r wi • . ±oti± x'j.eu Picti'itiuK in. J. *t. Tocuiic;,/, JL^O. U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bulletin Ho. 27. acticaMlity of Forest Planting in the United states. By William L. Hall. Reprint from Yearbook of Department of .. r. , for 1902. h Itivate and Care for Forest Planta- tions on the Semiarid Plains. U. S. F. S.f Circular Ho. 54. **• Bur Oak. Forest Planting leaflet. 'Cir. 56. > Jack -fine. Forest Planting Leaflet 'cir. 57. J* rest Planting Leaflet. Cir. 56. :;alyptus. Forest Planting Leaflet /bir. 59. Forest Planting Leaflet. Cir. 60. cr ^' koryv' Sir. 62, Forest Planting Leaflet. Basswood. Forest Plantin :f let. Cir. 65. Black Loc-ust. Forest Planting Leaflet. Cir. 64. j v;.pr-aoe. Forest Planting Leaflet 3 Cir. 65, "te Pine. Forebt Planting Leaflet^ Cir .67. Scotch fine. Forest Planting Leaflet .^"bir. 68. ^->. :opean arch, Forest Planting Leaflet , Cir .70. •* Main S£ 0 Chestnut. Forest planting Leaflet, Cir. 71. Che s tout —Notes on Forest Trees suitable for Planting in the United States. V/estern Yellow Pine. Pores t Planting Leaflet, "ircular 72. Red Cedar, Forest Planting Leaflet. Cir. 73. ;kberry. Forest Planting Leaflet. Cir. 75. ottomvoo , orest Planting leaflet. Cir. 77. Hardy ^atalpa. Forest Planting Leaflet .Cir .82. Russian Mulberry. Forest Planting Leaflet. Circular 83. 7hite Ash. Forest Planting Leaflet. Cir. 84. . otes on Forest Trees Suitable tfor Planting in the United -tates. Boxelder. Forest Planting Leaflet. Cir. 86. e 'Villo.;. .orest Planting Leaflet , Cir .87 . Black Talm:t. Forest Planting Leaf let. Cir .88. Pamarakc. Forest Planting Leaflet. Cir. 89. •3 Orange. Forest Planting Leaflet. Cir90. •Teetree. Forest Planting Leaflet. Cir. 91. >reen Ash. Forest Planting Leaflet. Cir. 9£. fellow ropiar. Forest Planting Leaflet. Cir. 93. 'lack Cherry. Forest Planting Leaflet. Cir. 94. ar Maple. Forest Planting Leaflet. Cir. 95. /hite Oak. ^orest Planti ig Leaflet. Cir. 105. d op 44 9 . nor t leaf Pine. Forest Planting Leaflet, ni Practical Assistance to :Jree Planters. U. S. F. S. Circular No. ££. Exhibit of Tree Planting on a IJodel Prairio Farm at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition. * 'Circular II o . £9. o 'Reclamation of Flood -Damaged Lands in the Kansas Paver Valley By Forest Planting. it - . Dept. of Agr. , ^Circular Ho 4 27. hibit of Forest Planting in "Voodlots at the uisiana Purchase Exposition, l*1.^** .Instructions to Forest Officers in Reserve 2> anting, u. S. Dept. of Agriculture. !07 . Forest Planting on Coal Lands in VJestern Penn- sylvania. By b. U. Spring. U. 3. F. S. Circular ^o . 41. ! •prestions for Forest Planting on the Semiarid Plains. U. b. F. S. Cir. 99. '•Hative and Planted Timber of Iowa. By Hugh P. Baker, U. S. ?. S., Circular 154. Forest Planting in Illinois. By H. L. Zellogg, 1907. U:* 3. F. S. &t For xtensiori in the Middle '.Vest. By 7m. . Hall. 'Loblolly Pine. Forest Planting Leaf letCir. 185 . \ Forest Planting in '"estern Kansas. By ' . Kellogg. ;. .:. . . ... Cir. 161. frrrees for Kansas. 3y Charles A. li'cott. Agr. fa«A* • Ex. Station. Circular No. 55^ 1916. Forest Planting in the North Platte and Soulih Platte Valleys. By Frank G-. Miller. U. S. F. S. Circular 109. Forest Planting on the northern Prairies. By James M. Fetherolf. U. b. x":. S. Cir. 145. Forest Planting in the Sand-Hill Region of Nebraska . U. S. F. S. Cir. 37. Forest Planting in Eastern Nebraska. -By Frank Gr. Ciller. U. b. F. S. Cir. 45. j ^ Forestation of the oand Hills of Nebraska 1 Kansas. By Carlos G. Bates and Roy a. Pierce. 1913. U. S. F. S. Bull- etin No. 121. .istions for Forest Planting in the North- eastern and Lake States. U. o. F. S. Cir. 100. Forest Planting in the Eastern l! . S., By C. . Tillotson. U. S. jjept. of Ag£. , Bull- etin No. 153. iie Planting of T.7hite Pine in New England. By Harold B. Kempt on. U. S. F. S. Bulletin No. 45. 1903. ~ 1 iTotes on forest and Fruit Trees. Utah Agricultural College, Ex. station, Bulletin Uo. 18, October 1892. Planting in Utah. Utah Agricultur al College Experiment Station. Bulletin Ho . 62. V BULLETIN No. 27. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, DIVISION OF FORESTRY. GIFFORD PINCHOT, FORESTER. PRACTICAL TREE PLANTING IN OPERATION BY J. W. TOUMEY, SUPERINTENDENT OF TREE PLANTINO. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, I9OO. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, DIVISION OF FORESTRY, Washington, D. 6\, March 26, 1900. SIR: I have the honor to transmit herewith a report entitled " Prac- tical Tree Planting in Operation," prepared by J. W. Tourney, superin- tendent of tree planting in this Division, and to recommend its publication as Bulletin No. 27 of the Division of Forestry. Credit should be given W. L. Hall, assistant superintendent of tree planting, as the field work upon which the report is based was done chiefly by him. This report describes the practical working of the cooperation with tree planters begun by this Division in July, 1899, under the provisions of Circular 22, and, in addition, it describes the results of successful planting in the past, both for general and for special purposes. In a word, the report shows by actual examples the method pursued by the Division in assisting tree planters, and its probable results. Respectfully, GlFFORD PlNCHOT, Forester. Hon. JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture, 3 CONTENTS. Page. Introduction 9 Tree-planting agreement 9 The cooperative plan 10 The tree-planting sections of the United States 11 Favorable localities for tree planting .^ 13 A plantation for general purposes in southern Kansas 13 Planting pla*n for plantation for general purposes on the farm of Mr. P. G. Jacobson, Madison, Minn 15 Explanation of plan 18 Care of nursery stock 18 Transplanting evergreens 19 Preparation of the ground 20 A plantation for general purposes in central Kansas 21 Planting plan for a plantation for special purposes on the farm of Mr. Jesse J. Dunn, Alva, Okla '. 25 Explanation of plan 27 5 ILLUSTRATIONS. Pago. Plate I. Fig. 1. A timber claim in Thomas County, Kans., 10 years old, and in good condition. The shade is now sufficiently dense to produce a fair forest iloor and prevent the growth of prairie grasses. Fig. 2. A timber claim in Holt County, Nebr., where forest conditions were not attained. The prairie grasses were allowed to occupy the land and the trees gradually died out 12 II. Fig. 1. Soft maple forest plantation, 17 years old, in Harper County, Kans. Trees 8 to 12 inches in diameter and 35 to 45 feet high. In excellent condition. Fig. 2. Soft maple forest plantation, 12 years old, in Palo Alto County, Iowa. Trees too far apart to keep out the grass. In poor condition 14 III. Fig. 1. Site for forest plantation, according to planting plan No. 5, in Eddy County, N. Dak. Fig. 2. Black locust forest plantation, 12 years old, in Meade County, Kans. Trees 6 to 8 inches in diam- eter and 30 feet high 15 IV. Fig. 1. The Yaggy Catalpa plantation, in Reno County, Kaus. Rows 6 feet apart, age 10 years. Trees 4 to 6 inches in diameter and 25 to 28 feet high. Fig. 2. The Yaggy Catalpa plantation, in Reno County, Kaus., showing posts cut when trees were 9 years old. The posts are from 4 to 6 inches in diameter and many of the trees made two posts 22 FIGURES. Fig. 1. Planting plan No. 9, for a plantation for general -purposes on the farm of Mr. P. G. Jacobson, Madison, Minn 16 2. Planting plan No. 31, for a plantation for special purposes on the farm of Mr. Jesse J. Dunn, Alva, Okla 25 7 PRACTICAL TREE-PLANTING IN OPERATION. INTRODUCTION. In July, 1899, the Division of Forestry issued Circular No. 22, con- cisely describing a plan of cooperation by winch practical assistance is offered to persons desiring to establish woodlots, shelterbelts, wind- breaks, and other plantations of forest trees. Under the provisions of this circular the Division is sending expert tree planters to examine the laud owned by persons who request its cooperation, so far as the present resources of the Division will permit. During the months of October, November, and December, 1899, applicants were visited in Minnesota, North Dakota, Nebraska, Kan- sas, Oklahoma, and Texas. As a result of the examinations thirty- three working plans were made and are being put into execution. Each of these working plans is based upon the special needs of a particular farm, and is prepared after a careful examination of the farm in question. TREE-PLANTING AGREEMENT. The tree planting agreement which was published in Circular No. 22, and which is still in force with few modifications, is as follows: WASHINGTON, D. C., , . The Department of Agriculture of the United States and — — of , county of— — , State of , mutually agree as follows: 1. The Department of Agriculture, in pursuance of investigations in forestry and in order to disseminate a knowledge of improved ways of planting and developing forest plantations, woodlots, shelterbelts, and windbreaks, shall, after personal study 011 the ground by its agents, prepare a plan for planting and caring for a forest plantation, woodlot. shelterbelt, or windbreak, on acres of land of the said — — , situated and described as follows : town of — , county of , State of . 2. The said plan shall bo prepared for the purpose of promoting and increasing the present value and usefulness of said land to its owner and to develop and per- petuate a plantation of forest trees upon it. 3. Upon the completion of the said plan and its acceptance by the said , the Department of Agriculture shall supervise the execution thereof so far as may be necessary. 4. The Department of Agriculture shall not furnish seeds and trees, nor partici- pate in any degree in the expenses of planting and caring for said forest plantation? woodlot, shelterbelt, or windbreak, nor share in any profit which may arise from its growth. 9 10 PRACTICAL TREE-PLANTING IN OPERATION. 5. The Department of Agri'cutt'-ire 'shall render all services under this agreement wholly without charge to the said , but if the plantation described in para- graph 1 be of such a nature as to require inspections subsequent to the preliminary examination, and such inspections be made upon the special request of the owner, said owner shall pay the actual and necessary expenses for traveling and subsistence of the agent or agents of the Department working under this agreement. What are " actual and necessary expenses" shall be determined by the printed regulations of the Department. 6. The Department of Agriculture shall have the right to publish and distribute the said plan and its results for the information of farmers and others whom it may concern. 7. This agreement may be dissolved by either party upon ten days' notice given to the other. (Signed) , Oivner. (Signed) — , Secretary of Agriculture. Post-office : , Date : The working plan above mentioned, being completed, is now accepted, and will be carried out under the conditions and during the validity of the above agreement. (Signed) , Owner. It is necessary that persons who desire the assistance of the Division, as indicated in this agreement, should make their applications some months in advance of the time when they desire to plant, in order to afford ample opportunity for an agent of the Division to visit the laud of each applicant and complete the plans under which the work is to proceed sufficiently early so that the necessary young trees and seeds may be obtained from the most desirable regions and from responsible seed dealers and nurserymen in time for spring planting. THE COOPERATIVE PLAN. The method by which the Division carries on the cooperative work in tree planting is as follows : Every application when received is placed on file, and the applicant notified of its receipt. As soon as it is ascertained at what time an expert tree planter of the Division will be able to reach the land owned by the applicant, he is notified when the agent may be expected, and later, the day and hour when he will arrive. In places where suitable arrangements can be made a public meeting is arranged tor, s.o that all persons in the neighborhood interested in tree planting may attend it and confer with the agent on any matter pertaining to forest tree planting. The agent, accompanied by the applicant, goes over the ground of each of the proposed plantations, and obtains all available data that will be of assistance to him in making planting plans best suited for each farm visited. On account of the effect of local conditions on tree growth this personal examination is necessary in order to give trust- TREE-PLANTING SECTIONS OF THE UNITED STATES. 11 worthy advice regarding the method of planting and the kinds of trees to plant. The following are some of the local conditions which must be taken into consideration in satisfactorily establishing plantations of forest trees: (1) In prairie regions trees that succeed on bottom land and bench land frequently fail on upland. (2) The position of the farm buildings and orchards must be known in order to plant shelter-belts and wind-breaks most advantageously. (3) The local soil and moisture conditions determine in a large meas- ure the best trees to plant and the best place for the plantation. (4) The purpose of the plantation must in a degree determine the kinds of trees to plant. From the data obtained by personal examination and consultation with the applicant, planting plans are made and sent to the owner. These plans include a carefully prepared map of the whole or a part of the farm visited, having the proposed wind-breaks, wood lots, shelter- belts, or other forest plantations platted upon it. The instructions incorporated in the planting plans state specifically the way to plant and the number of each species required to complete the plantation, and when mixed plantations are recommended diagrams show how these mixtures are to be made. Sundry instructions are also included regarding the growing of forest-tree seedlings, care of nursery stock, special care of evergreens, and the preparation of the soil. At the time the examination is made by the agent the applicant signs the agreement at the first point indicated, thus expressing his desire to have planting plans prepared, under the conditions stated therein. After the planting plans are prepared and the agreement signed by the Secretary of Agriculture, they are transmitted to the owner, and, if accepted by him, he signs the agreement inclosed with the plans, at the second point indicated, and returns it to the Division of Forestry. In instances where it is considered necessary, and when circumstances permit, visits are made to the cooperative plantations after the planting plans have been put into execution, and, in some cases, during the time of planting, but such visits are made at the expense of the Division of Forestry, unless specifically requested by the applicant. Although this plan of cooperation has been in operation less than a year, the results already obtained in bringing the Division into closer relations with land owners desiring to establish plantations of forest trees, particularly in the treeless regions of the West, are most satis- factory, and the work is rapidly expanding. THE TREE-PLANTING SECTIONS OF THE UNITED STATES. Although applications for assistance in establishing plantations 6f forest trees are being received from nearly every State, more than 90 per cent come from the treeless regions of Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, 12 PRACTICAL TREE-PLANTING IN OPERATION. Nebraska, and the Dakotas, regions where tree planting is most needed for protection to stock, orchards, and buildings, and for fuel, posts, and other farm purposes. This center of tree-planting activity, being as it is an open prairie, must depend upon careful and painstaking planting to approach the conditions prevailing in regions originally wooded, where trees grow when once planted without further attention. This fact is most forcibly illustrated in the present condition of many tree claims on the prairies of the West. Although occasional plantations have been successful, as illustrated in Plate I, fig. 1, the greater number, on account of un- favorable locations or lack of proper attention in planting ami sub- sequent care, have been failures. The illustration shown in Plate I, fig. 2, represents the present condition of hundreds of such claims, and is a strong argument in favor of better judgment regarding the selection of locations for plantations and of fuller knowledge of the proper care and management of forest trees in the plantation. Adjacent to the great plains between the Kocky Mountains and the Mississippi River there is both an eastern and a western limit of tree growth under natural conditions — that is, a place where trees give way to lower forms of vegetation. This limit is largely fixed by the amount and the season of rainfall, although before the period of settlement it was determined to considerable extent by prairie fires. If we plant trees beyond this limit it is evident that they will have to be handled differently from the way nature treats the trees which spring from seeds blown or otherwise carried upon prairie lands from distant wood- lands. In the latter case the self-sown seeds frequently germinate, but in the struggle of the young trees for existence among the prairie grasses they invariably die. If they did not there would be no prairies. Therefore, when young trees are planted beyond ,the limits of natural tree growth they must be given some advantage over the indigenous vegetation or they will die, for the same reason that trees starting from self-sown seeds die. They must be protected. There is probably not a single inhabited region in the United States where some kinds of trees may not be made to grow when given adequate assistance in the way of cultivation and irrigation. In regions of extremely adverse conditions only the hardiest varieties exist, and then only as stunted, poorly developed specimens, even when the best effort is made to modify the existing conditions. On the other hand, in prairie regions adjacent to natural woodlands many varieties of trees grow almost as well, when once established, as they do in the natural forest. The treeless West presents every intermedi- ate condition between these two extremes, but in every case some adverse conditions, calling for more or less effort on the part of man, must be overcome. If these conditions are overcome, trees will grow; if they are not, they will die. The chief object of the cooperative tree-planting work of the Division Bull. 27, Div. of Forestry, U S. Dept. of Agr. PLATE I. A PLANTATION FOR GENERAL PURPOSES. 13 of Forestry is to assist tree planters in overcoming these adverse con- ditions, and to aid in the establishment of plantations of the greatest possible value to their owners. FAVORABLE LOCALITIES FOR TREE PLANTING. Nearly everywhere within the natural wooded areas trees grow with little or no care. Although these localities are especially favorable for tree growth, favorable situations of limited area are not infrequent in what are generally known as treeless localities. In many Western situations where only the hardiest trees succeed at all upon upland and exposed places, benchlands and lowlands along creeks and rivers where the valleys are naturally subirri gated are usually well adapted to tree growth. Such conditions are frequent in the valleys of the Platte, Arkansas, Oimarron, and other rivers of the plains. In many localities west of the ninety-ninth meridian, and even farther east, much depends upon the selection of the site for the plantation of forest trees upon each individual farm. The question of the location of the farm buildings in relation to future plantations is also of critical importance. A PLANTATION FOR GENERAL PURPOSES IN SOUTHERN KANSAS. The following account of the plantation of Joseph Lewis is presented as an evidence of what can be done on the open prairie in a short space of time. This plantation is located in the southern part of Harper County, Kans., in the valley of a small stream called Silver Creek. The soil is a fertile, brown, sandy loam, and reaches some 6 or 8 feet in depth. It is freely permeable, both to water and the roots of trees, containing much water when saturated, and has marked retentive powers. The subsoil is similar to the soil, and a uniform layer of coarse, water-bearing sand is found at a depth of about 15 feet. This kind of soil is producing better trees than any other in the unforested West. Mr. Lewis settled on this land a little over twenty years ago. He immediately began to improve it, but his main forest plantations were not made until 1882. At this time a 30-acre plat was laid out for an orchard, and on the north, west, and south of this plat a windbreak was planted. On the north of the orchard a strip some 20 rods in width was planted with Cottonwood. On the west a strip about 15 rods wide was planted, at one end with Soft Maple, and at the other with Black Walnut, with the trees about 6 feet apart in one direction and 8 feet in the other. On the south a strip varying in width from 10 to 15 rods was irregularly and thinly planted with Cottonwood, Red Cedar, Soft Maple, Russian Mulberry, and Catalpa. The site of this plantation slopes gradually southward to the creek, which is the 14 PRACTICAL TREE-PLANTING IN OPERATION. boundary of the planting on the south side. On the north side of the plantation the land is from 5 to 10 feet higher than the south side, but of the same kind of soil. The Cotton woods made the most rapid growth. Twelve years after planting they were 40 feet or more in height, with trunk diameters breast high of 10 to 12 inches. Two or three years ago nearly all of these trees were cut down. The Cottonwoods on the south side of the plan- tation, however, were allowed to remain. The house stands among them, and the yard and lots receive ample shade and protection from their broad spreading tops. They are now 50 and CO feet tall, with tops reaching a maximum diameter of 40 feet. The Eussiau Mulberry has made a most vigorous growth. The trees were allowed to branch low, but have reached the height of 30 feet, and have dense tops. Their diameters range from 12 to 14 inches. The branches of these trees would now form ten or twelve good posts to each tree. Soft Maples planted at the same time are now large thrifty trees, 40 feet high and 8 to 10 inches in diameter. They have not yet yielded to the tendency to die out in the top and become stag- headed, so frequently noticed of this species in many places in the West, especially over a clay subsoil. Plate II, fig. 1, represents the present condition of the Soft Maple plantation on this farm, and is in marked contrast to a similar plantation illustrated in Plate II, fig. 2, where desirable forest conditions were not attained. The Black Walnut is growing near the Maple, so that the difference in size is readily recognized. The diameters are about half as great in the Walnuts as in the Maples. They are now from 4 to G inches in diameter, and are from 25 to 35 feet high. With proper care in thin- ning, the Walnut plantation will stand for many years as a monument to the man who planted and reared it. One of the most thrifty and profitable orchards in the State of Kan- sas has been grown in the shelter and protection of this grove. In his report to the Kansas Horticultural Society Mr. Lewis, speaking of his orchard, says, "I believe windbreaks are essential in this country." The planting on this farm has been of the most practical sort. For the most part desirable trees have been used. They have been planted advantageously both in relation to favorable soil and to the benefits which may be derived from their growth. They were well cared for until they were large enough to protect themselves. The results of this plantation are: First, fuel for household use; second, posts and poles for the building of fences, sheds, and cribs; third, protection to feed lots and buildings from wind and sun ; fourth, a profitable com- mercial orchard in a region where unprotected orchards are a failure; fifth, an increased value of the entire quarter section of land of at least $10 per acre. What has been done on this farm can not be done upon every farm in the West, because the soil and moisture conditions are more favor- 27, Div. of Foiestry, U. 5. Dept. of Agr. PLATE II. Bull. 27, Div. of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agr. PLATE III. FIG. 1.— SITE FOR FOREST PLANTATION, ACCORDING TO PLANTING PLAN No. 5, IN EDDY COUNTY, N. DAK. FIG. 2.— BLACK LOCUST FOREST PLANTATION, 12 YEARS OLD, IN MEADE COUNTY, KANS. Trees 6 to 8 inches in diameter and 30 feet high. PLANTING PLAN FOR A PLANTATION. 15 able here than in many places ; but there are, nevertheless, millions of acres upon which this successful tree growth can be duplicated. Successful as this plantation has been, it lacks the element of per- manence. Already part of the Cotton wood grove has been cut away, and the land is again prairie. Not an acre of Western prairie land that has been transformed into forest should ever be allowed to revert. The Cottonwood and Boxelder should yield only to the Locust, Ash, Walnut, and Oak, for valuable timber should be the ultimate aim of every Western planter. Plate III, fig. 1, illustrates what may be expected on the plains of the West in a pure plantation of Black Locust, on soil best adapted to its growth, when properly planted and cared for. In contrast with this desirable plantation, which may be attained with this or other species in many Western regions, there is presented in- Plate III, fig. 2, an illustration of the site for a proposed plantation in North Dakota on the open, wind-swept prairie. PLANTING PLAN FOE A PLANTATION FOR GENERAL PURPOSES ON THE FARM OF MR. P. G. JACOBSON. MADISON, MINN. This farm is located one-half mile north of Madison, the county seat of Lac qui Parle County, Minn., on the east J of section 17, township 118, range 44, west of the fifth principal meridian. The region in which the farm is located consists of high rolling prai- rie, with i, either natural forest nor natural elevations to break the force of the wind which sweeps over the country at all seasons of the year. The farm consists of 320 acres, at an elevation of about 1,200 feet above the sea level. The surface has no uniform slope, but, owing to a number of knolls with low and irregular depressions between them, slopes in all directions are to be found. These are gradual and slight, with the difference in elevation between the knolls and depressions of not more than 8 to 10 feet. No creeks, ravines, or water runways occur upon the farm. The soil, like that of the entire region, is a deep, black, heavy marl of glacial origin, with enough clay to make it adhesive when wet, and somewhat difficult to cultivate. It contains a large admixture of vege- table mold, which renders it more porous and friable than it would otherwise be. Its absorptive capacity is large and its retentive powers so great that it resists drought very well. At a depth of from 3 to 4 feet a light, yellow clay subsoil appears and continues down to the water level, some 20 to 25 feet below the surface. It is sufficiently porous to allow the percolation of water through it, and at times becomes so saturated that the water drains out into cellars. The several farm buildings are located near the south side of the farm, adjacent to the public road, which follows the section line. In 16 PRACTICAL TREE-PLANTING IN OPERATION. front of the house, near the road, is a low, swainp-like spot one-half acre in extent, which will be drained. A residence is to be erected in the future somewhat in front of and a little to the east of the present house. The plantation for general purposes proposed for this farm is as fol- lows: Beginning on the south line of the farm, a wind-break 15 rods wide, will extend northward 00 rods; at the north end of this and forming an L with it, a belt 0 rods wide, extends 30 rods to the east. Farm of MrP.G.Jacobson, Madison, £ac c/ui Paris Co. Minn. S.E '/t Sec 17, T./IS fJ ff. 44, MS™ PM. /60 rods P/ari for General ' P/anfation (/ --b *"" g '\^...n ^^ /J EIG. 1. Planting plan No. 9, fora plantation lor general purposes on the farm of Mr. P. G. Jacobson, Madison, Minn. This plantation will protect the buildings and lots on the west and north and also an orchard which will be planted on the slope north of the house. The present plantation will cover 8 acres. Later it will be extended west and north until 15 acres are covered. The north part of the plantation is on a northern slope, the south part on a southern slope. The land has already been plowed in preparation for spring planting. PLANTING PLAN FOR A PLANTATION. 17 The purposes of the plantation are general: First, to serve as a wind-break, shielding the house, barn, and orchard from the southwest, west, northwest, and north winds; second, to provide a supply of fuel, posts, and poles for farm use; third, to increase the value and attrac- tiveness of the farm. With these objects in view it is desired to plant such trees as will thrive and produce a grove of timber of good appear- ance and quality. It is so planned that if properly managed it should grow more valuable with age and endure as a permanent plantation. The only planting already done upon the farm consists of 1,000 each of White Ash and Elm, set last year 4 by 4 feet apart on the site of the west belt. Nearly all the trees grew. The owner desires to make this a part of the permanent plantation. In neighboring plantations White Elm, White Ash, Boxelder, White Willow, Cottonwood, Kussian Poplar, and Balm of Gilead have been grown with success. Soft Maple thrives, but is badly broken by the wind in winter when covered by ice and snow. White Pine, Austrian Pine, Scotch Pine, and White Spruce in limited quantities have been tried, but have suffered from winterkilling. As the summer growth is very rapid and does not usually mature fully, the trees are easily killed by the ensuing cold of the winter. It is the general opinion that coni- fers will not be successful in this community, but the conclusion is based on too limited experience. The following plan will be followed in the execution of this planting: Plan for general plantation. (4 feet by 4 feet.) B E B E B E B E APAPAPAP BEBEBEBE A PAP APAP B E B E B E B E APAPAPAP B E B E B E B E APAPAPAP B=Boxelder. A=Green Ash. E=White Elm. P=Pine, Spruce, and Black Cherry. Number of trees per acre. Boxelder ..680 Green Ash 680 White Elm 680 Pine, Spruce, and Black Cherry „ 680 NOTE. — Black cherry should be planted in the north belt as alternate trees in the even rows; this will take about 1,500 trees. The 3,850 coniferous trees should occupy similar positions in the west belt. 20514— No. 27 2 18 PRACTICAL TREE-PLANTING IN OPERATION. EXPLANATION OF PLAN. The planting is to be made in two belts, one on the north of the buildings, 6 by 30 rods, and one on the west of the buildings, 15 by 60 rods. The plan calls for Boxelder, Green Ash, White Elm, Black Cherry, and conifers. In the first row Boxelder and Green Ash are to alter- nate, in the second row White Elm and a conifer alternate in the west belt, while in the north belt Black Cherry comes in the place of the conifer. The conifers, which consist of 1,100 White Pine, 1,250 Red Pine, and 1,500 Douglas Spruce (Red Fir), are not to be set in the per- manent plantation during the spring of 1900, but are to be set 1 foot apart in nursery rows. If their growth be rapid, cultivation should cease by midsummer. Next winter they may be slightly protected by straw placed about them. In the spring of 1901 they are to be set in the permanent plantation. It is recommended that 1-year old seedling deciduous trees be used in the planting, on account of their cheapness and the ease and safety of transplanting. To insure hardiness in the stock the trees are to be obtained from nurseries with climate corresponding to that into which they are to be be transplanted. The method of mixing the trees is definitely shown by the accompany- ing planting plan. In case the Black Cherry can not be obtained for planting this spring its planting may be delayed till the spring of 1901. An order for the stock should at once be placed with a nurseryman, so that he may be able to have it when needed. CARE OF NURSERY STOCK. When forest-tree seedlings are received from the nursery, they should be immediately unpacked, the roots puddled, and the plants heeled in to await favorable weather for planting. Yearling stock, which is the best age for such quick-growing varieties as Cotton wood, Boxelder, Soft Maple, Russian Mulberry, Catalpa, White Elm, Black Cherry, Black Walnut, Black Locust, and Honey Locust, will seldom require special treatment. If they have made unusual root growth it may be necessary to prune the roots in order to make the planting easier, but this should be sparingly done. It is quickly accomplished by chopping the tips with a sharp ax before the bundles are untied, leaving the roots at least 8 inches long. Before the plants are unpacked a puddle should be made by digging a hole convenient to the place of heeling in, and mixing in it equal parts of loam and fresh cow dung with enough water to reduce the whole to a mixture sufficiently thick to adhere to the roots readily. As each bundle is taken out it is untied, the roots spread, and dipped in the puddle to the collar, so that every root is covered. A trench having TRANSPLANTING EVERGREENS. 10 been previously opened a spade deep, with one side an inclined plane, the puddled trees are spread upon the slant in a thin layer, care being taken to have the collars as nearly uniform as may be, and the trees are then covered with a thin layer of fine soil, which should reach an inch or two above the collars. This is firmly tramped, and well smoothed, and then a second layer of trees is "heeled in." The soil adheres to the muck on the roots, and thus prepared they can be handled with much less danger of drying than if heeled in without puddling. Each species should be heeled in by itself, one layer against another, with a narrow alley between it and the next species. If the trees are to remain heeled in for some little time a shady location should be selected, or the trees should be shaded with a light mulch of straw or prairie hay. The trees should be left thus heeled in until favorable weather for planting comes. It is the variable weather of early spring which is so often responsible for failure in tree planting, and in the West particu- larly every precaution should be taken to use the most favorable time for planting. To this end stock should always be ordered to be deliv- ered at the earliest possible date after danger of freezing in shipment is passed. If received when the ground is frozen it may be kept safely in a cool cellar, to be heeled in when the frost is out of the ground. If the spring rains are delayed, the stock should not be disturbed. This is why it is important to heel in trees on the north side of a barn, or other place where the shade will retard their sprouting. If the soil is in good condition as to moisture, cloudy weather is the most favorable for planting, not only because there is less danger of drying the roots of the trees, but also because there is less evaporation. A few days of cloudy weather will enable the trees to establish them- selves almost without check. Conifers, with the exception of Larch, should be left to the last in planting, as they start later than broadleaf trees. It frequently happens that large loss of Pines, Cedars, and Spruces is caused by early plant- ing, followed by a period of bright sunshine and dry weather. Had the conifers been left in the shade well-heeled in they would have been protected from the bright sun, and in good condition for planting when the rains came. Many successful planters never set evergreens until the root tips show signs of growth. If when the root tips begin to swell and whiten the soil moisture is favorable and cloudy weather prevails, the best pos- sible combination of circumstances for transplanting has been secured. TRANSPLANTING EVERGREENS. Evergreens require more careful attention in transplanting than deciduous trees. The latter may dry out and become shriveled,, yet with proper attention be revived and live, but the former, once dried in the least, never regain their vitality. This accounts for many fail- 20 PRACTICAL TREE-PLANTING IN OPERATION. ures in transplanting evergreens. The rules laid down for the handling of deciduous trees when received from the nursery need not be changed for conifers, but they must be followed with very much more care and exactness. It is necessary that no delay shall occur during shipment and that the stock should be taken care of immediately upon reaching its destination. The planter must not let anything whatever interfere with the immediate unpacking, puddling, and heeling in of the stock. Heel in the trees in a cool place i>rotected from sun and Avind, and await a favorable day for planting. The stock should be on hand by the time the ground ceases to freeze, and should be planted in the first good planting weather thereafter. It is unwise to delay, for another favorable time may not come. Good planting weather should be con- strued to mean a time when the soil is well supplied with moisture, and a day when the sun is obscured by clouds and the atmosphere moist and still. Setting the trees is the final act in a very important series of movements. Perform it as though everything in the success of the trees were dependent upon it. See that the roots are kept moist all the time, that the holes are ample for them, and that good soil is firmly packed about them. Usually the best success is attained by planting evergreens very close together, growing them, particularly in prairie regions, under partial shade for one year after they are received from the nursery, and placing them in the permanent location the following spring. It is sometimes necessary to clip the side branches of ever- greens that the tops may be reduced in proportion to the roots. Never allow the leader to be injured in any way. PREPARATION OF THE GROUND. Trees succeed best upon land which has been thoroughly subdued from the wild condition. Four or five years of cultivation should usu- ally precede the planting of trees on most prairie soils. After the first breaking of the sod, which is properly very shallow, the plowings should be successively deepened until 7 or 8 inches of the surface soil have been mellowed by cultivation and weathering. The growing of farm crops, especially deep rooting crops such as corn, helps much to prepare the ground for the reception of trees. In the fall previous to planting, the land should be plowed deeply and left rough over winter. In the spring it should be worked into a mellow condition and marked for planting. An implement such as a corn marker may be used, but in many portions of the West a furrow made with a plow or lister is to be recommended. The rows should be carefully spaced by measure- ment rather than by guess. If the rows are correctly spaced and staked it is usually a very easy matter to run them very nearly straight. If the soil tends to dry out rapidly the furrows should not be made far ahead of the planting. In almost all cases it is necessary to space the trees by measure- ment in the rows. This may be easily done by means of a check PLANTATION FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES. 21 row line, marked so as to show where the trees are to stand. If care be taken to establish the line correctly in each row and to plant by the mark, the cross alignment will be very accurate. The trees should be set a little deeper than they grew in the nursery and should have the fine surface soil made firm about the roots. They should have thorougli surface cultivation, especially during the early part of the season. In most sections of the West cultivation should continue all summer, but in the North, where the seedlings are likely to winterkill if the wood is not well matured, cultivation should cease in late summer. Cultivation carried on in this way should be the unfailing rule in almost all Western planting. It must be continued until the shade oi the trees becomes so dense that weeds will not grow and the leaves, gathering on the ground, form a mulch between the trees sufficient to retain the moisture in the soil. On account of more rapid growth in plantations made along streams, frequent cultivation can not, in all instances, be followed. In such cases the natural moisture of the soil and the adaptability of the loca- tion to tree growth may be sufficient to equalize the loss which the tree sustains from lack of tilth. A PLANTATION FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES IN CENTRAL KANSAS. The Catalpa plantation of Mr. L. W. Yaggy, located 4 miles west of Hutchinsou, Kans., in the sandy valley of the Arkansas River, is a most interesting example of the growing of forest trees as a financial invest- ment. The plantation consists of 440 acres planted entirely to Hardy Catalpa at the uniform distance of 3 J by 6 feet apart. The first plant- ing, consisting of 120 acres, was done in 1890; 80 acres were planted in 1891, and 240 acres in 1892. On account of the expense and diffi- culty of obtaining trees from commercial nurseries for the planting of so large a tract, Mr. Yaggy grew his own stock, thereby greatly reducing its cost. The trees were set in the permanent plantation when 1 year old. They were planted in furrows laid off 6 feet apart. A line was stretched in the furrows, marked at spaces of 3J feet, and stationed each time so that the rows should begin evenly. The trees were set at the points marked on the line, and a fair alignment was secured in all directions. Almost a perfect stand was obtained, and, except in a very few spots of hardpan, the trees made a rapid growth from the first. The soil upon which the plantation is located is a sandy loam several feet in thick- ness, underlaid by a soft clay subsoil, which also contains a large admixture of sand. Both soil and subsoil are permeable to water and are well adapted to tree growth. The water table is about 8 or 10 feet below the surface. The subsoil and soil are thus subirrigated, so that the trees do not suffer from lack of moisture. When the trees were 2 years old they had formed tops by branching 22 PRACTICAL TREE-PLANTING IN OPERATION. at 3 to 5 feet from the ground. As the object of the owner was to secure straight, clear boles, the branching was considered a defect. The trees were therefore cut back to the ground, leaving, however, several strips of 3 rows each at uniform distances apart, extending east and west through the plantation as windbreaks for the tender growth of the next season. The stump of eacli tree so cut back threw out several sprouts which reached a height of from 6 to 12 feet the fol- lowing season. The next winter most of the sprouts were cut away, leaving only the most vigorous one at each stump to form the tree. During the following year the upward growth continued, side branches appearing at heights varying from 8 to 12 feet. According to Mr. Yaggy's statement, given below, cultivation ceased after the third year. After this the shade of the trees became so dense that weeds and grass did not grow. The accumulation of leaves soon formed a mulch, so that the transition from a cultivated field to a dense young forest with excellent conditions of forest floor and cover was complete. Thinning began in the older parts of the plantation in the winter of 1897-79S. After six seasons' growth from the time of cutting back, 2,500 trees were cut from an 80-acre tract, and the next year 13,000 trees were removed from the same tract. In each cutting only the largest trees were taken. Each tree removed made 2 posts, the larger with a butt diameter of from 4 to 6 inches, and the smaller of from 2J to 3J inches. The posts were sold at the plantation, the lower cuts bringing 10 cents each and the upper ones from 4 to 6 cents each. About one-eighth of the trees were removed in these two cuttings. An illustration of the present appearance of this plantation is shown in Plate IV, fig. 1. Through the courtesy of Mr. Yaggy, valuation measurements of two typical areas of one-half acre each, one on the exterior and one on the interior of the plantation, were made in January, 1900, under the direc- tion of the Division of Forestry. The measurements were made by the foreman of the farm, working under the following instructions: Mark off one-half acre on the north edge of the older plantation, representing an average of the outer area of the plantation. This area should extend 10 rods south, including 27 rows of trees, and 8 rods west. The trees on this area are to be counted and their diameters measured with calipers, at heights of 1 and 7 feet. When meas- uring the trees a record is to be made of the number of posts and stakes each would furnish at the present time, and the value of each reckoned on previous sales from the plantation. A record is also to be made of the value of the wood contained in the parts of the tree unfit for posts and stakes. The measurements and records for each tree are to be tabulated upon sheets forwarded from the Division of Forestry. These sheets are ruled into columns headed to show the number of the tree, the diam- eter 1 foot above ground, the diameter 7 feet above ground, number of posts the tree will make, value of posts, number of stakes, value of stakes, value of wood, and total value of tree. As few stumps as possible are to be included in the areas men- tioned, but where trees have been cut the diameters of the stumps are to be taken and an estimate made of the value of the posts and stakes obtained from them. The same measurements are to be taken on a half acre similarly laid off, represent- Jull. 27, Div. of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agr. PLATE IV. FIG. 1.— THE YAGGY CATALPA PLANTATION, IN RENO COUNTY, KANS. Rows 7 to 12 feet apart; age 10 years. Trees 4 to 6 inches in diameter and 25 to 28 feet high. FIG. 2.-THE YAGGY CATALPA PLANTATION, IN RENO COUNTY, KANS., SHOWING POSTS CUT WHEN TREES WERE 9 YEARS OLD. The posts are from 4 to 6 inches in diametei, and many of the trees made two posts. PLANTATION FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES. 23 ing the interior conditions of the grove, and located far enough within the planta- tion to be entirely uninfluenced by the open ground. The results of the measurements are shown in the following table: Locality. Area. Num- ber of trees. Num- ber of posts. Value. Num- ber of stakes. Value. Value of wood. Total value of trees. Acre. 944 891 811 496 $81. 10 49.62 1,888 1,341 $47. 87 36.15 84.02 $28. 92 23.49 $157. 89 109. 26 2677l5 Total 011 average acre 1 1,835 1,307 130.72 i 3,229 52.41 From these figures it appears that the gross value of the timber crop produced in ten years is $2G7.15 per acre. In reckoning the cost of the plantation per acre, Mr. Yaggy's own figures have been used. They are as follows: I bought the best river-bottom land, with rich, moist, loamy soil, for which I paid $25 per acre. It was cultivated in corn two years before I planted trees upon it. The cost of raising sufficient trees to plant an acre was $3.60; cost of planting with listers and plows, $3.20 per acre. The rows being 6 feet apart, rows of corn were planted between the rows of trees. In cultivating the corn the trees received nearly as much cultivation as was necessary. About three cultivations were sufficient the first year, cost $1.20. The second year the trees needed no cultivation. The third year three cultivations were sufficient. After that time no more care was required. It costs about $2.50 per acre to cut back the trees and sprouts. If the cutting off is done early, the cost is small; if it is done when the trees are 3 or 4 years old, the wood pays for the cutting. One sprouting in July (the year following cutting back) is sufficient. The foreman of the farm states that it costs 1J cents each to cut and deliver posts at the station ; from which statement we estimate that the cost of marketing the present crop is $20 per acre. Counting the rent of this land at $2 per acre, the expenses of growing the crop and marketing the product at the present time are therefore to be summarized for 1 acre as follows: Rent of land 10 years, at $2 $20. 00 Cost of raising plants from seed 3.60 Cost of planting 3. 20 Cost of cultivation, first year 1.20 Cutting back and sprouting 2.50 Cost of cultivation, third year 1.20 Cost of marketing crop 20. 00 Total 51. 70 Deducting $51.70, the total cost of growing and marketing the timber grown on 1 acre, from $267.15, which is the gross value of the product in hand, there remains a net value of $215.45 per acre, or, including the interest on the investment, an annual profit of $21.54. Allowing 6 per cent compound interest on the expenditures from the time 24 PRACTICAL TREE-PLANTING IN OPERATION. incurred until the expiration of the ten years, the total expense per acre was as follows : Tear. Amount ex- pended. Amount 6 per cent compound interest. First $10 00 $17 91 Second 4 50 7 00 Third 3 20 5 10 Fourth 2 00 3 00 Fifth 2 00 9 84 Sixth 2 00 2 68 Seventh • 2 00 2 52 Eighth 2 00 2 38 Ninth 2 00 2 25 Tenth 29 00 23 32 Total 51 70 69 60 Deducting $69.60 from $267.17, the gross value, we have a net profit of $197.55 per acre. These results show the value of an acre at the present time when the trees are but 10 years old. It would be very unwise to remove all the trees at this time. If only a portion of the trees are marketed each year for the next 10 years, and the trees cut out are distributed so as to give more sunlight to those that remain, the net profit per acre will be very much increased. Plate IY, fig. 2, is an illustration from the edge of the plantation where the posts have been drawn out and are made ready for market. The results obtained by Mr. Yaggy can not be duplicated by every farmer in the Catalpa belt. The loose, sandy soil of this plantation, with water table from 8 to 10 feet below the surface, is particularly adapted to the growth of the Catalpa. A notable instance of a Catalpa plantation unwisely located is found near Kiowa, in Barber County, Kans. This plantation for the most part is on dry upland. The soil is composed of red loam underlaid with sandstone at a depth of 8 to 12 feet. In 1883, 250,000 nursery grown trees were set in the plantation. A large proportion of the trees used were Hardy Catalpa, but some Black Locust, Black Walnut, Kus- sian Mulberry, and Black Cherry were also planted in mixture with the Catalpa. Large areas of this plantation have entirely died out, although the cultivation for several years was the very best. It is noticeable that the trees on the higher lands have suffered most, and those that survive are only a third or a half the size of those in the ravines. Although these trees were set seventeen years ago. the largest of the Catalpas will make but one good post, while those that remain in the drier portions of the plantation have branched near the ground and are of no value except for fuel. The location is unsuited for the growth of the Catalpa. The Locust, Mulberry, and Elm do much better, but even these can not be called wholly successful. PLAN FOR PLANTATION FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES. 25 PLANTING PLAN FOR A PLANTATION FOB SPECIAL PURPOSES ON THE FAR3I OF MR. JESSE H. DtTNN, ALVA, OKLA. The farm is located one-half mile east of the town of Alva, the county seat of Woods County, Okla., on the S. J NE. i of sec. 24, T. 27, north of base line, range 14, west of Indian meridian. This farm, consisting of 80 acres, adjoins the town site of Alva on the east. It is near the south side of the Salt Fork of the Arkansas Elver, Farm of Mr.Jes*eJ;£unn.Alva. Woods Co. Okla.T.' N.E.& Sec. 24, T27N ft 14, W. /nd Mer. Sca/e, i /rich = 40 Pods Plan for /s% Acre P/anraf/on.- (4 fr. x 4ff.) CICLCLCt H M » M tV M W M C i C i'C L C L HMWMWMWM C-HarctjCato/pa, W- B/ack Wa/nut; L - B/ack Locus/-. A4= flussian Arfu/6erry Numder of trees per acre : Hardy Cato/pa eso B/acft tVa/nu/- 680 BlacA Locusr eao flussian MMerry 680 /SO roofs n Xo. 31, for a plantation for special purposes on the farm of Mr. Jesse J. Dunn, Alva, Okla. and comprises about 50 acres in the low bottom of the river, and 30 acres on the second bottom lying 20 to 25 feet higher. The embank- ment separating the first bottom from the second is an almost perpen- dicular bluff of red marl about one-half mile from the river. The first bottom is low and for the most part is level land from 4 to S feet above 20514— No. 27 3 26 PRACTICAL TREE-PLANTING IN OPERATION. the level of the river. In composition the soil varies from loamy sand to clay, being a mixture of the sand of the river and the red clay of the uplands. Water-bearing sand occurs at a depth of from 2 to G feet below the surface. In some of the lower places alkali appears in such quantity as to interfere with the growth of the blue-stem grass that for the most part covers the bottom. On account of the nearness of the underground water to the surface, and the fact that the river some- times overflows the lower portion, the laud is frequently wet. A wide difference exists between the conditions in the first and second bottoms. The latter, depending entirely upon rainfall, has a very dry though fertile soil. In composition it is a deep, heavy, red marl. A large ravine or canyon opens into the river valley at the point where the plantation is to be made. The red soil and the subsoil of the first bottom is readily penetrated by water, and when saturated holds much moisture. Owing to the very finely divided condition of the soil particles, the capillary move- ment of moisture through the soil is quite rapid, -so that the retentive power is not naturally great. In the low valley this strong capillarity is advantageous, because it tends to keep the surface soil constantly supplied with moisture from the undiminishable supply below. The proposed plantation is a tract 50 rods square, lying wholly in the first bottom, near the east side of the farm. It is bounded on the south by a high bluff', and contains the mouth of the ravine mentioned above, with its alluvial deposit. The land was first broken four or five years ago, but the sod has never been killed and each spring renews its growth. If the land remains uncultivated for a season the sod becomes almost completely reset. Considerable growth of Willow and False Indigo occurs in places. There is but little natural tree growth in the river valley and none on the upland. Cottonwoods 50 to 60 feet high grow on sand bars in the valley, where fire cannot reach them, and others have grown in protected places under the bluff. It is probable that frequent fires account for the present nonforested condition of the river bottom. In the canyons extending back from the river, White Elm, Honey Locust, Hackberry, and Soapberry occur as scattering trees. Formerly Ked Cedar occurred in places, but this has nearly all been cut down. Owing to the fact that this region has been settled but six years, no plantations of more than five years' growth are to be found. Those which have been made are mostly small and consist of Cotton wood. The growth of the trees in these groves has been very rapid, averaging 3 or 4 feet j)er year. All of these plantations have been made upon the upland, and they have not yet reached the age when the Cottouwood begins to fail in such locations. The special purpose of this plantation is the production of timber suitable for posts. It must contain a mixture of species which will PLAX FOR PLANTATION FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES. 27 give durability to the plantation. The following plan of planting is proposed in the execution of the planting plan: Plan for special plantation. (4 feet by 4 feet.) CLCLCLCL W M W M W M W M CLCLCLCL W M W M W M W M CLCLCLCL W M W M W M W M CLCLCLCL W M W M W M W M C=Hardy Catalpa. W=Black Walnut. L=Black Locust. M=Russian Mulberry. Xnmber of trees per acre. Hardy Catalpa 680 Black Walnut ...680 Black Locust 680 Russian Mulberry 680 EXPLANATION' OF PLAN. The plan proposes Hardy Catalpa, Black Locust, Black Walnut, and Russian Mulberry in equal proportions, planted 4 feet apart each way. In the first row the Catalpa and Walnut alternate, in the second row the Locust and Mulberry alternate, and this order continues through- out the plantation. As the object of the plantation is, first, the pro- duction of durable material for posts and poles, and, second, a forest of valuable trees, it is designed that the larger proportion of the Mulberry and Catalpa be removed as soon as they are large enough to be utilized. When the trees begin to crowd again the Locust is to be removed, ultimately leaving the Walnut as the permanent forest growth, with a sufficient number of Mulberry and Catalpa to insure the requisite cover. If impracticable to plant the entire plat in the spring of 1900, the planting may be extended over two or more seasons, until the whole tract is planted. PRACTICABILITY OF FOREST PLANTING IN THE UNITED STATES. BY WILLIAM L. HALL, Chief of Division of Forest Extension, Bureau of Forestry. [REPRINT FROM YEARBOOK OF DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE FOR 1902.] CONTENTS. Page. Introduction 133 Regions in which forest planting is not practicable 134 Regions in which forest planting is practicable 134 Planting in the Eastern States 134 Farm wood lots 134 Impoverished farm lands and cut-over nonagricultural lands 135 Estimates of cost and returns per acre for planted White Pine 136 Planting in the Middle West 139 The White Pine belt 139 The main agricultural region 140 The semiarid region 141 Planting in the Western States 142 ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. PLATE II. Forest planting for the protection of watershed at Clinton, Mass . . 138 III. Fig. 1. — Forest nursery of the Metropolitan Water and SewTerage Board, Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Fig. 2. — Waste land suitable for forest planting, Minnesota 138 I V. Fig. 1. — General view of forest- tree seed beds, Dismal River Forest Reserve, Nebraska. Fig. 2. — Interior view of forest-tree seed beds, Dismal River Forest Reserve, Nebraska 142 V. Fig. 1. — Part of the Dismal River Forest Reserve, Nebraska, on which forest planting will be undertaken. Fig. 2. — Forest plant- ing on mountain sides denuded by fire, southern California 142 in PRACTICABILITY OF FOREST PLANTING IN THE UNITED STATES. By WILLIAM L. HALL, Chief of Division of Forest Extension, Bureau of Forestry. INTRODUCTION. While it can not be said as jet that forest planting is practicable for the United States as a whole, it does apply to a large part of the country, and is of constantly increasing importance. The purposes for which forest planting is practicable differ so widely for different parts of the country that the subject will be considered here with reference to the several regions of the United States, in each of which the objects of planting are closely related. The considerations which determine the practicability of planting as a part of forestry for any specific region are the following: (1) The present supply of useful timber. (2) The need of the forest to provide shelter, protect the soil, or conserve moisture. (3) The capacity of the forest to produce another crop, either unaided by man or aided in ways less expensive than planting. (4) The value of the ground for other purposes than forest growth. (5) The protection which can be given from fire or other grave dangers. (6) Indications as to a fair return on the investment. Other considerations in the past carried great weight, though they are now largely removed. One of these was the lack of information as to the habits and requirements of forest trees, in consequence of which forest planting was merely an experiment. Sufficient informa- tion is now available to make success almost a certainty in the planting of a large number of our most valuable trees. If the individual has not the needed information he may easily get it from his more experienced neighbor or from the foresters of the State or the National Government. So, too, the question of market has become less prob- lematic than in the past. The timber owner now has a market for many kinds of timber for which there was no sale twenty-five years ago. As the uncertain factors in planting have been cleared away, the area for which planting is practicable has steadily enlarged. It will now pay to plant in localities where ten years ago it would have been 133 134 YEAKBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. necessary only to encourage natural reproduction. To-day the possi- bility of natural reproduction on such land has gone, and only by planting may the stand be renewed. Within the next ten years, unless there is a marked improvement in the methods of handling forest lands, the reproductive power of the forest will be impaired to such an extent by fire, stock, and other injurious agents that planting will become a necessity over still greater areas. REGIONS IN WHICH FOREST PLANTING is NOT PRACTICABLE. Forest planting is not practicable in those regions which are as yet well timbered, and in which the reproductive power is sufficient to renew the stand as the trees now standing are cut away. Broadly speaking, this includes in the South the hardwood region of the South- ern Appalachians and the pine belt from Virginia to Texas. In the Northeast it includes the spruce forests in New York, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine; it includes also sections elsewhere, as in the Allegheny Mountains. In the West it includes the heavily timbered portions of California, Oregon, and Washington, and smaller sections elsewhere. REGIONS IN WHICH FOREST PLANTING is PRACTICABLE. In other parts of the United States than those named above there are some sections in which the supply of timber is wanting or is becom- ing insufficient to meet the demand, and in which natural reproduction is not sufficient to insure a second crop. Fortunately, it is possible to discuss the question according to the geographic divisions — the Eastern States, the Middle West, and the Western States. For these regions it must be considered whether it will pay better to use for other pur- poses the land and the capital invested in planting, and import the lumber needed from other regions; whether the land can be protected from fire and other dangers; and whether satisfactory returns may be reckoned upon. PLANTING IN THE EASTERN STATES. In the Eastern States planting at present ma}^ be considered under the following heads: Farm wood lots, impoverished farm lands, and cut-over nonagricultural lands. FARM WOOD LOTS. It is the experience of both the practical farmer and the forester that it pays on every farm to maintain a wood lot for the production of timber for farm uses. The wood lot furnishes fuel, posts, poles, logs, and lumber; it shelters from wind the buildings, orchards, gar- dens, and fields, and in summer it furnishes shade. It is universally recognized as an essential component of the well-balanced orderly farm. The wood lot pays well, even if it has to be located on valuable FOREST PLANTING IN THE UNITED STATES. 135 agricultural land; but as on nearly all farms there is variation in fer- tility, it pays better to use the best land for farm crops and locate the wood lot on the less valuable portion, if that can be done without inter- fering with any of its important uses. In the Eastern States the wood lot usually consists of a remaining portion of the original forest. Year after year the trees have been cut for fuel and other purposes until in the average wood lot the stand is now far from perfect. Not realizing the injury resulting from pasturage, the farm stock (horses, cattle, and sheep) have been per- mitted to range at will among the trees, with the result that no young trees have come up to occupy the ground as the mature ones were removed. The prevention of reproduction has been the most potent cause of decline in many wood lots. So important a factor in farm thrift is deserving of better treatment. Stock should be rigidly excluded and every means taken to encourage natural reproduction. But in places where natural reproduction takes place slowly, planting will be necessary. It is a good plan to permit natural reproduction to do its best, and where it fails, to plant. Where the surface of a wood lot has become compacted by long and continued tramping, and covered by a dense sod, it will be very difficult to renew the forest even by planting. Many times it will be better to start another wood lot by planting in a different place, and then, after a few years, to clear up the old one and turn it into other uses. The main thing is never on any farm to abandon the principle of the wood lot. If natural reproduction fails, plant; if one site becomes inhospitable to tree growth, try another and keep trying until the wood lot is success- fully established; for on the best farms there should not fail to be from 5 to 20 per cent of the land in timber. IMPOVERISHED FARM LANDS AND CUT-OVER NONAGRICULTURAL LANDS. In the Eastern States are extensive areas of both of these classes of land. It is true that in some regions natural reproduction is coming about satisfactorily. For example, abandoned farm lands in the North are here and there being covered by White Pine and Spruce; in Vir- ginia, Maryland, Delaware, and New Jersey with Scrub Pine and hard- woods; and in the South Atlantic States with Loblolly Pine. Where the process is going on rapidly enough, no thought need be given to planting. But there are wide areas in all of these States where natural reproduction is lacking, and where the land, long since cut over by the lumberman or abandoned by the farmer, is unproduc- tive and a burden to the owner. (PI. II.) The questions are: Can these lands be planted with assurance of a profitable return ? Can the capital locked up in them be made productive? While a few of the States are owners of this class of land,a it is mainly a problem for the « Pennsylvania, New York, and Connecticut. 136 YEAKBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. private owner. On land of this character the first four considerations mentioned at the beginning are removed. The region has not now a large surplus of timber, and the land in question is without a natural reproductive tendency and without value for other purposes. The practicability of planting, therefore, depends upon the possibility of protecting the land and the return to be expected. The question of protection must be answered with respect to the individual case. Injurious insects and trespassing live stock frequently have to be dealt with, and are sometimes sources of grave danger. Fire is even a more serious menace. In some places protection from fire is easy, in others it is very difficult. Abandoned farm lands of the character described are not usually much grown up to brush, and by the cutting and plow- ing of fire lines they may without much cost be made quite secure from damage by fire. Where cut-over lands occur in large tracts it is usually possible to devise systems of control whereby they may be protected from fire, but where they consist of small scattered tracts in localities where fires are frequent and not controlled, it is almost use- less to attempt to keep fire out, and, therefore, to plant. For the land which can be protected there remain to be considered the cost of planting, the rate of growth, and the probable returns. ESTIMATES OF COST AND RETURNS PER ACRE FOR PLANTED WHITE PINE. The estimate following is intended to cover the cost and returns for 1 acre of planted White Pine in New England. The estimate is gen- eral and applies fairly to a very large section, where an area of 100 or more acres is to be planted. The seedlings are to be grown by the planter near the tract which it is proposed to plant, and are to be once transplanted while in the seed bed. At the end of forty }7ears from the making of the seed bed the entire product of the plantation is to be sold on the stump for box boards. The land is classed as worth $6 per acre, and the assessed value per acre is reckoned as increasing at the rate of 75 cents per year up to the time of cutting. Taxes, which are estimated at $1.80 per $100, are reckoned by decades for the sake of convenience. It will require 1,210 trees to plant the acre at a distance of 6 by 6 feet. The first cost of 1,210 seedlings in seed bed, including cost of con- struction of the latter and supervision, is estimated at $2. After the land is cleared, at the end of fort}r }rears, the value doubtless will be as great as at the beginning, but the value of the land is not taken into consideration. Should $6 be added to the $140 which it is esti- mated could be secured for the timber product, it would simply increase by that amount the profits of the transaction. Likewise, if the value of the land at the beginning were less than $6, the profits would be greater by the difference plus accumulated interest. The statement following shows the items and amount of the investment for 1 acre. FOREST PLANTING IN THE UNITED STATES. 137 Expenses on 1 acre for forty years. First year: Cost of seed and starting seedlings in nursery $2. 00 Value of land 6. 00 Third year: Transplanting to nursery, at $1 per 1,000 1. 21 Fourth year: Transplanting to field at $4.50 per 1,000 5. 45 Taxes for first decade on average assessed value of $9.38, interest to be reck- oned for thirty-five years 1. 69 Taxes for second decade on average assessed value of $16.88, interest to be reckoned for twenty-five years 3. 04 Taxes for third decade on average assessed value of $24.38, interest to be reckoned for fifteen years 4. 39 Taxes for fourth decade on average assessed value of $31.88, interest to be reckoned for five years 5. 74 Total 29.52 Amount at 3 per cent compound interest 70. 70 At the age of forty years the average planted White Pine in New England is 8 inches in diameter and 48£ feet high.a It is estimated that the land will produce at least 40 cords of wood suitable for use as box boards, which should sell on the stump at not less than $4 per cord, bringing $1 60 per acre. Deducting from this sum the amount at 3 per cent compound interest, $70.70, there remains $89.30 as the return on the investment. This is equivalent to a return of about $2.25 per year from the time of planting to the time of cut- ting, a very satisfactory return considering the fact that it is secured from land which is useless for any other purpose, and which without a timber crop would be a source of constant expense for taxes. The timber crop not only gives a return on the money invested, but it makes productive the capital locked up in the land. For the sake of definiteness in the estimate, it is assumed that the stand will be cut off clean at the end of forty years. In actual experi- ence, probably the wiser course would be to leave at least half the stand for ten or twenty years longer. During this period the trees would not only grow rapidly, but the quality of the lumber would greatly improve, and in consequence it would command a corre- spondingly higher price. In this estimate the cost is the record of actual experience; the rate of taxation, that at present common in New England; the rate of growth, the average of planted White Pine in New England; and the price less than that which has already been received where fair access was had to market. The estimate is corroborated by actual expe- rience.6 Since the estimate is based upon present conditions, it more nearly « Determined from a series of 60,000 measurements in White Pine plantations. & J. D. Lyman, in The Forester, August, 1901. 138 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. applies to a plantation established forty years ago, and to be marketed now, than to one established now and to be marketed forty years in the future. In the last forty years White Pine lumber, as represented by the Detroit market, has advanced fully 100 per cent. If it should advance in the same proportion in the next forty years, the return on this investment would be proportionately greater. While this estimate is for White Pine it is applicable to Red Pine and Norway Spruce over a large part of New England. From Mas- sachusetts to North Carolina the Chestnut may be counted on to give commensurate returns when grown for telegraph poles and railroad ties, and likewise the Black Locust for posts. a In Virginia, the Caro- linas, and Georgia is much land that could be planted to Loblolly Pine with indications of profit equal to the estimate. Actual examples of planting the Loblolly Pine are lacking, but its rapid growth strongly indicates great usefulness as a planted tree. Black Walnut may also be counted as a profitable tree for planting in the Southeastern States. It is adapted only to the more fertile soils, and requires from seventy- five to one hundred years to produce lumber of great value. It happens in many cases that there are protective as well as financial considerations. Soil which erodes easily by water or is so sandy as to be blown by the wind may be retained and improved by a forest cover. A forest furnishes the best possible cover for the watersheds of storage reservoirs. For this reason fully as much as for the financial one, several water companies are planting extensively in the Eastern States. Among the most important of these are the Metropolitan Water and Sewerage Board of Massachusetts, which is planting on the watershed of its immense reservoir at Clinton, jVlass., and the water department of the city of Woonsocket, R. I. (PL III, fig. 1). In both cases the planting is being done in cooperation with the Bureau of Forestry. The water companies supplying the cities of New Haven and Hart- ford, Conn., are also planting large tracts about their reservoirs under plans prepared by the director of the Yale Forest School, and the city of Middletown, Conn., is similarly planting under directions from the State forester. The States of New York, Pennsylvania, and Connecticut have re- cently acquired extensive areas of nonagricultural land, and are now engaged in the work of foresting them. The State of New York especially is undertaking work of great magnitude. Within the Adirondack Preserve are about 60,000 acres of burnt-over waste land which it is planned to reforest. A beginning was made last year by the planting of 750 acres, and it is proposed hereafter to plant at tne rate of 1,000 acres per year until the waste land is covered. Nur- series for the growing of seedlings are now being established. « Albert Neilson, in Forestry and Irrigation, August, 1902. Yeaibook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1902. PLATE I * s £ 3 £ TJ o > 9 Yearbook U. S. Dept. o* Agriculture, 1502. PLATE FIG. 1. -FOREST NURSERY OF THE METROPOLITAN WATER AND SEWERAGE BOARD COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS. {Courtesy of T. F. Borst, forester.] FIG, 2.