was distended with gas, the musculature was cool and rigor was pronounced. The skin over the right orbit was abraded and bruised ; about the ankles and pasterns were numerous calk wounds inflicted in decumbency. The lips were soiled and bruised. The conjunctiva was injected. Subcu- taneous and muscular tissue other than local areas affected by decumbency appeared normal. The external nostrils were dilated and smeared with mucus, and in the lower portion of the nasal cavity numerous particles of dirt and small pieces of straw were found. Studies in Forage Poisoning — V. 67 The mucous membrane of the mouth appeared normal. Portions of partially masticated straw were lodged in the buccal cavity and the fauces. A few petechial hemorrhages and slight injection were observed in the upper lining of the nasal cavity. Meninges slightly injected. Lungs were mark- edly congested, with patches of punctate hemorrhages. The thoracic lymph nodes appeared swollen and mildly congested. Pericardium apparently normal. Heart muscle pale in color with profuse punctate hemorrhages adjacent to the coronary artery. Stomach slightly distended with gas; outer wall ap- parently normal ; contents normal ; inner wall showed punc- tate hemorrhages. The outer wall of the small intestine ap- parently normal; contents of a yellowish watery consistency in which clumps of more compact, yellow, mucus-like flocculi were floating. To the inner wall a layer of mucus adhered. No areas of congestion nor circumscribed hemorrhages were observed. The caecum was distended with gas; outer wall normal. Numerous punctate hemorrhages on the inner wall with diffuse patches of swollen and congested mucosa and local areas of hemorrhagic enteritis. The lining membrane soft and easily removed. Colon was distended with gas; con- tents normal. Outer wall showed scattered hemorrhagic spots. The mucous lining was thickly dotted with large and small hemorrhages and injected in small local areas. The mesen- teric lymphatic chain of the large colon was swollen, mildly congested, and accompanied by a gelatinous infiltration of the adjacent connective and supporting tissues. Mesentery highly ramified and injected. Rectum apparently normal. Liver slightly congested ; a few fibrous capsular filaments and indistinct hemorrhages. Kidneys highly congested; capsule easily removed. In the pelvis a clear exudate found. Par- enchymatous tissue soft and friable. The other organs pre- sented no visible alterations. Plantings in oat broth and pork broth were made from the blood and organs and placed at room temperature under anaerobic conditions. Growth was not observed in the oat decoction from any organ. Cultures from the lung and caecum, in the pork broth, developed growth. The growth 68 Bulletin No. 207. from these two organs was then plated in gelatin and agar and placed under anaerobic conditions. Several deep colonies developed in the gelatin plate and were transferred to pork broth. An anaerobic organism* was isolated from the caecum, possessing the following characters : Morphology and Staining Characters: A large straight rod with rounded ends, 0.8 to 1 micron wide and 2 1/2 to 6 microns long. Slightly motile. Spores form in alkaline glucose pork broth at room temperature. The spores are oval in shape, distending the wall of the organism, and situated near the end of the bacillus. The organism is Gram-positive and stains read- ily with the ordinary anilin dyes. The bacilli are single but may occur in short chains (Fig. 8). Cultivation: The bacillus is a strict anaerobe and de- velops favorably in alkaline pork broth infusion at room temperature. Acid medium is not favorable to its growth alone in meat broth. It can be propagated under anaerobiosis in alfalfa and corn silage extracts, made slightly alkaline. Aerobically it develops in acid pork broth and forage extracts in association with Fusarium sp. In gelatin plates the colonies develop in 7 to 12 days and are round, yellowish white in color and composed of coarse granules with a finely fringed peri- phery (Fig. 9). In gelatin mild liquefaction occurs at the edge of the colony, which in old cultures becomes diffuse. Consistent development has not been observed in solid cul- ture media. Glucose pork broth at room temperature is more favorable for its development. Growth may appear in 2 to 3 days with a general clouding of the medium and gas produc- tion, lasting for varying lengths of time. The medium grad- ually clears, first noticeable in the upper stratum, the growth settling to the bottom of the tube. Old cultures give off a sour odor resembling butyric acid. The similarity of the morphological characters of the organism isolated from the caecum of horse No. 91 (c-91) to B. botulinus prompted its administration to small animals. On February 14th, 1917, a guinea pig weighing 300 gms. (labo- *The laboratory index c-91 is employed for convenience in referring" to the anaerobic bacillus isolated from the caecum of horse No. 91 fatally infected by drinking- the oat hay water. Studies in Forage Poisoning — V. 69 ratory index G. P. No. c-91-M) received by the mouth 0.2 cc. of the anaerobic organism c-91 grown in glucose pork broth. On February 15th the pig was seriously afflicted, unable to stand, salivated and moribund. At 4 p. m. a photograph was obtained (Fig. 10). The pig was found dead the morning of February 16th. Plantings from the blood and organs of guinea pig G. P. No. c-91-M remained sterile. Introduction of the organism c-91, in unfiltered broth culture, in amounts of 0.03 to 0.05 cc., by the mouth, proved fatal in 24 to 36 hours, to guinea pigs weighing from 250 to 600 gms. The pathogenic effect on guinea pigs of the organism c-91 isolated from the caecum of a horse that succumbed to the Griffith oat water, suggested experimental trials upon horses. At noon on February 14th, 1917, a healthy thorobred mare, No. 94, weighing 950 pounds, was allowed to ingest 4 cc. un- filtered broth culture disguised in one quart of wholesome oats. At 2 o 'clock she had completely ingested the oats. This animal remained apparently healthy until the morning of February 19th, at which time there was observed a profuse salivation, clicking sound in throat, unsteady movement, stupor, walking in circle, constant shifting of the weight from one foot to the other, more noticeable in the hind quarters, frequent yawning and chewing, slight mucous discharge from nostrils. At 11 a. m. a photograph of the animal was ob- tained (Fig. 11). During the afternoon the animal was de- cumbent, rising with difficulty, and on the following morning, February 20th, at 7 a. in., became permanently decumbent. At intervals the feet were moved violently, at other times a quiet restful attitude was presented. No food or water was taken after the morning of the 20th, and death occurred early the morning of the 23rd. Upon autopsy the following observations were made : Emaciation very marked. Abrasions on hip, shoulder, orbit, tongue and fetlocks, self-inflicted in decumbency, with bruised and congested areas in the corresponding subcutaneous tissue. Mucous discharge about external nostrils. In the nasal mem- brane scattered petechiae were observed. Lungs slightly con- 70 Bulletin No. 207. gested. Heart bright red in color and the wall at apex and areas about coronary artery showed hyperaemic areas accom- panied by ecchymoses. Stomach apparently normal. Ramifi- cation and injection of the outer wall of the small intestine, with areas of ecchymoses (Fig. 12). The mesentery highly ramified and the lymph nodes swollen and congested. The inner wall presented localized areas of hemorrhagic enteritis; it was injected and ramified and showed rupture of capillary vessels (Fig. 13) and enterorrhagia. Contents were of a watery con- sistency tinged with blood. To the inner wall a sticky mucus adhered. External wall of caecum apparently normal. On the inner wall localized areas of hemorrhagic enteritis, not as pronounced as in small intestine. Outer wall of colon appar- ently normal, while inner wall showed numerous scattered punc- tate hemorrhages. Liver congested. Spleen greatly enlarged; ecchymotic hemorrhages on the capsule. Parenchymatous tis- sue soft, dark and friable. Parenchymatous tissue of kidneys soft and friable. Plantings in alkaline pork broth were made from the blood and internal organs and incubated at room temperature under anaerobiosis. An anaerobic organism was isolated from the cae- cum which possessed characters similar in morphology and pathogenicity to the bacillus c-91 used to infect this animal. As recovered from horse No. 94 this organism proved fatal to a guinea pig in 25 hours in a dose of 0.5 cc. by the mouth (Fig. 14). Preceding death, salivation and prostration were ob- served in this pig. Autopsy showed engorgement of the liver, areas of congestion in the lungs, softening of a portion of the membrane of the inner wall of the stomach and small intestine, accompanied by areas of injection. Botulism Antitoxic Serum. Following the demonstration of the production of an ex- tracellular toxin by B. botulinus, van Ermengem observed in preliminary studies that animals recovering from an artificial infection evidenced some tolerance to a second injection, thus pointing out the possibility of the development of a specific Studies in Forage Poisoning — V. 71 antitoxic serum. Kempner, Forssinan, Wasserman25 and Leiichs-'1 have reported 011 the specific antitoxic quality of serum from small and large animals with various strains of B. bot- uliniis. Kempner succeeded in producing an efficacious anti- toxic serum from rabbits, and Wasserman obtained an anti- toxic goat serum which protected guinea pigs against many times the lethal dose of toxin. Leuchs mentions, in one instance, the non-protective quality of an antitoxic serum against a toxin of different strain, suggesting that antitoxic serum might prove more efficient in its general application if produced from toxin of polyvalent origin. Many other strains, however, proved ca- pable of producing an efficient antitoxic serum against hetero- geneous strains of remote origin. In the preparation of antitoxic serum at this laboratory rabbits and guinea pigs were not employed, but for preliminary trials, a goat, a sheep and a cow were selected. After repeated subcutaneous injections of toxin (unfiltered broth cultures), it was found that these animals yielded an antitoxic serum which would protect guinea pigs and horses against many times the fatal dose of homologous toxin. In several instances horses were apparently protected by the subcutaneous administration of the antitoxic serum against 2 to 5 cc. unfiltered broth culture of B. botulinus administered by the mouth and subcutaneously. In arriving at a suitable test for potency the fatal dose of toxin for guinea pigs was used as a basis. Death consistently followed the administration of 0.05 cc. toxin by the mouth, without reference to size (avoiding pregnant pigs), in 24 to 50 hours, and in preliminary tests 0.05 cc: of toxin was employed against varying amounts of serum. Later the amount of toxin was increased to 0.1 cc. and in some instances to 0.25 cc., in coiijiinction with varying amounts of serum. The amount of serum employed varied from 0.5 to 2 cc. ; in some instances pigs received 2.5 cc., 3 cc. and 3.5 cc. of serum respectively. In preliminary trials 2 cc. of antitoxin administered intraperitone- ally afforded protection, while pigs receiving 0.5 cc. seemed equally well protected. The following charts illustrate the effi- 25 Handb. d. path. Mikroogr., IV, p. 934 (cited by van Ermengem). 26Handb. d. path. Mikroog., IV, pp. 939-945. 72 Bulletin No. 207. cacy of the antitoxic serum produced from the sheep (Charts A and B), from the goat (Charts C and D and Fig. 15), and from the cow (Charts E and F), against a homologous toxin. CHART A. Potency Test of Botulism Antitoxin (Sheep Serum — A — clear). Serum administered intraperitoneally Jan. 15, 1917, 11:30 a. m. Toxin administered by the mouth Jan. 16, 1917, 11:30 a. m. Guinea Pig Weight Serum B. botulinus (N. B. S.) 8-day culture Results 1 300 gms. 2 cc. 0.25 cc. Remained healthy. Released Jan. 30, 1917. 2 325 gms. 1 cc. 0.25 cc. Remained healthy. Released Jan. 30, 1917. 3 220 gms. 0.5 cc 0.25 cc. Remained healthy. Released Jan. 30, 1917. 4 670 gms. 0 cc. 0.25 cc. Dead 7 a. m. Jan. 17, 1917. 5 600 gms. 0 cc. 0.25 cc. Dead 7 a. m. Jan. 17, 1917. CHART B. Potency Test of Botulism Antitoxin (Sheep Serum — D and E — defibrinated blood). Serum administered intraperitoneally March 13, 1917, 11:15 a. m. Toxin administered by the mouth March 14, 1917, 11:15 a. m. Guinea Pig Weight Serum B. botulinus (N. B. S.) 73- day culture Results 1 450 gms. 0.5 cc. 0.05 cc. Remained healthy. Released March 28, 1917. 2 600 gms. 1 cc. 0.05 cc. Remained healthy. Released March 28, 1917. 3 500 gms. 2 cc. 0.05 cc. Remained healthy. Released March 28, 1917. 4 500 gms. 0 cc. 0.05 cc. Dead 11:30 a. m., March 15, 1917. Studies in Forage Poisoning — V. 73 CHART C. Potency Test of Botulism Antitoxin (Goat Serum — E — defibrinated blood). Serum administered intraperitoneally Feb. 5, 1917, 3 p. m. Toxin administered by the mouth Feb. 7, 1917, 9 a. m. Guinea Weight Serum B. botulinus (N.B.S.) 35- day culture Results 1 570 gms. 0.5 cc. 0.05 cc. Remained healthy. Released Feb. 21, 1917. 2 600 gms. 1 cc. 0.05 cc. Remained healthy. Released Feb. 21, 1917. 3 590 gms. 2 cc. 0.05 cc. Remained healthy. Released Feb. 21, 1917. 4 650 gms. 0 cc. 0.05 cc. Dead 7 a. m., Feb. 9, 1917. CHA1RT D. Potency Test of Botulism Antitoxin (Goat Serum — F and G — defibrinated blood). Serum administered intraperitoneally March 13, 1917, 11:15 a. m. Toxin administered by the mouth March 14, 1917, 11:15 a. m. Gpij"gea Weight Serum B. botulinus (N.B.S.) 73- day culture Results 1 500 gms. 0.5 cc. 0.05 cc. Remained healthy. Released March 28, 1917. 2 460 gms. 1 cc. 0.05 cc. Remained healthy. Released March 28, 1917. 3 490 gms. 2 cc. 0.05 cc. Remained healthy. Released March 28, 1917. 4 520 gms. 0 cc. 0.05 cc. Dead 11:30 a. m., March 15, 1917. 74 Bulletin No. 207. CHART E. Potency Test of Botulism Antitoxin (Cow Serum — A — tinged with hemoglobin). Serum administered intraperitoneally Jan. 17, 1917, 11 a. m. Toxin administered by the mouth Jan. 18, 1917, 11 a. m. Guinea Pig Weight Serum B. botulinus (N.B.S.) 10- day culture Results 1 250 gms. 0.5 cc. 0.25 cc. Remained healthy. Jan. 31, 1917 Released 2 250 gms. 1 cc. 0.25 cc. Remained healthy. Jan. 31, 1917 Released 3 300 gms. 2 cc. 0.25 cc. Remained healthy. Jan. 31, 1917 Released 4 600 gms. 0 cc. 0.25 cc. Dead 7 a. m., Jan. 19, 1917. CHART F. Potency Test of Botulism Antitoxin (Cow Serum — C — defibrinated blood). Serum administered intraperitoneally Feb. 2, 1917, 2 p. m. Toxin administered by the mouth Feb. 3, 1917, 2 p. m. Guinea Pig Weight Serum B. botulinus (N.B.S.) 37- day culture Results 1 300 gms. 0.5 cc. 0.05 cc. Remained healthy. Feb. 16, 1917 Released 2 320 gms. 1 cc. 0.05 cc. Remained healthy. Feb. 16, 1917 Released 3 290 gms. 2 cc. 0.05 cc. Remained healthy. Feb. 16, 1917 Released 4 350 gms. 0 cc. 0.05 cc. Dead 7 a. m., Feb. 4, 1917. The Relation of Botulism Antitoxic Serum to an Organism Isolated from Horse No. 91. The anaerobic bacillus isolated from the caecum of horse No. 91 closely resembled B. botulinus morphologically and cul- turally, but in order to establish specific evidence of such rela- Studies in Forage Poisoning — V. 75 tion, guinea pigs were injected with botulism antitoxic serum and later exposed to the organism c-91 in broth culture (Charts G, H, and I, and Fig. 16). CHART G. Serologicai Relation of Botulism Antitoxin (Goat Serum — E — clear) to an Organism c-91. Serum administered intraperitoneally Feb. 28, 1917, 11:45 a. m. Toxin administered by the mouth March 1, 1917, 11:45 a. m. Gp^ea Wei£ht Serum c-91 Broth Culture 14 days Results 1 300 gms. 0.5 cc. 0.05 cc. Dead 7 a. m., March 3, Pregnant female. 1917. 2 450 gms. 1 cc. 0.05 cc. Remained healthy. Released March 16, 1917. 3 250 gms. 0 cc. 0.05 cc. Dead 7 a. m., March 2, 1917. CHART H. Serologicai Relation of Botulism Antitoxin (Goat Serum — J — clear) to an Organism c-91. Serum administered intraperitoneally April 4, 1917, 4:30 p. m. Toxin administered by the mouth April 5, 1917, 4:30 p. m. Guinea Weight Serum c-91 Broth Culture 12 days Results 1 450 gms. 0.5 cc. 0.1 cc. Remained healthy. Released April 19, 1917. 2 500 gms. 1 cc. 0.1 cc. Remained healthy. Released April 19, 1917. 3 450 gms. 2 cc. 0.1 cc. Remained healthy. Released April 19, 1917. 4 420 gms. 0 cc. 0.1 cc. Dead April 6, 1917. 76 Bulletin No. 207. CHAjRT I. Serological Relation of Botulism Antitoxin (Goat Serum — H — clear) to an Organism c-91. Serum administered intraperitoneally March 15, 1917, 10:30 a. m. Toxin administered by the mouth March 16, 1917, 10:30 a. m. Guinea Pig Weight Serum c-91 Broth Culture 3 days Results 1 300 gms. 0.5 cc. 0.05 cc. Remained healthy. Released April 6, 1917. 2 400 gms. 1 cc. 0.05 cc. Remained healthy. Released April 6, 1917. 3 250 gms. 2 cc. 0.05 cc. Dead March 24, 1917. 4 300 gms. 0 cc. 0.05 cc. Dead 7 a. m., March 17, 1917. The results in small animals, as outlined in the previous charts, suggested that a relation might exist between B. botulinus and the organism c-91, and more extensive tests were made upon guinea pigs, with corroborative results. To further observe the relation between the organism c-91 and the antitoxic serum prepared against B. botulinus, horse No. 100 and mare 1001 were each given intravenously a prophylactic dose of B. botulinus antitoxic serum at 11 :30 a. m. on March 6th, 1917. At 4 p. m. the same day 2 cc. unfiltered broth culture of c-91 were fed to these animals, mixed with wholesome oats. At the same time two untreated horses, Nos. 98 and 99, each received 2 cc. unfiltered broth culture of the or- ganism thoroly disguised in wholesome oats. Wholesome feed was then supplied to these animals daily. At 6 o'clock in the evening, March 6th, horse No. 100 was restless, refusing to eat wholesome grain, nodding the head nervously, chewing and salivating mildly. This animal was depressed and stupid the fore part of the night, eating sparingly. No change was observed on March 7th. On March 8th, at 7 a. m., horses Nos. 98 and 99 were permanently decumbent and neither could be in- duced to stand. On the preceding day these animals had ap- peared normal, eating the grain supplied at 5 o'clock in the Studies in Forage Poisoning — V. 77 evening, but only a small amount of hay during the night. A photograph was obtained of horses Nos. 98 and 99 at 10 a. m. March 8th (Fig. 17). The tongue was paralyzed and protruded in horse No. 98. Respirations were labored and accelerated in both animals. Close observations were made with caution as the feet were moved violently at intervals. At 3 p. m. horse No. 98 died. On the morning of March 9th at 7 a. m. No. 99 was found dead. The lesions in horses Nos. 98 and 99 were strikingly similar to the anatomical alterations in horses fatally stricken as the result of ingesting broth cultures of B. botulinus, and also resem- bled the alterations observed in forage poisoning. Cultures were made from the blood and organs of Nos. 98 and 99. From the caecum of horse No. 99 an anaerobic bacillus in association with a coccus-like organism was regained which in broth culture proved fatal to guinea pigs, per os. On March 8th, horse No. 100 was decumbent, but regained a standing position with assistance. Antitoxic serum was ad- ministered and the animal apparently gained in strength and seemed stronger on March 9th. On this date the animal was constipated and a sluggish condition was observed. At 2 o'clock on March 10th, 1 grain arecoline and % grain strychnine were injected subcutaneously. The above quantities placed in solu- tion were prepared for four separate doses at intervals of four hours, but by error were administered in one dose. It exerted the usual effect, causing the animal to struggle and strain vigor- ously the remainder of the afternoon. The following morning at 7 a. m. the animal was dead. At autopsy it was observed that the pericardial sac was greatly distended with a large ante- mortem blood clot completely surrounding the heart. In the wall of the right auricle two distinct ruptures of the muscle wall were found. Anatomic alterations in other organs were not ob- served. On March 9th mare No. 1001 appeared nervous at intervals and showed symptoms of mild colic. The appetite was not im- paired and the animal remained apparently normal in health and was released after thirty days. 78 Bulletin No. 207. In further tests of botulism antitoxic serum against the organism c-91, three horses and one mule were employed. On March 10th, 1917, at 10 :30 a. m., a sorrel horse, No. 1002, weight 940 pounds, a gray mare, No. 1003, weight 1,120 pounds, and a bay horse, No. 1007, weight 870 pounds, received intraven- ously varying amounts of clear botulism antitoxic goat se- rum (H). On the following day, March llth, at 10 a. m., the three treated horses and an untreated black mule, No. 105, weight 810 pounds, received each 1 cc. of broth culture of c-91 organism thoroly mixed in 1000 grams of wholesome oats. The feed was consumed immediately and a maintenance ration of wholesome ear corn and mixed clover and timothy hay was then provided each day. The water given these animals was wholesome and from the supply furnished the live stock on the Experiment Station farm. Beginning March 13th, mule No. 105 masticated awkwardly, was slightly salivated, yawned frequently, appeared dull and stupid, drank water slowly and apparently with some effort. The appetite continued normal, and tho a marked stupor prevailed, the symptoms observed were not augmented from day to day as observed in previously infected animals., No symptoms were observed in horses Nos. 1002, 1003, and 1004, and at the expiration of eight days, on March 19th, at 9 a. m., the serum horses in this experiment were injected intravenously with botulism antitoxic sheep serum (C), and on the following day were given 4 cc. of broth culture c-91 thoroly mix e m Studies in Forage Poisoning — V. 107 X005 1009 1006 1007 1003 FIG. 22. Horses 1005, 1006, 1007, 1008, 1009, 1010, and 1011 received serum and 2 cc. nitrate c-91; control No. 104 same amount of toxin, no serum. 1005 aoo^ioio 1007 looe loos 1011 FIG. 24. Same animals, seven days later, showing- control in decumbent position. 108 Bulletin No. 207. FIG. 23. Control No. 104, fourth day after receiving- 2 cc. filtrate of broth culture of c-91. Studies in Forage Poisoning — V. 109 FIG. 25. Serolog-ical relation of the organism go-6 from Griffith oat hay water and botulism antitoxin (sheep serum). FIG. 26. Serological relation of the organism g-o-6 from Griffith oat hay water and botulism antitoxin (.cow serum). 110 Bulletin No. 207. FIG. 27. Horses Nos. 107, 112 and 1012 receiving- 2 cc. broth culture of organism isolated from oat hay water, March 21, 1917. No. 1012 received serum, March 20th. FIG. 28. FIG. 29. Horse No. 107 showing- salivation and inability to eat, March 25th. FIG. 30. FIG. 32. FIG. 31. Horse Xo. 107, decumbent March 25th (Figr. 30). No. 112, April 2nd (Fig-. 31), Nos. 1012 and 112, April 5th (Fig. 32). 112 Bulletin No. 207. Co 10 O O^H rH Q I! 3 h Studies in Forage Poisoning — V. 113 FIG. 35. No. 108 received 2 cc. broth culture of the organism isolated from the oat hay on March 28, 1917; died March 31st. FIG. 36. Inner wall small intestine of horse No. 108. EXPERIMENT STATION STAFF BOARD OF CONTROL. RICHARD C. STOLL, Chairman, Lexington, Ky. JOHNSON N. CAMDEN, Versailles, Ky. CHARLES B. NICHOLS, Lexington, Ky. THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY, ex offido THE DIRECTOR, SECRETARY, ex offido THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY. ALFRED M. PETER, Acting Director C. S. ADAMS, Horticulture. *R. M. ALLEN, Food and Drugs, Head. W. S. ANDERSON, Horse Husbandry. S. D. AVERITT, Chemistry. P. E. BACON, Milk Records. P. L. BLUMENTHAL, Chemistry. C. D. BOHANNAN, Agricultural Eco- nomics, Acting Head. A. L. BRUECKNER, Diseases of Live Stock. L. A. BROWN, Food and Drugs. G. D. BUCKNER, Chemistry. N. M. CREGOR, Food and Drugs Inspec- tion. H. E. CURTIS, Commercial Fertilizers, Head. MARY L. DIDLAKE, Entomology and Botany. A. E. EWAN, Agronomy. H. GARMAN, Entomology and Botany, Head. O. L. GINOCHIO, Secretary to the Di- rector. E. S. GOOD, Animal Husbandry (Beef Cattle, Sheep and Swine), Head. ANGUS GORDON, Agronomy. E. J. GOTT, Bacteriology. ROBERT GRAHAM, Diseases of Live Stock, Head. D. J. HEALY, Bacteriology. J. J. HOOPER, Animal Husbandry (Dairy Cattle, Horses and Poultry), Head. ED. HUSTON, Dairying. W. D. ILER, Chemistry. *ELMER INGRAM, Feed and Fertilizer Inspection. H. H. JEWETT, Entomology and Bot- any. *R. W. JONES, Feed and Fertilizer In- spection. P. E. KARRAKER, Agronomy. E. J. KINNEY, Agronomy. J. O. LaBACH, Food and Drugs, Acting Head. W. T. LAFFERTY, Legal Adviser. O. S. LEE, Commercial Fertilizers. J. W. McFARLIN, Food and Drugs In- spection. J. S. McHARGUE, Chemistry. L. B. MANN, Animal Husbandry (Beef Cattle, Sheep and Swine). C. W. MATHEWS, Horticulture, Head. S. F. MUSSELMAN, State Veterinarian. W. D. NICHOLLS, Dairying. H. R. NISWONGER, Entomology and Botany. J. W. NUTTER, Dairying. A. J. OLNEY, Horticulture. D. H. PEAK, Business Agent. A. M. PETER, Chemistry, -Head. • W- H.: PI-NNELL, Food and Drugs. R. L. PONTIUS, Diseases of Live Stock. C. S. PORTER, Food and Drugs Inspec- tion. G. M. ROACH, Food and Drugs Inspec- tion. GEORGE ROBERTS, Agronomy, Head. WM. RODES, Commercial Fertilizers. O. M. SHEDD, Chemistry. W. H. SIMMONS, Food and DrugS In- spection. H. D. SPEARS, Stuffs. Commercial Feeding W. G. TERRELL, Food and Drugs In- spection. J. D. TURNER, Commercial Feeding Stuffs, Head. E. C. VAUGHN, Entomology and Bot- any. J. W. WESSON, Agricultural Economics. R. H. WILKINS, Poultry. G. B. WURTZ, Meteorology. •On leave of absence. Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky. BULLETIN NO. 208 Studies in Forage Poisoning— VI. An Anaerobic Organism Isolated from Ensilage of Etio logic Significance. BY ROBERT GRAHAM, A. L. BRUECKNER and R. L. PONTIUS July, 1917. (115) BULLETIN NO. 2O8. STUDIES IN FORAGE POISONING-VI. An Anaerobic Organism Isolated from Ensilage of Etiologic Significance. By ROBERT GRAHAM, A. L. BRUECKXER AND R. L. PONTIUS. The Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station has been called upon from time to time to investigate sporadic outbreaks of forage poisoning in animals. Various suspected feeds from different farms where the disease has been observed have been studied, including oat hay, corn fodder, orchard grass and si- lage. It is difficult, from physical examination, to select from the ration the feed responsible for the disease. Feeding tests have therefore been projected to establish a practical working basis. Such tests have in a few instances given positive evi- dence, while many feeds have been fed with negative results. The labor involved in a bacteriological examination of feeds which incorporate the etiologic factor, without a definite plan for rapidly eliminating organisms of no consequence, is an al- most endless task. Varying methods of procedure have there- fore been employed in studying feeds which have been proved capable of producing the disease subsequently to ingestion. The samples of feed from sporadic outbreaks of forage poisoning submitted for feeding tests, have in each case been considered representative, but it is understood that the selection of such samples has its limitations. The possibility of con- (117) 118 Bulletin No. 208. lamination in only a limited portion of the feed might account for one or two sporadic cases within a large herd, possibly re- sulting in negative feeding tests with the feeds under suspicion, or the method of handling and transporting the feed en route to the Experiment Station might involve exposure sufficient to markedly alter the poisonous quality. To prevent undue ex- posure, precautions were taken to shelter and protect from light feeds sent to the Experiment Station for feeding tests. Small samples for bacteriological examination were retained in sealed jars at 43 to 48 °F. and protected from light. Notwithstanding negative feeding tests or the sporadic loss of only one or two animals in a large herd, from a disease resembling forage poison- ing, it is probable that a variety of feedstuff s have been con- taminated in some manner with the etiologic factor. At any rate different feeds have from time to time been regarded with suspicion in connection with this disease on Kentucky farms. Ensilage Poisoning. Experimental feeding tests conducted by Pearson1 of the University of Pennsylvania, in 1900, demonstrated the poison- ous quality of a corn ensilage being fed in connection with a sporadic outbreak of forage poisoning. Stange and Buchanan2 of the Iowa State College projected similar feeding tests with an ensilage obtained from an outbreak in Central Iowa, with positive results. More recently Rusk and Grindley3 of the University of Illinois demonstrated the presence of the etiologic factor of this disease in ensilage by feeding experiments at Ottawa, Illinois. Buckley, Mohler, Eichhorn, Marshall, Mus- selman and many others, including a large number of veterinary practitioners, have from time to time observed an inseparable relation existing between forage poisoning and the feed, tho it has not been possible to prove this contention in every in- stance. On more than one occasion in Kentucky circumstantial evidence has pointed to siloed feed as incorporating the etio- logic factor of forage poisoning, and frequently in affected iJour. Com. Med. & Vet. Arch., Vol. XXI; Vol. XXII, p. 109 and 446. 2 Mycologia, Vol. II, No. 3, May, 1910, p. 99. 3 Report not published (1916.) Studies in Forage Poisoning — VI. 119 herds where ensilage constitutes a part of the ration it is the first feed to arouse suspicion. The disease in question may be associated with other feeds, but the apparently poisonous qual- ity of ensilage as observed on some farms has tended to connect forage poisoning in animals with siloed feed. In some com- munities this has been a drawback to the use of the silo. Attempts to deliver suspected ensilage from sporadic out- breaks of forage poisoning occurring in Kentucky to the Ex- periment Station in quantities for feeding tests have not been entirely satisfactory in our experience. Exposure of ensilage to the air is generally followed in a few days by marked changes, i. e., fermentation accompanied by the development of molds, and it is difficult to preserve quantities of this feed without change, for a reasonable period of time, after once be- ing removed from the silo. If the ensilage is markedly altered at the time the feeding tests are conducted, the result con- tributes but little positive evidence. For this reason feeding tests involving ensilage have been conducted more satisfactorily upon the farm where the outbreak occurred, in some instances remote from the University. In December, 1916, an outbreak of forage poisoning was reported on the farm of Mr. P. B. Gaines, of Carroll County, Kentucky. Forty head of mules were being fed ear corn, oat hay and ensilage daily in a barn adjacent to the silo. On or about December 16th a number of the mules became ill, mani- festing characteristic symptoms of forage poisoning. It was found upon examination that some of the ear corn was soft and immature ; the oat hay was apparently of good quality, and the bulk of the silage in question was not visibly altered. It was thot by some that the odor of the silage was different from that of silage on other farms. To the writers, however, the silage appeared normal, with the exception of patches of moldy silage about the edges of the silo. No visible growth of mold was found in the ensilage in the center of the silo and the owner advised that the moldy silage had not been fed to the mules. All of the feeds had been produced on the farm. The corn 120 Bulletin No. 208. from which the ensilage was made was grown on bottom land adjoining the Ohio River. This field was subject to frequent inundations in the early spring. The silo was of concrete con- struction without a permanent cover and approximately one- third of the ensilage had been fed from the silo before the mules were stricken. The ear corn was a white variety and was husked from the standing stalks and stored in a slatted corn crib. The oat hay was cut and cured like a clover or timothy hay before being placed in the barn. The ear corn and oat hay were grown on land of higher elevation than the siloed corn. Dr. T. L. Breeck, of Carrollton, administered purgative and stimulative treatment daily to all the mules on the farm from the time the disease appeared. The symptoms observed in several mules consisted of muscular incoordination, weak- ness, depression, loss of appetite, paresis of the pharynx, de- cumbency, salivation, accompanied by normal temperature. When the first symptoms were noted the feeding of the ensi- lage, ear corn and oat hay was immediately discontinued. One of the mules remained permanently decumbent and died in ap- proximately 20 hours. The remainder of the affected animals recuperated slowly and recovered their normal condition, with the exception of an awkward and unsteady gait which could be observed in three animals for approximately six weeks. In order to duplicate natural conditions and establish the feed involved, if possible, three experimental horses were de- livered to the premises. Beginning January 14th, 1917, horse No. 1, a brown gelding approximately 12 years old, was given daily maintenance rations of the ensilage exclusively ; horse No. 2, a black gelding approximately 15 years old, the oat hay ex- clusively ; and horse No. 3, a bay gelding approximately 10 years old, the ear corn exclusively. The three animals had free access to water which was the source of supply for the forty mules. All of the horses, previously to being used in this experiment, were apparently healthy and in medium flesh. On January 27th horse No. 1 was decumbent and died the following day: ' Clin- ical forage poisoning was observed in this animal by Dr. Breeck. Autopsy^ was riot conducted. Horses No. 2 and No. 3 continued Studies in Forage Poisoning — VI. 121 to eat the oat hay and ear corn, respectively, for a period of 30 days, at the end of which time they were released. No manifest symptoms were observed in these two animals. The prelimi- nary feeding test, as described above, indicated that the etio- logic factor of the disease, as observed in this outbreak, was pos- sibly contained in the ensilage, further supported by the fact that the oat hay and ear corn being fed at the time the outbreak occurred were released after the feeding test and fed with ap- parent safety to the remaining mule stock. The Relation of Botulism Antitoxin to the Etiologic Factor in the Ensilage. In previous studies an oat hay4 from a remote outbreak was proved to incorporate the etiologic factor of forage poison- ing, by feeding tests with horses, and was later found to be contaminated with an organism resembling B. botulinus. In conducting further studies upon the ensilage in question, an effort was made to determine the relation of botulism antitoxin to the etiologic factor contained in the ensilage. Apparently healthy horses, Nos. 4, 5 and 6, were placed in a stable adjoin- ing the silo. All three animals were to be given daily rations of the ensilage exclusively; horses Nos. 4 and 5 were given sub- cutaneous injections of serum from a goat immune to B. botu- linus on February 13th, 1917. The control, No. 6, received no treatment. The injection in horse No. 4 was followed by a marked reaction (syncope) and the animal was in a moribund condition in twenty-four hours. The cause of death is not ex- plained unless it falls within the category of anaphylactic phe- nomena. It is to be noted that this animal received no silage-.. Horses No. 5 and No. 6 appeared normal on February 14th, and received direct from the silo daily maintenance ra- tions of the ensilage. Horse No. 5 received weekly subcutaneous injections of botulism antitoxin. On the 24th of February the control horse, No. 6, appeared depressed, with drawn flank. The following day the animal was permanently decumbent, presenting clinical manifestations similar to those observed in Bulletin No. 207, Ky. Exp. Sta., 1917. 122 Bulletin No. 208. the animals originally afflicted on this farm. On February 26th, 1917, the animal was moribund and was destroyed. Autopsy was not conducted. The serum-treated animal, No. 5, continued to receive the ensilage each day, exclusive of other feed, for a period of 30 days and remained apparently healthy. The re- maining ensilage was then fed daily to cattle, without notice- able effect, thus concurring to a degree, in this instance, with the general observation that cattle are less susceptible to so- called ensilage poisoning than horses and mules. An Anaerobic Organism from the Ensilage. An anaerobic, spore-forming organism isolated from the oat hay previously referred to proved pathogenic for guinea pigs and horses. 2 cc. of the broth culture of the organism in question, disguised in wholesome oats, proved capable of en- gendering clinical manifestations and anatomic alterations in horses and mules similar to those recognized in afflicted ani- mals as the result of feeding the original oat hay or water in which the oat hay was immersed. Representative samples of the corn, the oat hay and the ensilage being fed on the Gaines farm at the time the outbreak occurred in December, 1916, were sent to the Experiment Sta- tion for examination. These samples were kept in Mason fruit jars at 42 °F. until the conclusion of the preliminary feeding tests. From the sample of ensilage in question, an anaerobic, sporulating, Gram-positive, rod-shaped organism, 0.8 micron to 1 micron wide and 2y2 microns to 6 microns long was isolated which resembled B. botulinus morphologically and culturally as propagated in alkaline pork broth (Figs. 1 and 2). Broth cul- tures of this anaerobe proved fatal to guinea pigs (250 to 300 grams), introduced by the mouth in amounts of 0.02 cc., in 45 to 50 hours. 0.01 cc. broth culture by the mouth resulted fatally to a 250 gm. guinea pig in 5 days. The filtered broth culture administered by the mouth proved fatal to guinea pig,s 2 horses and a mule. Horse No. 120 was given 2 cc. of the filtrate dis- guised in 1000 gms. of wholesome oats at 9 a. m., May 31st, 1917, and succumbed in 22 hours, without premonitory symptoms Studies in Forage Poisoning — VI. 123 being observed. The grain and hay supplied at 5 :30 p. m. were consumed and the animal appeared normal at 6 p. m. Upon autopsy June 1st, 8 a. m., the heart showed marked ecchymoses. Gross changes were not found in the other organs and tissuees. Horse No. 121, weight 760 pounds, was given 2 cc. filtered broth culture of the organism isolated from the silage, in 1000 grams of wholesome oats, at 10:30 a. m., June 3rd, 1917. No change was observed in this animal until the morning of the 7th. It was then necessary to assist the animal to a standing position. There was observed difficult mastication and an in- ability to drink. During the day approximately 900 cc. of saliva dropped from the mouth into a metal feed box. The animal remained standing thruout the day, but on the morn- ing of June 8th was permanently decumbent and no attempt to eat or drink was noted. Respirations were labored and the feet were rapidly moved in a running motion at intervals. Enuresis was observed thruout the day. Death occurred during the night of June 8th. At autopsy conducted at 8 a. m., June 9th, the following changes were observed: Abdominal wall slightly distended with gas. Abrasions about head, hips and pasterns, self-inflicted in decumbency. Area about ex- ternal genitals soiled with urine. Subcutaneous tissue con- gested in local bruised areas. A large bolus of straw was found in the fauces. Meninges slightly injected. Right lung hypo- static; left lung passively congested. Heart muscle rather pale with small, reddened areas near apex, accompanied by small punctate hemorrhages. Stomach slightly distended with gas; inner wall diffusely reddened. The inner wall of the small in- testine (duodenum) showed local areas of passive congestion, while the remaining lining appeared normal. The inner wall of the caecum was diffusely congested and numerous punctate hemorrhages were visible in the lining. The inner walls of the large and small colon showed a few scattered punctate hemor- rhages. Fibrous filaments from the capsule of the liver were observed. The parenchymatous tissue of the liver, spleen and kidney was not visibly altered. 124 Bulletin No. 208. The Relation of Botulism Antitoxin to the Organism Isolated from the Ensilage. Three guinea pigs, weighing from 550 to 900 grams each, were given intraperitoneally 0.5 to 1.5 cc. botulism* antitoxin, followed in 24 hours by many times the fatal amount, per os, of the organism isolated from the ensilage, in broth culture, without noticeable effect. A similar amount of the broth culture was given at the same time to an untreated pig, followed by death in approximately 20 hours (Chart 1). Duplicate tests upon guinea pigs were conducted, as indicated in Chart 2 and Fig. 3. CHART 1. No. Weight Botulism Antitoxin (Goat Serum— J) Broth Culture of Organism from Ensilage Results 1 2 3 4 550 gm. 550 gm. 900 gm. 520 g-m. 0.5 cc. May 12, 1917 1.0 cc. May 12, 1917 1.5 cc. May 12, 1917 0 0.2 cc. May 13, 1917 0.2 cc. May 13, 1917 0.2 cc. May 13, 1917 0.2 cc. May 13, 1917 . Remained ' healthy. Released June 1, 1917 Remained healthy. Released June 1, 1917- Remained healthy. Released June 1, 1917 Dead 7 a. m. May 14 CHART 2. No. Weight Botulism Antitoxin (Sheep Serum— I) Broth Culture of Organism from Ensilage Results >1 2 3 4 250 gm. 225 gm. 250 gm. 250 gm. 0.5 cc. June 18, 1917 1.0 cc. June 18, 1917 1.5 cc. June 18, 1917 0 0.1 cc. June 19, 1917 0.1 cc. June 19, 1917 0.1 cc. June 19, 1917 0.1 cc. June 19, 1917 Remained healthy. Released July 4, 1917 Remained healthy. Released; July 4, 1917 Remained healthy. Released- July 4, 1917 Dead 7 a. m. June 20- The effect of the filtered broth culture of the organism iso- lated from the ensilage, administered to guinea pigs in a similar- manner in conjunction with serum immune to B. botulinus, is presented in Chart 3 and Fig. 4. The sterility of the filtrate was demonstrated by cultural methods. *B. botulinus (N. B. S. strain) obtained from Dr. Buckley, Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, D. C. Studies in Forage Poisoning — VI. 125 CHART 3. Xo. Weight Botulism Antitoxin Filtered Broth Cul- (Horse Serum) ture of Organism (C & D) from Ensilage Results 1 - 3 4 £50 grm. SOO gm. 500 grm. 350 g-m. 0.5 cc. May 30, 1917 1.0 cc. May 30. 1917 1.5 cc. May 30, 1917 0 0.1 cc. May 31, 1917 0.1 cc. May 31, 1917 0.1 cc. May 31, 1917 0.1 cc. May 31, 1917 Remained healthy. Released June 15, '17 Remained healthy. Released June 15, '17 Remained healthy. Released June 15, '17 Dead 7 a. m. June 3 The protective quality of serum immune to the organism isolated from the ensilage, as related to B. botulinus, is illus- trated in Chart 4 and Fig. 5. CHART 4. Xo. Weight Sheep Serum A-l Immune to Organ- ism from Ensilage B. botulinus (N. B. S. strain) Results 1 450 gm. 1.5 cc. June 20, 1917 0.1 cc. June 21, 1917 Remained healthy. Released July 6, '17 2 400 gm. 1.0 cc. June 20, 1917 0.1 cc. June 21, 1917 Remained healthy. Released July 6, '17 3 650 gm. 0.5 cc. June 20, 1917 0.1 cc. June 21, 1917 Remained healthy. Released July 6, '17 4 500 gm. 0.4 cc. June 20, 1917 0.1 cc. June 21, 1917 Remained healthy. Released July 6, '17 5 500 gm. 0.3 cc. June 20, 1917 0.1 cc. June 21, 1917 Dead 10a.m. June 29 6 550 gm. 0.2 cc. June 20, 1917 0.1 cc. June 21, 1917 j Remained healthy. 1 Released July 6, '17 7 450 gm." 0.1 cc. June 20,. 1917 0.1 cc. June 21, 1917 Remained healthy. Released July 6, '17 8 350 gm. 0 0.1 cc. June 21, 1917 Dead 7 a.m. June 22 The apparent relation of B. botulinus (N. B. S. strain) to the organism isolated from the silage was further observed in three horses and one mule. On May 15th, 1917, at 11 a. m., horse No. 1019, a bay mare, weight '750 pounds; horse No: 1020, a bay gelding, weight 750 pounds, and horse No. 1021, a brown mare, weight 680 pounds, were each given an intraven- ous injection of botulism antitoxin. On May 16th at 11 a. m. the three horses, Nos. 1019, 1020 and 1021, and a control mule No. 118, weight 900 pounds, each received 2 cc. broth culture of the organism isolated from the ensilage, in 1000 grams of wholesome oats fed in individual enamel pans (Fig 6). These animals were then fed wholesome corn, shelled oats, 126 Bulletin No. 208. timothy hay and water, all of which were controlled by horses used on the Experiment Station farm. On the morning of May 17th, 1917, at 7 a. m., No. 118 ate only a portion of the grain and hay. No change was noted in animals Nos. 1019, 1020 and 1021. At 10 a. m. No. 118 could not stand. In a sternal posi- tion the animal used the front feet quite freely, yet in attempt- ing to arise a marked weakness in the loins and posterior limbs was noted. At 1 p. m. the tongue was pendulous and protrud- ing from the mouth, and the animal lay quite helpless. Death occurred at 3 :30 p. m., May 17th. Fig. 7 was photographed at 3 :45 p. m. on May 17th. The serum-treated animals, Nos. 1019, 1020 and 1021 appear in the rear. These three animals re- mained healthy and were released on June 17th (Chart 5). CHART 5. No. Weight Botulism Antitoxin (Mule Serum) Broth Culture of Organism from Ensilage Results 1019 1020 102?. 118 750 Ibs. 750 Ibs. 680 Ibs. 900 Ibs. 40 cc, May 15, 1917 40 cc. May 15, 1917 40 cc. May 15, 1917 0 2 cc. May 16, 1917 2 cc. May 16, 1917 2 cc. May 16, 1917 2 cc. May 16, 1917 Healthy. Released June 17, '17 Healthy. Released June 17, '17 Healthy. Released June 17, '17 Dead 3:30 p.m. May 17 Autopsy conducted on May 17th showed the following anatomic alterations in mule No. 118: Tongue protruding; no noticeable skin or subcutaneous bruises. Meninges injected; a few scattered petechial hemorrhages on pleura and diaphragm ; lungs slightly congested. Punctate hemorrhages on epi- and endocardium. The outer wall of the duodenal section of small intestine was slightly injected, and in the inner wall small areas of congestion were found. The duodenal mesentery was slightly injected. Liver, grayish yellow tinge; acini very prominent; numerous fibrous capsular filaments. Other gross changes were not observed. Studies in Forage Poisoning — VI. 127 Agglutination Tests. The relation of the anaerobic organism isolated from the ensilage in question to B. botulinus is further suggested by the macroscopic agglutination test. Goat, mule and horse sera highly immune to B. botulinus showed positive agglutinating potency to B. botulinus, as well as to the anaerobic organism resembling B. botulinus isolated from the ensilage, in dilutions varying from 1-100 to 1-2000 (see Charts 6 and 7). Sera drawn from a non-treated horse, sheep, chicken, rabbit and guinea pig failed to agglutinate B. botulinus or the organism isolated from the ensilage, in a dilution of 1-100 (See Charts 6 and 7). Ag- glutination of the organism from the ensilage, in a dilution of 1-100, was observed with immune blackleg serum in one in- stance (see Chart 7). Horse serum highly immune to the pathogenic bacillus5 iso- lated from an experimental horse fatally infected from drink- ing an oat hay water, and sheep serum highly immune to the organism isolated from the ensilage in question, showed a posi- tive agglutinating potency to B. botulinus and to the organism isolated from the experimental horse referred to above, as well as to the organism isolated from the ensilage (see Charts 8, 9 and 10). Serum No. 117 from a horse fatally infected by ingesting 2 cc. of an organism resembling B. botulinus, isolated from an oat hay, B. coli immune serum, immune blackleg serum and normal horse serum failed to agglutinate the organism from the ensilage. Serum No. 122 from a mule fatally infected as the result of in- gesting 3 cc. of the sterile nitrate of the organism isolated from the ensilage, completely agglutinated the organism isolated from the ensilage, in a 1-100 dilution (Chart 8). Similar agglutinat- ing potency with the above sera was observed with the organism isolated from the horse that succumbed after drinking the oat hay water (Chart 9), as well as with B. botulinus (Chart 10). In conclusion, it is significant that an anaerobic spore-bear- ing bacillus possessing morphological and cultural characters resembling those of B. botulinus was isolated from a silage orig- 5 Bulletin No. 207. Ky. Exp. Sta., 1917. 128 Bulletin No. 208. inally associated with a natural outbreak of forage poisoning in mules. In preliminary tests the unfiltered broth culture of this organism, administered by the mouth, proved pathogenic for guinea pigs and a mule. The filtered broth culture, adminis- tered by the mouth, proved fatal to guinea pigs, 2 horses and a mule. A protection was provided by administering botulism antitoxin to guinea pigs and horses against a lethal amount of the organism in broth or the sterile filtrate of broth culture of the organism in question. Serum immune to the bacillus iso- lated from the ensilage proved efficacious in protecting guinea pigs against a fatal artificial infection of B. botulinus, as well as against the organism isolated from the ensilage. The ag- glutinins present in serum highly immune to B. botulinus were active to the organism isolated from the ensilage, thus contribut- ing evidence of the possible relation of this organism to B. botu- linus. Normal sera of different animals did not agglutinate B. botulinus nor the organism from the ensilage. Sheep serum immune to the organism isolated from the ensilage possessed ag- glutinating potency to B. botulinus and to a similar pathogenic anaerobe isolated from a horse fatally afflicted subsequently to drinking the water in which was immersed an oat hay obtained from a distant outbreak of this disease. Agglutination Test of B. botulinus*. CHART 6. Dilution 1-100 1-200 1-50011-1000 1-2000 1-5000 Control Mule serum immune to B. botulinus Horse serum immune 1o B. botulinus Goat serum immune to B. botulinus Normal horse serum Normal sheep serum + + + + + + + + + + + - - Normal chicken serum Normal rabbit serum Normal guinea pig- serum Serum A** Serum B*** .- + Positive Reaction. — Negative Reaction. * B. botulinus (N. B. S. strain) from Buckley of Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington. ** Serum from horse fatally infected with B. botulinus. *** Serum from horse fatally infected with anaerobic organism from ensilage. Studies in Forage Poisoning — VI. 129 Agglutination Test of Organism Resembling1 B. botulinus,* Isolated irom the Ensilage ,T 7. Dilution 1-100 1-200] 1-500 1-1000 1-2000 1-5000 Control Mule serum immune to B. botulinus Horse serum immune to B. botulinus Goat serum immune to B. botulinus Horse serum immune to Blackleg: Normal horse sentm + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + " __ + "" Normal sheep serum Normal chicken sorum Normal rabbit serum Normal guinea pigr serum Serum A** Serum B*** .. . * B. botulinus (X. B. S. strain) from Buckley of Bureau of Animal In- dustry, AVash. ** Serurn from horse fatally infected with B. botulinus. *** Serum from horse fatally infected with anaerobic organism from en- silage. {-Positive Reaction —Negative Reaction Agglutination Test of Anaerobic Organism Resembling B. botulinus, Isolated from the Ensilage. CHART 8. Dilution 1-100 1-2001 1-500 1-1000 1-2000 1-5000 Control Serum immune to c-91* + + + + + + + + -f + 7 Serum immune to B. coli Serum immune to G S ** Serum immune to Blackleg: Serum 117*** Normal horse serum Serum 122**** Agglutination Test of Anaerobic Bacillus Resembling B. botulinus, Isolated from Horse Fatally Afflicted from Drinking Oat Hay Water CHART 9. Dilution 1-100 1-200 1-500 1-100011-2000 1-5000 Control Serum immune to c-91* Serum immune to B. coli Serum immune to G. S.** Serum immune to Blackleg: Serum 117*** . + + ~ + + — + I + ± ± - - + Positive Reaction — Neg-ative Reaction * Anaerobic bacillus isolated from horse fatally afflicted from drinking oat hay water. ** Anaerobic bacillus isolated from Games' ensilag-e. ** Serum from horse in moribund condition following- the ing-estion of 2 cc. broth culture of organism resembling- B. botulinus isolated from an oat hay. **** Serum from mule in moribund condition following- the ing-estion of 3 cc. broth filtrate of organism isolated from Games' ensilage. 130 Bulletin No. 208. Agglutination Test of B. botulinus CHART 10. Dilution 1-100 1-200 1-500,1-1000 1-2000 1-5000 Control Serum immune to c-91* Serum immune to B coli + + + 4- + + + + + + - - Scrum immune to G. S.