— WASTE LAND SUITABLE FOR FOREST PLANTING, MINNESOTA. FOREST PLANTING IN THE UNITED STATES. 139 Considering the work which is being done by States, municipalities, corporations, and individuals, the present operations in forest plant- ing in the East far exceed any similar activities in the past. More- over, the planting now being done is based upon sound business prin- ciples, and is bound to show satisfactory returns, the effect of which will be widely extended planting throughout the Eastern States. PLANTING IN THE MIDDLE WEST. The Middle West can best be considered under three headings: The White Pine belt; the main agricultural region; the semiarid region. THE WHITE PIXE BELT. Land on which White Pine has been the predominant tree occupies large portions of the States of Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. This discussion refers to those cut- over and burnt-over areas of White Pine land which, on account of their ston}^, sandy, or otherwise infertile condition, can not be converted into productive farms. (PI. Ill, fig. 2.) That it is well suited to the production of timber, its original condi- tion proved, and the only hope of ever making it profitable is to put it again into forest. That the present supply of White Pine is already very short is indisputable. Over large areas where it grew best it is already exhausted, and in the remaining districts it is greatly dimin- ished. Except where recently lumbered or yet uncut, reproduction has failed. Protection from fire is as important here as on the cut- over lands in the Eastern States, and may be accomplished in the same way. For large tracts adequate systems of protection may be devised without proportionately great expense, but small tracts surrounded by land loosely administered can not easily be protected. The restocking of White Pine lands seems to be a State rather than an individual or National problem. Conditions favor its management in large tracts for the production of standard dimension lumber. This will require a rotation of from sixty to eighty years — a period too extended for individual enterprise. The National Government could well afford to undertake the work, provided it owned the land. But land of the character in question has mainly become alienated. The States own very large and increasing holdings, on account of school grants and tax forfeiture. Probably the next decade will be marked by a systematic attempt at the reforestation of their waste land by all three of these States. Gen. C. C. Andrews, State chief -fire warden of Minnesota, speaks thus of the condition in his State :a It is estimated that there are in scattered localities, and principally in northern Minnesota, 3,000,000 acres of waste, sandy, hilly, or rocky pine forest. Hence, if "Seventh Annual Report of the Chief Fire Warden of Minnesota. 140 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the State were now to begin to plant that land with pine at the rate of 37,500 acre? per year the whole would in eighty years become a well-stocked normal forest, yield- ing perpetually thereafter 675,000,000 feet B. M. annually. * * * Besides yield- ing a splendid revenue from waste lands, which otherwise would every year become more barren and useless, it would afford steady labor for thousands of people, and among indirect benefits it would tend to beautify our landscape, modify the tempera- ture, fertilize the soil, and replenish the water supply. * * * There are remain- ing in Minnesota from 20 to 30 billion feet of pine, and this is now being cut at the rate of 1^ billion feet per year, and the greater part shipped out of the State. Any- one can judge for himself how long this main supply will last. The average value of standing pine in Minnesota is now $4 per 1,000 feet B. M. This value has risen $1 per 1,000 feet within the past four years. * * * From these facts it is clear that it would be wise economy for the State of Minnesota to at once begin to acquire pos- session of the various tracts of waste land and plant them with pine. A preliminary survey of 1,000 acres in northern Minnesota has already been made, the planting of which will follow as soon as arrangements can be made for it. According to the plan now pro- posed, this is to be only preliminary to much more extensive work. A State forestry commission already exists. The next legislature will consider .a bill to appropriate money for this commission and authorize it to acquire for the State land suitable for forest purposes. If this is done, active reforestation can be begun. The State of Michigan last year set aside a tract of 60,000 acres of cut-over pine land for an attempt at systematic forestry. It is, first, a problem of protection from fire, and after that of restocking. The present growth, even where best, is scarcely more than enough to fur- nish seed. Mr. Thomas H. Sherrard, who represented the Bureau of Foresti*}7 in a cooperative investigation of the tract last 3rear, has this to say in regard to the practicability of planting :a Wherever protection is certain planting would become perfectly feasible. Where planting is necessary these lands could be planted with pine at an average cost per acre of not more than $8. This sum would cover the cost of raising seedlings in seed beds, transplanting to the nursery, and the final transplanting of the 3-year-old seed- lings at a distance of 6 by 6 feet. Thinning and tending are considered unnecessary. The investment, at 3 per cent compound interest, would amount to $35 per acre at the end of 50 years. The value of the product at the end of this period, roughly estimated at 40 cords per acre, would be $120, assuming a stumpage price of $3 per cord. This represents a net gain of $95, or $1.98 an acre per annum. This estimate is for White Pine. The figures given are purposely conservative. THE MAIN AGRICULTURAL REGION. This includes the States of the Missouri, Mississippi, and Ohio val- leys, between the White Pine belt on the north and the heavily for- ested region on the south. From this great agricultural region the most valuable timber has now largely been removed. What remains is contained principally in wood lots belonging to individual farms. The region also includes a very large area once reckoned as treeless, a Forestry and Irrigation, October, 1902. FOREST PLANTING IN THE UNITED STATES. 141 yet prodigious energy among the settlers has provided for many such sections fully as much timber as is now to be seen in some sections once heavily timbered. The Kansas State board of agriculture reports 142,984 acres of planted forest in 1900. Nebraska claims over 200,000 acres. The valley of the Arkansas River in Kansas, forty years ago entirely treeless, appears now to the casual observer to be as fully timbered as the valley of the Wabash, which was once entirely for- ested. The only system of forestr}7 practicable throughout this region is the system of wood lots on individual farms. The land is too valuable for agricultural crops to be devoted to timber culture on a large scale, but no farm is so valuable but that it would be worth more with a well- kept wood lot, covering from 5 to 20 per cent of its area. In addition to wood lots, a most sensible practice prevails of establishing protective shelter-belts and rows of trees for wind breaks in places of the greatest exposure. Such plantations add immeasurably to the comfort of the farm in addition to the timber supplies which they furnish. It is often possible in the Middle West, as in the East, to put the wood lot on the less valuable part of the farm, which is always desirable when conditions will permit it. In addition to wood lots and protective belts, it is practicable in places in the Middle West to establish forest plantations for the pro- duction of fence posts, telegraph poles, and railroad ties, purely as a financial investment. Large plantations of Hardy Catalpa, Black Locust, Red Cedar, and Osage Orange have been established on the very best agricultural land, and compete favorably with wheat and corn as money-producing crops. a THE SEMIARID REGION. Lying between the agricultural region and the mountains, the semi- arid region embraces several sections of large extent, which through the production of timber would attain a value otherwise impossible. The most notable of these sections is that containing the sand hills in west central Nebraska. They cover an area of 100 by 150 miles, which throughout is well adapted to the growth of pine timber. A large amount of land in the sand hills is yet retained by the Govern- ment. In April, 1902, the Niobrara and Dismal River forest reserves, containing altogether 208,902 acres, were established in this section for the purpose of making a systematic trial at forestation. The Department of the Interior has invited the Department of Agriculture to undertake this work, which is now fairly begun. The first planting will be done in 1903. (PI. IV.) If inexpensive but successful plant- ing methods are found, a large tract of planted timber should result «Bul. No. 37, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. Agr., "The Hardy Catalpa/' describes, several large commercial plantations of Hardy Catalpa. 142 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. from the work of the next decade in that region. There are also other districts in the semiarid region which have the same general conditions and in which the Government still owns most of the land. It would be a wise policy for it to establish reserves for forest planting in all these sand-hill districts. The land is valuable for forest trees, and the fact that settlers have passed over and around it for thirty years without taking it up, shows that it is valuable for nothing else. Planting in these sections is an undertaking which logical!}7 falls to the General Government rather than to the State or the individual. The investment extends over too. long a period for individual activity, and besides the Government owns most of the land. The same reasons exist, therefore, for the Government to undertake this work as for the States to undertake planting in the White Pine belt. PLANTING IN THE WESTERN STATES. In the Western States, where the agricultural land is limited in area, but highly developed through irrigation, forest planting will neces- sarily be confined almost exclusively to the mountains. It is true that in certain parts of southern California the profitable culture of the Eucalypts for timber is being carried on even on very valuable agri- cultural land. The climatic adaptations of this tree prevent its general use, and no other tree grows rapidly enough in that region to pay on valuable land. The necessity of a forest cover on the Western mountains is not now doubted by an}"one who has studied the conditions at all deepl}T. Suc- cessful irrigation depends upon a regular flow of water, which in the Western States is dependent in an unusually high degree upon the condition of the forest upon the mountains. A forest of good densit}T acts in two ways — both beneficial. It greatly lessens evaporation and it diminishes the surface run-off, causing the water, instead of rushing off the ground in surface torrents immediately following a rain, to percolate gradually through the soil and to appear at lower levels in the form of springs. It is often the case in the Western mountains that where the forest is needed most it is totally lacking or else is too thin to exert any appreciable influence on stream flow. This is true of very large por- tions of the San Gabriel and San Bernardino Mountains, in southern California, where by fire and grazing the forest has been entirely destroyed. (PI. V, fig. 2.) Some of the best orange-producing and lemon-producing land in the United States depends upon water from these mountains for irrigation. With water it is worth from $1,500 to $2,000 per acre, while beside it is land of exactly the same character worth nothing, because there is no water available to irrigate it. The restoration of the forest on these denuded mountains would, according to experience in similar countries, so increase the water Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1902. PLATE IV. FIG. 1.— GENERAL VIEW OF FOREST TREE SEED BEDS, DISMAL RIVER FOREST RESERVE, NEBRASKA. FIG. 2.— INTERIOR VIEW OF FOREST TREE SEED BEDS, DISMAL RIVER FOREST RESERVE, NEBRASKA. Yearbook U. S. Dept of Agriculture. 1902. PLATE V. FIG. 1.— PART OF THE DISMAL RIVER FOREST RESERVE, NEBRASKA ON WHICH FOREST PLANTING WILL BE UNDERTAKEN. FIG. 2.— FOREST PLANTING ON MOUNTAIN SIDES DENUDED BY FIRE, SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA. FOKEST PLANTING IN THE UNITED STATES. 143 supply that much more of this land could be irrigated. Increase the supply enough to irrigate 1 ,000 acres of this land, and the value of $1,000,000 is created. There are many places where this result can be brought about within twenty years by planting at an expense of less than $50,000. Under such conditions the practicability of planting is unquestionable. Tn a less degree this condition exists widely in the Western States. A careful sj^stem of forest management, which involves planting on denuded watersheds, is of fundamental importance to the effectiveness of large irrigation works. This is a work far beyond the capacity of the individual, or even the State, and belongs inherently to the National Government. Not only does the Government own the land, but in numerous cases where con- ditions to warrant planting exist they occur upon the National forest reserves, which are located in most cases to include the watersheds of important streams. On the reserves, of course, only the Federal Gov- ernment has the right to plant. Since the Government will in the future develop irrigation systems, it will be compelled, for the pro- tection and efficiency of its own property, to maintain such a system of forestry. Unless the barren watersheds are planted, great damage must result to the reservoirs from filling with silt, for the wash from bare mountain slopes such as are to be found in southern California is enormous. The Government has already begun experimental planting in the San Gabriel, San Bernardino, and San Jacinto forest reserves in southern California, which are estimated by the United States Geo- logical Survey to contain 1,447,000 acres of brush land, upon which all valuable timber has been destroyed by fire. Since the reserves were established, several years ago, the danger from fire has been >so reduced b}^ a vigorous patrol system that a large proportion of the brush land is now safe enough to warrant planting. Two or three years' experimental work has developed economical and rather rapid methods of planting, and during the past season the planting has been extended over several hundred acres by a field party of the Bureau of Forestry. Knobcone Pine has been planted on the driest spots; Incense Cedar, Sugar Pine, and Western Yellow Pine on the moister and cooler places. In the case of the mountain slopes upon which planting is being done, the importance of a forest cover in conserving the water supply for the cities of Los Angeles and Pasadena and contiguous county is considered so great that the Los Angeles County Forest and Water Association and the Pasadena board of trade have contributed liberally toward the work. The planting gives promise of excellent results. What the Government is doing on these reserves it might well do on a number of others in California and other Western States. There 144 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. is great need of planting on the reserves in Arizona, New Mexico, and Colorado, where natural reproduction is insufficient, and careful studies should be made as soon as possible to ascertain the best trees to plant and the right methods to follow. After that is done nurseries may be established to grow trees for the planting. Issued January 19, 1907. United States Department of Agriculture, FOREST SERVICE— Circular ,54. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. SEP - 7 1914 FOREST PLANTING LEAFLET,^. . University of Calif or HOW TO CULTIVATE AND CARE FOR FOREST PLANTATIONS ON THE SEMIARID PLAINS. OBJECTS OF CULTIVATION. Successful forest planting on the Plains, where the rainfall is light or irregular and the evaporation great, depends largely upon the proper tillage of the soil. The region possesses a deep, rich, easily- worked soil, which the farmers are learning how to utilize to the best advantage. The early tree planters often set their trees carelessly and left them to struggle with the native vegetation and dry weather. Planters are now beginning to realize that trees as well as agricul- tural crops respond to good cultivation. The objects of cultivation are two: First, to prevent the growth of weeds and grass ; second, to conserve the soil moisture. The natural supply of moisture on the plains is sufficient for the growth of many species of trees, provided it is fully utilized and not allowed to escape through evaporation or to be appropriated by weeds and grass. TREATMENT OF THE SOIL. Before the trees are set, the ground should be thoroughly worked and put in good condition. Virgin sod should be broken and the land farmed for two or three years. Deep plowing, followed immediately by the harrow, saves moisture and makes the soil easily penetrable by the roots. After the trees are set there should be frequent shallow cultivation. An ideal method is to cultivate as soon as practicable after every rain, in order to maintain a dust mulch over the surface. The nearer this ideal is approached, the better the results will be. The dust mulch is the best medium to conserve the moisture already in the ground, and to keep the soil in condition to absorb the next rain. MULCHING. A mulch of hay, straw, or well-rotted manure may be used where cultivation is not feasible, but it is not to be generally recommended. The mulch retards the growth of weeds, checks evaporation, and pre- vents baking of the soil, but if continued long it causes the roots to grow close to the surface, so that when the litter is removed they are 16760— No. 54—07 M 2 . liable to be damaged by the exposure. The mulch has another disad- vantage in that it furnishes a congenial harbor for mice and all kinds of insects. A mulch of hay or straw is less objectionable around trees set in the sod, where it is inconvenient or undesirable to culti- vate. Along a hedgerow, for instance, a mulch may be of great benefit. SPACING THE TREES. The advantage to be gained by continued cultivation of a forest plantation makes rather wide spacing advisable, even though certain species which have a spreading habit may require pruning so that the trunks may grow clear and the cultivation not be impeded. Compen- sation for the wide spaces between the rows can be secured in large measure by setting the trees closer in the rows. The spacing of many plantations is 4 feet by 4 feet, but trees set in that way can be culti- vated only two or three years. Spacing 2 feet by 8 feet gives the same number of trees to the acre, and makes it possible to continue the cultivation much longer. Species which need more room can be set 3 feet by 8 feet or 4 feet by 8 feet, and, as they grow, the space required can be obtained by removing the less promising individuals. The less cultivation that is to be given a plantation the closer the trees should be set; for, in the absence of artificial methods of conserving the soil moisture, the stand itself must be dense enough to shade the ground and furnish a litter which will maintain the proper moisture conditions. Without this the threes will neither grow rapidly nor preserve their vigor. On the semiarid plains, however, wide spacing and frequent cultivation will produce better trees than close spacing and little cultivation. SITUATIONS WHERE CULTIVATION IS UNNECESSARY. In river and creek valleys, where water is found at from 5 to 20 feet below the surface, cultivation is not ordinarily necessary after the trees are thoroughly established. The same is true in many places on the upland, where shallow depressions catch the run-off from con- siderable adjoining areas. In such situations the supply of water may be concentrated on any desired part of the depression by run- ning furrows to it from the surrounding slopes. This method has been successfully used by some of the most progressive western farmers. FALL CULTIVATION HARMFUL. Cultivation should not be continued too late in the fall, for it tends to produce tender young shoots after the normal growth has ceased, which may not be able to withstand the winter. The wood should have time to harden before cold weather sets in. If the ground has been kept clean, weeds will give little trouble after the middle of August. [Cir. 54] PLANTING CROPS WITH TREES. The planting of field crops between rows of young trees on the plains is unwise ; the trees need all the available moisture. Corn is especially harmful, because the roots spread both down and out from 5 to 8 feet, and take much more soil moisture than the young trees. If any crop is planted it should be a short-lived one of the garden kind, whose roots do not spread far and are soon gone. TOOLS METHODS OF CULTIVATION. The plow has no place among trees, other than to prepare the ground for planting. The plantation is often neglected until the weeds have formed a dense growth 3 or 4 feet high, and then the ground between the rows is plowed. The plow leaves the ground rough, a condition which greatly increases the loss of soil moisture through evaporation. Dead furrows are formed between the rows, or the earth is thrown away from the bases of the trees and many roots are cut, which does great injury to the trees. The best implements for the cultivation of the ground are the pul- verizing harrow, the disk harrow, the dagger-tooth harrow, and the five-tooth cultivator. The pulverizing harrow is an excellent tool for shallow tillage, and, when used frequently enough, is all that is neces- sary. Where the weeds are large an ordinary cultivator may be put in or a shallow disking given, but to give the best surface conditions the disk should be set quite slanting or be followed by a harrow. A single section of a dagger-tooth harrow drawn by one horse may be used advantageously between the rows of trees. The five-tooth, one- * horse cultivator requires the least space of any of the tools men- tioned, and can be used when the rows are close together or after the trees have grown so as to fill most of the space between the rows. Care should always be taken that the stems of the trees are not in- jured in any way. There should be no projecting parts about the cultivator or the harness, but if such parts are unavoidable they should be wrapped with pieces of old sacks. GRAZING FIRE. Grazing animals should be rigorously excluded from all tree plan- tations. Even if the trees are too large to be broken off by the stock, every branch within reach will be browsed, and the desirable forest conditions of shade, undergrowth, and litter will be destroyed. In a well-established grove stock may do little harm, but until the crowns of the trees are entirely out of reach cattle should not be admitted. Even then injury may result from the trampling of the soil. A heavy soil becomes packed so that it is nearly impervious to water, while a sandy one is worn and blown away, leaving the roots exposed. [Cir. 54] The damage to large trees in situations where moisture is abundant is not usually great, and the protection furnished to stock in such a case may more than offset the slight injury to the trees. Every tree plantation needs to be protected by some form of fire guard. Where conditions permit, a very satisfactory guard is made by plowing two or three furrows about the plantation close to the trees and then making a second series of furrows from one to two rods outside the first. These lines may be kept free from vegetation by replowing each year or they may be used for crops that do not easily burn. The space between the two series of furrows should be kept tee of all combustible material by burning it over at safe times. Approved. JAMES WILSON, Secretary. WASHINGTON, D. C., November 24, 1906. [Cir. 54] o Issued January 19, 1907. United States Department of Agriculture, FOREST SERVICE— Circular 56. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. FOREST PLANTING LEAFLET. BTJR OAK (Quercus macrocarpa). FORM AND SIZE. The bur oak is one of the largest trees found in central North America. It frequently attains a height of from 80 to 90 feet and a diameter of from 3 to 4 feet. Under the most favorable conditions it has reached a height of 170 feet and a diameter of 7 feet. When grown free the croAvn is large and heavy; in the forest it is usually contracted and covers only the upper part of the tree. The distinguishing feature of the bur oak is that from which it gets its name — the mossy fringe about the rim of its deep acorn cup. The leaf is large and deeply lobed and resembles that of the white oak. When the twigs are from three to four years old they begin to develop corky wings, which sometimes attain a width of an inch or more. These disappear as the branch grows older, and consequently are seen only on the younger growth. RANGE. The natural range of the bur oak is from Manitoba to Texas, and eastward to the Atlantic coast. It is commonest and most important in the lowland forests of the Mississippi basin, where it is found asso- ciated with white oak, basswood, white ash, cottonwood, black walnut, and several hickories. In the Dakotas and about the Great Lakes it sometimes occurs in pure stands, forming the characteristic " oak openings." East of the Allegheny Mountains it is comparatively rare and local, and near the northern and northwestern limits of its range it dwindles to a mere shrub. Bur oak may be planted on good soils almost anywhere east of the ninety-eighth meridian and in favorable situations somewhat farther west. SILVICAL QUALITIES. The bur oak is best suited to deep, rich, river-bottom soils. It will maintain itself in poorer upland localities, but it is recommended for planting only where the soil is fairly good, moist, and well-drained, and where protracted droughts are infrequent. It is rather intolerant of shade, and will not thrive beneath the crowns of taller trees. 16761— No. 56—07 M The rate of growth, except under the best conditions, is somewhat slow, and is about like that of white oak. Neither grows so rapidly as red oak. The bur oak is subject to comparatively few pests or dis- eases. ECONOMIC USES. The bur oak is one of the most valuable hardwrood trees in North America. The wood is heavy, hard, very strong, and durable. In the markets it is not, and need not be, distinguished from white oak, and it is used for the same purposes. The heartwood makes espe- cially good fence posts and railroad ties, but the sapwood does not last long in the ground. The tree is highly desirable for planting about the home, as well as for general forest planting where quick growth is not important. METHODS OF PROPAGATION. The bur oak reproduces freely both by acorns and by stump sprouts. The acorns, like those of all the white oaks, mature in one season, and germinate soon after falling, unless they are collected and cared for. They should therefore be planted, if possible, in the fall, either in seed beds or in their final place. Mice and squirrels are fond of acorns, and sometimes destroy plantations made in the fall. Where this is to be feared, or where for any other reason it is necessary to hold them over until spring, the acorns may be stored between layers of moist sand. To secure "vigorous sprouts the trees should be felled between No- vember and March, and the stumps should be cut low and left smooth and slanting on top. Sprouts then start close to the ground, where they can soon develop root systems of their own and become self-sup- porting. The slanting stump causes the rain water to run off, and thus helps to prevent rapid decay. The bur oak has one well-developed taproot, and, in moderately rich and moist soils, many spreading secondary roots close to the sur- face. In dry soils the roots seek moisture at considerable depth. PLANTING. It is usually advisable to plant acorns in their permanent place in the field, for, like all oaks, the bur oak is not easy to transplant when once fairly established, because of its stout taproot. Where the area to be seeded can not be plowed, the acorns should generally be planted in holes about 4 feet apart each way, although the proper distance will depend to some extent upon local conditions. Three or four acorns should be placed in each hole and covered with about 1J inches of earth. If the planting is done on plow land, the soil may be prepared as for any field crop. [Cir. 56] Bur oak can be grown in pure stands, but it is often desirable to mix one or two slower-growing species with it, in order to force the trees to grow tall and to clear the stems of their lower branches. Bur oak should not be planted with trees which grow very rapidly, nor where the climate is so dry that the soil needs much cultivation to preserve its moisture. Care should be taken to keep the little trees from being smothered by grass and weeds, to keep out stock and fire, and to let the plantation acquire the character of a forest as soon as it can. Weeds and litter on the ground, and shrubs that stand below the crowns of the trees, are good and should not be interfered with. Approved. JAMES WILSON, Secretary. WASHINGTON, I). G., November 24, 1906. [Cir. 56] O Issued January 19, 1907. United States Department of Agriculture, FOREST SERVICE— Circular 57. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. WANTING ^^^^.^ JACK PINE (Pinus divaricata). FORM AND SIZE. Jack pine usually attains a height of from 30 to 50 feet and a diameter of from 8 to 12 inches. Under favorable conditions a height of 90 feet and a diameter of 2 feet may be reached. It has a fairly straight and symmetrical stem, and when grown free a low, full crown. In close stands the crown is narrow and covers only the upper part of the tree. The needles are 1 to 1J inches long and grow in pairs bound by a short sheath. RANGE. The natural range of jack pine is along the northern border of the United States, from eastern Maine to Minnesota. In the United States it is commonest in northern Michigan, Wisconsin, and Min- nesota, where it occupies great areas of barrens or is found with red pine or with stunted oaks and other broadleaf species. The tree is recommended for planting in the North Central States where the soil is poor but contains moisture not far below the surface. SILVICAL QUALITIE^. Jack pine is a very hardy tree, and is suited to sterile, sandy soils. It can be planted with a good prospect of success where few other trees grow, provided ground water is not too far below the surface. It will withstand considerable drought, and is rarely injured by frost. It is intolerant of shade at all ages, and there- fore not well adapted for mixed plantations. It is one of the most rapid-growing pines, but is comparatively short lived, reaching maturity in about sixty years. Jack pine suffers little from insects or disease. Wind will some- times overthrow the trees, especially where the roots have been forced close to the surface of the ground by excess of moisture. ECONOMIC USES. The wood is light, soft, coarse grained, moderately strong, and moderately durable. It makes good coarse lumber, and, when chemically treated, very satisfactory posts and ties. In most of its qualities it compares with the loblolly pine of the Southeast. It is somewhat inferior to red (Norway) pine and western yellow pine. Jack pine is a good tree for windbreaks and shelterbelts, and for 10762— No. 57—07 M 2 farm Avoodlots in the Dakotas, Nebraska, and throughout the sandy regions of the North Central States, wherever a better tree will not thrive. METHODS OF PROPAGATION. Jack pine grows only from seed. Natural reproduction is very abundant wherever there are old trees, as a good crop of seed falls almost every year, and the percentage of germination is high. The seeds ripen in the fall, and are easily kept over winter in any dry, cool place. Like most other pines, the tree produces a strong tap-root, which, in dry situations, may penetrate to a considerable depth. Where water is not far from the surface, as in most parts of its natural range, the deep roots are less developed, or they rot off after a time, and strong laterals are sent out in their place. PLANTING. In planting jack pine it is best to use seedlings two or three years old, which may be raised in nursery beds from seed planted either in the fall or in the early spring. The young trees should be set out in the spring, late in April or early in May. They may be planted in furrows, but where the sand is light and apt to be blown about if disturbed it will be best to place them in holes made with a spade or planting bar. As a rule the proper spacing is 4 feet each way. It is usually advisable to plant jack pine alone, but green ash, hackberry, and possibly qther hardy deciduous trees, which will not overtop it, may be introduced as associates. CULTIVATION AND CARE. Under ordinary conditions plantations of jack pine need little cultivation. It will often be necessary to let the young trees strug- gle with wild grasses, because the latter can not be removed without exposing the soil to displacement by wind. In a few years the trees will grow above and kill out the grass, and as soon as the tops interlace will establish good forest conditions within the plantation. Where the tree is placed about the homestead and very rapid growth is desired, the ground may be cultivated and then mulched with straw or old hay. Plantations thus made and treated will grow satisfactorily if fire and stock are kept out of them. This pine has been planted and grown very successfully in the sandhills of Nebraska, where the trees have received no cultivation at all. One small plantation there has produced 15 cords of wood per acre in 42 years, and the trees are still growing at a good rate. ' Approved. JAMES WILSON, Secretary. WASHINGTON, D. C., November %4-> 1906. [Cir. 57] Issued January 19, 1907. United States Department of Agriculture, FOREST SERVICE— Circular 58. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. FOREST PLANTING LEAFLET. RED 0£K (Quereus rubra). FORM AND SIZE. The red oak is one of the largest trees in the forests of the Northern States. The average height of mature trees is from 70 to 90 feet, and the diameter from 2 to 4 feet. Under the most favorable condi- tions a height of 150 feet and a diameter of 5 feet is attained. When grown free the tree has a broad and symmetrical crown and a short stem ; in the forest it is tall and straight, with a small, narrow crown. On loose soil the base is often enlarged or buttressed. RANGE. The natural range of the red oak is from Nova Scotia to west of Lake Superior and south to eastern Kansas and northern Georgia. It is very common and well developed in the Northern and Central States, where it usually is associated with other oaks, basswood, elms, chestnut, and hickories. Toward the extreme limits of its range it becomes rare and of small size. Red oak is recommended for planting anywhere within the limits of its natural range, on soils of medium quality, and on those which have become exhausted by cultivation. SILVICAL QUALITIES. Red oak is best suited to porous sandy or gravelly clay soils. In this requirement it is intermediate between the white oaks and several of the black oak group. It requires well-drained soil always, but does not do well where the air is very dry. The tree is intolerant of shade, except when very young, and must always be allowed to keep its crown free. Red oak surpasses all other oaks in the rapidity of its growth, and is therefore a good tree to plant where conditions are suitable. Like the other oaks, this species is not subject to disease, nor to serious insect attacks, and is rarely overthrown by wind. 16763— No. 58—07 M ECONOMIC USES. The wood of red oak is heavy, hard, coarse-grained, strong, and moderately durable. It is inferior to white oak where great strength is required, and does not last so long in the ground, but it works easier, and is often preferred for interior finish and for cabinet work. Good red oak is often sold as white oak, and for most purposes the two need not be distinguished. Ordinarily it is distinctly better than other species of the red oak group. METHODS OF PROPAGATION. • The red oak reproduces freely both by acorns and by stump sprouts. The acorns require two years to reach maturity. They are quite bitter and are not relished by squirrels, and hence can be planted in the field with less risk than white oak acorns. To secure vigorous sprouts, the trees should be felled between November and March ; the stumps should be cut low and left smooth and slanting on top. Sprouts then start close to the ground, where they can soon develop root systems of their own and become self-sup- porting. The slanting stump causes the rain water to run off, and thus helps to prevent rapid decay. Red oak develops a taproot, which in loose soil grows strong and penetrates to a considerable depth, but in shallow soil may be replaced by strong secondary roots. PLANTING. It is usually advisable to plant acorns in their permanent place in the field, for, like all oaks, the red oak is not easy to transplant when once fairly established, because of its stout taproot. Where the area to be seeded can not be plowed, the acorns should be planted in holes about 4 feet apart each way, although the proper distance will depend upon local conditions. Three or four acorns should be placed in each hole and covered with about 1J inches of earth. If the planting is done on plow land, the soil may be prepared as for any field crop. Red oak can be grown in pure stands, but it will often do well with other oaks, sugar maple, white elm, chestnut, white pine, and hick- ories. With chestnut and hickories red oak needs to be given a start of two or three years, so that it will not be overtopped; but other oaks, elm, sugar maple, and white pine may be planted at the same time. Fast-growing trees, like locust, should not be planted with red oak, unless they are certain to be cut back whenever their branches interfere with the latter. [Cir. 58] Plantations of red oak need very little care, except where the rain- fall is so deficient that the soil must be cultivated to conserve the moisture. All that is ordinarily necessary is to see that the little trees are not smothered by grass and weeds, that stock and fire are kept out, and that the plantation acquires the character of a forest as soon as it can. Weeds and litter on the ground and shrubs that stand below the crowns of the trees are good and should not be inter- fered with. Approved. JAMES WILSON, Secretary. WASHINGTON, D. C., November &£, 1906. [Cir. 58] SEP 2 1 1914 Division of Forestry University of California Issued October 3, 1907. United States Department of Agriculture, FOREST SERVICE— CIRCULAR 59 (Revised). GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. FOREST PLANTING LEAFLET. EUCALYPTS. Eucalypts are native to the coast region of Australia and Tas- mania, where at least 150 distinct species are recognized. More than 100 species have been introduced into the United States. They are, however, adapted to a subtropical climate, and only a limited portion of this country is favorable for their growth. The possibility of grow- ing eucalypts in any region is determined by the amount of cold that the young trees have to endure. Few of the species can survive a temperature below 20° F., and none of them a temperature of less than 12°. In general, eucalypts may be successfully planted in the sections of the United States suitable for the culture of citrus fruits. They are grown in nearly all the agricultural sections of California, along the coast of southern Oregon, and to a limited extent in Arizona, New Mexico, and western Texas. Several species have also been planted in Florida and along the Gulf coast. Here, however, occasional frosts have killed or severely damaged the trees, and for this reason planting has been discouraged. Eucalypts have been planted most extensively in California, and there the value of different species may best be determined. The rate and habit of growth of the blue, sugar, and gray gums and a few other species make them superior to other eucalypts and recommend them especially for commercial plantations. Blue gum, one of the best commercial species, has been the one most widely planted. Its requirements, characteristics, and methods of propagation are typical of those of other timber eucalypts. 10294— No. 59—07 2 BLUE GUM (Eucalyptus globulus). FORM AND SIZE. Blue gum is an evergreen tree, with smooth, elongated, sickle- shaped leaves, dark green on both sides, and of leathery texture. The young leaves are of a globular shape and are covered with an oily bloom which gives them a bluish shade. The bark of the tree is smooth, and olive brown in color. The large, rounded, top-shaped seed-cases, covered with warty protuberances, furnish the most dis- tinguishing characteristic of the tree. Blue gum is one of the largest and most rapid growing trees in the world. In California, under favorable conditions, trees have attained a height of 175 feet and a diameter of 5 feet in twenty-five years. Although sometimes irregular in form, the tree tends to develop a straight, gradually tapering, unforked stem. In plantations the trunks become rapidly cleared of branches to a considerable height, but in the open, trees branch more widely, and gradually develop a short crown of massive, spreading branches. RANGE. Its intolerance of frost restricts the planting range of blue gUm in this country almost entirely to the temperate valleys of California. Young blue gums are especially sensitive to frost, and will seldom endure a temperature below 24° F. Old trees are more hardy, and generally are uninjured by a temperature as low as 18°. The planting range of blue gum in California includes the greater part of the agricultural area of the State. The tree resists drought to a moderate extent only, and becomes stunted when planted on dry uplands or in the hot interior valleys. It reaches its best development in the humid coast region and in the valleys which open from it. HABITS AND GROWTH. The most essential requirement of blue gum and other eucalypts is an adequate supply of soil moisture. A warm climate, a dry atmosphere, and a high percentage of sunlight furnish very favorable conditions, and when abundant moisture is found within from 10 to 15 feet of the surface blue gum will grow well even in dry situations. In the more arid interior valleys of California, however, where tem- peratures of from 110° to 140° F. occur, together with great atmos- pheric dryness or with hot, dry winds, the foliage of the tree is likely to be burned and injured. Blue gum develops an extensive root system which penetrates deep into the soil in search of moisture. Where moisture conditions are suitable it will thrive on all kinds of soil. In California it grows [Cir. 59] best on deep, loose sandy loams, because these soils commonly occupy bottomlands which are fully supplied with soil moisture. In shallow soils overlying rock or hardpan, where the roots are forced to spread widely near the surface, the growth of the tree is usually stunted. Blue gum grows well in situations where the ground water level is very close to the surface, and it will even endure standing water for short periods. It grows very rapidly under irrigation. As a rule, however, irrigated land is too valuable to be used for commercial plantations and usually it may be more profitably devoted to agri- cultural crops. Irrigation is not necessary for old, deep-rooted trees. In situations along the coast where rainfall and soil moisture are deficient, fogs furnish an important source of moisture supply for eucalypts. Fogs frequently enable blue gum to make thrifty growth on dry upland situations in other respects very unfavorable for it. Blue gum is relatively intolerant. Young seedlings thrive under considerable density of shade, but when rapid growth begins seedlings are unfavorably affected by shading. The intolerance of saplings and poles is in a measure indicated by rapid height growth, upon which they depend to escape suppression, and is further shown by the fact that even in the open the lower branches are shaded out by the upper branches, so that the trunks rapidly clean themselves. This species may be grown in very dense plantations where all trees obtain an equal start. Compared with most native trees, blue gum has a phenomenally rapid rate of growth. Seedling stands will average a height growth of 50 feet in six years and 100 feet in ten years. Under very favor- able conditions individual trees have reached a height of 125 feet and a diameter of 36 inches in nine years. In sprout stands growth is even more rapid; trees frequently reach 3 inches in diameter and 35 feet in height in eight months, while in three years a diameter of 7 inches and a height of 70 feet are often attained. Blue gum is practically immune from disease. Where trees are reproduced by sprouts, the old stumps frequently decay slowly at the heart, while the sprouts remain unaffected. Growing trees are not attacked by insect enemies, but felled timber lying unbarked upon the ground is subject to injury by a wood-mining insect. Blue gum rarely suffers any breakage of the limbs from winds, and the spreading root system renders the trees very wind-firm. However, severe and constant winds have a very injurious influence upon the growth of all eucalypts. Inland winds cause little dam- age. Along the coast, however, exposed trees show the effect of the strong western winds in distorted form and stunted growth; they gradually become defoliated and are sometimes killed. [Cir. 59] Fire is the greatest source of injury to eucalyptus plantations. Both the natural characteristics of the trees and the conditions within planted groves render them peculiarly susceptible to fire injury. The large quantity of litter — dry leaves, branches, and shredded bark — which accumulates beneath a stand is extremely inflammable. The bark of eucalypts is so thin that the trees are injured even by light surface fires. ECONOMIC USES. The wood of blue gum is very heavy, hard, strong, and tough, but it is not durable in contact with the soil. It is close-grained, and is split with difficulty after it has dried. It is less elastic than hickory, but it has been demonstrated by mechanical tests that seasoned blue gum timber is very little inferior in strength and stiff- ness to the best second-growth hickory. In appearance it closely resembles the wood of hickory and ash. Blue gum timber is utilized for a great variety of purposes in Cali- fornia. The wood is excellent for fuel, and in the treeless valleys has been the chief fuel supply for many years. In southern California the steady demand renders commercial planting for fuel very profit- able. Eucalyptus timber has been extensively used in California for wharf piling. Blue gum piles are in use in nearly every port on the California coast, and extended trial has shown that they resist the attacks of marine borers which destroy timber in sea water longer than other species commonly used for piling. Blue gum timber has also been used to some extent for fence posts and telephone poles. The wood is not suitable for this purpose, however, on account of its short life in the ground. Seasoned posts last a little longer than green posts, and timber cut from the heart is more durable than sap wood. Blue gum timber has been used to a limited extent to determine its value for railroad ties. The results thus far obtained indicate that it compares favorably with second-grade pine tie timber. In case blue gum ties gain a place in the market it may be profitable to plant the tree for that purpose. However, if commercial plantations are to be established for ties, sugar gum should be used in prefer- ence to blue gum, on account of its greater strength and its greater durability in contact with the soil. In recent years blue gum has been manufactured into lumber, and has come into favor for many uses. Its strength and tough- ness have led to its use as a material for vehicle construction with very satisfactory results. A just appreciation of the qualities of gum timber will encourage extensive commercial planting, and so furnish an important source of hardwood timber supply for the Pacific coast. [Cir. 59] The lumber has been extensively used for vehicle stock and for the wooden parts of agricultural implements. It is also made into insulator pins for electric wiring, and is used for furniture and cabi- network, hardwood flooring, trip-hammer beams, the levers of wind- lasses, and the blocking for oil and wine presses, wood paving, pulley blocks, and belt wheels. The extensive utilization of gum lumber has hitherto been pre- vented chiefly by the scanty supply of timber of merchantable size and by the difficulty experienced in seasoning the lumber without warping and checking. It is believed, however, that in the season- ing of gum no greater difficulties will be encountered than in the sea- soning of any other hardwood of similar density and strength. The esteem in which eucalyptus timber is held in California is based upon the exclusive use of blue gum. In Australia, however, this species is considered inferior in strength and timber value to several other eucalypts. Strength tests of the timber of blue gum and other eucalypts grown in California have sustained this opinion. It is therefore probable that eucalypts are destined to enjoy yet greater favor when these other species become more widely used. A product of considerable importance derived from blue gum is the oil distilled from the leaves. Eucalyptus oil is recognized as a valuable drug and is extensively used by pharmacists and physicians. In many valleys of California eucalyptus windbreaks are consid- ered absolutely necessary to insure the successful production of crops. They have been most extensively used to safeguard citrus orchards from strong and destructive winds in southern California, but they are now being established also for the protection of vine- yards and orchards of deciduous fruits, olives, and walnuts. The blue gum excels other species for windbreak purposes on account of its height and the rapidity of its growth. The tall shafts of the trees bend before the wind and act as a cushion to deflect it upward over an orchard, whereas ordinary windbreak trees form a more solid wall and the wind draws downward, forming eddies near the leeward side. Eucalyptus windbreaks planted every quarter mile across level country will give effective protection. Near the foothills the belts should be planted closer, since winds blowing down from the moun- tains gather greater velocity. Through orchards they should gener- ally be planted at intervals of about 200 feet. Where winds are very severe, double or triple rows of trees should be planted. The best spacing of blue gum trees for protective planting is 4 feet apart each way. In double rows the trees of one row should be planted opposite the center of the spaces in the other. The most effective windbreak protection is secured by a combination of Monterey cypress and blue [Cir. 59] gum. The trees of each species should be planted in separate rows rather than alternated in a single line. The cypress row will then form a dense understory, closing up the lower openings left by the shed branches of the faster growing eucalypts. Objection is often made to the blue gum for protective planting on account of its wide rooting habit. It is true that a windbreak draws much moisture from the soil, so that the adjoining rows of orchard trees are often rendered less productive. Wide extension of the roots may, however, be readily limited without injury to the windbreak. At a distance of from 6 to 10 feet from the windbreak a trench parallel to the trees should be dug to a depth of 3 or 4 feet, cutting off the surface roots of the gum trees. Such trenches should then be refilled, but should be reopened every second year. METHODS OF PROPAGATION. Eucalypts reproduce readily by both seeds and sprouts. The trees bear seed in abundance annually and under favorable conditions natural reproduction is freely established. Trees also sprout vigor- ously from both the stump and the roots, either after cutting or in response to injury. In California commercial groves are almost inva- riably reproduced by sprouts. Plantations should be started with young trees and not by direct sowing. The opinion is generally held that eucalyptus seedlings are so difficult to raise that their propagation is impracticable except for expert nurserymen. In point of fact, blue gum is one of the most easily propagated species. With proper attention to details seedlings can readily be raised. Seed can easily be collected for planting. The fruit ripens in late summer or fall, but it persists upon the branches and does not open to release the seed until the seed cases fall to the ground. Blue gum seed may frequently be gathered locally from felled trees. Since, however, the seed of the year is not yet ripe at the proper time for planting, it should be collected in the fall and stored until the next season. If kept dry and cool it will often retain its vitality for from four to five years. After the fruit has been collected it should be spread upon sheets in the sun. The seed cases v/ill open and release the seed in a few days. The seed should then be screened or win- nowed in order to separate it from the hulls and chaff. When only small quantities are required seedlings may be raised in small beds in a garden. They succeed better out of doors than when raised under glass. They require shade, however, and beds should be protected by lath screens to prevent full exposure to the sun. When seedlings are to be propagated on a large scale, a nur- [Cir. 59] sery should be established and an open frame covered with lath screening constructed for shelter. A well-drained, sunny exposure, as free as possible from danger of frost, should be selected for a nur- sery site. The character of the soil need not be considered, since soils should be prepared artificially for the propagation of seedlings. Seedlings are sometimes raised in nursery beds and later trans- planted into seed boxes. The best results, however, are obtained by using seed boxes exclusively. The raising of seedlings in pots is expensive and is not advisable when stock is to be grown in large quantities. The use of seed boxes allows suitable preparation of the soil, better control of the seedling root systems, and great conven- ience in handling and transporting the plants. The boxes should be rectangular, 24 by 30 inches in size, with a depth of 4 inches, and should be made of durable material. The best results are secured from soils artificially prepared so that the composition and porosity of the mixture may exactly meet the needs of the seedlings. Fine sand should be mixed with a heavier soil and a small quantity of partly decayed leaf mold. For propa- gating boxes the soil should be porous and sandy, in order to insure rapid drainage; for transplant boxes it should be heavier, so that a portion may be taken up about the roots of the seedlings when they are being set out in a plantation. Stock from 6 to 12 inches tall is of the best size for commercial planting, because it is less expensive to plant, endures transplanting better, and grows more thriftily than larger stock. Eucalyptus seedlings reach this size in from three to six months after the seed is sown. Blue gum stock requires only three or four months to reach the height of 12 inches. The best planting season comes, in most parts of California, in the later winter months, and blue gum seeds should be sown in September, in order that the seedlings may reach the proper size at the proper time. Seed should be sown broadcast, evenly but not too thickly, over the moistened surface of the soil in the seed boxes. One pound of blue gum seed should produce 10,000 or 12,000 seedlings. A density of not more than 1,000 plants to a seed box gives the best results. After sowing the seed should be covered a little deeper than its thick- ness with fine sand. The surface of the boxes should then be covered with fine sawdust to retain the moisture and prevent washing out the seed when the boxes are being watered. The soil should be kept thoroughly moist until germination begins. During warm weather this will be in from four to ten days. After the seed lias germinated, the regulation of the water supply requires constant and careful attention. Care in satisfying but not [Cir. 59] 8 oversupplying the needs of plants for moisture will prevent nearly all difficulties experienced in raising them. The chief danger to young seedlings arises during the first two months from their susceptibility to " damping off " —the name given to a fungous disease which results from an excess of moisture in the soil or in the atmosphere. A large number of seedlings may die from this disease in a very short time if effective measures of relief are not taken. However, the amount of soil moisture may easily be regulated, and wind and sunshine will hasten evaporation and prevent or quickly check "damping off." In wet, humid weather seedlings should not be watered and a free circu- lation of air should be insured. Seedlings need abundant moisture for thrifty growth and should usually be watered dairy. The best time for watering is in the fore- noon, but not so early that any excess moisture can not be speedily evaporated. The rate of growth of nursery stock may be regulated by watering; plants may be forced by an abundant supply of moisture or their growth may be retarded by scant watering. Just before planting the amount supplied should be reduced, in order to harden the plants. Seedlings generally come up very thick in a seed box. When they have reached the height of about 2 inches, they should be taken up and replanted, 100 in a box, in fresh soil, in order to give them more grow- ing space. They must be handled carefully, and their roots should be exposed no longer than necessary. They will wilt slightly after trans- planting, but will revive if shaded and watered freely. Transplanting should be done on damp, cloudy days, since seedlings wilt less on such days. For a month before planting, nursery stock should be accus- tomed to full sunlight by gradually removing the lath shade frames under which they have been raised. PLANTING. In California the proper time to plant eucalyptus seedlings is, as has been said, during the rainy season in winter and spring months. In order to become firmly established young trees need abundant mois- ture, so that they may be able to endure the long period of drought which extends through the summer and fall. After the winter rains begin, planting need be deferred only long enough to avoid the danger of frost. Eucalyptus seedlings are very sensitive to frost, and on this account planting must be delayed until danger from severe late frosts is safely past. The proper season for planting varies in different years and in different localities. On elevated situations and along the coast planting may be begun early in the rainy season, while in low, frosty valleys it should be delayed until the spring months. Mild, cloudy, or rainy days should be selected. [Cir. 59] 9 Planting sites should be prepared as thoroughly as for field crops. The use of seed boxes allows the seedlings to be transported to the planting sites without any interference with their growth. At the time of planting the boxes should be carried down the rows and the trees taken up, one by one, as required. Seedlings should be care- fully handled in planting in order to avoid injuring them. By taking up a small block of soil with each plant, the plants may be set in the ground with very slight disturbance to their roots. For planting on well-prepared sites a small trowel is the best implement to use in lifting seedlings from seed boxes and setting them out. Under aver- age conditions a planter should set out from 500 to 800 seedlings a day. Blue gum trees should be set 8 feet apart each way. Most other eucalypts should be planted 6 by 6 feet apart. This comparatively close spacing is desirable in order that forest conditions may be estab- lished as speedily as possible with straight trees, clear of branches. Eucalypts should not be planted in mixture with other trees, and when different eucalypts are used they should be planted in separate blocks. CULTIVATION AND CARE. Blank areas frequently occur in young plantations where the young trees have been killed by late frosts or have died during the first summer from drought or from the attacks of small animals. The loss of an occasional tree is not a matter of concern, but where large and frequent blanks occur replanting is essential to secure a full stand. Seedlings should be reset as early as possible in the life of a plantation or they will be overtopped and suppressed as soon as the rapid height growth of the older stock begins. The long period of drought during summer and fall in California is unfavorable for the growth of young trees. Soil moisture becomes deficient, and trees, if neglected, are likely to die from drought. Young plantations should be cultivated as thoroughly as an orchard or field crop. By this means weed growth will be kept down and the trees stimulated to rapid growth in height. Cultivation should begin toward the close of the rainy season, and should be repeated at inter- vals of about a month until the fall rains commence. During the second year it should be continued until the plantation becomes too dense for easy passage down the rows. Blue gum plantations will establish cover over the soil in from one to two years. The soil will then be amply protected from drying out and cultivation will no longer be required. Eucalyptus plantations require protection from injury by animals and fire. Stands are considerably damaged by cattle tramping and packing the soil. For this reason plantations should be fenced. [Cir. 59] 10 The greatest damage from animals is done by small rodents at the time when plantations are being started. Rabbits, rats, and ground squirrels frequently eat the leaves and young shoots of small seed- lings or bite their stems off close to the ground. Gophers often eat their roots. If unchecked, this damage may be serious. When the ravages of animals are noticed in a plantation such methods of poisoning as are familiar to every rancher should be used. A single fire will frequently ruin a eucalyptus plantation. Fire protection must therefore be assured. When fire gains access to a plantation the oily litter burns so fiercely that it can scarcely be extinguished before the whole grove is burned over. In this way the litter is destroyed and the soil is exposed to drying, while the bases and roots of the trees are generally so much injured that the stand will slowly die. After a severe fire it is advisable that the burned area be cut clear, even if the trees are not yet of merchantable size. A practical way of protecting small groves from fire is to plow a strip of land around them during the summer dry season. Larger groves should be divided into blocks by occasional roads which may be kept cleared to serve as fire lines. Should fire enter a grove, every effort should be made to confine it to a small area by raking the ground clear of litter, so as to form a temporary fire line. After a few years' growth eucalyptus plantations generally become so dense that the trees cease to increase rapidly in diameter. Fuel- wood groves will not require thinning, but in timber plantations which are to grow more than from six to ten years thinning is neces- sary, in order that the individual trees may have sufficient growing space. Thinning will be followed by faster growth. The inferior trees should be selected and so cut that no large openings are left in the stand. After a grove is cut the stumps send up a great number of sprouts. If the grove is intended for fuel wood production it may be repro- duced after cutting by the growth of the sprouts. Natural thinning of the sprout clumps should not be awaited, but all except three to five of the straightest and most vigorous shoots should be trimmed from the stump after the first year's growth. If the grove is to be devoted to timber production all of the sprouts except the one show- ing the most thrifty development should later be removed. When sprout reproduction is desired the proper time for cutting is in the winter rainy season, between the months of November and April. At this season soil moisture is abundant, and hence the stumps sprout vigorously and are not likely to dry out and die. When trees are cut in the late spring or summer sprout growth is less vigor- ous and groves are likely to become less productive. Sprout growth is most vigorous from low, clean-cut stumps, and care should there- [Cir. 59] 11 fore be exercised in felling trees. Stumps resist decay longest when cut with a slant to prevent the collection of moisture. After groves have been cut for fuel several times at short intervals they thin out and decrease in rate of growth and yield. When this point is reached it will be more profitable to replant than to reproduce the stand fur- ther by sprout growth. COST OP PLANTING AND RETURNS. The benefits secured from windbreaks usually warrant their plant- ing without special consideration of cost. Commercial plantations, however, should be established at the lowest possible cost, in order to secure the largest possible balance of profit when they are exploited. When plant material is purchased from dealers, the total cost of set- ing out plantations and of cultivating them for two years will average from $25 to $30 per acre. However, the cost of planting large areas with stock grown in a well-managed home nursery should not exceed $15 or $20 per acre. Careful management will reduce the planting cost, but it is poor economy to save at the expense of necessary care and cultivation. After the first two years the only cost of a planta- tion beyond the rental value of the land will be the cost of protection. Returns may be had*from blue gum plantations in from four to six years if they are cut for fuel wood. Merchantable saw timber may be produced in from twenty to thirty years. Under favorable conditions seedling groves yield, on the average, from 35 to 45 cords of fuel wood per acre in eight or nine years. Fuel wood should, however, be produced from sprout groves rather than from seedling groves, because sprout stands grow more rapidly. In five years they yield from 30 to 50 cords per acre, and in six years from 40 to 60 cords. The New England cord of 128 cubic feet is here referred to, but a short cord of 96 cubic feet is used in California, and to change the yield mentioned into California cords the amount should be increased one-third. Fuel brings about $3 per cord on the stump. The average cost of cord wood manufacture is from $2 to $3, and the price of seasoned cord wood varies from $5 to $15 per cord in different markets. Fuel- wood groves may be cut from two to four times at intervals of from four to eight years. After the first cutting the net returns from the tree crop will be greater, because an expenditure for planting and cultivation will not be required. Under average conditions seedling groves reach their maximum yield of fuel wood between the eighth and tenth years of growth, while sprout groves reach this period by the fifth or sixth year. The year when they should be cut is thus indicated. Blue gum seedling groves reach their maximum yield of saw timber between the thirtieth and fortieth years of growth. A [Cir. 59] 12 yield of 32,000 feet board measure per acre is obtained in thirty years from seedling stands under average conditions. Lumber commands a price of from $100 to $125 per thousand feet in the limited market which it has found in California. Blue gum pile timbers bring from $5 to $15 apiece on the stump. SUGAR GUM (Eucalyptus corynocalyx). For planting in California sugar gum is one of the most valuable of the commercial eucalypts, on account of its adaptability to situa- tions where many other species will not thrive. The shorter and brighter green leaves distinguish this species from blue gum, and the tree develops a more excurrent crown. The young bark is cream colored, and, owing to the flaking off of the older, darker bark, the trunk of the tree has much the appearance of a sycamore. The planting range of sugar gum is somewhat restricted by its susceptibility to injury from frost. Young trees will rarely endure greater cold than 25° F., but this species excels other timber eucalypts in endurance of drought. It is adapted to dry uplands, and timber may be raised in dry situations and in the mountain foothills where other eucalypts will not attain merchantable proportions. It is the species to be chosen for planting in situations too dry for the growth of blue gum. Sugar gum clears its trunk rapidly of limbs, even when grown in open stand. The characteristic straightness of its stem makes it especially valuable for timber. It is of slower growth than blue gum, but it reaches proportions suitable for merchantable timber. It has been planted only within recent years, but with from ten to fifteen years' growth trees reach diameters of from 12 to 16 inches and heights of from 100 to 140 feet. The characteristics of the wood are similar to those of blue gum, but it is straighter grained and easier to split. For fuel wood it is superior to blue gum. The wood is also more durable in contact with the soil than that of most other eucalypts. Green posts last from four to six years, and seasoned timber is even more durable. Sugar gum piles prove more lasting than blue gum. The timber is also superior in strength and is one of the strongest among commercial eucalypts. It is suitable for vehicle stock and for many other uses. LEMON GUM (Eucalyptus citriodora). Lemon gum is characterized by its clear, straight trunk and by the violet or lavender color of the bark. Its leaves are more delicate and of thinner texture than blue gum. The tree may also be recog- nized by the strong, pleasant lemon scent of the foliage. The planting [Cir. 59] 13 range of lemon gum is restricted by the susceptibility of the tree to injury from moderate frost. It is not suitable for planting upon the lower levels of the valleys. It is moderately drought resistant, however, and grows thriftily upon many dry upland situations. Lemon gum makes slightly more rapid growth than sugar gum. The timber is strong and moderately durable. The straight, clear form recommends the tree for commercial planting. GRAY GUM (Eucalyptus tereticornis). Gray gum has a wide planting range on account of its ability to endure considerable drought and cold. It grows less rapidly than blue gum, but it furnishes a strong, valuable timber and develops a clear straight bole suitable for commercial purposes. The wood is moderately durable in contact with the soil. OTHER EUCALYPTS. Both red gum (Eucalyptus rostrata) and manna gum (Eucalyptus viminalis) have been recommended for commercial planting in Cali- fornia and have been grown to a limited extent. Both species will stand considerable drought and cold, and they may be grown suc- cessfully in situations unsuitable for the blue gum and the sugar gum. They grow rapidly and furnish strong timber. Both species yield good fuel wood, and red gum timber is moderately durable in contact with the soil. These species can not be so strongly recommended for commercial planting as those previously described, because they possess a strong tendency to irregular growth and develop a form unsuitable for merchantable timber. [Clr. 59] Issued January 10, 1007. United States Department of Agriculture. FOREST SERVICE— Circular 60. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. FOREST PLANTING LEAFLET. RED PINE (Finns resinosa). FORM AND SIZE. The red, or Norway, pine generally attains a height of between TO and 90 feet, and a diameter of 2 or rarely 3 feet. When grown in the open, the tree is relatively short, and branched close to the ground. In the forest the stem is commonly clear for 40 to 60 feet, and the crown is short and open, but broad-spreading. The distinguishing features of red pine are its thin, scaly, reddish- brown bark, and its slender and flexible leaves 5 to 6 inches long in clusters of two. RANGE. The natural range of the red pine is along the northern border of the United States as far west as Minnesota, and southward through the Northern States to eastern Massachusetts, the mountains of Pennsyl- vania and northeastern Ohio. It reaches its best development in the northern portion of Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. The red pine is adapted for planting throughout most of the north- eastern part of the United States. It will not do well where droughts are frequent or severe. SILVICAL QUALITIES. The red pine grows best on sandy loam soil, well drained and of moderate fertility, but it also thrives on poor sands when other condi- tions are favorable. The tree is very intolerant of shade at all ages and therefore suitable for pure plantations only, or for mixtures in which the other species are distinctly slower growing. Its rate of growth is fairly rapid. Measurements made in several New England plantations show an average height of 35 feet and diameter of 6 inches at 30 years of age. Red pine suffers little from insects or disease. It is moderately fire-resistant and quite free from destructive fungi. When young, the tree is sometimes injured by a white grub which feeds on the tender roots, but the mature tree has few enemies. 16765 — No. 60—07 M ECONOMIC USES. The wood is somewhat like white pine, though a little heavier, harder, and stronger. It is only moderately durable. It is distinctly valuable for all kinds of house lumber, and when chemically treated makes good posts and ties. In most of its qualities it compares with the shortleaf pine of the South, and with western yellow pine. PROPAGATION. Red pine grows only from seed. While the trees do not produce large quantities of seed, and seed years occur at intervals of from two to four years, there is usually a sufficient natural reproduction wherever there are old trees. The seeds ripen in the fall of the second year after the flowers appear and may then be gathered and kept over winter in any cool, dry place. The seeds should be planted in the spring in well-prepared beds, either in drills about 5 inches apart extending across the beds, or broadcast, and covered lightly with earth well pulverized and pressed down firmly. When the seedlings are 2 years old they may be transplanted to nursery rows, or set in their permanent places in the plantation. It is desirable to keep the nursery beds moderately moist, for if too dry the plants will either die or send their roots so deep in search of water that they will be difficult to transplant. One pound of seed contains about 75,000 grains, and, under average conditions, will plant about 400 linear feet in drills, or 100 square feet broadcast. The young seedling develops a strong taproot, but later produces several stout laterals which firmly anchor the mature tree, unless the soil be very shallow. PLANTING. For planting red pine it is best to use seedlings 2 or 3 years old which have been raised in nursery beds. The young trees should be set out in the spring, late in April or early in May. They may be planted in furrows or in holes made with a spade, mattock, or planting bar. As a rule, the proper spac- ing is 4 feet each way, although this will vary in different localities. It is usually advisable to plant red pine pure, though on good soil sugar maple, beech, or elm might be mixed with it. Any associate must be of slower growth than the fed pine, or the latter will be over- topped and suppressed. Mixture with white pine has generally proved satisfactory. [Cir. GO] CULTIVATION AND CARE. If red pine is planted on cut-over lands, more rapid-growing species, such as jack pine, aspen, and birch, must be prevented from choking it out. No cultivation is needed, and the protection neces- sary is from fire and grazing. The red pine, being intolerant of shade, very readily clears itself of its lower branches when close grown, and never requires pruning. EXAMPLES. Several plantations of red pine have been made in New England, where this species makes more rapid growth than the planted white- pine, since it is not affected by the prevalent white pine weevil. A most instructive example of a successful red pine plantation is found near Lake Winnepesaukee, New Hampshire, where it was planted pure and also in mixture with white pine, about thirty years ago. Measurements made in 27-year old stand of these two species show that the red pine has an average height of 34.9 feet and is taller than the white pine. Approved. JAMES WILSON, Secretary. WASHINGTON, D. C., November &£, 1906. [Cir. «0] o Issued January 19, 1907. United States Department of Agriculture, FOREST SERVICE— Circular 62. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. FOREST PLANTING LEAFLET. SHAGBARK HICKORY (Hicoria ovata). FORM AND SIZE. The shagbark hickory is a forest tree which commonly attains a height of TO to 80 feet and a diameter of about 2 feet. Under favor- able conditions, a height of 120 feet and a diameter of 4 feet is reached. When grown free the stem often branches near the base and the crown becomes full, though it always remains narrow ; in the forest, the crown is short and small, while the stem frequently has a clear length of from 50 to 60 feet. The characteristic feature of the shagbark hickory, from which it gets its name, first appears in the older trees in the long, loose plates or strips of bark which are produced on the trunks. On young trees the bark is very smooth and close. RANGE. The natural range of shagbark hickory is from southern Maine west through southern Michigan to eastern Kansas, Nebraska, and Texas, and south along the Appalachian Mountains to Florida, Ala- bama, and Mississippi. It reaches its best development on the west- ern slopes of the Appalachians and in the regions drained by the tributaries of the Ohio Eiver. The shagbark hickory is generally found in mixture with other trees, although pure stands are not rare. Its principal associates, besides other hickories, are the oaks, maples, and ashes, chestnut, basswood, and yellow poplar. The tree is recommended for planting on good soil in the valley of the Ohio River and along its tributaries in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky, and Tennessee, and on fertile hillsides of the Appalachian Mountains. SILVICAL QUALITIES. Shagbark hickory grows best in a deep, rich, moist loam. It does well in other moderately rich soils which permit the taproot to pene- trate to a moist subsoil, and in the Middle States makes good growth in comparatively well-drained situations wherever it can get the 1070(V-No, G2— 07 M requisite amount of sunlight. It will not thrive in a hard clay soil, or in pure sand, or where a layer of hardpan lies near the surface. It is intolerant of shade and does well only in the open or when surrounded by other trees which only slightly obstruct the light. When overshadowed, it grows very slowly. Under right conditions the rate of growth is fairly rapid, comparing favorably with that of white oak. The tree is subject to the attacks of fungi, which do considerable damage to the leaves and twigs, and numerous insects feed upon it. In recent years a large number of trees have been attacked by the hickory bark beetle, which in some sections has killed nearly all of them. The tree is valuable enough, however, to be worth planting in spite of these dangers. ECONOMIC USES. The wood is heavy, hard, very strong, tough, flexible, but not durable in contact with the soil. It is used extensively in the manu- facture of carriages and agricultural implements, and for ax and tool handles. There is, in consequence, a good demand for the lum- ber, at a high price. Second-growth hickory, or that which is largely sapwood, is especially esteemed. The wood of the young sprouts is used in making baskets, barrel hoops, and other articles in which flexibility and toughness are required. The wood is also valuable for fuel. PROPAGATION. Shagbark hickory reproduces itself both from seeds and from sprouts. Natural reproduction by seed, however, is seldom good, because squirrels eat a large percentage of the nuts, or in mixed stands in the forest the light-loving seedlings are suppressed by other species. Sprouts from young hickory stumps grow rapidly, and the sprout method of reproduction is advised where an existing plantation or a natural grove of small trees is to be renewed. If good trees are to be produced from stump sprouts, the stumps should be cut low and left smooth and slanting on top. The low stump compels the shoots to start close to the ground, where they can soon form a root system of their own and become self-supporting ; while the slant causes rain to run off, and thus prevents decay. All but two or three of the best sprouts should be removed from each stump at the end of the first season. The sprout method is particularly well adapted to the pro- duction of small-sized material for hoop-poles and carriage stock. PLANTING. On account of the strong taproot which shagbark hickory develops, the cultivation of seedlings in a nursery is advisable only where nuts [Cir. 62] planted in the field are sure to be destroyed by mice or squirrels. The best plan is to gather the nuts in the fall, keep them over winter between layers of sand, and plant them in the spring- where the trees are to stand permanently. If the nuts are properly handled and not disturbed, from 50 to 75 per cent of them will germinate, but, since rodents are always to be feared, it is well to plant two or three nuts in each hole. They should be planted about 2 inches deep. The growth of the seedlings during the first season should be from 6 to 9 inches. The spacing will depend upon the object of the plantation; if nuts are the object chiefly desired, wide spacing (about 20 feet by 20 feet) is essential, whereas for a woodlot about 6 feet by 6 feet is right. Shagbark hickory does well when planted in pure stands, but if the plantation is to be allowed to grow to a considerable age, some other slow-growing species may be mixed with it, or, after it has attained a good growth, it may be planted with a species tolerant of shade. Hemlock and sugar maple are good trees for this purpose. CARE AFTER PLANTING. If the plantation is on tillable land, it should be carefully culti- vated until the trees become large enough to shade the ground. In any case live stock of all kinds should be excluded and protection against fire should be provided for. If the plantation is attacked by the hickory bark beetle, the infested trees should be cut and the bark should be burned before the middle of May, or advice should be asked of the Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Approved. JAMES WILSON, Secretary. WASHINGTON, D. C., November &£, 1906. [Cir. 62] Issued January 19, 1907. United States Department of Agriculture, FOREST SERVICE— Circular 63. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. FOREST PLANTING LEAFL . . Division of Forest BASSWOOD (Tilia americana). University of Calif or FORM AND SIZE. The basswood is a forest tree which often attains a height of 70 to 80 feet, and a diameter of 2 feet. Under favorable conditions it may be considerably larger. When grown free the tree bears a large, com- pact crown, which makes a dense shade ; in the forest it has a straight stem with but few branches, which are closely clustered at the top. The inner bark (bast), from wThich the tree gets its name, is fibrous and tough. RANGE. The natural range of the basswood is from New Brunswick south along the Allegheny Mountains to Alabama, and westward to eastern Texas, Nebraska, and southern Minnesota. The tree is commonest about the Great Lakes but attains its best development on the bottom lands of the Ohio River, where it is associated with white oak, cotton- wood, white ash, black walnut, and hickories. It may be planted on good soils almost anywhere within its natural range; though the most favorable region for economic planting is within the North- eastern States and north of the Ohio River. SILVICAL QUALITIES. The basswood is best suited to deep, rich, river bottom soils, and to cool situations. While it will maintain itself on poorer uplands, it is recommended for planting only where the soil is moist and well drained and where droughts are infrequent. It is, in general, a hardy tree. It is moderately tolerant of shade, and the seedlings re- quire some protection from the hot sun. In dry situations it is sub- ject to injury from the sun's heat. The rate of growth is fairly rapid during early age, being about the same as that of red oak and Norway maple. After attaining ma- turity the trunk frequently becomes hollow. The basswood is sometimes attacked by insects, which denude it of leaves or bore into the bark, but serious damage is not frequent. The 16767— No. 63—07 M European species are much more liable to insect injury than the na- tive basswood, and are much less desirable trees generally. ECONOMIC USES. The light brown wood is soft, straight-grained, and easily worked, but not durable. It is often sold under the name of whitewood, and is largely used for house lumber, woodenware, carriage bodies, panel works, trunks, and paper pulp. Its large crown and dense foliage render it desirable for planting along roadsides and about the home, and also for low shelterbelts throughout the greater part of its range. Its flowers, which yield great quantities of fine honey, lend it great value for bee keepers. PROPAGATION. The basswood reproduces freely both by seed and by sprout. The seed ripen in September or early October, and may easily be collected while attached to their large wings or bracts. They should be sepa- rated from the wings and planted at once in nursery beds, as alternate freezing and thawing during the winter rots and loosens the seed coat and causes early germination. If it is impracticable to plant in the fall, they may be kept over winter in a cool, dry place between layers of sand. The basswood is one of the most prolific among our native trees in sprouts from the stumps, and hence this method of renewing an old stand is recommended. To secure vigorous sprouts the trees should be felled between November and March and the stumps cut low. Sprouts then start close to the ground, where they can soon develop a root system of their own and become self-supporting. All but two or three of the sprouts should be removed at the end of the first season. Under favorable conditions a sprout grows only about a foot the first year. The basswood seedling develops a single stout root, but this is soon replaced by a number of lateral roots which give the tree a strong hold upon the ground. PLANTING. In planting the basswood it is best to use one-year-old seedlings, which should be set out as soon as the frost is out of the ground and before the leaves unfold. As a rule it is advisable to space the trees about 5 feet apart each way. Basswood does well when planted in pure stands, but it is also of value in mixture with white or red pine (on good soil), or with white elm, white oak, red oak, maple, or hickories. [Cir. 63] 3 CARE AFTER PLANTING. In most situations to which basswood is adapted, little cultivation is needed, since the heavy crowns and rapid growth of the young trees will soon form dense cover, which will exclude grass and weeds and furnish the proper soil conditions. Where the undergrowth is very rank, however, it is necessary to clear out the weeds in order to give the trees growing space. Cattle have an especial fondness for basswood boughs and foliage, so that the young trees must be carefully protected from them. The plantation should be carefully guarded from fire, and should be allowed to assume the character of a forest as soon as it can. Approved. JAMES WILSON, Secretary. WASHINGTON, D. C., November &£, 1906. [Cir. 63] o Issued February 15, 1909. United States Department of Agriculture, FOREST SERVICE— Circular 64 (Revised). GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. FOREST PLANTING LEAFLET. SEP - 7 1914 Division of Forestry BLACK LOCUST (Robinia pseudaca<@%}iversity @f Californi FORM AND SIZE. The black locust (known also as " yellow locust," or often simply " locust ") is a forest tree which usually attains a height of from 40 to 60 feet, with a diameter of from 1 to 1J feet. Under the most favorable conditions it may reach a height of 80 feet and a diameter of 3 feet. In the forest the tree has a clear, straight stem and a small crown. In the open, or when grown in plantations, the stem tends to divide early, and a more spreading and longer crown is formed. Individual trees, especially when grown in the open, are likely to be crooked or twisted. RANGE. The natural range of black locust is believed to have been restricted to the Appalachian Mountains, from Pennsylvania to Georgia, and to certain portions of Arkansas and eastern Indian Territory. The tree reaches its best development on the western slopes of the Appalachians in West Virginia. The introduced range is much larger. It includes the entire region between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mississippi River, from southern Canada to Florida, and extends west of the Mississippi south of the thirty-eighth parallel as far as the Rocky Mountains. Black locust has also been grown successfully in the valleys of Utah, Idaho, and eastern Oregon and Washington when planted on irrigated land. The black locust plantations in the vicinity of Salt Lake City, Utah, and Walla Walla, Wash., are among the best in the United States, and recent investigations indicate that it can be grown with success in portions of California. Its actual range for economic planting, however, is greatly restricted by the danger of insect injuries. 68220— Cir. 64—09 HABITS AND GROWTH. Black locust grows best on a deep, well-drained, fertile loam, but will grow on almost any soil except a wet, heavy one. It attains an excellent development on limestone formations. The tree is very intolerant and requires an abundance of light dur- ing its entire life. When overshadowed it declines quickly. In its native home black locust is found along streams, on the bor- ders of the forest, or singly and in groups on the steep slopes. On slopes its principal associates are black, red, and chestnut oaks, chestnut, pignut hickory, and maple. Along streams it grows with ash, maple, black walnut, and other trees. On forest land that has been burned over it often grows in pure stands. Black locust is rapid growing, but relatively short lived. In good situations it may make an average annual height growth of 2 to 4 feet and a diameter growth of one-quarter to one-half inch. This rate is sometimes maintained for twenty-five or thirty years, but more frequently the rate of growth lessens between the ages of 15 and 20 years. After fifty years growth almost entirely ceases. THE LOCUST BORER. The value of black locust is practically destroyed in many parts of the United States by the locust borer, a black or brown and yellow striped, long-horned beetle. The grubs or larvse of this insect bur- row in the inner bark and sapwood, and if present in sufficient number either kill the tree or cause it to become stunted and worth- less. The value of the wood is decreased or destroyed by the many worm holes that result from a severe attack. If a plantation is severely infested when the trees are very small, it is killed outright within a short time. Where attacks are not severe, it is sometimes possible to grow trees to fence-post size before the plantation is seri- ously affected. Plantations of locust in Oklahoma and in the States west of the Rocky Mountains are almost entirely free from this injury. In most of the States east of the Rocky Mountains planting is restricted or made impossible by the presence of the borer. In case this insect or others seriously injure a forest plantation the Bureau of Entomology of the Department of Agriculture should be con- sulted at once. ECONOMIC USES. The timber of the locust is extensively used for fence posts, ties, ribs of vessels, treenails, insulator pins, and vehicle stock. Its great durability in contact with the soil makes it very valuable for use in the ground, and its toughness and elasticity give it value where [Cm. 64] great strength is required. The tree is also valuable for fuel, being about equal to bur and white oak for this purpose. The most common use of locust is for fence posts, for which pur- pose it has been extensively grown. Because of the large proportion of heartwood the young wood is almost as durable in the soil as the old. Locust posts, under average conditions, will last from fifteen to twenty-five years. METHODS OF PROPAGATION. Locust reproduces itself abundantly by seeds and by stump and root sprouts. It extends itself rapidly over old fields and along fence rows. Frequently burned and cut-over lands in the mountains of Pennsylvania and West Virginia are thickly covered with locust seedlings, that give rise to valuable pure stands. The seed is retained on the trees well into the winter and is carried long distances by the strong winter winds. Wherever locust has been planted outside of its natural range the same tendency to spread by seed and root sprouts is exhibited, and young stands killed by fire replace them- selves at once by sprouts. The use of 1 -year-old seedlings, however, is recommended in estab- lishing plantations of black locust. If a large number of seedlings are required, the planter should grow them himself, since home- grown trees can be produced cheaply and are available for planting when conditions are most favorable. The seed may be gathered locally by the planter or may be pur- chased from dealers. It may be left in the pods and stored in a cool, dry place for as long as two years without serious harm. If the seeds are removed from the pods, they should be stratified in moist sand in a cool place. Just before sowing in the nursery, the seeds should be soaked for eight to twelve hours in water that has been heated to a temperature of not more than 160° F. Planting should immediately follow the soaking of the seeds, and under no con- sideration should they be allowed to dry out. Under these condi- tions usually between 50 and 75 per cent of the seeds germinate. Spring planting of seeds in the nursery is in general advisable, although the seed can be sown as soon as it matures. The soil of the nursery should be well pulverized, rich, and loamy. If hand cultivation is to be given, the drills may be 12 to 15 inches apart; but for horse cultivation rows 2 to 3J feet apart will be more con- venient. The seed should not be covered to a depth greater than one- half inch, and the soil should be kept uniformly moist during ger- mination. A pound contains about 29,000 seeds and is sufficient for a row 900 feet long. The seedlings will be large enough to set out [CiR. 64] in their permanent sites the spring following the planting of seed in the nursery. PLANTING. Since the locust has a wide-spreading root system, it requires plenty of room for the proper development of the tree. A spacing of 4 feet apart each way in the permanent site is too close unless very early thinnings can be made and the material utilized for stakes. In the East the trees should be set at least 6 feet apart each way. In the Middle West they should be spaced 4 feet apart in rows 6 feet from each other, or 3 feet apart in rows with 8 feet between. De- tailed directions for planting forest trees are given in Forest Service Circular 61, which will gladly be sent free upon application to the Forester. Locust does well in pure stands, but in the semiarid region of the Middle West, where forest plantations are valued also as wind-breaks, it may be mixed with Russian mulberry, Osage orange, or green ash. CULTIVATION AND CARE. In the Middle West careful preparation of the soil and cultivation for several years after planting are essential for successful growing of the locust. To secure a stem that will make straight posts, poorly formed or double-headed trees may be pruned or cut back to the ground two or three years after planting. The plantation should be kept absolutely free from the presence of live stock, and carefully guarded to prevent fire from running over the ground. Approved : JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. WASHINGTON, D. C., January 9, 1909. [CiE. 64] o Issued January 10, 1007. United States Department of Agriculture, FOREST SERVICE— Circular 65. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. FOREST PLANTING LEAFLET. NORWAY SPRUCE (Picea excelsa). FORM AND SIZE. The Norway spruce develops a straight, undivided trunk, with small slender branches which become somewhat drooping in later life. In the open the limbs, extending almost to the ground, form a well- shaped, conical crown. The forest-grown tree retains its conical form, but the crown is much more compact and is restricted to the upper portions of the trunk. In size, the Norway spruce is not unlike our red spruce. Trees 80 to 100 feet high and 2 to 3 feet in diameter are common in Europe on good situations. RANGE. This species is not indigenous to North America, but is a native of northern Europe and Asia. It is almost invariably confined to cool, somewhat moist situations. In Europe it ranges from the shores of the Baltic and the lower mountain slopes of Scandinavia to the Alps, where it occurs at an altitude of 6,000 feet. Planting has widely extended the limits of its distribution. It was introduced into Eng- land in the sixteenth century and in the United States has been grown as an ornamental tree for many years. The possible planting range in this country is not yet fully known. As a rule it will thrive throughout the entire Northeast and southward at the higher elevations. In the West favorable results have been attained only as far as the eastern part of the prairie region, and then only in the more protected localities. The great field for planting on a large scale is the cut-over land in the North, where the tree serves to provide for a future supply of wood suitable for pulp. It will adapt itself within certain limits to situations similar to those formerly occupied by our spruce forests, and it is in every way a superior tree. HABITS AND GROWTH. A rich, deep soil is not demanded by the Norway spruce, although it grows more rapidly on the better soils. The tree will grow well in a 16769— No. 65—07 M fresh, shallow, moderately porous soil, whether fertile or not, and will thrive with moderate moisture. It will not endure drought or a naturally dry soil. In common with our native spruces, this species is very shade enduring, forming dense stands which protect the soil and maintain forest conditions perfectly. The root system is shallow and not extensive. The growth during the first decade is rather slow, but after this period there is a rapid increase in both height and diameter growth, followed by a gradual lessening. It is much more rapid in growth than our native spruce. The Norway spruce is not subject to serious damage by insects or fungous diseases, but is seriously injured by drought, hot winds, and late frosts, while its shallow root system renders it liable to be thrown by the wind if exposed. ECONOMIC USES. In the United States little use has been made of the Norway spruce. The timber is light, soft, non-resinous, and fairly durable. It works well, splits easily, and seasons without serious warping. Abroad, its largest uses are for construction timber, fuel, and paper pulp. Its utility for the last purpose should lead to extensive com- mercial planting in this country. The timber is excellent for general construction purposes as well, and may be used as a substitute for white pine. Although the species is useful in protection forests, such as shelter- belts and windbreaks, it is not hardy enough for planting in the Middle West, where such forests are most necessary. In the East, however, it may be planted as a protection belt about exposed hard- wood groves. The rapid growth and graceful form of the Norway spruce in open situations has led to its wide use for shade and ornament. METHOD OF PROPAGATION. The Norway spruce is a heavy seeder, bearing a full crop every two or three years. The cones mature in September or October. They should be picked from the trees in the fall, and the seed extracted and stored in a cool, dry place during the winter. If carefully stored the seed can be kept from three to five years without serious loss of vitality. If there are no cone-bearing trees in the vicinity, seed may be pur- chased. Samples sent to the Seed Laboratory of the Department of Agriculture will be identified and their germination per cent deter- mined. Of fresh seed, fully 60 to 75 per cent should be fertile. Home-grown seedlings should be used in the plantation when possi- [Cir. 65] 3 ble. Seedlings may be purchased, but it -is better and cheaper to raise them on the tract. Bulletin 29 of the Forest Service gives instruction in all phases of nursery practice. The nursery should be located on fertile, Avell-drained soil, prefer- ably a sandy loam, and beds should be carefully prepared by working the ground thoroughly. The seed may be soAvn broadcast or in drills. Broadcast sowing gives the larger number of seedlings, but drilling is better because the beds can be more easily kept free from weeds. The seed should be planted in shallow drills, 4 to 6 inches apart, and covered with no more than one-quarter of an inch of earth. Forty to 50 seeds per linear foot of drill should be used; the entire surface of the bed should then be packed firmly with a board or light roller. One pound contains about 65,000 seeds; these will plant at least 1,500 linear feet of seed drills, and, if seed beds 4 by 12 feet in size are used, will occupy about 1,000 square feet of nursery space, including paths. The planted seed should germinate within from three to five weeks, and during the first year should reach a height of 1J to 2-| inches. The young trees require partial shade during the first summer, after which they can endure the full sunlight. PLANTING. When 2 years old, seedlings may be transferred to the permanent site. It is better, however , to transplant them at this age into nursery rows, and place them in the plantation when 3 years old. Although this will increase the cost of the plant material, it will often pay, since transplanted stock is more hardy and vigorous. In planting, the seedlings should be spaced from 4 to 6 feet apart each way. The poorer the situation the greater the number of trees required to maintain forest conditions and th'e closer must be the planting. The form- of the desired crop must also be considered. In pure stands Norway spruce develops to excellent advantage, and is satisfactory for commercial planting on a large scale. It cleans its bole well in such stands, preserves the soil fertility, and makes a per- fect forest floor. In many instances, however, it may well be mixed with other species. The best associates are white and red pine, Euro- pean larch, and chestnut. CULTIVATION AND CARE. The trees require no cultivation after planting. Their great toler- ance enables them to survive the shade of brush and weeds and eventu- ally to overtop them. The greatest enemy of the spruce is fire, which should be carefully excluded from plantations. [Cir. 65] Spruce stands should never be severely thinned, as the shallow root system renders the trees liable to be thrown by the wind. This dam- age is especially great in exposed situations. In case such destructive agencies as insects or fungi appear, specimens, accompanied by an account of the character of the injury, should be sent to the Depart- ment of Agriculture for identification and recommendations for their control. Approved. JAMES WILSON, Secretary. WASHINGTON, D. C., November 24, 1906. [Cir. 65] o Issued January 10, 1907. United States Department of Agriculture, FOREST SERVICE— Circular 67. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. FOREST PLANTING LEAFLET. WHITE PINE (Pinus strobus). FORM AND SIZE. The white pine is the largest of all conifers indigenous to the east- ern part of the United States. On proper soils it may reach the age of 250 years or more and attain a height of 150 to 175 feet and a diameter of 3 to 5 feet. The crowns of mature white pines in mixed forests conspicuously overtop the surrounding hardwoods. Mature forest-grown trees are characterized by straight, columnar trunks, destitute of branches for a distance of 75 to 100 feet from the ground, and thin, irregular crowns. At the base of the trunks of old trees the bark is thick and deeply furrowed and of a dark brown color, but becomes thinner and grayish toward the upper part of the tree. RANGE. The northern boundary of the natural range of white pine is from Newfoundland west to eastern Manitoba. Through the lake region the range extends west to eastern Minnesota and south to northern Iowa, Indiana, Illinois, and Ohio. In the East it originally occurred throughout New England and the Middle States, and, on the higher elevations of the Appalachians, southward to Georgia and Alabama. It was found in greatest abundance and reached its best development in the St. Lawrence Valley and the lake region. It usually grows in association with hardwoods and other conifers and reaches its largest size in mixture with the former. White pine may be planted in suitable situations throughout its natural range, but for economic purposes planting should be re- stricted to nonagricultural lands in New England, Pennsylvania, New York, the Lake States, and the higher slopes of the Appala- chians, and should be resorted to only when conditions render nat- ural replacement impracticable, since in many situations, if the land is protected from fire, white pine will extend itself rapidly by nat- ural seeding. Much of the abandoned agricultural land in New Eng- land may be profitably planted with this tree, which can be recom- mended for reforesting burned and cut-over areas generally through- out its economic planting range. 16771— No. 67—07 M HABITS AND GROWTH. White pine grows naturally and best in a cool climate on a fresh, light, deep, and sandy soil with a porous subsoil. It readily adapts itself to both dry and moist soils, for it is found on the poorest and dryest sand and on steep, rocky slopes, and also on moist clay flats and river bottoms, provided the latter are not continuously wet. It is capable of disputing possession with hardwoods, even on fresh, medium-heavy clay and loam soils. It will endure windy and cold exposures, but should not be planted near the seacoast, since it can not withstand strong sea breezes. White pine can endure considerable shade for a number of years, but as it becomes older it requires more and more light for its devel- opment, and after it is 40 or 50 years old the crown demands full sunlight. On this account white pine is best grown in mixture with slower growing hardwoods or other conifers which will not overtop or shade it from above. In artificial plantations or on abandoned farms which have been reforested naturally, white pine usually grows much faster than in the forest, especially during the early years. Records of plantations in New England show that the average growth of the larger trees ranges from one- fourth to one- third of an inch in diameter annually. It is possible in the eastern portion of the United States to produce saw timber in from sixty to seventy years. Smaller trees suitable for box boards and match blocks can be produced in thirty or forty years. Owing to the thinness of its bark, young white pine is very sus- ceptible to injury by fire, which must be most carefully excluded from plantations; but between the fifth and twentieth years the greatest cause of injury to the white pine is a weevil which in the grub stage mines in the terminal shoot and causes a crooked stem. Repeated attacks make the tree unmerchantable. ECONOMIC USES. The wood of the white pine is soft, light, straight grained, and easily worked, and will not warp. It was formerly used to a great extent for general construction, but on account of its growing scar- city and high price it has been largely superseded for this purpose by other woods. The better grades of this lumber are still used in naval construction — for decking, interior finishing, and spars. Second-growth white pine is used principally for low-grade lum- ber, match blocks, box boards, wooden ware, and straight-staved cooperage. Where a demand for this material exists, white pine on nonagricultural lands will prove of economic value. Throughout the manufacturing regions of New England, wherever there is a market FPir R71 for small material, white pine will prove the most profitable conifer that can be grown on poor soils. Within its range of economic planting white pine forms a very sat- isfactory windbreak or shelterbelt. METHODS OF PROPAGATION. White pine reproduces only from seed. Plantations should be started from nursery-grown stock rather than from seed, which usu- ally gives unsatisfactory results. If only a few hundred plants are desired, it usually is cheaper and easier to buy them from a nurseryman than to raise them, but if sev* eral thousand plants are needed it \vill be cheaper to raise them from seed. Purchased stock should be secured in the early spring before planting time, and upon receipt should be unpacked immediately and the roots dipped into a bucket containing thin mud. The trees should then be heeled-in in a shady place to await planting time, care being taken that the foliage does not become covered. If the trees are to be grown in a home nursery, the seed may be pur- chased, but a large saving may be made by collecting it in the neigh- borhood, if this can be done. Cones should be gathered during the latter part of August or in September, before they begin to open. They may be picked from standing trees, or from felled trees if lum- bering operations are being conducted nearby. When gathered, the cones should be spread out on a sheet or floor, where they will be exposed to the sun, yet protected from wind and rain. Within a week they will open and allow the seed to drop out. A thorough stir- ring will separate the seed ; after which the cones may be raked away. One bushel of cones will yield from one-half a pound to 1 pound of clean seed, which will average from 29.000 to 30,000 seeds per pound. Seeds may be stored over winter by placing in small sacks and hanging the sacks in a cold, dry place. The most successful method of raising seedlings is by sowing the seed in nursery beds. Seed beds should be composed of fine, loose, fairly fertile soil, moderately moist but always well drained. The soil must not be too rich; otherwise the seedlings will suffer when transplanted to the less favorable conditions of the permanent site. A convenient size for seed beds is 4 by 12 feet, with a path about 18 inches wide between the beds, so that the plants can be weeded and cared for with ease. The seed should be sown in drills, 4 to 6 inches apart, and lightly covered with fine earth. Sowing should not begin until the ground is warm enough to cause rapid germination. Seed may be safely sown at the time garden vegetables are planted. After a seed bed is sown the surface should be " firmed " with a board or light roller. [Cir. 67] The plants will begin to appear in from three to five weeks. Like other conifers, they will require partial shade during the first season, but subsequently can endure full sunlight, especially in New Eng- land. A shade frame of lath supported 18 inches above *the bed will serve the purpose. One pound of white-pine seed is sufficient to sow 500 linear feet of seed drill, or about 200 square feet of seed beds, with drills 6 inches apart. Even with proper care some seed may fail to germinate promptly, but about 10,000 plants may be expected for every pound of fertile seed sown. White-pine seed retains its vitality for several years, and when kept in cold, dry storage a fair percentage has been known to germinate after five years. Fresh seed, however, is always to be preferred. Two years after sowing, the seedlings should be transplanted in the spring from the seed beds to nursery rows, in order to develop a good, fibrous root system. They may be set out 3 inches apart, in rows from 12 to 18 inches apart. The roots should be set slightly deeper than they were before. The best method of transplanting is to open a shallow trench of the proper depth with a spade and set the plants by hand, carefully covering the roots of each plant with fine soil and gently firming it. Transplants, if thoroughly cultivated and weeded, will be ready for final planting at the beginning of the fourth season. At this age they should be 6 to 9 inches in height and have a well-developed system of fibrous roots. In the early years of the white pine a very injurious fungus must be guarded against. If the soil becomes soaked, or sufficient light and air are withheld, ideal conditions for the action of the fungus exist, and the usual result is the " damping off " of large numbers of the young trees. In shaded seed beds, when the quantity of rain is suffi- cient to endanger the young trees, the " damping off " may be checked by so raising one side of the shade frame that it acts as a partial roof. Dry sand sprinkled over the seed bed will usually tend to hold the fungus in check. Birds and field mice are often very troublesome around coniferous seed beds. If danger from such sources is expected, the seed may be coated with red lead mixed with linseed oil before sowing. This is distasteful to most birds and rodents and is usually quite effective. Another method is to protect the beds by netting and similar devices until the seedlings are sufficiently developed to be free from danger. PLANTING. White-pine seedlings should be planted on the permanent site in the early spring when the ground is dry enough to work. In most cases the site will not need preparation previous to planting. [Cir. 67] The roots must not be allowed to become dry during the planting. Even brief exposure of the roots to the sun and air will cause the plants to die. The distance apart at which the trees should be planted depends upon the character of the site and whether the pines are to be planted in mixture with other trees or in a pure stand. The usual distance is 6 by 6 feet apart. In pure plantations white pine produces excellent forest conditions, but it is also adapted to growth with a number of other species of which chestnut, European larch, Norway spruce, red oak, and hard maple are the more important. Chestnut is a very desirable tree for mixture with white pine on well-drained soils which are not calcareous, but since the planting range of chestnut does not, except in Vermont and New Hampshire, extend above the forty-second degree of lati- tude, it can not be used in mixture except within a limited area. In Pennsylvania, Michigan,' Wisconsin, Minnesota, and northern New York white pine may be mixed with European larch, Norway spruce, or hard maple, and on soils adapted to red oak the latter may be used to advantage. In mixture with chestnut or European larch white pine should constitute at least two-thirds of the stand, spaced accord- ing to the following diagram : [6 feet by 6 feet.] P P S P P P S P P S S P P S P P P S P P p=white pine. S=chestnut or European larch. Mixed with other species, the stand should be composed of an equal number of white mne and the associated species planted alternately. CULTIVATION AND CARE. The cultivation of white pine in plantations throughout the eastern part of the United States is unnecessary. Persistent dead branches should be removed when possible, but it is not advisable to prune live ones. Where there is a demand for small material, the stand may be profitably thinned at the age of 20 to 30 years, removing at this time all suppressed or intermediate trees which are not needed in the stand to shade the ground or to assist in naturally developing the large trees. Fire must be kept out of stands, since the bark of young trees is [Cir. 67] thin and easily damaged, and injuries from this source cause rapid decay. Information regarding general nursery practice and planting may be obtained from the publications of the Forest Service, which will be forwarded upon request. Insect damage should be reported promptly and specimens mailed to the Bureau of Entomology of the United States Department of Agriculture, where they will be identi- fied and measures suggested for their control. Approved. JAMES WILSON, Secretary. WASHINGTON, D. C., November 24, 1906. [Cir. 67] Issued January 19, 1907. United States Department of Agriculture, FOREST SERVICE— Circular 68. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. !U I" __ J, crp 1 r\ 191 FOREST PLANTING LEAFLET. Division of Fo: University of Cal: SCOTCH PINE (Pinus sylvestris). FORM AND SIZE. The Scotch pine closely resembles the red pine of North America. In Europe, in the region of its best development, it commonly attains a height of 120 feet and a diameter of from 3 to 5 feet. For a con- siderable distance above ground the stem is comparatively smooth and free from branches. In the forest the crown is short and com- pact, extending not more than one-third the length of the bole. The bark is usually deeply furrowed and, on the upper portion of the trunk, is distinctly reddish in color. In portions of the Middle West planted trees of this species are often entirely different in appearance from the usual form, being scrubby and distorted. This poor development is probably due not to unfavorable soil or climatic conditions, but to the use of some in- ferior variety or of seed from regions not well adapted to the growth of the tree. RANGE. In this country Scotch pine does not occur naturally. Abroad it is widely distributed, ranging throughout the greater part of Europe and through northern Asia southward to Asia Minor and Persia. In the region of its natural distribution extensive planting has greatly increased its occurrence, until at present it is probably the most im- portant forest tree in Europe. In the United States the Scotch pine can be planted over a wide area, including New England, the Middle and Lake States, the Da- kotas, and especially the prairie States, such as Nebraska, Iowa, and Kansas. The ability of this tree to thrive in situations where the atmosphere is exceedingly dry admirably adapts it to the prairie States. Little commercial planting has been done in this country, although many small groves and isolated trees indicate its fitness to the regions named. 16772— No. 68—07 M HABITS AND GROWTH. The Scotch pine is quite indifferent to soil requirements. In Eu- rope it grows on heavy, peaty soils, and from that extreme on all classes of soils to dry, sterile sand. Good growth depends upon the physical structure rather than upon the chemical composition of the soil. The best development is found on a deep, sandy loam contain- ing considerable lime and underlaid by a fresh, well-drained subsoil. In common with the moderate demands of the Scotch pine for min- eral food is its extreme hardiness not only on dry, porous soils, but also in a dry climate. The species is very intolerant of shade, in this respect exceeding all of our common trees, with the exception of the larches, aspen, and birch. It demands much more light than does the white pine. Not- withstanding this characteristic, moderately close planting is re- quired to secure clear timber, for although the lateral branches are easily killed by shade they persist for a long time unless suppressed while young. The rate of growth of this species in the United States is not well known. It is safe to say, however, that its growth is fairly rapid, planted groves in this country seeming to support the assertion that it equals that of our red pine. In Europe the tree is subject to damage from a number of insects, but in America it appears free from injury. At present the general excellence of the tree will fully justify its wide use. ECONOMIC USES. In this country, except for fuel, no practical use has ever been made of the Scotch pine. Abroad it is the most important wood of commerce, furnishing the famous " red " and " yellow deals " of the British lumber trade. The wood is strong, close grained, highly resinous, and elastic, but not durable in contact with the soil. De- spite this drawback, large quantities are used as cross-ties and pit props, its value for such uses often being increased by impregnation with wood preservatives to resist decay. Small-sized material is widely used for staves, heading, box boards, etc., but the great use of the timber is for general construction pur- poses. Its strength and elasticity, together with the ease with which it is worked, adapt it admirably for carpentry of all sorts. Although inferior in many respects to our white pine, the Scotch pine will form an excellent substitute, and its great hardiness com- mends it for wide planting in the United States. It is well suited for windbreaks and shelterbelts and has already been so used in the Middle West. [Cir. 68] METHODS OF PROPAGATION. The Scotch pine grows from seed, which it produces abundantly every two or three years; hence plantations must come from seed- lings or from seed sown on the permanent site. Seed should be pur- chased abroad, preferably from Russia or 'Scandinavia, since experi- ence has taught that trees grown from such seeds are, as a rule, hardier and produce timber of better quality than trees grown from seed collected in Germany. Direct seeding is not usually successful ; hence, in establishing the plantation, the use of nursery-grown seedlings is recommended. The nursery should be located on high, well-drained ground of moderate fertility. When thoroughly prepared, the ground should be laid out in seed beds 4 by 12 feet in size, separated by paths 18 inches wide. Seed should be sown in drills 4 inches apart running across the bed. They should be sown thickly — 25 to 30 per linear foot — and covered with no more than one- fourth of an inch of fine earth. In a pound there are nearly 75,000 seeds, or enough to plant 2,500 linear feet of seed rows, covering about 1,260 square feet of nursery space. At least 37,000 seedlings can be grown from 1 pound of seed. After planting, the entire surface of the bed should be " firmed." During the first season the young trees demand partial shade, such as is furnished by the common lath nursery screen. After this they require no protec- tion from the full sunshine. Seedlings may be left in the nursery from one to three years. If two or three year old stock is desired, the plants, to secure proper root development, should, when one year old, be transplanted into nursery rows. The transplanted trees should stand at intervals of 4 inches in rows 6 inches apart. PLANTING. Although for favorable situations younger plant material may be suitable, the use of three-year-old transplants is advised. At this age the young trees will have reached a height of from 9 to 12 inches and formed a vigorous root system capable of immediately establishing the tree. In the plantation the trees may be spaced from 4 to 6 feet apart each way, depending upon the quality of the site. On somewhat unfavorable situations the closer planting is advisable, but usually planting 5 by 5 feet apart is best. To secure proper form develop- ment, the trees require considerable crowding while young; hence wide planting should never be practiced. Scotch pine may be grown pure or mixed. It should never be associated with heavy- foliaged trees of equal or more rapid growth. [Cir. 68] Suitable associates are European larch, Norway spruce, white pine, and red pine. CULTIVATION AND CARE. Except where there is a heavy sod growth, the Scotch pine requires no cultivation after planting. -In the prairie country the younger trees should be cultivated until able to compete successfully against encroaching grasses. Stands should be fully protected against fire and trespass. Any insect damage should be reported and specimens sent to the Bureau of Entomology, Department of Agriculture, for information as to the nature of the pest and methods of control. Approved. JAMES WILSON, Secretary. WASHINGTON, D. C., November &£> 1906. [Cir. 68] Issued January 10, 1907, United States Department of Agriculture, FOREST SERVICE— Circular 70. GIFFORD PINCH€£E, Forester. FOREST PLANTING LEAFLET. EUROPEAN LARCH (Larix europaea). FORM AND SIZE. The European larch is a deciduous conifer, similar in form and size to our native tamarack. The long, thin-foliaged, spire-like crown is very characteristic. When grown in the forest the bole is very straight and clean and the crown greatly reduced in size. The tree is of medium proportions, but occasionally reaches a height of 80 to 100 feet and a diameter of 2 to 3 feet. RANGE. The European larch is not indigenous to the United States. Its natural range is confined to a somewhat limited region in Central Europe, where it grows best on the f resh soils of the lower mountain slopes. It has been widely planted abroad, and was introduced into England as early as 1629. In the United States small plantations have been made from New England to South Dakota. The exact limits of the region in which planting is advisable can not be given, but it is evident that commer- cial plantations may be established throughout the Northeastern States and westward through the Central and Lake States to South Dakota and the prairie region. In Iowa, eastern Kansas and Nebraska European larch is, when planted in suitable situations, among the most promising of our conifers. HABITS AND GROWTH. The larch requires favorable soil conditions. The soil should be deep, light, moderately fertile, and fresh, but well drained both in the upper layer and in the subsoil. This tree possesses a deep root system like that of Scotch pine and oak. When the land is wet the tree may start vigorously, but it will soon become spongy at the base and rot. It will grow on comparatively poor but not on sterile soil. The species is distinctly intolerant, demanding more light than any other of our conifers and equaling in this respect our most intolerant hardwoods, such as aspen and locust. In its natural state it is never 17071 — No. 70 — 07 M found in pure stands, occurring only in small groups or as isolated individuals among more shade-enduring species. The larch grows faster than most species.. It is one of the most desirable trees for slanting in the eastern and central parts of the United States. Several years ago the larvae of a saw fly almost entirely killed the native tamarack of the Northeast, and young trees are still seriously injured by insects. As yet no serious damage by this insect has been reported from plantations of the European species in the West, but the small plats which exist in New England have been badly injured and in some cases nearly destroyed by insect pests. On low ground ti fungus known as Trametes pint often attacks the larch and so destroys the substance of the wood that the tree breaks down in even a slight wind. In Europe pure plantations often become the prey of the fungus. ECONOMIC USES. The wood of the larch is heavy, hard, strong, flexible, and very durable in contact with the ground. When grown on good soil it is yellowish white, but in cold, elevated situations it is reddish brown and much harder. Because of its strength and durability it is very valuable for poles, posts, cross-ties, etc., and is largely used in ship- building. METHODS OF PROPAGATION. The larch reproduces entirely by seed. It is best propagated by transplanting 2-year-old nursery-grown seedlings or transplants to the plantation. The seeds are borne abundantly in small, upright cones, and are easily collected. Care, however, should be taken in col- lecting them, for the old, seedless cones, which remain for three or four years, are easily mistaken for new ones. The number of trees in this country that have reached fruiting age is limited, and it is often necessary to use imported seeds, which may be obtained direct from foreign dealers or through the larger home seedsmen. Although a deciduous tree, the larch is a conifer and should be treated as such in all nursery and planting operations. Nursery cul- ture is simple and should be conducted according to the general rules given in Bulletin 29 of the Forest Service. Nursery seed beds should be prepared in moist loam and the seeds sown in shallow drills 6 inches apart and lightly covered writh fine dirt. Partial protection from the sun and beating rain should be given the young seedlings for the first two years. For this purpose the common lath screen de- scribed in the bulletin mentioned is simplest. One pound of seed, containing 72,000 seeds, is sufficient to plant 400 feet of seed drills, and will produce about 25,000 plants. These will occupy about 250 square feet of nursery space. [Cir. 70] PLANTING. Seedlings may be planted when 2 years old. The planting should be done very early in the spring, as the buds start early. The trees should be placed from 4 to 6 feet apart each way, according to local conditions. In the Middle West the narrower spacing is preferable. In prairie planting the soil should be thoroughly prepared, but in the East such preparation is not necessary. Mixed plantations are most desirable, since European experience shows that pure plantations of larch do not thrive for any length of time. The larch may be planted to advantage with the following- species: Chestnut, white and green ash, white and slippery elm, Scotch pine, red pine, white pine, Norway spruce, and red cedar. Often three or four of these species may be advantageously combined, as the European larch, white elm, white ash, red cedar, or white pine. In such mixtures, however, considerable care and skill are required in the thinnings, and simpler combinations are usually preferable. Chestnut and larch, and red and white pine and larch, make admir- able mixtures for planting on a large scale. In such mixtures the larch should be in the proportion of one to three or more. Because of the imperious demand of the larch for light, pure stands are decidedly unsafe; the tops demand considerable growing space, and the weaker trees die out to such an extent as to expose the soil and impair forest conditions. Furthermore, pure forests are much more liable to serious insect damages. • CULTIVATION AND CARE. In the prairie region forest plantations of European larch should be thoroughly cultivated until the trees are able to compete successfully with encroaching grasses. In the East cultivation after planting is not required. Plantations should receive full protection against fire and stock. Any serious damage from insects or fungi should be reported and specimens sent to the Department of Agriculture for suggestion as to method of control. Approved. JAMES WILSON, Secretary. WASHINGTON, D. C., November 24, 1906. [Cir. 70] o Issued January 19, 1907. United States Department of Agriculture, FOREST SERVICE— Circular 71. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. FOREST PLANTING LEAFLET. CHESTNUT (Castanea dentata). SIZE AND FORM. The chestnut is among the largest of our hardwood trees, and in the region of its best development has been known to reach a height of 120 feet and a diameter of great size. Throughout the greatest part of its range, however, it is much smaller, with an average height of 80 to 100 feet and a diameter of from 2 to 4 feet. When grown in the for- est it forms a tall, clean, fairly cylindrical trunk; in the open it as- sumes a form like a fruit tree, with a short, thick trunk and a broad, spreading cr"own. The bark is thick and deeply ridged, and the root system is extensive, in both lateral and vertical development. RANGE. The chestnut is distributed throughout the eastern part of the United States at elevations varying from sea level in Massachusetts to 5,000 feet in North Carolina. It ranges from southern Maine southward through New England, but in this region is most abundant in the lower valleys of the Merrimac and Connecticut rivers. Except near the sea, it is common in Rhode Island and Connecticut and as far south as Delaware. It is found also in the Province of Ontario and in the Eastern States, especially in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and parts of Maryland. Further south it is found along the Appalachians to Alabama, growing well in all soils above 2,000 feet in elevation, but less abundantly below. In the Middle West it is confined to Michi- gan, Indiana, and Illinois. Large areas throughout the East, particularly in New England, New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland, are well adapted to chestnut. Outside of its natural range, however, the success of this species is doubtful. Chestnut can be grown fairly well throughout Missouri and southeastern Iowa, in the eastern counties of Nebraska and Kansas, and in the southern half of Minnesota, but nowhere on prairie soil is it long-lived or of first-rate growth. In Colorado it grows well under irrigation, and would probably succeed in other parts of the West if well watered. If it is planted too far north the shoots fail 17082— No. 71—07 M to become woody before they are nipped by the early frosts. The tree will endure the heat and cold of its natural home and will remain thrifty in sunny, dry situations, but is very susceptible to injury from hot winds. HABITS AND GROWTH. Chestnut will thrive on a variety of soils, from almost pure sand to coarse gravels and shales. On limestone soils, however, it nowhere makes good growth. In general it prefers the dry, well-drained, rocky land of the glacial drift to the richer, more compact alluvial soil of the lowlands. Chestnut does not need a rich soil so much as one whose physical structure insures good drainage. Light is essen- tial to the tree, since it is somewhat intolerant of shade. Few of our valuable hardwoods are more rapid in growth than chestnut. Seedlings usually attain a height of from 10 to 15 inches at the end of the first season. From then until the thirtieth year the annual height growth will average from 15 to 20 inches. Coppice sprouts make even more rapid growth during the same period, but in later life their growth falls off rapidly. Ordinarily the chestnut, as a forest tree, is little troubled by in- sects or fungi. Several forms of borers work in the wood and under the bark, and their ravages are sometimes extensive. The nuts are attacked by the larvae of two or more species of weevil, but to the timber grower this is not serious. Trunks of the young trees in warm situations are sometimes affected by a body blight or "sun scald." The bark cracks and loosens on the south and west sides of the tree, and the affected portion finally dies. The extent of injury from this source is, however, not great. During the past ten or fifteen years a new disease of unknown cause has been doing considerable damage. ECONOMIC USES. Chestnut timber is in great demand. The wood is light, moder- ately strong, coarse grained, and elastic. It works easily and is very durable in contact with the soil. In seasoning, the wood often checks and warps, but damage from this source is not serious. It is used in cabinet work and cooperage, and for fence posts, telegraph and telephone poles, ties, and mine timbers. The presence of tannin in the wood increases the demand for small-sized and inferior material, and large quantities are used in the manufacture of tanning extracts. Except in portions of the Southern Appalachians, very little of the original chestnut remains, but the coppice reproduction is so rapid that a considerable supply of small-sized timber is still available. The excellent qualities of the wood insure a permanent demand and good price. [Cir. 71] METHODS OF PROPAGATION. Chestnut plantations may be established by direct seeding or by the use of nursery-grown seedlings. Seed may be purchased, or collected from trees in the vicinity. To prevent drying out and consequent loss of germinating power, collected seeds should be kept stratified in moist sand until the following spring. Home-grown seedlings are usually superior to those purchased from commercial dealers, and are much cheaper. The nursery should be located on fresh, well-drained, fertile soil, under conditions such as are usually present in an old garden spot. Thorough culti- vation of the soil is required, but the preparation of seed beds is unnecessary. Seed should be planted, 10 to 12 per linear foot, in nursery rows 18 inches apart. Care should be taken not to cover the seed more than 1 inch deep. A bushel contains 6,500 to 8,000 nuts, sufficient to plant 650 linear feet of nursery rows and to produce at least 4,000 plants. These rows will cover an area of 975 square feet. While in the nursery, seedlings require careful cultivation and should be kept entirely free from weeds. PLANTING. When planting on permanent sites the trees should be set 5 or 6 feet apart each way, the width depending upon the quality of the site and the possible market for the product of thinnings. In good situations the wider spacing is advised. If the trees are to be grown directly from seed without transplant- ing, seed spots should be prepared, spaced as above. Two or three seeds should be planted in each and covered about 1 inch deep with fine earth. Only one tree should be allowed to remain in each hill. This method is recommended by many, and where there is no danger of squirrels it will prove satisfactory and less expensive than the use of seedlings. In general, however, the seedling plantation will be safer and will give better results. The system of management best suited to the chestnut is the pure coppice, with a rotation of from twenty-five to thirty-five years. Coppice makes more rapid growth than seedling forest, and pro- duces timber in many respects superior. The species also grows well in mixtures, particularly with the white and red pines and the Euro- pean larch, and also with the oaks, ashes, and maples. CULTIVATION AND CARE. On the prairies, plantations should be cultivated until the young trees are well established, but in the East cultivation is unnecessary rCMr. 711 If insects appear in alarming numbers in the forest, specimens, together with an account of their habits, should be sent to the Bureau of Entomology of the Department of Agriculture for identi- fication and suggestions as to their destruction or control. The greatest enemy of the chestnut, as of other forest trees, is fire, from which it should at all times be fully protected. Approved. JAMES WILSON, Secretary. WASHINGTON, D. C., November ££, 1906. [Cir. 71] O United States Department of Agriculture, BUREAU OF FORESTRY. NOTES OX FOREST TREES SUITABLE FOR PLANTING IN THE UNITED STATES. CHESTNUT (Castanea dentata). DISTRIBUTION. The Chestnut is distributed throughout the eastern United States at elevations varying from sea level in Massachusetts to 4,500 feet in North Carolina. It ranges from southern Maine southward through New England, being most abundant in the lower valleys of the Merrimac and Connecticut rivers, but common in Rhode Island and Connecticut and as far south as Delaware, except near the sea. It is common in the Province of Ontario and in the Middle States, especially in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and parts of Maryland. Farther south it is found all along the higher Alleghenies to Alabama, growing well in all soils above 2,000 feet elevation, but less abundant below. In the middle West it is confined to Michigan, Indiana, and Tennessee. The area for economic planting outside of the natural range is rather limited. The tree can be grown with fair success throughout Missouri and Iowa, in the eastern counties of Nebraska and Kansas, and in the southern half of Minnesota, but nowhere on prairie soil is it long-lived or of first-class growth. In Colorado it grows well under irrigation, and would probably succeed in other parts of the West if well watered. If carried too far north the shoots fail to ripen before they are nipped by the early frosts. The tree will endure the heat and cold of its natural home, and will remain thrifty in sunny, dry situations, but is very susceptible to injury from hot winds. SOIL, SITE, AND ASSOCIATE SPECIES. The Chestnut will thrive on various kinds of soil from almost pure sand to coarse gravel, shale, or even limestone. On the latter, how- ever, it is found only when the strata are tilted. In general it prefers the dry, rocky land of the glacial drift to the richer, more compact alluvial soil of the lowlands. It does not demand a rich soil. Its fail- ure to grow in most of the prairie country is due, no doubt, to the allu- vial nature of the soil and the frequent presence of lime. The finest Chestnut trees grow in the higher elevations of the southern Appalachians in western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee, where specimens 13 feet in diameter and 120 feet tall have been found. In this region the tree's greatest development is reached in deep hollows at an altitude of about 3,000 feet. It is here found in mixture with the White, Scarlet, and Black Oaks, ash, hickories, Tulip-tree, and other hardwoods. In the North the tree is likewise found associated with many of the hardwoods, especially the oaks and maples, but is gener- ally of smaller size than in the South, the average being a height of 60 to 80 feet and a diameter of 3 to 6 feet. In southern New England it is often found in mixture with White Pine, with which it may often be grown in plantations. Throughout its range the Chestnut enters largely into the composition of most second-growth hardwood forests. Near the northern and western limits of its range the tree, besides being smaller in size, sprouts less freely from the stump. The region where planting or systematic management will pay is about the same as the natural range of the tree, or may be extended to a limited distance beyond that range. In the Northeastern States the tree may be depended upon to thrive almost anywhere south of the forty-fourth parallel of latitude in the soils which are suited to it. MANNER OF OCCURRENCE — CHARACTERISTICS OF GROWTH. Within the limits of its range the Chestnut occurs either singly or in scattered groups or groves, usually most abundant on the high, gravelly, well-drained hillsides and ridges, and seldom in pure stands. Chestnuts grown in the forest vary greatly in general form and habit from those grown in parks, pastures, and other open places. The for- est tree soon loses its lower branches and develops a tall, tapering trunk, adapted for telegraph poles, ties, and for general use as lumber. But when grown in the open and given plenty of room, it develops a broad, spreading crown, and short, thick trunk. The Chestnut's rate of growth is the most rapid of any of our truly valuable hardwood trees. Seedlings usually attain a height of 10 to 15 inches the first year and continue growing at the rate of 15 to 20 inches per annum for twenty to thirty years. Sprouts grow even more rapidly than this, often attaining a height of 4 to 6 feet the first year, and in twenty to twenty-five years make timber large enough for ties and poles. After thirty years, however, the rapid growth ceases. In New Jersey a Chestnut is recorded which had a diameter of 60 inches when 70 years old. In the same State several trees 35 years old ranged from 24 up to 34 inches in diameter, with a height of 40 to 50 feet. The average rate of growth is, of course, far less than the above. It varies according to the nature of the soil, the thinner soils being less favorable to rapid growth than rich upland soil. The root system spreads out extensively, but no deep tap root is developed. This makes transplanting less difficult than with many other nut-bearing trees. The Chestnut is rather intolerant of shade. THE WOOD — ITS ECONOMIC USES. The wood is light, rather soft, coarse-grained, and inflexible, the sap- wood white, the heartwood darker brown. The wood shrinks and checks considerably in drying, splits and works easily, and because of the tannic acid it contains is very durable in contact with the soil. It is used in cabinet work, cooperage, for interior finishing, fence posts, telegraph poles, and cross-ties. About 5 per cent of the railroad ties in the United States are of Chestnut. The original Chestnut forests have everywhere been cut, except in parts of the southern Appalach- ians, hut the reproduction of the coppice is so rapid that a fair supply of small-sized timber is still available. PROPAGATION. Chestnut reproduces easily both by seeds and stump sprouts. Nuts are borne nearly every year and a full crop occurs usually every other year, thus keeping the ground well seeded. The nuts that are spared by the squirrels germinate readily and, if there are enough of them, quickly reclothe the ground with seedlings. They grow, however, only in pasture land and open woods, since they can not tolerate dense shade. Their growth may be encouraged by leaving seed trees, pro- tecting the nuts from chipmunks and squirrels, and breaking the ground where the nuts fall. By far the more common and rapid means of Chestnut reproduction is by the coppice sprouts which spring from the newly cut stumps. While not so long lived nor so sound as seedling trees, the coppice sprouts should be encouraged because of their rapid growth and ease of propagation. A clear cutting of a Chestnut forest in the fall or winter when the trees are dormant, taking care to leave smooth stumps, is all that is needed to insure a future growth. In the Middle and New England States a clear cutting system with a rotation of twenty-five to thirty years gives the best results, and will in that time produce trees large enough for fuel, ties, or posts. A stump will retain the power of sprouting with almost undiminished vigor through several rotations. By starting a small number of seedling trees of the same or other species among the Chestnut coppice and allowing them to live through two or three rotations of the sprouts, large timber trees may be secured. The Chestnut is admirably adapted to several systems of forest management. For commercial or ornamental planting either nursery culture or direct field planting may be practiced. In either case the nuts should be gathered when mature in the fall and stratified in moist sand through the winter, care being taken that they do not dry out after ripening, or become moldy in the sand. If placed in single layers between alternate layers of moist sand in a strong box, out of doors in a sheltered place, they may be depended upon to winter safely. If started in the nursery the rows should be 3 feet apart, and the nuts placed 1 foot apart in the row and covered 1 to 2 inches deep. In one season the plants should attain a height of 10 to 15 inches, and may be set in the plantation in the spring when either 1 or 2 years old. If transplanted several times in the nursery the plants are improved, but this is usually too expensive to be practiced in economic planting. For extensive operations direct placing of the nuts in their perma- nent location is cheapest and best. Fall planting is advised if the planted nuts can be protected from mice and squirrels. Holes should be dug and 2 or 3 nuts placed in each and covered about 2 inches deep, and the dirt packed down quite firmly. The holes should be dug 5 to 6 feet apart. The Chestnut will thrive in pure stands, but can be grown to better advantage in mixtures. It is especially adapted for planting with the White and Red Pine on waste land in New England, and can also be combined with the oaks, ash, and maples. ENEMIES. The Chestnut as a forest tree is as a rule little troubled by insects or fungi. Several forms of borers work in the wood and under the bark, and their ravages are sometimes extensive. The nuts are attacked by the larvae of two or more species of weevil, but to the timber grower this is not serious. In case insects of any kind appear in alarming numbers, specimens, accompanied by a detailed account of their appearance and habits as far as determined, should be sent to the Division of Entomology of the Department of Agriculture for identifi- cation and suggestions as to their control. The trunks of the young trees in warm situations are often affected by a body blight, or sun scald, as it is called. The bark cracks and loosens on the south and west sides of the tree, and the affected portion finally dies. The extent of injury from this source is, however, not great. A new disease of unknown cause has been doing considerable injury during the past ten or fifteen years. POSSIBILITIES AND USES. For protective and commercial forest planting few eastern trees are deserving of greater commendation than the Chestnut. Among our long-lived hardwood trees it is difficult to find its equal in rapidity of growth and ease of propagation on soils which are good or medium in quality. It is amenable to various systems of forest management, forms a vigorous coppice, yields a wood which is valuable for a variety of uses, and produces a very valuable nut. The tree grows so extensively in the East that almost no planting has been done except for ornament and for the production of the nuts. In the West little Chestnut planting has been done because it is popu- larly believed that the tree does not generally thrive west of the Missis- sippi, but in Kansas, Nebraska, and Missouri the few trees that have been started are doing well. PLANTATIONS. Mr. L. A. Goodman, of Kansas City, Mo., has two rows of Chestnut trees on his estate in Westport. They were twice transplanted before set out, were well cared for, and when 20 years old were 40 feet high, with a spread of 28 feet. At Farlington, Kans., Chestnuts were set out with Black Cherry, Black Locust, Black Walnut, and a few Catalpas, 4 feet apart each way. They were set in 1882, and in 1895 were 3 inches in diameter breast high and 28 feet high, and free from live branches for 10 or 15 feet. Issued January 19, 1907. United States Department of Agriculture, FOREST SERVICE— Circular 72. GIFFORD PINCHOForester. FOREST PLANTING LEAFLET. WESTERN YELLOW PINE (Pinus ponderosa). FORM AND SIZE. The western yellow pine is one of the largest and most valuable of the pines. It ranges in size from not more than 60 feet high in the arid portions of its range to 200 feet in height and 6 feet in diameter on the western slopes of the Sierras, It has a straight and sym- metrical stem and usually a long, spire-like crown, which, even in fairly dense stands, covers from one-half to one-third of the tree. The needles are from 6 to 10 inches long and usually grow in bundles of three. RANGE. The natural range of western yellow pine is throughout the United States west of the one hundredth meridian. It is most common in the Rocky Mountain and Pacific Coast ranges at medium altitudes. The tree may be planted anywhere within its natural range and, in favorable situations, several degrees farther east. It is particularly well suited for planting in the sand-hill regions of western Nebraska and Kansas and on denuded watersheds in the Rocky Mountains and Pacific Coast regions below an elevation of 6,000 feet. SILVICAL QUALITIES. Western yellow pine is a very hardy tree and will endure great diversities of soil and climate. It is especially suitable for planting in dry regions where droughts are not too prolonged. The conditions under which it usually grows prevent the tree from making a rapid growth. In the most favorable situations, however, its growth is fairly rapid. Western yellow pine has suffered greatly from the attacks of bark beetles. The trees are usually attacked during August and Septem- ber and die by the following spring. If a plantation is attacked by these insects, specimens, with description of the damage, should be sent to the Bureau of Entomology, Department of Agriculture. Because of their long and heavy foliage, the young trees are some- times borne down by deep snows. 