** Serum immune to Blackleg" Serum 117*** . Normal horse serum S(-rum 122**** Positive Reaction — Negative Reaction * Anaerobic bacillus isolated from horse fatally afflicted from drinking oat hay water. ** Anaerobic bacillus isolated from Games' ensilage. *** Serum from horse in moribund condition following- the ingrestion of 2 cc. broth culture of organism resembling B. botulinus isolated from an oat hay. **** Serum from mule in moribund condition following the ingestion of 3 cc. broth filtrate of organism isolated from Games' ensilage. Studies in Forage Poisoning — VI. 131 FIG. 1. The anaerobic bacillus isolated from the Gaines ensilage. Highly magni- fied. From a drawing. FIG. 2. Gelatin plate culture of the same organism, showing area of liquefaction surrounding each colony. Oc. 4x; Obj. 16 mm. Spencer. FIG. 3. The protective quality of botulism antitoxin in guinea pig's against O'l cc. of the unfiltered broth culture of the organism isolated from the ensilage. The control pig succumbed in approximately 48 hours. FIG. 4. The apparent protective quality of botulism antitoxin in guinea pigs against 0.1 cc. of the filtered broth culture of organism isolated from ensilage. The control pig succumbed in 3 days. FIG. 5. The protective quality of serum immune to the organism isolated from the ensilage against B. botulinus. Control pig succumbed in 48 hours. Studies in Forage Poisoning — VI. 133 FIG. 6. Horses Nos. 1019, 1020 and 1021 received an intravenous injection of botulism antitoxin on May l»th, 1917. On May 16th, these animals and an untreated mule, No. 118, were fed 2 cc. of broth culture of the organism isolated from the ensilage, in 1000 grams of wholesome oats. FIG. 7. Same animals photographed May 17th, No. 118 in a decumbent position. EXPERIMENT STATION STAFF BOARD OF CONTROL RICHARD C. STOLL, Chairman, Lexington, Ky. JOHNSON N. CAMDEN, Versailles, Ky. CHARLES B. NICHOLS, Lexington, Ky. THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY, ex offido THE DIRECTOR, SECRETARY, ex offido THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY C. S. ADAMS, Horticulture. *R. M. ALLEN, Food and Drugs, Head. W. S. ANDERSON, Horse Husbandry. S. D. AVERITT, Chemistry. P. E. BACON, Milk Records. P. L. BLUMENTHAL, Chemistry. A. L. BRUECKNER, Diseases of Live Stock. L. A. BROWN, Food and Drugs. G. D. BUCKNER, Chemistry. N. M. CREGOR, Food and Drugs Inspec- tion. H. E. CURTIS, Commercial Fertilizers, Head. MARY L. DIDLAKE, Entomology and Botany. A. E. EWAN, Agronomy. H. GARMAN, Entomology and Botany, Head. O. L. GINOCHIO, Secretary to the Di- rector. E. S. GOOD, Animal Husbandry (Beef Cattle, Sheep and Swine), Head. ANGUS GORDON, Agronomy. E. J. GOTT, Bacteriology. ROBERT GRAHAM, Diseases of Live Stock, Heal. D. J. HEALY, Bacteriology. J. J. HOOPER, Animal Husbandry (Dairy Cattle, Horses and Poultry), Head. ED. HUSTON, Dairying. W. D. ILER, Chemistry. *ELMER INGRAM, Feed and Fertilizer Inspection. H. H. JEWETT, Entomology and Bot- any. *R. W. JONES, Feed and Fertilizer In- spection. P. E. KARRAKER, Agronomy. ADFRED M. PETER, Acting Director E. J. KINNEY, Agronomy. J. O. LaBACH, Food and Drugs, Acting Head. W. T. LAFFERTY, Legal Adviser. O. S. LEE, Commercial Fertilizers. J. W. McFARLIN, Food and Drugs In- spection. J. S. McHARGUE, Chemsitry. L. B. MANN, Animal Husbandry (Beef Cattle, Sheep and Swine). C. W. MATHEWS, Horticulture, Head. S. F. MUSSELMAN, State Veterinarian. W. D. NICHOLLS, Dairying. H. R. NISWONGER, Entomology and Botany. J. W. NUTTER, Dairying. A. J. OLNEY, Horticulture. D. H. PEAK, Business Agent. A. M. PETER, Chemistry, Head. W. R. PINNELL, Foods and Drugs. R. L. PONTIUS, Diseases of Live Stock. C. S. PORTER, Food and Drugs Inspec- tion. G. M. ROACH, Food and Drugs Inspec- tion. GEORGE ROBERTS, Agronomy, Head. WM. RODES, Commercial Fertilizers. O. M. SHEDD, Chemistry. W. H. SIMMONS, Food and Drugs In- spection. H. D. SPEARS, Commercial Feeding Stuffs. W. G. TERRELL, Food and Drugs In- spection. J. D. TURNER, Commercial Feeding Stuffs, Head. E. C. VAUGHN, Entomology and Bot- any. J. W. WESSON, Agricultural Economics. R. H. WILKINS, Poultry. G. B. WURTZ, Meteorology. *On leave of absence. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION COLLESE OF AGRICULTURE BERKELEY H. E. VAN NORMAN. VICE-DI UNIVERSITY FARM SCHOOL, FACTS ABOUT ANTHRAX BY C. M. HARING SEPTEMBER, 1917 Anthrax attracts attention chiefly a~s a disease of farm animals. Cattle, sheep, and horses are most susceptible, and it occasionally occurs in swine, dogs, and cats which are allowed to eat anthrax car casses. Men sometimes contract the disease, making the handling of carcasses, raw hides or wool from anthrax animals very dangerous. In fact, practically all warm-blooded animals may become infected under certain conditions. Cause of and Conditions under. Which the Disease Is Liable to Break Out. — Anthrax is caused by a germ known as the bacterium of anthrax. Bact. anthracis. Animals in the last stages of the disease and those that die contain these bacteria in the blood and tissues of the body. The bacteria find their way outside of the body and infect the soil by the discharges from body openings, but especially by the improper disposal of anthrax carcasses. These germs thrive best and may exist indefinitely in swampy lands or in those subject to periodical flooding. River bottom land, dried lake basins, poorly- drained meadows, and tule lands are types of the localities most likely to be infected with anthrax. The disease is most apt to occur during hot, dry weather. In some localities it is spread by biting flies. In cattle and sheep the bacteria enter the body from the soil with th«j food. Symptoms. — Great variation in behavior is noted in different affected animals. The disease usually kills very quickly, sometimes the first indication of its existence being the discovery of dead animals, while at other times they die in a few hours after sickness is noticed, and then again they may be sick two to five days. Where a number of animals are together several cases often develop at the same time. The urine may be dark and the dung and discharges from the nose bloody, but these are also symptoms of other diseases. In anthrax, as in other acute infectious diseases, the animal shows a high tem- perature, rapid breathing, increased heart action, trembling, cessation of rumination, decreased or total stoppage of milk flow, drooping of head and ears, and, before death, a lowering of body temperature. In some cases the disease affects the skin, producing swelling that do not crackle when touched. Swine, cats, and dogs infected by eating anthrax carcasses generally contract the disease in the throat and intestines. There is a marked swelling of the throat, interfering with breathing. In man the disease usually occurs as a malignant car- buncle, caused by the handling of carcasses and hides of anthrax animals, the bacteria entering through some slight wound of the skin. Later there may be great swelling, with possibly fatal fermentation. How to Send Specimens for Diagnosis. — From the above it is evident that it is exceedingly dangerous to tamper with the carcass of an animal dead of anthrax. The post mortem appearance is seldom sufficiently characteristic of the disease to justify a diagnosis without taking into consideration the circumstances under which the death occurred. The soiling of the ground in opening the carcass and allowing blood to drain out may permanently infect the land. There- fore, in cases of suspected anthrax it is advisable not to open the carcass, but instead to submit a specimen to a laboratory for diagnosis. Anthrax offers no difficulty in diagnosis when the proper speci- mens are properly handled and forwarded. On the other hand, with unsatisfactory specimens the laboratory worker encounters many dif- ficulties, often resulting in a delay of several days in determining the presence or absence of anthrax bacteria in a specimen, and not rarely he is unable to make definite determination. There are several ways to collect suitable specimens. Any method by which a few drops of blood uncontaminated by dirt can be secured will be satisfactory. When possible, the services of a physician or veterinarian should be enlisted to take the specimens as he should be able to draw blood from the cadaver without contaminating the ground. A few drops of blood placed on the concave surface of a clean piece of broken bottle, cup or saucer, or flat surface of window glass or paper, and then allowed to dry in the air, are all that is required. Such specimens wrapped in paper, placed in a tobacco can or other suitable container, sealed, labeled and placed in another small box and mailed or expressed should reach the laboratory in good condition. Blood in bulk should not be forwarded. An easy and safe, but not quite as satisfactory method is to cut off an ear close to the head. This should be wrapped in cheese cloth which has been dipped in 1 :1000 solution of bichloride of mercury, placed in a fruit jar and packed in a box containing sawdust and shipped by express. Precautions must be taken not to contaminate the exterior of the jar or packing material with blood or tissues from the animal and as additional precautions it is necessary to disinfect all surfaces contaminated with blood, including the knife, which should be treated as hereafter described. Disinfection and Disposal of the Dead Animals. — Burning is the most d» sirable means of carcass disposal, if thoroughly done. Car «• H^ses may be placed upon iron bars, or railroad ties, above a trench. When dry manure and straw are available in quantity sufficient to completely cover the bodies the carcasses may be destroyed by the use of a small amount of kindling to start the manure burning next to the carcass. After this the fire should be smothered in dry manure and the entire surface of the pile thoroughly wet by sprinkling it with several pails of water. The mass will smolder without further attention until the carcass is completely destroyed. This is usually complete in eighteen hours. The use of crude or kerosene oil will help start the fire. Whenever it is impossible to burn the carcasses properly they should be buried in graves at least seven feet deep. In the eastern and southern states, where it is not difficult to dig a grave at any time of the year, burial of anthrax carcasses is advised. This method of disposing of anthrax carcasses is preferred by many live stock sani- tarians. Plugging the body openings (nostrils, mouth, rectum, vagina and sheath) with cotton soaked in strong disinfectant, prefer- ably formalin in 10 per cent solution, before burial is suggested by some as an additional guard against infection of land. All ground contaminated by blood or bloody discharges and the ground upon which the animals died must be burned over with crude oil or other fuel. Knives, clothing or other objects that can not be burned may be disinfected by soaking in full strength disinfectants. The better grade of coal tar disinfectants or so-called "carbolic" dips are recommended for this purpose. After soaking in disinfectant at least an hour the knives may be washed and boiled. If the hands become contaminated dependence should not be placed entirely in dis- infectants, but they should be first thoroughly washed with soap and hot water and then with a 1 :500 solution of bichloride of mercury or other equally strong disinfectant. All standard veterinary authorities agree that in suspected anthrax a post mortem examination should not be made. In England the law prohibits the opening of a suspected carcass even by a veterinarian. In order to protect the live stock of a community carcasses should not be permitted to remain unburned or above ground very long. This precaution is especially necessary in order to lessen the danger of spreading the infection through dogs, cats, buzzards, and other carrion animals by opening the carcass and carrying pieces of infected meat to other fields. Vaccination for Anthrax. — There are on the market several prep- arations for the prevention of anthrax, but the only one recommended by this station is the anti-anthrax-serum used either alone or in con- junction with a spore vaccine. Even this method should be used with caution and only when there is immediate danger of anthrax infection. There is need of its use only upon animals actually pastured upon lands which are known beyond a doubt to be infected with anthrax, and on such lands animals should be vaccinated in early summer before the disease appears. Do not vaccinate for anthrax merely be- cause its outbreak is feared, for some risk of actually introducing the disease is incurred thereby. The permanent infection of the land is to be as greatly dreaded as the loss of animals. In the case of very valuable animals on farms in the vicinity of outbreaks of anthrax, serum alone may be used to protect them for ten to fourteen days. Since the serum does not contain the germs of the disease there is no danger of producing an outbreak or of infecting the land. Do not vaccinate unless advised to do so by a state, county, or other competent veterinarian. Some of the firms which manufac- ture anthrax vaccine and are interested in its sale are conscientious enough to advise in their literature against vaccination unless the animals are to be pastured on land known to be infected. Treatment. — When the disease makes its appearance it is well to remove the healthy animals from the pasture or range in which the animals have been kept, and to confine the affected ones to a limited area on the pasture in which they are found. Anthrax serum alone in large doses for curative treatment is recommended, as indicated on the labels. The improved serum now on the market has great curative value and should be used in out- breaks whenever obtainable. The services of a veterinarian should always be secured. Use serum alone in actual outbreaks unless tem- peratures can be taken. This is to be followed in ten days by serum and vaccine. Where temperatures can be taken, as in dairy cattle, give those showing 103° F. or over serum alone and the others serum and vaccine, as indicated on labels. The principal factors in the control of anthrax are : ( 1 ) the prompt and proper disposal of the carcasses of infected animals; (2) drain- age and cultivation of infected land (3) prevention of outbreaks through the regular seasonal vaccination of animals when pastured on infected land; and (4) the prompt treatment of herds in which cases of anthrax occur with serum and vaccine under the supervision of veterinarians. \ UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION TIMELY HINTS FORFARMERS No. 125 MARCH 15, 1917 GARGET OR MAMMITIS IN COWS This disease is known as caked udder or inflammation of the mam- mary glands. It frequently occurs at the time of calving or just after, but it may appear at any time during the lactation period. The disease is very prevalent among dairy cows throughout the United States. The Southwest seems to be especially troubled with it. As a rule the better milkers seem to be most affected. Thus thirteen cases of garget, two of them of a serious nature, were reported among the cows held in quarantine after the National Dairy Show at Chicago in 1914. Garget injures cows by causing inflammation and increase of tem- perature. A severe attack is almost certain to destroy a portion of the secreting structure of the udder. This may result in a complete los> of a quarter or more of the cow's udder. Frequently, however, the disease assumes the chronic form, when there are periodic spells that the milk is unfit for use. Cows seldom recover the complete functions of the affected parts and many of them are rendered unprofitable. The effect of mammitis depends upon its severity, the resistance of the animal and the treatment given. As a rule the disease is in a mild form and no especial effects can be traced to it except that the milk flow is decreased. On the other hand the whole udder may become affected and the animal may die or be ruined for milk. Where the inflammation is great there is probability of a portion of the udder being ruined permanently although a cow may regain almost normal condition at the next lactation period. Sometimes the poison is so virulent that a quarter is broken down into pus. Such a quarter will turn dark blue or black and most of it will slough out, leaving a deep hollow in the udder which will rapidly heal. A cow will not give as much milk from three quarters as she will from four and such annuals should be discarded unless they are especially heavy producers or it is desired to keep them for breeding purposes. 2 TIMELY HINT 125 There is no ready means of telling whether the lump in the udder and the inflammation are due to mammitis or to tuberculosis, and on this account mammitis frequently serves as a cloak to hide cows which are dangerous. Where doubt exists regarding the nature of the disease the tuberculin test should be made to ascertain whether the trouble is tuberculosis or not. - Milking cows by means of milking machines has proved to be favorable to the spread of contagious garget. This is due to the fact that one is not always able to identify the disease and separate the infected animals. Periodical outbreaks occur in almost every district and it seems wise to study the disease carefully in an effort to keep it under control. Fortunately garget has not been observed to spread among range cows. SYMPTOMS Garget makes an appearance intermittently in almost every herd of cows. Its symptoms may be divided into general and local. General symptoms: The general symptoms of garget or mammitis .in a cow are indicated by weakness and dullness; the pulse quickens, - breathing is augmented and the temperature increases from two to '.'. four degrees. Usually the appetite is impaired and sometimes rumi- nation is suspended. Cows rapidly become thin due to the intense suffering and high fever. The characteristic pose is that of placing the hind leg on the affected side back of the ordinary position. These general symptoms may . appear before much enlargement or derange- ment of the udder or the milk is noticed. Usually the cow is some- what constipated and a stiffening of the rear quarters is noticed. Cows often walk with a straddling gait when affected in the hind quarters. Local symptoms: Mammitis usually affects one quarter of the udder at a time. The affected part becomes enlarged, hard, heated, fed- and tender. The milk is yellowish blue in the early stages and becomes curdled, stringy and dense as the case advances. The curd- ling is accompanied with an increase of acid in the milk. The amount of milk given by the affected quarter is decreased very materially on account of the general debility of the animal and because of the local inflammation. In advanced stages the udder increases in size and hardness, developing areas with a soft doughy feeling which are con- verted finally into rumaing sores. Sometimes the infection spreads to other quarters, but seldom affects more than half of the udder. In less pronounced cases there may be little change in the milk, but this may have a salty flavor and upon examination would reveal a large number of germs. The teat is tense, swollen, very tender and reddish in color. KTXDS .OF MAMMITIS. There are two forms of this disease, namely, the infectious and ..the (apparently) non-infectious forms. In the early stages it is a difficult matter to diagnose the form present, but prompt treatment should be given in either case. Infectious mammitis: This form is due to bacteria of the strepto- coccus group which have found their way into the udder, and which may GARGET OR MAMMITIS IN Cows 3 be transmitted to other animals through contact afforded by the milk- er's hands, switching of the cow's tail, or infected bedding places. Dust, and adobe drinking places may also carry such infection. The disease usually gains entry through the sphincter muscles of the teat, causing the quarter to swell, with final suppuration and breaking down of the glandular tissue. These septic organisms may produce intense disorders depending upon their number and activity, as well as the resistant qualities of the cow. Some cows seem to be especially sus- ceptible, while others may contract the disease but get well in a short time. One will usually find that several cows in a herd are troubled with this disease at one time and this indicates that the infection is carried from one cow to another. On this account affected cows should either be discarded or properly treated so as to avoid carrying the infection to others. Chronic garget: The common symptoms of this form are the periodical swelling and caked appearance of the udder so often noticed in cows. At one milking the symptoms may be very pronounced, the cow giving stringy milk, and the next milking the affected quarter may seem normal. There is seldom as much inflammation as in the other form of the disease, and other cows in the herd do not seem to be susceptible to this form. The udder is not as swollen or as painful and the cow may not have any of the signs of the disease except stringy milk and reduction in the amount. Whether this form of the disease is caused by germs or not is uncertain. It is admitted, however, that the disease is more common when cows are in a run-down condition or kept in filthy barns and yards, especially during cold periods. It has also been noticed that the disease is especially prevalent in animals just at the time of fresh- ening. This suggests that the trouble is probably due to derangement of the system, and the inflammation of the udder is caused either by lack of functioning, or else by overfunctioning resulting from excessive demands made on the fresh cow. Infection is probably not due to invasion of septic organisms through the teat in the fresh cow at or before calving. This suggests that there may be a third form of the disease of an inflammatory nature not caused by germs, which wouldl appear at the time of calving or later, resulting from general derangement or from injury to the udder. No doubt the common form of chronic garget results from the invasion of the udder with germs which gain entrance to the teat through the orifice, which is relaxed after milking. This can easilv occur when cows are obliged to lie down in dirty places or drink- water from adobe holes. CONDITIONS PREDISPOSING COWS TO GARGET. There are certain conditions which render animals especially sus- ceptible to garget. These may be given as follows : Severe injurie.s or bruises from blows or other violence ; excessive fatness or emacia- tion : accumulation of milk in the udder due to careless milking ; re- laxed condition of the sphincter muscle in the teat causing the milk to drop constantly, and thus allowing passage for the germs from litter 4 TIMELY HINT 125 and other sources into the open teat ; overstocking ; driving cows with distended udders; exposure to severe weather or lying on the cold ground, especially after freshening: eating injurious foods such as weeds; chills; over heating; and injury from cactus pricks. Sudden change in the feed, such as changing from a laxative, cooling ration of a bulky nature to one of a more heating and more concentrated nature, will also predispose to the disease. Milk from cows affected with garget should never be used for human consumption. It should be collected in a separate pail and boiled or buried so as to inhibit the spread of the germs. The practice of milking the affected quarter on the floor or ground is bad, for where this is done any bedding or substance thus contaminated may easily carry the infection to other cows. Where diseased cows have been kept it is important that the premises be treated systematically with commercial antiseptics such as carbolic acid, creolin, or corrosive sublimate. PREVENTION. Prevention is always of first importance. Animals should be main- tained under proper sanitary conditions so that there will be no lodging place for the disease-producing germs. Special attention should be given to cleanliness and general treatment so that the cows will not be injured. Give them sufficient room in stalls, yards and pastures. Keep them in pasture during the summer, and clean the milk barn thoroughly so that germs will not accumulate there. The chief pre- ventive measure is to avoid the introduction of the disease in the herd. This can be done by making careful inquiries of the dealers in regard to animals before purchasing, and by then isolating them over a short period to make certain that they carry no infection with them. When the disease is found in the herd the affected cows should be isolated and treated separately to prevent the spread of germs. Wash the hands carefully before and after milking such cows and leave them until the last to be milked. Milking regularly and with strict cleanli- ness will also help to prevent the disease. Care should be taken in drying the cows to make certain that the affected portions do not become inflamed. When a cow freshens she should not be fed all she will eat until she has become accustomed to the feed and it is certain that her system demands an increase. Begin the grain ration carefully and give small amounts of light, easily digested food such as bran, ground oats and alfalfa. Such concentrated foods as cottonseed meal, corn meal or other rich substances are dangerous and should be fed with care. TREATMENT Ordinarily cows infected with garget will overcome the disease in five to eight days if given good sanitary attention. After this time the symptoms may gradually disappear. For this reason several of the best stockmen in Arizona recommend leaving the cows alone. This is a poor practice as the yield of milk will remain below normal. GARGET OR MAMMITIS IN Cows 5 Either form of garget will respond favorably to prompt action in the early stages. The treatment for garget may be divided into general and local. General treatment: When a cow is noticed to be suffering from inflammation of the udder the grain ration should be reduced to one- third the normal quantity and a succulent, easily digested food given her. A purgative consisting of one to one and one-half pounds of Epsom salts should be given. One-half ounce of nitrate of potassium twice a day in the drinking water is also recommended. Some favor giving a tablespoonful of saltpeter twice a day for two or three days, then once a day until the inflammation subsides. Others recommend half an ounce each of powdered poke root and powdered saltpeter given twice daily as a drench or in the feed, until the attack subsides. Bleed- ing from the jugular vein may be resorted to in extreme cases accom- panied by high fever. The cow should be kept dry, clean and com- fortable. Cold drafts and wet floors or yards are bad. If allowed to lie out nights on cold wet ground a rapid recovery need not be expected. Local treatment: Temporary relief may be given by bathing the udder with hot water for one-half hour at least three times a day. First milk carefully and after drying massage thoroughly with the palms of the hands using warm olive oil containing 3% gum camphor, or other lubricant, to inhibit abrasion. Be careful not to apply strong liniments to the inflamed udder. Poultices made of bran, linseed meal, oatmeal or other substances which can be placed close to the udder and which will retain their heat a considerable time, may be applied. An udder support for hold- ing the hot poultices may be made by placing a bandage around the body with holes cut in it for the teats. It 'is more convenient to treat the udder with a lotion than by making use of poultices. For this purpose an udder support is used and the space between the udder and the bandage is packed with soft pieces of old muslin, cotton batting or woolen rags. The udder should be kept moistened with a solution of one-half ounce of acetate of lead in one quart of water, until the inflammation and swelling disappears. Another good mixture for rubbing on the udder is one part of fluid extract of poke root, one part of belladona leaves, and six parts of warm melted lard. The affected quarter should be kneaded with this preparation for at least ten minutes three times a day. Another formula is six ounces of alcohol, one ounce of ammonia water, and nine ounces of distilled extract of witch hazel. These should all be mixed together thoroughly and applied with