17073— No. 72—07 M ECONOMIC USES. The wood, which is light, strong, dense, and moderately durable, is the most valuable one of the Rocky Mountains and the most exten- sively used. Because of its dense foliage and ability to grow in close stands, the tree forms an excellent watershed cover. PROPAGATION. Western yellow pine reproduces only from seed. Natural repro- duction is abundant wherever there are old trees. The cones ripen in the fall of the second year, and the seeds can be kept over winter in any dry, cool place, and can be preserved several years with only a moderate loss of vitality. Like most pines, the tree has a strong taproot, which in most situ- ations penetrates to a considerable depth. PLANTING. In planting western yellow pine it is best to use trees from 2 to 3 years old which have been raised in nursery beds from seed planted in early spring. Because of the tendency to develop a long taproot it is necessary to transplant the seedlings in the spring when 1 year old to nursery rows, or to root prune them in the beds. This last plan is more economical and is advisable where a large number of seedlings are grown. The young trees should be set out in their permanent places in April or early in May. They may be planted either in furrows or in holes made with a spade or mattock. As a rule the trees should be spaced from 5 to 6 feet apart each way. If success is to be attained, great care is necessary in protecting the roots from the air and in packing the soil down firmly around them. It is usually best to plant western yellow pine in pure stands. Additional details as to planting can be found in the planting leaf- lets, How to Transplant Forest Trees and How to Pack and Ship Young Trees. CULTIVATION AND CARE. In many localities of the West where western yellow pine is planted, cultivation until the trees are thoroughly established will be very beneficial. Fire and stock should be kept out of the planta- tion, and it should be allowed to assume the character of a forest as soon as possible. Further information can be found in the plant- ing leaflet on How to Cultivate and Care for Forest Plantations on the Semiarid Plains. Approved. JAMES WILSON, Secretary, WASHINGTON, D. C., November 24, 1906. [Cir. 72] Issued January 19, 1907'. United States Department of Agriculture, FOREST SERVICE— Circular 73. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. FOREST PLANTING LEAFLET. RED CEDAR (Juniperus virginiana). FORM AND SIZE. The red cedar presents a wide contrast in form, varying in different parts of its range from the low, bushy type of the West to the conical and spire-shaped crowns of New England, Virginia, and Maryland. It grows to considerable size within the deep swamp lands of the east- ern Gulf States, and attains its greatest dimensions on rich, alluvial bottomlands, where it occasionally has a height of 120 feet and a diameter of 3 feet. Its average size, however, is much less. It is a long-lived tree, and often reaches an age of several hundred years. RANGE. Few American conifers are more widely distributed than red cedar. Its range extends from southern Nova Scotia and southern New Brunswick to Florida, and from North Dakota southward to the Colorado River Valley in Texas, though over much of this territory only scattered individuals or small groups occur. It reaches its best development south of the Ohio River, where dense stands formerly occurred in the foothills of the Cumberland Mountains, and in the valley of the Tennessee River in Tennessee and Alabama. Red cedar usually grows in mixture, but on the cedar barrens of middle Ten- nessee pure stands occur. For economic planting the range is restricted to localities where protection is needed and where there is demand for fence posts. These include the Dakotas, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, eastern New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming. In addition, it is advisable and economical to plant red cedar in the regions of its best development wherever natural reproduction is not satisfactory. HABITS AND GROWTH. Few trees of the eastern part of the United States exhibit a greater indifference to soil and climate than the red cedar. It thrives in the 17069— No. 73—07 M valley of the St. Lawrence and in New England; on the hills and limestone flats of the Southern States; on exposed, semiarid situa- tions in Kansas and Nebraska, and on the deep soil of the hummocks of the Gulf Coast, where the annual precipitation is 60 inches. In general, it may be said that the best growth is attained in a rather light, loamy soil, containing lime, and that heavy clay and sand are not so favorable. Full enjoyment of light is necessary for complete development, but good growth may continue for a few years under the shade of other trees. On account of the great variety of conditions under which red cedar occurs, its rate of growth varies widely, but is usually rather slow. Fires are highly injurious to red cedar, owing both to its thin bark and to its flat root system. They generally kill all the trees in pure stands. In mixed forests, where the soil is fresher and the fire less fierce, the trees rarely suffer immediate death, but the butts are charred and the decay characteristic of old cedars begins. Attacks of various forms of fungi cause such injuries as " cedar apple," " witches' broom," and white and red rot. In the nurseries large numbers of good-sized trees are sometimes destroyed by a blight. A number of destructive boring insects feed on both the living and the dead trees, and the foliage is eaten by certain species of cater- pillars. ECONOMIC USES. The wood is light and soft, with a fine, compact, even grain, sus- ceptible of a high polish. Its great durability makes it valuable for posts and telegraph poles. In addition to the lead-pencil industry, which annually consumes a large amount of the best grade of mate- rial, various arts and industries make use of the wood. In naval construction it is employed for many purposes. The value of red cedar for planting lies in its superior adapta- bility to unfavorable soil and climatic conditions. It stands prun- ing well and hence is largely planted for ornamental purposes, and occasionally for evergreen hedges, though it is not so well adapted for the latter purpose as arborvitse and similar trees. On account of its ability to endure great climatic changes it is a valuable tree for windbreaks on the semiarid plains. In Oklahoma, Texas, New Mex- ico, and in other regions where more rapid growing trees will not thrive, it can be profitably grown for fence posts. Generally, faster-growing trees are to be preferred, since even on good soils red cedar timber of the best quality can not be produced in less than from seventy to one hundred and twenty years. [Cir. 73] PROPAGATION. Red cedar reproduces only by seed, which the pistillate trees bear in great abundance. Plantations should be started from nursery-grown trees and not from seed sown directly on the permanent site. The seed germinates with difficulty, and seedlings, when a few weeks old, are subject to a fungus disease which occasionally causes heavy loss; hence the planter, unless he desires several thousand trees, should buy his stock rather than attempt to raise it himself. Nursery-grown plants are generally rather expensive, but in many localities wild seedlings may be collected locally or purchased from dealers. These seedlings, if not large enough for planting, should be set out in the home nursery, there to remain for one or two years, when, having reached a height of from 10 to 12 inches, they will be of suitable size for permanent planting. The seeds are inclosed in a globular, purplish-black berry, which is covered with a silvery bloom. These berries contain from 1 to 2 seeds each and mature in the fall of the first year, frequently remaining on the tree until late in the following spring. The berries should be col- lected late in the fall, or whenever they are thoroughly ripened. Once collected, the berries should be soaked for three or four weeks in cold water, until the pulp of the berry has rotted. The seed should then be separated from the pulp, mixed with sand, and kept moist until spring. Sowing may safely begin when garden vegetables are being planted. Seed beds are best made in fine, loamy soil, moderately fresh, but always well drained. For convenient cultivation they should be about 4 by 12 feet in size, and separated by a path 2 feet wide. The seed should be sown in drills 6 inches apart, and lightly covered with fine earth. One pound of seed will sow about 640 linear feet of seed drills, or about 320 square feet of surface. After the seed bed is completed the surface should be " firmed " with a board or light roller. Some of the seed may not germinate until the second season. Like those of most conifers, the plants will require artificial shade during the first season; after this they can stand full sunlight. In the spring of the second season the seedlings should be transplanted into nursery rows 18 inches apart with 5 inches space between the plants. By the end of the second year the plants will be 7 or 8 inches high, and well rooted. At the opening of the third season, usually in March or April, it is best to transplant again in the nursery, with 8 or 9 inches spacing. PLANTING. The plants should be from 10 to 12 inches high when set out in the permanent site. If they have been purchased from a nurseryman tCir. 73] they should be unpacked immediately upon arrival and their roots dipped in a " puddle " of earth and water. They should then be taken at once to a shady place and heeled-in. When planting begins, whether home-grown or purchased stock is used, the greatest care should be taken to keep the roots constantly moist. This can be done by keeping them wrapped in wet moss or by carrying them in a pail containing several inches of water. If the roots become thoroughly dry the plants will die. For pure plantations on the dry upland soils of the West, spacing 4 by 4 feet is advised ; on better and moister soils 4 by 6 feet or 4 by 8 feet. The planting must be done carefully and the earth packed firmly about the roots so as to give good contact and exclude the air. The vicinity of orchards should be avoided, because the " cedar apple," a fungus very destructive to fruit trees, passes one of its stages on the branches of the red cedar. For windbreaks or shelter- belts on the high prairies in the Southwest a most desirable mixture is red cedar and Osage orange or honey locust. These should be planted 4 feet apart in alternate rows 6 feet apart. For fence posts the plantation should be made pure and the trees planted 4 feet apart in rows 6 feet apart. CULTIVATION AND CARE. Success with red cedar, especially in the semiarid region, will depend largely upon the character and extent of the cultivation. On such sites, for several years after setting, the plantation should be given frequent shallow cultivation. In river and creek valleys, where water is found near the surface, it is unnecessary to cultivate after the first two or three years. Approved. JAMES WILSON, Secretary. WASHINGTON, D. C., November %4, 1906. [Cir. 73] Issued January 10, 1907. United States Department of Agriculture, FOREST SERVICE— Circular 75. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. FOREST PLANTING LEAFLET. HACKBERRY (Celtis occidentalis). FORM AND SIZE. Hackberry is not a commercially important tree, but throughout the Middle West it is widely planted for a shade tree, and it is suit- able for mixture with other species in windbreaks. In form, hack- berry is usually characterized by a single stem with warty bark and a broad conical crown. In good situations the tree often attains a diameter of 2 feet and p height of 80 feet RANGE. The natural range of the hackberry extends from Massachusetts to Oregon and from Canada to Mexico and Florida. It seldom forms pure forests, but grows in mixture with elm, walnut, bitternut hickory, pecan, ash, oak, and many other broadleaf trees. Although widely distributed, its natural range of economic importance is chiefly limited to the river bottoms and creek valleys of the Middle West. It may safely be recommended for planting on the plains and prairies, from Texas to Canada, but the low economic value of its wood, ex- cept for fuel, makes its use inadvisable where better timber trees can be grown. It is an excellent shade tree and rivals the white elm in many of our western cities. HABITS AND GROWTH. The hackberry will, of course, thrive better on a fertile soil than on a poor one, but its ability to grow on almost sterile soils is one of its best. qualities. It is characteristic of the tree to live and bear seed in situations where almost any other tree would die. In the more humid regions it grows on dry and sometimes almost barren soil, while in the semiarid plains it thrives best along the watercourses. A lime- stone soil seems to be especially favorable. Its great hardiness where there is a scarcity of moisture makes it one of the best trees for planting. in the semiarid regions adjacent to the Rocky Mountains. It will not endure swampy soil. It is tolerant of shade and consequently thrives in mixtures. In rich alluvial soil the annual diameter growth is sometimes one-third 17075— No. 75—07 M of an inch, but usually it is much less. Hackberry is sometimes found in situations so unfavorable that fifteen years or more are required for an inch of diameter growth. Its period of most rapid growth is between the twentieth and fortieth years. It reaches an age of from one hundred and fifty to two hundred years. The hackberry is generally a healthy tree, though often its leaves are covered with insect galls. In case harmful insects appear in threatening numbers, specimens, accompanied by a full description of their depredations, should be sent to the Department of Agriculture for identification and suggestions for their destruction or control. ECONOMIC USE. The wood of the hackberry is of medium weight, hardness, and strength and is rather elastic. It makes excellent fuel, almost equal- ing hickory, and is used also in the manufacture of cheap furniture. The technical qualities of hackberry wood resemble those of elm and \vhite ash, and it is occasionally used as a substitute for them. It is not durable in contact with the soil, and, like hickory, when used unpeeled above ground is likely to become worm-eaten. When peeled and properly seasoned hackberry poles serve many useful purposes on the farm. It is chiefly as a living tree in regions where trees of any kind are highly prized that the hackberry is of greatest economic value. In mixture it serves a good purpose by shading the ground and furnish- ing litter to enrich the soil. METHODS OF PROPAGATION. The hackberry is usually propagated from seeds. When a seedling has its top killed it readily sprouts from the root, but large 'trees rarely sprout after cutting. The hackberry bears seeds abundantly. The fruit is a bluish- brown drupe about the size of a pea. The thin fleshy layer which covers the stone shrivels and dries and need not be removed before planting. The seeds ripen in the fall and may be sown at once. If spring sowing is preferred the seeds should be stratified in sand and kept buried over winter in a well-drained place out of doors. To fill a box with alternating layers of sand and seeds and sink even with the surface of the ground is a good method of stratification. When filled the box should be covered with a wire screen or boards to keep out mice and then mulched with leaves or straw to protect the seeds from sudden changes in temperature. The seeds should be sown in drills in good, rich soil, covered not more than half an inch deep, and the soil firmly pressed down upon them. Since hackberry seedlings grow only from 6 to 12 inches [Cir. 75] during the first season, they should be allowed to stand in the nursery until 2 years old before transplanting to the permanent site. The root system is branching and fibrous, and for this reason the hack- berry is easily transplanted. PLANTING. The young trees should be set 4 to 6 feet apart. The planter will have to decide for himself whether it is more economical to purchase the seedlings or grow them in a home nursery. If the young trees cost more than $5 per thousand, the planting of the hackberry for forest purposes is not likely to prove remunerative. Hackberry will do well when spaced rather closely, and thrives either in mixtures or pure plantations. On the river bottoms of the northern portion of the Middle Western States it forms a good asso- ciate with such intolerant species as cottonwood, walnut, and ash. Hackberry is one of the best species of windbreaks on land too dry for cottonwood in western Minnesota, North and South Dakota, and northern Nebraska. The trees should be planted in a double row, with the rows 3 feet apart and the trees 4 feet apart in the row. The trees of the second row should be set opposite the middle of the spaces separating those of the first row. On the plains of Oklahoma and Texas hackberry may be planted pure or in mixture with cottonwood, ash, walnut, black locust, honey locust, or Osage orange. CULTIVATIO-N AND CARE. After a plantation has been established, cultivation must be pro- longed sufficiently to prevent the native grasses from gaining a foot- hold. Weeds should not be permitted to crowd the young trees. The plantations must be carefully protected against fire and grazing. Approved. JAMES WILSON, Secretary. WASHINGTON, D. C., November %4, 1906. [Cir. 75] o Issued January 19, 1907. United States Department of Agriculture, FOREST SERVICE— Circular 77. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. FOREST PLANTING LEAFLET. COTTONWOOL (Populus deltoides). FORM AND SIZE. The cottonwood is naturally a tall, straight tree, and under favor- able conditions may attain a height of 75 to 100 feet and a diameter of 2 to 3 feet. When grown in the open or in single rows it develops a large, wide-spreading crown and a short, heavy stem. In dense stands, however, the crowns become narrow and oblong and the stems long, slender, and free from branches. The Carolina poplar, which is considered a horticultural variety of the common cottonwood, is widely used as a shade tree. It is not easily distinguished from the true cottonwood. RANGE. The eastern boundary of the natural range of cottonwood extends from central Quebec southward through northwestern New England, western New York, and western Pennsylvania; thence, south of the Potomac Eiver, through the Atlantic States to western Florida. The western boundary extends from southern Alberta, in Canada, south- ward along the Rocky Mountains to northern New Mexico. The cottonwood occurs usually in pure stands or in mixture with willow and other moisture-loving trees. On soils of the flood plains of the Mississippi Eiver in western Kentucky and Tennessee, which are especially favorable, it forms a part of the mature hardwood forests. For economic planting the range is confined to regions throughout the Middle West where there is a permanent supply of water near the surface. HABITS AND GROWTH. The most favorable site for cottonwood is the alluvial soil along water courses, for the most important factor in its growth and devel- opment is the available moisture in the soil and not the fertility. Forest plantations of cottonwood require a situation in which the water table is within 10 to 15 feet of the surface. Individual trees 17083— No. 77—07 M or single rows, however, on account of their extensive root system, can maintain themselves in drier situations. So many failures have re- sulted from attempts to establish cottonwood groves on upland soils that it is usually considered impossible to grow the tree except in rows along highways and similar places. So planted, the trees are valuable for windbreaks and give good returns in fuel and repair material. However, more satisfactory results will be secured by planting in permanently moist situations if production of lumber is desired. Abundant light is required for development, and young stands tend to become thin. The crown cover is frequently so sparse that grass and shrubs come in under the trees and check growth. This draw- back can be prevented by underplanting the grove with shade-endur- ing trees. Growth in early life is very rapid. Small trees in a single year may increase from 3 to 5 feet in height and from 1 to 3 inches in diam- eter. Between the ages of 10 and 15 years the rate of growth gradu- ally lessens, and under certain conditions maturity is soon reached. Cottonwood is comparatively free from insect pests, though leaf insects occasionally do serious damage. In case of severe attacks ap- plication should be made to the Bureau of Entomology of the Depart- ment of Agriculture for information in regard to methods of control. ECONOMIC USES. The wood of cottonwood is light and soft. It is not strong, and it decays rapidly in contact with the soil. Regional factors of climate and soil cause marked differences in quality. In western Kentucky and Tennessee, for instance, the so-called yellow cottonwood fur- nishes a much better grade of wood than in the Missouri River region. The wood has a tendency to warp in seasoning, but this may be over- come by proper methods of piling. Paper pulp, box boards, backing for veneer, the unexposed parts of furniture, wagon boxes, interior woodwork and boarding, and fuel are the principal products for which the wood is used. The increased value which the tree is gaining for these uses, coupled with the ease and rapidity with which it can be grown, renders it one of the im- portant species for commercial planting in the Middle West. Its fuel value in some regions is especially high, since it furnishes a greater amount of wood in a given time than other species. In pro- portion to volume the relative heat production is, hoAvever, low. Cottonwood is useful for protecting agricultural lands subject to annual overflow. A narrow belt of trees on the river side of such lands protects the fields from debris and checks the erosive action of the water. Plantations of cottonwood established on land between [dr. 77] the river and the levee will not only protect the levee from damage by wave wash caused by the wind, but will also give large commercial returns. It is also particularly adapted for planting along canals, since the roots do not grow into the water. METHODS OF PROPAGATION. Cottonwood seeds abundantly and extends itself rapidly over newly made land along rivers. The seed ripens in May or June, and unless it falls on a favorable situation it quickly loses its ability to germinate. Propagation by seedlings or cuttings may readily be carried on. Large numbers of seedlings annually spring up on the sand bars, where 1 -year-old trees for establishing a plantation can be easily and cheaply procured. A plantation may be established rather more cheaply by cuttings than by seedlings. The cuttings should be made from 1 or 2 year old branches of vigorous trees. Cuttings one-half inch in diameter and 18 to 24 inches long are of desirable size for or- dinary use. Much larger cuttings, however, can safely be used 'and are often desirable where the erosion is very severe. PLANTING. Seedlings or cuttings of the cottonwood should be set out in the spring as soon as danger from severe frost is past. In the Middle AVest this time ranges from the latter part of March to the first of May. Seedlings may be quickly and cheaply planted by a man and a boy working together. With a spade the man makes an opening in the ground into which the boy slips a tree. The spade is then withdrawn and the soil about the tree firmed immediately, before the man ad- vances for the planting of the next one. Two-thirds of the length of the cutting should be below the surface of the ground, and on the portion above the ground there should be at least two or three good buds. In planting groves on permanently moist situations the trees should be set 6 to 8 feet apart each way. This gives 1,210 or 680 trees per acre. CULTIVATION AND CARE. The growth of the cottonwood is so rapid where conditions are at all favorable that it is seldom, if ever, subject to the crowding or overtopping of less desirable species. Plantations should not be used for pasturage for at least five years. Grazing animals not only eat the tender shoots and leaves, but expose and cut off the roots by trampling the ground around the trees, [Cir. 77] Fire is one of the most serious enemies of this tree, both in planted groves and natural forests. Protection can readily be secured by plowing several furrows around the plantation. If the furrows are kept free from weeds, fire will be effectually kept out. Where this is not possible a path or fire lane entirely surrounding the plantation should be raked free of leaves and debris. In the spring and fall, when the danger from fire is greatest, the plantations should be kept under observation, and all fires should be extinguished immediately. Approved. JAMES WILSON, Secretary. WASHINGTON, D. C., November 24> 1906. [Cir. 77] SFP 9 ^ IQld o L. I «g A | ,-j j -t Divisipn of Forestry University of California Issued April 30, 1907. United States Department of Agriculture, FOREST SERVICE— CIRCULAR 82. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. FOREST PLANTING LEAFLET. HARDY CATALPA (Catalpa speciosa). FORM AND SIZE. The hardy catalpa is a tree of medium size, with slender branches forming a spreading, round-topped head. Under average conditions it grows to be from 50 to 70 feet high. In the forest it is straight and tall, and occasionally attains a height of more than 100 feet and a diameter of from 2 to 4 feet. Because of its frequent failure to form a terminal bud the catalpa has a tendency to crooked growth, and sometimes develops a short trunk with large branches close to the ground. RANGE. The hardy catalpa in its natural range was confined to a very lim- ited region, extending from the valley of the Vermilion River, in Illinois, through southern Illinois and Indiana, western Kentucky and Tennessee, southeastern Missouri, and northeastern Arkansas. It was apparently distributed by backwaters along the overflow lands of the Wabash River, up near-by creeks, and down the Ohio and Mississippi rivers as far as New Madrid, Mo. In southeastern Missouri it meets the common catalpa (Catalpa catalpa). The latter species is indigenous to southwestern Georgia, western Florida, cen- tral Alabama, and Mississippi, but is widely naturalized and culti- vated east of the Rocky Mountains, growing as far north as eastern New England. The hardy catalpa has been planted as far north as Turner County, in South Dakota, southern Minnesota, southern Michigan, and south- 28386— No. 82—07 M ern Massachusetts, and westward to eastern Nebraska, central Kansas, and central Oklahoma. It has done well on irrigated lands -in New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah, at the lower altitudes, and where the soil is free from alkali. The present range for economic planting is on the fertile alluvial lands of the Middle West, south of the forty- first parallel of latitude. Catalpa plantations have been especially successful in the southern portion of Ohio, Illinois, and Indiana; in Nebraska south of the Platte River and east of Adams County, and in eastern Kansas. HABITS AND GRO\VTH. Catalpa requires a deep, fertile, porous soil for good growth, and it can not succeed on heavy, poorly drained land. It grows well on prairie soils and even where there is considerable sand, provided over- flows are frequent or permanent water is within 10 or 15 feet of the surface. It is not adapted to poor sandy or stiff clay soils, or to those which have a tenacious gumbo subsoil. However, if a layer of clay which is not too heavy occurs beneath several feet of good soil it is of advantage, since it forms a beneficial soil foundation, retain- ing fertility and moisture. Catalpa will not tolerate a strongly alka- line soil. An annual rainfall of at least 25 inches is necessary for the best growth of the tree, unless it can send its roots down to the water table. Commercial plantations especially demand a good soil. It has been proved that the returns realized from a crop grown on the best soil are proportionately very much greater than those obtained from poor land in the same locality. The hardy catalpa is very intolerant, and in dense stands the lower side branches are killed by the shade. If they become more than half an inch in diameter they cling to the tree for years after they die, thus delaying the complete pruning of the bole. New Avood is de- posited around the dead branch, but does not close tightly about it. The holes thus formed by the persistence of dead branches lead straight into the heart of the tree and conduct the germs of decay into the trunk. If fungus spores gain entrance, the heart decays and eventually the tree breaks down. * The tendency to crooked growth and the failure to shed its limbs properly are the two most trouble- some characteristics of the catalpa. The hardy catalpa matures early and under cultivation is one of the most rapid-growing trees planted in the West. A height growth of 2J feet and a diameter increase of one-half inch annually for the first ten to fifteen years are not unusual. It does not, however, often attain dimensions that fit it for saw logs. Some of the trees in a plantation will be of suitable size for posts when from 8 to 10 years old, and five or six years later the entire crop should become merchantable. Good telegraph poles are grown in [Cir. 82] 3 , from twenty to thirty years, according to the adaptability of the soil for this species. The hardy catalpa is, as a rule, free from destructive diseases. It is subject to severe attacks of leaf -eating insects, and a number of parasitic fungi often cause considerable damage to the foliage. Root rot is rare. The wood is quite resistant to decay-producing fungi. The wood of living trees is destroyed by two fungi, one of which causes a soft rot and the other a brown rot. The soft rot is common, the other only occasional. The soft-rot fungus enters the tree through the holes caused by rotting branches and destroys the heartwood very rapidly. The wood is changed to a soft, spongy mass incapable of standing any strain, so that broken trees are common in infected plantations. ECONOMIC USES. The rapid growth, durability in contact with the soil, lightness, elasticity, and high fuel value of catalpa wood make the tree one of the most valuable for economic planting. Catalpa wood cut from the living tree is probably immune from attack by fungous diseases, and is one of the most durable timbers known. When used for fence posts it often remains sound for thirty to forty years. Even in young trees nearly 75 per cent of the wrood is heartwood, so that when used for posts the decay of the sapwood does not materially affect the value of the post. The rich coloring of the wood makes it also well suited for cabinetwork. The catalpa has been planted principally for fence posts and small telegraph poles. A few plantations have been made for the produc- tion of railway ties. The desirability of growing catalpa for ties has not yet been established. Experience thus far has shown that plantations can be managed most profitably on a sliort rotation of from fifteen to twenty years for the production of posts or small poles. The catalpa has unfortunately been discredited in many localities because of poor results from early plantations. These were in very many cases due to the substitution of an inferior species or a hybrid for the true hardy catalpa. While the quality of the wood is some- what similar, the common catalpa and its hybrids are much less hardy than Catalpa speciosa, are less erect in habit, and have a marked tendency to branch low. METHODS OF PROPAGATION. The catalpa reproduces by seed and by sprouts from the stump. In starting a commercial plantation seedlings should be used, and these may be grown at home at comparatively small cost. Seed may be purchased, but it is advisable for the planter to col- [Cir. 82] lect his own supply, if possible, since seed from certain undesirable species, more prolific than the hardy catalpa, has been sold extensively by dealers as genuine. The seed ripens in the autumn and the pods ordinarily hang on the trees all winter. It is well, however, to gather the pods as soon as the leaves fall, since some of them are likely to open and drop their seeds. The seed should be kept over winter in the pods, in cool, dry storage. Sowing should be done early in the spring, but not until the ground has become wrarm. Drills should be made in well-prepared, mellow soil, and the seeds sown a half inch apart and covered to a depth of about 1 inch. The rows should be far enough apart to allow thorough cultivation. Under average con- ditions the seedlings will grow 12 to 24 inches in height during the first summer, and will be suitable for planting the following spring. One pound of hardy catalpa seed contains nearly 20,000 seeds, which will be sufficient to sow about 8,000 linear feet of drills. Be- tween 40 and 75 per cent of the fresh seed should germinate, and a pound may be expected to produce about 12,000 one-year-old plants. PLANTING. The planting site should be prepared by plowing and harrowing in the spring, and there is an advantage in growing a field crop on the site for one season before planting. It is usually advisable to plant 1-year-old stock in the spring. In the South, however, where the winters are mild, catalpa may be planted with safety in the fall, after one season's growth in the nursery. Proper spacing of the trees in the plantation depends to some extent upon regional and site conditions. East of the Mississippi catalpa may be planted 6 by 8 feet or 8 feet apart each way, but in the plains region it will be well to set the trees 4 by 8 feet or 6 feet apart each way. A spacing of 4 by 4 feet is advisable only when early thinnings can surely be made. In general this very close spac- ing should not be used, because the catalpa requires considerable room for lateral root development, and crowding will tend to lessen the vitality of the trees and to lower the rate of growth. In raising catalpa the object is to obtain the best growth and most perfect form in the shortest possible time. To accomplish this a relatively wide spacing of the trees, supplemented by a limited amount of artificial pruning, is necessary. While catalpa has thus far been planted chiefly in pure stands, an associate tree -may prove desirable in the Middle West. This should be of a tolerant species and slower growing than the catalpa. This associate tree, or " filler," would complete the crown cover and would assist in pruning the catalpa and in forcing straight upward growth. Two species that are well adapted for planting with catalpa in the West are Russian mulberry and Osage orange. rrir CULTIVATION AND CARE. Catalpa requires especial care if the best results are to be secured. Waste land and rocky hillsides are not suited to catalpa growing. In forest planting for profit such sites should be planted with saw- timber species and the catalpa confined to some area of good arable land, set aside expressly for the production of fence posts and small material. It is usually advisable to cultivate plantations during the first three seasons, although in regions of abundant rainfall they may be planted with cowpeas or soy beans or sown to crimson clover after one season's cultivation. The disk harrow is the most suitable implement for the first cultivation, after which a common harrow may be used. The soil should be stirred often enough to maintain a good dust mulch for conserving moisture. After the first year cultivation should be shallow, so as not to mutilate the roots of the trees, and during the third season it may not be feasible at all, since by that time the ground between the rows will often be filled with a network of roots. Except in the South, on rich soils, where height growth is especially vigorous, the young trees should be cut back to the ground during late winter or early spring after one or two seasons of growth in the plantation. A number of sprouts will spring up from the stump dur- ing the following spring, all of which should be removed during the early part of the growing season except the most vigorous one. Care should be taken not to tear the bark when removing the sprouts. The surviving stem should make a straight branchless growth of from 6 to 10 fe^t the first season, and will largely do away with the necessity of pruning. Cutting back offers the simplest means of producing! straight trunks, and without retarding ultimate height growth, it accomplishes the same object as pruning at less expense. If pruning is undertaken it should be done late in the winter or in early spring before growth starts. In no case should catalpa trees be pruned to a whip. All trees which become severely injured in any way, as by wind, fire, or animals, should be cut back to the ground without delay. In case the trees have been planted as closely as 4 fee't apart it will be necessary to commence thinning the plantation in about four to six years, and before any of the stems will be marketable except for stakes. If, however, a wider spacing has been used and proper care and attention given the plantation, thinnings will not be needed until eight to ten years after planting, when many of the trees will yield one or two posts each. Between the ages of 15 and 20 th*e entire plantation may be cut clean for posts and a new forest allowed to start from the stump sprouts, or it may again be thinned and the best trees left standing [Cir. 82] to produce poles. If this latter plan is followed, however, the stump sprouts are likely to be less vigorous than if all the trees were cut. In the Middle West the catalpa is often injured by strong, steady winds, which whip off the leaves, dry out the soil, and cause crooked and deformed growth. Plantations should, therefore, be protected by setting out several rows of hardier species along the exposed sides, a mixture of species being best. A good combination would be two rows of 'Russian mulberry or Osage orange adjoining the plantation with a row of cottonwood on the outside. The mulberry should be spaced 4 by 4 feet and the cottonwood 8 by 8 feet. If protection from fires is necessary, it should be given by plowing a fire guard of half a dozen furrows around the plantation each year. If the plantation is large, it is better to divide it into blocks of 40 to 50 acres each by means of lanes 15 to 20 feet wide. These lanes should be kept plowed, so that fire can not spread from one block to another. This system also gives easy access to the interior of the plantation. Soft rot of the catalpa can not be checked after a tree is infected, but proper treatment of the plantation will prevent it. Trees that are only partially rotten may be cut and used for posts, since the fungus ceases to work as soon as the tree is cut. Methods of planting, cutting back, or pruning which produce a clean, straight growth of the tree free from low side branches give the fungus no chance to enter unless a wound is caused in some unusual way. If the plantation is threatened by insect attacks, specimens should be sent to the Bureau of Entomology of the Department of Agricul- ture for identification and advice as to remedial measures. KETURNS. Catalpa has been planted under such a wide range of conditions that the returns have not been at all uniform. Profits from catalpa growing depend most upon the suitability of the planting site, upon proper spacing, and especially upon the cultivation and care of the plantation. The following figures on the yield of hardy catalpa under a variety of conditions indicate in a general way the returns which may be expected from plantations : Two plantations in Marion County, Mo., in which the trees were spaced 4 by 8 feet when set out, contained, respectively, 392 trees and 616 trees per acre at the end of twenty years. The average height of the trees in the first grove was 47 feet, with a diameter, breast high, of 7.5 inches; those in the second grove were 55 feet, with a diameter of 7 inches. The products per acre of the first grove were 1,568 first-class posts, 392 second-class posts, and 1.9 cords of [Cir. 82] fuel wood ; of the second grove, 3,038 first-class and GIG second-class posts, and 4.8 cords of fuel wood. A plantation in Sangamon County, 111., in which the original spacing was 4 by 5 feet, contained at 21 years of age 800 trees, with a yield per acre of 1,920 posts, all first class, and 4.9 cords of fuel wood. The cost of establishing a plantation in Illinois under present conditions is about $15 per acre. A 17-year-old plantation in Washington County, Iowa, in which the trees had been set 4 feet apart each way, was found to contain 1,312 trees per acre over 4 inches in diameter breast high. The average diameter of these trees was 5.7 inches, and the estimated yield of the stand wras 2,778 first and second class posts per acre. The effect of the quality of the soil upon the yield of catalpa is well sho\vn by a 21-year-old plantation in Iowa County, Iowa. The original spac- ing of the trees was 9 by 5 feet, and on good soil there remained 524 trees per acre which had a diameter of 4 inches or over breast high. The estimated yield was 1,896 posts and 96 poles. A portion of the ,stand which was growing on a sandy knoll contained only 380 trees per acre, with a yield of but 572 posts. A 25-year-old plantation in Nemaha County contained 747 domi- nant trees per acre, with an average diameter breast high of G.G inches, and an estimated yield of 1,829 first-class posts, 845 second- class posts, and 1.9 cords of wood. In York County, Nebr., whrch is near the western limit of the range for economic planting, a 21-year-old plantation contained 406 dominant trees per acre. The average diameter of the trees \vas 4.7 inches, and the yield was limited to 242 first-class and 140 second-class posts, and 0.4 cord of wood. In a plantation in PawTnee County, Nebr., the owner kept a strict account of all expenses incurred in establishing, maintaining, and harvesting his plantation, and of the final proceeds. The seedling trees, at $1.15 per thousand, cost $3.13 an acre; the preparation of the ground, planting, cultivating, and pruning cost $18.46 — a total of $21.59 per acre. At 5 per cent compound interest this was increased, in the sixteen and one-third years during which the plantation grew, by $26.34. Cutting and marketing the crop added $61.90 per acre to this, so that the full cost at the end of the experiment for the 20 acres was $2,196. The returns were : 31,397 third-class posts, at 5 cents $1, 569. 85 17,349 second-class posts, at 10 cents 1,734.90 4,268 first-class posts, at 12* cents 533. 50 270 first-class posts, at 15 cents 40. 50 211 8-foot posts, at 20 cents 42.20 [Cir. 82] and neglect. Even in dry situations growth is fairly rapid. These qualities adapt it both to upland and valley situations in the semi- arid regions. It is decidedly tolerant of shade, and can therefore be used to advantage for under-planting or for mixing with a more rapid-growing species to increase the height growth and to induce natural pruning of the latter. Height and diameter growth are fairly rapid. On very favorable sites a height of 20 feet and a diameter of 8 inches are not unusual for a tree 10 years old. The tree has comparatively few enemies. It is not in any degree susceptible to the attacks of fungi, but the foliage is sometimes attacked by defoliating insects. ECONOMIC USES. The Eussian mulberry serves a number of useful purposes. If close-planted and severely pruned, the Russian mulberry is useful for the production of posts and fuel. On favorable sites it will pro- duce fence posts in from ten to fifteen years. The wood is rather heavy, elastic, coarse-grained, and moderately strong. It splits easily and, when seasoned, makes a durable fence post, which is probably its most valuable use. The fuel value of the wood is high. While the fruit is of an inferior quality, it is much used for domestic purposes in the absence of better kinds. Many horti- culturists have established mulberry windbreaks around their orchards. The natural form of the tree makes it well suited to form a low, dense windbreak, if left unpruned. The windbreak, aside from its protective value, furnishes food greatly relished by birds, and they are thus less likely to eat more valuable fruit in the orchard. In addition, the leaves of the Russian mulberry form an excellent food for silkworms (Bombyx mori), and is somewhat used for this purpose in the more northerly portions of the United States, where the broader-leafed varieties of mulberry are apt to be winterkilled. The quality of the leaf for feeding purposes is fully as good as that of the broad-leafed varieties, but its much divided form makes the labor of feeding somewhat greater. The Bureau of Entomology has been for several years past distributing mulberry seedlings in connec- tion with silk-culture investigations. PROPAGATION. Reproduction of the Russian mulberry takes place both by stump sprouts and by seed. Renewal after cutting is a simple matter; all that is necessary is to remove the surplus sprouts and give the best one a chance to develop. A quick-growing stump sprout w^ill have cuttings, but propagation from seed is easier and produces better- plants. Fruit is borne abundantly. The seed may be separated by crushing and washing the berries. After drying, the seed should be kept in a cool, dry place until a week or ten days previous to sowing. The seed may be SOWTII as soon as it ripens, but generally the better practice is to wait until the following spring, so that the seedlings will have an entire season in which to grow before the coming of cold weather. The seed should be sown in fresh, fertile soil, and covered not more than one-half inch. About one to two weeks are required for germi- nation. Better results are obtained by mixing the seed with moist sand and keeping the mixture in a warm place until germination begins. The sand and seed can then be sown together on a well- prepared bed. The bed should be covered with one-eighth inch of sifted loam. The growth during the first season will be enough to bring the trees to proper size for transplanting to the permanent site the following spring. PLANTING. The Kussian mulberry should be spaced close in a plantation, in order to overcome, as much as possible, its inherent tendency to branched and crooked growth. For windbreaks, consisting of one or two rows, the trees may be planted at 2 or 3 foot intervals, and in plantations they may be spaced 4 by 4 feet or 4 by 6 feet. The Russian mulberry is found more often in mixed than in pure plantations. Its ability to thrive under partial shade makes it well suited for planting with light-demanding species, such as black locust, honey locust, black walnut, and green ash. CULTIVATION AND CARE. Cultivation should be thorough and continued until the ground is rather fully shaded. When the trees begin to crowd, the plantation should be heavily th;nned. The trees remaining should then be pruned to a height of 8 or 10 feet. Approved : JAMES WILSON, Secretary. WASHINGTON, D. C., May 31, 1907. [Cir. 83] o ^ [r3 (a) [f n .-^v jb n \yj \ \L 'u> u=, y w LL y c tr D ^ "* f 6 1 >i oLr <6 - lid !-•;- Divisioii of Forestry- University of Calif ornia Issued April 24, 1907. United States Department of Agriculture, FOREST SERVICE— CIRCULAR 84. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. FOREST PLANTING LEAFLET. WHITE ASH (Fraxinus americana). FORM AND SIZE. In the forest the white ash is a tall, slender tree with a smooth bole, which is surmounted by a small open crown of stout upright branches. The bole is often free from branches for more than half its length. In the open the trunk usually divides a few feet above the ground into several main branches, which form a graceful rounded head, rather open and widest near the base. On the bot- tom lands of the lower Ohio Valley, where the best development is attained, the white ash occasionally reaches a height of 100 feet, though in general it is a tree of medium size, with an average height of from TO to 80 feet and a diameter of from 2 to 3 feet. The roots penetrate deeply into loose soil, but where hindered by rocks or an impenetrable substratum they develop an extensive lateral 'system. RANGE. The natural distribution of the white ash is from Nova Scotia and Newfoundland to northern Florida, central Alabama, and Missis- sippi, and westward to Ontario, northern Minnesota, eastern Ne- braska, Kansas, Indian Territory, and Texas (Trinity River). It seldom occurs in large masses, but usually as single individuals or in groups among other hardwoods. The associate species include many of the common hardwoods, such as the maples, elms, basswood, birches, walnut, and oaks. The range for economic planting is from the valley of the Wabash and Ohio rivers north and west through Indiana and Illinois to the 28380— No. 84—07 M region of the Great Lakes; westward through Iowa, southern Min- nesota, and eastern South Dakota; southward through eastern Ne- braska and Kansas into northern Oklahoma and Indian Territory. The white ash will undoubtedly prove a valuable tree for planting in the arid regions on irrigated lands now being opened for settlement. HABITS AND GROWTH. The white ash prefers rich moist soil. The bottom lands of river valleys in the mild climate of the west central portions of its range produce the finest trees. A plantation will do best in a protected valley, on sandy loam that is light and easily worked. The white ash will thrive, however, in less favorable or even in adverse localities. A porous subsoil is essential, and a water table at a depth of 10 or 12 feet is of decided advantage. For general planting in the semiarid region of the Middle West the white ash is not so hardy and should yield preference to the smaller green ash. Mature trees can endure only a moderate amount of shade, while young seedlings will start in dense shade, but require considerable light for their perfect development. The rate of growth is rapid when compared to that of most of the associated hardwoods, but varies materially according to conditions of moisture and situation. In the southern part of its range post timber may be grown in ten or fifteen years. In a drier climate, where conditions are not so favorable, from fifteen to twenty years are re- quired for the average tree to attain post size. On dry prairies the trunk is not more than 5 or 6 inches in diameter at twenty-five years. Trees grown in a dense stand in the Farlington plantation in Kansas made an average annual height growth of 1.7 feet and a diameter accretion of one-fifth inch annually. This is very slow compared to the rate of growth of other trees under similar conditions. White ash is attacked by a number of fungous parasites, which grow on the living leaves and do more or less injury. These para- sites rarely appear in sufficient numbers to do very much harm to the tree affected. One specimen of fungus, which grows in the heartwood of the trunk and branches, changes the wood into a soft, pulpy, yel- lowish mass, unfit for lumber purposes. In regions where this dis- ease is common the ash never grows to be a very large or very old tree. In park or shade trees the disease may be prevented by coating wrounds with an antiseptic substance such as coal tar. White ash is also subject to insect injury. In case insects appear in numbers sufficient to do serious harm specimens should be sent to the Bureau of Entomology, where the insect will be identified and measures suggested for its control. Large trees are often doty at the base and sometimes have big heart cracks. [Cir. 84] ECONOMIC USES. The wood of the white ash is of great economic value. Wood from second-growth trees is usually more tough and elastic than that of the large, slowly grown first growth. Its most valuable qualities are strength and elasticity, and these combined with its ability to take a good polish and to season without injury make it a timber of first rank for furniture, car, and vehicle construction, interior wood- work, agricultural implements, and tools. It is fairly durable in contact with the soil and is used for post timber. Because of its rapid growth, comparative freedom from dis- ease, and ease of propagation white ash is certain to remain a favorite tree for ornamental planting. Where it thrives it is preferred to any other species of ash, but in regions of drought and extreme tempera- tures green ash should be selected in preference to white ash. METHODS OF PROPAGATION. Propagation is by seed, produced abundantly about once in three to five years, though individual trees along streams or in favorable open situations fruit more frequently. Natural reproduction is not abundant. The one-winged fruit ripens in October. It may be sown as soon as gathered or preserved for spring planting by strati- fying in damp sand. If stratified, the seed should be mixed with about 3 parts of sand to 1 of seed and placed in a box in a cool cellar. Hand picking, although slow, is the most reliable method of collecting the seed, which can be gathered easiest from the low, open-grown, and most productive trees. Since the seeds of the several species of ash are similar in appearance, samples should be sent to the Seed Labora- tory of the Department of Agriculture, where they will be identified and tested free. Broadcast sowing of ash seed on prepared or unprepared ground, or planting in hills where the trees are to stand, is uncertain and un- satisfactory; therefore nursery culture is advised. The nursery and seed beds may be prepared on any rich, well-worked soil, an old gar- den spot being an excellent place if the soil is not full of weed seeds. Planting may begin in the spring as soon as danger of frost is past. For convenience in weeding, it is recommended that the seed be sown in drills 8 to 12 inches apart for hand cultivation and 2 to 3 feet apart for a horse cultivator. Since the germination per cent is low, the seeds should be dropped so thickly that they will touch each other in the row. They should be covered about one-half inch deep and the soil rolled firmly or pressed down by a board. During germination moisture conditions should be kept uniform and irrigation or sprin- kling resorted to in times of drought. [Cir. 84] PLANTING. The seedlings should attain a height of 6 to 12 inches the first season, and may be transplanted to the permanent site when 1 year old. The question of spacing depends on locality. For plantations in the Middle West a desirable spacing is 4 by 6 feet; in regions of more abundant rainfall the trees should be 6 feet apart each way. The white ash is adapted to both pure and mixed planting. Spe- cies suitable for planting with this tree are black walnut, black cherry, hackberry, hardy catalpa, Scotch pine, and European larch. CULTIVATION AND CARE. Cultivation should be thorough and frequent enough to keep out weeds and grass. The plantation should be tilled for at least three years or until most of the ground is shaded. As soon as serious crowding begins, thinnings should be made so that the trees remain- ing may have ample space for development. [Cir. 84] o United States Department of Agriculture, BUREAU OF FORESTRY. NOTES ON FOREST TREES SUITABLE FOR PLANTING IN THE UNITED STATES. ,41 BOXELDER (Acer negundo). DISTRIBUTION. The Boxelder is among the most widely distributed of American trees. East of the Appalachian range it is found in small numbers from Vermont and Ontario to Florida ; it is more abundant from Man- itoba and the Allegheny Mountains to the foothills of the Rockies, extending southward to western Texas and Arizona. In California it reappears as a distinct variety. It is most common in valleys and along bluffs overlooking water courses in the Middle West, seldom occurring as the ruling species but usually as scattered individuals or in groups among the other hardwoods. The range of the Boxelder has been considerably increased by plant- ing and has been made to include most of the New England States, while in the West it has been successfully introduced into regions which are much drier than the river bottoms which are its natural home. The best region for economic planting comprises the greater part of the treeless West from North Dakota to Texas. CHARACTERISTICS OF GROWTH— ASSOCIATE SPECIES. Compared with its associate trees the Boxelder is rather small. Because of this, and because of its great shade enduring qualities, it usually occupies the lower story of the forest in which it grows. In the Northeast its average height is from 30 to 40 feet, its diameter 1 to 2 feet. In the Carolinas it is only 20 to 30 feet in height. The largest trees are found in the North Central States, where specimens 70 feet in height and 3 feet in diameter occur. It is usually a rapid-growing tree, although its growth depends largely on the character of the soil. When grown in the open the trunk often divides at a short distance from the ground into several stout, wide-spreading branches ; when in a dense stand a single upright bole is produced, although the clear length is usually short. Perfectly straight boles are rarely seen. The most common associate species are White Elm, Hackberry, Silver Maple, Black Walnut, Green Ash, and Kentucky Coffeetree. PROPERTIES OF THE WOOD. The wood is soft, weak, light, close-grained, creamy- white, with a thick sapwood scarcely distinguishable. Its principal use is as firewood, although occasionally it is utilized for interior finishing, woodenware, cheap furniture, and paper pulp. Maple sugar is occasionally made from the sap. SOIL AND SITE. The deep, moist soil in valleys and on the borders of swamps and lakes is best suited for the Boxelder. A sandy loam with the water not more than 20 feet below the surface, even though far removed from streams, is also well suited for this species. Although it succeeds best in moist soil near running water, the Boxelder tolerates great variations of climate and soil, and will bear severe exposures and thrive on rocky slopes, or on the semi-arid prairies. The best development is attained in the valley of the lower Ohio and its tributaries. PROPAGATION. The seeds ripen in early autumn and are usually produced in great abundance. They may be gathered as soon as ripe and planted immediately in the nurse^, or stratified in sand during the winter for spring planting. Collecting in mild climates may even be delayed until winter, as the seeds hang on the tree until spring. Collecting may be done by the local planter, or seed may be purchased at 35 to 50 cents per pound. Although produced in abundance and apparently sound, the seeds give an average germination of only 40 to 60 per cent. Often a tree apparently loaded with fruit will have no vital seed what- ever. The best way of propagating the Boxelder is to grow the seedlings in nursery beds on rich, well-tilled soil, and when one year old transfer them to the plantation, Spring planting is usually most satisfactory and may be done as soon as the ground becomes warm and dry. The seeds should be sown in rows 3J feet apart for horse cultivation, or 2 feet apart for hand cultivation. In the rows the seeds should be planted 1 to 5 inches apart, covered three-fourths to 1 inch deep, and the soil over them gently firmed down by a roller, or pressed with a board. If carefully planted and thoroughly cultivated, the seedlings will attain a height of 10 to 14 inches the first season. No shading of the young plants is necessary. Close planting is advised for the Boxelder because of its tolerance of shade and tendency to form a spreading head. In pure stands, 4 by 8 feet would be none too close. In a forest plantation it is often more desir- able to plant the tree with more valuable species such as White Elm, Hackberry, locusts, European Larch, Green Ash, and Black Walnut, than to plant it alone, except for windbreaks, shade, etc. It is useful for underplanting in forests that are too open. In natural stands reproduction is fairly good in moist situations, and when a plantation is once established, it may be perpetuated, if skillfully managed, through natural seeding. In groves developed for shade, the trees should stand from 15 to 25 feet apart. In the Northern States considerable damage is often done the Box- elder by drifting snow, which collects on the thick branches and upon melting settles down and breaks them off. If insects appear and threaten the existence of the Boxelder or any valuable tree species, specimens should be promptly sent to the Division of Entomology, where steps will be taken for their identification, and measures sug- gested for their destruction or control. POSSIBILITIES. As a street and lawn tree the Boxelder is of undoubted value because of its hardiness and attractive appearance. But where uniformity is desired trees of the same age are apt to vary so much in form and rate of growth as to make their use inadvisable. As a tree for western planting, it has been very extensively used, and while fairly satisfactory is inferior in many places to other trees, such as White Elm. For underplanting, for wind-ahd-snow-breaks, for ornament, and as a nurse tree, it should find some use over the whole region east of the Rockies. O ^tCEWItl SEP 2 1 1914 Division of Forestry University of California Issued April 29, 1907. United States Department of Agriculture, FOREST SERVICE— CIRCULAR 86. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. FOREST PLANTING LEAFLET. BOXELDER (Acer negundo). FORM AND SIZE. The boxelder is a small tree, often characterized by a crooked stem which divides at a short distance from the ground into several stout, widespreading branches, forming a large, round crown. In dense stands a single upright trunk is produced, although the clear length is usually short and perfectly straight stems are rare. The average height attained by boxelder is from 40 to 60 feet, with a diameter of from 1 to 2 feet. RANGE. The boxelder is among the most widely distributed of American trees. East of the Appalachian Range it is found in small numbers from Vermont and Ontario to Florida; it is more abundant from Manitoba and the Allegheny Mountains to the foothills of the Rockies, extending southward to western Texas and Arizona. In California it reappears as a distinct variety. The boxelder is most common in valleys and along bluffs overlooking water courses in the Mississippi Basin and makes the best development in the valley of the lower Ohio River. It seldom occurs as the ruling species, but usually as scattered individuals or in groups among other hard- woods. The trees with which it is most commonly associated are white elm, hackberry, silver maple, black walnut, green ash, and Kentucky coffeetree. The range of the boxelder has been considerably increased by planting and has been made to include most of the New England States, while in the West it has been successfully introduced into 28381— No. 86—07 M regions much drier than the river bottoms, which are its natural home. The best region for its economic planting comprises the greater part of the treeless West, from North Dakota to Texas. HABITS AND GROWTH. Boxelder tolerates a great variety of climate and soil conditions. Tt will grow on rocky slopes and on the semiarid prairies; it thrives on calcareous soils, sandy loam, or even on sand, when ground water is within 20 feet of the surface ; yet the best development is reached on the deep, moist soil of valleys and the borders of lakes and swamps. Because of the small size of the boxelder and its ability to endure shade, it usually occupies the lower story of the forest in which it grows, and in the Middle West often comes up in dense thickets as an understory in cottonwood plantations. The tree does not clear itself well and the dead branches are very persistent. It often sends up clusters of sprouts from the root collar. The boxelder is a short-lived tree of moderately rapid growth. The annual increase is usually not more than 1 to 1J feet in height and one-fourth inch in diameter. In the Northern States considerable damage is often done to the boxelder by drifting snow, which collects on the thick branches and breaks them off. In some localities young shoots and the pith of branches are attacked by borers, and the foliage is much afl'ected by leaf-feeding insects. With the exception of the silver maple, the boxelder is the species most extensively damaged by the cottony maple scale. ECONOMIC USES. The wood is soft, weak, light, close-grained, creamy white, with an indistinct, thick sapwood. Although it has low fuel value, its principal use is as firewood. It is utilized to some extent for interior finishing, woodenware, cheap furniture, and paper pulp. The wood is more durable in contact with the soil than cottonwood or willow, but boxelder does not grow straight enough to make good posts and it yields less per acre than either of the other species. As a street and lawn tree the boxelder is of some value because of its hardiness, but throughout a great portion of its range it becomes at times so badly infested with a scale that it is very objection- able. Where uniformity is desired the use of this species is inad- visable, since trees of the same age are apt to vary much in form and rate of growth. Boxelder has been planted extensively in the West and is useful for wind and snow breaks, for underplanting in open stands, and as a filler with a more valuable species, such as black walnut. However, the tree's need of moisture and the small quantity and inferior quality of the material it produces make it unfit for general upland planting. [Cir. 86] METHODS OF PROPAGATION. The boxelder is hardy and easily propagated. In natural stands reproduction is fairly good in moist situations, and when a plantation is once established it can easily be so managed that it will perpetuate itself through natural seeding. Plantations should be started with nursery stock. Seed is pro- duced in large quantities nearly every year and ripens in early au- tumn. It may be gathered as soon as ripe and sown immediately in the nursery, or stratified in sand during the winter for spring sowing. Collecting in mild climates may even be delayed until winter, since the seeds hang on the trees until spring. Although produced in abundance and apparently fertile, the seeds have an average germina- tion of only 40 to 60 per cent. The seeds should be sown in the spring on carefully prepared ground in drills sufficiently far apart to allow cultivation. They should be dropped so thickly that they touch one another and should not be covered more than one-half inch. One pound of boxelder seed contains about 15,000 seeds and will be sufficient to sow 400 linear feet of drills. This amount of seed should produce about 6,000 plants. Under favorable conditions and with proper care the seedlings will grow to a height of 10 to 14 inches during the first season. PLANTING. The seedlings should be transferred to the permanent site in the spring when 1 year old. Since the boxelder is very tolerant of shade and has a tendency to form a spreading head the trees should be spaced 5 feet apart each way or 4 by 6 feet. It is rarely desirable to plant the boxelder in pure stands, except for wind-breaks, shade, or ornamental purposes. In forest planta- tions the tree may be planted to good advantage in mixture with white elm, hone}^ locust, black locust, green ash, black walnut, and European larch. CULTIVATION AND CARE. Plantations of the boxelder should be carefully protected from fire and stock, and should be cultivated for the first two or three years until the trees begin to shade the ground. If damage by insects becomes noticeable, specimens should be sent to the Bureau of Entomology of the Department of Agriculture for identification and advice as to treatment. [Cir. 86] o SEP - 7 1914 Division of Forestry University of California Issued April 29, 1907. United States Department of Agriculture, FOREST SERVICE— CIRCULAR 87. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. FOREST PLANTING LEAFLET. WHITE WILLOW (Salix alba). FORM AND SIZE. The white willow is a medium-sized tree characterized by a short, thick trunk and a large, rather irregular crown composed of many small branches. The size of the tree at maturity varies with locality. In the region where it occurs naturally a height of TO or 80 feet and a diameter of 3 or 4 feet are attained. When planted in the Middle West, a height of from 50 to 60 feet and a diameter of from 1J to 2 feet are all that may be expected. When close planted on moist soil the tree forms a tall, slender stem well cleared of branches. The root system is very extensive. When planted in dry situations the roots penetrate the soil for many feet in all directions in search of moisture. The common name " white willow " is also applied to another exotic species, the Salix fragilis, which is similar to the Salix alba in form and habits. It is properly called " crack willow," owing to the fact that its characteristic straight, dark-green branchlets are brittle at the base and snap off readily. RANGE. The white willow was introduced into the United States very early in the settlement of the country. It is a native of the eastern hem- isphere, where its range is from southern Scandinavia to the Medi- terranean, and through Siberia, western Asia, and northern Africa. 28382— No. 87—07 M It is now naturalized from the St. Lawrence Valley to the Potomac River and westward. The tree occurs singly and in groups along the banks of streams and on moist bottom lands. It is never the pre- dominating species. It has been planted and successfully grown over a large area, ex- tending through the Northern States, south to Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee, and west to Missouri, Kansas, Colorado, and the Dakotas. HABITS AND GROWTH. The white willow prefers q, moist, rich, sandy loam of alluvial origin. Throughout its natural range the tree attains its best devel- opment and is most frequently found on low, moist ground along the banks of streams. It would undoubtedly spread to the uplands were it not for the fact that the seeds invariably fail to germinate when lodged on high and dry situations. It is sufficiently hardy to grow on the dry prairies of the Dakotas, but its growth on upland situa- tions is considerably slower than when planted in the bottom lands. Although a light-demanding tree, it forms a dense canopy when close planted. The rate of growth is largely dependent upon site conditions. On low, moist soil an annual height growth of 3 feet with a diameter increase of 1 inch is not unusual, while on upland situations a yearly increase of from 1J to 2 feet in height and from one-half to three- fourths inch in diameter is all that may be expected. With the exception of the oaks, the willow is said to be infested with more insects than any other tree in North America. Most of these are leaf-eating insects, but there are also borers, gall producers, and scales. Should insects appear in alarming numbers, specimens, ac- companied by a full description of their work, should be sent to the Bureau of Entomology, Department of Agriculture, for identification and information in regard to methods of control. The principal insects which affect willow are considered in an article, by Dr. F. H. Chittenden, in Bulletin No. 46 of the Bureau of Forestry, pages .63-80. Willows are subject to a number of fungous diseases. Those of economic importance are " rust " and the " red rot." A mildew sometimes covers the leaves late in the season with a white web. In the spring and early fall small branches are often covered with a fungus, the spores of which will blacken the hand of a person break- ing off one of the infected branches. When fungi are believed to be present, specimens should be sent to the Bureau of Plant Industry, Department of Agriculture, where examinations are made and meth- ods of treatment suggested. [Cir. 87] ECONOMIC USES. The wood of the white willow is very soft, light, flexible, and fairly strong. It is used in slack cooperage and for cricket and baseball bats. Charcoal made from the wood is used in the manufacture of gunpowder. Willow is fairly durable in contact with the soil and, because of scarcity of better material, it has been generally used for fence posts on the northwestern plains. Well-seasoned posts will last from four to seven years. The white willow, so called, has been planted extensively in Iowa, Nebraska, Minnesota, North Dakota, and South Dakota. The species generally planted in Minnesota and the Dakotas has been the Salix fragilis, which has proven itself to be well adapted to this region. This tree is quite as useful as the true white willow, and may be used as a substitute for it. The rapid growth, hardiness, and profuse branching habit of the white wallow make it valuable for windbreak planting. In regions where timber is scarce its chief use is for fuel. Although it does not grow as rapidly as cottonwood, its fuel value is somewhat greater. On moist bottom land a plantation will produce from 2 to 3 cords of wood per acre annually. The white willow is well adapted for reclaiming and holding the soil along streams. The facility with which it reproduces itself and the ease with which it can be propagated make its use very effective and inexpensive. The planting of this tree along irrigation ditches, however, is not advisable because the roots mingle freely with the water, and thus retard the flow and interfere with the maintenance of the ditches. METHODS OF PROPAGATION. In its natural range the white willow is reproduced largely from seed. The common and least expensive method of propagation is by cuttings. These may be of any convenient size ; even branches or poles large enough for posts may be used. However, cuttings 8 to 10 inches long from twigs about three-fourths of an inch in diameter are most suitable for general purposes. Clean 2-year-old branches or strong, well-ripened 1-year-old twigs from healthy, vigorous trees should be selected for the cuttings. It is better to make cuttings in the fall, after growth ceases, and to keep them buried in a cool cellar or in well-drained soil until the following spring. Cuttings can also be successfully rooted if made before growth starts in the spring. The tree sprouts freely from the stump. This characteristic fur- nishes the best means of perpetuating a plantation for posts or fuel. The young shoots grow from the stump with such vigor that the sec- [Cir. 87] ond crop is more likely to consist of straight post timber than the first. Many crops may be cut in this manner, with subsequent re- newals of the stand by sprouts. PLANTING. The cuttings should be planted on well-prepared soil as soon as the frost is out of the ground. In planting, the cutting should be placed in a slanting position, and the upper two buds should be left uncovered. If the soil is wet, it need not be packed by trampling, but on less moist sites the cuttings should be firmly set in the soil. In windbreak planting the best results will be realized if the cut- tings are placed at 2-foot intervals in rows 8 feet apart. In pure plantations the spacing may be 2 by 8 feet or 3 by 8 feet. When planted in mixture a spacing of 4 by 6 feet is more suitable. While it does well in mixture with cottonwood, the white willow thrives best in pure plantations or when planted in single rows. When close packed it produces a slender, straight trunk that may be utilized for posts, poles, or fence rails. CULTIVATION AND CARE. The plantation should be tilled frequently until the ground is well shaded. This cultivation will destroy wreeds and prevent exces- sive evaporation of moisture from the soil. When the trees are 8 to 10 years old those which are becoming overtopped may be removed. In case of serious attack by insects, specimens should be sent to the Bureau of Entomology of the Department of Agriculture for identification and advice as to treatment. [Cir. 87] o SEP 21 1914 Divisioa of Forestry University of California Issued April 29, 1907. United States Department of Agriculture, FOREST SERVICE— CIRCULAR 88. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. FOREST PLANTING LEAFLET. BLACK WALNUT (Juglans nigra). FORM AND SIZE. When grown in the open the black walnut is a rather symmetrical tree, with a massive crown, short trunk, and a form similar to that of open grown oaks and chestnuts. In the forest the trunk lengthens into a tall, tapering column, often with no limbs for a distance of 50 or 60 feet, and surmounted by a much reduced crown. The foliage is thin, and never completely shades the ground. On the lower mountain slopes of the Carolinas a height of 110 feet and a diam- eter of from 5 to 6 feet is often attained. The usual height of the mature forest-grown tree is from 70 to 90 feet, and the diameter from 30 to 45 inches. Trunks of low, spreading trees in the open often measure over 6 feet in diameter. RANGE. Black walnut is one of the most widely distributed and valuable of our deciduous trees. In nature it grows sparingly from south- western New England westward, through New York, Ontario, Michi- gan, and Wisconsin, to southern Minnesota, thence southward, with central Nebraska and Kansas as the western limit, to south central Texas and Florida. It does not appear along the Gulf or the South Atlantic seaboard, and is much more abundant in the Central than in the Eastern States. "Although of fair size wherever found, black walnut attains its best development in the deep hollows of the western slope of the southern 29343— No. 88—07 M Alleghenies, on the rich bottom lands along the Mississippi and Ohio rivers, and in Arkansas, Missouri, eastern Nebraska, Kansas, and Indian Territory. In the mountains of the Carolinas and Ten- nessee it occurs in mixture with oaks and chestnut, while in the origi- nal hardwood forests in the river valleys of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Kentucky it is found associated with the maples, hickories, oaks, basswood, cherry, and other hardwoods of the region, though not always intermingling closely with them. West of the Mississippi the walnut is confined to river valleys and moist situations. In this western region it is found associated with the coffeetree, green ash, hackberry, basswood, and white elm. The walnut is nowhere a gregarious tree, but usually occurs in scat- tered groups or as isolated individuals among other species. Within the limits of its range there are regions where it is almost unknown, while within a few miles it may be common, though conditions in both localities seem identical. The natural range has been increased both to the east and west by planting. In Rhode Island, eastern Massachusetts, and southern New Hampshire and Maine the tree was probably not native, but has been planted in small quantities for its nuts, and grows well. In Iowa and eastern Nebraska plantations of black walnut have been successfully made. Plantations have been made as far west as Salt Lake City, southern Idaho, and throughout California, with evident success. In California the black walnut has been planted to a very limited extent for timber, to a greater extent for ornament and the yield of nuts. In the San Joaquin and Sacramento valleys the Cali- fornia black walnut, native to the southern part of the State, has been grown successfully instead of the eastern black walnut. HABITS AND GROWTH. The ideal conditions for growth are found in the rich, moist soil of bottom lands or on fertile hillsides which are protected from cold, sweeping winds. A calcareous soil or a sandy loam, containing a large quantity of humus, overlying a deep subsoil of gravel and a water table in which the long taproots can find a continual supply of moisture, furnishes the best conditions for growth. The surface soil should be moist, but not wet, and the subsoil porous. While not especially adapted to widely varying conditions, the black walnut will grow in many localities outside of its natural range; but its form and rate of growth are appreciably affected by its environment. Throughout the entire Middle West south of the forty-fifth parallel, planting on limited areas may be attempted with fair prospects of success on all fertile prairie land, and especially in coves, valleys, and extensive bottom lands where the requisite moisture is present and partial protection from the wind can be had. [Cir. 88] This latter requirement may be secured by starting the plantation in the lee of a natural wind-break or by planting a shelter belt of hardy, rapid-growing species on the exposed sides. The most favorable range for economic planting is in the fertile valleys of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers and their tributaries and on the bottom lands of the Carolinas, Georgia, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, eastern Ne- braska, Kansas, and Oklahoma. On upland soils, especially in the West, where there is a stiff subsoil, the species makes slow growth. In the southwestern plains the dry, hot weather of summer is often injurious, while in Minnesota and the Dakotas the cold of winter often kills back the season's shoots. The black walnut is intolerant of shade. The foliage of a walnut plantation is thin, seldom shading the ground to such an extent as to prevent the growth of grass and weeds. In good soil the rate of growth is fairly rapid and is continued up to mature age. In the best situations planted trees occasionally make a diameter growth of nearly an inch each year, but under average conditions an increase of one-fourth to one-third inch is all that may be expected. A tree 12 to 15 years old will begin to bear fruit, and lumber wrill be produced in forty to sixty years. Along the northern limit of its range it is somewhat susceptible to sun scald, and should be protected from the \vind and sun by hardier species. Many tree defoliators and borers attack the walnut, but seldom do serious damage, since they are mostly of local distribution, and the damage done by them is limited in extent. In case insects cause serious damage, specimens, accompanied by a full description of their work, should be sent to the Bureau of Entomology of the United States Department of Agriculture for identification and suggestion as to methods of control. ECONOMIC USES. The wood of walnut is heavy, hard, strong, and of coarse texture. The sapwood is narrow and whitish in color and the heartwood is a chocolate brown, which deepens with age and exposure. The wood shrinks moderately in drying, and if care is taken dries without checking. It works and stands well, takes a good polish, .and is valuable as a cabinet wood. It is very durable in contact with the soil, as only the sapwood decays. Walnut was formerly much used for furniture and interior finish, especially in churches ; in cabinetwork, for gunstocks, tool handles, and carriage hubs, and to some extent in the construction of ships. For- merly more abundant, it was used for fence posts and made into shingles. At present the market is much better in Europe than at home, and large amounts are exported in the form of logs 10 to 20 [Cir. 88] feet long and 15 to 30 inches square. However, 30,000,000 feet B. M. of walnut were sawed in this country during the year 1905. The price of walnut lumber is little, if at all, higher than it was twenty-five years ago; about $100 per thousand is paid for the best grades and $50 to $70 for medium grades. The average value of the lumber manufactured in 1900, as given by the last census, was $37 per thousand. Logs of unusually fine grain sometimes bring high prices for veneer manufacturing. Walnut under favorable condition will reach post size in from ten to twelve years. However, timber of this size contains so large a percentage of sapwood that it is not first class for fence posts. If durable fence-post material is desired, the rotation should not be less than twenty-five years, and forty years would be more profitable, since the trees must have time to mature a considerable amount of heartwood. The greatest returns will be realized from this species when it is planted with a view to growing saw timber. If a walnut planta- tion is established for this purpose, it is advisable to underplant with some tolerant tree that may be cut with profit in twenty or twenty-five years, leaving the walnut as the permanent stand until merchantable size is attained. As this will require a period of about seventy-five years, extensive walnut plantations are not advisable unless a long-time investment is sought. METHODS OF PROPAGATION. Under natural forest conditions the black walnut does not repro- duce readily, and becomes almost extinct wherever lumbered clear. The tree does not reproduce by suckers and only sparingly from stump sprouts; squirrels usually destroy many of the fallen nuts and young trees are killed by dense shade. The nuts may be stored over winter by stratifying them in moist sand or leaves in a sheltered place out of doors. In stratifying, 3-inch layers of sand should alternate with single layers of nuts. Boards should be placed around the edge of this store of nuts and the top protected against burrowing rodents. The sand should be kept moist, and the whole mass allowed to freeze. For extensive and satisfactory propagation of the species, artificial planting is the only sure method. Because of the long taproots and consequent difficulty in transplanting, nursery culture is in general not advisable. It can, however, be made successful if root pruning is practiced and great care taken in moving the plants. Nursery culture, if .attempted, should be conducted as follows : The nuts should be planted at 6-inch intervals in nursery rows 3 feet apart, and covered 1 to 1J inches deep. A preliminary freezing [Cir. 88] of the nuts will be beneficial rather than injurious. The plants m one year should attain a height of 12 to 14 inches, and may be trans- planted to the permanent site in the spring when 1 year old. PLANTING. The plants may be set in furrows, or in holes dug with a spade, care being taken to keep the roots from drying out, and to pack the earth firmly around them. In general the better plan is to omit nursery culture altogether and plant the nuts in their permanent place in the plantation. Either fall or spring planting may be practiced, but spring planting is usually best. In the East a furrow or a series of holes the proper distance apart will be sufficient for the reception of the seeds. On the plains and prairies of the West, greater care in preparing the soil is essential. The sod should be broken, and the ground put in corn or some other common crop for one or two years. The nuts may then be planted in the spring in shallow furrows and covered with a plow to a depth of 2 or 3 inches and the ground well firmed down. The rows should be straight in at least one direction, to facilitate cultivation. The spacing will vary in different localities. An interval of 6 or 8 feet apart each way is recommended. Since the black walnut is a long-lived, light-demanding tree, it may with advantage be combined in the plantation with a more heavily foliaged species. The associate trees should be allowed to grow until they clear the lower limbs from the walnut and stimulate it to a rapid upward growth, when they should be removed and the long-lived species left to finish its growth alone. Desirable trees for such a mixture are the hardy catalpa, hackberry, Osage orange, and boxelder. When the walnut and another species are thus combined, the walnut should be given two to three years' start in order that it may not be overtopped. CULTIVATION AND CARE. The plantation should be cultivated until the tops of the trees meet. During the first three years corn may be grown between the rows to give additional returns from the soil. [Cir. 88] [Ep Hi SEP 2 1 1914 Division of Forestry University of California Issued April 29, 1907. United States Department of Agriculture, FOREST SERVICE— CIRCULAR 89. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. FOREST PLANTING LEAFLET. TAMARACK (Larix laricina). FORM AND SIZE. The tamarack is a straight, slender tree, averaging about 60 feet in height and 15 to 20 inches in diameter. It rarely attains a height greater than 80 feet or a diameter of more than 30 inches. \Vhen grown in the forest the tamarack has a clean, straight bole and a narrow, pyramidal head. In the open this regular form is lost and the crown becomes broken and spreading. RANGE. The tamarack has the widest range of all the conifers of the North- east. It has its approximate southern limit in northern Pennsylvania, Indiana, and Illinois, and extends northward to the Arctic Circle and westward in the United States to central Minnesota. The tamarack is most plentiful in the swamps and silted lake beds of northern regions, where it occurs in dense pure stands or mixed with arborvitae and black spruce over vast areas. The best specimens grow where the moisture is not excessive, on the edge of swamps and along the banks of sluggish streams, in mixture with balsam fir, black spruce, black ash, and arborvitae. Other natural associates are the birches, red maple, sugar maple, tupelo, and occa- sionally white pine. Although more common on lowlands, in places it grows on mountain sides up to an elevation of 4,000 feet. It may be planted in suitable situations throughout the Northern States from the Atlantic to the Mississippi. 29344— No. 89—07 M HABITS AND GROWTH. Few trees can endure such variable moisture conditions, but despite the ability to live on either wet or dry soils, the form of growth is greatly influenced by the site. By far the better trees are found on the rich, light soils of the upland, though they occur in greater abundance on wetter, stiffer soils, where competition with the spruces and other species is not so keen. In swamps where standing water covers the roots and excludes the air from them, the tree little more than maintains its existence. The tamarack will not endure drought, however, and the soil best adapted to it is rich, moist, alluvial loam, such as occurs along the banks of streams and on the borders of lakes and marshes. The tamarack is very intolerant, and to maintain itself must out- strip its competitors in height growth. In plantations, when mixed with other trees, it should always form the upper story. In the Northeastern States the rate of growth of this species is more rapid than near the southern limits of its range. Under favor- able conditions the tamarack will grow to a height of 45 feet in thirty years, and at forty-five years after planting should be about 60 feet in height with a diameter of at least 18 inches. In addition to more rapid height growth the tamarack has a slight advantage over coniferous associates in that its foliage is deciduous. The returning of the leaves to the ground each year tends to improve the site. About twenty-five years ago much of the mature tamarack of the Northeast was killed by the larvae of a saw fly. The ravages then ceased and a large quantity of second growth replaced the original stands. In 1901, however, this sawfly reappeared and did serious in- jury to the young trees of .the Adirondacks. Tamarack is often at- tacked, in very wet situations, by a fungus which so honeycombs the wood that the tree blows down. ECONOMIC USES. The wood resembles red pine, but is somewhat stronger and stiffer. It is fairly hard, resinous, rather coarse-grained, and durable in con- tact with the soil. It is used in shipbuilding and for fence posts, ties, telegraph and telephone poles, and in the manufacture of canoes. The tall, slender boles of the mature trees make excellent spars and masts, and have been extensively used for that purpose. Lumbermen recognize two varieties of tamarack, the red and the white, the distinction being based on the color of the heartwood. The red-hearted trees have less sapwood and are produced on colder, less favorable soils than the white tamarack. [Cir. 89] The roots that are developed in the deep mud of the northern swamps are very long, tough, and stringy. They were once used by the Indians for withes. On drier land strong knees are sometimes developed by a large root starting downward and then taking a lateral direction. Such knees are of value in shipbuilding. No large commercial plantations of the tamarack are known to exist, and its use has thus far been limited to ornamental planting. The tree is well worth a trial, and plantations of the tamarack, either in pure stands or, better, in mixture with other species, should prove profitable in many localities. It can not be expected, however, to thrive on sites where no other merchantable species will, and the planting of tamarack for profit on swampy land is quite imprac- ticable. METHODS OF PROPAGATION. Tamarack is reproduced by seeds. Young tamarack requires sun- light, so that natural reproduction is confined chiefly to open fields and the borders of swamps and marshes. If, in cutting over a tamarack swamp, a few seed trees are left, the stand will usually reproduce itself. . Nursery-grown trees are best for forest planting. When stock is purchased from nurserymen the substitution of forest-pulled seed- lings for those grown in the nursery should be guarded against. The seeds are borne annually in small upright cones which fall during the second year. The seeds are about one-eighth inch long, pale, winged, and are produced in abundance at intervals of from two to six years. It is easy to grow tamarack from seed. The cones should be col- lected during September, when they mature, and stored in a dry, cool place until the seed is needed for planting. They should then be spread in the sun until the scales open sufficiently to allow the seeds to drop out. In raising plants of this species the general direction for the grow- ing of conifers given in Bulletin No. 29 of the Bureau of Forestry should be followed. The seed should be sown in the spring in care- fully prepared beds and dropped so thickly in the drills that they touch one another. If fresh, about 50 to 75 per cent of the seed should germinate. The seedlings grow slowly and require partial shade during the first season. At the end of one year they will be only 2 to 3 inches high, but will increase in height rapidly during the second season. At the age of twro years they may be transplanted to nursery rows or to the permanent site. Since the root system of the tamarack is shallow, with the form of a broad, very compact mat, the young trees are easily transplanted. [Cir. 89] PLANTING. The plants may be set out when two or three years old. Trans- planting must be done very early in the spring, because the buds of the tamarack start while other conifers are still dormant. The trees should be set 6 feet apart each way. Tamarack may be grown in pure stands, but mixtures are advisable with such species as balsam fir or spruce. When used for ornamental purposes the tamarack should never be planted singly nor in exposed places, for the branches are easily broken by wind and snow, and exposure usually results in stunted or poorly formed trees. CULTIVATION AND CARE. The tamarack will rarely be planted where cultivation is possible and the plantation will therefore require little care other than pro- tection from fire and stock. Trees of this species should not be allowed to become overtopped by their associates and deprived of light; In case of serious attack by the sawfly or other insects, specimens should be sent to the Bureau of Entomology of the Department of Agriculture for identification and suggestions as to control. Exten- sive injuries from fungi should be reported to the Bureau of Plant Industry of the same Department. [Cir. 89] SEP 1 0 1914 Division of Forestry University of California Issued April 29, 1907. United States Department of Agriculture, FOREST SERVICE— CIRCULAR 90. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. FOREST PLANTING LEAFLET. OS AGE ORANGE (Toxylon pomiferum). FORM AND SIZE. The Osage orange is a tree of medium size, with a short trunk, ridged scaly bark, and wide-spreading branches. The trunk is gen- erally somewhat crooked and the top is inclined to be distorted and scraggy. Within its natural range, the tree occasionally reaches a height of 60 or 70 feet and a diameter of 2 feet. This size, however, is not attained elsewhere. It produces a compound globular fruit that looks somewhat like an orange, is yellow when ripe, and contains a large number of seeds. RANGE. The natural range of the Osage orange is from the Arkansas River south through southeastern Indian Territory to southern Texas. In the forest its principal associates are the oaks, elms, and hickories. It grows on rich bottom lands and fertile slopes and appears to be most abundant and to attain its greatest size in the valley of the Red River in Indian Territory. Cultivation has given it an artificial dis- tribution of much greater extent. The range of the Osage orange for economic planting includes the Middle Western States from central Illinois southward and westward to eastern Colorado and New Mexico. It is hardy as far north as Massachusetts, but is likely to be winterkilled during severe seasons in the northern part of Iowa, Nebraska, and Illinois. HABITS AND GROWTH. The Osage orange adapts itself to a great variety of soil and cli- matic conditions and within its planted range is surpassed in hardi- ness only by the red cedar. It will endure a great amount of neglect 29345— No. 90—07 M and rarely succumbs to drought. This ability to withstand aridity makes it one of the most desirable trees for planting throughout the Middle West. It is tolerant of shade and consequently well adapted for planting in mixture. The usual rate of growth under good conditions is one- quarter to one-third of an inch in diameter yearly. Height growth is relatively slow after the first few years, and no great height is ever reached. It equals the Russian mulberry in rate of growth, but falls somewhat behind the black locust. On good soil it will produce fence posts in about fifteen years. Osage orange is usually free from any serious fungous attack. A specimen with decayed heartwood is seldom found, though the sapwood is sometimes riddled by borers. Their attack, however, rarely kills the tree or seriously retards its growth. If injury by insects is noted, however, specimens of the insects and their work should be sent to the Bureau of Entomology of the Department of Agriculture for identification and suggestions as to methods of con- trol. ECONOMIC USES. The wood is yellow in color, heavy, tough, hard, and strong. It is used in the manufacture of machinery, wagon felloes, insulator pins, and tool handles. Where the tree attains sufficient size the wood is used for railroad ties. The Osage orange is one of the most valuable trees for hedges and in its planted range has been used for this purpose more exten- sively than any other. Planting for fence-post material is also ad- visable. Aside from its value for hedge and wood-lot planting the Osage orange is one of the most desirable trees for windbreaks. Its tendency to branch freely makes it very suitable for a low, dense windbreak. METHODS OF PROPAGATION. Reproduction is abundant from seed, suckers, and stump sprouts. When an Osage orange is once established, its complete removal is a matter of much difficulty. Suckers from the roots will come up year after year. Sprout growth furnishes the best means of reproducing a plantation for posts or fuel. Since young shoots grow from the stump with great vigor, the second crop is more likely to consist of straight post timber than the first, unless the trees of the original plantation were cut back one or two years after planting. This ability to reproduce insures a continual renewal of the plantation without further expense. The Osage orange may also be propagated from root cuttings, but this is not a practical method. Propagation from seed is not diffi- cult. The pistillate trees bear " oranges " in abundance. These [Cir. 90] should be collected in the fall as soon as ripe and kept in a cool, dry place over winter. Prolonged soaking in cold water softens the pulp so that the seed may be extracted. The seed germinates readily with- out preliminary treatment of any kind. It should be sown in nur- sery rows in rich, well-prepared soil. The seedlings will grow from 1 to 2 feet in height during the season and be ready to transplant to the permanent situation the following spring. Osage-orange seed- lings are cheap, and the planter who does not wish to raise his own trees can get them at nurseries for $1 to $3 a thousand. PLANTING. Osage-orange trees should be set close to overcome the tendency toward profuse branching and should not be more than 3 feet by 6 feet or 4 feet by 6 feet apart. The species is well adapted for planting in mixture with intolerant species, such as black walnut, black locust, honey locust, and green ash. CULTIVATION AND CARE. Cultivation should be given several times each year until the ground is partly shaded or until the size of the trees prevents. Weeds and grass should be kept out at all times. The roots of the Osage orange are wide spreading and are said to draw considerable nourishment from the surface soil to the detriment of adjacent field crops. This objectionable feature can largely be eliminated by inclosing the plantation with a plowed strip four or five furrows in width. This strip will also serve as an efficient fire guard. If a plantation is accidentally burned over, the trees should be cut back immediately to encourage a new sprout growth. If the trees are left uncut the roots are likely to become weakened by disease, which gains entrance through the dead wood. Since the trees rarely clear themselves of branches pruning is nec- essary if first-class post timber is desired. Moreover, pruning stimu- lates height growth. EXAMPLES. Probably the largest single plantation of Osage orange in the United States is a 10-acre block at Farlington, Kans. The planta- tion was established in 1878, and the trees set 4 feet apart each way. Agents of the Forest Service examined this tract in 1900. The trees had made a thrifty growth, and measurements disclosed the fact that the stand contained 2,640 first-class and 2,772 second-class fence posts per acre, worth, respectively, 12.5 and 7 cents each, or a total acreage value of $524.04. The land could hardly have been put to any other use that would have brought greater returns. [Cir. 90] o Issued April 29, 1907. United States Department of Agriculture, FOREST SERVICE— CIRCULAR 91. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. FOREST PLANTING LEAFLET. COFFEETREE (Gymnocladus dioicus). FORM AND SIZE. The coffeetree when grown in the forest reaches a height of from GO to 100 feet and a diameter of from 1J to 3 feet. The trunk tapers but little and is often free from limbs for from 50 to 80 feet. The branches are stout, pithy, and blunt and combine into a rather close crown. When not crowded by other trees the trunk usually divides at from 10 to 15 feet from the ground into three or four branches, which spread only slightly and form a narrow, round-topped head. RANGE. Although one of the rarest of our forest trees, the coffeetree is equaled by few hardwoods in the extent of its range, growing as far north as Montreal and south to Arkansas. Its geographical distri- bution is from central New York and Pennsylvania west through southern Ontario and southern Michigan to the valley of the Min- nesota River, eastern Nebraska, Kansas, and western Oklahoma, and south between the Mississippi River and the Allegheny Mountains to Tennessee. This range has been somewhat extended by seeding from cultivated trees. It is nowhere abundant, occurring only as a single tree in localities most favorable to its growth. Over large areas writhin its range it is entirely lacking or represented only by an occasional individual. The coffeetree is associated with the ashes, walnuts, hackberry, elms, basswood, cottonwood, honey locust, and hickories. 29346— No. 91—07 M The range for economic planting coincides with the natural range and may in places be extended beyond it. HABITS AND GROWTH. The coffeetree grows naturally and best on the richest bottom- lands, along banks of upland lakes and water courses, and in moist ravines; in such situations it attains its maximum development. It is adapted, however, to the drier, less fertile, and more sandy and gravelly soil of the uplands, but in such situations it grows more slowly and is smaller. It is not susceptible to climatic variations, and will endure the cold winters of Minnesota or the hot winds of western Oklahoma with no sign of injury. The tree is essentially light-demanding, and, because of the thin, open nature of the foliage and its habit of coming into leaf late in the spring, does not shade the ground sufficiently to keep down grass and weeds if planted in a pure stand. In barren soil the coffeetree is a slow-growing, long-lived species, which seldom attains a commercial size. Under normal conditions it is a rapid and moderately persistent grower. Under most favor- able conditions the height growth for the first thirty or forty }^ears often averages 1 to 2 feet annually, while the annual diameter incre- ment may vary from one-fourth to one-half inch. The root system of the coffeetree is extensive, and the roots often extend as far as 100 feet from the tree. When the tree is cut down the roots send up a large number of suckers. The coffeetree is not known to be subject to injurious insect attack. ECONOMIC USES. The wood is heavy, moderately hard, very stiff, of coarse texture, and durable in contact with the soil. The heartwood is reddish ; the thin sapwood, yellow. The wood shrinks and checks considerably in drying, works and stands well, and takes a good polish. It is used to a limited extent for cabinet work and posts, but is little known at present. The coffeetree in the past has not been extensively planted in com- mercial quantities, but there seems ample reason why its future ex- tension should be encouraged. It occurs in a variety of soils, and may be grown successfully throughout the greater part of the Middle West, being especially suited to moist river valleys and the soil along water courses. It has an advantage over many hardwood species adapted for western planting in that the wood is of more general value, being suitable for general construction purposes and durable in contact with the soil. [Cir. 91] In pleasure grounds and for general ornamental planting it is quite a favorite, especially in the East, because of the unusual char- acter of the leaves and the interesting and unique winter aspect of the tree; the blunt, naked branches give it a peculiar dead appear- ance, which is further augmented by the absence of foliage until late in the spring. METHODS OF PROPAGATION. The fruit, which matures in September or October, is a thick, broad pod, containing 6 to 9 large seeds (beans), inclosed in a jelly- like pulp. It is produced abundantty, and in the South and West gives rise to fair stands of seedlings in the neighborhood of the mother trees. The coffeetree is reproduced to a very limited extent by root suckers. Because of the heavy nature of the seeds and the lack of any special means of dissemination, natural regeneration is not extensive. The root sprouts are also limited to the area which the main roots cover. Artificial propagation must be resorted to, therefore, as the only sure and rapid means of coffeetree reproduction. The pods remain unopened on the trees for some months after reaching maturity, and may be collected at any time during the late fall or winter. They should be macerated in water, the seeds sepa- rated from the pods and pulp, and dried. In this condition the seed may be kept in a cool, dry place for several years with only a slight annual diminution in vitality. If desired for planting the fol- lowing spring, they should be stratified in sand or stored dry during the winter. Seed should be planted early in the spring after the following treatment has been given: Place in a tub or pail the seeds which are to be planted and pour very warm water (150° to 160° F.) over them, stirring vigorously during the operation. Continue to stir for fifteen or twenty minutes, then cover the vessel and leave the seeds to soak for two or three days. At the end of this time sort out the seeds that have swollen, using a sieve with a mesh that will allow the seeds not swollen to pass through. Pour off the water from the remainder and soak again in warm water. Continue this treatment until all the seeds have become spongy and swollen. After being thus treated the seeds must not be allowed to dry out, but should be planted immediately. Plant the seeds in nursery rows 2 to 3J feet apart, spacing them 2 or 3 inches in the row, and covering 1 to 2 inches deep, and afterwards press the dirt down firmly. One pound of seed contains about 450 seeds and is sufficient to sow 75 linear feet of drills. This amount should produce 250 to 300 plants. [Cir. 91] PLANTING. Transplanting to the permanent site may be done in the spring, when the plants are 1 year old, or delayed another year, the plants in the meantime being transferred to nursery rows. Better plants are secured by once transplanting in the nursery, but as a measure of economy they should be set out in the forest site the first year. When making a forest plantation of coffeetree, it should be com- bined with such species as white elm, red elm, hackberry, oaks, and ashes. If planted several years previous to its associates, it may be mixed with hardy catalpa, Russian mulberry, or black locust. The growth and habits of the coffeetree in the Southwest are very similar to the growth and habits of the black walnut, and one may be sub- stituted for the other in almost any plantation. CULTIVATION AND CARE. Plantations should be cultivated for the first two or three years if on tillable ground. In the prairie regions cultivation will be abso- lutely necessary for several years after planting in order to con- serve soil moisture, since young cofFeetrees provide very little shade. The plantation must of course be protected from fire and the in- roads of stock. In case of any serious insect attack specimens should be sent to the Bureau of Entomology of the Department of Agricul- ture for identification and suggestions as to control. [Cir. 91] o SEP 2 11914 Division of Forestry University of California Issued April 29, 1907. United States Department of Agriculture, FOREST SERVICE— CIRCULAR 92. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. FOREST PLANTING LEAFLET. GREEN ASH (Fraxinus lanceolata). FORM AND SIZE. The green ash, when forest grown, is a medium-sized, round-topped tree with a straight, undivided bole and slender, spreading- branches. It rarely exceeds a height of 60 feet and a diameter of 24 inches. Deep-seated, fibrous roots, which extend laterally, form the charac- teristic root system. RANGE. Green ash is distributed over the greater part of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains, even extending into those mountains in Utah and New Mexico ; it occurs to the north as far as the Saskatche- wan River in Canada. It is most abundant in the Mississippi basin, and is rather infrequent in the East. In the timber belts along the streams that drain the plains and prairie country of the Middle West the green ash sometimes occurs as the leading species, but in general, especially in the East, it appears singly or in small groups among other hardwoods. The species most commonly found in such natural mixtures are the white elm, hackberry, sycamore, black cherry, red ash, and bur oak. At the present time the range for economic planting of green ash hardly exceeds that of its natural distribution. It is probable that this tree will prove valuable for planting on irrigated lands, in regions now being developed throughout the arid West. HAB-iTS AND GROWTH. The green ash attains its best development on low, moist ground; yet it can be grown more successfully on the upland than most other 29347— No. 92—07 M trees. Its growth in such situations, however, is much slower than on the deep soil of the river bottoms. The tree is alkali resistant to a marked degree. It does not demand a rich soil and makes a fail- growth on dry sandy loam or on stiff clay upland. Its ability to per- sist and even thrive under adverse conditions of temperature and moisture is very great. On the arid plains of western Kansas and Nebraska it has survived on abandoned timber claims where nearly all other species have been a failure. Green ash prefers full light and tolerates only moderate shade. In semiarid regions the rate of growth is not rapid. In regions of greater rainfall it compares favorably with that of other broad- leaved species, though green ash is never a rapid-growing tree. Under average conditions planted trees should attain post size in fifteen or twenty years and be large enough for stakes or fuel in less time. Stands measured in the Middle West show a diameter growth of from 0.2 to 0.3 inch annually. Several insects infest the green ash. In case insects appear in alarming numbers, upon natural or planted trees, specimens should be sent to the Bureau of Entomology, Department of Agriculture, where they will be identified and measures suggested for their control. The chief climatic influence injurious to the green ash is a protracted growing season followed by severe frost. The resultant damage, however, is only temporary in its effect and the tree soon recovers. ECONOMIC USES. The wood of the green ash is hard, heavy, and strong, rather coarse grained, and brittle. It is utilized in the manufacture of agricultural implements, carriages, and furniture, and for general farm repair Avork. Although said to be inferior in quality, it is sub- stituted for white ash to a large extent, and ash timber is often sold without discrimination between the two species. The relative fuel value of the wood is high, but because of the slow rate of growth, planting for the production of fuel is not advisable if a more rapid growing species can be grown successfully. Although not strictly first class for fence posts, it is used for this purpose extensively in portions of Nebraska, Iowa, Minnesota, and the Dakotas, and is highly prized in many sections where more val- uable species are not available. The easy propagation, and great hardiness of the green ash make it one of the most valuable trees for general planting in semiarid regions. It serves a useful purpose, whether planted for windbreak, ornament, or timber. Since the wood is inferior to that of white ash and many other species, the propagation of green ash in regions of abundant rainfall is not recommended. [Cir. 92] METHODS OF PROPAGATION. Green ash reproduces by seed and sprouts. Propagation by seed is the best method. Seed may be purchased from dealers for from 50 to 75 cents per pound, but wherever possible it is advisable for the local planter to gather his own supply. The several species of ash seeds are very similar in appearance, and the germination per cent low at best; hence it is advisable to send samples of seed, whether purchased or home gathered, to the Seed Laboratory of the United States Department of Agriculture, where all seeds will be identified and tested without charge. Green ash matures its fruit in early autumn. Collecting should be begun as soon as the seeds ripen, by stripping them from the trees by hand. Fall planting may be practiced, but is in general inadvis- able. The seeds may be kept over winter in a cool, dry place or stratified. If stored dry, the seed should be soaked in warm water for several hours before planting in the spring. If stratified, the winged seeds should be placed between alternating layers of slightly damp sand in boxes, and the boxes stored in a cool cellar. The seeds are not likely to retain their vitality more than eight months. Broadcast sowing on prepared or unprepared ground, or even planting the seed in hills where the trees are to stand, is generally unsatisfactory; hence nursery culture is advised. The nursery and seedbeds should be prepared on rich, well-worked ground, an old gar- den spot being an excellent site if the soil is not too full of weed seeds. Planting may begin in spring as soon as danger of frost is over. For convenince in weeding, the seed should be sown in drills 8 to 12 inches apart for hand cultivation and 2 to 3 feet apart for a horse cultivator. The normal germination per cent is rather low, hence the seeds should be dropped thickly enough to touch each other in the row. They should be covered about one-half inch deep and the soil rolled firmly, or pressed down with a board. In the arid regions it is sometimes best to cover seed with 2 or 3 inches of soil until after germination is well started, after which the dry surface layer should be raked off, leaving a covering a little less than a half inch in depth. A mulch of chaff, sawdust, or old hay, if kept moist and raked off when the sprouts begin to break the ground, will answer the same purpose. Uniform moisture conditions should be main- tained by surface irrigation, sprinkling, or mulching. PLANTING. The seedlings will attain a height of 6 to 10 inches the first season, and should be translated to the permanent planting site when 1 year old. If the plantation is small and only a few seedlings are [Cir. 92] required it is better to purchase the stock from nurserymen. One- year-old seedlings cost from $2 to $3 per thousand. The green ash does not cast a heavy shade and comes into leaf late in the spring. Close planting on well-prepared sites is advisable in prairie regions. If planted pure, the spacing should be 4 by 4 feet or 4 by 6 feet, but if mixed with other species, 6 .feet apart each way is preferable. Green ash will thrive better and produce a straighter trunk when planted with some other tree. One of the best mixtures is green ash and hackberry. Other desirable species for mixtures are box elder, white elm, Scotch pine, and red cedar. If grown in pure stands the green ash may be underplanted with chokecherry or wild plum. These trees will endure the shade and keep the ground free from grass and weeds. CULTIVATION AND CARE. The plantation should be cultivated until the crowns of the trees spread out so as to form a complete shade. If the object of the plantation is the production of fence posts, pruning is of importance. Careful pruning will greatly increase the clear length of the trunk and also increase the supply of first- class post timber. [Cir. 92] o Issued April 29, 1907. United States Department of Agriculture, FOREST SERVICE— CIRCULAR 93. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. FOREST PLANTING LEAFLET. YELLOW POPLAR (Liriodendron tulipifera). FORM AND SIZE. The mature, forest-grown yellow poplar, or tuliptree, has a long, straight, cylindrical bole, clear of branches for at least two-thirds of its length, surmounted by a short, open, irregular crown. When growing in the open the tree maintains a straight stem, but the crown extends almost to the ground and is of conical shape. Yellow poplar ordinarily grows to a height of from 100 to 125 feet, with a diameter of from 3 to 6 feet and a clear length of about TO feet. Trees have been found 190 feet tall and 10 feet in diameter. RANGE. Yellow poplar is distributed sparingly through southern New England and New York; it is more plentiful on the southern shore of Lake Erie and westward through northern Indiana and Illinois. It extends southward into Alabama and the other Gulf States as far as northern Florida. West of the Mississippi it is rare, except in northeastern Arkansas and southeastern Missouri. It is most abun- dant and of largest size in the south central part of its range, espe- cially in Tennessee, Kentucky, and the western Carolinas, and in the basin of the Ohio River and its tributaries. It is characteristic of the distribution of yellow poplar that it is scattered by single trees or in groups throughout the forest, and is rarely the predominant tree except in the South, under especially favorable conditions. It is com- monly associated with chestnut, the oaks, walnuts, hickories, maples, black cherry, locust, and beech ; and is occasionally found with hem- lock and white pine. 29725— No. 93—07 M The tree is hardy east of the Mississippi, except in the colder por- tions of the Northern States; and, on suitable soils, may be planted throughout its range. HABITS AND GROWTH. Yellow poplar is very exacting in soil and moisture requirements. It demands deep, fertile, well-drained soil and a constant and even supply of soil moisture. The tree grows best on moist loam or rich sandy soil in which is mixed a considerable quantity of humus. It does not thrive on heavy clay or dry ridge soils, and can not grow in standing water. In its early life it requires a fresh, porous, upper soil. The largest specimens are found in protected coves along water courses and on the northern and eastern slopes of ravines and valleys. The tree is very intolerant and prunes itself well with even moderate side shade. While the seedlings can endure considerable shade, the trees demands more light as they grow older, and at maturity are nearly always taller than their associates, with their crowns fully exposed. In early life the growth is principally in height, and the develop- ment of one continuous main stem is characteristic throughout. The growth is rapid and the tree often lives more than three hundred years ; during the first forty or fifty years the height growth is from 1 to 2 feet annually, and the average diameter growth from one- tenth to one- fourth inch. After fifty years the rate of growth gradually decreases. Yellow poplar is very susceptible to injury by fire. Old trees are often hollow-butted as the result of repeated burning about the base. Near the western limits of its range the tree is sometimes injured by sun scald. Injuries by insects should be reported to the Bureau of Entomology. United States Department of Agriculture. ECONOMIC USES. The wood is usually light, but varies in weight; it is soft, tough, but not strong, and of fine texture. It is fairly durable when exposed to the weather or in contact with the ground. It shrinks slightly and seasons without injury, and works and stands exceedingly well. The sapwood is thin, light in color, and decays rapidly. The wdod is used for siding, paneling, and interior finishing, and in the manufacture of toys, boxes, culinary woodenware, wagon boxes, carriage bodies, slack staves and heading, and backing for veneer. It is in great demand throughout the vehicle and implement trade, and also makes a fair grade of wood pulp. [Cir. 93] With the diminution of the Avhite-pine supply yellow poplar is much used in its place. The lumbermen recognize two kinds of pop- lar timber, white and yellow. The difference in color is caused mainly by the difference in site conditions, since trees grown on dry, grav- elly soil produce a wood that is lighter in color and harder to work, and is called " white poplar " or " hickory poplar." The " yellow poplar " is grown on rich alluvial or limestone soil, and has a rich yel- low heartwood which is highly prized because of its fine grain and easy working qualities. Yellow poplar is an excellent tree for shade and ornament, and is especially suited to these purposes in cities where bituminous coal is burned. Forest planting of this species for economic purposes has never been attempted, but it should prove profitable wherever natural conditions are favorable, because of the rapid growth of the tree, its large size and splended form at maturity, and the value of the Avood. PROPAGATION. Yellow poplar reproduces itself almost entirely by seed. Its ability to sprout from the stump is very limited, and can not be depended upon. Seeds are produced abundantly nearly every year, though only from 5 to 10 per cent are fertile. They are borne in a cone-like fruit 1 to 2 inches long. Young trees are likely to produce seed which is abso- lutely worthless, and on older trees good seed is found only in the cen- ters of the cones on the highest limbs-. Seed should be collected in the fall when mature, and may be sown at once or stratified in sand for spring planting. It is advisable to plant in the fall; germina- tion will then take place the following spring. If sown in the spring the seeds have a tendency to lie in the ground a year before germi- nating. The use of nursery-grown seedlings or transplants is recommended for establishing plantations of yellow poplar. Sowing in the per- manent site, however, is occasionally successful. To grow nursery stock the seed should be sown thickly in drills, in light, rich, sandy soil and covered to a depth of one-half inch. It is especially important that the soil be kept evenly moist. More water should be supplied during the germinating period than later. It may be found necessary to provide partial protection on hot, sunny days during the first season, especially in the South. Seedlings may grow in the nursery for one or two years, but should not remain longer, because of the strongly developed taproot and few lateral roots, which make transplanting difficult. Transplanting 1-year-old seedlings into nursery rows will stimulate the development of fibrous roots and insure vigorous plants, but this operation is not generally [Cir. 93] advisable, because of the added expense. If seedlings are left for more than one year in the seedbed they should be cut back to the ground before being moved. Vigorous sprouts will then replace the sterns. PLANTING. Seedlings reach suitable planting size in one year, and should be transferred to the field very early in the spring, before the buds start. They should be spaced 6 feet apart each way. No preparation of the whole site prior to planting is needed, except where there is a tough sod. In this case the ground must be broken and the grass turned under if possible ; otherwise the sod should be removed from a small area where a tree is to be placed. Yellow poplar is not well adapted for planting in pure stands, but should be mixed with other deciduous species. Unless the other trees in the mixture are slow-growing it must be given a start, so that it will not be overtopped. If the plantation is in a sheltered valley or rich bottomland, yellow poplar may be planted as the predominant tree of the mixture. In more exposed situations the species with which it is planted should be in excess, to provide protection from high winds and frost. Any moderately shade-enduring hardwood may be planted with yellow poplar, or mixture with white pine and Norway spruce should also prove suitable. CULTIVATION AND CARE. Yellow poplar will rarely be planted on tillable land, so that culti- vation in most cases will be impossible. Ordinarily young trees will not be choked out by grass or weeds because of their rapid growth. When field sowing of the seed is practiced, however, it may be neces- sary to check the weeds for the first two or three years. No grazing should be allowed in the plantation and fires should be absolutely kept out, since the yellow poplar, even when mature, is very easily injured by fire. [Cir.93] o SEP 2 1 1914 Division of Forestry University of California Issued April 24, 190^ United States Department of Agriculture, FOREST SERVICE— CIRCULAR 94. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. FOREST PLANTING LEAFLET. BLACK CHERRY (Primus serotina). FORM AND SIZE. When forest grown, the black cherry has a long, slender trunk sur- mounted by a comparatively small, open crown, composed of large, irregular branches. The trunk is often free from branches for a dis- tance of TO feet. When grown in the open, the croAvn becomes more spreading, but seldom massive like that of the oaks and chestnut. The tree varies greatly in size, depending on the region and locality in which it grows. In New England it is of medium size, from 30 to 50 feet in height, with a diameter of from 15 to 24 inches. In the Middle States a height of 60 feet and a diameter of 2J feet is often attained. The best development, however, is made on moist residual soil of the upper slopes of the southern Alleghenies, where a height of 90 feet and a diameter of 4 feet are not uncommon. The root system is extensive, especially on dry, sterile soil, where the taproot goes deep in search of moisture. Numerous surface roots are also developed. RANGE. The black cherry is common throughout the eastern half of the United States. The natural range is from Nova Scotia to Florida, west to Texas, and north through Indian Territory, the eastern por- tions of Kansas, Nebraska, and South Dakota. In the northern part of the Lake States its distribution is confined to shaded lake shores and banks of streams. The trees associated with the black cherry include many of the common hardwoods, such as the beech, birches, oaks, hickories, black walnut, and maples. 28387— No. 94—07 M Although growing over a wide range of territory, the area for planting is, in general, limited to the region westward from Indiana to the eastern portions of South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas, and southward along the moist slopes of the Appalachians. HABITS AND GROWTH. The black cherry will growr fairly well on dry situations, but it is only in the moist, well-drained, rich soils of mild climates that the maximum development is reached. The tree thrives on bottom lands, yet makes a moderate growth on sandy or rocky upland if the soil is penetrable. In the Middle West it has had variable success as a for- est tree, though on the whole the results have been encouraging. The tree can endure moderate shade. The rate of growth is largely dependent upon climatic and soil conditions. Under the most favorable conditions it is a rapid-growing tree, while in the northern part of its range or in unfavorable soil the growth is rather slow. Under average conditions in eastern Ne- braska a diameter of 6 inches and a height of 23 feet have been at- tained in ten years. However, it is not known how long this rate of growth may be maintained. In general, the black cherry in forest plantations may be considered as a rapid-growing, short-lived tree. It has comparatively few enemies. The forest tent caterpillar often devours the foliage, and a bark beetle may sometimes kill the tree. A fungus known as " black knot " causes unsightly swellings on the branches and greatly disfigures the tree. Injuries by insects should be reported to the Bureau of Entomol- ogy, United States Department of Agriculture. ECONOMIC USES. The wood is fairly light, strong, and hard, with a close, fine grain, which takes a beautiful polish. The mature tree has brown or red heartwood and yellow sapwood. The heartwood is the valuable portion of the tree and has been so extensively used in cabinetmaking and interior decorating that the supply of cherry timber is greatly reduced. The black cherry is well adapted for mixed planting throughout the Middle West. It serves a useful purpose as a nurse tree in forest plantations and where luxuriant foliage is desired. In the region of its best development it does not hold a high place, because of the presence of more valuable species. In general, however, it is too short lived and of too limited economic value to be recommended for extensive planting. [Cir. 94] METHODS OF PROPAGATION. Black cherry reproduces itself by seed and sprouts. Seed is borne abundantly every year and furnishes the better method of propaga- tion. It ripens in late August or early September and may be col- lected by hand from trees growing in the open. After the pulp has been removed by crushing, the pits should be stratified in moist sand for the winter. Since the seedlings are easily transplanted, it is better to raise nursery stock of this species than to attempt direct seeding on the planting site. In the spring the seeds should be planted 2 to 3 inches apart, in drills 8 to 12 inches apart for hand cultivation or 2 to 3 feet apart for horse cultivation. The seed should not be covered more than 1 inch and should always be planted immediately after they are removed from the sand, because even a partial drying at this stage is fatal. PLANTING. The transfer to the permanent site may be made in the spring, when the trees are 1 year old. They will then have a height of from 8 to 12 inches. A desirable spacing is 4 feet by 6 feet or 6 feet each way. The tree, however, is better adapted for mixed than for pure planting. In a mixture the best species for planting with the black cherry .are boxelder, green ash, white ash, silver maple, and black walnut. CULTIVATION AND CARE. Frequent and thorough cultivation is essential for two or three years. If cultivation is neglected, weeds and grass will thrive to the detriment of the plantation. When the trees become very much crowded, thinnings should be made in order to give the best trees ample space for development. [Cir. 94] o Division of Forestry University of California Issued April 24, 1907. United States Department of Agriculture, FOREST SERVICE— CIRCULAR 95. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. FOREST PLANTING LEAFLET. SUGAR MAPLE (Acer saccharum), FORM AND SIZE. The sugar maple is a large, heavy-crowned forest tree of symmet- rical form. In favorable situations in New England, New York, and the Appalachian Mountains it sometimes reaches a height of 120 feet and a diameter of from 4 to 6 feet, with a trunk clear of branches for 70 feet. The average height is about 80 feet, with a diameter of 3 feet. When growing in the open the trunk divides, about 10 feet from the ground, into several large branches, which spread into a broad, round- topped head. RANGE. The sugar maple is widely distributed in the eastern United States. Its natural range is from southern Newfoundland to northern Geor- gia and western Florida, and west to Minnesota, eastern Nebraska, eastern Kansas, and eastern Texas. It is most abundant in Minne- sota, Wisconsin, Michigan, New York, and Maine, and on the Appa- lachian slopes. In the northern pine belt sugar maple is a principal forest tree and often forms 25 to 75 per cent of the total stand. Associated species are beech, yellow birch, white pine, red pine, white spruce, red spruce, balsam fir, white birch, and red maple. Farther south it is found in mixture with nearly all the hardwoods. On suitable soils, the sugar maple may be planted anywhere within its natural range. HABITS AND GROWTH. Sugar maple prefers a fresh, well-drained soil. It grows well on almost any rich soil, but can not maintain itself on poor, dry ground. It is one of our most tolerant species and often forms pure stands, 28383— No. 95—07 M especially when young. The seedlings are very thrifty and persist under shade. On open areas young maples sometimes form very dense thickets. This density of stand is maintained for a long period, so that the forest-grown tree develops slowly and has a long, clean steam and a small crown. Toward the southern limit of its range the sugar maple requires considerable shade and does best on cool, moist sites, such as north slopes. The sugar maple is a somewhat slow -growing, long-lived tree. It develops much more slowly than the other maples up to the fifth year. Plantations of this species, however, make an average height growth of about 1 foot per year during the first thirty or forty years, the rate decreasing in later life. With favorable site condi- tions and proper density of stand the trees should be 35 to 40 feet in height with a diameter of 6 to 8 inches at thirty years after planting. Sugar maple is attacked by a number of injurious insects. Trees are often seriously injured and sometimes killed by the large maple borer, and the foliage is in some seasons severely eaten by the forest tent caterpillar, fall webworm, and other caterpillars. Aphides fre- quently infest the tree, and the cottony maple scale is often very troublesome and destructive. The tree is the host of many fungi which produce diseases of varying degrees of injury. The sugar maple is sensitive to severe frost and drought, but wind, snow, and ice seldom do it great damage. Brush fires are likely to kill the trees. In towns it is liable to injury from gas, dust, and smoke, so that it often is a failure as a street tree. Too deep and frequent tapping of the maple for sugar production weakens it so that fungi, and possibly insects, gain entrance and the tree dies. If properly practiced, however, tapping does little injury. ECONOMIC USES. The wood of the sugar maple is heavy, strong, dense, and very hard, but not durable in contact with the soil. It is susceptible of fine polish and is used in large quantities for interior finish, floors, musical in- struments, furniture, wooden ware, vehicles, cooperage, and novelties. The wood stands alternate wetting and drying well, and is therefore one of the best for the manufacture of washing machines. " Curly " and " bird's-eye " maple, obtained from this species, are desirable for finishing and cabinet work. The wood makes charcoal of unsur- passed quality, is a source of wood alcohol, and has a very high fuel value. The chief value of the sugar maple for economic planting is as a sugar producer. The sap contains from 2 to 6 per cent of sugar. Three to 9 per cent of the total sap content of the tree may be utilized for sugar making without dangerously lessening the tree's vitality. [Cir. 95] Sugar maple is well adapted for planting as a filler with some light demanding species, and its tolerance and heavy crown make it one of the best species available for underplanting in open forest or planta- tion to protect the soil. As a shade tree the sugar maple is the best of our native maples. It is surpassed, however, by the Norway maple in rapidity of growth, freedom from insect injuries, and persistence of foliage. METHODS OF PROPAGATION. Sugar maple is reproduced principally by seed. In starting a plan- tation it is advisable to use nursery-grown seedlings or transplants. Seed years occur at intervals of three to five years, but small amounts of seed Can be secured for planting any year. The seeds ripen about October 1. They should be collected as soon as mature and sown at once, if possible, or stratified in slightly damp sand and stored in a cool place over winter. If allowed to dry, the seed will lie dormant until the second season after planting, or will lose all their vitality. While the use of shade frames is not necessary, care should be taken to locate the seedbeds on the north or east side of a building or grove, where the seedlings will have partial protection from the sun. The seed should be sown in drills 1 inch deep, at the rate of about 20 seeds per foot, since only 30 to 50 per cent of fresh seed may be expected to germinate. There are about 7,000 maple seed in a pound, which is sufficient to sow 320 linear feet of drills and should produce at least 2,500 plants. Frequently in the spring the ground near old trees is thickly cov- ered with seedlings, few or none of which survive if left to compete with grass and weeds. These will often serve well as nursery stock if transplanted and cared for. PLANTING. One-year-old seedlings, 6 to 12 inches high, are of suitable size for planting. However, since the root system of the sugar maple is shallow, the young trees are very easily transplanted after two years in the seedbed. In setting out the plants care should be taken to make the holes large enough to accommodate the spreading lateral roots without crowding them. Spring planting is recommended. The proper spacing of the plants depends upon the object in view. For timber production or protective purposes the trees should be set 6 feet apart each way, but in establishing a sugar grove a wider spacing is necessary to secure the required crown development. Information regarding [Cir. 95] the growing of maple for sugar production is given in Bulletin No. 59 of the Bureau of Forestry. The sugar maple grows equally well in pure stands and in mixture with any of its natural associates. Species with which it may be planted to advantage are white pine, red pine, white oak, red oak, shagbark hickory, white elm, chestnut, basswood, and yellow poplar. The maple should be planted pure only when it is desired to establish a sugar orchard. CULTIVATION AND CARE. Throughout most of its range the sugar maple will require no care after planting other than protection from fire and stock. Whenever insects injure a plantation, specimens should be sent to the Bureau of Entomology of the Department of Agriculture for identification and advice as to remedial measures. Information con- cerning fungi and methods of combating them can be obtained by application to the Bureau of Plant Industry of the Department of Agriculture. Letters of inquiry should always be accompanied by specimens. [Cir. 95] o Issued June 17, 1907. United States Department of Agriculture, FOREST SERVICE— CIRCULAR 106. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. FOREST PLANTING LEAFLET. WHITE OAK (Quercus alba). FORM AND SIZE. White oak, when grown in the forest* is characterized by a long, clean trunk of rather uniform diameter, surmounted by a compara- tively small crown. In the open the crown becomes rounded and massive, much greater in breadth than in height, supported by a short, sturdy trunk. Under average conditions the tree grows to a height of from 60 to 100 feet, with a diameter of from 2 to 4 feet. In the Southern Appalachians speciirens much exceeding these diir ensions are often found. Near the western limits of its range the tree is smaller. RANGE. White oak is common in the eastern United States; a line marking the general boundary of its range would extend from southern Maine and the valley of the St. Lawrence westward through Ontario, Michi- gan, and Wisconsin to central Minnesota; thence south through eastern Nebraska and Kansas to Texas; and east to Florida through the intervening Gulf States. The region of best development is on the lower slopes of the Alleghenies and in the valley of the Ohio and its tributaries. The white oak forms pure forests and is also found in mixture with other hardwoods, such as chestnut, elm, basswood, hickory, maple, black walnut, yellow poplar, red oak, yellow oak, scarlet oak, post oak, and chestnut oak. Artificial propagation may be carried on throughout its entire range. 471— No. 106—07 HABITS AND GROWTH. White oak does not demand rich soil, but can maintain itself fairly well except on cold, wet land with an impenetrable subsoil. It reaches its best development, however, on rich, moist, well-drained loam, or clay loam, and prefers protected situations. Bottomlands and sheltered coves offer the ideal conditions. It is a fairly hardy species and resists both drought and cold, although somewhat sus- ceptible to very low temperature. The young trees are liable to damage from wind. For thrifty growth white oak needs plenty of light, although it will exist in partial shade. Young seedlings are tolerant and will start under dense shade, but they will not live long unless light is admitted. In early life white oak is not so vigorous as red oak. Growth is slow but persistent, and trees attain great age. Forest-grown white oak requires an average of ten years for every inch of diameter incre- ment, and this rate of growth often remains uniform until the tree is more than one hundred years old. The average annual height growth during such a period is about 8 inches. Under the more favorable conditions that usually prevail in a planted forest the rate of growth would be somewhat higher. ECONOMIC USES. The wood of white oak ranks among the best in general usefulness and is superior to that of other species of oak. It is ashy gray in color and is strong, heavy, hard, tough, close-grained, and very durable. It shrinks considerably and checks badly unless carefully dried. This tendency is more marked in white oak than in other oaks. The wood is used extensively in shipbuilding, heavy con- struction work, tight cooperage, vehicle manufacture, farm imple- ments, ties, posts, piling, and for furniture and interior finish, often in the form of veneers. So great is the economic value of this wood that the available supply is being rapidly exhausted. Practically no measures have been taken for the. propagation of white oak. This is chiefly because its growth is so slow that planta- tions would give a very low margin of profit. Natural reproduction should, however, be encouraged and protected. Sprout forests of white oak can be managed at small expense for the purpose of yield- ing ties and posts, and can be made profitable if near the market. For ornament the tree is very desirable because of its form and hardiness. METHODS OF PROPAGATION. White oak reproduces itself by seeds and sprouts. The young trees sprout freely from the stump, so that where ties, posts, or small [Cir. 10G] timbers are desired, the system of regeneration by sprouts is prac- ticable. To insure sprouting, the stumps should be cut low and smooth. Small edible acorns are borne in abundance by the white oak nearly every year and makire in September or October. Since the acorns germinate readily when they fall on fresh soil or beds of leaves, natural reproduction is usually abundant where the seed is not eaten by rodents. In starting a plantation of white oak it usually is advisable to plant the acorns on the planting site, rather than to use nursery stock, because of the difficulty and expense involved in transplanting the seedlings. Seed should be collected from middle-aged, vigorous trees only, since the seed from young trees does not produce strong healthy plants, and that from old trees is small and inferior. Acorns of the white oak germinate soon after they fall from the trees; therefore they should be gathered immediately and planted or stratified in sand before the developing sprouts are large enough to be injured by handling. Stored acorns lose some of their vitality, and therefore should be planted in the fall, except in localities where there are many squirrels. Squirrels and other rodents are very fond of white oak acorns because of their sweetness; often it will be necessary, where danger from squirrels threatens, to resort to spring planting. The acorns should be stored for the winter by stratifying in a box of moist sand, using 3 bushels of sand to 1 bushel of seed. In some cases it may even be advisable to grow seedlings in a nursery where protec- tion can be assured. The acorns should be sown in the spring in a carefully prepared seed bed, spaced about 3 inches apart in drills and covered to a depth of 1 inch. One pound of white oak seed contains about 100 acorns, and one bushel, about 9,000 acorns. A bushel of good seed will sow 2,000 linear feet of drill, and, if planted under favorable conditions, should produce 7,500 plants. The root system of the white oak consists of a taproot, re enforced by numerous deep seated, lateral roots. During the seedling stage the root system develops rapidly, while the part above ground grows very slowly until the roots are well established. Root pruning is a necessary preliminary operation to transplanting. PLANTING. Fall planting of the acorns in the permanent site as soon as they mature is advisable for extensive operations. The seed may bf sown broadcast on open land or abandoned fields and the cover given with a harrow. Broadcast sowing will require about 12 bushels of seed per [Cir. 106] acre. A surer and much cheaper method is to plant the acorns in shallow furrows or in holes dug with a spade or grub hoe. Three or four acorns should be placed in each spot and covered not deeper than 1^ inches. The spacing of the seed spots should be 6 feet apart each way; if furrows are used, these may be plowed 8 feet apart and the acorns planted more closely in the furrows. If the proposed planting site is on tillable land a crop of corn may be raised with the seedlings, thus utilizing the land more fully and providing cultivation that will be beneficial to the young oaks. In such planting, the ground should be prepared as for corn, marked out in check rows, and acorns planted alternately with the corn. If nursery stock is to be planted instead of acorns, one-year-old seedlings should be used. These should be planted in the spring and should be spaced 6 feet apart each way. White oak does well in pure stands, whether grown from sprouts or seed. On suitable soils, however, it may be planted in mixture with a number of other species, such as red oak, shagbark hickory, mockernut hickory, chestnut, yellow poplar, black walnut, white elm, white ash, and white pine. CULTIVATION AND CARE. Young plantations must be carefully protected from fire and stock. Cattle not only trample the seedlings but damage them by browsing. White oak plantations should, if possible, be cultivated for the first few years to prevent grass from crowding the seedlings and to lessen the danger from mice and rabbits if these should become troublesome. When crops are grown with the young oaks, cultivation may be con- tinued for several years until the trees shade the ground ; or, if the oaks have been planted sufficiently far apart, the intervening spaces may be planted after two or three years with seedlings of some shade- enduring species. These will form a lower story under the higher oak canopy and insure good forest cover. In case of serious attacks by insects, specimens should be sent to the Bureau of Entomology of the Department of Agriculture for identifi- cation and advice as to methods of combating the insects. tCir. 106] o SEP 1 0 1914 Division of Forestry University of California Issued August 30, 1910. United States Department of Agriculture, FOREST SERVICE— CIRCULAR 182. HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester. FOREST PLANTING LEAFLET. SHORTLEAF PINE (Pinus echinata). FORM AND SIZE OF TREES GROWN IN PLANTATIONS. Shortleaf pine, which is also commonly called " forest," " yellow," or " rosemary " pine, is the most important conifer in the Piedmont or red-clay hill region of the Southern States, where its second growth is the common old-field pine. Trees grown in plantations will have the same form and reach the same size as the trees in the best old-field stands. On the best soil its second growth attains in eighty years a maximum height of from 90 to 100 feet and a diameter of from 20 to 24 inches. Ordinarily, however, the size of the tree in old-field stands, especially east of the Mississippi Eiver, is much less, its height usually being from 75 to 85 feet and its diameter from 12 to 16 inches. The mature tree in a second-growth stand has a moderately tapering, straight or slightly crooked stem, which is clear of branches for from one-half to two-thirds its length and ultimately divides near the top of the tree into several branches. The thin- foliaged crown, formed of short, slender branches, is oval or irregular in outline. The bark, bright reddish brown and firm, is divided by deep furrows into regular oval or rectangular plates, and is much thickened at the base of the stem, where it is usually from 1£ to 2 inches thick. PLANTING RANGE. The planting range of shortleaf pine embraces its natural range and a considerable territory beyond to the north and west. It is the characteristic pine of the southern Piedmont and foothills, being 54480°— Cir. 182—10 most abundant at middle altitudes — that is, between 500 and 2,000 feet — and in plantations can be expected to succeed best within these limits of altitude and in this region. In New Jersey and south- eastern Pennsylvania it is rare, but is desirable for planting on soils too dry for white pine. Farther south, in the rolling plateau region, it is very common, and it is suitable for planting on all upland soils. Its distribution lies largely to the north and west of that of loblolly and longleaf pines, and consequently it is infrequent in the coastal plain south of the Roanoke River, although, mixed with longleaf pine and hard woods, it is occasionally found on bluffs and banks as far east as the south Atlantic coast and as far south as northern Florida and to points well within the coastal plain in Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. In northern Mississippi it occurs in large isolated bodies, becoming less common northward through Tennessee and Kentuclry, and finding its northern limits west of the Alleghenies in southern Ohio and southern Indiana. It is seldom found in the Mississippi Delta region and is not recommended for planting there. West of the Mississippi it extends to southwestern Missouri and east- ern Oklahoma, and south to the Sabine River in Texas, reaching its best development in northwestern Louisiana, Arkansas, southwestern Missouri, and northeastern Texas, where its forests, nearly pure, at one time covered thousands of square miles. East of the Mississippi the pure stands of young growth in old fields cover many thousands of acres. Throughout the entire area of its distribution it is one of the most desirable conifers for planting on suitable sites outside of its natural range, and it can be recommended for planting on suitable soils in southern New England, southern New York, southern and eastern Ohio, southern Illinois, Indiana, Missouri, and eastern Kansas. It is not suitable for planting on sandy soils of the coastal plain or above 1,000 feet altitude in Pennsylvania, 1,500 feet in West Virginia, or 2,000 feet in North Carolina and Tennessee. SOIL REQUIREMENTS. Shortleaf pine requires a deep and thoroughly drained soil, which must not be too sandy. It is not suited for planting on bottom land or on flat, poorly drained uplands. On shallow soils it attains only small size. Thoroughly drained soils such as occur on hills and slopes afford most congenial sites for plantations. USES OF THE WOOD. The wood of shortleaf pine is soft, light, straight-grained, and easily worked. "The heartwood, which usually forms about one-half of the volume of trees more than 14 inches in diameter, is light brownish yellow, or orange, durable on exposure, and will not warp. [Cir. 182] The sapwood, which forms the greater part of the second-growth trees less than 14 inches in diameter, is lighter in color, is not durable on exposure to the weather, and is prone to warp and check. The wood of trees in plantations will be similar to that of the old-field second-growth trees, which is more knotty and coarser grained than that of original growth, but its quality will be greatly affected by the care which is given the plantation. Well-stocked stands which are regularly thinned will produce clearer wood than neglected stands. The better grades of shortleaf pine lumber are used extensively for building material of all kinds, and in the region of its growrth it is used in preference to the wood of other species. The poorer grades and sapwood are principally used for low-grade lumber, box boards, slack cooperage, ties, fuel, and similar uses. PLANTATIONS. The growth of the seedlings is rapid and the young plants are so hardy and vigorous that plantations can be started by direct seeding, instead of by transplanting, as is necessary with slower growing trees. If the land to be planted is cleared, shallow furrows can be laid off 5 feet apart, and seed planted at intervals of 5 feet in the furrow. If the land has merely been logged over or has many sprouts and shrubs on it which would interfere with plowing, the soil should be loosened with a mattock in spots 8 or 10 inches square and 5 feet apart, and the seed planted in these spots. There are about 50,000 seed to a pound, but the percentage of sound seed seldom exceeds 20. Not less than 10 or 15 seeds should, therefore, be dropped into each hole; the covering of earth should not be deeper than one-half inch. To prevent squirrels, mice, and birds from eating the seed, it should be coated with a thick mixture of red lead and water. No cultivation is necessary. Plantations can also be established by means of seedlings. Two- year-old plants, either seedlings or one-year-old transplants, which are stouter, should be used. They should be from 5 to 8 inches high. The seedbed for growing seedlings should be made in fertile, well- drained soil, and the seed planted in the autumn or early spring, thinly scattered in drills about 6 inches apart. One pound of seed should be sufficient for 400 feet of drill. If the seed is planted in the autumn the seedbed should be protected from mice and birds; if planting is delayed until spring some of the seed may lie over for a year without germinating. The cost of raising two-year-old seedlings in large numbers should not be more than $2.50 a thousand ; of trans- plants of the same age $4.50 a thousand. The seedbeds should be lightly shaded during the first summer. Seedlings are not subject to damping off. [Cir. 182] The roots of plants when lifted from the seedbed for planting should be protected from the air by wet cloths, and in addition it is desirable to puddle the roots by dipping them in thick mud. Plant- ing can be most rapidly done by two men, one digging the holes with a mattock and the other following with the seedlings and planting them. The cost of planting should be about $4 a thousand or $4.80 an acre for trees spaced 6 by 6 feet. The young seedlings are hardy and reasonably free from disease, but must be carefully protected from fire until the trees are several inches in diameter and the bark thick enough for protection. Stands are much benefited by thinnings, which should remove all crooked, defective, dead, and most of the crowded trees. Enough of the crowded trees, however, should be left to insure the development of the larger trees. The first thinning should be made when the stand is between 15 and 20 years old, if the material removed at that time can be used for firewood. Subsequent thinnings should be made at intervals of not more than 10 years, and preferably at intervals of from 3 to 6 years. YIELD OF PLANTATIONS. The old-field stands of shortleaf pine furnish reliable means of ascertaining the yield of plantations. The rate of growth of short- leaf pine in such stands is somewhat slower than that of loblolly pine, but more rapid than that of longleaf in similar stands. In old- field stands the growth of the larger, or dominant, trees is much faster, especially in diameter, than that of the smaller, suppressed, and crowded trees. On good soils these larger trees will reach a diameter of 12 inches at breast height in forty years. In crowded, unthinned stands the yield will be about 6,000 board feet to the acre at forty years, 13,000 at fifty years, and 17,000 at sixty years. If these stands are thinned by the periodic removal of the smaller trees their yield can be increased to 8,400 board feet at thirty years, 16,000 feet at forty years, and 20,000 feet at fifty years. Shortleaf pine may be planted in mixture with southern red oak, black locust, or red cedar. In making such plantations it would be necessary to use the more costly seedling plants. Locust and cedar need not be cut until the later thinnings are made, when they can be used for fence posts; the red oak might profitably be left to form a part of the mature stand. Approved. W. M. HAYS, Acting Secretary of Agriculture. WASHINGTON, D. C., July 16, 1910. [Cir. 182] O CIRCULAR 22 (Fourth Revision). United States Department of Agriculture, FOREST SERVICE. PRACTICAL ASSISTANCE TO TREE PLANTERS. THE OFFER AND ITS OBJECT. The Department of Agriculture through the Forest Service gives prac- tical assistance to landowners in establishing commercial forest plan- tations, shelterbelts, windbreaks, and snowbreaks, and in reclaiming shifting sands and other waste lands by forest planting. In connection with this work, information will be given, when possible, to interested communities by public meetings. The purpose of the Service in its cooperation in forest planting, the plan of which has been followed continuously since July 8, 1899, is to establish in suitable localities examples of forest plantations of the highest possible usefulness and value to their owners, to afford object lessons of correct methods of forest planting, and to encourage the artificial extension of forest growth in regions where the public welfare demands a greater forest area. This offer does not include the preparation of plans for landscape gardening or decorative tree planting of any kind, since such work is entirely outside the province of the Forest Service. NATURE OF THE ASSISTANCE GIVEN. The assistance rendered is usually embodied in a planting plan. After an application for assistance in forest planting has been approved, a representative of the Service is usually sent to make a preliminary examination of the applicant's land in order to determine the advisa- bility of forest planting upon it. In localities where the needed acquaint- ance with local conditions is possessed by the Service, the preliminary examination will not be necessary. For small areas where neither pro- longed study nor the services of assistants are required, the representa- tive will secure the data for an office report and planting plan at one examination, and the planting plan, if planting is advisable, will be sent to the owner from Washington. For larger areas, requiring pro- longed study or the services of assistants, or both, the results of the preliminary examination will be embodied in a report to the owner. If, as a result of the preliminary examination, the preparation of a detailed planting plan is recommended, and the owner so desires, the Forest Service will as soon as practicable undertake to prepare such a plan. A planting plan contains full and comprehensive instructions for the necessary forest planting upon the area examined, based upon a thor- ough study of its needs and possibilities. It enumerates the proper species to plant upon each particular planting site, gives instructions for the preparation of the ground and for the spacing and setting of the young trees, shows by diagrams the arrangement of the different species when more than one is advised, and conveys information relative to procuring or producing the seed and young trees. A planting plan for a large tract or for an area possessing great variations in topography and altitude is accompanied by a sketch map of the area studied. In addition to the instructions for establishing the forest plantation, the planting plan outlines the cultural and protective measures necessary to mature a profitable forest crop. A copy of the complete planting plan, with all essential measurements, maps, and other data, is sent to the owner. The Forest Service does not furnish labor, seeds, or nursery stock needed for the execution of a planting plan, save in certain exceptional cases and under special conditions, details of which will be sent on request. REGULATIONS GOVERNING COOPERATION WITH TREE PLANTERS. The conditions upon which the Department of Agriculture, through the Forest Service, will undertake the preparation of planting plans are stated in the specimen agreement o"n pages 3 and 4. This agreement provides that the expense of the study shall be based upon the neces- sary outlay, but that the actual cost to the owner may be materially lessened, or in some cases the work may be done for nothing, in con- sideration of its value as an example in practical forestry. Advice for farm plantations often can be given free of cost, since the necessary detailed study in many localities has already been made. Applications will be taken up in the order in which they are received, but precedence will be given to those most likely to furnish useful examples. No planting plan need be put in effect unless it is satisfactory to the owner, but when the plan has been accepted the owner will be expected to enter upon its execution vigorously, to complete it within a reason- able time, and to give such reports upon the work as the Service may request of him. It is of great importance that the owner or his representative shall accompany the Service representative upon the preliminary examina- tion, in order that the wishes of the owner may be fully known and the plan shaped to conform with them. To this end the owner will be given proper notice of the date of the examination. If the plan submitted is not clear in every point, the owner should ask at once to have it fully explained. The specific agreement under which the Department of Agriculture conducts cooperative work in forest planting is as follows: TREE PLANTING AGREEMENT. WASHINGTON, D. G.,.:. ... , 190 . The Department of Agriculture of the United States and , of , county of , State of • , mutually agree as follows : 1. The Department of Agriculture, in pursuance of investigations in forestry and in order to disseminate a knowledge of improved ways of planting and developing forest plantations, woodlots, shelterbelts, and windbreaks, shall, after personal study on the ground by its agent or agents, prepare a plan for planting and caring for a forest plantation, woodlot, shelterbelt, or windbreak, on „. _ acres of land of the said , situated and described as follows: ._ town of -._ , county of , State of 2. As soon as possible after the termination of said study, the Department of Agriculture shall report to the said the results obtained and its recommendations. 3. The Department of Agriculture shall not furnish seeds nor trees, nor partici- pate in any degree in the expenses of planting and tending said forest planta- tion, woodlot, shelterbelt, or windbreak. 4. The cost of said plan to the owner shall be based upon the actual expense to the Department of the necessary study on the ground. It may be reduced, or in some cases the study may be made without charge, in consideration of the usefulness of the work done under this agreement as an example in practical forestry. Neither the Department of Agriculture nor its agents shall share in any profit which may arise from the execution of the said plan. The cost of the said plan to the said is estimated at dollars, which shall be used as follows: . •">. After the completion of said plan, and upon its acceptance by and a writ- ten request from the said , the Department of Agriculture shall supervise the execution thereof, so far as may be necessary, at a cost to the said owner to be definitely agreed upon before such supervision is undertaken. 6. The said shall, when so requested by the Department of Agriculture, make reports upon the progress and results of planting under this agreement, and the Department of Agriculture shall have the right to publish and distribute the said plan and its results, for the informa- tion of the public. 7. All machines, implements, and materials purchased with funds furnished by said ._ , and not consumed, together with all unexpended cooperative funds, shall be turned over to him when no longer needed in the cooperative work. All machines, implements, and materials furnished by the Department of Agriculture, and all specimens, samples, models, plans, drawings, negatives, and notes or manuscripts which have resulted from the cooperative work and which may be desired by the Department of Agricul- ture for record or publication, shall be retained by said Department. 8. This agreement may be dissolved by either party upon ten days' notice given to the other in writing. 9. No Member of or Delegate to Congress is or shall be admitted to any share, part, or interest in this agreement or to any benefit to arise therefrom. (See sections 3739 to 3742, inclusive, Revised Statutes of the United States.) (Signed) Owner. (Signed) Secretary of Agriculture. HOW TO MAKE APPLICATION. Persons desiring the assistance of the Forest Service under the pro- visions of this circular should use the application blank which will be sent upon request, or should make application by letter to the Forester of the Department of Agriculture, specifying the exact location, State, county, township, range, and section on which the planting is contem- plated, the acreage to be planted, and the time they desire to begin planting. Applications received during the fall and winter are not likely to receive attention before the following spring, on account of the difficulty of carrying on field work in the winter. GlFFORD PlNCHOT, Forester. Approved : JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. WASHINGTON, D. C., March 26, 1906. O United States Department of Agriculture. BUREAU OF FORESTRY.— Circular No. 29. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. EXHIBIT OF TREE PLANTING ON A MODEL PRAIRIE FARM AT THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE EXPOSITION. THE FARM. The model farm forms part of the open-air exhibit of the Bureau of Forestry at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, and is designed to illustrate the use of forest trees for windbreaks, hedges, and woodlots in the Prairie States. It comprises a tract 264 feet square, laid off to represent a southeast quarter section reduced on a scale of one-tenth the actual linear measurements. The model shows, therefore, a prac- ticable arrangement of fields, farmstead, and forest plantations on a prairie farm of 160 acres, all of which is tillable. The relative loca- tion and extent of woodlot, hedges, and windbreaks have been care- fully planned with reference to actual needs and conditions. The field crops are arranged in accordance with a plan of rotation suitable to the Middle West, the details of which are explained in a circular issued by the Bureau of Plant Industry. HEDGES AND FIELD BOUNDARIES. In accordance with the common practice of the Prairie States, the public roads run on the section lines. They represent a width of 4 rods. Lines of shade trees planted at 4-foot intervals, corresponding to 40 feet of actual distance, stand in the edge of the public highway. The farm is bordered on all four sides by hedges of Osage orange — a tree which, in spite of the considerable prejudice against its use in many parts of the Middle West, has such advantages for windbreaks and other protection as far to outweigh the objections brought against it. The farmstead, providing for the location of the house, barns, yards, orchard, garden, etc. , occupies the southeast corner of the farm, and is separated by hedges of Osage orange from the adjoining fields on the west and north. The north and south hedge is prolonged to the north- ern boundary of the farm, setting off field A, north of the farmstead, from fields B, C, D, E, and F, which run east and west in equal strips across the remainder of the farm and are separated from each 32200—04 other by single lines of trees. The entire quarter section is thus divided into six rectangular fields, all. of the same dimensions and each containing 22.1 acres, and a square farmstead containing 5.9 acres. Private lanes on the north and west sides of the farmstead connecting with the public roads give access to all the fields of the farm. The single lines of trees consist of such species as are hardy in exposed situations. Along the north boundaiy, inside the hedge, is a row of Austrian pine, which will serve as a windbreak in winter. The trees in the edge of the highway along the east hedge line are white elm, while those along the south are pecan. One side of each private lane has been planted with a row of honey locust. The boundary lines separating tields B, C, D, E, and F are planted with black walnut, hackberry, Carolina poplar, and sycamore. The pur- pose of the single rows of trees separating the fields is to afford living fence posts upon which to fasten woven-wire fencing, and to protect the fields against the hot southwest winds. The figure on the opposite page shows how the model farm is laid out. The forest plantations con- tiguous to the model farm on the north and south, numbered 1 to 48, illustrate woodlot plantations suited to different sections of the United States, and are described in another circular. WINDBREAKS. Windbreaks are provided, in addition to the single rows of trees running east and west between the fields, by strips of forest planta- tions on the south and west sides of the farm, a strip on the west side of field A and the farmstead, and a short strip on the north of the farmstead, which is thus protected on three sides. The location and extent of these plantations have been carefully planned with refer- ence to the protection which they will give. The distance to which the beneficial effects of a windbreak are felt depends on its height and density. With the arrangement proposed all parts of the farm will be shielded against the southwest hot winds of summer, while adequate protection is also secured for both stock and household against the discomforts of the fierce winter " northers." Without making any allowance for the space occupied by the single rows of trees located on the boundaries of the fields, the forest planta- tions serving for windbreaks here provided for would occupy 17.7 acres on a quarter section. The windbreaks are 8 feet 2 inches wide, from the hedgerow to the last row of trees next to the inclosed field. This corresponds to a width of about 5 rods on the real farm. For convenience in cultiva- tion and in order to insure good growth during the Exposition, the trees in the windbreaks have been planted 18 inches apart in rows in two directions, instead of one tenth the actual intervals advisable on a farm. This distance is one-third to one-fourth what the distance should be in actual practice (4? to (> feet apart each way). The width 45 44 46 40 39 34 FIG. 1.— Plan of the forest planting exhibit Bureau of Forestry. of 5 rods on the real farm, besides making forest conditions possible within the plantations, is sufficient to provide a home supply of fuel and timber, while the location of the belts at the sides and ends of the fields does not interfere with the tillage of the land. A space of 9 feet 8 inches is allowed between each timber belt and the adjacent hedge, for convenient access and cultivation. Each windbreak and section of a windbreak on the model farm at the Exposition represents a mixture suitable to a definite region, but this should not be taken to be the only mixture adapted to the region. The number of available species and useful combinations far exceed the possibilities of illustration in the allotted space, and many which are not shown at all might have been used just as well as those chosen. The windbreak at the north side of the farmstead on the model farm (fig. 1) is planted with a mixture suitable to the prairies of Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Iowa, consisting of alternating rows of Austrian pine and Norway spruce. The following table shows the required number of rows and trees on a windbreak belt 5 rods wide and 1 acre in area as it would appear in actual practice: Required number of rows and trees of each species per acre. Species. Rows. Trees.. If planted 6 feet apart each way: Austrian pine 7 652 Norway spruce 6 558 Total 13 1 210 If planted 4£ feet apart each way: Austrian pine . . 9 1,138 Norway spruce 8 1,012 Total 17 2,150 On the west side of the farmstead (fig. 1), illustrating a mixture suitable for the New England and the Great Lake States, are planted alternating rows of European larch and white pine, arranged in accordance with the following diagram: Diagram No. 1. EL EL EL EL EL EL WP WP WP WP WP WP EL EL EL EL EL EL WP WP WP WP WP WP EL= European larch (Larix europsea); WP= White pine (Pinus strobtis). Required number of rows and trees of each species per acre. Species. Rows. Trees. Species. Rows. Trees. If planted 6 feet apart each way: European larch 652 If planted 4£ feet apart each way: European larch 9 1,138 White pine 6 558 White pine 8 1 012 Total 13 1 210 Total. 17 2 150 The entire windbreak belt west of field A (fig. 1) is planted with a mixture suitable to the arid plains of western Kansas, eastern Colo- rado, western Oklahoma, northwestern Texas, and eastern New Mex- ico, consisting of green ash, Russian mulberry, black locust, and white elm, arranged in accordance with the following diagram: Diagram No. 2. A M A M A M L E L E I, E A M A M A M L E L E L E A = Green ash (Fraxlnus lanceolata} ; M= Russian mulberry (Jfonw alba tatarica); L=Black locust (Robiniapseudacatia); E=White elm ( Ulmus americana). Required number of rows and trees of each species per acre for this windbreak. Species. Rows. Trees. Species. Rows. Trees. If planted 6 feet apart each way: Green ash ) f 326 If planted 4£ feet apart each way: Green ash 1 {569 Russian mulberry I 7 J I 326 Russian mulberry I 9 569 Black locust | f 279 Black locust ) 506 White elm f 6 J 279 White elm J 8 506 Total 13 1,210 Total 17 2 150 To illustrate a plantation suitable for the Middle Western States east of the Mississippi, a section 58 feet 8 inches long of the south windbreak immediately south of the farmstead is planted with a mixture of black walnut and sugar maple in equal proportions, in accordance with the following diagram: Diagram No. 3. W SM W SM W SM SM W SM W SM W W SM W SM W SM W=Black walnut (Juglans nigra); SM= Sugar maple (Acer saccharum}. Required number of rows and trees of each species per acre. Species. Rows. Trees. Species. Rows. Trees. If planted G feet apart each way: Sugar maple } f 605 If planted 4,i feet apart each way: Sugar maple 1 1 075 Black walnut \ 13 I 605 Black walnut 17 ( ] 075 Total 1,210 Total '• 150 The belt south of field F is planted with a mixture suitable for the high prairies of western Kansas and western Nebraska, consisting of rows of green ash, hackberry, and honey locust, arranged thus: Diagram No. 4- A A A A A A H H H H H H HL HL HL HL HL HL A=Greeii ash (Fraxinus lanceolata); HL— Hone^ H= Hackberry (Celtis occid< I locust ( Gleditsia triacanthos}; talis). Required number of rows and trees of each species per acre. Species. Rows. Trees. Species. Rows. Trees. If planted 6 feet apart each way: Green ash 5 "466 If planted 4| feet apart each way: Green ash 6 759 Hackberry 4 372 Hackberry 6 759 Honey locust. 4 372 Honey locust 5 632 Total 13 1,210 Total 17 2,150 The section of windbreak west of field F, 50 feet 6 inches long, is planted with a mixture suitable for the hot upland prairies of south- western Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas, consisting of alternating rows of red cedar and Biota orientalis arranged in accordance with the fol- lowing diagram: Diagram No. 5. Ba Ba Ba Ba Ba Ba J J J J J J Ba Ba Ba Ba Ba Ba J J J J J J Ba = Biota (Biota orientalis); J=Recl cedar (Juniperus virginiana). Required number of rows and trees of each species per acre. Species. Rows. Trees. Species. Rows. Trees. If planted 6 feet apart each way: Biota orientalis 7 652 If planted 4| feet apart each way: Biota orientalis 9 1,138 Red cedar 6 558 Red cedar 8 1,012 Total 13 1 210 Total 17 2 150 The section of windbreak west of field E, 50 feet 6 inches long, is planted with a mixture suitable to the arid upland prairies of western Nebraska and the western two-thirds of the Dakotas, consisting of rows of Russian wild olive, western }Tellow pine, and green ash, arranged in accordance with the following diagram: Diagram No. 6. A El YP A El YP A El YP A El YP A El YP A El YP A=Green ash x lanceolata}; El=Russian wild olive (Elseagnus angustifolia) ; YP= Western yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa] . ]ic 4 by 4 2 Western Kansas and Nebraska to Texas /Honey locust i 680 on high prairies \White elm | 680 4 by 8 /Green ash . . | 908 1 3 Texas to Canada, on semiarid western \White elm I 908 j- 4 by 6 plains. f Hackberry } 1,360 1 . , 4 Kansas to Canada, on semiarid plains . . . \Bur oak i 1 360 | 4 by 4 Red cedar i 1,360 I 4 v)V 4 Western yellow pine . Black locust | 1,360 908 6 7 Western Nebraska to eastern New Mexico Southern half of Middle West. . : Russian mulberry Black locust i i 908 680 4 by 6 \ 4 by 8 /Black locust % % 680 1 8 Southern Kansas, Oklahoma, and north- (Osage orange i 680 } 4 by 8 ern Texas. Osage orange i 680 4 9 10 Upland prairies of Middle Western States. Poor sandy land of northern Prairie States Russian mulberry Western yellow pine . Jack pine I i 680 1,360 1,360 | 4 by 8 } 4by4 Black locust i 340 11 South Central States, on semiarid prairies. Osage orange Russian mulberry Honey locust f t 340 340 340 4 by 8 12 South Central States Black locust 1,815 4 by 6 Boxelder i 1,360 i J 13 Northern Prairie States, on river bottoms. Cotton wood . i 1,360 | 4 by 4 14 Eastern Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa, and Scotch pine 2 1,360 1 Missouri on upland prairies Red cedar i 1,360 Coffee tree i 680 15 Minnesota to Texas, on rich river bottoms Black walnut . 1 680 16 Mississippi Valley on sandy river bot- Cottonwood 908 6 by 8 17 toms. Moist soil on prairies of Middle West White willow 1,360 4bv8 18 north of forty-first parallel. Rich river bottoms of Middle West Hardy catalpa 1,360 4 by 8 19 do /Black walnut ^ 680 } 4 bv 8 20 Minnesota to Texas and West Virginia (Hardy catalpa Black walnut i 1,360 J 4bv8 21 to Kansas, in fertile soil. Southern Kansas Indian Territory Okla- f Pecan ^ 605 homa, and Texas, on rich river bottoms. (Black walnut 2 605 6 by 6 22 South of thirtv-eighth parallel east of Pecan 1,210 6 bv 6 23 24 Rocky Mountains. South of forty-first parallel, east of ninety- eighth meridian, on rich river bottoms. Middle Western river bottoms /Hardy catalpa (Russian mulberry /Sycamore * i 680 680 454 \ 4 by 8 1 6 by 8 (Carolina poplar /Slippery elm I 454 1,360 / 25 26 Northern half of Mississippi Valley Northern States east of Mississippi, in (Black cherry / Arborvitse 1 White spruce I i 1,360 1,360 1,360 j- 4 by 4 4 by 4 /Tamarack i 680 27 New England and Lake States, in moist (Balsam fir 1 680 | 4 by 8 28 soil. /Red pine i 1,360 \ 4 by 4 29 North of thirty-ninth parallel and east (Jack pine /N orway spruce i I 1,360 680 J (White pine i 680 4 by 8 30 North Atlantic States Appalachians /Sugar maple § 605 and Ohio Vallev (White pine 2 605 31 Between thirty-e'ighth and forty-third /Chestnut I 908 (White pine i 908 (Norway spruce 2 908 ) 32 Northeastern States sandy poor land •{Hemlock i 454 \ 4 by 6 1 European larch A 454 | 33 New England nnd Lake States White pine 1,210 6 by 6 34 European larch 1,815 4 by 6 35 Dakotas. Ohio Valley /Chestnut k 908 | 4 by 6 (Red oak (Yellow poplar i i 908 454 36 Southern New England and Middle Ap- 1 Sugar maple i 454 palachians in good soil (Chestnut i 454 (Hemlock i 454 37 Middle and Southern Appalachians and /White a«h 1 908 Ohio Valley 1 Red oak i 908 | 4 by 6 38 Middle Appalachians and Ohio Vallev . . Red Oak... 2, 720 4 by 4 11 Tabulated descriptions of woodlot plantations — Continued. No. of plat. Region to which adapted. Species planted. Propor- tion. Number of trees of each spe- cies per acre. Distance apart. 39 Atlantic coast from Massachusetts to | Sugar maple .... £ 605 Feet. Virginia, and Appalachians south of j Chestnut i 605 > 6 by 6 40 Adirondacks. Southern New England, Appalachian re- Chestnut 908 6 by 8 41 gion, and Ohio Valley. Virginia, North Carolina, western Ten- /Yellow poplar i 454 nessee and Kentucky, on moist land. \Sweet gum i 454 > 6 by 8 /Loblolly pine i 454 •! 42 Southern States, on abandoned farms \Longleaf pine /White pine 1 454 605 f 6 by 8 a 42 New England and Lake States \European larch I 605 > 6 by 6 43 South Atlantic and Gulf States, in moist Loblolly pine 2,720 4 by 4 rt43 soil. Southern California Monterey cypress ] 210 6 by 6 44 California orange-growing districts Blue gum 908 6 by 8 45 South California arid portions Sugar gum 2 720 4 by 4 46 Southern California Red gum 908 6 by 8 47 Washington and Oregon semi-arid por- (Black locust i 454 tions. i Oregon maple 1 454 > 6 by 8 48 Appalachian region White oak 2,720 4 by 4 « By substitution. Approved: JAMES WILSON, /Secretary. WASHINGTON, D. C., April 30, 1904. 0 SEP 2 1 1914 Division of Forestry University of California United States Department of Agriculture, FOREST SERVICE. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. INSTRUCTIONS TO FOREST OFFICERS IN RESERVE PLANTING. The instructions contained in this circular are primarily for the use of forest officers in charge of rangers' nurseries. Their application should be limited to occasions when technical men are not present to give advice based on actual conditions. Since no hard and fast rules can be made for planting work of this kind, it will be necessary in all cases where the rules here given are employed for the officer in charge to use his own judgment in applying them. NURSERY SITE. (1) To insure daily attention and to avoid loss of time the ranger's nursery site should be located as near as possible to the headquarters buildings. (2) Comparatively level ground should be chosen as a precaution against surface washing. A deep, moderately fertile, well-drained soil is best. (3) If available, at least one-half acre should be set aside for the nursery. Of this, much the larger part will be required for transplant beds after the first or second year. WATER SUPPLY. (1) At high altitudes, and in other situations where the soil' is nat- urally moist, the nursery will need but a small amount of water; in more arid situations, however, it will require frequent watering. (2) The nursery should be located as near as possible to the water supply. If the water is secured from a stream or spring some distance away, it may be conducted to the nursery in an open ditch, board trough, or pipe. A pipe with hose connections is best, though the small seed beds can easily be watered with a sprinkling pot. SEED BEDS. (1) If a low system of shading is to be used the most convenient size for seed beds is 4 feet by 12 feet. If the lath-house system is employed the beds might well be larger. The width, however, should never exceed 6 feet. In the beginning, four beds, 4 by 12 feet in size, should suffice, although the number may be increased or i educed to meet local needs. Paths 18 inches to 2 feet wide should separate the beds. (2) The ground for the seed beds should be plowed or spaded thoroughly before seed is planted in the fall or early spring. All roots, sticks, stones, etc., should be removed. (3) To insure drainage the beds should be raised from 2 to 3 inches above the bottom of the paths. The soil should be well pulverized and the surface should be smooth and moist when the seed is planted. SEED SOWING. (1) The seed may be sown either in shallow drills or broadcast. Sowing in drills is usually best, since the seedlings can be cultivated more easily. (2) The drills should be 6 inches apart, and should run across the beds. They may be made by dragging a sharpened stick along one side of a 6-inch board. A still more rapid method is to nail triangular strips the desired distance apart on the underside of a board, and to mark the drills by pressing the board down on the bed. (3) Unless the soil is free from weeds, broadcast sowing is not advis- able. Some species, however, do remarkabl}T well when sown broad- cast, and it would be well to plant a few square feet of some of the beds experimentally in this manner. (4) Sowing should ordinarily be done in the spring, about the time early garden seed would be planted. The exact time will depend upon the location and the season. If done too earty, while the ground is still cold and wet, germination will be slow and many of the seeds will rot. (5) Seed should be very carefully covered, for if not enough cover is given them they may wash out, and if too much, they may either rot or lie over until another season. A safe rule is to cover small seeds to a depth of about twice or three times their diameter. The usual tendency is to plant too deep. Firming the beds with a board will prevent the soil from washing when sprinkled. (6) Immediately after planting it is an excellent practice to cover the beds with a very thin mulch of clean leaves, moss, or needles. This keeps the surface moist and hastens germination. Water in limited quantities should be applied even to mulched beds. The mulch should be thin and light enough to allow the seedlings to break through the surface. If too heavy it should be removed when the seedlings begin to come up. QUANTITY OF SEED REQUIRED. (1) The quantity of seed required per unit of seed bed will depend upon the number of seed per pound and the percentage of germination. (2) Overcrowding produces poorly developed plants. The seed should be sown so that the seedlings will not require thinning, since the plants removed rarely can be saved by transplanting. (3) Seed of low germination per cent should be sown thickly. The seeds of this class which will be used in rangers' nurseries are the firs, larches, and cedars. (4) Species with a higher germination per cent, such as the pines and the spruces, should be sown so that each seed will alternate with an open space approximately equal to its width. SHADE. (1) In practically all situations conifers require partial shade for the first year. In nurseries this must be supplied artificially by cover- ing the seed beds with screens of lath, shakes, or brush. (2) The most convenient screen is a 4 by 12 foot rectangular frame constructed of 2 by 2 inch strips, with lath nailed crosswise, so that each lath alternates with an opening equal to its width. a (3) A more substantial frame can be constructed of strips of the same dimension, but with a center crosspiece and a diagonal brace between the end and center crosspieces. Twelve-foot strips, three- eighths inch thick by 2 inches wide, may be substituted for lath, and nailed lengthwise of the frame. (4) Where lumber is not available, slender saplings of aspen or pine split in the center can be used for the side strips, with split shakes as substitutes for laths. Even brush may be used for a temporary shade. (5) The shade frames, whatever their character, should be sup- ported on stakes 18 to 24 inches above the surface of the beds and set about 3 feet from each end of the frame. A crosspiece of inch material should connect the stakes on opposite sides of the bed. The frames may be hinged to posts, which permits their being raised and lowered. (6) In semiarid regions, or where material is cheap and plentiful, a lath house is the best method of shading. One can be constructed by setting posts about 12 feet apart, and connecting them at the top with 2 by 4 inch stringers, and covering the entire structure with lath, or woven-lath fencing. When lath or woven fencing can not be secured readily, brush or light poles can be spread over the framework until half shade is produced. The top of the frame should be about 7 feet above the ground. «See fig. 59, p. 190 of Yearbook Extract 376, "How to grow young trees for forest planting." CARE OF SEEDLINGS. DISEASES AND INJURIES. All conifers, and some broadleaf species, while in the seed beds are subject to ""damping off."a This disease is very prevalent and often destroys a large per cent of the seedlings. It is caused by a fungus which attacks the young plants near the surface of the ground, causing them to wilt and die. To prevent or check this disease, if it should become prevalent, it is necessary to adhere closely to the rules for regulating shade, watering, cultivating, etc. Dry sand, charcoal, or fine gravel spread on the beds will often check the trouble. WATERING. The proper application of water to the seed beds before and after germination is particularly important. The following rules should govern the watering, making due allowance for local factors, such as altitude, local showers, etc.: (1) The soil should be kept uniformly moist through the germina- tion period. From the time the seed is sown until the seedlings are a week or ten days old, water should be applied frequently, though not excessively, since excessive watering will cause " damping off." (2) After the seedlings have been up for ten days or two weeks, water should be applied less frequently, though the soil should never be dry enough to powder when dug up with the fingers. (3) The soil should be thoroughly wet to a good depth at each water- ing, since one proper application of water is far more beneficial than a dozen improper ones. Water should be applied with a sprinkling pot or hose nozzle. Irrigation by flooding or by running water through ditches or paths is usually not advisable, and if practiced great care should be taken not to keep the ground too wet. (4) Watering should be done early in the morning or late in the afternoon. Under no circumstances should water be applied during the middle of the day, unless it is cloudy and there is prospect for continued cloudiness throughout the day. REGULATING SHADE. (1) Shade frames should be allowed to remain over the seed beds at all times except during damp, cloudy days following rain. (2) In localities where heavy rains are followed by high temperature, the frames should be raised or removed as soon as the sunshine dis- appears from the seed beds, and kept so until the sun appears the following morning. This should not be neglected, since proper drying and airing of the soil after rain checks "damping off." If water has been applied excessively the instructions just given for drying out the soil should be followed. « For a complete discussion of this disease, see p. 49, Bui. 29, "The Forest Nursery." (3) With the high shade-frame system, it is occasionally necessary to remove part or all of the lath inclosure from the beds to admit free circulation of air. This is necessary, however, only under exceptional circumstances. CULTIVATING AND WEEDING. (1) Seedlings should be cultivated often, in order to subdue weeds, stimulate growth, and keep the soil in good condition. Cultivation should be shallow and should pulverize the soil thoroughly. (2) Cultivation should be given after rains, or when the soil shows signs of baking or drying. This can be done either with a narrow hoe or with a small rake made of nails. An onion hoe is good for the purpose. (3) When " damping off " occurs, the soil should be stirred frequently to hasten surface drying. If this precaution and that of removing the shade frames is taken, a serious attack of u damping off" can often be arrested. (4) Weeds should never be permitted to grow in the seed beds. Failure to remove weeds will seriously impair the vigor of the seed- lings. Weeds that are not destro}red by cultivating should be pulled up and not cut off with a hoe. MULCHING. (1) Where the winters are severe it is advisable to mulch the seed beds to protect the seedlings from injury by cold drying winds, as well as to keep the ground from heaving in the spring. Where snow remains on the ground all winter, mulching is unnecessary. (2) Any substance such as leaves, straw, or moss which is free from weed seed will serve as a mulch. A layer from 3 to 4 inches deep is sufficient. The mulch can be held in place by laying sticks or strips of boards across the beds between the rows. It should be removed at the beginning of the growing season, else the seedlings will be retarded and weakened. TRANSPLANTING. a (1) Practically all evergreen seedlings should be transplanted to open nursery rows when one or two years old. (2) Transplanting should be done in the spring when the soil is in good workable condition, but before new growth begins. (3) The area used for transplants should be near the seed beds and on good soil. It should be prepared as thoroughly as for a garden. (4) A convenient width for transplant beds is 6 feet, with any con- venient length. They should be elevated, but only slightly, since beds which are too high dry out rapidly. (5) The rows should be 8 inches apart, and should run across the Beds. The seedlings should be set from 2 to 4 inches apart in the rows, the exact distance depending upon the size of the plants. o See Bui. 29, "The Forest Nursery;" also Circular 61. 6 (6) In transplanting, great care should be taken not to allow the roots of the seedlings to become dry, since even a short exposure to sun or air will be fatal. They can best be carried roots downward in a pail containing 4 or 5 inches of water. a FIELD PLANTING. (1) After the seedlings have remained in the transplant beds one or two years they should be taken up and planted on permanent sites. This process is termed field planting. (2) To properly choose a planting site the soil and moisture require- ments of the species to be planted must be fairly well understood. The native species should be planted on situations similar to, or adja- cent to, those on which they are found growing naturally. If species not native to the region are used, some knowledge of their silvical characteristics is necessary to choose a situation to which they are adapted. (3) Field planting should usually be done in the spring, just before the growth begins. In regions like California, where there is a rainy and a dry season, planting should be done during the rainy season, as soon as the soil is sufficiently wet to furnish the necessary moisture. (4) In field planting the same care as in nursery transplanting should be taken to prevent exposure of the seedlings. To protect the roots from exposure, the seedlings should always be carried, root downward, in a pail partly filled with water. (5) The method of planting depends upon the character of the soil. The most satisfactory method is to plant the seedlings in holes dug with a mattock. Usually two men can work together to the best advantage, one going ahead and digging the holes, the other following and setting the trees. a (6) To exclude air from the roots of newly planted trees, and to bring the soil in close contact with them, the surrounding earth should be firmly packed. It is absolutely necessary for success that this rule be followed strictly. (7) Trees may be planted 4 by 4, 5 by 5, or 6 by 6 feet apart. In most cases the latter spacing will be found best. The roughness of planting sites will often prevent regular spacing, but effort should be made to conform to a system. « See Circular 61. o U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, FOREST SERVICE— Circular No. 41. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. FOREST PLANTING ON COAL LANDS IN WESTERN PENNSYLVANIA. By S. 1ST. Forest Assistant, Forest Service. 5784—06 ORGANIZATION OF THE FOREST SERVICE. GIFFOED PINCHOT, Forester. OVERTON W. PRICE, Associate Forester. GENERAL INSPECTION, FREDERICK E. OLMSTED, in Charge. LAW, GEORGE W. WOODRUFF, in Charge. PUBLICATION AND EDUCATION, HERBERT A. SMITH, in Charge. DENDROLOGY, GEORGE B. SUDWORTH, in Charge. GRAZING, ALBERT F. POTTER, in Charge. RECORD, JAMES B. ADAMS, in Charge. RESERVE ORGANIZATION, COERT DuBois, 1 MterrMtd in Cha R. E. BENEDICT,) FOREST MANAGEMENT, THOMAS H. SHERRARD, in Charge. FOREST EXTENSION, ERNEST A. STERLING, in Charge. FOREST PRODUCTS, WILLIAM L. HALL, in Charge. (2) LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, FOREST SERVICE, Washington, D. C., June 27, 1906. SIR: I have the honor to transmit herewith a report entitled " Forest Planting on Coal Lands in Western Pennsylvania," by S. N. Spring, Forest Assistant, Forest Service, and to recommend its publi- cation as Circular 41 of the Forest Service. Very respectfully, GlFFORD PlNCHOT, Forester. Hon. JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. CONTENTS. Page. History of the original forest 5 Coal mining and its effects 6 Effect of coke production 8 Opportunity for forest planting 8 Insects an obstacle to planting 10 Injury by a defoliating caterpillar 10 Insect damage to the locust , 11 The Frick planting plan 13 The land 13 The plan „ . 14 General applicability of the Frick plan 15 (3) FOREST PLANTING ON COAL LANDS IN WESTERN PENNSYLVANIA. HISTORY OF THE ORIGINAL FOREST. In the eighteenth century the upper Ohio Valley was covered by a dense hardwood forest, in which oak, hickory, ash, yellow poplar (tulip tree), walnut, maple, and other valuable species attained fine proportions. The white oak was one of the most important trees in the forest. Michaux, the French botanist, who traveled through the region near the close of the century, wrote: "The white oak abounds chiefly in the Middle States and in Virginia, particularly in that part of Pennsylvania and Virginia which lies between the Alleghenies and the Ohio, a distance of 150 miles, beginning at Brownsville, on the Monon- gahela. Near Greensburg, Macconnelsville, Unionville, and Wash- ington Court House I have seen large forests, nine-tenths of which consisted of white oak whose healthful appearance evinced the favor- able nature of the soil." ° Of this great forest in the northern end of the Appalachian coal field only a small percentage remains to-day. The detailed history of its consumption is in many respects different from that of other regions, since, despite some influences which tended toward conserva- tion, the forest was ultimately reduced to isolated woodlots. The soil was early found to be valuable for agriculture, and this was the first incentive to clear the land. The trees were felled, rolled into piles, and burned. Later the timber on lands near the principal rivers was cut for lumber and transported down the Ohio to market. When railroads began to intersect the country new territory was made accessible to lumbering. It is uncertain when the use of wood for fuel was replaced by coal, but it is reported that by 1825 some 3,500 tons of coal were used in the vicinity of Pittsburg, and in 1846 local consumption had increased to 464,000 tons. In those localities where natural gas was abundant it replaced both coal and wood as fuel. But with the development of the charcoal iron industry another cause of rapid wood consumption arose. Even in the eighteenth century a relatively small number of blast furnaces for iron making were in operation, but during the first a The North American Silva, by Francois Andrew Michaux; translated by Augustus L. Hillhouse, 1819. (5) 6 part of the nineteenth century this industry began to grow rapidly. In 1849 the number of blast furnaces using charcoal or coal, charcoal forges, and rolling mills in Pennsylvania was 504.° The estimated amount of wood used in the form of charcoal in 1847 was nearly 1,500,000 cords for the whole State. Probably one-third of this was consumed in western Pennsylvania. Great areas of even-aged forest throughout the State testify to-day to the extent of clear cutting during this period for the production of charcoal to supply the iron industry. In 1838 anthracite coal began to be used as fuel for the blast fur- naces, and by 1855 had largely replaced charcoal. Anthracite in turn was replaced, about 1875, by coke, a product made from bitumi- nous coal. The development of the coke industry meant, however, a larger demand upon the forest again, as coal mining increased. In the Appalachian coal field the production of coal for all purposes rose from 1,000,000 tons in 1847 to nearly 80,000,000 tons in 1900. This represents an enormous drain on forest resources to furnish the sup- ply of pit props, mine ties, and other materials necessary to mining operations. Thus the forest of eastern Ohio and western Pennsylvania has been reduced principally to isolated woodlots of small extent, the aggregate amount of which grows less each year as the stands are cut for lumber and mine props. Land thus cleared of its forest growth is usually put under cultivation or into pasture, excepting steep ridges or the sharp slopes bordering rivers; hence there is less and less productive forest land. A description of the coal fields and the character and effect of the mining industry reveals the necessity for forest extension in this region. COAL MINING AND ITS EFFECTS. The most important bituminous coal region of the United States is the Appalachian coal field. It extends from the northern bound- ary of Pennsylvania southwestward, a distance of 800 miles, to central Alabama. Near the northern end it is 180 miles wide, nar- rowing southward to less than 20 miles in Tennessee and expanding to about 80 miles in Alabama. The geologic structure of the Appalachian coal field is simple, and consists of a canoe-shaped basin or trough. The deepest portion lies along a line extending from Pittsburg, Pa., through West Vir- ginia to Huntington, on the Ohio River. The rocks dip from either side toward this line. At the northern end they outcrop in an irregular semicircle, dipping toward the deepest part, which in Pennsylvania lies in the southwestern portion of Greene County. a Report of committee on statistics — Convention of Iron Masters of Pennsylvania, 1849. From the northern boundary line of western Pennsylvania to cen- tral West Virginia the regularity of the dip of the rocks is modified by low, broad folds, which become pronounced ridges in the south- eastern portion and are parallel to the general Appalachian folding to the east; but the general topography is that of a plateau descend- ing gently toward the west, more or less dissected by valleys, accord- ing to the degree of erosion. The region is drained by the Ohio and its tributaries, of which the most important are the Allegheny and the Monongahela rivers. The coal-bearing formations of the northern Appalachian coal field consist principally of shales, sandstones, and conglomerates, with occasional beds of limestone, fire clay, and coal. The chief source of coal in Pennsylvania has been the Monongahela and Alle- gheny formations. Statistics compiled in 1902 by the United States Geological Survey report Pennsylvania as having one-half the coal and two-thirds of the coke production of the United States. The room and pillar system is in use in nearly all mines through- out the region. The coal is either hand or machine mined, and is removed from the mines in cars by electric, compressed-air, cable, or steam haulage. Horses or mules are used in the mines to convey the cars to the main haulages. Wood is required for the following principal uses: 1. Large and small material in buildings, tipples, etc., above ground. 2. Mine props or posts in the mines. By law the minimum size at the top end must be 16 square inches. The length varies from 6 to 10 feet, according to the thickness of the seam being worked. The more durable species, such as oak, chestnut, and locust, are used for roof support in the main haulages, but any other species of wood can be used elsewhere. 3. Ties for mine railways. The ties in common use are 5 feet in length, with a cross section from 4 to 6 inches in width and depth. Durable woods are used under the tracks of the main haulage ways, but almost any species on temporary branches. 4. Large-sized timbers in the mine. These require durability and strength, and are used at the mine entrance, or in special cases for roof support. Mining frequently affects the physical character of the surface of the land. With the final removal of the coal between the rooms the roof of the mine tends to fall. This is an advantage in mining, since it' relieves the pressure from above on the adjacent unmined portions of the seam. By withdrawing the pit posts into a line next to the unmined portion the fall of the rock above the mined portion can usually be effected. Wherever the coal lies close to the surface the fall-in extends to the surface and a sink hole of the same 8 depth as the thickness of the underlying coal vein is the result. When the seam is deeper underground the effect may be merely a crack with a slight settling. It is reported that this cracking of the surface has taken place when the coal lay at a depth of 300 to 500 feet. In localities where the coal lies in general 50 to 100 feet below the surface the lower margin of a hill may have a belt of sink holes due to mining and the upper portion of the hill remain unbroken, though occasionally cracked. Breaking or cracking of the surface lowers the permanent water level to the mine. Local wells and springs run dry, and small streams sometimes disappear. On such situations older trees die as a result of the change in drainage conditions, but young sprouts and seedlings adapt themselves to the new conditions. Heavy soil that was formerly poorly drained has sometimes been improved by the increased drainage in the same way that tile draining improves similar land elsewhere. Areas where there are many sink holes are, however, comparatively valueless for agriculture. EFFECT OF COKE PRODUCTION. A large amount of coal mined in western Pennsylvania is used at the mines to make coke to be shipped for use at iron and steel mills. The manufacture of this product destroys the existing timber and prevents forest planting in the immediate vicinity of the works, because the fumes from the coke ovens contain sulphur gas, which causes the death of all vegetation subjected to a continuous draft of this smoke. The action of the sulphur gas on the leaves is corrosive. Much land is protected on account of the hilly character of this region. If the ovens are situated at the base of a hill against which the prevailing wind carries the smoke, the hillside soon becomes bare of vegetation, but on the opposite side of the hill crops may be grown nearly to the top. The injurious effect of the smoke is notice- able, however, at a greater distance in those situations where the wind carries the smoke up a small, narrow valley. Crops several miles away are often blackened, but do not seem to be injured. The death of orchards and forest trees, caused by the changed con- ditions of drainage already described, is frequently attributed to the action of coke smoke. In some instances by-product ovens have been established which collect and condense the sulphur gas to make commercial sulphuric acid. OPPORTUNITY FOR FOREST PLANTING. The occasion for forest planting rests primarily upon the growing need of pit props, and is intimately related to the whole industrial development of southwestern Pennsylvania. 9 The rapid rise of the coal and steel industries has caused a great increase in the population of the western part of the State. This offered an excellent chance for an intensive system of agriculture to supply these communities, but the farmers have not fully met this great opportunity. Agriculture, at one time the chief industry of the region, has been slowly going backward for many years. Its decline is largely due to the effect produced by the sale of the coal veins underlying the farms. Money so acquired has led many farm- ers to retire with their families to the towns and has brought addi- tional comforts to those remaining on then* lands, but has deadened the activity and ambition essential to progressive agriculture. The soil of many farms has deteriorated in fertility and productiveness through ignorance of the proper methods of managing it or the best crops for the soil. There still remains in southwestern Pennsylvania a great source of coal to be developed, but the field is certain to shift. The coal veins were first entered where they were most accessible. The future development and progress of mining will be throughout Washington and Greene counties, Pa., and in West Virginia,. There are places in Westmoreland County where the principal vein, the Pittsburg, has been exhausted ; in other localities in this county thirty to fifty years will complete mining operations. In communities where prosperity now depends wholly upon the mining industry, its conclusion will be the first step hi a general decline. As the communities dwindle in size, farming will continue, but less prosperously, and it will tend to become extensive rather than intensive in character. The introduc- tion of other industries is vitally essential to such localities, and one of these should be the lumber industry, made possible by extensive forest planting commenced at the present time. On nearly every farm there is some portion which has small productive capacity and should be utilized for the growth of forest rather than field crops. The use of such land for forest planting would furnish an added and growing value to the farm. For all the timber planted now there will be an excellent market at maturity for mine timber, railroad ties, lumber, etc. Excellent railroad facilities exist to furnish transportation of the products to the mines or to the cities and towns of the region. The farmers, however, are not sufficiently progressive to see the opportunity. The coal companies, to whom a future supply of mine timbers is of so great importance, must take the initiative. The source of timber supply is becoming farther and farther distant. Within a few years a growing difficulty in securing pit props has been experienced, and correspondingly higher prices are being paid each year. In former years only oak was accepted for posts; to-day all kinds of wood are utilized by the coal operators. The local timber supply adjacent to 10 the new lands will be exhausted long before the supply of coal from the more accessible and important veins are gone. From the standpoint of the ownership and use of the land the opportunity of forest planting presented to the coal companies is a remarkable one. In acquiring the land for a mining plant and its accessory properties a coal company gains title to considerable sur- face. It is sometimes necessary to purchase the whole farm in order to secure ownership of the underlying coal vein. The majority of such properties must be retained by the company until the coal has all been worked out. The use of these farms is sometimes a perplex- ing problem. Many coal companies do not care to enter into a sys- tem of farming, especially if only a small number of farms are ac- quired. Others find that their holdings steadily deteriorate through wasteful management of the farms by tenants, and that the income under such a system is relatively small. Still other companies raise crops on the better soils, and allow the poor portions of the farms or the areas covered by sink holes to lie idle except for a little grazing. Under these conditions not only is forest planting advisable from the standpoint of complete utilization and productiveness of all the land, but a great opportunity is presented to improve the final sale value of such lands when their possession is no longer essential to mining operations. In addition, forest planting will furnish a valu- able supply of pit props before the underlying coal veins are gener- ally exhausted. Several coal companies have had this matter under consideration, and have begun to make plans for forest planting. One of these is the H. C. Frick Coke Company, which has sought the assistance of the Forest Service in making a forest planting plan for several hundred acres of waste land. An account of this plan follows later. INSECTS AN OBSTACLE TO PLANTING. INJURY BY A DEFOLIATING CATERPILLAR. In southwestern Pennsylvania the forests, woodlots, and orchards have been severely damaged by a measuring worm which defoliates the trees early in the spring. In 1905 its destructive work was observed in Somerset, Westmoreland, Fayette, Allegheny, Armstrong, Butler, Washington, and Greene counties, Pa. The State zoologist, Mr. H. A. Surface, reports damage also in Cambria, Bedford, Blair, Huntingdon, and Indiana counties. This defoliation of the trees has been a serious trouble for several years throughout the forests of Laurel Hill and Chestnut Ridge. In the open agricultural country west of these ridges exceptional damage has occurred in local spots in the counties already named. This measuring worm appears to attack all hardwood trees, except locust and walnut, and is especially injuri- ous to red and chestnut oak, chestnut, hickory, ash, and maple. 