gentle friction and massage. The cow should be milked carefully three times a day and oftener if possible. "Where this can be done by hand it is better than using the teat syphon. In the advanced stages where there is a tendency to suppuration, vesicants should be used to facilitate the formation and the removal of the pus. The best for this is 33% mixture of tartar emetic ointment or a 10% mixture of biniodide of mercury and lard. 6 TIMELY HINT 125 Some recommend the injection of a disinfectant that wi41 kill the germs and do no harm to the udder. This is a very critical operation and should be attempted only by experienced operators. The udder should be carefully milked and a mild antiseptic solution, such as one dram of chinosol dissolved in a gill of water and mixed with 6 drams of glycerin made lukewarm, injected into the interior of the gland. If the instruments and solution are not scrupulously clean there is danger of further infection. Vaccines have been used to treat cows suffering from mammitis, but as yet the use of these vaccines has not become general. They are injected beneath the skin above the udder. R. H. WILLIAMS, Animal Husbandman. CATTLE LICE AND HOW TO ERADICATE THEM MARION IMES Zoological Division FARMERS' BULLETIN 909 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry JOHN R. MOHLER, Chief Washington, D. C. February, 1918 Show this bulletin to a neighbor. Additional copies may be obtained free from the Division of Publications, United States Department of Agriculture WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1913 /BATTLE LICE are injurious to all classes of cattle, V/ but the greatest losses occur in young stock and poorly nourished old animals. The losses are caused by irritation, digestive disturbances, arrested growth, low vitality, and increased death rate. Three kinds of lice are commonly found on cattle, and all three species may be present on the same animal at the same time. The same method of treatment may be used for the three species. Methods of treatment include hand applications, spraying, and dipping. The first two methods are suitable only for small herds. Dipping is the best method of applying treatment. Arsenical dips, coal-tar creosote dips, and nicotin solutions may be used for dipping cattle to destroy lice. Two or more treatments should be given 15 to 16 days apart. Plans of cattle-dipping plants and directions for building vats and dipping cattle are given in this bulletin. CATTLE LICE AND HOW TO ERADICATE THEM. CONTENTS. Page. Distribution and economic importance 3 Suctorial lice 4 Biting lice 5 Nature and habit s. .. (i Methods of treatment . Page. Directions for dipping 11 Dips for cattle lice 14 Dipping plants 17 DISTRIBUTION AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE. CATTLE LICE are widely distributed and have been recognized as a pest by live-stock growers since early times. These para- sites are more or less prevalent in all parts of the United States, especially where cattle are held in large herds or crowded into badly kept and poorly ventilated stables. In the western range country cattle often become infested very heavily with lice, the degree of infestation varying from year to year with climatic and other con- ditions. In the farming communities the parasites usually are most prevalent on underfed and poorly housed cattle, although they may occur on animals in good flesh and kept in properly ventilated sani- tary quarters. Ordinarily lice on cattle are not observed until they become so numerous that they cause unmistakable signs of annoyance. Usually the animals whose lousy condition first attracts attention are the poor. weak, unthrifty members of the herd, and frequently the owner thinks they are lousy because they are unthrifty, whereas the un- thrifty condition may be caused by the lice. As a rule the individual members of a herd are not affected equally, as some cattle seem to be unsuitable hosts to such an extent that they may be considered practically immune. However, when lice are introduced into a herd during the fall or winter they usually spread rapidly until every animal or nearly every animal is infested. All kinds of cattle lice obtain their food from the tissues of their host, and the irritation caused by the parasites is evidenced by the efforts of infested animals to obtain relief by rubbing and scratching. When a herd is grossly infested it is not uncommon to see some of the animals with large areas of skin partly denuded of hair and limited areas bruised and raw from rubbing against posts and other objects. The irritation, and conditions caused thereby, result in 3 4 FARMERS' BULLETIN 909. more loss than is commonly supposed. The lowering of the vitality and the general unthrifty condition produced by lice often result in an increased percentage of death loss among cattle during unfa- vorable seasons. Calves, young stock, and old, weak, poorly nourished cattle suffer most from the ravages of lice. Heavily infested calves do not grow and thrive or gain weight normally during the winter season, and often remain stunted until the old coat of hair is shed in the spring, when most of the lice disappear. The animals then may grow and fatten, but the loss experienced during the period of arrested growth is a loss not easily regained. Lice act as a contributing cause to increase the death rate among poorly nourished cattle of low vitality, especially old range cows exposed to inclement weather. Although mature cattle in lull vigor suffer less seriously from infestation with lice, nevertheless if they become very lousy they will not gain weight and there will be a loss in the pro- duction of either meat or milk. The damages and losses caused by lice are of suffi- cient importance to warrant careful consideration and the application of proper treatment. Three kinds or species of lice are commonly found on cattle in the United States. Two of these are blood suckers, or suctorial lice, and are commonly known as "blue lice." The third species is a biting louse commonly known as the " little red louse." SUCTORIAL LICE. The short-nosed cattle louse (H cematopinus eurysternus, fig. I)1 usually is found on mature cattle, although it may occur on calves and young stock. The average length of adult females is about one-eighth of an inch and the body is about one-half as broad as FIG. 1. — Short-nosed cattle louse (Hannatopinii* evrystemvs) Female. (Magnified about 20 times.) 1 Figures 1 to 3 are from photomicrographs by Dr. W. T. Huffman. CATTLE LICE AXD HOW TO ERADICATE THEM. 5 long. The males are slightly smaller than the females. The head is short, nearly as broad as long, and is bluntly rounded in front. The head and thorax are yellowish brown, while the abdomen is blue slate colored. These lice pass the various stages of their life on the animal. The eggs, commonly called "nits," are attached firmly to the hairs, usually close to the skin, and they hatch on the animal in 11 to 18 days, the average period of incubation during mild weather being about 14 clays. The young females begin to lay eggs when they are about 1'2 days old. The long-nosed cattle louse (Linognathus rituli, fig. 2) usually is found on calves and young stock, but sometimes occurs on mature cattle. Although in their adult ^^^RSBHSte^fc^ stage these lice have about the same general color as the short-nosed lice, the two spe- cies may be dis- / tinguished easily. / As implied by the term "long-nosed." the head is long and slender, and the body is only N about one-third as ^^^^^ broad as long, thus giving the e n tire body a more slender ap- pearance than that FIG. 2. — Long-nosed cattle louse (Linognatlnts rituli). Female. 01 the sllOrt-nOSetl (Magnified about 20 times.) species. These lice pass their entire life on the animal and deposit eggs in the same general manner as the other species. The eggs hatch in 10 to 1-t days, the average period of incubation being about 12 days. The young females reach sexual maturity and begin laying eggs about 11 days from the date of hatching. BITING LICE. The common biting lice of cattle (Trichodectes scalaris, fig. 3) are found on both young and mature cattle. They are much smaller than the sucking lice, but are visible to the naked eye. The head is broad and blunt, the color is reddish, that of the bodv commonly FARMERS BULLETIN 009. yellowish white. They may be dis- tinguished readily from the sucking species by the gen- eral shape of the head and body and by the color. The life history is similar to that of the sucking lice. The average period of incubation is probably about 10 days. The eggs or " nits " are shown in figure 4. NATURE AND HABITS. FIG. 3. — Biting louse of cattle (Trichodcctes scalaris). (Magnified about 20 times.) Female. Each Species of do- mestic animals has its own particular species of lice, and except in accidental cases cattle lice are found only on cattle. They increase very rapidly in number on cattle dur- ing dry, cold weather when the hair is long, but when green feed comes in the spring and the animals shed the old coat of hair the lice become less numerous and seem to disappear, and they are seen rarely during the summer months. Some of the lice, however, usually remain on the animals throughout the summer, but not in sufficient numbers to do harm, as they do not increase rapidly while the animals are on green feed and in a thriving condition. With the coming of winter, when conditions again become favorable, the lice increase very rapidly. Treatment therefore should be applied in the fall while the weather is suit- able and before the lice have become nu- merous enough to cause injury. The sucking lice usually select locations , , , . . FIG. 4.— Eggs or nits of biting where they are partly protected from the iouse on a hair. The two efforts of the animals to dislodge them. The lower e-s *™ "nhatched ; „ , . , . , ' ' - the upper one has hatched. favorite locations are the sides 01 the neck, (Magnified about 20 times.) CATTLE LICE AND HOW TO ERADICATE THEM. 7 brisket, back, inner surface of the thighs, and on the head, around the nose, eyes, and ears. When animals are very lousy the entire surface of the body may become involved. The sucking lice obtain i heir food by puncturing the skin of the host and feeding on the blood and lymph. When feeding they attach themselves to the skin by burying their sucking tubes in the tissues. When not feeding they move about over the hair and skin. The biting lice usually are found on the withers and around the root of the tail, but they may occur on any part of the body. They apparently feed on particles of hair, scales, and exudations from the skin. Ordinarily they do not irritate the animals as much as suck- ing lice. When present in large numbers, however, they often form colonies or groups around the base of the tail, over the withers, and on other parts of the animal, and produce lesions resembling those of scab. These lesions vary in size from that of a 25-cent piece to 4 or 5 inches in diameter. The skin over these areas appears to be raised and ringworm may be suspected, but when the lesion is" manipulated the scarf skin falls off, exposing the lice grouped on the raw tissues beneath. Under such conditions the irritation is very great and the damage to the animal may be fully equal to that caused by scab. When separated from their hosts the biting lice live about 7 days, the sucking lice only about 4 days. Ordinarily eggs are not deposited except on the host, but when the hair to which they are attached is removed and kept under fairly favorable conditions, they may con- tinue to hatch for as long as 20 days. The newly hatched lice live >nly 2 or 3 days unless they find a host. The longevity of the lice and the viability of their eggs when sepa- rated from the host have an important bearing on the problem of eradication. The parasites and eggs may become dislodged from the animals, drop in the corrals, stables, and pastures, and tempo- rarily infest the premises. It seems reasonably certain that all lice that remain off the animals, even under the most favorable condi- tions, die within 7 or 8 days, and if the weather is cold and conditions unsuitable they die in less time. The eggs dislodged from the ani- mals, however, may continue to hatch if the weather is mild, and thus be the means of temporarily infesting the premises. Before using infested corrals or premises such as stables, sheds, or lots for clean or dipped cattle they should be cleaned and disin- fected as a precaution against reinfection from dislodged lice and egirs. Remove all litter and manure, cleaning down to a smooth surface, then spray all walls, woodwork, and floors with a good dis- infectant. The coal-tar creosote dips, diluted in accordance with instructions on the container, are suitable for this purpose. After dipping or treating animals to free them from lice they should be 8 FARMERS ' BULLETIN 909. taken to clean premises and not returned to the quarters previously occupied unless such quarters in the meantime have been cleaned and disinfected or held vacant for about 20 days. The long-nosed sucking lice and the biting lice are much more easily eradicated than the short-nosed sucking lice. One treatment with arsenical dip or coal-tar creosote dip usually is sufficient to eradicate the former, but as a rule one treatment does not eradicate the short-nosed sucking lice. In fact, two treatments sometimes fail to eradicate the last-named species, especially in the case of infested bulls. When a herd is infested with all three species the animals should be given two treatments separated by an interval of 15 to 16 days. After the second treatment the cattle should be examined at frequent intervals, and if live lice are found a third treatment should be given in about 16 days following the second. METHODS OF TREATMENT. There are three commonly used methods of applying treatment for lice: First, hand applications; second, spraying; third, dipping. The best method to adopt naturally depends upon the season of the year, the remedies selected, the number of cattle to be treated, and the facilities available. In southern latitudes, where the winters are mild, cattle may be dipped during the winter months without injury from cold weather; but in the northern sections the weather during the winter season is usually too cold for dipping or spraying. As hand applications are practicable only when a few animals are to be treated, it is important that herds in which lice appeared during the winter be dipped the following spring or fall. Fall dipping is good insurance against both the risk of loss from lice and the prob- able additional expense of winter treatment. All animals in the herd should be treated regardless of the number showing infestation. If only part of the herd is treated, or if after the second treatment the animals are returned to infested premises, the parasites may spread by contact of one animal with another, or by contact with infested premises, and the herd almost certainly will become re- infested. HAND APPLICATIONS. Dusting powders. — The insecticidal value of many of the dusting powders is dependent upon their naphthalene and pyrethrum con- tent, and they are of value in helping to hold in check the parasites during the season when the weather is too cold for dipping or spray- ing. They are sold under various trade names, but as a class they are not recommended as successful remedies for eradicating cattle lice. CATTLE LICE AXD HOW TO ERADICATE THEM. 9 Greases and liquids. — This group consists mostly of homemade remedies, which are fairly effective and practicable in cases where a farmer has only a few animals to treat and gives the matter his personal attention. While hand treatment is more or less of a make- shift even under the best conditions, it is, nevertheless, sometimes necessarily adopted. The following remedies have proved effective when applied by hand and the treatment repeated, if necessary, in about 16 days: (1) Cottonseed oil and kerosene, equal parts: (2) kerosene and lard mixed in the proportion of \ pint kerosene to 1 pound of lard: (3) crude petroleum: (4) any of the dips recom- mended for use in dip- ping. The first three reme- dies are suitable for use during mild weather, but if animals are to be treated dur- ing very warm or very cold weather it is ad- visable to use some of the dips instead of the oils, as the latter are liable to cause in- jury if the freshly treated cattle are moved rapidly, ex- posed to bright sun- shine, or become chilled. These remedies may be applied with a brush or a cloth. They should be distributed Fl0' 5-Sma11 spray 'S^^f f°r spraying cattle to in a thin even coating over the surface of the head and body, including the inner surface of the ears, care being taken to see that there is no excess quantity at any point. When a dip is used for hand treatment it should be applied liberally after proper dilution over every portion of the body surface including the inner surfaces of the ears and between the thighs. SPRAYING. On farms where the number of animals is not large enough to justify the owner in providing a dipping vat. a spray pump may be used to advantage. Where an orchard spraying outfit is available it may be utilized for spraying animals. A small spray pump (fig. 16253°— 18— Bull, 909 2 10 FARMERS BULLETIN 909. 5), which, equipped with hose and nozzles, can be purchased for less than $10, is convenient for the purpose. Any of the dips recommended for lice may be applied in the form of a spray., and while spraying is usually not as effective as dipping, nevertheless, if the work is done wrell and carefully the lice can be eradicated by spraying. Two treatments should be given 15 to 16 days apart. At each spraying it is important that every portion of the surface of the body receive the maximum possible wetting, spe- cial attention being given to the head, ears, brisket, tail, and inner surfaces of the elbows, flanks, and thighs. (Fig. 6.) FIG. 6. — Treatment for lice by means of a spray pump. When arsenical dip is used care should be taken to see that neither the animal nor the operator breathes the spray. The operator should also be careful not to get his clothing wet with the dip. DIPPING. Dipping consists in immersing animals in a medicated liquid that will kill the lice. It is the most successful known method of apply- ing treatment for lice. Dipping plants are usually arranged so that the cattle enter one end of a vat filled with dip, through which they swim, and leave the vat at the opposite end (see illustration on front page). CATTLE LICE AND HOW TO ERADICATE THEM. 11 One dipping sometimes eradicates the lice, but it can not be de- pended upon in practical operations, especially when the animals are infested with the short-nosed sucking lice. The first dipping if properly done may kill all the lice or cause them to leave the animals, but it may not destroy all the eggs. Some of the eggs often survive the first dipping and hatch, thus forming a new generation of lice. To complete the treatment this new generation should be destroyed by a second dipping before they have had time to de- velop to maturity and deposit eggs. On the other hand, the second dipping should be delayed long enough to give the eggs which were laid before the first dipping sufficient time to hatch; otherwise they may hatch after the second dipping and reinfest the cattle. Because of overlapping of the two periods and of variations in the incubation period and the period required for lice to reach maturity it does not seem possible to meet both of these conditions in establishing the length of the interval between dippings, but a period of 15 to 16 days has generally given satisfactory results. When conditions are such that an infested herd can not be dipped twice, one dipping in arsenical solution or coal-tar creosote dip will amply repay the cost and effort. If complete eradication is desired, however, two dippings should be given with an interval of 15 to 16 days between dippings, and sometimes a third dipping may be nec- essary. DIRECTIONS FOR DIPPING. If dipping is to be successful it is necessary to give close attention to details and see that the work is performed carefully and thor- oughly. Before bringing cattle to the vat they should be watered and fed so as not to be hungry or thirsty at the time of dipping; on the other hand, they should not be gorged with feed and water when dipped. If they are watered and fed two to four hours before dipping, they are likely to be in the best condition for the operation. When cattle have been driven and are hot at the time of reaching the vat. they should be allowed to cool off before they are dipped, as it is dangerous to dip animals while they are hot. When the nights are cold dipping should be finished for the day early enough for the animals to become dry before sunset. The dip in the vat should be maintained during dipping at a depth of 70 to 80 inches, or sufficient to swim the iallest animal to be dipped. The quantity of dip necessary to obtain that depth should be ascer- tained before it is prepared. The average 1,000-pound short-haired steer will carry out and retain about 2 quarts of dip, and the same class of cattle with long hair will retain about 1 gallon each. The total estimated amount of dip which the animals carry out and retain, 12 FARMERS BULLETIN 909. plus the amount required to charge the vat, should equal the total amount required, if none is lost by leakage or otherwise wasted. The capacity of the vat is usually obtained in the following man- ner: Multiply the average length by the average width in inches, then the product by the depth; this will give approximately the number of cubic inches of space to be filled with dip. Divide this by 231 (the number of cubic inches in a gallon), and the result will be approximately the number of gallons of dip required to charge the vat. To obtain the average length, add the length at the bottom to the length at the top (that is, at the line to which the vat is to be filled), and divide this sum by 2. Obtain the aver- age width in the same manner. The depth should be taken at the center of the vat, and should be from bottom to dip line only and not to the top of the vat. Likewise, in de- termining the length and width, measure only the space to be filled with liquid and not above that line. The capacities of the various tanks are obtained by a like process. Gauges or rods should be prepared and marked to show the number of gallons at various depths in the vat and tanks. After the vat is filled to the required depth the contents should be mixed well by stirring, in order that the dip may be of uniform strength throughout. A good method of stirring dip is to take a pail or an empty dip container in which a wire bail has been fas- tened, attach a rope or dipping fork to the plunger bail, allow the vessel to fill and partially sink, then drag it rapidly from one end of the vat to the other, repeating the operation several times. Stirring plungers also are useful implements, and as they are easily made, one or more should be provided at every vat. Their use is similar to that of the dasher of an old-fashioned hand churn. The plunger is pushed to the bottom of the vat and raised rapidly, the process being repeated as the operator moves slowly along the vat. The style shown in figure 7 is one commonly used. Before beginning dipping operations the pens, chutes, slide board, vat, etc., should be examined for projecting nails, broken boards, or any object that may puncture or wound the cattle, as the dip may injure those having fresh wounds. The animals should be handled as carefully as possible, although in dipping wild range cattle the at- tendants can exercise very little control in the matter. Range cattle, FIG. 7. — Stirring for mixing liquids in the vat. CATTLE LICE AND HOW TO ERADICATE THEM. 13 not accustomed to being handled, are easier to dip than tame farm animals, as they go through the chutes and enter the vat more readily than the tame animals. After the animals have started running through the chute it is often necessary to restrain them to prevent their piling up and drowning in the valt. At large dipping plants a gate is usually provided in the chute near the intake to the vat so the animals in the chute may be held back and allowed to pass only as room is made for them in the vat. If the chute has no gate, a bar which can be slipped across the chute between the side boards will answer the purpose. Gentle farm animals, and especially old milk cows, usually do not enter the vat readily — in fact, often it is necessary to push them en the slide board. In dipping cattle for lice it is not necessary to hold them in the vat, but they should be com- pletely submerged and the head ducked at least once. When the- heads are ducked the air in- closed in the ears may prevent the dip from wetting the inner surfaces of the ears or coming in contact with the lice attached in the lower folds. Therefore care should be taken to see that the dip enters the ears of each ani- mal as it passes through the vat. This may be accomplished by pushing the heads IOWT enough in the dip so the liquid fills the ears or by splashing the dip with an old broom over and into FlG 8 _Two styles of cattle.dipping forks. the ears. Men with clipping forks should be stationed along the vat to duck the heads of the animals and render assistance in case any of them become strangled. The two styles of dipping forks shown in figure 8 are the ones commonly used. They may be bought ready-made or may be made to order by the blacksmith. After the cattle leave the vat they should be held in the draining pens or corrals until all surplus dip has drained off them. They should not be driven long distances or moved rapidly within 24 hours or even longer after dipping, as injury may result from too 14 FARMERS' BULLETIN 909. much exercise or overheating shortly after dipping, especially if arsenical dip or oil is used. The dip in the vat should be changed as soon as it becomes filthy, regardless of the number of animals that may have been dipped in it. In cleaning the vat the entire contents should be removed, including all sediment and foreign matter. DIPS FOR CATTLE LICE. In choosing a dip for cattle lice the conditions under which it is to be used should be considered. If the dipping plant is supplied with soft water, any of the dips recommended for lice may be used ; but if the water is very hard the dip that mixes best with the water available should be selected. The arsenical dip mixes well and may be used in hard waters without injury to the animals from that cause. The nicotin dips also are suitable for use in any reasonably good water. While the coal-tar% creosote dips when used in soft water are very effective against lice, they sometimes injure the animals when used in some of the hard waters. Before using coal-tar creosote dips with hard or alkaline water the following test should be made to learn whether a separation occurs in such water : In a clean bottle or jar of clear glass place a measured quantity of dip and pour in, with thorough mixing, the desired quantity of water, preferably warm, which should be added in approximately the proportion to be used in dipping. If after standing for one hour an oily layer or a mass of globules appears either at the top or at the bottom of the liquid, the dip should not be used with that kind of water. This simple test for the coal-tar creosote dips may often prevent loss. Death losses, however, may occur even when there is no apparent separation of the diluted dip tested by this method. None of the dips tried in the bureau's investigations can be de- pended upon to eradicate all cattle lice with one dipping, but any of those described in the following pages will generally eradicate lice if the cattle are given two dippings 15 to 16 days apart. ARSENICAL DIPS. Arsenical dip has been used to a considerable extent for lice and it has proved to be a very satisfactory remedy. The formula for mak- ing 500 gallons of arsenical dip is as follows.1 4 pounds caustic soda (85 per cent pure). 