11 Woodlots and orchards are frequently seen in which the trees are dying from defoliation repeated for several years. According to Mr. Surface, this defoliation is the work of the spring cankerworm/ and he has published some notes upon the methods of control. When the advisability of planting any land in these coun- ties with forest trees is contemplated, this factor of insect damage must be considered carefully. Methods of control such as are com- monly used in orchards will not usually be practicable in a forest plan- tation. The presence of this insect does not necessarily prevent for- est planting, but requires, rather, a change in the local planting site or a postponement of planting until the pest has been reduced in num- bers by its natural enemies or other agencies. INSECT DAMAGE TO THE LOCUST. The locust (Bobinia pseudacacia) , because of its rapid growth, its adaptability to different soil conditions, and its value for posts and pit props, is a valuable tree for forest planting. Injuries by certain insects, however, present a great obstacle to its use. The following observations were made in connection with a cooperative study of insect enemies of the locust by the Bureau of Entomology and the Forest Service in 1905. The destructive work of the locust leaf -mining beetle (Odontota dor- salis Thunb.)6 and the locust borer (Cyllene robinise Forst.) requires special consideration wherever the establishment of forest plantations of locust is desired in this region. The locust leaf-mining beetle. — Severe injury by the leaf-mining bee- tle gives the trees a blighted, brown appearance by midsummer. The examination of a locust tree early in July reveals blister spots on the leaves, caused by the young, or grub, of the beetle, a small, flattened, whitish worm, which eats the soft tissue between the upper and lower surface. Toward the end of July the beetles begin to emerge from the leaves and feed upon the upper surface. The combined effect of the blisters and the subsequent feeding of the adult insects renders the foliage partially or wholly functionless, according to the severity of the attack. This reduction of the working leaf surface, year by year, weakens the tree, since it is not able to produce sufficient food to maintain its growth. Such a condition alone, or in conjunction with secondary causes, may result in the death of the tree within a few years. A cross section of the stem of a tree attacked for several years shows a steady decrease in the width of the rings of annual growth. During the stages of decline and death the locusts have no a Volume III, No. 5, The Monthly Bulletin of the Division of Zoology, Pennsylvania State Department of Agriculture. 6 See United States Department of Agriculture, Division of Entomology, Bulletin No. 38, new series, 1902, "The Leaf -mining Locust Beetle," F. H. Chittenden. 12 tendency to renew themselves by sprouts from the roots or the base of the tree. Doctor Hopkins, who, between 1890 and 1900, made a study of insects injurious to the locust in West Virginia, is authority for the following statement in regard to the work of the locust leaf -mining beetle in West Virginia: In 1890 and 1891 the locust trees in Monongalia, Marion, Harris )n, and Lewis counties, W. Va., were severely damaged by the locust leaf-mining beetle (Odontota dorsalis]. In 1891 and 1892 a large percentage of the trees died. In some localities practically all of the medium and large trees were killed. In 1892 it was not so common in the counties men- tioned, but the trouble seemed to extend from this central area of infestation to adjoining counties and other sections of the State. Between 1892 and 1895 the beetle and its work were noticeably less common in the State, but from 1896 to 1898 it reappeared in great num- bers and caused serious damage to the remaining locust in the counties mentioned, and, as before, extended its ravages to other sections, including those which had been exempt. The range of severe injury observed in 1905, during the study of the possibilities of forest planting in this region, is as follows : Pennsylvania: Westmoreland County, west of Chestnut Ridge; Fayette County, west of Chestnut Ridge, and part of the ridge; Alle- gheny County between the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, and other parts of the county in varying degrees of severity. Washington County along the Monongahela River, with local spots of severe injury and of slight damage throughout the remainder of the county; Greene County along the Monongahela River, and a few local spots of severe injury in other parts of the county. West Virginia: The Panhandle, especially along the Ohio River; Monongalia County; Marion County; Preston County, west of the mountains; Harrison County; Taylor County. Observations in this region have shown conclusively that young natural stands and forest plantations of locust started under such adverse conditions may survive the attack for several years, but will not reach a merchantable size. Therefore it should be fully under- stood that within the counties where this exceptional injury occurs locust plantations should not be made, since failure is certain. The locust borer. — Injury by this insect has not been so widespread as that by the leaf-mining beetle. Where it is numerous, however, its effect is so severe that it becomes of great importance locally. The work of this insect is very characteristic and readily recognized. The stems and larger branches of saplings and older trees were found to indicate injury by the locust borer early in July by sawdust in the crevices of the bark and around the base of the stem. On splitting the wood, mines were found extending in all directions through the sap- wood and heart wood. Vigorous boring at one point on the stem of a young tree results in weakening it so much that the wind can readily break it off. Older trees frequently lose large branches or the upper part of the stem. When very numerous the borers will kill the trees 13 outright. This insect has been one of the worst enemies of locust plantations in the United States. In the region examined it was found causing considerable injury locally in Westmoreland and Alle- gheny counties. It is important, therefore, for anyone intending to plant locust to investigate carefully the local conditions before final decision is made. Information in regard to this insect is furnished in a recent paper entitled "The Locust Borer/' by A. D. Hopkins (Bulletin No. 58, Part I, Bureau of Entomology). THE FBICK PLANTING PLAN. THE LAND. The H. C. Frick Coke Company owns many farms in the Connells- ville basin, the great coke district in Westmoreland and Fayette counties, Pa. The principal sites considered for planting are located in the vicinity of Scottdale. The topography consists of a succession of hills about equal in height, 1,150 to 1,200 feet above sea level, which rise from 75 to 150 feet above the intersecting runs and valleys. They are rounded in shape and gentle or moderately steep in slope. A half dozen miles to the east Chestnut Ridge rises 1,000 feet higher, and from this ridge the locality has the appearance of a plain. The underlying rock consists principally of shales in which occa- sional beds or thin strata of limestone occur. The limestone is gen- erally found outcropping near the top of the hills. The predomi- nant soil is a fertile, stiff clay loam underlain by clay, but varying from a clay to a loam. In general the lower slopes and runs have a deep fertile soil of slow drainage which formerly supported a nearly pure growth of white oak with a small percentage of shagbark hickory, white ash, red oak, yellow poplar, maple, etc. Along the streams this forest type included walnut, black ash, beech, and basswood. The hilltops have a thin, quickly drained, less fertile soil. Here chestnut oak was the pre- dominant tree, with red oak, black oak, chestnut, and red maple the principal species in mixture. The intermediate situations usually bore either one of these two types of forest or a combination of both. The depth and physical condition of the soil and the steepness of the slope were the factors which determined the character and composi- tion of the forest. The object of the company in undertaking forest planting is to utilize to better advantage the sterile parts of the farm land or those much doited by sink holes. It is expected to grow timber trees of permanent worth in order to increase the value of the land; and it is desired, if possible, to plant some early maturing species which will furnish pit props for the mines within a short period. The recom- 14 mendation of species for forest planting is usually based primarily upon the natural forest of similar sites in a locality. In the case of the Frick lands, however, the character of some of the land is modi- fied by the breaking of the surface due to mining. THE PLAN. A preliminary examination of the site proposed for forest planting resulted in the rejection of about 270 acres on account of the near- ness of coke ovens. A planting plan was made for approximately 456 acres of waste land of two general classes : ( 1) Unproductive agricul- tural land, and (2) areas modified by mining. For the first class mentioned species of trees were chosen for plant- ing which formerly grew well on these sites. For example, on sites suitable only for white oak or chestnut oak, respectively, these species were recommended for planting. Red oak, chestnut, and yellow poplar were chosen for their natural situations. A study of the sites modified by mining showed that the quickened drainage rendered the soil drier and hence more suitable for species naturally occupying the more shallow dry soils of the upper slopes. White oak land thus modified was suitable for planting red oak, and in some instances chestnut and chestnut oak. Two species, the European larch and hardy catalpa, which are not native to this region, were recommended for planting. The European larch is a quick-growing conifer adapted to this region. The wood is strong and durable, suitable for ties, poles, fence posts, and pit props. The tree requires a well-drained but not necessarily fertile soil, and should do well on some of the sites modified by mining. It has been grown successfully in Illinois and other States. The western or hardy catalpa was recommended for trial on 3 acres to test its value for the region. It grows quickly to post size and is very durable. If it proves successful, this will be an important tree for the production of fence posts and pit props. It has been grown successfully in Ohio. This tree requires a fertile, well-drained soil of moderate depth and a carefully selected site is of primary importance. The following is a summary of the acreage and the species recom- mended : Acres. Red oak HO Red oak and chestnut 122 Red oak and hard maple 79 Red oak and European larch Red oak and yellow poplar (tuliptree) Chestnut oak (rock oak) 24 White oak Si European larch 25 Yellow poplar Hardy catalpa (western catalpa) 456 15 The sites rejected for forest planting at present on account of the injurious effect of the coke smoke may be reforested as soon as the adjacent coke ovens are abandoned. It was recommended that on some of the sites not subjected continuously to coke smoke, but doubtful in character, small test areas be planted now to determine definitely the advisability of planting. The cost of carrying out the provisions of the Frick planting plan will depend upon the cost of the trees per thousand and the efficiency of the laborers under proper superintendence. Since a little over a half million young trees will be required, the establishment of a nur- sery by the company was advised. This generally affords a good quality of stock and is convenient and economical if the owner can secure a capable man to care for the nursery. The larch will require two years' growth in nursery beds; the other species will be ready for planting after one year's growth. For the Frick plan it was esti- mated that the total outlay per acre for forest planting would be approximately $10 if the seedlings were home grown. The first returns from planted timber on these lands may be expected from the quicker growing species. The European larch may be cut for mine props between the ages of 15 and 20 years. In the oak and chestnut plantations moderate returns will be yielded from thinnings when the trees are 20 to 25 years old, and a final crop will be secured from 40 to 60 years after planting, when the forest may be cut clear for lumber and mine timbers. Exact estimates of yield under the conditions in western Pennsylvania are not available, since no planted timber of sufficient age exists. It is, however, practically assured from the history of planted stands in other States of this gen- eral region that forest plantations on these sites will equal the net annual income obtained from field crops on fertile agricultural soils in this locality. Furthermore, these waste lands on wiiich planting is recommended are not capable of yielding any valuable returns except in forest. With a growing forest upon nonagricultural portions of the farms this company will also realize returns in the increased value of such lands, since each farm will be producing both annual field crops and a future timber crop. GENERAL APPLICABILITY OF THE FRICK PLAN. In its specific recommendations the planting plan for the H. C. Frick Coke Company is locally applicable to the Connellsville basin in Pennsylvania. In the general principles governing the planting this plan applies to that portion of the Appalachian coal field in east- ern Ohio and west of the Allegheny ridges in Pennsylvania, since the general conditions of topography and soil are similar throughout the region. 16 The main source of mine timbers in the future will largely be the Allegheny Mountains of West Virginia. Mines located far from this source of supplies will have increasing difficulty in securing mine props at a reasonable cost, and it is essential that forest planting should be commenced at once, before the supply from local woodlots is exhausted. There is no lack of suitable sites for forest planting. Throughout this region there is much land lacking in fertility, or too steep to be farmed profitably. In addition, on the outskirts of the various coal veins, lands are common on which the surface has been broken in mining. Considering the loss of income from waste farm lands in the hands of coal companies, the feasibility of increasing the sale value of such lands and the great need of pit props and timber in mining operations, the advisability of forest planting is established beyond doubt. Extensive activity in forest planting throughout the region will result in a great saving, to be realized by returns within a relatively short time and with a small initial outlay. Issued July 17, 1907. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, FOREST SERVICE— Circular 99. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. CONTENTS. Page. The region 1 Advisability of tree planting 2 Protective planting 2 Woodlots 3 Shade trees 3 Methods of planting 4 Cultivation and care 5 Trees for planting 6 Russian mulberry 6 Osage orange 7 Green ash 7 Black locust 8 Honey locust 9 Cottonwood 10 White elm 11 Hackberry 11 Hardy catalpa 12 Boxelder _* 13 Red cedar 13 Pines 14 SUGGESTIONS FOR FOREST PLANTING ON THE SEMI- ARID PLAINS. THE REGION. The suggestions for forest planting contained in this circular apply to the western portions of Kansas, Nebraska, and Oklahoma, north- western Texas, eastern Colorado, and eastern New Mexico. The climate of the region is semiarid. Although the average annual precipitation is sufficient for the production of certain agricultural crops, the distribution of the rainfall is uneven, and wide areas often suffer from prolonged drought. 984— No. 99—07 M 1 ADVISABILITY OF TREE PLANTING. The entire region is practically treeless. Here and there, of course, trees have been planted, but forest planting has in no way kept pace with agricultural development. It is a generally accepted fact that the best agricultural conditions exist when from 10 to 25 per cent of the land is in forest. While there is no probability that so large a proportion will ever be attained on the plains, there is real need for a certain amount of forest growth upon them. By a careful selection of species, the choice of suitable sites, and proper management of plantations enough forest can be grown to exercise a marked effect upon farm and ranch development and to supply wood for many domestic purposes. Trees of any species adapted to local conditions of soil and climate can be grown under irrigation. Likewise land which has water within 15 or 20 feet of the surface, without intervening rock strata, is suitable for tree growth. Where the level of the ground water is much lower and conditions are more arid greater care is required to insure success. Of this type of land the sand hills of western Nebraska and Kansas are best for tree planting. On the high plains to the southwest of this region the chief factor of success, in addition to the care given the plantation, is the selection of the planting site. For planting on the upland, where conditions are relatively unfa- vorable, the best trees are honey locust, Russian mulberry, Osage orange, and red cedar. Next in hardiness to these are black locust, white elm, green ash, and hackberry, and in the north Scotch pine, Austrian pine, western yellow pine, and jack pine. All of these species are also suitable for planting in valleys and on irrigated land. In addition to the species mentioned, cottonwood, boxelder, and hardy catalpa are adapted to moist sites. There are a number of other species which have proven to be more or less adapted to the plains and which may be planted in selected situations for sake of variety. These are: Black walnut, coffeetree. silver maple, ailanthus, wild china, Mexican walnut, bur oak, white poplar, Lombardy poplar, Russian olive, Chinese arborvitse, blue spruce, and sycamore. PROTECTIVE PLANTING. A windbreak consists of a few rows of trees planted primarily for the purpose of checking the force of the wind. The term " shelter- belt " is applied to larger groups of trees which form forest condi- tions and serve a protective purpose. Any of the species which are best adapted to the region may be used for windbreaks. Where ever- greens will succeed, however, they are more desirable, since they [Cir. 99] afford better winter protection than deciduous trees. Within their planting ranges the Austrian pine and Scotch pine make compara- tively rapid growth and serve the purpose well. A windbreak consisting of a single row, to be effective, should be composed of a densely growing species which branches close to the ground. For low breaks of this character the Russian mulberry and Osage orange are excellent. The cottonwood is often used for wind- bieaks in the valleys. The primary utility of windbreaks is to shelter an orchard or a resi- dence site, to prevent hot winds from scorching the field crops, and to conserve soil moisture within the protected area. They may also be planted about open pastures for the protection of stock. Inciden- tally, the windbreak may furnish useful material, but it should be placed along the sides of fields and buildings where it will afford the most effective protection. WOODLOTS. Wherever agriculture is practiced in the plains region, the farmer will find it profitable to devote a few acres of good land to trees. It is true that some time must elapse before the plantation will become productive, but by the choice of rapid growing species and by close spacing the thinnings which will be necessary in a few years will provide material suitable for fuel, stakes, and the like. The choice of species is limited and will depend somewhat on the location. Trees that grow rapidly and at the same time pro- duce wood of good quality are best. If they also sprout from the stumps, the forest may be made permanent with a little care. Where it succeeds, black locust combines these desirable qualities in the highest degree. Other species which are useful in woodlot planting are Osage orange, Russian mulberry, honey locust, green ash, and hardy catalpa. The range of catalpa is more restricted than that of the other species. A judicious mixture of species is often advantageous. Differences in habits of growth and ability to withstand shade can thus be made to aid in the development of well-formed trees. At the same time the owner can have both fast and slow growing trees and a wider choice of timber for different needs. SHADE TREES. For street and roadside planting the most suitable trees are honey locust, green ash, white elm, hackberry, and, in the North, Austrian pine. Street or road plantings should not be mixed; a single row of trees looks better when it contains but one species. [Cir. 99] METHODS OF PLANTING. The best method of establishing a forest plantation is by the use of nursery stock. Evergreens should be purchased from a commer- cial nursery. It is often practicable, however, to raise hardwood species in a home nursery. Advice in regard to nursery practice is given in Extract 376 of the Yearbook of the Department of Agricul- ture, which can be had upon application to the Forester. Before the trees are set the ground should be worked thoroughly and put in good condition. Where virgin sod exists it should be broken and the land farmed for two or three years. Deep plowing, followed immediately by the harrow, saves moisture and makes the soil easily penetrable by the roots. Trees should be handled with the least possible exposure of the roots, since the rootlets will dry out if exposed to the air for even a short time. The roots of conifers are especially sensitive. If seed- lings are received from a distance, they should be unpacked at once and their roots dipped into a pail containing a thin mud. After this the tree should be " heeled in " according to the following method : Dig a trench about 18 inches or 2 feet wdde, and deep enough to bury the roots and part of the stems. The trench should run east and west, with its south bank somewhat sloping. A layer of trees should be placed in the trench on its sloping side, their tops toward the south, and their roots and stems covered 2 or 3 inches deep with fresh earth dug from the opposite side of the trench. A second layer of trees should then be put in and covered as before and the process repeated until all the trees have been heeled in. With conifers care should be taken not to bury the foliage and either to choose a shady place for the young trees or to construct a shade over them with brush or laths. The best time to plant young trees is just before growth begins in the spring, when the seedlings are likely to receive the least injury. In general, planting should be done as soon as possible after the frost is out of the ground. The exact period will depend upon local climate and soil conditions. In planting, the seedlings should be carried roots downward in a pail containing several inches of water. The seedlings should be set in furrows or in rows marked with a lister. In the latter case a spade or mattock may be use- for opening the holes. The width and depth of the hole depends on the character and size of the plant's root system. It is of the greatest importance to press the earth firmly about the roots, so that all the air spaces are filled. The soil should [Cir. 99] not be packed so hard, however, as to be impervious to water, and it is desirable to leave a slight depression around the collar of the plant in order to collect any moisture that may fall. CULTIVATION AND CARE. The advantage to be gained by continued cultivation of a forest plantation makes rather wide spacing advisable, even though certain species which have a spreading habit may require pruning. Com- pensation for the wide spaces between the rows can be secured in large measure by setting the trees closer in the row. The spacing of many plantations is 4 by 4 feet, but trees set in that way can be cultivated only two or three years. Spacing 3 feet by 8 feet makes it possible to continue the cultivation much longer. Species which need more room can be set 6 feet by 6 feet or 4 feet by 8 feet, and as they grow the space required can be obtained by removing the less promising individuals. Without proper conservation of soil moisture trees will neither grow rapidly nor preserve their vigor. On the semiarid plains wide spacing and frequent cultivation will produce better trees than close spacing and little cultivation. Successful forest planting on the plains, wrhere the rainfall is light or irregular and the evaporation great, depends largely upon the proper tillage of the soil. It is generally believed that no kind of forest trees can be grown successfully on the high table-lands of the southern portion of this region without irrigation. There is no doubt that irrigation is necessary to grow trees from seed in a forest nursery, but in plantations good tillage will usually suffice. The early tree planters often set their trees carelessly, and left them to struggle with the native vegetation and dry weather. Planters now realize that trees as well as agricultural crops respond to good cultivation. The object of cultivation is twofold : First, to conserve the soil moisture; second, to prevent the growth of weeds and grass. The natural supply of moisture on the plains is sufficient for the growth of many species of trees, provided it is fully utilized and not allowed to escape through evaporation or to be appropriated by weeds and grass. Cultivation should not be continued too late in the fall, since it unduly prolongs the growth of tender young shoots which are unable to withstand the early frosts. Except on irrigated land or on sites where the ground water is near the surface, the planting of field crops between rows of young trees is unwise, since the trees need all the available moisture. The best implements for the cultivation of the ground are the pulverizing harrow, the disk harrow, the dagger-tooth harrow, and the five-tooth cultivator. The plow should never be used [Cir. 99] in cultivating the plantation. Care should always be taken not to injure the stems of the trees in any way. Grazing animals should be rigorously excluded from all planta- tions. Even if the trees are too large to be broken off by the stock, every branch within reach will be browsed, and the desirable forest conditions of shade, undergrowth, and litter will be destroyed. In a well-established grove stock may do little harm, but not until the crowns are entirely out of reach should the cattle be admitted. Even then injury m#y result from trampling of the soil; a heavy soil becomes packed so that it is nearly impervious to water, and a sandy one is worn and blown away, leaving the tree roots exposed. Every forest plantation should be protected from fire. Where con- ditions permit, a very satisfactory fire guard is made by plowing two or three furrows about the plantation close to the trees, and then making a second series of furrows from one to two rods outside the first. These lines may be kept free from vegetation by replowing each year, or they may be used for crops that do not easily burn. The space between the two series of furrows should be kept free of all combustible material by burning it over at safe times. Plantations should be carefully watched to detect the presence of injurious insects. Insect damage should be reported promptly to the Bureau of Entomology of the United States Department of Agricul- ture, which will identify specimens sent and suggest measures for their control TREES FOB PLANTING. RUSSIAN MULBERRY (Morns al~ba tatarica). Russian mulberry should 'be planted only in the southern portions of the plains. It can not endure the severe winters of the region to the north. The characteristic form of the tree is low and bushy, and while its growth is comparatively rapid it will not produce large-sized material. If planted close and severely pruned, it will produce good fence posts and fuel. On favorable sites posts can be cut in from 10 to 15 years. If left unpruned the natural form of the tree makes it suitable for low, dense windbreaks. The leaves of the Russian mulberry form an excellent food for silkworms (Bombyx mori) . The quality of the leaf for feeding pur- poses is fully as good as that of the broad-leafed varieties, but its much divided form makes the labor of feeding somewhat greater. The Bureau of Entomology has been for several years past distribu- ting mulberry seedlings in connection with silk-culture investigations. Russian mulberry will grow on both sandy and clay soils, but does best on rich loamy soil where water is from 10 to 15 feet below the [Cir. 99] surface. It will endure a considerable amount of drought and neg- lect. Even in dry situations its growth is fairly rapid. These quali- ties adapt it to both upland and valley situations. It is decidedly tolerant of shade and can therefore be used for underplanting or for mixing with more rapid-growing species. One-year-old seedlings are best for planting. They should be set 4 feet by 4 feet or 6 feet by 4 feet apart. This close spacing will, to some extent, overcome the tendency to form a crooked stem. For windbreaks one or two rows of trees may be planted at 2 or 3 foot intervals. Russian mulberry may be planted in mixture with black locust, honey locust, and green ash. OS AGE ORANGE (Toxylon pomiferum). Osage orange is a tree of medium size, with a short trunk and wide- spreading branches. It may be planted throughout the plains region, with the exception of the northern portion, where the trees are likely to winterkill. The wood of Osage orange is heavy, tough, hard, and strong, and very durable in contact with the soil. It is used for cabinetwork and in the manufacture of machinery, wagon fellies, and tool handles. Where it attains sufficient size the wood is valuable for cross-ties. The tree is well adapted for hedge planting and has been in use extensively for this purpose. It is also widely used for fence posts, and its planting for this purpose is recommended. In addi- tion to its value for hedge and woodlot planting, Osage orange is one of the most desirable trees for windbreaks. Osage orange adapts itself to a great variety of soil and climatic conditions and is extremely hardy. It is tolerant of shade and, in consequence, can be planted in mixture with intolerant species, such as black locust, honey locust, and green ash. Height growth is rela- tively slow after the first few years, and no great height is ever reached. It nearly equals the Russian mulberry in rate of growth, but is not so rapid growing as black locust. On good soil it will pro- duce fence posts in from 12 to 15 years. Plantations are best established by the use of one-year-old seed- lings. The trees should be set close together to overcome as much as possible the tendency toward profuse branching. A spacing of 3 feet by 6 feet or 4 feet by 6 feet will give the best results. When cut Osage orange sprouts abundantly from the stump. This insures the renewal of the plantation without further expense. GREEN ASH (Fraxinus lanceolata) . Green ash is a tree of comparatively slow growth when planted on upland soils on the plains. Even in the better situations it is never [Cir. 99] 8 of rapid growth. Its extreme hardiness, however, makes it one of the most desirable trees for plains planting. The wood of green ash is hard, heavy, strong, rather coarse- grained, and brittle. It is used in the manufacture of agricultural implements, carriages, and furniture, and although said to be infe- rior in quality, is often substituted for white ash. It is also used for general farm repair work. The fuel value of the wood is high, but planting for fuel is not advisable if a more rapid-growing tree will succeed. Although the wood is not especially durable it is often used for fence posts. Despite its slow growth the tree is very val- uable for windbreaks or for timber production in situations where few other species will survive. Green ash is alkali resistant to a marked extent, and it will persist and even thrive under adverse conditions of temperature and mois- ture. On the plains of western Kansas and Nebraska it has survived on abandoned timber claims where nearly all other species have failed. One-year-old seedlings should be set out in the plantation. Close planting on well-prepared sites is advisable. If planted pure, the spacing should be either 4 by 4 feet or 4 by 6 feet, but if mixed with other trees a spacing of 6 by 6 feet is preferable. Green ash will thrive when planted pure, but will produce better timber if planted in mixture with some other species, such as hackberry. Other desir- able associates are white elm and red cedar. If the object of the plantation is the production of fence posts, pruning is of importance. Careful pruning will increase the clear length and will in this way make the stand consist of a large propor- tion of first-class post timber. BLACK LOCUST (Ro'binia pseudacacia) . Black locust (known also as " yellow locust " or often simply " locust ") is one of the most desirable trees for economic planting within the region. Although in many regions subject to attacks by injurious insects, it has suffered little damage from this source on the plains. In Oklahoma, particularly, there is no record of the presence of the borers. Locust is a rapid-growing tree, but is relatively short- lived. In good situations it makes an annual height growth of from 2 to 4 feet and a diameter growth of from one-quarter to one-half inch. This rate is sometimes maintained for twenty-five or thirty years, but more frequently the growth becomes slower after the fif- teenth or twentieth year. After the fiftieth year growth almost wholly ceases. The wood of locust is very strong and durable. It is used for fence posts, ribs of vessels, treenails, insulator pins, vehicles, and fuel. The most common use of locust is for fence posts, and it has been [Cir. 99] 9 extensively grown for this purpose. Because of the large proportion of heartwood the young wood is almost as durable in the soil as the old. Locust posts under average conditions will last from twenty to twenty-five years. Black locust grows best on a deep, well-drained, fertile loam, but will grow on any soil except a wet, heavy one. It attains excellent development on limestone formations. It demands light during its entire life, and must be planted on situations where it will not be shaded by weeds or brush while young. Plantations of locust are best established by the use of 1-year-old seedlings, from 12 to 18 inches high. Since the locust has a wide- spreading root system, it requires plenty of room for proper devel- opment. A spacing of 4 feet apart each way is too close, unless very early thinnings can be made and the material used for stakes. It is best to place the trees every 4 feet in rows 6 feet apart, or 3 feet in rows 8 feet apart, since these distances make cultivation easy. Locust thrives in pure stands, but it is often advisable to associate it with trees of value for protective purposes. Suitable species are Russian mulberry, Osage orange, and green ash. To secure a stem that will make straight posts, poorly formed or double-headed trees may be cut back to the ground two years after planting and but a single stump shoot allowed to grow. A limited amount of pruning two or three years after planting is often advisable. Cultivation for two or three years after planting is essential. HONEY LOCUST (Oleditsia triacanthos) . Honey locust is a rapid-growing tree, which can be planted throughout the plains region. The wood of honey locust is coarse- grained, heavy, hard, strong, and durable in contact with the soil. It is used chiefly for fuel, fence posts, and poles. It is as a living tree, however, that the honey locust serves its most useful purpose, since within its range other species can be grown which are more valuable for their wood, but much less desirable for permanent trees. It is useful for hedge windbreaks, for shelterbelts, and for street and general planting in a naturally treeless region. Honey locust reaches its greatest size on the deep, rich soils of river bottoms. On gravelly or heavy clay soil it does not grow so well. Soil containing lime is especially favorable. The common soil of the plains, however, is well adapted to it, and it will thrive in western Kansas and Nebraska even where there is little precipita- tion. It is equaled in drought-resisting powers only by the Russian mulberry and Osage orange, and it will endure severe winters, to which these species would ordinarily succumb. It is very light- [Cir. 99] 10 demanding, but has a tendency when not crowded to produce long branches near the ground, which fits it for hedges and windbreaks. Honey locust will also stand cutting back when young, a quality which adds to its value as a hedge tree. One or two year old seedlings should be used for planting. Usu- ally the most satisfactory spacing is 4 by G feet, but in localities where rainfall is light and extensive cultivation is necessary 4 by 8 feet is more desirable, since it renders cultivation easy. If the planter can not give the trees continued cultivation, the seedlings should be planted close together, since it is essential that the trees shall form a complete cover as soon as posible. COTTON WOOD (Populus deltoides). Cottonwood is a rapid-growing tree and one of the most impor- tant species for commercial planting in the Middle West. The timber of cottonwood, though of relatively poor quality, has been used extensively throughout the West, since it matures in a short time in a region usually devoid of other timber. It is used for paper pulp, box boards, backing for veneer, the unexposed parts of fur- niture, wagon boxes, interior woodwork, and fuel. The fuel value of cottonwood is high, since the tree furnishes a greater amount of wood in a given time than any other species which can be grown in the region. In proportion to volume, however, the relative heat production is low. Cottonwood is useful for protecting agricultural lands subject to an annual overflowT. A narrow belt of trees on the river side of such tracts protects the field from debris and checks the erosive action of the water. It is also wrell adapted for windbreaks, since by rapid growth it affords protection within a few years after planting. Plantations of cottonwood require a situation in which the water table is within 15 or 20 feet of the surface, since the most important factor in its growth and development is the available moisture in the soil rather than the fertility. The most favorable site for cotton- wood, therefore, is alluvial soil along the wrater courses. Because of their extensive root systems, individual trees or single rows may thrive on dry upland situations. Planted in rows along highways and fields cotton w^ood is valuable as a windbreak, and will give good returns in fuel and repair lumber. Plantations of cottonwood may be established by the use of seed- lings or cuttings. Cuttings should be from 18 to 24 inches long, and should be made from 1 or 2 year old branches of vigorous staminate trees, since such trees produce no annoying " cotton." The cuttings should be planted early in the spring, as soon as the frost is out of the ground. Two-thirds of the length of the cutting should be below [Cir. 99] 11 the surface of the ground, and on the portion above the surface there should be at least two or three buds. The trees when planted in groves should be planted pure, from 6 to 8 feet apart each way. WHITE ELM (Ulmus americana) . White elm, while not of especially rapid growth, is well adapted to planting on the plains. It is a deep-rooted tree of great hardi- ness, and is capable of enduring extremes of temperature and mois- ture. It reaches its best development, however, on deep, fertile, well-drained, alluvial soils. The wood of white elm is valuable for use in the manufacture of slack cooperage, for flooring, wheel stock, and for the manufacture of agricultural implements. Since it is not durable in contact with the soil it has little value as fence-post timber. The hardiness of the tree and its indifference to soil conditions make it suitable for protective planting, while its graceful, spreading form gives it par- ticular value for ornamental planting. One-year-old seedlings, from 5 to 10 inches high, should be used in establishing the plantation. The use of older and larger stock is sometimes desirable, but in most cases 1-year-old plants are best for commercial plantations. Where the seedling has formed a long root, this should be cut back to 6 inches and the top pruned correspondingly. Spacing will vary with local conditions. In general, moderately close planting is best. Six feet apart each way will be satisfactory. In later life the plantation should be thinned to encourage proper development of the remaining trees. White elm thrives in pure stands, but will also grow well in mix- tures. If mixed plantations are established the associated species should be tolerant and of slower growth than white elm. Hackberry is well suited for this purpose. HACKBERRY (Celtis occidentalis) . Hackberry is not a commercially important tree, but throughout this region it may be planted as a shade tree and, in mixture with other species, for windbreaks. The low economic value of its wood, except for fuel, makes its use inadvisable where better trees can be grown. It is an excellent shade tree and rivals the white elm in many of the western cities. Hackberry will, of course, thrive better on a fertile soil than on a poor one, but its ability to thrive on almost sterile soils is one of its- best qualities. It is characteristic of hackberry to live and bear seed in situations where almost any other tree would die. It thrives best [Cir. 99] 12 along the water courses, but will not endure swampy soils. A lime- stone soil seems to be especially favorable. It is tolerant of shade and thrives in mixture. Two-year-old seedlings are best for planting. The young trees should be set from 4 to G feet apart, according to situation and need for cultivation. It may be planted pure or in mixture with such trees as cottonwood, Osage orange, green ash, black locust, honey locust, or white elm. HARDY CATALPA (Catalpa speciosa). Wherever conditions are favorable, catalpa is one of the most val- uabie trees for economic planting. Catalpa wood cut from the liv- ing tree is almost immune from attack by fungous disease, and is one of the most durable timbers known. When used for fence posts it often remains sound for thirty or forty years. Hardy catalpa is adapted for planting only in the most favorable portions of the semiarid region. It will thrive on loamy soils in west- ern Kansas in localities where ground water occurs at a depth of from 10 to 20 feet. Unless the roots can reach the water table it is useless to plant catalpa in the plains region, since ordinarily an annual rainfall of at least 25 inches is necessary for its growth. With thorough cultivation, however, it may succeed on loamy soils where the precipitation is from 18 to 20 inches. It will not tolerate a strongly alkaline soil. Hardy catalpa matures early, and under cultivation is one of the most rapid-growing trees planted in the West. Under favorable conditions mam^ trees in a plantation grow to a size suitable for posts in from 10 to 12 years, and the stand becomes merchantable at from 15 to 20 years after planting. The chief value of the catalpa in the plains region is for posts. There is little profit in planting it except on sites of the first quality, where it will grow rapidly and give early returns. Catalpa planta- tions should be started with one-year-old seedlings. Because of the severe climatic conditions of the region wide spacing and thorough tillage is advisable. A distance of 4 feet by 8 feet or 6 feet apart, each way, is advisable. While catalpa has thus far been planted chiefly in pure stands, an associate tree of slower growth and greater tolerance may prove desirable. This associate or " filler " would assist in pruning the catalpa and in forcing it into straight upward growth. The Eussian mulberry and Osage orange are well adapted to this purpose. Catalpa requires especial care if the best results are to be secured. Cutting back is advisable during late winter or early spring after one or two seasons' growth in the plantation. During the early part of the following summer all of the sprouts except the most vigorous [Cir. 99] 13 one should be removed. The surviving stem should make a straight branchless growth of from 0 to 10 feet the first year. This will largely do away with the necessity of pruning. Protection from the wind should be provided for catalpa plantations by setting out sev- eral rows of hardy species along the exposed sides. Two rows of Russian mulberry or Osage orange adjoining the plantation will fur- nish good protection. BOXELDER (Acer negundo). Boxelder grows naturally in moist situations throughout most of the region. It can not be recommended for upland planting except in depressions that receive the run-off of surrounding country. It prefers a heavy soil to a sandy one, and is somewrhat more drought resistant than cottonwood. Boxelder is a short-lived tree and rarely attains a large diameter. The wood ranks low as fuel and has little other value. A straight trunk is seldom found. Attacks by borers are frequent, and a leaf- aphis often spoils the appearance of the tree. Under good care it sometimes makes a fairly satisfactory street or lawn tree, but its chief use should be for shelterbelts in the valleys. In planting boxelder one-year-old seedlings should be used. Since it is a tolerant species, and has a tendency to form a spreading head, the trees should be spaced 5 feet apart each way, or 4 feet by 6 feet. It is rarely desirable to plant boxelder in pure stands except for windbreaks and shelterbelts. In forest plantations the tree may be planted to good advantage as a filler with more valuable species, such as white elm, honey locust, black locust, green ash, and black walnut. RED CEDAR (Juniperus virginiana). Red cedar may be planted throughout the entire plains region for protection and for the production of fence posts. The Wood of the red cedar is light and soft, with a fine, compact, even grain. Its great durability in contact with the soil makes it especially valuable for posts and poles. The value of red cedar for planting lies in its superior adaptability to the unfavorable soil and climatic conditions of the semiarid region. It develops best in a rather light, loamy soil, containing lime. Few trees, however, exhibit a greater indifference to soils. It will thrive well on dry exposed situations characteristic of this region. Despite its slowr growth red cedar is one of the best trees for economic planting on the plains. Planting this species in the vicinity of orchards should be avoided because the " cedar apple," a fungus very destructive to fruit trees, passes one of its stages on the branches of the red cedar. Three- [Cir. 99] 14 year-old transplanted trees are best for establishing a plantation. For pure plantations on dry soils a spacing of 4 feet by 4 feet is advised. On better soils 4 feet by 6 feet or 4 feet by 8 feet is prefer- able. For windbreaks or shelterbelts on the high prairies of the Southwest a desirable mixture is red cedar and Osage orange or honey locust. Here the trees should be planted 4 feet apart in alternate rows 6 feet apart. Red cedar does well also in mixture with cottonwood. For fence posts cedar should be planted pure, with 4-foot spacing in rows 6 feet apart. Success with red cedar, especially in the semiarid region, will depend largely upon the character and extent of cultivation given. On unfavorable sites the plantation should be given frequent shallow cultivation for several years after setting. In river and creek val- leys, where water is near the surface, it is unnecessary to cultivate after the first two or three years. PINES. The four species of pine which have already been given are known to be suitable for planting in only the northern portions of the plains region. None of them is as hardy as red cedar, but their rate of growth is more rapid and compares favorably with that of honey locust. Pines are excellent for shelterbelts and ornamental purposes. The two foreign species, Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris) and Aus- trian pine (Pinus austriaca), have been planted to some extent in western Kansas, and it is believed that either of them will thrive on the uplands if given proper care. The foliage of the Austrian species is the heavier and darker colored, which makes it both a better windbreak and more ornamental than the Scotch pine. Jack pine (Pinus divaricata] is a very hardy tree and is suited to sterile, sandy soils. It will withstand considerable drought and i? rarely injured by frost. Jack pine is intolerant of shade at all ages and not well adapted for mixed plantations. It is one of the most rapid-growing pines, but is comparatively short lived, reach- ing maturity in about sixty years. Jack pine is well worth a trial throughout western Nebraska, western Kansas, and eastern Colorado. It should prove a good tree for windbreaks, shelterbelts, and farm woodlots, especially in the sand-hill region. Western yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa) is also a hardy species and. will endure a great diversity of soil and climate conditions. In the most favorable situations its growth is fairly rapid. On the plains it should be planted in pure stands. Jack pine, western yellow pine, and Scotch pine promise to be the most valuable species in the f oresta- tion of the Nebraska sand hills, and by the use of sturdy stock the [Cir. 99] 15 range for economic planting can probably be extended over a large part of the plains. Plantations of any of the pines should be started with three-year- old transplants. These should usually be spaced 4 or 5 feet apart each way. In especially good situations a spacing of 6 feet apart each way is suitable. Approved. JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. WASHINGTON, D. C., May 21, 1907. [Cir. 99] o Issued September 15, 1908. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, FOREST SERVICE— Circular 154. . GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. NATIVE AND PLANTED TIMBER OF IOWA By HUGH P. BAKER, FOREST ASSISTANT. WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1908 47795— Cir. 154—08 1 CONTENTS. Page. Introduction 5 Purpose and method of investigation 5 Adaptability of the State to tree growth 6 Topography 6 Soil 6 Climate 7 Drainage 7 Native timber 8 Distribution 8 Natural extension 8 Condition 8 Utilization 9 Management of native groves 10 Protection 10 Fire 10 Insects and fungi 11 Reproduction 11 Natural reproduction by seeds and sprouts 11 Artificial reproduction by seeding and planting 12 Improvement thinnings 12 Harvesting the crop 13 Planted timber 13 Species 13 Purpose of planting 14 Probable causes of success or failure 14 Planting and care of windbreaks 15 Species to be used 15 Seeds or seedlings 16 Time for setting trees 16 Methods of planting 17 Spacing 17 Distance and direction from dwellings and orchards 17" Diagram for proposed windbreak Care of young and old trees in the windbreak Tree planting for commercial purposes Location Species Planting 20 Growth and probable returns 21 ILLUSTRATION. Page. FIG. 1. Diagram for proposed windbreak for average soil and moisture condi- tions in central Iowa 18 P..IK, NATIVE AND PLANTED TIMBER OF IOWA. INTRODUCTION. The increasing demand for agricultural land in Iowa has caused a very rapid removal of woodlots and groves during the past five years, which has greatly reduced the home supply of posts, fuel, and farm repair material. The prices of posts, poles, and lumber imported from other States have risen from one-third to one-half in three or four years, and since the supply of white cedar and red cedar is limited, the price of posts at least will continue to increase. This high cost has led many residents of the State to take steps toward managing their farm woodlots so as to obtain greater returns from them by growing their own fence posts and repair material. This tendency toward the practice of forestry largely brought about the Bixby forestry bill, passed by the legislature in 1907, which provides that lands occupied by woodlots and groves shall be given a taxable value of $1 per acre, if certain conditions of the bill are complied with. PURPOSE AND METHOD OF INVESTIGATION. To aid in the movement toward practical forestry in Iowa, investi- gations were made during 1905 by the Forest Service to determine the extent, character, and value of the native farm woodlots and planted groves. In the studies of natural tree growth, the main water courses were followed. Investigations were made of the rela- tion of topography and soil to existing tree growth, and of the effect of the previous conditon and treatment of the forest upon its present extent, composition, reproduction, and enemies. In the studies of the planted timber two routes were planned, one in the northern part of the State and one in the southern, in accord- ance with the answers to letters and question blanks which had been sent out. Much valuable information regarding the planted timber of the State was obtained through these blanks. Groves and windbreaks were examined to find out what species had been planted and how these species had succeeded under widely varied conditions of soil, moisture, and situation. The rate of growth of various species was also determined. ™ (5) ADAPTABILITY OF THE STATE TO THEE GROWTH. TOPOGRAPHY. The surface of Iowa is in general an undulating plain, bounded on the east by the Mississippi River and on the west by the Missouri and Big Sioux rivers. The numerous tributaries of these large rivers make up the drainage system of the State. As a rule it is only along the valleys of these streams that the surface is broken to any extent. The difference in elevation between the highest and lowest points is so slight (less than 1,100 feet) that the drainage over large areas of the State is imperfect, and this affects the value of the land for agri- culture or forestry. There is only one main watershed, and that is not well denned. It extends in an irregular line from Dickinson County on the north to Wayne County on the south. On account of the slightness of the differences in elevation and other physical characteristics, there is no wide divergence in the types of tree growth in the State, and hence the problems of tree planting and woodlot management are simplified. There are two forest types — one in the low, level, moist areas along streams, made up largely of alluvial soils, and the other on higher, well-drained slopes and uplands back from water courses, or in scattered areas over the undulating prairies. These types merge into each other and it is seldom possible to define their boundaries. In the bottom type are such moisture-loving trees as cottonwood, willow, honey locust, black ash, elm, and coffeetree, and in the upland type are the oaks, hickory, ironwood, butternut, white ash, and hackberry. Through- out the State the soil is adapted to the growth of forest trees. SOIL. Iowa soils may be divided into four classes — geest, which occurs mainly in the northeastern portion of the State and constitutes less than 1 per cent of the total area; alluvium, which is usually found in stream valleys and forms less than 6 per cent of the total area; loess, a wind-formed soil, which covers 66 per cent of the State; and till or drift, which is the product of glacier movement, and covers the remainder of the State. It was observed that upon the geest and drift soils reproduction is more abundant and growth more vigorous and that the trees attain a greater age than on either loess or alluvium. Whenever it is possible, trees, especially the slower growing ones, should be planted on the sandier and coarser soils of the farm, and these soils should be used for growing seedlings in preference to the finer loess or heavier alluvial soils, especially as the finer soils are of greater value for agricultural purposes. [Cir. 154] CLIMATE. The rainfall of the State ranges from 30 inches in the immediate vicinity of the Missouri River to 32.5 inches along the Mississippi. There is a gradual decrease in the average annual rainfall from south to north and from east to west. The rains are usually the result of the meeting of warm, moisture-laden winds from the Gulf of Mexico and cooler air currents from the north and west. There are no places in the State where the rainfall is insufficient for the perfect develop- ment of hardy trees. Although droughts do occur in Iowa, they come only at long intervals, generally in the midsummer months; yet it is probable that a greater loss to the State has resulted from excessive moisture during the agricultural growing season than from insufficient rainfall. These periods of excessive moisture favor the growth of trees. The mean annual temperature is about 47.5°. The transitions between winter and summer are much more rapid than in States nearer the Atlantic coast. This influences to a marked degree the distribution and general growth of trees. Seedlings and often mature trees are seriously injured or even killed by frosts in the fall before the new wood has become thoroughly ripe. The average date of the latest killing frost in the spring has been April 20, and that of the earliest in autumn, October 9. The prevailing summer winds, which are usually hot and dry, are from the south, while those at other seasons are from the west. These winds are almost constant and have a velocity of from 8 to 9 miles an hour. The distribution of many tree species is determined largely by these constant drying winds, which probably are responsible for the treeless condition of the plains. Their injurious effect, which can be seen on any exposed windbreak or orchard, may be minimized by planting protective borders of low-growing, hardy trees on the exposed sides. Planting of windbreaks and groves in the State during the past fifty years has probably modified the severity of winds, but to what extent is not known. These strong winds stimu- late transpiration from the leaves of the trees during the growing period, and increase the evaporation from the soil during the dormant season. This latter causes damage by winter killing. DRAINAGE. The imperfect natural drainage of parts of the State has resulted in scattered, swampy areas, some of which are of very large extent. Since land is rapidly increasing in value these areas are gradually being drained and utilized for farming purposes. On swampy areas which are difficult to reclaim by drainage, arborvitse, tamarack, willow, and cottonwood can be grown successfully, and in addition to the [Cir. 164] 8 posts, repair material, and fuel they will produce, they may be of great value in the ultimate reclamation of the soil by taking up immense quantities of water and depositing layers of organic material on the surface. NATIVE TIMBER. DISTRIBUTION. When white men came to Iowa it is estimated that a fifth of the State was forested. The eastern portion of the State was pretty well covered. The best growth was along the larger rivers, but it often extended many miles away from the banks. Occasional small groves were found on the prairies. Through the southern and western parts and along the Des Moines Kiver and its tributaries in the central part there were scattered groves. The principal tree species in the early forests were practically the same as those found to-day, bitternut and pignut hickories, and black walnut; white, bur, red, yellow, and swamp white oaks; soft, or silver, and hard, or sugar, maples; white and green ash; white, slippery or red, and cork elms; hackberry, basswood, cottonwood, black willow, sycamore, honey locust, and coffeetree, besides others of less im- portance. NATURAL EXTENSION. Where natural extension of timber took place, it spread from the main bodies along the Mississippi and Missouri rivers and followed the tributaries of those rivers. That it did not extend farther up the streams and outward across the prairies was due principally to prairie fires, which annually and often semiannually swept over a large part of the State. Natural extension was more uncertain and slower in the western part of the State than in the eastern, because of less abundant rainfall, greater exposure to hot, dry winds, and greater frequency of prairie fires. In many cases forest growth extended farther up the southern bank of streams than the northern, and covered larger areas on that side. This was due probably to the fact that snow was not reached by the sun as quickly on the southern bank, and so lasted longer. The spring fires destroyed the trees on the dried-out northern bank, but were checked by melting snow on the other side. As settlement, which began in the timbered portions of the eastern part of the State, extended westward across the prairies, many of the causes of prairie fires were removed and immediately the forest growth began to extend farther up the streams and back to the uplands. CONDITION. The original timber areas consisted largely of scattered groups of trees surrounded by brush and grass. In the eastern part of the State, [Cir. 154] where conditions of growth were most favorable, there were tracts of forests that compared well with the best virgin timber in the Ohio Valley. The best specimens of oak, walnut, and sycamore were often from 4 to 6 feet in diameter and from 80 to 100 feet high, but in the settlement of the region these soon disappeared, and have never since been equaled in the State. Throughout the central and western portions of the State the streams were fringed with thin belts of trees, but usually back of these the growth was poor and scrubby, suitable only for the protection of stock, for a poor grade of posts, and for fuel. UTILIZATION. In the more heavily timbered portions of the State the early settlers utilized the best timber for the construction of buildings and fences. The westward extension of railroads had much to do with the exhaus- tion of the timber. Every accessible tree that would make a bridge timber or sleeper was cut almost before the prairie sections of the State were settled. Even before the railroads reached the valleys of the Cedar and Iowa rivers much of the best red cedar and walnut along these rivers had been cut and rafted to the Mississippi for the down-river trade. Again in the early eighties a very thorough canvass of the eastern and central parts of the State was made by furniture manufacturers, and most of the best walnut was taken out. This thorough removal of the virgin timber of the State soon necessitated the importation of softwood lumber and cedar posts. These are now increasing so rapidly in value that many consumers are being forced to use cheap grades of pine, hemlock, and hardwoods. Portable saw- mills are operating wherever timber is found, and the best of the second- growth woods and planted timber is being utilized. Cottonwood and silver maple have been found very valuable for construction purposes where the wood is not exposed to the weather, and they sell for from $22 to $28 per thousand board feet. The high price of lumber and posts and the rising value of farming land is causing the clearing of many hillsides and ridges in the eastern part of the State. Many of these ridges are not fit for agricultural purposes themselves and moreover are a menace, since rains and melt- ing snows erode them and spread the soil and debris over the fertile lands below. The removal of the forests has led also to floods and to the disappearance of springs and small streams. More than this, it has very considerably lowered the water table in the soil. In southern Wisconsin the lowering of the water table has resulted in the death of many large trees, which could not send out new roots and adapt themselves to the changed moisture conditions of the soil. The dying out of many old trees in eastern Iowa is probably due to this same cause. 