8 pounds white arsenic (99 per cent pure), in fine powder. 8 pounds sal soda crystals. 1 gallon pine tar. Water sufficient to make 500 gallons. 1 For fuller information relative to arsenical dip see Farmers' Bulletin No. 603. CATTLE LICE AXD HOW TO ERADICATE THEM. 15 Place the caustic soda in a clean iron tank, tub, or pail, add 1 gallon of cold water, and stir until the caustic soda is dissolved. Then begin adding the arsenic, a pound or two at a time, as fast as it can be dissolved without causing the solution to boil, stirring all the time. If the liquid begins to boil stop stirring and let it cool slightly before adding more arsenic. The secret of success is to add the arsenic fast enough to .keep the solution very hot, but not quite at the boiling point. The result should be a clear solution except for the dirt. If the liquid is muddy or milky add 1 gallon of water and stir, and if it does not clear up place the container over a fire and heat nearly but not quite to boiling and stir. As soon as the solution of arsenic is complete, dilute to about -i gallons, add the sal soda, and stir until dissolved. After the solution has become cold add water to make it exactly 5 gallons. Emulsify the pine tar as follows: Dissolve three-fourths of a pound of dry caustic soda or concentrated lye (or 1 pound of dry caustic potash) in 1 quart of water, add 1 gallon of pine tar, and stir until the mixture brightens to a uniform thick fluid somewhat resembling molasses. Test it by letting about a spoonful drip from the stirring paddle into a glass of water. It sho,uld mix perfectly with the water. If globules appear which can not be blended with the water by repeated stirring add more dissolved caustic soda, a little at a time, until the desired effect is produced. The arsenical stock solution and the emulsified tar prepared as di- rected are sufficient to make 500 gallons of dip. Therefore, 1 gallon of the arsenic stock and about 1 quart of the tar stock added to ap- proximately 99 gallons of water makes 100 gallons of dip. The quantity of stock solution prepared at any one time is limited only by the capacity of the available containers, but the proportion of the ingredients should not be altered. Before adding the arsenic and tar stock to the bath fill that part of the vat below the dip line about three-fourths full of water. Then dilute the emulsified tar with about two or three times its volume of water and add it to the water in the vat, taking care to pour it evenly over the entire surface of the water throughout the length of the swim. Add the arsenical solution in the same manner; then add sufficient water to bring the liquid in the vat up to the dip line, stirring thoroughly. Manufacturers have placed on the market several brands of ready- prepared arsenical dips, and any of these, if permitted by the Gov- ernment for use in dipping cattle for southern fever ticks, are suit- able for dipping cattle for lice. In preparing and using arsenical dip it should be remembered that arsenic is a poison, and due precaution should be taken to avoid 16 FARMERS* BULLETIN 909. injury. However, when it is handled and used with proper care it is a safe and efficacious remedy. The arsenic, as well as the other in- gredients, should be weighed carefully. While the arsenical solu- tion is being prepared care should be taken not to inhale the powder or the vapor given off, and the operator should stand on the wind- ward side of the kettle as far away as possible. Care should be taken not to expose, more than necessary, the hands or other parts of the body to the action of the dip. The hands should be washed fre- quently and care taken not to get the clothing wet with the dip. If animals are allowed to drain where pools of dip collect from which they may drink, or if they are turned into feed lots or pastures while the dip is dripping from their bodies so that the feed may become soiled, losses are liable to occur. The arsenical dip left in the vat may be used again if it is not filthy. When not in use the vat should be covered or inclosed by a fence so that animals may not have access to it. In- cleaning the vat the contents should not be emptied or allowed to flow into streams or on land or vegetation to which animals have access. The best plan is to run the dip into a pit or trench constructed for that purpose and protected by fences. The trench should be located so the dip will not be carried by seepage into the water supply of the farm or the neighborhood. Although the arsenical dip is commonly used cold, it should not be cold enough to chill the animals. The temperature should range between 65° and 90° F. COAL-TAR CREOSOTE DIPS. The coal-tar creosote dips are sold under many trade names. They are made from coal-tar derivatives and the principal ingredient is creosote oil, which is made soluble in or miscible with water by means of soap. When diluted with soft water they are efficacious in eradicating cattle lice. Before using them with hard or alkaline water the test described on page 14 should be made. There is no field test for determining the deterioration of these dips, conse- quently in replenishing the dip the percentage of active ingredients in the vat is largely a matter of guesswork. Coal-tar creosote dips may be used cold or warm, but the temperature of the bath should not exceed 95° F. These dips should contain, when diluted ready for use, not less than 1 per cent by weight of coal-tar oils and cresylic acid. In no case should the diluted dip contain more than four-tenths of 1 per cent nor less than one-tenth ot 1 per cent of cresylic acid ; but when the proportion of cresylic acid falls below two-tenths of 1 per cent the coal-tar oils should be increased sufficiently to bring the total of CATTLE LICE AXD HOW TO ERADICATE THEM. 17 the tar oils and the cresylic acid in the diluted dip up to 1.2 per cent by weight. In the undiluted coal-tar creosote dips, especially in cold weather, a separation of naphthalene and other constituents of the dip may occur. Care, therefore, should be taken to see that the dip is homo- geneous in character before using any portion of it. The coal-tar creosote dips should be used in accordance with the instructions printed on the label of the container. NICOTIN DIPS. The nicotin dips are sold under various trade names, and farmers and live-stock growers are more or less familiar with them from using them as dips for animals and as insecticides for insect pests of plants. They are efficacious remedies for cattle lice when diluted with water so that the solution contains not less than five one- hundredths of 1 per cent of nicotin. If used much stronger than 0.05 per cent they are liable to injure cattle, especially if the animals are dipped while they are hot. but if properly used they cause no injury. A field test has been designed by one of the large manu- facturers of nicotin dips so the percentage of nicotin in the dipping bath may be ascertained at the vat side at any time. Xicotin dips should be used in accordance with the instructions printed on the label of the container. Do not use any preparation the strength of which is not given on the label. Xicotin dips usually are used warm, but should not be heated above 110° F. During dipping operations for lice the temperature of the dip should be maintained at 90° to 95° F. Sulphur is sometimes added to nicotin dips in the proportion of 16 pounds flowers of sulphur to 100 gallons of diluted dip. Very little of the sulphur is dissolved in the dip, but a part of it remains in suspension in the bath during dipping and becomes lodged on the skin of the animal, where it remains for a long time, thus tending to prevent reinfestation. DIPPING PLANTS. The farmer who has but a small number of animals to dip may use a portable galvanized metal vat (fig. 9). These vats may be purchased ready-made, and they will answer the purpose very well for dipping small lots of light or medium weight cattle. After digging a trench and setting the vat so that the top is flush with the surface of the ground, a chute and a slide board should be pro- vided as a means of getting the animals into the vat. A permanent dipping plant is much more satisfactory, and where there are a number of farmers in a community who want to dip their 18 FARMERS BULLETIN 909. cattle a good plan is for each to contribute in proportion to the number of cattle owned and use the fund for building a community dipping plant. In designing or selecting a plan for a dipping plant it is well to remember that the vat should be constructed so as to be suitable for use in dipping for scab as well as for lice and other parasites. Two styles of dipping plants are shown in the plans (figs. 10 and 11). Either of these is suitable for dipping cattle or horses for any purpose. The chutes, draining pens, etc., shown in one set of plans may be substituted if desired for those shown in the other. If a dip is to be used which requires cooking and settling, such as homemade lime-sulphur, commonly employed in the treatment of scab, it is necessary to provide boiling and settling tanks (fig. 12). SELECTING A LOCATION. In selecting a location for a dipping plant the fact that animals work better up grade should be considered, and the corrals and run- ning chute should slope up to the entrance end of the vat. The vat should be on level ground, preferably extending north and south ^mm FIG. 9. — Portable galvanized metal dipping vat. with the entrance at the south and the exit at the north, as it has been observed that animals work better when not facing the sun. A considerable quantity of water is used in dipping, so the dipping plant should be located close to an adequate supply. The vat, how- ever, should not be located on low, marshy land or where flood waters overflow. CORRALS AND CHUTES. The receiving corrals, into which the animals are driven prepara- tory to dipping, as well as the holding corrals, into which they go from the draining pens, should each be large enough to hold the largest herd to be dipped. They should be constructed so that there may be the least possible number of corners in which the cattle may become crowded and injured. The proper design and construction of the chutes is important, because improperly constructed chutes add greatly to the difficulty CATTLE LICE AND HOW TO ERADICATE THEM. 19 of getting cattle into the vat and often cause rough handling of the animals. The running chute should be at least 30 feet long and preferably curved to obstruct the view of animals approaching the vat. Two styles of running chutes and crowding chutes are shown in 20 FABMEBS' BULLETIN 909. the plans, and dimensions and structural details are given. Two styles of chute gates are also shown. Most stockmen probably will prefer the triangular gate. A drop gate like that shown in figure 10 may be adapted for use either as a check gate in the chute or as CATTLE LICE AXD HOW TO ERADICATE THEM. 21 & holding gate in the vat. A holding gate in the vat located at the beginning of the exit incline is necessary only in case animals are to be dipped for scab, or when it is desirable that they be held in the dip longer than the time ordinarily required for passing through the vat. DRAINING PENS. When cattle emerge from the vat they carry out some of the dip. which runs off their bodies very rapidly. This dip should be saved FIG. 12. — Cooking and settling tanks for general-purpose cattle-dipping vats. arid returned to the vat. not only because it may be used over and over again, but because if it is allowed to drip off in the holding corrals pools of dip collect from which the animals may drink with possibly injurious results, and even if no cattle are poisoned in this way the mud holes which form in the corrals are highly objection- able. Draining pens with water-tight floors sloping toward the vat or draining wells should be provided to catch and return the dip to the vat. The size shown in the plans may be increased or decreased to correspond to the length of the vat. The floors of the pens may be made of lumber or cement and should have settling wells or water traps to prevent rain water from running into the vat and diluting the dip. A design of a settling well is shown in connection with the 22 FARMERS' BULLETIN 909. cement vat and one of a water trap with the wooden vat. The settling well may be used with the wooden vat, in which case the water trap would be unnecessary, as the settling well serves the same purpose. In constructing the draining pens of cement it is advisable to build the outer walls in the same manner as the foundations for a house, except that they are to be 8 inches thick. The space inside the walls is then filled with gravel to the required height and the sloping- floors laid on the tamped gravel. To prevent slipping the cement floors should be roughened with a stiff broom while the concrete is soft, or a coat of pebble dash may be applied. If wooden floors are used they should be double with a layer of tar paper between the two floors. Rough lumber may be used for the lower floor, but the top one should be of matched boards 1 inch thick. Cleats should be nailed on the floor to prevent the cattle from slipping. VATS. The dipping vat may be constructed either of cement or of lum- ber— the cement vat being preferable, as when properly made it is more durable and in many other ways more satisfactory than a wooden vat. The sides may be perpendicular, as shown in the plans for a cement vat (fig. 11), or sloping, as shown in those for a wooden vat (fig. 10). Sloping sides are generally considered more desir- able than perpendicular ones for either cement or wooden vats. Both styles, however, are shown in the drawings, because some stock- men prefer vats with perpendicular sides. The dimensions shown in the cross section of the wooden vat may be followed in construct- ing a cement vat with sloping sides. The length of the vat may vary from 24 to 100 feet, depending on the number of cattle to be dipped. The top may extend 9 to 18 inches above the surface of the ground or may be flush with it. A vat of the former kind affords better conditions for handling the cattle than one of the latter kind. If it is desired that the top be flush with the ground, the vat should be built so it extends 5 inches above the natural surface of the ground, which is then graded up with gravel or cinders and a dry path along each side of the vat thus provided. The slide board should be made of or covered with a smooth-sur- faced material, such as planed lumber or sheet metal. A piece of boiler plate makes an excellent slide board. The dimensions of the slide board shown in connection with the cement vat are those commonly used. A short, steep slide board causes the animals to plunge abruptly into the dip, while a long gradual slope allows them to slide in more gently. The short, steep slope has the advantage CATTLE LICE AND HOW TO ERADICATE THEM. 23 that the animals can not brace themselves on it for a leap as easily as on the long, gradual slide. > The exit incline or crawling board in small vats should be about 16 feet long, so that the incline may not be too steep. In cement vats a false floor to which the cross cleats are nailed is usually laid on the exit incline. Bolts should be embedded in the concrete for fastening the false floor. The plans for the concrete vat show the lower end of the floor held in position by a cross pipe embedded in the concrete and the upper end and middle held by bolts. If permanent pipes are used for conducting water and dip to the vat they should be laid so as not to act as obstacles to the men work- ing along the vat. There should be no obstruction in the path along both sides of the vat; neither should there be any cross pieces over the top of the vat that may interfere with the proper handling of the cattle while they are in the dip. The wooden vat shown in the plans has sloping sides, but, as already stated, they may be made perpendicular if desired. When soft wood is used for the frame timbers they should be 6 by 6 inches, but if hard wood is used 4 by 4 inch timbers are sufficiently large for the purpose. Cedar posts make good framing timbers, as they do not rot rapidly. Matched planks 2 inches thick should be used in building the vat, and they should be beveled so that all joints and seams may be properly caulked with oakum and rosin or similar material. A water trap with hinged cover is shown in the exit incline of the wooden vat. While dipping is in progress both the cover and the valve to the drain pipe should be closed, but when dipping is finished for the day both should be opened so that water from the draining pens in case of rain may not run into the vat and dilute the dip. Heating equipment is necessary in the case of those dips which are used warm. That shown in the plans of the wooden vat may also be built in connection with a cement vat. When the open-tank heating system shown in the plans is used settling wells are not neces- sary, as the heating tank answers the purpose of a settling well. This system has an advantage over the old-style coil heater in that the pipes may easily be kept from clogging. Another method of heating, and the one usually employed, is to install a 25-horsepower boiler and to pipe the steam to the vat, where it discharges into the dip through perforations in a pipe laid along the bottom of the vat for about two-thirds its length. The water condensing from the steam passing into the vat from the boiler dilutes the dip to a slight extent, and for this dilution an allowance should be made in re- plenishing the dip. The trench for the vat should be excavated so that the inside dimensions correspond with the outside dimensions of the com- £4 FARMERS * BULLETIN §01). pleted vat. If the sides of the trench are reasonably firm they may be used for the outer w.alls of the form, but in all cases where the vat is extended above the surface of the ground it is necessary to build forms extending from the ground surface to the top of the vat. If the soil is sandy or the walls cave in it will be necessary to use outer forms, in which case the trench should be wide enojugh to allow for these forms. The forms usually are made of 1-inch boards and 2 by 4 inch braces, but as a supply of 2-inch lumber is necessary for the corrals and chutes, some of this lumber may first be used for the forms and FIG., 13. — Section of trench for concrete vat with sloping sides, showing the forms in place, and one method of bracing. (Compare with fig. 14.) afterwards for constructing corrals and chutes. Two methods of bracing the forms are illustrated (figs. 13 and 14). Bolts for fastening the crawling and slide boards and the drain and other pipes should be placed in position in the forms before the concrete is laid. The concrete side and m end walls may be rein- forced with heavy woven wire, in whrch case the reinforcements should be placed properly in the £brms so that they may be em- bedded in the middle of the walls. ^The concrete for dipping vats should be made of 1 part of Port- land cement by measure, 2J parts of sand, and 4 parts of screened gravel or crushed stone. The sand should be coarse, clean, and free from foreign matter. The crushed stone or gravel may vary in size CATTLE LICE AND HOW TO ERADICATE THEM. 25 from one-quarter to 1 inch in diameter. The mixing should be done on a smooth, tight, platform and the sand and rock measured sepa- rately in a bottomless box 2 feet long, 2 feet wide, and 1 foot deep, having a capacity of 4 cubic feet. For 2^ cubic feet mark the inside of the box 7^ inches up from the bottom. Each sack of Portland cement is considered equal to 1 cubic foot. Mix thoroughly the sand and cement, add the crushed stone (previously drenched with water), and mix the whole mass by turning it several times with shovels. Then add water in a depression made in the center of the pile and mix well by turning several times with shovels, adding sufficient water during the mixing to make a quaky or thin jellylike mixture. I-'IG. 14. — Section of trench for concrete vat with perpendicular sides, showing the forms in place and another method of bracing. (Compare with fig. 13.) The placing of the concrete in the forms should be commenced as soon as the mixing is finished. The floor and exit end should be laid first and the concrete well tamped. In filling the forms the concrete should be settled into place by spading rather than tamp- ing, and special attention should be given to spading next to the inside forms to force back the coarse particles and allow the sand- cement mortar to form a dense, water-tight surface. An old hoe straightened out makes a good spading too], as the handle is long enough so that the bottom of the forms may be reached. If it is necessary to stop work for the day before the forms are filled, the surface of the concrete in the forms should be roughened with a stick. Just before placing additional concrete wash the roughened 26 FARMERS' BULLETIN 909. surface and paint it with cement and water mixed to the consistency of thick cream. Leave the forms in place two or three days, if pos- sible, and wet the concrete daily. After the forms are removed, dampen the surface of the concrete and apply a finishing coat com- posed of 1 part of cement and 2 parts of sand, or mix cement and water to the consistency of cream and apply it, brushing well to form a smooth surface. CATTLE LICE AND HOW TO ERADICATE THEM. 27 PUBLICATIONS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELAT- ING TO THE SUBJECT OF THIS BULLETIN. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION. Exterminating the Texas Fever Tick. (Farmers' Bulletin 498.) Texas or Tick Fever. (Farmers' Bulletin 569.) Arsenical Cattle Dips. (Farmers' Bulletin 603.) Eradication of Cattle Tick Necessary for Profitable Dairying. (Farmers' Bulle- tin 639.) Repellents for Protecting Animals from Attacks of Flies. (Department Bulle- tin 131.) Effect of the Cattle Tick Upon Milk Production of Dairy Cows. (Department Bulletin 147.) Field Test for Lime-Sulphur Dipping Baths. (Department Bulletin 163.) The Chemical Composition of Lime-Sulphur Animal Dips. (Department Bulle- tin 451.) The Action of Arsenical Dips in Protecting Cattle from Infestation with Ticks. (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 167.) Methods of Eradicating Cattle Ticks. (Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 110.) Directions for Constructing Vats and Dipping Cattle to Destroy Ticks. (Bu- reau of Animal Industry Circular 207.) FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. Scabies of Cattle. (Farmers' Bulletin 152.) Price 5 cents. Demonstration Work on Southern Farms. (Farmers' Bulletin 422.) Price 5 cents. The Eradication of the Cattle Tick. (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 97.) Price 15 cents. Investigations Relative to Arsenical Dips as Remedies for Cattle Ticks. (Bu- reau of Animal Industry Bulletin 144.) Price 15 cents. How to Get Rid of Cattle Ticks. (Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 97.) Price 5 cents. A Practical Demonstration of a Method for Controlling the Cattle Tick. (Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 148.) Price 5 cents. Eradicating Cattle Ticks in California. (Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 174.) Price 5 cents. Some Results of Cattle-Tick Eradication. (Bureau of Animal Industry Cir- cular 196.) Price 5 cents. Information Regarding the North American Fever Tick with Notes on Other Species. (Entomology Bulletin 72.) Price 15 cents. The Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever Tick. (Entomology Bulletin 105.) Price 10 cents. Special Report on the, Disease of Cattle. Price $1.00. o Vol. VI. No. 9 AUGUST, 1917 Bulletin 137 Georgia State College of Agriculture Andrew M. Soule, President Extension Division J. Phil Campbell, Director Veterinary Hospital Common Parasites of Farm Animals AV. M. BUBSOX, Professor of Veterinary Medicine. Co-operative Extension Work in Agriculture and Home Economics, Georgia State College of Agriculture and U. S. Department of Agriculture co-operatine. Georgia State College of Agriculture University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia Administrative, Technical and Extension Staff ANDREW M. SOULE President JOHN R. FAIN Professor of Agronomy MILTON P. JARNAGIN Professor of Animal Husbandry T. H. McHATTON Professor of Horticulture LEROY C. HART Professor of Agricultural Engineering W. A. WORSHAM, JR Professor of Agricultural Chemistry THOMAS W. REED Registrar WILLIAM M. BURSON Professor of Veterinary Medicine J*J. PHIL CAMPBELL Director of Extension *GUY W. FIROR Supervisor Extension Schools JAMES B. BERRY Professor of Forestry J*MARY E. CRESWELL State Supervisor, Home Economics *L. M. CARTER Junior Professor, Soil Chemistry *DAVID D. LONG Soil Expert in State Survey GEORGE A. CRABB Junior Professor of Agronomy, In Charge of Soils J*JOHN K. GILES State Supervisor, Agricultural Clubs *J. W. FIROR Junior Professor of Horticulture LOY E. RAST__Junior Professor of Agronomy, In Charge of Cotton Industry ETHEL REESE Secretary to President *MARION W. LOWRY Adjunct Professor of Soil ^nemistry 0. T. GOODWIN Adjunct Professor of Dairy Husbandry t*JAMES E. DOWNING Assistant State Supervisor Pig Clubs |*R. R. CHILDS Scientific Assistant in Agronomy *S. H. STARR Assistant Professor of Farm Management *E. C. WESTBROOK Field Agent in Agronomy EARL G. WELCH Instructor in Agriculture Engineering t*u. V. CUNNINGHAM Assistant State Supervisor County Agents J*WILLIAM BRADFORD Assistant State Supervisor Agrciultural Clubs *R. M. GRIDLEY Field Agent in Animal Husbandry t*G. L. BIGFORD Scientific Assistant in Animal Husbandry t*W. H. HOWELL Scientific Assistant in Dairy Husbandry J*LOIS P. DOWDLE Assistant State Supervisor, Home Economies *PAUL TABOR Field Agent in Agronomy WILLIAM S. DILTS Instructor in Poultry Husbandry J*MRS. BESSIE S. WOODS Assistant State Supervisor, Home Economics P. O. VANATTER Superintendent Field Experiments A. P. WINSTON Foreman of College Farm t*M. C. GAY Field Agent in Marketing J*W. F. WHATLEY District Supervisor County Agents ±*J. G. OLIVER istrict Supervisor County Agents **R. A. STRATFORD District Supervisor County Agents J*L. S. WATSON District Supervisor County Agents j*J. G. WOODRUFF District Supervisor County Agents |*R. F. WHELCHEL__. District Supervisor County Agents *ELMO RAGSDALE Field Agent in Horticulture *GUY R. JONES Field Agent in Agricultural Eiii-ineering *J. F. HART General Field A^ent HENRY T. MADDUX K.iit .:;• J. E. SEVERIN instructor in Veterinary Medicine W. C. BURKHART Instructor in Veterinary Medicine *MORRIS WILLIAM H. COLLINS Field Agent in Agronomy WILLIAM OLIN COLLINS Instructor in Soil Chemistry 1. W. ARTHUR Instructor in Animal Husbandry *J. V. PHILLIPS Senior Drainage Engineer ;*G. R. SKINNER Scientific Asst. in Dairy Husbandry :*W. H. ALLEN Field Agent, Poultry Clubs ;*H. L. BROWN Scientific Assistant in Animal Husbandry *MRS. E. M. ANDREWS District Agent, Home Economics *HOYLE SKINNER District Agent, Home Economics NELLE M. REESE Librarian C. B. SWEET +. Foreman of Greenhouse and Grounds C. N. KEYSER Tutor in Horticulture CECIL N. WILDER Tutor in Agricultural Chemistry P. R. HILL Fellow in Agronomy OLIVE BELL Clerk and Stenographer *MRS. PEARL STOREY Clerk and Stenographer NORA SAYE ___Clerk and Stenographer ANNIE MAY PENLAND Clerk and Stenographer *MRS. E. T. EPPS Clerk and Stenographer AGNES HADDOCK Clerk and Stenographer 'ELIZABETH DOWDLE— ___Clerk and Stenographer *MRS. MAY THORNTON Mailing Clerk *MYRA \V ILHITE Multigraph Operator *FERN THOMPSON Stenographer *MAGGIE DuBOSE Stenographer *MARGARET COX _ Stenographer *LOUISE HUDSON _ .__Clerk * In Extension Service, t In Cooperation with U. S. D. A. Common Parasites of Farm Animals INTRODUCTION. We have no accurate means of determining the losses to our live stock industries through parasitic infestation and the diseases inci- dent thereto. It is sufficient to say that without a doubt these losses amount to several millions of dollars to the live stock owners of Georgia every year. A few of the most common animal parasites found in the state are the Cattle Tick; Hog Louse; Bot Fly of Cattle; Stomach Worm of Cattle, Sheep and Goats; Kidney Worm of Hogs; and Intestinal Worms of Horses, Hogs, Sheep and Dogs. The Cattle Tick, (Margyropus annulatus) is undoubtedly the greatest drawback to the development of a profitable cattle industry in the state and the direct cause of greater financial loss to cattle owners than any other single factor. The Hog Louse (Hematopinus suus) causes enormous losses, yet the parasite is not difficult to control through the use of proper measures. The Bot Fly of Cattle (Hypoderma lineata) is responsible for loss of flesh and milk, lack of growth and development and great com- mercial damage to hides. The other parasites mentioned above are all responsible, in greater or lesser degree, for loss of condition and vigor and in some cases the death of animals. Several forms of parasites infesting farm animals are transmissible to people and their presence constitutes a serious menace to the health of the people in the locality in which they are to be found. In this connection it may also be stated that several parasites that in- fest people are transmissible to farm animals and that measures of control practiced will have beneficial effect in both directions. The importance of the subject of parasites is so great that its study is necessary on the part of the live stock man in order that he may be able to prevent the enormous losses, make the animal industries more profitable and at the same time produce a more healthful meat supply. It is the purpose of this bulletin to discuss the most important forms of animal parasites, giving a brief description and life his- tory of each together with treatment for destruction or removal, and recommendations of measures of sanitary precautions and of disinfection. 4 Georgia State College of Agriculture DEFINITIONS. Parasite. A living organism, either animal or vegetable, that lives upon or obtains its nourishment from any other living organ- ism. Animal Parasite. An animal organism which in its manner of life complies with the above description. Parasitism. The state of being infested with parasites. Parasitic Disease. A diseased condition affecting an animal in- fested with parasites. External Parasite. One affecting the skin or coat of the animal. Internal Parasite. One found in the flesh or internal organs. Permanent Parasite. One that passes its entire life on one host. Transitory Parasite. One that passes part of its life on a single host. Intermittent Parasite. One that visits the host for the purpose of securing nourishment. Parasites of Horses and Mules EXTERNAL PARASITES. Lice. The common louse found on horses and mules belongs to the variety, Hematopinus asini and is a blood sucking, egg laying per- manent parasite. Symptoms. Itchiness, loss of condition, loss of hair. Treatment. If the coat of hair is heavy, clip and burn all hair. Bathe the animal with the following solution: Tobacco stems, 4 ounces. Water, 1 gallon. Boil for thirty minutes, cool and apply twice at intervals of one week. In lieu of the above the affected spots on the skin may be rubbed with a cloth saturated with kerosene or benzine. Sulphur ointment is also valuable as a louse destroyer. Soak all harness and spray the stalls thoroughly with 5 per cent cresol solution. Ticks. Occasionally horses and mules are found to be infested with the common cattle tick or other variety of ticks. In such cases the methods of treatment advised for the destruction of ticks on cattle should be applied. Flies. Several species of flies infest horses and mules, principally in- termittently in order to suck blood. One species is a common in- ternal parasite. Green Head Horse Fly (Tabanus lineola). This fly is about the Common Parasites size of a honey bee, has large green eyes and an elongated abdomen. It visits horses during hottest part of day for the purpose of suck- ing blood. To protect horses keep in shady places, in darkened stalls or covered with fly nets. Large Black Horse Ply (Tabanus atratus). A large black fly near- ly an inch in length. Visits horses for the purpose of sucking blood. Use protective measures as advised above. Stable Fly (Stomoxys stabulans). This fly is sometimes known as biting fly and stinging fly, and in appearance closely resembles FIG. 97. — Tabanux atratus: a, larva; l>, pupa; c, adult (after Riley). Fio. 112.— Stom/ury* calcitrans: Adult, larva, puparium, and details— enlarged (original). the common house fly. The eggs are laid in fresh manure and go through the forms of larva or maggot, pupa and adult. Both larval and pupal stage are spent in manure or moist, rich earth or other refuse. The bite of this fly is severe and often causes severe sores difficult to heal. The mature fly has been charged with in- fecting animals with the germs of Anthrax, Glanders and other dis- eases and has also been charged with carrying hook worm larvae and contaminating human food with them. 6 Georgia State College of Agriculture Use protective measure as advised for other species of flies. Pre- vent hatching by treatment of stable manure with borax in the pro- portion of one pound to sixteen cubic feet of manure. In lieu of this, the daily removal of manure to cultivated fields where it may be spread thinly and dried by the heat of the sun in advised. Bot Fly of Horse (Oestrus equi) (Gastrophilus equi). The ma- ture form or adult closely resembles a honey bee. During hot weather the .female fly deposits eggs on the hairs of the neck, breast and legs of horses and mules. The eggs are cemented tightly and are quite difficult to remove. The larva leaves the shell and crawls upon the surface of the skin causing a tickling sensation. The in- fested animal licks itself and the larvae are transferred to the mouth and are then swallowed with food. Upon reaching the stomach they attach themselves to the mucous membrane lining of the stomach by means of booklets, with which the heads are armed. The larvae remain in this location for about ten months and grad- ually reach their maximum growth. Having attained full growth they release the hold on the mucous membrane and pass through the intestines and drop to the ground with the manure. An earthy cocoon forms around them and they lie dormant for a time finally emerging from the pupal stage as fully developed adult flies. It is seldom that bots cause any appreciable injury to horses or mules. When they are present in the stomach in excessively large numbers obstruction of the bowels may be caused at the time the larvae release their hold and pass out. If horses and mules are constantly supplied with salt the infestation of the stomach is kepi at a minimum. When it is considered desirable to apply treatment for the destruction of bots it is recommended that a dose of one- half ounce of Carbon Bisulphide be given in gelatin capsule. INTERNAL PARASITES. Worms. Large Round Worm of Horses (Ascaris megalocephala) (Ascaris equorum). This is the largest species of round worm and is fre- quently found infesting the small intestines of horses and mules. The body is the diameter of a lead pencil and mature specimens attain a length of twelve to fourteen inches. The color is white with a tinge of yellow. The head is large and provided with three lips. These worms live upon the food digested by the host. The symptoms showing the presence of these worms are loss of condition, intestinal catarrh and diarrhoea. When present in great numbers they may cause obstruction of the bowels. Treatment. Preventive treatment consists in preventing ani- mals from becoming infested. The eggs of the parasite pass out with the manure and it is believed that the eggs hatch outside the Common Parasites 1 body of the host. Animals become infested through eating con- taminated food or from grazing on infested pasture. Frequent rotation of pastures for colts, together with proper drainage of all swampy areas and providing animals in pasture with a constant supply of salt, is recommended. Treatment for removal. Best results are obtained when worm remedies are given on an empty stomach. Several treatments are recommended. Two or three ounces of turpentine in one quart raw linseed oil may be given as a drench at one dose. Another treat- ment is one-fourth ounce of powdered iron sulphate three times a day for three or four days, to be followed with a purgative dose of raw linseed oil. Palisade Worm (Strongylus armatus) (Sclerostomum equinum). This is a blood sucking worm, one to two inches in length, found attached to the lining of the large intestines of the horse. When present in large numbers they cause anemia and symptoms of colic. In the larval form they may be found in the walls of large blood vessels and in other locations. In rare instances they are to be found in considerable numbers migrating through the muscular coat of the abdominal wall. Numbers of larvae are also found in cysts attached to the inner surface of the intestines. Death of colts or horses is sometimes caused by the ravages of this species of worms. The measures recommended above for control, preventive treat- ment and removal also apply to this species of worm. Pin Worms (Rectal worms) (Oxyurus curvula). This is a round, white worm, one to three inches in length, and tapering to a fine point at the tail. It is found inhabiting the posterior portion of the large intestines and rectum of the horse and mule. The symptoms are indications of itchiness in the region men- tioned; rubbing the base of the tail against posts, trees or stall partitions; seepage of a milky substance from the anus and the discovery of the parasites, or their eggs, in the manure. Treatment. Preventive treatment consists in providing plenty of salt at all times, rotation of pastures and drainage of swampy areas and such other measures as may tend to prevent contamination of food and water supply. Removal. For removal give an enema of 1 per cent solution of coal tar disinfectant or enema of two drams of ferric chloride in one pint of water. Enemas should be repeated at intervals of three or four days. Internal administration of powdered iron sulphate, as recomrr^-'ied for the large round worm, is also recommended. Georgia State College of Agriculture Parasites of Cattle EXTERNAL PARASITES. Cattle Ticks. Full grown female ready eggs. The cattle tick, Margaropus An- nulatus, formerly known as Bo- ophilus Annalutus, must be studied and its life history or cycle under- stood in order that the methods recommended for eradication may be intelligently followed. The host of the tick is the cow or other animal of the Bovine spe- cies. Occasionally specimens of the cattle tick are found on other ani- mals as horses and mules, but in these animals it does not produce disease. There are also other ticks, such as the "wood tick," or "ear tick," which are sometimes found on horses, mules, and dogs, but these ticks are not known to cause disease in any animal. In studying the life history of the tick, Margaropus Annulatus, it is best to begin with the engorged female as she releases her hold on the cow and drops to the ground for the purpose of laying eggs. The tick at this stage has attained the maximum size and is about one- half inch long by three-eights inch broad and one-fourth inch thick. Having dropped to the ground she may be eaten by birds or ants, or may be destroyed by cold. If not destroyed, egg laying begins in a few days in warm weather, or in a longer time in cold weather. Graybill, U. S. D. A., Farmers' Bulletin No. 378, gives his observa- tions as from two to twenty days in spring, summer, and fall, and 13 to 98 days in winter. The eggs are small roundish bodies of brownish or reddish color, about one-fiftieth inch in diameter, and are held together by a sticky substance secreted by the tick. The mature female lays a variable number of eggs, from several hundred to from three to five thousand. Tick laying eggs. Com nw n Parasites 9 During egg laying the female takes no nourishment, gradually re- duces in size to about one-fourth her former size, and at the end of egg laying dies. The young ticks which hatch in a variable length of time, depend- ent upon conditions of temperature and moisture, remain somewhat quiet for a few days, and later showing greater activity and crawling upon grass or other herbage, await the coming of a host. In this stage the young tick is red or brown in color, has six legs and is known as larva or "seed" tick. During the time the seed tick re- ,. mains on vegetation it takes no nour- J/jilL Zft^ ishment and does not grow ,and unless a host appears within a certain space of time it dies of starvation. Experi- ments have shown that in the colder portion of the year young ticks may live as long as eight months without food. The development of the young tick proceeds quite rapidly after it attaches itself to its host, the cow. After at- taching itself to the skin of a cow in a favorable location such as on the tail, at the base of the tail, inside of the thighs, or on the dewlap or escutcheon, — • and beginning to suck blood, it grows ! Ticks. ., .,. , ., , , ., quite rapidly and moults, or sheds its skin, in from five to twelve days and appears nearly white, having eight legs instead of six. This is the nymphal stage of development. Young Tick ready for sec- ond moult. Female Tick after second moult. In this stage the young tick increases in size to some ex- tent. The male tick remains brown in color and does not increase in size in proportion to the female. The second moulting, or shed- ding of the skin, oc- curs in from five to twelve days after the first moult. The ticks are now sexually ma- ture and the female increases rapidly in size and becomes engorged with blood and eggs. The length of time the tick remains on the cow, i. e. from seed tick to engorged female ready to lay eggs, is from twenty to sixty 10 Georgia State College of Agriculture days. The female tick rarely changes her location on the skin of the animal, but the male shows more activity and moves about to some extent. The various stages of the ticks as seen on cattle are: seed ticks or larvae, nymph, and sexually mature ticks of various sizes from those just past the second moult to fully developed and engorged females ready to drop off and begin egg laying. On the ground may be found the -mature female ready for or engaged in egg laying, eggs, and larvae or seed ticks. The eradication of the cattle tick is necessary as a part of the great change that is taking place in agricultural conditions. Live stock is; important in connection with all forms of cultivation whether extensive or intensive, and especially important for successful diversified farm- ing and crop rotation. Tick eradication has been going on for several years. Many thousands of square miles of territory have been entirely freed of this pest and in this recently freed territory great beneficial results in improvements of types and breeds of cattle have been obtained. The cattle from the territory formerly handled under quarantine restrictions in the markets of the north and east and sold at cor- respondingly low prices are now admitted to the markets without restrictions of any kind, and are sold at their true market value. The work is being carried on successfully in our neighboring states to the west, north, and east, and in many counties of our own state. Every Georgia farmer and every other citizen who has an interest in the welfare of the state should be an exponent of tick eradication. The work as carried on is in cooperation with the U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry. The best system of eradication appears to be to work either a row of counties east and west across the state or a large group of counties on or near4 one of the state lines. When a specified territory, as a county, has been rid of ticks a rigid quaran- tine against all cattle from adjoining tick infested territory must be maintained in order to prevent the introduction of a new crop of ticks. Methods of Eradication. These are pasture rotation; hand-picking and currying; hand- dressing with oils or other substances; spraying and dipping. Pasture rotation is impractical on nearly all farms in Georgia on account of lack of a sufficient number of pastures and fences, there- fore it will not be discussed. Hand-picking and currying. This method is practical for owners of very small herds, if faithfully done. It consists of the removal of all ticks, more than half grown from all cattle on the farm once Common Parasites 11 a week. It is inefficient if any ticks are allowed to develop suffi- ciently to produce eggs. Hand-dressing. This is practical in case the herd is small. It consists in removing and destroying, preferably by burning, all large ticks, then applying to the cattle by means of brush or sponge, some tick destroying substance such as crude petroleum, tick oil, cotton seed oil and kerosene, equal parts, kerosene and lard equal parts, or other tick destroying or disinfecting agents. Spraying consists in the use of tick destroying substances, such as may be applied with a spray pump. The best and cheapest pre- paration for this purpose is the arsenical solution. Other substances which may be used are cotton seed oil and kerosene, solutions of coal tar disinfectants and stock dips. In spraying great care must be exercised that all portions of the skin are made thoroughly wet. Dipping is most efficient and economical where large numbers of cattle are to be treated on a ranch, farm or in a community. It consists in passing the cattle, every two weeks, through a vat of tick destroying solution of sufficient depth that the cattle become completely immersed when plunged into it. Vats are preferably constructed of concrete and when once built are permanent and valuable farm equipment. In addition to being valuable in tick eradication, they are useful for the dipping of all kinds of farm animals for the treatment of diseases such as mange of cattle, sheep, hogs and dogs and for the destruction of insect pests on all kinds of live stock. Arsenical Solution. This preparation has given excellent results and is probably the most economical agent for destroying ticks and may be used in spray pump or dipping vat. The formula is as follows: Sodium carbonate (sal soda) 24 pounds. Arsenic trioxid (white arsenic) 8 pounds. Pine tar 1 gallon Water sufficient to make 50 gallons. Preparation of Arsenical Solution. A large tank or caldron to which heat may be applied either by fire or a jet of steam is necessary. Bring to a boil twenty-five gal- lons of water. Add the sal soda and stir until dissolved. Add the arsenic and again stir until dissolved. Allow the solution to cool to 140 degrees Fahrenheit. Dissolve 1 pound concentrated lye in one quart of water and stir into the pine tar, then add the tar slowly in a thin stream to the solution of soda and arsenic. Stir thoroughly and increase to 50 gallons by the addition of water. This is known as "stock" solu- tion and is not ready for use until it has been reduced in strength by adding nine gallons of water to each gallon of "stock" solution. 12 Georgia State College of Agriculture It must be borne in mind that arsenic is a deadly corrosive poison and great care must be exercised in its handling and use. Construction of Dipping Vat. The location must be suitable for the erection of pens for holding cattle before dipping and for dripping pen or chute for retaining cattle after dipping so as to allow the solution to drain off the cattle and back into the vat or other receptacle. Excavation. This must be made a foot longer and wider than inside dimensions of vat and of the same shape. Sides should be firm. Forms. The formes should be built of inch boards and 2x4 braces. The sides and the end walls should be 8 inches higher than surrounding ground. Concrete. This should be made of Portland cement 1 part, sand 2y2 parts and broken rock or gravel 5 parts, by measure. The sand should be sharp and clean and the rock or gravel from 14 inch to 1 inch in diameter. Mix together the sand and cement dry and thoroughly wet the rock. Apply water to sand and cement mixture until a mortar is produced and then mix all together by shoveling the stone on to the mortar. Continue the mixing until all the stone is well coated with mortar. If possible, the filling in of concrete should be done at one operation, the bottom and incline being deposited first. The forms must not be removed until the concrete is set, which takes 24 to 48 hours. Finishing Coat. Wet the surfaces thoroughly and apply a one- half inch coating of material consisting of 1 part cement and 2 parts sand. Trowel smooth. BILL OF MATERIALS FOR VAT, DRIPPING PEN, AND CHUTE. Lumher for Forms. 8 pieces 1 by 12 inches by 14 feet long. 13 pieces 1 by 12 inches by 12 feet long. 2 pieces 1 by 12 inches by 9 feet long. 2 pieces 1 by 12 inches by 6 feet long. 2 pieces 1 by 12 inches by 4 feet long. 8 pieces 2 by 4 inches by 8 feet long. 2 pieces 2 by 4 inches by 7 feet long. 2 pieces 2 by 4 inches by 6 feet long. 2 pieces 2 by 4 inches by 4 feet long. 2 pieces 2 by 4 inches by 2 feet long. 7 pieces 1 by 6 inches by 12 feet longforcrosspiecesforiniide of forms. Common Parasites 13 1 w r-P- 1 _., * \ [\ T .-. --• 1 -.,,- ^ --. = ' I ------ > / i / / / '/, 7 14 Georgia State College of Agriculture Lumber for Dripping Pen. 7 pieces 6 by 6 inches by 10 feet long for posts. 10 pieces 1 by 8 inches by 10 feet long for side rails of pen. 5 pieces 1 by 8 inches by 12 feet long for side rails of pen. 5 pieces 1 by 8 inches by 8 feet long for side rails of pen. Hardware and Ironwork. 6 bolts, y2 by 10 inches, with nuts and washers, for false floor of incline. 1 sheet of 14 -inch boiler iron cut to shape of slide; plate bored and counter-sunk for four screws. 4 pairs hinges for covers. 3 Heavy T hinges and screws for gate of clipping pen. 1 heavy iron bolt to fasten gate. Concrete Vat. Cement, 10M» barrels (42 bags). Sand, 3% cubic yards. Stone, 6 14 cubic yards. Dripping Pen and Chute. Cement, 5% barrels (22 bags). Sand, 1% cubic yards. Stone, 3^ cubic yards. The plans and specifications herewith are those recommended by the U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry in B. A. I. Circular 183, and vats constructed according to these directions are in use in various states. The capacity of the vat herein described is 1470 gallons. In order to fill it, 147 gallons of "stock" solution are necessary. Precautions. Arsenical solution is poisonous and must be handled carefully. Cattle should be watered before dipping and should be allowed to drain off before leaving the dripping pen in order to prevent the solution getting on grass or pasture plants. It is, perhaps, best to dip in early morning or late evening when possible to do so. Common Parasites 15 Disposal of Arsenical Solution. When the solution becomes foul from manure and dirt carried into it by cattle it should be renewed. Probably the best method of disposing of old solution is to run it into a deep pit protected by fences and located so that it is not possible for the solution to run onto pasture land or gain access to the water supply. Xote. The rules and Regulations of the State Veterinarian of Georgia prohibit the transportation companies from accepting for shipment any cattle infested with ticks. FLIES. Horn Fly (Hematobia serrata). This is a small black fly about one-half the size of the common house fly. It appears with the ad- vent of warm weather and disappears with the coming of frost in the fall. It is a blood sucking fly. The female deposits her eggs in fresh manure and these hatch in about twenty-four hours into larvae. After a short period of growth in the manure the larvae burrow into the ground from which they emerge in a few days as fully developed adults. They attack cattle in swarms, alighting upon the backs and bellies, and commonly accumulate in great numbers at the base of the horns. Their presence seriously annoys the cattle and interferes with grazing. Loss is caused through the falling off in flesh and the lessening of the milk flow. Bot Fly (Warble fly), (Hypoderma liniata), (Grub fly). The Bot Fly is a very common parasite of cattle in Georgia. The ma- ture fly is about the size of a honey bee and its body is black and cov- ered with short fine hair. The female deposits her eggs in the region of the heels of cattle, cementing them to the hair of that part. The eggs hatch and the young flies, in the form of very small maggots or worms, crawl upon the skin of the animal caus- ing a tickling sensation. The in- fested animal licks the skin and transfers some of the larvae to the mouth. They are swallowed with food and some of them attach themselves to the lining of the oesphagus and stomach. From these locations they migrate through the flesh to the location beneath the skin of the back where they are commonly seen during the winter months. The presence of a larvae or grub is marked FIG. 13. — The ox bot or heel ffy (Hypoderma Uneata) : Adult. En- larged. (From Insect Life.) 16 Georgia State College of Agriculture by the formation of a lump or tumor above which will be found a small hole in the skin. Through this opening the parasite obtains its air supply, the hole becoming larger with the growth of the larva. The larval stage of development is ten months. When the larval development is complete the grub passes out through the opening in the skin and drops to the ground. Then, an earthy cocoon forms around it and it lies dormant for a time, finally emerging as a fully developed adult fly. The losses occasioned are severe. Loss is caused by the irrita- tion of the cattle during the egg-laying season, interfering with the animal's grazing by the constant irritation of the skin and flesh in the region of the back, by the lessening of milk production in infested cows, by the loss of flesh in cattle butchered during the time the grubs are present and by the great loss in reduction of the value of the hides of infested cattle. Treatment and Control. As this parasite passes the winter months in the larval form under the animal's skin, it may be con- trolled by destroying the larvae during these months. Press out the grub and kill it by crushing or burning or inject gasoline in small quantities into the openings in the skin. Kerosene may also be used for the same purpose. As a fly repellant for use during summer the application of a mixture consisting of three parts of fish oil and one part of kero- sene is recommended. Lice. Three species of lice infest cattle. Two of these suck blood and the other is flesh-eating. They are the broad-nosed ox louse, Hema- topinus Eurysternus; the long-nosed ox louse, Hematopinus Vitula; and the biting louse, Trichodectes scalaris, or red louse. The first two species are blue in color and are much more injurious than the latter. Treatment. Infested cattle and calves should be dipped or spray- ed with a solution of coal tar dip or disinfectant. During winter and early spring lice infestation is much more common than dur- ing the remainder of the year. Treatment for the destruction of lice should be regularly applied, spring and fall, and at such other times as may be necessary. Two per cent solution of cresol disin- fectant in dipping vat or spray application is the thing necessary. In case only a few animals are to be treated application by hand may be practiced. A mixture of two parts of kerosene and one part of lard makes an efficient local application. INTERNAL PARASITES. Stomach Worms (Haemonchus contortus), (Strongylus contortus). These are hair-like worms about one inch long, blood suck- Common Parasites 17 ers, and are to be found in the last division of the stomach (abom- asum) of cattle, sheep and goats. Symptoms. Diarrhoea, ir- regular appetite, paleness of the visible membrane and water swelling under the chin and lower jaw, (Poverty jaw), are the common symptoms. In sheep the skin becomes dry and harsh and the con- dition is sometimes known as "paper skin." Losses are caused by the debilitated condition due to the continual loss of blood. Young animals suffer more severely than adults and the proportion of deaths among them is greater. Life History. The eggs of the worm are passed out with the manure and hatch on the ground. The larvae, minute worms, crawl upon the grass and other vegetation. During FIG. 54.— The stomach worm tffemonchu* con- warm moigt weather in tortus). Enlarged. * Vulva. (From Bu- reau of Animal Industry Bulletin 127.) swampy areas m the pastures the larvae are very active and may live several weeks outside the body of an animal. During cold or very dry weather they cannot live as long as in warm, moist weather. During dry weather they may be found coiled upon the surface of grass blades and the leaves of plants. Cattle grazing on pasturage infested with the parasites become infested through consuming the grass. Upon reaching the stomach the larvae begin to grow and reach maturity in two to four weeks. Treatment and Prevention. Prevention consists in drainage of all swampy areas in pasture and frequent rotation of pasture. Every farm should have a sufficient number of pastures so that each pas- ture may be left free of animals for two months twice a year or oftener in order to give opportunity for parasites infesting the soil or herbage to die off, as they will do if animals are kept away for a sufficient length of time. Burning over the pastures also serves to keep down parasitic infestations. The water supply should be be from well or spring or freely flowing stream. Animals must not be permitted to drink stagnant water at any time. A plentiful 18 Georgia State College of Agriculture supply of salt is also beneficial and should be supplied in such man- ner that animals may have access to it at all times. Medicinal Treatment. Several remedies are recommended. Either coal tar, creosote, copper sulphate (bluestone), gasoline, benzine or turpentine may be used. Treatment with gasoline ap- pears to be the most popular and appears to give the best results. The gasoline treatment 'Should be applied as follows: all cattle in the herd should be treated at the same time whether they show signs of infestation or not. Confine 'the cattle during the night without food or water in order to have the stomachs as empty as possible. Next morning drench each animal with a mixture of gasoline and raw linseed oil. A drench for calves under three months old consists of one tablespoon of gasoline and one-fourth pint of raw linseed oil; for calves three to six months old, two tablespoonfuls of gasoline and one-half pint of raw linseed oil; and for young cattle six months to one year old, three to four table- spoonfuls of gasoline and three-fourths to one pint of raw linseed oil. The dose for larger and older cattle is in proportion to size and age. The dose for each animal should be mixed separately and the in- gredients should be well shaken together. Care must be exercised so as to prevent strangling the animals during drenching. This treatment is to be applied on three successive days, the animals having been kept confined without food or water during the pre- ceding night. After the herd has been treated the animals should be placed on fresh pasture not recently occupied by other animals. Liver Flukes (Fasciola hepatica), Distoma hepatica). These are flat, leaf-shaped worms, brown in color, three-fourths inch to one and one-fourth inch long. They are found in the bile ducts of the liver in infested cattle, sheep, goats and occasionally in hogs. These parasites are most common in poorly drained section's of the country and in swampy areas. In those sections in which the conditions are most favorable for the development through the larval stage. Life History. The eggs of the parasite pass with the bile into the intestines and thence to the ground with the manure. The eggs hatch on the ground but on dry land the larvae soon perish. When hatched in wet or marshy places the larvae seek the inter- mediate host, the common water snail, and bore into the respiratory chamber where they undergo a series of changes which produce from a single embryo a large number of embryos or larvae. After this stage of development is completed the larvae leave the body of the snail and crawl onto the grass blades and the leaves of aquatic plants where they encyst themselves and lie dormant. In moist localities the larvae may live a long time in this condition. Infest- Common Parasites 19 ed herbage eaten by animals carries the larvae into the stomach and intestines from whence they gain access to the liver and soon reach maturity in the bile ducts. Symptoms. Animals infested with liver flukes present symptoms very sim- ilar to those prescribed as occurring in animals infested with stomach worms, although the proportion of deaths is not so great. Post Mortem Findings. Post mortem examination discloses the presence of flukes in the liver. The number may be few or many. As the parasites live upon the liver substance areas of in- flammation and necrosis are found. In the debris in cavities the flukes may be found. Treatment. Preventative treatment consists in draining all swampy areas, pasture rotation and providing access to salt at all times. Medicinal Treatment. Medicinal treatment is unsatisfactory on account a FIG. 47. — a, The common liver fluke (Fasciola hepatica). b,of the location of the parasites m the The large American fluke (Fa*- liver. Digestive tonics are indicated dola niagna). Natural size. jn the treatment of animals presenting (After Bureau of Animal In- dustry Bulletin 19.) Lung AVorms (Strongylus micrurus), (Strongylus pulmonalis). These are thread-like worms, one and one-half to three inches long, which inhabit the air passages and sacs of the lungs. Their presence causes irritation which results in bronchitis or pneumonia. Bronchitis from this cause is more common in calves than in adult cattle. Symptoms. In the beginning the symptoms are slight and it is only in cases of rather severe infestation that the evidences of in- festation are plain enough to make an accurate diagnosis practical. These are loss of appetite and accompanying loss of condition; rough coat of hair, emaciation; chronic cough, which gradually becomes worse and more painful; and rapid breathing, which final- ly becomes so difficult that the infested animal smothers. Treatment. The medicinal treatment of strongylosis is generally unsatisfactory. If medicines of sufficient strength and in sufficient quantity are injected into the air passages doubtless the irritation produced by the medicine will be as severe as the irritation caused by the parasites. Such treatment is generally useless or positively harmful, although frequently recommended. The inhalation of 20 Georgia State College of Agriculture medicated vapor is beneficial. For this purpose one dram of oil of eucalyptus and one dram of turpentine in one half gallon of hot water is recommended. Confine the animal in such manner that it is compelled to inhale the vapor. This is best accomplished by placing the pail containing the solution in the bottom of a grain sack and holding the nose of the animal in the mouth of the sack. Treatment may be administered twice a day for several days. Animals suffering from parasitic infestation lose flesh and con- dition on account of the heavy drain upon their vitality, conse- quently such animals should be carefully fed on a highly nutritious ration. In fact, good feeding is perhaps better than medicinal treatment in case of lung worm infestation. Tapeworms (Tenia expansa), (T. alba), (T. denticulata). Several species of tapeworms infest cattle. They vary in length, according to species, from seven to forty feet. It is seldom that they do any appreciable harm. Therefore, they are not considered of sufficient importance to merit a lengthy discussion in this bul- letin. Tapeworm Cysts. There are several species of tapeworms which in their adult form infest man and some of the lower animals, and the larvae of which infest the flesh and internal organs of cattle. Flesh of animals, which is infested with tapeworm larvae, is dan- gerous when used as human food. The most important of these species are: Tenia Echinococcus, a minute tapeworm which in its adult form infests the intestines of the dog and which passes through the larval stage of development in the liver of cattle, sheep, hogs or people; and the Tenia Saginata, a large tapeworm which passes its adult existence in the intestines of people and which passes through the larval stage in the internal organs and mus- cular tissue of cattle. The recognition of this kind of parasitic in- festation is almost impossible in the living animal; hence, no symptoms will be described. Post Mortem Findings. Hydatid cysts may be found in the liver of animals. These bladder-like structures, varying in size from that of a pea to as large as a baseball and are filled with a clear fluid. Microscopic examination of the membrane lining the cysts dis- closes the presence of large numbers of tapeworm larvae. treatment. As previously stated, beef measles is the larval 'form of Tenia saginata which passes its adult existence in the in- testines of people. This being the case preventative treatment con- sists in the proper disposal of human excrement so as to avoid contamination of streams, pastures and other food supplies of cattle. Treatment of dogs with remedies for the destruction of tape- worms is the only practical method of controlling infestion with the larva of Tenia Echinococcus or hydatid worm. Common Parasites 21 Parasites of Hogs EXTERNAL. PARASITES. Hog Lice (Haematopinus suis). This is the largest species of louse found infesting farm animals. The fully developed female is one-fifth inch long by one-tenth inch a broad. The male is some- what smaller. There are but few herds of hogs not infested with lice. They are perhaps the most common parasites found on farm animals, they are easily found. By prefer- ence they locate on those parts of the animal where the skin is thin and easily punctured. The louse obtains its food by puncturing the skin of its host and sucking blood. The presence of lice causes irr'ta- tion and roughening of the skin, a run down appearance and condition. The injurious effects of lousiness frequently cause the death of young pigs. The presence of lice makes hogs more susceptible to dis- ease than they would other- wise be. Life History. The female louse deposits eggs (nits) upon the hair of the hog, ce- x 15. menting them tightly to the hair. The eggshell has a lit- tle "trapHdoor at one end which opens and allows the escape of the young louse when it is fully developed. The young louse may attack the host immediately or, if brushed off in the nest or elsewhere, soon seeks a host. Here it reaches maturity and the egg-laying stage in a few days. Treatment. On a farm free of hog lice these parasites may gain entrance to the swine herd along with new breeding stock. Ani- mals brought to the farm for service may carry them. The custom of borrowing and lending breeding animals is one fraught with great danger to the herd. Not only may lice be brought to the farm by this means but various other external and internal parasites and contagious diseases are often carried in like manner. When new Fn;. ]. — Dorsnl view of female hog louse, a, antennas b, eye; r, spiracles; d, proboscis or haustellum. 22 Georgia State College of Agriculture Common Parasites 23 hogs are to be admitted to the herd they should by all means be isolated on some distant part of the farm for at least four weeks and kept under close observation during all that time in order that their freedom from parasites and diseases may be definitely ascer- tained before allowing them to run with the other hogs. Various proprietary preparations are used for destroying lice. In general, the coal tar dips and disinfectants are efficient when used in 2 per cent solutions in spray pump or dipping vat. Texas crude petroleum may be used on rubbing posts, in spray pump or in the dipping vat. The vat may be filled two-thirds full of water and an inch or two in depth of the oil placed on the sur- face. In dipping the hogs are covered with a thin film of oil which closes the breathing pores of the lice and suffocates them. Kerosene emulsion is also recommended. It is made as follows: Take two gallons of kerosene, one-half pound of laundry soap and one gallon of water. Dissolve the soap in boiling water and add this to the kerosene, stirring vigorously for ten minutes. This is "stock solution" and, when used, must be added to water in the proportion of one gallon to nine gallons of water. Poisonous preparations are sometimes recommended for the de- struction of hog lice but should not be used on account of the danger of poisoning the animals. When good results can be ob- tained with harmless substances it is useless to unnecessarily en- danger the health or life of animals. Bill of Materials for Hog Dipping Vat. Material for forms. Posts, 2 by 4, 8 pieces 5 feet long. Posts, 2 by 4, 8 pieces 4 feet long. Siding, 1 by 12, 10 pieces 8 feet long. Siding, 1 by 12, 4 pieces 6 feet long. Siding, 1 by 12, 4 pieces 2% feet long. Material for Cover. Posts, 12 fence posts 6 feet long. Splash boards, 1 by 8, 6 pieces 16 feet long. Rafters, 2 by 4, 2 pieces 16 feet long. Plates, 2 by 4, 2 pieces 16 feet long. Roof, 1% squares prepared roofing or 1500 shingles. Material for Dripping Pen. Posts, 10 fence posts 6 feet long. Siding, 1 by 6, 20 pieces 8 feet long. Material for Vat. Cement, 10% barrels. Sand, 3% cubic yards. Rock or gravel, 6 14 cubic yards. Georgia State College of Agriculture In order that a successful campaign of eradication may be waged against hog lice it is necessary that the old louse-infested nests of the hogs be burned or thoroughly saturated with -strong disinfectant solution. The hog houses and pens should be thoroughly sprayed with a 4 per cent solution of cresol or coal tar disinfectant. It is best to add to the disinfecting solution a small amount of air slaked lime in order that it may mark where the solution was ap- plied. Mange, Bed Mange (Demodectic Mange), (Demodex folliculorum). Life History. The parasites inhabit the hair follicles of the skin and cause constant irritation, redness and thickening. The para- site is visible with the aid of a low power micro- scope, great numbers being found in a single hair follicle. The entire life cycle, egg, larvae, pupa and adult, is passed on the host. The parasites re- semble an oat grain in form and have eight short legs. They live upon the substance of the hair at the roots. Symptoms. The most common seat of infestation on hogs is in the region internal to the front limbs and the thighs. From these locations the disease may spread over the entire body. The skin is roughened, pustules are formed and the skin as- sumes a warty appearance. Method of Infestation. Animals become infested through contact with infested animals or by occupy- ing premises, cars or vehicles which have harbored FiG.21.— Ventral view or transported infested animals. of male Demodex Treatment. The treatment of red mange is more wi/C" \fteVcsokor* difficult than that of any other external parasite 1879). x240. on account of the location of the parasites deep dovv'ii in the substance of the skin and out of reach of ordinary parasiticides. Thorough scrubbing of the skin with strong soap and warm water followed by application of strong disinfectants may be beneficial. Kaupp, Animal Parasites, recommends gasoline, oil of tar and oil of cade, also oleo-resin aspidii 8 parts, creolin 42 parts, alcohol 50 parts. Ticks. Various species of ticks are at times found infesting hogs and sometimes cause considerable irritation and loss of condition. Usu- ally these ticks are not the cattle fever tick but are of some of the so-called harmless species not known to be an actual causative fac- tor of disease. Tick infestation of hogs, however, deserves suffi- cient consideration to merit a recommendation for treatment. Treatment. Swabbing, spraying or dipping of infested hogs with Gammon Parasites 25 one of the oily preparations recommended for the destruction of hog lice should be used at frequent intervals, when animals occupy infested pastures. INTERNAL PARASITES. Round Worm of Hogs (Ascaris suilla), (Ascaris suis), (Ascaris lumbricoides). This is the most common intestinal worm of the hog. It varies in length from seven to twelve inches, the female being larger than the male. In color they are pinkish-white. The skin of the worm is very smooth and the body of the parasite is quite firm. The worms are not blood suckers but obtain their food supply from the partially digested contents of the small intestines which they in- habit. The female worm produces great numbers of eggs which pass out with the excrement. Upon reaching the ground they be- come mixed with the earth and water and if the food of hogs be- comes contaminated with this material the eggs are taken into the stomach of the hog where the young worm is hatched. The young worms pass into the intestines where they grow rapidly and soon reach maturity. Symptoms. When present in large numbers the worms cause digestive disorders, indigestion, colic, diarrhoea, unthrifty appear- ance and loss of flesh. A bloated condition of the abdomen is often to be seen. In some cases the mature worms ascend into the stom- ach and cause nausea and vomiting. The mature worms may be vomited or may pass from the animal with the manure. In rare instances the worms are present in such large numbers that obstruc- tion of the bowels may result. Treatment. On account of the difficulty in administering medi- cines to hogs it is best to select remedies that may be given in the food. The following formula recommended by the Kentucky Ex- periment Station gives good results. Santonin 2% grains. Areca nut 1 dram. Calomel 5 grains. Sodium bicarbonate 1 dram. These ingredients mixed together constitute one dose for a 100 pound hog. Feed on an empty stomach mixed with soft feed. Fol- low in 12 hours with Epsom salts 1 or 2 tablespoonfuls. Care must be exercised when numbers of hogs are treated so that each animal in the herd gets its share of the medicine. Another treatment highly recommended consists in the adminis- tration of turpentine in doses of a teaspoonful to a tablespoonful to each animal, according to size, mixed with milk or soft slop. This should be given on an empty stomach and repeated three or four times. Following this a physic of epsom salts, castor oil, or raw linseed oil should be given. Control. It must be borne in mind that infestation takes place 26 Georgia State College of Agriculture through contamination of the food and water supply. This being the case measures must be taken to provide against such contami- nation. See to it that the hogs are provided with fresh water from well or spring or free-flowing stream and that they are not com- pelled to drink from wallow holes and stagnant pools or swamps. If hogs are fed grain feeding platforms should be provided, pre- ferably of cement. When hogs are closely confined the pens should be cleaned daily and plenty of lime and disinfectants should be used. Thorn-headed Worm (Echinorhynchus gigas). This is a very common parasite of the small intestines of hogs. The name is derived from the fact that the head of the worm is provided with an armature of hooks with which the parasite at- taches itself to the mucous membrane of the intestine. This worm varies in length from five to fourteen inches. The body is firm and tapers to a point at the tail. Transverse ridges are noticeable. The worm has no digestive system but lives upon the digested food pres- ent in the intestine and which it absorbes through the skin. While very common, it is seldom that the results of infestation are as plainly evident, as in the case of Ascaris suilla, and it is seldom that the worms are present in large numbers. life History. The female worm produces eggs which pass out with the manure and are eaten by the common white grub worm which is the larva of the May bug or May beetle. In the digestive system of the grub the eggs hatch in a few days and the young worms, microscopic in size, bury themselves in the wall of the ab- dominal cavity of the grub. In rooting around in soil infested with these grubs the hog consumes all that he finds. In the stomach the young worm is liberated from the body of the grub, attaches itself to the lining of the small intestine and soon reaches maturity. Symptoms. _It is seldom that thorn-headed worms are present in sufficient numbers to cause much damage. When they are present in considerable numbers the injuries caused by them to the lining of the intestines may cause digestive disturbances, derangement of the nervous system, loss of flesh and irregular appetite. Post-mortem Findings. At the points of attachment to the in- testine a lump or small abscess in the intestinal wall is formed. This is plainly visible from the outside and resembles to some ex- tent the lesion of tuberculosis. Treatment. Prevent hogs from having access to manure piles or other places infested with the white grubs. Turpentine treatment as recommended for removal of the com- mon round worm, Ascaris suilla, is recommended as the best for the removal of the thorn-headed worm. Pin Worm (Oesophagostoma dentatum). This is a species of small worm found inhabiting the large in- Common Parasites 27 testines of hogs. They vary in length from one-fourth to three- fourths of an inch and are pointed at both ends. Life History. The eggs are passed out with the manure and con- taminate food and water supplies. When taken into the stomach the eggs are soon hatched and the young worms migrate to the large intestines where they soon reach maturity. Treatment. Preventive measures and treatment for removal are the same as those recommended for the large round worm. Kidney Worms (Stephanurus dentatum. Schlerostoma pinguicola). This is a common parasite of southern hogs. It inhabits the leaf fat and tissues around the kidneys and is occasionally found in the pelvis of the kidney and in rare instances in the substance of the kidney. When present in excessively large numbers they may mi- grate into the tissues of the abdominal wall and into the liver. The worms form cysts in which they may be found surrounded by debris. Their presence causes inflammation which affects the vi- tality of the animal and destroys the fat and flesh for food pur- poses. The kidney worm is grey or mottled in color, 1 to 1 ^ inches in length and rather thick and the texture of the body firm. Life History. The life history of this parasite is not definitely known but it is presumed that the worms, which infest the kidney itself, produce eggs which pass out with the urine and contaminate food and water. Too, it is believed that infestation occurs through the digestive system and that the young worms migrate through the tissues to the location in the vicinity of the kidneys. Undoubt- edly the custom of feeding hogs on offal from slaughtering estab- lishments is in some degree responsible for infestation with this and many other parasites and infectious diseases. Failure to prop- erly dispose of carcasses of hogs that die on the farm and range by burning or deep burial is also a factor of great importance. Symptoms. Kidney worms may be present in considerable num- bers without causing noticeable symptoms. It is seldom that in- festation is recognized in the living animal. Many persons believe that the worms are responsible for cases of paralysis of the hind parts but post-mortem findings in such cases do not bear out the belief as many such cases are found on post-mortem examination to be free of infestation. Undoubtedly the presence of worms in the kidney will produce inflammation of the kidneys and in this way they may be the direct cause of the death of the animal. Treatment. Sanitation in the feed lots and pastures and treat- ment of hogs with remedies recommended for internal worms are all that can be advised. Cauterizing the skin of the back with hot iron or chemicals is valueless and is not recommended. Cer- tainly, any one who is familiar with the location of the parasites will understand that it is impossible to reach them by this means or by means of medicines administered by mouth. All that can be 28 Georgia State College of Agriculture done is along the line of prevention of infestation as recommended above. Liver Flukes (Fasciola hepatica). These parasites are occasionally found infesting hogs, but are seldom of any practical importance in this species of animal. For description see the article on liver flukes of cattle. Lung Worms (Strongylus paradoxus), Metastrongylus apri). These are very common parasites of hogs in the Southern States as well as other parts of the United States. It is perhaps the most common parasite of farm animals. Lung worms are thread-like worms varying in length from % to 1 finches and are found infest- ing the air passages of the lungs and the lung substance at the apex of the lung. If present at all, they will be found in the very posterior portion. Their presence causes chronic irritation and cough, loss of condition in young pigs and shoats and sometimes results in death in young animals. In adults it is seldom that symptoms of infestation are observable. Life History. The complete life history of this parasite is not known but it is believed that the microscopic eggs of the parasites are coughed out with mucus from the air passages and that ani- mals become infested by inhaling the eggs along with dust par- ticles. Treatment. Preventive treatment is much more valuable than curative treatment. In order to prevent infestation sanitary pre- cautions must be taken continuously. The hog lots must be well drained, the food and water supply must be free from contamina- tion, the houses must be kept free of dust and the nests must be renewed frequently. Medicinal treatment of lung worm infestation in hogs is difficult and unsatisfactory. The treatments usually recommended are as bad as the disease. Where they can be administered without too much trouble, inhalations of the fumes of turpentine or pine tar may be of some value but, in general, the swine owner will have to depend upon good care and proper and liberal feeding to carry his pigs and shoats past the age when infestation does serious dam- age. Muscle Worms, Trichina (Trichina spiralis). Trichina spiralis is the muscle worm of the hog. It also infests the muscles of people and rats. It is transmitted to hogs through the animals eating the flesh of infested hogs or rats. Rats be- come infested through the same means. People become infested through consuming pork not thoroughly cooked. There is no thoroughly efficient method of inspecting pork so as to guarantee its entire freedom from these parasites; hence, thorough cooking at a sufficiently high temperature is necessary in order to avoid the danger of infestation. The full grown parasite is about one- Common Parasites 29 twelfth inch long. The larval form is about one twenty-fifth inch long. The mature form infests the intestines and the larvae the muscles. The larvae may be found in the muscles of infested ani- mals in small cysts lodged between the muscles. The muscles of the jaw, tongue, diaphragm and inner face of the ham are favorite seats of lodgment. The worms may be found by the aid of a low power microscope. Symptoms. During intestinal infestation loss of appetite, diarrhoea and loss of condition may result. During the period of migration of larvae through the muscles symptoms of muscular rheumatism may be observed in both man and hog. There is pain, fever, restlessness and in some cases a fatal termination. Treatment. Prevention of infestation consists in the proper dis- posal of human excrement, preventing hogs and rats from eating uncooked pork offal or carcasses, and the use of worm destroying remedies as previously recommended for intestinal worms. Prevention in man consists entirely in thorough cooking of all pork used for human food, whether fresh or salted. Investigations have proven that the ordinary methods of curing pork are not suf- ficient to destroy all larvae of trichina in muscular tissue. Tape Worm Cysts. Pork Measles, Measly Pork (Cysticercus cellu- losae), (Larvae of Tenia solium). No mature form of tape worm has been found in the hog but this species of animal is the intermediate host of the Tenia solium, the large armed tapeworm of man. Only the larval stage of devel- opment is passed in the hog. The parasites are found in cysts, varying in size from that of a rice grain to that of a bean, situated between the muscle fibres in certain favorite locations. The mus- cles of the tongue, heart and loin are the most common seats of in- festation. Upon examination under a low power microscope the cysts are found to contain the head and two segments of a tape- worm. The eating of pork infested in this manner is the means by which people become infested with this species of tapeworm. This is an additional reason for the thorough cooking of all pork. As no symptoms of infestation are manifested by infested hogs we are interested in it mainly from the standpoint of health. In- festation of hogs may be avoided by means of proper disposal of human excrement. The mature parasite being an inhabitant of the human intestines where its eggs are produced, it may readily be seen that proper sanitary precautions are as necessary on the farm as in town as preventive measures. On too many farms are to be found grossly unsanitary conditions which would not be tolerated at all in a well governed town or city. There is no reason why these conditions should exist, as arrange- ments for proper sanitation can be made with very little expense and labor. 30 Georgia State College of Agriculture Parasites of Sheep EXTERNAL PARASITES. Sheep Louse (Trichodectes spherocephalus) . Lousiness is a somewhat common trouble with sheep. Sheep lice of the above species are not blood suckers but live upon the substance of the surface of the skin. They cause irritation and restlessness, loss of condition and emaciation. FIG. 21.- Sheep louse (Trichodectes sphcerocephahis) : a, female ; &, antenna; c, d, dorfial and side view of leg. Enlarged. (After Osborn, 1896 ; Bui. No. 5, Div. Entomology, Dept. Agr,) Life History. All lice produce eggs. Sheep lice hatch from eggs cemented to the wool fibres and pass the entire life on sheep. Treatment. Dip the infested flock in a 2 per cent solution of cresol disinfectant. Spray and disinfect the stables or sheds occu- pied by the infested sheep with a somewhat stronger cresol solu- tion to which has been added sufficient air slaked lime to mark where it is applied. A second dipping a week later should rid the flock of lice. Sheep Tick (Melophagus ovinus). This is in reality a wingless fly. It is a very common parasite of sheep. Mature specimens are about % inch long, the body being Gammon Parasites 31 short and broad. The ticks have three pairs of legs. Body and legs are covered with fine short hair. The eggs produced by the fe- male are flat, oval and of brownish color and are fastened to the wool fibres with a sticky substance. The young emerge from the shell in the nymphal stage of development and in form are identical with the adults. The entire life _, ,** cycle is passed on sheen. FIG. 2tt— Adult sheep tick (a) and pupanum (6) (Melopluigus ovinus). Enlarged. (After Osborn, Symptoms. Long wool- 1896; Bui. No. 5, Div. Entomology, Dept.Agr.) ed sheep are more subject to tick infestation than short wooled. Infested sheep show evidences of restlessness and irritation of the skin. Unthriftiness and loss of vitality are caused by the parasites sucking blood, eating flesh and destroying the wool fibres. Treatment. Carefully examine all new sheep before placing them with the flock. Dip infested sheep in kerosene emulsion or in cresol solution as recommended for lousiness. Bot Fly of Sheep (Oestrus ovis), (Sheep gad fly). This is a small greyish yellow fly. The body is covered with fine hair and the abdomen marked with five rings. Life History. The flies are present during the hot months during the heat of the day. This fly does not produce eggs but deposits living larvae in the region of the nos- trils. The larvae pass up into the nasal chambers and cavities of the head where they fasten themselves to the membranes by means of hooks with which their heads are armed. The period of larval development is ten months. During this time the lar- vae grow to a length of % inch and diameter of % inch. When full de- velopment is attained they release their hold and are sneezed out and drop to the ground. They then bur- i row into the ground and lie dormant during four to six weeks. From this Brauer.) b, Larva or grub from fully developed adult flies, nos? of sheep. Enlarged. (After Symptoms. When sheep are pur- Curtice.) sued by the flies they run among 32 Georgia State College of Agriculture other sheep, shake the head and strike the ground with the fore feet. The whole flock may stampede and run to shaded shelter. The noses are kept close to the ground when bot flies are present. The presence of larvae in the nasal chambers is denoted by sneezing, a catarrhal discharge and watery eyes. In some in- stances the infested sheep, when lying down, will point the nose in the air and gradually turn the head around and backward. When heavy infestation is present, the animal walks with the head down and lifts the hind feet high. Attacks of staggers and giddiness may also be observed. Treatment. Preventive treatment consists in smearing the noses of sheep with a mixture of black pine tar and grease preferably rubbing it in well with a stubby brush. This is practicable only when the flock is small. Herds may be kept housed during the heat of the day or herded on dusty ground, the dust raised by the sheep being offensive to the flies. Sheep on range may be protected somewhat by the following means. With a two inch augur bore a number of holes six inches deep into a fallen tree or other timber. Fill the holes nearly full of salt. Smear the surface of the log or timber around the hole with the tar and grease mixture. This should be done once a week during hot weather. The sheep in at- tempting to get the salt have the noses smeared with the grease and tar and are thereby in a measure protected from infestation. Surgical Treatment. This consists in the removal of the grubs through an opening in the facial bones and can only be undertaken by a veterinarian. This is only practical in the case of valuable breeding stock. Another treatment recommended consists in the injection into the nasal cavities of 3 or 4 ounces of benzine imme- diately followed with flushing out the cavities with warm water. Blow Fly (Blue bottle fly), (Musca vomitoria). This species is about four times the size of the house fly. The eyes are brown and the body and abdomen bluish-green. Life History. The -female deposits eggs in manure and in the wounds of sheep and other farm animals. During hot weather the eggs hatch in a few hours and the larvae (maggots) burrow into the flesh. Small shear wounds, castration wounds and other in- juries may be followed by severe maggot infestation which may cause the death of the sheep in a few days. When the larvae have reached full development they drop to the ground and in a few days pass through the pupal stage of development and emerge as adult flies. Treatment. Preventive treatment consists in the application of fly repelling preparations to all wounds. Oil of tar and fish oil are recommended. When infestation with maggots is present the wool around the wound must be clipped away and the wound carefully cleansed. Chloroform, benzine or gasoline applied into the wound •Common Parasites 33 will kill the larvae. Oil of tar also will kill the larvae and prevent fresh infestation. Xote. There are several other species of flies which infest wounds of sheep and other farm animals in a similar manner. It is not considered necessary to discuss all of them as the same treatment applies in each species. INTERNAL, PARASITES Lung Worms (Strongylus filaria), (Verminous bronchitis). These worms infest the air passages of sheep and goats. They are thread-like, white and two to four inches in length. In mature sheep little effect of their presence is noted but in lambs and year- lings severe losses are sometimes caused. The presence of the parasites in the air passages produces irrita- tion resulting in the establishment of chronic couglji and loss of con- dition, and reduction of vitality. Pneumonia and death sometimes result from the infestation. Life History. The female worms produce eggs which are coughed out and contaminate feed and water supplies. Low lands not well drained appear to favor the propagation of the parasites. It is believed that the worms are hatched on the ground and taken into the stomach with food or water later migrating through the tissues to their favorite location in the lungs. Symptoms. In lambs and yearlings severe attacks of coughing, difficult breathing, anemia, (paleness of the skin and mucous mem- branes), dryness of the skin, loss of strength and rapid loss of flesh are the most notable signs of infestation. When the para- sites are present in large numbers in the intestines, indigestion and attacks of colic with intense thirst result. The live parasites may be found in the discharges from the nostrils and in the manure. Treatment. Preventive treatment consists in providing well drained pastures, especially for lambs and yearlings, and pasture rotation. Access to salt at all times is essential. Various treatments are recommended for the destruction of the parasites in the air passages but these are of doubtful value. They consist of fumigation with burning sulphur, the injection of ben- zine, turpentine or other worm destroyers into the wind pipe. In- fested animals should receive the best of care and careful and lib- eral feeding. The carcasses of all animals dying on the farm should be burned, or deeply buried, in order to prevent the spread of para- sites and diseases. Intestinal Worms (Oesophagostoma columbianum), (Nodular dis- ease). These worms are thread-like, three-fourths to one inch in length and are found in nodules in the wall of the intestines of sheep, 34 Georgia State College of Agriculture goats and cattle. This species of worm is widely distributed and is a very common parasite of sheep kept on farms. It is not so com- mon in range sheep. Extreme in- festation causes bowel disturb- ances, loss of flesh and condition, and in some cases death. Infesta- tion is most common in old sheep and rare in lambs. Infested in- testines cannot be used for making sausage casings. Life History. The life history of this species is similar to that of other intestinal worms. The eggs produced by the female pass out with the manure. The embryos are taken up with food or water and Fic.56.-The nodular worm ((Esoph- uP°n reaching the intestines pene- agostomum columbianum) . En- trate the wall of the bowels and larged: * Vulva. (From Bureau sometimes the stomach and liver, of Animal Industry Bulletin 127.) Their presence in the tissueg causes the formation of a lump or nodule. Examination of the lumps found along the intestines will disclose the worms surround- ed by yellow or greenish debris. Treatment. Preventive treatment is the same as recommended for lung worms. On account of the location of the worms in the nodules they are beyond the reach of medicines given internally; hence, no treat- ment for their removal can be recommended. Stomach Worms (Strongylus contortus), (Twisted stomach worms), (Parasitic gastritis). See description of this parasite in discussion of stomach worms of cattle. Symptoms. Dullness; depraved or capricious appetite; great thirst; attacks of colic; bloating of the flanks; dropsical swellings of the limbs, under the jaws and under the surface of the body; paleness of the skin and mucous mebranes; and diarrohea, which usually terminates in death, are the regular symptoms noticed. Post Mortem Findings. Upon careful examination of the fourth division of the stomach there may be found, in the folds of mucous membrane, great numbers of the worms. In some cases they are packed close together with the heads buried in the membrane which is thickened and pale. Treatment. Preventive treatment as recommended for stomach worms in cattle is advised. Common Parasites 35 Medicinal Treatment. For lambs or sheep weighing 75 pounds give, on an empty stomach, one tablespoonful of gasoline well mixed with one-half pint of raw linseed oil. Full grown sheep larger and heavier than this will require two to three times the dose. This treatment is to be repeated on three or four successive days after the sheep have been kept confined over night without food or water. Liver Flukes (Fasciola hepatica). See discussion of this parasite under discussion of parasites of cattle. Tape Worms. Several varieties of tape worms infest the intestines of sheep in the adult form. They do little appreciable harm and from a prac- tical point of view are unimportant. Their complete life history is unknown. Gid Bladder Worm. Gid, Turnsick (Coenurus cerebralis). This worm is the larval form of the Taenia coenurus, a tape worm which in its adult form infests the intestines of the dog. The mature worm, about two feet long, produces eggs which pass out with the feces of the infested dog. The eggs contaminate food and water and are taken into the stomach of the sheep in this manner. The eggs hatch in the stomach and the larvae migrate through the blood vessels and by this means reach the brain of the sheep. In the brain a cyst, or bladder-like structure, is formed which contains the larva. Dogs become infested with the adult form of the worm by eating the brains or spinal cords of sheep infested with the lar- val form of the worm. In some sections this form of parasitic in- festation causes severe losses to the sheep industry. Symptoms. Dullness, a staggery gait in walking, nervous excite- ment, evidences of sudden fright, irregular appetite, indigestion due to imperfect rumination, giddiness, turning in a circles, all are to be observed. As the cyst enlarges pressure on brain tissue is in- creased and the symptoms aggravated. In the later stages loss of flesh is rapid and blindness may occur. In case the spinal cord is in- fested the presence of the cyst causes paralysis of part or all of the body depending upon the location of the cyst. Treatment. Keep dogs away from the premises occupied by the sheep. If this is impossible, all dogs should be treated with medi- cines recommended for the destruction of tapeworms in dogs. De- stroy by burning all carcasses of sheep that die on the farm. Do not allow dogs to eat sheep heads at slaughtering establishments or elsewhere. In case of infestation of valuable sheep the cysts may be re- moved from the brain by surgical operation. This can only be done by a veterinarian. 36 Georgia State College of Agriculture Parasites of Dogs EXTERNAL. PARASITES. Dog Louse (Trichodectes latus). This species of louse infests dogs and as they eat the substance of the skin they cause considerable irritation. Thickening of the skin results from the animal scratching himself in his efforts to destroy the insects. Rough coat without apparent loss of hair dif- ferentiates lousiness from mange. This species of louse is the in- termediate host of the Taenia canina, a common tapeworm which passes its adult life in the intestines of the dog. Life History. The female lice lay eggs and cement them onto the hair of the dog. The young hatch and immediately begin to obtain their nourishment from the skin of the dog. They reach maturity in a few days. Treatment. Dip the infested dog in a 2 per cent solution of cresol disinfectant. Pyrethrum may be dusted into the coat of hair occasionally. Take four ounces of Quassia chips and let stand in one gallon of water over night. An application of this material will be found useful. Louse infested kennels should be sprayed with a 4 per cent cresol solution. Pio. 1. — The dog flea : a, Egg ; It, larva In cocoon ; c, pupa ; d, adult ; c, mouth parts of same from side ; f, antenna ; g, labium frem below, b, c, d, Much enlarged : a, e, f, g, more enlarged. (Prom Howard.) Fleas (Stenocephalus serraticeps). Pleas are common parasites on dogs and cats and cause constant irritation and loss of flesh. Fleas also serve as the intermediate host of the Taenia canina. Dog fleas are flattened from side to side and on that account are able to pass rapidly through the hair. Common Parasites 37 Fleas eat of the substance of the skin and suck blood. They cause irritation of the skin, thickening of the skin and loss of flesh. Life History. The female flea lays from fifteen to twenty eggs in some out of the way dusty corner. The young hatch in the form of a worm or maggot and pass through larval and pupal stages, finally attacking the dog in the adult stage. Dog fleas may hide in carpets and rugs during the day and attack dogs, cats or even people at night. Treatment. Same as recommended for lice. Red Mange. Demodectic Mange (Demodex folliculorum). This parasite is shaped like a minute oat grain and has eight short legs. It lives deep in the substance of the skin in the hair follicles and destroys the roots of the hair and causes irritation and thickening and redness of the skin. Pustules form on the skin and give it a rough appearance. The regions of the face, breast and legs are generally the parts first infested but the diseased condition may spread over the entire body. The hair falls out from the af- fected areas. Treatment. This is perhaps the most difficult form of mange to cure on account of the location of the parasite. Successful treat- ment depends upon the use of substances to dissolve the fat out of the superficial layers of the skin in order that the insecticide may penetrate into the hair follicles. Kaupp recommends a preparation of oleo-resin aspidii 8 parts, creolin 42 parts and alcohol 50 parts. Best results will be obtained if the preparation is applied after the skin has been thoroughly scrubbed with soap and hot water. INTERNAL. PARASITES. Intestinal AVorms, Round AA'orms (Ascaris marginata). This is the common round worm of the dog. The body is nearly white, the neck somewhat curved and the mouth provided with two broad lips . They vary in length from two to three inches. Life History. The life history of this parasite is similar to that of other round worms previously described as infesting the small intestines of other species of farm animals. Infestation occurs through contamination of food and water by fecal material from infested dogs. Symptoms. Puppies are perhaps more often infested than ma- ture dogs, although they may also be heavily infested. The pres- ence of the worms cause digestive disturbances, bloating of the abdomen, nervousness, loss of flesh and unthrifty appearance. Un- der ordinary conditions the worms inhabit the small intestines. In some cases and especially when they are present in large numbers, they may ascend into the stomach. In such cases nausea and vom- iting is produced. Large masses of worms are sometimes found in the bowels. Treatment. Prevention consists in the exercise of proper sani- 38 (Georgia State College of Agriculture. tary precautions, in treating the older dogs with vermifuges and the use of disinfectants in the kennels. For the removal or destruction of worms either of the following is good. Take powdered Areca nut in doses according to the size of the dog. Puppies may have two to ten grains, according to size. For older and larger dogs the dose may be increased. Best results are obtained when it is given on an empty stomach. Calomel may be combined with areca nut, using one-fifth as much calomel as areca nut. Hook Worms (Uncinaria canina). This is the common hookworm of the dog. The parasite may also infest cats. The worms are thread-like and y2 to % inch long. By means of hooks with which the heads are armed they attach themselves to the mucous membrane of the intestines and draw blood. Life History. The females produce eggs which hatch in moist earth. The larvae undergo a series of moults and in a few days may be taken into the digestive system with contaminated food. They immediately attach themselves to the mucous membrane and in a short time reach maturity. Symptoms. Hookworm disease is very common in puppies and is often found in older dogs. It is most fatal in puppies. The com- mon symptoms are loss of flesh, paleness, loss of energy, derange- ment of the digestive system, dullness and in some cases nausea. The worms may be found in the feces. Treatment. Same as recommended for Ascaris marginata. In addition thymol in doses of two to ten grains, in capsule, followed by a full dose of castor oil is also recommended. Note. Hookworm infestation is sometimes called "Black tongue." Tape Worms. Several species of tape worms infest the intestines of the dog in the adult form. They are Taenia coenurus, Taenia echinococcus, Taenia marginata, Taenia serrata and Taenia canina. These para- sites vary in length fro ma fraction of an inch to several feet. Tape worms consist of a head and a variable number of segments. Each segment of a tapeworm is capable of egg production. Segments are produced at the head and fully matured segments drop off at the tail of the worm. These segments contain eggs. When food of animals is contaminated with this material the eggs hatch in the digestive system and develop the larval form of the worm. The larval period of development of the Taenia coenurus is passed in the tissues of the brain and spinal cord of sheep as de- scribed under the heading "Gid Bladder Worm." That of the Taenia echinococcus is passed in cysts in the livers of cattle, sheep, hogs and man, the condition produced being known as "Hydatid cysts of the Liver." The larval development of Taenia marginata Common Parasites. o9 takes place in the abdominal cavity of sheep, known as Cysticercus tenuicollis. The larval development of the Taenia serrata takes place in the stomach and abdominal cavity of the rabbit. Larvae of the Taenia canina develop in the bodies of dog lice and fleas. It will be seen from this description that tapeworm infestation of dogs is dangerous to the health and well being of several species of farm animals and to people. Treatment. Prevention of tapeworm infestation in the dog is very difficult as it consists in a careful examination of all kinds of flesh of animals mentioned above as being susceptible of infestation of tapeworm larvae. For the removal of the adult forms infecting the intestines of the dog treatment as recommended for other intestinal parasites is advised. Buildings of College of Agriculture The University extends a cordial welcome to all educational, agricultural, commercial, manufacturing, financial and industrial bodies, and bodies of like character, having for their object the welfare of the state, to use on special occasions, free of rent, such public buildings of the University as the Chancellor and President of the Agricultural College may approve. RETURN FORESTRY LIBRARY TO— +• 260Mulford Hall 642-2936 LOAN PERIOD 1 QUARTER 2 3 4 5 6 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS DUE AS STAMPED BELOW SEP 2 1980 J