47795— Cir. 154-08 2 10 MANAGEMENT OF NATIVE GROVES. Iowa has a smaller proportion of nonagricultural land than any other State, and this is being decreased each year by turning unpro- ductive areas into orchards, pastures, and ranging ground. With the development of the fat-stock and dairy industries there will be an increasing demand for grazing lands, and this in turn will cause the clearing of large tracts now held as woodland. However, from 10 to 15 per cent of the State will remain in timber, and this portion should be so managed as to yield at least fair profits from the soil. Notwithstanding the excellent farming methods in the State and the increasing desire of the settlers to improve those methods, little attention has been paid to increasing the returns from the woodlot. Formerly the farm woodlots were used commonly for pasture; this practice, when the annual fires killed the old mature trees, prevented new growth from coming in. When posts, poles, or fuel are needed it is seldom possible now to secure them from the woodlot which should furnish them, and the farmer must purchase them from the local lumberman at a constantly increasing price. PROTECTION. — Shade and protection for stock is necessary, but it is a detriment to the stock to pasture them exclusively in woodlots, for grass growing under trees has but a small percentage of the food value of that grown in the open, and much better results for both cattle and trees can be obtained if from half an acre to an acre of ground for shelter is planted to silver maple or willow, setting the trees close. When the planting is from 3 to 5 years old, cattle or horses may be allowed free access to it from large pastures, and even if the silver maple is gradually killed out the loss will not be as great as if the whole woodlot were used. If more pasture land is needed on the farm, half the woodland may be cleared and turned into good grassland. If the remaining half is protected from fire and stock and a few careful thinnings are made, it will become a perpetual source of wood for posts, repair material, and fuel. FIRE. Every spring and fall, when the damage from fire is greatest, the groves should be closely watched, especially if they are located near a railroad. If old roads or paths run through the tract, they should be raked clear of brush and leaves at least twice a year. When kept clean, they prove very effective in stopping surface fires. Where there is constant danger from fire, strips two or three furrows wide and a rod apart should be plowed around the grove, if possible. If highways run along the sides of a grove and there is danger of fire [Cir. 154] 11 from cigar stubs or matches, the herbs and shrubs should be cut, and if necessary the roadway burned over. When trees are cut in the woodlot, all branches and smaller limbs should be utilized as fully as possible for fuel. Those which can not be utilized should be taken to an open space and burned or cut up and spread over the ground to hasten their decay. The tools best suited for fighting fires in woodlots are heavy rakes, with which paths may be cleaned in front of advancing flames. Shovels are very useful where the soil is light and can be easily thrown upon the fire. It will not be necessary to back fire except in rare caseSj and then it should be done by raking a path parallel to and some dis- tance ahead of the fire, and starting small fires along this path to destroy debris so that when the two fires meet they will die out for lack of material. INSECTS AND FUNGI. Since farm woodlots are usually small in area and widely separated by cultivated fields, roads, and streams, there is less danger of exten- sive infestation by insects and fungi than where forests occur in solid bodies of wide extent. If insects are unusually abundant and are doing much damage to the trees, specimens should be sent to the Bureau of Entomology of the United States Department of Agricul- ture, which will identify them and give suggestions for combating them. Where single trees seem to be dying out as a result of a rot or of insects, they should be removed, and all portions of the tops not suitable for fuel should be burned at once. In pruning, care should be taken to cut the limbs close to the trunk in such a manner that water can not find lodgment. The entrance of the spores of fungi may be largely prevented if wound surfaces on trees are painted over with white lead. REPRODUCTION. — The following suggestions for the reproduction and care of woodlots are given with the presupposition that stock and fire are to be excluded. Should it. be necessary to use a part of the tract for pasture, it may be divided into sections and each section fenced off in succession, until reproduction in each can be accomplished. Natural reproduction by seeds and sprouts. — The woodlots through- out the State are made up of hardwoods, most of which sprout readily from the stump. A large part of the timber hi these woodlots has come from stump sprouts, which, under conditions of healthy growth, make trees of a size suitable for posts and logs in a shorter time than it took the original tree to grow. Because of the ease and cheap- ness of this method of reproduction, it is likely to be used more exten- sively than any other. Trees cut during the winter sprout better than those cut at other seasons, but for reasons explained later, [Cir. 154] 12 winter cutting is not always desirable. The stumps should be cut as low as possible and left with a slanting surface, so that water will run off readily. The lower the stumps, the less danger there will be of the sprout being broken by wind and the quicker the new tree will form independent roots of its own. The oaks, ashes, mulberry, bass- wood, walnuts, and hickories may be very readily reproduced by stump sprouts, and the trees so formed are straighter and of more rapid growth, and the wood is as durable as that from trees which have grown directly from seed. A woodlot constantly reproduced in this way will gradually run out as the vigor of the original stumps fail and must eventually be replaced by trees from seed naturally sown or from planted seed or seedlings. The exclusion of fire and stock will favor the natural seeding of the woodlot from trees already standing on the ground. If the ground is covered by heavy sod or herbaceous growth, natural seed- ing can be greatly aided by stirring up the soil with plow or mattock just before a crop of seed falls, so that the seeds may reach the mineral soil. This method of reproduction is slow, however, and with the small areas occupied by woodlots it is feasible to plant the open spaces with seedlings of the desired species, and thus shorten the rotation of the crop, and hence increase the returns. Artificial reproduction by seeding and planting. — Usually where a stand of walnut, butternut, or red oak is desired, the nuts or acorns may be planted directly where the tree is to stand. Spring plant- ing of nuts and acorns is more advisable than fall planting, provided the nuts are properly stored during the winter. If spaces to be restocked are of large size the seeds may be planted 6 feet apart each way in regular rows, or irregularly so that in the ultimate stand, including large trees, the spacing is approximately 6 by 6 feet or a little greater. The precaution should be taken to plant seeds of trees which will endure more or less shade. If it is desired to underplant the woodlot with conifers or some of the quicker growing hardwoods, like honey locust or catalpa, seed- lings from 1 to 4 years old should be used. Seedlings should be spaced as suggested for seeding. Some of the best trees for underplanting, besides those already mentioned, are white pine, white spruce, hem- lock, sugar maple, hackberry, and hardy catalpa. IMPROVEMENT THINNINGS. — If after the young seedlings in a wood- lot are well started they are left entirely to themselves, the struggle for light and space will be so great that many good specimens of the most valuable species will be killed out and such worthless weed trees as ironwood, blue beech, hawthorn, and prickly ash, through their ability to reproduce and grow in shade, will thrive in their place. If at that time a little judicious thinning is done, nature will be greatly aided in her production of valuable material. Too often the best [Cir. 154] 13 trees are selected and cut every time a piece of wood is wanted. If mature, dying, or worthless species are removed with care so as not to injure the young growth, the grove will constantly improve in com- position as the place of the overmature, diseased, and worthless trees is taken by the better young growth. In an old woodlot which is badly run down, thinnings should begin at once and be repeated often, but at no time should trees be removed in such a way as to permit the formation of extensive areas of brush and grass. If only large, overmature trees are present, they may be cut in groups and the vacant area sown to acorns or nuts, or planted with valuable species which can endure shade. In this way all the large trees may be gradually removed and the area restocked with valuable young forest growth. Great care should be exercised in all thinnings, especially on hill- sides and ridges, not to cut out so heavily as to expose the soil to ero- sion. This washing away of valuable soil and the formation of gullies is each year destroying large areas of land in Iowa. Two hundred square miles is said to be so lost each year in the United States, and Iowa is doing more than her share toward increasing this figure. HARVESTING THE CROP. — The best time to cut the trees to insure sprout reproduction is in winter or early spring, and the wood of sprouts which form in early spring has ample time to ripen before winter. However, if the trees are cut between late July and Sep- tember, during what lumbermen call "the second running of the sap," and then left to lie for several days, until the leaves are com- pletely wilted, seasoning will take place rapidly and thoroughly after the posts or poles are peeled. Peeling should be done at once, and the logs should be piled so that no part touches the ground. Posts so treated will greatly outlast those of the same species and size cut in winter and stacked on end without peeling. Trunks should not be left lying on the ground before utilization, as this invites attacks of fungi and insects and hastens rot. PLANTED TIMBER. SPECIES. When the people learned that the prairie soil was as valuable for agricultural purposes as that of the hardwood regions, and the settle- ment of the State began to extend westward from the timbered lands along the Mississippi, there arose a need for the protection of the new homes from the severity of hot and cold winds. Since the need was immediate and seeds and seedlings of the softwoods were cheap, easily obtained, and gave early results, the first plantings in the State were of such species as silver maple, cottonwood, boxelder, and willow. The silver maple has been more widely planted in Iowa than any other tree because it makes good fuel, when seasoned under cover, [Cir. 154] 14 and attains a greater age than the other softwoods mentioned. As a section of the State becomes older and more wealthy, better homes are built and are surrounded by slower-growing, longer-lived trees. The planting of evergreens was begun at an early date, as the settlers saw that, since they retained their leaves throughout the year, they were much more effective for windbreaks than deciduous trees. PURPOSE OF PLANTING. Following the period of planting quick-growing trees on the prairies for protection only came the time when anxiety as to future timber supplies, aroused by the depletion of the virgin timber by railroads and the exploitation of red cedar and walnut, led to the planting of better, slower-growing hardwoods. The State law of 1868, which granted a rebate of taxes for a certain amount of planting, resulted from t'his fear of a timber famine. Under this law a large amount of planting was done, but frauds caused its repeal during the eighties. Altogether the law worked for good, since it not only increased the amount of planting done, but aroused interest in trees and increased the knowl- edge of planting and of species best adapted for the State. In nearly all cases the plantations which were made under this law were com- posed of soft-wooded hardwoods, and to-day these species form a very large proportion of the planted groves. Black locust, black walnut, green ash, honey locust, and European larch were planted for posts and lumber, and wherever even the slightest attention and care was given, such groves, with the exception of the black locust, have given good results. The black locust, a few years after planting, was destroyed by the locust borer (Cyllene robinise). Many nurseries came into existence between 1865 and 1880, and did much toward the introduction of evergreens and more desirable hardwoods. PROBABLE CAUSES OF SUCCESS OR FAILURE. There were many failures during the early years of tree planting in the State, and there are still many. These failures, however, have been useful in supplying knowledge of the best species to plant and of the best methods of establishing and caring for plantations. The greatest cause of failure was the absence of proper care. Small trees of silver maple, green ash, and black walnut were planted in groves as close as 3 by 6 feet or 4 by 4 feet. They were not cultivated or thinned, and as they became larger many were deformed and killed by crowding and lack of moisture. In many cases the groves were used for stock yards or feed lots during winter, and browsing and trampling prevented reproduction and often exposed the roots and damaged the bark of older trees so that they died. Trees respond readily to cultivation and care. They will not succeed to the fullest degree if sod is allowed to form about them or if the soil is packed down around the roots by the constant trampling of cattle and horses. [Cir. 154] 15 The use of undesirable species was frequently the cause of failure. Such trees as black locust, chestnut, beech, and others which were widely used, were total failures because of insect attacks or lack of hardiness. PLANTING AND CARE OF WINDBREAKS. SPECIES TO BE USED. — A greater variety of trees has been planted in the State for windbreaks than for any other purpose, but the number which can be used successfully is limited. Certain species, although not of the greatest usefulness for windbreak purposes solely, have a high value for fuel, posts, and farm repair material. These may be used to advantage both for windbreaks and the pro- duction of wood supplies. The best of these "dual purpose" trees are included in the following list : Honey locust. Hardy catalpa. European larch. Russian olive. Silver maple. White willow. Cot to n wood. Osage orange (in central and Green ash. southern Iowa). The black or yellow locust would answer the tw^o requirements better than any of the trees mentioned but for its susceptibility to the attacks of the locust borer, which riddles and kills it within a few years. Some of the pines and spruces are much more valuable than any of the broadleafed trees for windbreak planting alone. They retain their leaves throughout the year and thus provide protection during the winter when it is most needed. The hardier evergreens may be successfully grown under nearly all conditions of soil and moisture, and their growth is often more rapid than that of the more permanent hardwoods. Climatic and other conditions which influence tree growth are more severe in the western part of the State than in the eastern counties, and it has been found that certain of the Pacific coast and Rocky Mountain conifers do better there than those from the East. The evergreens recommended for planting in different parts of the State are given in the following list : Eastern Iowa. Western Iowa. White pine. Black Hills spruce. White spruce. Western yellow pine. Norway spruce. Austrian pine. European larch. Scotch pine. Austrian pine. Douglas fir. Colorado blue spruce. White pine. Arbor vitse. Colorado blue spruce. Hemlock. White fir. Scotch pine. European larch. White fir. Norway spruce. Douglas fir. Western yellow or bull pine. Tamarack. [Cir. 154] 16 The red cedar is not recommended because it is a menace to fruit orchards through the spreading of apple rust; one stage of the life of this fungus is passed on the branches of the red cedar, when it is known as the " cedar apple." It is also slow in growth and there are other evergreens which are more valuable. The arborvitae and tamarack require permanently moist situations. SEEDS OR SEEDLINGS. — Because of the difficulty and expense of raising evergreens from seeds, it is usually advisable to purchase from nurserymen seedlings 2 or 3 years old which have been transplanted once. These have well-developed root systems and will grow with little difficulty. They should be put out in garden soil in rows from 10 to 30 inches apart and with the trees from 6 to 10 inches apart in the row. After two or three years they can be transplanted to the per- manent location. By this method better stock is obtained and the total cost of the windbreak is reduced one-half or more. There is practically no loss from transplanting. For the broadleafed trees recommended for planting it will be cheaper and fully as satisfactory to collect or buy the seeds and raise the seedlings. A safe rule to follow in the planting of seeds such as those of maple and elm is to plant them immediately after they ripen, or before midsummer. Most other seeds should be planted the spring following ripening, yet seeds of basswood and Russian olive germinate better if planted in the fall. In keeping seeds over winter, nature's manner of storage should be followed as nearly as possible. Where seeds remain on the tree until late winter or early spring, as in the case of catalpa and honey locust, they should be collected in late fall and hung up in a dry, cool place in porous cloth sacks. Nuts and acorns which fall during the autumn and are buried among the leaves should be stratified through winter in boxes of moist sand and planted as soon as the ground can be worked in the spring. In many instances seedlings of the silver maple, willow, cottonwood, green ash, and honey locust can be pulled from the ground in bottom- lands, or in groves, and set out very cheaply and with little danger of loss. Cuttings of willow and cottonwood, which may be made from new wood in late winter or spring and " heeled in" in a cellar until planting time, give good results, especially in permanently moist situations. TIME FOR SETTING TREES. — It is advisable to plant windbreaks of both conifers and hardwoods in the spring. The severity of the cold, drying winds of winter, which injure growth that has not had time to mature fully, makes fall planting on the plains west of the Mississippi impracticable. Conifers may be successfully transplanted during any season of the year if care is taken, but the spring, as soon as danger of [Cir. 154] 17 severe frost is past, is the best time, since the seedlings will by winter be strong enough to resist the cold, drying winds. The broadleafed trees should always be transplanted between late March and early June. METHODS OF PLANTING. — In planting evergreens care must be taken to prevent the drying out of the roots. When seedlings can not be planted at once, they should be removed from the packing case and 11 heeled in" in some shaded situation. If the packing case with the seedlings is placed in a cool cellar and the roots well moistened they will remain in good condition for several days, but if the tops become wet they will heat, become moldy, and die. Small evergreens should be carried to the planting site in baskets or pails containing a few inches of water. The roots may be kept moist with wet moss or sacks placed about them. The hole should be considerably larger than the root system and the seedlings should be set a little deeper than they stood in the nursery row. The soil must be packed firmly about the roots. SPACING. — The pines and spruces should be planted in rows from 12 to 16 feet apart, with the trees from 6 to 10 feet apart in the row. There should not be less than four rows in a windbreak. When the trees are from 8 to 12 years old the rows should be thinned, in order that all the trees may have sufficient moisture and room for full development. Corn may be grown between the rows for two or three years, which will provide cultivation for the trees and at the same time yield a profit. The hardwoods, such as silver maple, catalpa, honey locust, and ash, should be planted from 6 by 6 feet to 10 by 10 feet apart each way. Thinnings should be begun when the trees are small poles and continued as long as there is danger of injury from overcrowding. DISTANCE AND DIRECTION FROM DWELLINGS AND ORCHARDS. — Many windbreaks have failed because they were placed too close to the home buildings and orchards, so that snow is piled in around the buildings and over the orchards. Windbreaks should be 5 or 6 rods from the buildings they are to protect, and there should be a space of 2 or 3 rods between the outer and inner rows of trees. Orchards should not be completely surrounded by windbreaks, since lack of air drainage seems to increase the danger from disease and insects. The stillness of the air within such an inclosure makes it possible that a warm day may start the buds of fruit trees enough so that they will be killed by the frost which usually follows. The same stillness of air may, on the other hand, cause a lower temperature on a cold day or night, and create a " frost pocket/' so that there may be killing frosts within an orchard too completely surrounded by wind- breaks, when they do not occur outside. [Cir. 154] 18 DIAGRAM FOR PROPOSED WINDBREAK. — For average soil and mois- ture conditions in central Iowa, the following scheme for planting is suggested : N 40 -to 80 rods W. § T So D 2 00 J, T <0 1 in *-3 rods-* e-5rods-*T J CZD "-" Russian .olive White spruce White pine White spruce White pine White pine Hardy catalpa White pine Hardy catalpa FIG. 1.— Diagram for proposed windbreak, for average soil and moisture conditions in central Iowa. The outer rows should be 12 feet apart and the trees spaced 8 feet apart in the rows. The trees in the inner rows should be planted 6 by 6 feet each way, and the catalpa should be removed when large enough for fence posts. Russian olive is suggested for the outside row because it is a hardy, low-growing tree, which succeeds under a wide range of soil and mois- ture conditions. It will protect the evergreen seedlings on the interior and will produce a medium grade of fence posts. Russian mulberry may be used in the same way in places where it is hardy. It is not advisable to plant such quick-growing trees as silver maple or boxelder with the slower growing species, for they quickly overtop the more valuable trees and retard their growth by shade, and if they are not removed in time will be a detriment to the windbreak. CARE OF YOUNG AND OLD TREES IN THE WINDBREAK. — A large pro- portion of the failures of windbreaks is due to a lack of cultivation and care during the first few years. The land upon which the planting is to be done should be well prepared. Growing corn on it for a year or two will put the soil in excellent condition. After the seedlings are planted the ground should be cultivated as long as it is possible to pass between the rows, usually from two to four years. Cultivation should be discontinued by August 1 each year, for it is likely to stimulate new growth which can not become mature before winter. Windbreaks [Cir. 154] 19 require little or no pruning. The evergreens should be allowed to retain their lower branches, since they increase the efficiency of the break. When the lower branches begin to suffer from crowding, enough trees should be removed to permit complete development of the remaining ones. A number of successful windbreak plantings in different parts of the State are mentioned here to show that success has been attained in parts of the State which vary widely in soil, moisture, and situation: On the farm of F. F. Bakken, 5 miles west of Decorah, Winneshiek County, is an excellent grove of white pine 25 years old. The soil is a sandv loam, well suited to this pine. The trees are from 30 to 34 feet hign and from 4 to 12 inches in diameter. On the farm of W. Herring, Lincoln Township, Dallas County, there is a good windbreak of red cedar. The trees are 9 years old, and from 12 to 16 feet high and from 1 to 3 inches in diameter. Although the trees are making rapid growth on the rich black loam of this sec- tion, they are badly infested with cedar apple fungus. On rich prairie loam on the farm of W. A. Wilson, 5 miles northwest of Ains worth, in Washington County, there are several rows of white pine which have made excellent growth. The trees are 35 years old, and range from 60 to 70 feet in height and from 9 to 16 inches in diameter. The Amana colony, in Iowa County, has several large groves of white pine and other pines which have proved very successful. The soil of this region is usually a rich sandy loam. Four miles east of Dougherty, Floyd County, on the farm of Henry Schafer, there is a windbreak of Scotch pine 10 years old, which has so far been very successful. Millet has been grown between the rows to keep weeds down. On the C. E. Whiting estate, 2^ miles north of Whiting, Monona County, is an excellent example of a black walnut windbreak. TREE PLANTING FOR COMMERCIAL PURPOSES. The rich prairie soil of Iowa is so valuable for the production of grain and stock that it will not pay to plant large areas for com- mercial purposes. Forestry in the State will always be a matter of farm groves or native woodlots. It is probable that in the future, as frequently in the past, a large proportion of the grove plantings will be for the combined purposes of protection and the production of fuel, fence posts, repair material, and shade for stock. Hence, species should be selected which will most nearly meet these com- bined requirements. LOCATION. — Usually those portions of the farm unsuited for other agricultural purposes have been utilized for tree growing, and this is [Cir. 154] 20 right, for it is desirable to utilize completely or reclaim such waste portions. The owner frequently can not afford to plant any other part of the farm, for the better portions are necessary for its proper management. Good returns may be obtained by reforesting these rough lands, and caring for the plantations to keep out dense growths of weeds, shrubs, and scraggly trees. Large ranches and farms, however, can profitably devote several acres of good, rich land to trees for posts and farm repair material. There is no reason why large farms should not grow more than enough posts for their own fencing. But even on the best soils, unless the trees are carefully planted and protected, they will yield only a very small part of their possible returns. SPECIES. — Where a considerable area is to be devoted to the pro- duction of posts, the best species to use are: Osage orange, which, however, is hardy in the southern half of the State only, hardy catalpa, European larch, honey locust, and green ash. Where very quick results are desired, willow may be successfully grown, but even the best quality of seasoned willow posts will not last more than from three to five years. Other slower-growing species make excel- lent posts, and it would be well to devote a small portion of the area to black walnut, coffeetree, white ash, slippery elm, red oak, Russian olive, and Russian mulberry. On bottomlands subject to overflow, and which are consequently not adapted to tillage, cottonwood and silver maple may be planted in groves for lumber. Excellent returns in lumber and dimension material have been obtained from plantations of these species. On dry soils cottonwood groves do not succeed. PLANTING. — Where Osage orange, hardy catalpa, Russian mul- berry, or honey locust are planted on the heavy, rich loess soils of the State for the production of posts, they should be spaced 4 by 6 or 6 by 6 feet, or if planted with a field crop like corn, they should be planted 8 by 8 feet each way. Such spacing will cause the young trees to make a rapid height growth, which is necessary for the pro- duction of the greatest number of good fence posts. On light sandy soil, the trees should be set at a greater distance apart, since there is not sufficient moisture to permit close planting. Seedlings of hardy catalpa, Osage orange, and honey locust have been successfully planted with corn in this State. A field is planted to corn in the usual way, and just as it is breaking through the ground a seedling is set in every other hill of every other row, in place of the corn. Two-thirds of the crop of corn is obtained in this way and the seedlings receive thorough cultivation and are protected by the stalks during the first year. Corn may also be planted the second year and a third of a crop obtained. In this way sufficient corn [Cir. 154] 21 may be grown during these two years to pay for the rent of the land and for the cultivation. A very good example of this method of starting a catalpa grove is the 10-acre grove of George S. Waller, 2 miles south of Pioneer, Hum- boldt County. Twenty years ago Mr. Waller obtained hardy catalpa seed from Tennessee and raised seedlings which, when they were one year old, he put out with corn. The rows are about 8 feet apart each way and the cultivation, while the corn remained on the ground, gave the trees an exceptional start. Measurements show that the growth has been above the average throughout the twenty years. The trees are now from 25 to 32 feet high and from 4 to 10 inches in diameter, and will average at least 3 good posts per tree. In 1903, 400 posts were cut out of the grove as a thinning, and a careful esti- mate in 1905 showed that there remained on the 10 acres 6,146 trees. With 3 posts to a tree, the plantation now contains 18,438 posts. Besides this a large quantity of cordwood will be obtained when the final cut is made. If these posts are worth 15 cents each, the grove represents a value of $2,765.70. Add to this amount the returns from the 400 posts cut in 1903, at 15 cents each, and there is a total of $2,825.70, a good return from 10 acres in 20 years. During this period the grove has served as a windbreak for the home and farm buildings, and produced nearly all the fuel and repair material needed on the farm. The usual method of planting seedlings is to have two or five men work together. When there are two, one digs the holes with a spade or mattock and the second follows with the seedlings in a basket or pail. As explained before, the roots must be covered with wet moss or a sack and the trees should be set somewhat deeper than they stood in the nursery row. Where five work in a gang, two men dig the holes and three plant. On ordinary ground five men can plant about an acre and a half per day, if the seedlings are set 6 by 6 feet. GROWTH AND PROBABLE RETURNS. — The probable rate of growth of any species and the returns under the most favorable conditions for growth can be stated only indefinitely. The data obtained during the investigation of the State's timber represents growth under unfavorable conditions. The groves studied had been, as a rule, pastured constantly, had not been thinned, and fires had run through most of them. Even under these conditions the returns have fully repaid the owners for their financial outlay and the occu- pation of the ground. The hardy catalpa, which has been planted extensively through- out Iowa, grows rapidly and produces a good grade of posts, repair material, and fuel. Fence posts reach a diameter of 4 or 5 inches in from six to nine years, according to the care and cultivation which [Cir. 154] 22 is given. The most satisfactory results have been obtained with this tree by cutting the 3-year-old seedlings back to the ground during the winter. The stumps send up a number of straight, clean shoots the following spring. All but one shoot should be removed within a few weeks or as soon as the best shoot can be selected. This principal shoot which is left will grow straight and clean to a height of from 8 to 14 feet the first season. By this process posts can be obtained as quickly as if the trees grew from seed without cutting back, and of a better quality. By cutting on short rotations, other crops of posts may be obtained from the stumps in a shorter time than the first crop. The Russian mulberry, Russian olive, and Osage orange may be treated in the same manner with satisfactory results. Posts from 3 to 5 inches in diameter may be grown from the Osage orange in from seven to eleven years; from honey locust in from eight to fourteen years; from Russian mulberry in from nine to fifteen years; from European larch in from nine to sixteen years; and from green ash in from seven to fourteen years. Some forms of the white willow will produce fence posts of ordi- nary size in from four to seven years. Nearly all of the slower- growing, more permanent species mentioned require from twelve to thirty years to form posts from 3 to 5 inches in diameter. The red oak and coifeetree are not planted as extensively as their value warrants. Both are hardy, fairly rapid in growth, and excellent for posts, repair material, and fuel; and each can be reproduced readily from seeds or stump sprouts. The coffeetree prefers moist situations, and the red oak well-drained slopes and uplands. The appended table shows the returns which have been obtained from various species under ordinary conditions of treatment. Typ- ical groves in different parts of the State were selected as the basis of the table. [Cir. 154] 23 lm liisl 3 S 888 T-H n? c6 o oi>i r-5 cce-sos ec'roi COO ^ i— it*- co ~*f C^ fO CO 8S S Ol O$ 1-5 O5 •<* CO CO S •< * PV-5 r-IOOO^OOS "5I>. "5 O^CJ OOC3 00 - Ol O <-( "3 S ftp HI1 C4* ' C^l • • « O • '0000 (N cooo-* oo oo co-^-vco t-, O »O "3 O O »OC<>'COO'O CO O C^ 1« Condition. si 03 <3 § 5* a & Hi 17 IX 19 20 21 22 23 21 25 96 27 28 29 80 n .'52 83 34 35 Adams Acres 0.05 .70 .44 .70 .84 Feet. 6 by 12 2 by 15 4 by 5 4bvl2 10 by 10 600 630 430 495 320 In. 6.4 6.4 6.7 6.6 7.4 S 7 28 35 35 44" 44 V> Bd.ft. Cords Healthy. Good. Poor. Good. Good; well cared for. Good. Poor; pastured. Fair; not pastured. Fair. Good; bottom land. Poor; pastured. Fair; pruned. Good; grassed. Good; pruned and thinned. Fair; heavily grassed. Do. Good; grassed. Fair; pastured. Good; heavy sod. Good; thinned. Fair; pastured. Fair. Fair; some thinning; pastured. Many dead trees; pas- tured. Fair; some damage by caterpillars. Excellent; thinned; grassed. Fair; fungi; hog lot. Fair. Good. Do. Poor; many dead tops; grassed. Poor; hog and cattle lot. Good. Fair: thinned; pas- tured. Good; wind-break. Ogle.. 860 470 1,230 730 12 10 10 12 $54.97 31.83 65.83 52.53 S2.05 .92 1.91 1.44 Marshall Livingston.. McLean Ford 27 1.40 220 7 7 40 600 570 680 10 10 12 35.89 35.89 47.21 .88 .88 1.04 McLean do 27 29 29 30 30 32 32 34 35 35 36 37 37 as 39 40 40 40 40 40 49 .50 4.00 .40 .25 .60 "2. 66 13.00 1.00 3.78 .90 .83 4.03 1.84 1.45 2.50 1.50 .25 1.80 .52 2.50 ?3n 7 4 50 4bvlO 5 by 8 305 588 380 7.4 6.5 8 3 45 43 45 Warren McLean Sangamon . . Livingston. . Sangaraon . . Christian. .. McLean.. .. Warren . . McLean.. .. Woodford .. Douglas.. .. Marshall Henry 890 i,oa5 20 18 73.86 91.86 1.55 1.93 10 by 15 6 by 12 i 6 "by 15 9 by 13 230 9.4 8 8 60 53 800 320 304 280 165 300 9.3 .7.5 8.2 9.4 8 1 62 43 51 60 46 1,560 950 1,020 955 970 610 1,165 1,590 25 4 15 6 12 20 10 18 120.12 47.34 68.93 52.93 60.51 61.07 73.07 136.62 2.29 .82 1.14 .88 .96 .92 1.10 1.98 16 "by" i 6 8 by 10 260 236 215 264 174 200 260 235 337 166 71 148 193 56 238 83 199 9.4 9.0 9.9 9.1 9.3 9.2 9.0 9.3 9.2 12.2 13.0 14.7 9.6 11.5 11.3 11.9 19.0 52 45 67 55 54 63 59 62 65 68 63 75 55 47 57 74 85 2,000 McLean do 8 by 10 10 by 15 290 600 800 '2, 300 5,000 16,000 1,400 765 995 1,180 1,535 2,460 900 255 910 705 15 18 24 16 8 15 ii 25 18 59.69 81.69 96.69 110.69 141.69 102.69 114.94 396.72 76.74 .79 1.08 1.28 1.47 1.88 1.25 1.15 3.66 .63 do do 12 by 15 7 by 8 Greene Mason Logan 47 Whiteside. . . Ogle 49 52 52 52 64 64 .23 1.58 8.00 5.00 4.50 io'b'y 16 4 by 4 11- by 7 8 by 10 4by 4 Adams Montgomery Knox 6,000 1,195 24 211.74 1.74 Morgan 16,600 1,460 40 631.84 3.32 None of the plantations except 30 and 35 shows a sufficient profit at its present age to encourage the planting of walnut as a commer- cial investment. The tree has a long life, and requires a longer time for the heart wood to develop than many other species. A properly cared-for and well-grown walnut plantation would undoubtedly show considerable profit when 50 years old, and the profit would probably be greater at 100 years. Such a long-time investment, however, is seldom considered desirable. [Cir. 81] 15 SILVER MAPLE. Silver maple has been more extensively planted in Illinois than any other species. It is liked because of its rapid growth, but this is almost the only thing in its favor. The wood is considered to be worth $2 per cord on the stump, and no other product is given. The cost of establishing a plantation is placed at $10 per acre. Plantation 10 is typical of many others in the State. It is 40 years old, and the original spacing was 4 by 8 feet. Only dead trees have been removed, and the struggle for existence has gone on until the surviving trees now number only about 17 per cent of the original stand. These are practically all dominant trees, with an average diameter of nearly 1 0 inches and an average height of 70 feet. The clear length is 40 feet, but the stems are crooked — often a characteristic of this species. When the plantation was started, a number of sugar maples were mixed with the silver maples. At present only an occasional sugar maple is found. The survivors are from 3 to 4 inches in diameter and from 20 to 30 feet»high and are in good con- dition— an excellent illustration of the tolerance of sugar maple. TABLE 7. — Silver maple. Plan- ta- tion No. County. Age. Area of planta- tion. Original spacing. Num- ber of trees per acre. Average size of trees. Yield per acre. Diameter breast- high. Height. Wood. Net value. Annual income at 3 per cent. \ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Hancock . . Yrs. 18 18 31 31 32 33 Acres. 0.81 .60 1.70 1.81 5.00 Feet. 10 by 10 6 by 10 5 by 5 5 by 5 10 by 12 7 by 8 5 by 10 250 508 788 608 200 Inches. 7.8 5.6 4.4 4.5 10.1 9.3 10.9 13.4 10.6 9.8 9.8 11.15 Feet. 47 42 38 38 70 49 70 80 71 70 68 80 Cords. 24.7 29.5 34.5 27.5 41.9 $32.38 41.98 44.00 30.00 58.10 $1.38 1.79 .88 .60 1.11 do Rock Island... do Ford Winnebago Lee 35 35 35 40 41 40 1.80 .90 5.60 7.00 1.60 1.49 308 173 264 222 269 206 51.1 47.1 62.4 35.2 52.0 40.6 74.10 65.98 96.74 37.78 70.40 48.58 1.23 1.09 1.60 .50 .89 .64 Sangamon . . do 6 by 6 4 by 8 Kane Lee Whiteside 8 by 8 Silver maple is valuable chiefly as a quick-growing shelter-belt tree and for fuel. The wood is too inferior to make the planting of the species profitable for any other purpose. ASH. Seventy per cent of the volume of white ash is figured as handle wood at $4 per cord and 30 per cent as cord wood at $2 per cord. This seems to be the best way to utilize ash of small size. Another way, how- ever, is to cut the trees into posts. Ash will not make a very durable post, but it is assumed that a first-class ash post is worth 6 cents and [Cir. 81] 16 a second-class post 3 cents. Figuring all the plantations except No. 1 on this basis, and assuming the waste material to be worth $2 per cord for firewood, the net value of the plantations by each method can be compared. The comparison shows only a small difference in favor of cutting the ash for posts. Both methods indicate, in fact, that under present conditions ash plantations have but a small money value. The condition of the plantations in general was good. Ash ordina- rily does well on upland prairie soil, though it grows more rapidly in moister situations. Its principal use is as a shelter-belt tree. Here it can be rather closely planted, and the necessary thinnings from time to time will furnish good poles for use about the farm. • TABLE 8. — White, green, and black ash. WHITE ASH. g « Average Average 13 1 , § c size domi- annual growth Money yield o i S nant dominant £ g per acre. 0 ft ,§ trees. 1 trees. c . c fe c c County. 3 I & ft 1 Original spacing. | "o *» 1 o ft 2 il P CH r^ =«ft si tj eg N §8 1 "o "o 1 i o Si +i jl 1 •g R 1 a "3 le ft p & 1 £ g 3 fc 1 o3 § 9 W ft 1 H oj +3 1 0 ts |« 1? Yrsl A cres. Acres. Feet. 7n. Ft. 771. FA Cords Cords 1 2 Livingston McLean 25 0.50 27 4.50 0.10 .10 9 by 4 8 by 8 440 400 70 67 5.7 7.0 36 54 0.23 .26 1.4 2.0 14.4 27.0 0.58 1.00 $3.63 65. 25 $0.10 1.60 3 Christian 32 2.50 .25 10 by 10 308 71 8.2 53 .26 1.7| 27.6 .86 62.92 1.20 4 Ford 39 50 10 by 12 230 75 8.3 62 26 1 9 23 2 73 48 11 Q9 _do . . 331 1. 72 .25 37? 75 8 6 ,50 .26 15 37.7 1.14 96. 191 1. 75 6 i do 34 8.0 .24 1 5 7 Woodford 37 .20 .20 6 by 10 290 78 7.5 35 . 0 .9 23.2 .63 43. lOJ . 65 GREEN ASH. 1 Champaign 34 3 0 0.25 2 by 4 rW 53 ao 61 0.24 1 8 28. 4 0.62 BLACK ASH. 1 Warren 94 0.83 0.073 5 by 10 576 47 8.1 58 0.30 ,4 2 do 95 50 50 5 by 12 300 8.4 47 .34 i q 3 Hancock *>8 .17 .17 5^ by 5i 3W 65 7.1 35 .25 1 3 4 Warren oq 092 092 695 6 6 .23 5 . . . do ... 9q 1.23 .10 4 by 8 383 47 7.3 49 .25 1 7 0 Bureau 46 2 10 50 304 7 8 55 .17 1 9 The only green ash plantation examined was that at the Univer- sity of Illinois. The trees have grown thriftily and the plantation is in good condition. Green ash is a hardy tree. It will succeed in many places where white ash would fail. Since, however, various [Cir. 81] 17 other species can be grown in Illinois which produce wood of greater value, green ash plantations serve their best use as shelter belts. No products were estimated for black ash. The plantations are uniformly in good condition and the rate of growth closely approxi- mates that of white ash. The planfations are useful as shelter belts. OSAGE ORANGE. Only two plantations of Osage orange were examined in the State. The species has been extensively planted for hedges, from which posts are frequently cut. Osage orange, because of its durability, has high value as a post timber. In computing the products of the plantations first-class posts are assumed to be wrorth 15 cents each, second-class posts 10 cents each, and third-class posts 5 cents each. Since first-class Osage orange posts often bring 25 cents each and sometimes sell as high as 50 cents, this valuation is very conservative. - The refuse material left after making posts is figured as firewood at $2 per cord. The cost of establishing a plantation is placed at $12 per acre. Osage orange grows well on almost every variety of soil through- out Illinois, except in the extreme northern part, where, owing to the severe winters, it winterkills to some extent. The great adapta- bility of the tree to varying soil conditions and its extreme tenacity under severe treatment, together with its general immunity from insects, render it especially suited for planting on land where neither catalpa nor larch will succeed. TABLE 9. — Osage orange, bur oak, and mulberry. OSAGE OR\NGE. Plantation No. County. OJ bo Area of plantation. Original spacing. Number of trees per acre. Average size domi- nant trees. Products per acre. Annual income per acre at 3 per cent. If i 5 w Posts. Firewood. Net value. PR § | lj 1 2 Christian.... ...do. . Yrs. 27 28 A crcs. 4.00 1.34 Feet. 4bv 8 4 by 12 1,200 513 In. 3.7 6.0 Feet. 26 35 "528' 536 762 1,200 513 fords. 4.0 .8 $94. 95 154. 77 $2.33 3.91 BUR OAK. 1 Christian 34 0 50 3 by 17 282 7.7 40 462 6.7 $36 70 $0 6" 2 Montgomery. 50 1.25 3 by 6 392 10.7 58 2,568 18.3 220.12 1.9* RUSSIAN MULBERRY. 1 Morgan 19 5 by 10 704 6.4 48 1,200 550 15.0 $106. 69 $4.25 [Cir. 81] 18 Neither of the plantations examined was properly spaced, yet the better one has paid a fair profit. To get the best returns a plantation should be set with from 2,000 to 3,000 trees per acre and afterwards pruned and thinned when necessary. Since a large percentage of the trees will not grow straight enough for poles, it will be more profitable to cut the plantation clean when the straight/or trees reach post size and thus secure from the sprouts a second crop of posts in less time than was required for the first one. BUR OAK. The prices assumed for the products of the bur oak plantations are : First-class posts, 8 cents each; wood, $2 per cord. The cost of establishing a plantation is placed at $5 per acre. Since the rate of growth shown in Table 9 approximates that of natural bur oak in Illinois, it is safe to assume that this species will succeed on prairie soils throughout the State. But the rate of growth is slow, and in order to produce durable posts the trees must reach a larger size than is necessary for many other species. On the whole, therefore, there is no inducement to plant bur oak on agricultural land unless for wind-breaks or for ornament. RUSSIAN MULBERRY. Only one small plantation of Russian mulberry was examined. For the value of the products, first-class posts are priced at 8 cents each and second-class posts at 4 cents each. The refuse material is valued at $1 per cord for firewood. The cost of establishing a plan- tation is placed at $12 per acre. No general conclusions can be drawn from the examination of a single plantation, yet the indications are that Russian mulberry will do well throughout the central part of the State at least. It is certain that a plantation will produce a large number of posts in a compara- tively short time. BLA€K LOCUST. Black locust was extensively planted in the early days, and for a time it thrived. Then its greatest enemy, the borer, appeared and most of the plantations were cut. In the plantations examined the damage done by borers was extremely variable. In some places the trees were very slightly, if at all, affected, while in Qthers they had suffered greatly. The durability of black locust posts is well known in Illinois, where they sell for a high price. It is not uncommon to find posts sound after twenty years' use. In one instance the posts were still fairly sound after thirty-nine years of use. [Cir. 81] 19 Black locust is adapted to planting on sandy soil, such as occurs along the Mississippi and Illinois rivers. The likelihood of injury by borers does, it is true, render doubtful the production of large material, yet the fact remains that in many situations plantations for posts will pay. The growth is rapid, and if proper treatment is given post size will be reached before the damage from borers is serious. Black locust is as hardy as Osage orange, and is not likely to whiter kill any- where in the State. When forest planting on poor land is contem- plated this species should be considered. Further, the tree is an excel- lent one for hillside planting to prevent washing. COTTON WOOD. Cottonwood grows well throughout the State and makes a good shelter belt. It is planted at present only in the towns. Here the tree is a favorite because of its rapid growth, but it is far from being the most desirable street tree. HONEY LOCUST. Honey locust should do w^ell throughout Illinois, though it has little value as a commercial tree. The. plantations examined in Rock Island County are on wind-blown, sandy soil, and are in poor condi- tion. Black locust has grown excellently on the same tracts. SUGAR MAPLE. Sugar maple is preeminently a shade and ornamental tree. Its rate of growth is rather slow, but it grows to a large size, develops a splendid crown, and lives to a great age. Many sugar maples in the northern part of the State have, within the last few years, become stag-headed and have slowly died. This stag-headed condition is not peculiar to the sugar maple, however, since many other trees, such as white and black oak and hickory, are affected in the same manner. Its cause has not been fully deter- mined, but it seems to have been increased, if not produced, by the very severe winter of 1898-99, followed by some exceptionally dry summers. [Cir. 81] 20 TABLE 10. — Other hardwoods. BLACK LOCUST. County. Age. Area of planta- tion. Original spacing. Number of trees per acre. Average size of trees. Diameter breast- high. Years. Acres. Feet. Inches. Adams 4 0.61 1,434 1.7 do 18 1.20 960 4.6 do 21 .10 668 6.7 Marshall , 40 14. Adams 47 15.2 COTTONWOOD. Ford... 32 0.50 10 by 10 130 12.9 Sangamon 41 12.00 29 20.5 Hancock 46 5.50 12 by 12 52 17.5 Tazewell 53 Open row. 21.7 ! HONEY LOCUST. Rock Island.. 31 0.90 5 by 5 624 3.2 do 31 .25 5by5 584 4.1 Champaign 24 .25 4 by 8 300 6.3 SUGAR MAPLE. Lee... 63 0.60 175 10.5 Champaign 35 .40 BOXELDER. Warren 29 0.22 4 by 5 509 7.1 Champaign 27 .25 4 by 4 CHESTNUT. Sangamon... 30 0.40 8 by 8 182 8.8 Mason 32 .88 20 by 20 49 13.8 BUTTERNUT. Lee... 32 1.50 165 Champaign 35 .25 2 by 4 WHITE ELM. Kendall 8 3.00 2 by 5 2.8 Warren 29 .22 4 by 5 509 7.1 do 29 .14 5by7 400 7.9 Rock Island 26 Open rows 11.2 do 30 do. 13.3 Champaign 35 .1251 4 by 4 10.6 Height. [Cir. 81] 21 BOXELDER. Boxelder has but scrubby growth, and there is little reason why it should be chosen where so many superior species grow well. It has, however, been planted extensively as a street tree, and is still being grown for this purpose. CHESTNUT. Of the two chestnut plantations examined, only that in Sangamon County was originally spaced close enough to produce good form. Even then the trees have been gradually dying, and the general con- dition of those still standing is poor. A few good chestnut trees are found in the towns, but the species is likely to winterkill in the north- ern part of the State. Attempts were made to establish a block of chestnut in the experimental forest at Urbana, but without success. BUTTERNUT. Of the two butternut plantations measured, that in Lee County is in good condition, while that in Champaign County has done very poorly. Nowhere is there any indication that the general planting of this species will be successful. WHITE ELM. White elm has been planted only for ornament or for protection. It does well throughout the State, and is one of the best trees for the purposes for which it is planted. WHITE PINE. The white pine plantation at the University of Illinois was the only one found in the course of the study which had been properly spaced in the beginning, and which, accordingly, had developed as it should. Its excellent growth demonstrates that plantations of this species can be established successfully on prairie soil, though there is little inducement to undertake them as an investment. White pine has been largely used for ornamental planting in parks and yards, nearly always with success. It grows better in Illinois than any other planted pine, and makes an excellent shelter belt. SCOTCH PINE. Scotch pine has been widely planted as an ornamental tree, but has little to recommend it. It is generally short-lived and scrubby. When open grown it is likely to become flat-topped. Because of the ease with which it is propagated and transplanted it is a favorite with the nurserymen, and with others who desire a quick-growing evergreen without regard to its later development. [Cir. 81] 22 TABLE 11. — Conifers. WHITE PINE. Plan- tation No. County. Age. Area of planta- tion. Original spacing. Number of trees per acre. Average size of trees. Diame- ter breast- high. Height. 1 2 years. 30 32 A cres. 1.00 1.70 Feet. 4 by 4 12 by 24 404 69 Inches. 7.5 13.1 Feet. 40 50 Lee ' SCOTCH PINE. 1 Winnebago 33 2 rows 9 0 36 2 Champaign 35 0.42 4 by 4 266 8.6 40 AUSTRIAN PINE. 1 Winnebago 33 1 row. 8 3 31 2 Champaign 35 0 33 4 by 4 240 5 9 35 NORWAY SPRUCE. 1 Champaign 34 0.50 2 by 4 320 7.3 50 TAMARACK. 1 Bureau . . 45. 0.075 5 by 6 506 7.6 57 AUSTRIAN PINE. The plantation of Austrian pine at the State University has been a decided failure. The single row of trees measured in Winnebago County has done well. Individual trees found throughout the State, however, often are poorly developed. Apparently there is little to recommend this tree for planting in Illinois. NORWAY SPRUCE. Norway spruce has been widely planted as an ornamental tree, usually with success. The only plantation studied was that at the University of Illinois, which has done excellently. Norway spruce is a good tree for shelter belts, but it is short-lived, and it may be that even for this purpose white pine is more desirable. TAMARACK. But one tamarack plantation, a small one in Bureau County, was found. It is on a west slope, with a clay loam soil. Some European larch planted near by has far outstripped the tamarack, both in height and in diameter growth. A fewr years ago an unusually dry season occurred. The larch suffered little from it, but many tamarack trees died and others were badly injured. [Cir. 81] OTHER SPECIES. Brief reference should be made to other species which were noted in the State only as individuals or in single rows. White willow is planted in some of the northern counties for hedges and wind-breaks. The ability of this species to sprout after repeated cutting and its rapid growth result in the production of a large amount of wood from comparatively few trees. Balsam fir is planted occasionally for ornament. As a rule it does well, though a small plantation in Lee County has been a failure. White and Lombardy poplars are common and manifest their usual characteristics. Hemlock, arbor vitae, and bald cypress occur as ornamental trees and are usually thrifty. The same is true of slippery elm, sycamore, and white birch. Two species to which little attention has so far been given are coffee- tree and black cherry. The first is a hardy tree and well adapted to shelter-belt and ornamental planting; the second is worthy of trial in plantations, since its rate of growth and quality of wood make it valuable. COMMERCIAL RETURNS. Table 12 brings together for the principal species the most impor- tant facts relative to commercial returns. These figures are averages obtained from the large tables for individual species, based on all plantations which have had such treatment as to justify consider- ation. Plantations which show a net annual income, at 3 per cent, of $4 an acre or more are regarded as commercially successful. Judged by this standard, the only species which would have paid throughout are catalpa, with an average return of $5.18 per acre, and larch, with a return of $4.38 per acre. TABLE 12.— Average rate of growth and value of principal species. Species. Age. Number of trees per acre. Annual growth. Annual incre- ment per acre. Annual income per acre at 3 per cent. Diam- eter. Height. Hardy catalpa Years. 21 32 27 37 32 31 694 496 856 271 345 340 Inches. 0.32 .28 .18 .26 .30 .23 Feet. 1.8 1.6 1.0 1.5 1.9 1.6 Cords. 1.35 1.39 .54 .90 1.27 .89 $5.18 4.38 3.12 1.41 1.06 1.03 European larch. . (Js;> t'R orange Black walnut Silvf r maple White ash With catalpa, 10 plantations, out of 15 whose products were com- puted, have paid more than $4 per acre, while two of these have paid $9.35 and $16.70, respectively. Though the average indicated return [Cir. 81] 24 from catalpa is but little more than that from larch, it is often prefer- able to plant catalpa. It grows a trifle faster, can be utilized for posts and poles at a smaller size, and its wood is more durable. Besides, catalpa will grow well on ground that is too wet for larch, or which is flooded so often that success with farm crops is uncertain. Reference to Table 5 for larch shows that of the 16 plantations examined, 10 have paid more than $4 per acre, and of these two have paid more than $7 per acre. This indicates that if a market develops for larch posts and poles, as seems likely, planting larch will, at least be as profitable as raising ordinary farm crops. Because Osage orange has been planted mainly for hedges its value as a plantation tree has been passed over. That it is unsur- passed in soil adaptability and in hardiness has been amply demon- strated. The only danger lies in the northern part of the State, where it is likely to winterkill. The two Osage orange plantations examined show an average annual income of $3.12 per acre, a sum which undoubtedly could have been increased had the original spacing been closer. There is good reason to believe that Osage orange will pay on ground which is unsuited to catalpa or larch and which, at the same time, will not bring a proper return from farm crops. The average return from black walnut is low, since this tree requires many years to reach a size profitable to cut. It is true that one 20-year-old grove shows an annual income of $2.05 per acre, but this is computed for posts, and no owner of a walnut grove is likely to cut it for these. The groves in Whiteside and Morgan counties show annual incomes of $3.66 and $3.32 per acre, respectively, at the end of forty-nine and sixty-four years. These, however, are by far the best groves measured. Even under the best conditions walnut requires at least fifty years to reach a profitable cutting size, while in one hundred years the profit should be much larger. Few persons, however, are likely to undertake such a long-time investment. Silver maple and white ash are given, simply to show that there is little in the money returns to justify their planting. They grow well and will serve many useful purposes about the farm, but they are unsuitable as a purely commercial investment. THE MARKET FOB FOREST PRODUCTS. In order that commercial forest planting shall succeed, a market for the products is essential. At present the owners of forest planta- tions commonly use the posts and poles cut about their farms or sell them to their neighbors at the best price that can be obtained. It was found necessary in computing the values of the plantations studied to arbitrarily assign a uniform value to each of the various [Cir. 81] 25 classes of products. The attempt was made, in all cases, to make this arbitrary price a conservative one and one which the user of the products would.be justified in paying. There is reason to think, however, that in the future there will come to be a recognized market for the products of forest plantations with something like a uniform scale of prices. The supply of native white oak fence posts has become seriously depleted, and now the white cedar posts from Michigan and Wisconsin are being generally used. It is safe to assume, however, that this supply will be greatly diminished in. a few years, and then will come a corresponding increase in prices. The pronounced upward tendency in the prices of all kinds of forest products is certain to continue, and, so far as one can judge, the person who establishes forest plantations on the basis of present prices will receive considerably higher prices than he anticipates when the crop is harvested twenty or thirty years hence. THE URBANA PLANTATION. The University of Illinois in 1871 established at Urbana an experi- mental forest plantation covering about 13 acres and containing 20 species of forest trees. Its situation is typical of the central Illinois prairie, and conclusions drawn from a study of it will apply to a large portion of the State. In Table 13 are shown the size, rate of growth, and condition of the different species. All of the white, Austrian, and Scotch pine, European larch, Norway spruce, white elm, and black walnut were measured. Of the other species, typical sample rows and areas were taken. The age is counted from seed, and the rate of growth is figured on this basis. The diameters and heights are averages. TABLE 13. — Measurements in the Urbana plantation. Species. Age from seed. Number of trees meas- ured. Diame- ter breast- high. Height. Annual diameter increase. Condition. White pine Years. 35 405 Inches. 7.5 Feet. 40 Inch. 0 21 Good Scotch pine 35 112 8.6 40 .25 Poor. Austrian pine 35 81 5.9 35 .17 Very poor. European larch 34 267 7.3 50 .21 Excellent Norway spruce a5 146 7.3 45 .21 Fair. Conrpion catalpa 35 61 8.6 45 .25 Poor Hardy catalpa 38 22 8.8 35 31 Fair Osage orange . 35 39 8.1 30 .32 Do White elm 35 42 10.6 50 30 Excellent Black walnut 35 112 8.3 55 .24 Good. Butternut.. 35 37 6.0 40 .17 Poor Basswood 28 70 7.0 35 25 Good Honey locust 24 ' 45 6.3 35 .26 Do. Bur oak ... 24 190 4.9 35 .20 Excellent. Ailanthus 25 37 6.0 40 24 Poor Boxelder 27 67 6.8 50 .25 Good Silver maple.. 36 40 12.5 75 .35 Do Sugar maple 36 48 6.0 35 17 Do Green ash a5 635 7.4 50 .21 Do. Hickory 24 137 2.6 22 .11 Do Hickorv, transplanted 24 153 2.9 18 12 Do [Cir. 81] 26 The best developed species in the plantation are European larch, white pine, green, ash, and black walnut. These have formed straight, clear stems, due largely to close spacing and to pruning. Though the stand of larch, except that portion previously mentioned, which has failed because of insufficient drainage, is excellent, the crowns are neither large enough nor heavy enough to exclude the light, and in consequence the ground beneath bears a thick growth of weeds, grass, and underbrush. This, however, is held in check by cutting, and the trees are healthy. White pine is the only species which has established and main- tained a good forest floor. The ground is covered with needles and only a small amount of underbrush has come up. Sugar maple has partially succeeded in establishing forest conditions, but only in small isolated areas is this the case with the other species. Scotch pine has made a good diameter growth, but apparently has reached its limit in this respect. The stems are clear but crooked. Austrian pine is practically a failure. Some of the Norway spruce have died, and others are in poor condition. There are, however, a number of good trees, and the species shows its superiority to Scotch pine. Common catalpa has failed. The trees are badly formed and affected with rot. Hardy catalpa has made good diame- ter growth, but the stand is not dense enough to give straight stems. Several cases of frost crack occur. Osage orange is in open stand and the trees are very crooked. Black walnut has made good growth, but butternut is in bad shape. White elm, basswood, honey locust, silver and sugar maple, and boxelder have all done well. Bur oak has made slow growth, but the trees are in excellent condi- tion and at present would give from 2 to 3 posts each. Ailanthus has failed. Most of the trees have frozen back, and it is doubtful if any of those measured were original members of the plantation. Hickory includes both shellbark and big shellbark. When 3 years old some of the trees were transplanted to rows 4 by 8 feet apart, while the remainder were thinned to 4 by 4 feet. At present the transplanted trees are slightly larger in diameter, but shorter in height than the others. All are in good condition, but the rate of growth, which has been slow, would undoubtedly have been greater had sufficient cultivation been given. THINNING A FOREST PLANTATION. By the choice of species and by correctly spacing and thinning a forest plantation the owner can, within certain limits, produce any class of material he desires. With a knowledge of local requirements, the selection of proper species and the determination of spacing should not be difficult. Thinning, however, is much more complicated, and [Cir. 81] 27 should not be undertaken without a clear idea of its objects and of the methods by which it can best be done. The quantity of wood formed by a tree depends upon the area of leaf surface which is exposed to sunlight. A small leaf surface pro- duces a small amount of wood and a large leaf surface produces a large amount of wood. A healthy tree is constantly endeavoring to increase its leaf surface, and it is by taking advantage of this inherent tendency that the forester is enabled to control the amount and qual- ity of the wood produced. Trees increase their size in two ways — growth in height and growth in diameter. The rate of increase, however, is never greatest in both ways at the same time. Trees which are crowded while young grow rapidly in height, through the effort to get the crowns into the sun- light, but the diameter growth is correspondingly slow. Crowding produces long, slim stems, which serve as a basis upon which to form the valuable timber of later years. When the stem is of a sufficient height, thinning gives room for an increased crown development and, in consequence, a larger leaf surface in the trees remaining. Height growth then becomes less rapid and diameter growth more rapid. In other words, the desired height and straightness of stem having been obtained, the new wood tissue which is added now goes to in- crease the tree's diameter, and this begins the period of most profit- able development. Thus the natural tendency of trees toward rapid height growth when young is strengthened by crowding, and the later tendency to slower height growth and more rapid diameter growth is encouraged by thinning. With regard to their ability to bear shade, trees are divided into two classes — tolerant and intolerant. Tolerant trees are those which will bear more or less heavy shade in youth and which will, in consequence, develop fairly well even when overtopped by other trees. Intolerant trees are those which make poor growth or even die if sunlight is cut off. Kxamples of tolerant trees are spruce, sugar maple, and hem- lock; of intolerant trees, larch, black walnut, and yellow poplar. Tolerant trees will grow in very dense stand, and since their branches persist even when shaded it is necessary to crowd such trees at first in order to form good stems. When the desired form of stem has been produced the stand should be heavily thinned. Intolerant trees will grow in dense stands only when comparatively young, and thinning is less necessary with them than with tolerant trees. A plantation composed of rapid-growing species will, when from 10 to 20 years old, contain three distinct classes of trees: (1) Sup- pressed trees, those which have been outgrown by competitors and whose tops are completely overshadowed; (2) intermediate trees, those whose tops are more or less exposed to the sunlight but the [Cir. 81] 28 sides of whose crowns are shaded by neighboring trees; and (3) dominant trees, those which have been the most successful in the struggle for existence and whose crowns are fully exposed to sunlight. Left to themselves the dominant trees are the only ones capable of good future development. The intermediate trees will gradually become suppressed, and the suppressed trees will eventually die. This method-of nature, however, is wasteful. It produces good tim- ber with part of the trees, but allows the others to decay and die. Thinning at the proper time produces better trees with a larger per cent of the stand, and, in addition, utilizes the timber which is removed. The frequency and extent of thinnings should depend upon the kind of soil, the age of the plantation, and the class of material desired. Theoretically, frequent but light thinnings will give the best results. In practice, however, it is best to thin only at stated periods, when enough material may be taken out to compensate for the cost. With regard to the manner of removal, thinnings may be designated as regular and irregular. In regular thinnings a certain definite pro- portion of the stand is removed, as one-half, one-third, etc., without regard to the condition of the individual trees. In irregular thin- nings the number of trees to be removed is determined by inspection and consideration of the needs of the plantation. To make an irregu- lar thinning requires a much better knowledge of the laws of tree growth than is necessary for a regular thinning, but if well executed it will result in the production of better material. Regular thinnings are best adapted to regularly spaced plantations, in which conditions are uniform throughout. For example, if a plan- tation is spaced 5 by 5 feet by the square system, one-half of the trees can be removed and the remaining stand will be spaced practically 7 by 7 feet, with the new rows running diagonally to the original ones. A thinning of this kind is shown in the accompanying diagram, in which the trees to be removed are underscored: T^ T T_ T T_ T Irregular thinnings are especially adapted to plantations which have grown unevenly or which are irregularly spaced. The manner of executing an irregular thinning is shown in the following diagram, in which the dominant trees are indicated by D, the intermediate trees by I, and the suppressed trees by S. The trees to be removed are underscored. I D I S D D S JL D -L D JL JL D I S I D S D I [Cir. 81] 29 All the suppressed trees should be cut. In the first row, the first intermediate tree should be cut, because it is being overtopped by the adjacent dominant tree and will have passed its prime before another thinning takes place. The second intermediate tree in the first row has room in which to grow for several years and should stand. In the second row the intermediate tree should be removed, because it will be suppressed by the two adjacent dominant trees. In the third row I.5 3s $? 5? D.7 ^ I? 9? I? 3? 2? £ 3* D.9 £ t5 D6 g D7 g ] 5 g Dfl g D9 if ] 5 2? D6 tf D7 j6 pis D7D<7/f ^ '$? #D.7 D73?D.7 /D10 I.6 D.7D.7 DfDf Iftftfj? ^J^D7^ D8 D83? I.7 ^B]0!.7 ,£* I a 2* Df^fDfD8 ^* IJD10 I.7 D.10 j^ J^ 1 6 D8 ^0 ^Dio je^t D8 ^ ^SD9 D7 Dd D9^ \7 j#j£ l7D9 D9 D|o D[°^ I.5 Di1 D.8 D? D? D8 J? D.7 BIO^D7 D9 ^D8 D9 ^4 DI2 34 B8 I6 I6 ^ D9 I.6 _3? I>.8 I7 16>^ ^.8 I>.7 D.9 pf D9 D8 $? D8 I6 D6 \7 D9 D10 D|° I6 ,lf ^f ^f D7 D6 D.6 Jf D.9 ,jf D]2 2* Df D.7 D7 D]1 }? ^ D" I6 ^f ^f D7 D9 " I.5 D" Dio I4^ I.5 ^D9 ^f^f D7 1.5 D10 I? ^If Df D8 D8D9 j5 D6 16 ^ D7 $X D7 j6 D7 ^2T DIO D8 j5 p? 5=5uppre5bed tree. I-intermediate, D'dominant; numerals show diameter breast high; /'to be cut FIG. 1.— Method of thinning catalpa plantation No. 5 (see page 10). the first two intermediate trees have space in which to grow for some time longer, while the third one has a poorer chance and should be cut. Thinnings are designated as moderate when all the suppressed trees and a portion of the intermediate trees are removed, and as heavy when all the suppressed and intermediate trees and some of the domi- nant trees also are taken out. The thinning just illustrated, there- fore, is a moderate thinning. The suppressed trees might even be left, [Cir. 81] 30 so far as their physical effect upon the other trees is concerned. There are good reasons, however, why suppressed trees should be cut. They will make little, if any, future growth, and their wood will deteriorate in quality. Eventually they will die and may become a breeding place for injurious fungi and insects. PLANTING PLAN. The Forest Service has made a number of plans for forest planta- tions in Illinois. One which should have a permanently instructive value is that which is being carried out by the Northern Illinois State Normal School at De Kalb. A rectangular area, 198 feet by 281 feet, was set aside for the plantation. The soil is a black prairie loam, from 8 to 12 inches deep, underlaid by a gravelly subsoil which tree roots can easily penetrate. There are 54 rows of trees, 198 feet long and 5.2 feet apart, running east and west. Each row contains approximately 33 trees, spaced 6 feet apart in the row. Beginning on the north side of the plantation, the first nine rows are European larch, the next 36 rows an equal mixture of black walnut, white ash, and wild cherry, and the last 9 rows, on the south side, white pine. This required 297 seedlings each of larch and pine, and 396 each of walnut, white ash, and wild cherry, a total of 1,780 trees. On the accompanying diagram (fig. 2), which shows the arrangement of the plantation, larch is designated by L, white pine by P, white ash by A, black cherry by C, and black walnut by W. It will be seen that the first trees in alternate rows are, respectively, at the edge of the planta- tion and 3 feet from the edge. The equilateral-triangle method of spacing was used, since it places each tree equally distant from all surrounding trees. In this way the ground is fully utilized and the trees will develop symmetrically. In the mixed plantation of walnut, ash, and cherry each tree is com- pletely surrounded by trees of the two other species, and an ideal mixture is thus secured. SHELTER BELTS. Forest planting in Illinois has been mainly for shelter belts, and the species used have been the rapid-growing ones. When it is con- sidered, however, that the shelter belt around the farm buildings should be as permanent as the buildings themselves, it might in the end be better to plant slower-growing, longer-lived species, such as white pine, elm, oak, sugar maple, or even ash. Since the chief function of a shelter belt is protection against winter storms, white pine, wherever it will thrive, will serve tliis purpose well, and will, in addition, last for many years. [Cir. 81] 31 A proper mixture of species and subsequent thinning will give a shelter belt which is both rapid growing and long-lived. The mix- ture should consist of a fast-growing, light-demanding species for 6' P P P Fig. 2.— Diagram of pare and mixed plantations. the temporary tree; and a slower-growing, shade-enduring species for the permanent tree. These requirements are met by a mixture of silver maple and sugar maple. The trees should be planted 7 feet apart and in squares. In the following diagram, which 'shows the [Cir. 81] 32 method of planting, silver maple is referred to by Sv and sugar maple bySg: Sv Sg Sv Sg Sg Sv Sg Sv Sv Sg Sv Sg Sg Sv Sg Sv In plantations the average annual rate- of growth of silver maple is approximately one-third inch in diameter and 2 feet in height, while that of sugar maple is about one-half as great. Sugar maple, however, is shade enduring, and even though overtopped by the sil- ver maple will continue to grow. With a spacing of 7 by 7 feet, as given in the diagram, the silver maple should, at the end of eighteen years, average about 35 feet in height and 6 inches in diameter, and the suger maple should be 3 inches in diameter and from 15 to 20 feet high. The silver maple should be removed as fast as it becomes a serious menace to the sugar maple. Its complete removal will leave a pure stand of sugar maple, spaced 10 by 10 feet in rows running diagonally to the original ones. SUGGESTIONS FOB PLANTING. 1 Before attempting to establish a forest plantation the behavior of certain species when planted with others should be clearly under- stood. Larch is a pronounced light-demanding tree, and if planted with another species whose rate of growth is equal to or greater than its own it will suffer severely. The intolerance of walnut leads to such heavy natural thinning that the crown cover is broken and grass obtains a foothold. But both larch and walnut might be under- planted with some slower-growing, shade-enduring species to the general improvement of the plantation. Again, it is quite possible that a mixture of catalpa and Osage orange would be beneficial for both species. Once planted, the various species differ in the amount of care which must be given them. A close-spaced larch plantation needs to be cultivated for only a few years, and will then form excellent poles without further attention. On the other hand, to secure straight, healthy catalpa trees, it is advisable to cut them back two or three years after setting, and to select the best of the resulting sprouts for the permanent trees. Dead branches should be pruned wherever their presence might lay the trees open to disease. Pruning is an important factor in assisting Osage orange to grow straight enough for fence posts. Approved : JAMES WILSOIST, Secretary of Agriculture. WASHINGTON, D. C., February 26, 1907. [Cir. 81] o I I Division of Forestry University of California FOREST EXTENSION IN THE MIDDLE WEST. By WILLIAM L. HALL, 'A*xi*t(iiit Xiiprrinti'iiih'ut <>f Tree Plant! IKJ, Dlrlxioit of Forestry. INTRODUCTION. There is no question but that a certain amount of forest planting on the prairies is profitable to the owner and helpful to the country. To what definite extent such planting can be carried with profit has not been and can not be demonstrated except by trial. Those who have studied the question most thoroughly and over the greatest area are convinced that extensive planting will be profitable, but their specific recommendations, both as to extent of planting and methods of procedure, have been local in scope and application. No system for general operations has been proposed. It is the purpose of this article to go somewhat beyond local recom- mendations, and to show that the time has arrived for the extensive development of forest plantations throughout the Middle West, to indicate the sphere of general planting, and suggest a plan of pro- cedure in carrying out the work. Profit is the only basis upon which this system can be carried into effect, and the only inducement for attempting it. Before a man can be induced to plant trees with the aim of reaping a forest crop he must be convinced that such a crop, for the time it occupies the land, will be more profitable than any other. The growing of timber is an investment on much longer time than the growing of any ordinary crop. Money is in vested 'which can not begin to give returns for several years. No one will begin such an investment unless he feels that, in the end, it will be more profitable than any series of short- time investments he could make. PAST PLANTING. Two facts are clear concerning Western plantations: First, there is a general aimlessness and lack of system in both planting and manage- ment; second, there is but a small percentage of thrifty plantations. In nine cases out of ten, planters have taken little thought to make their trees serve any definite purpose of utility. In localities where post timbers are scarce and dear, }rards and fence rows have been filled 145 146 YEAKBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AC4RICULTURE. with trees of no practical value: where winds are terrific and almost constant, plantations have been established toward the quarter from which no winds blow; trees that thrive best close together are planted far apart; those that thrive in porous soils are unhappily placed on clay. It all shows that there is not yet an adequate conception of the value of forest trees and the purposes they can be made to serve. Some plantations, established with no thought of returns, have grown into considerable value on account of the posts, poles, and fuel they have produced; but these are exceptions. A limited number of plantations have been established and devel- oped for profit. Most of these are Catalpa plantations in Kansas and Nebraska. Locust (Black Locust), Black Walnut, and Ash have been much planted in these and adjoining States. Some Red Juniper (Red Cedar) has been planted in Nebraska and Iowa. The majority of these plantations fall short of their maximum returns from lack of congenial soil or proper management, but some of them are striking exceptions to the general rule, revealing skill and wisdom in their conception, and giving promise of rich returns. A 10-year- old block in the Catalpa plantation of L. W. Yaggy. near Hutchinson. Kans., showed a net value of $197.55 per acre.1 A 25-year-old planta- tion of Red Juniper of F. C. F. Schultz, near Menlo, Iowa, showed a net value of $200. 54 per acre. Many other plantations showing the same values could be named. These equal or exceed the returns given by agricultural crops for such a period of years." The value of the above-mentioned plantations proves conclusively that timber can be grown for certain uses in a comparatively short time, and that it has a high value when grown. Past planting shows that the growing of forest trees is a profitable enterprise, but it also shows that the work must be beg*un and carried out with judgment and skill if satisfactory returns are to be had. No mere probabilities of soil or trees can be accepted; no slipshod methods can prevail. The same careful management must prevail in tree grow- ing as is required in any other business. We have ample experience from past operations to understand fully the conditions necessary for success. For more than twenty years planting has been carried on, under great diversity of soil, moisture, and temperature, with all kinds of trees, and by every sort of method. The results present ever}7 degree of variation from absolute failure to perfect success. A careful study of these experiences reveals in every locality the methods requisite to the successful development of plan- tations. 1 The Division of Forestry has this year made extensive investigations in plantations of this character. The estimates here given are based upon actual measurements of the trees and present prices in the market. FOREST EXTENSION IN THE MIDDLE WEST. 147 THE PRESENT TIME PROPITIOUS FOR FOREST PLANTING. The diminution of natural timber in the Mississippi Valley has been general. On the eastern side the destruction of forests has been greatest because there the supply was greatest. The valley of the Wabash River is now cleared in most places to the banks of the stream. A prominent farmer of Vigo County, Ind., told the writer recently that he had out a half dozen remaining white oaks to use for posts, and that he would soon have to grow his own posts or buy them. That this sentiment is prevailing throughout Indiana, is shown by the fact that the Division of Forestry has been called upon this year to make plans for the planting of a number of tracts of timber of from 5 to 50 acres each in different parts of the State. On the west side of the Mississippi a condition of greater scarcity pre- vails. Little timber is left in western Iowa and Missouri. The valleys of eastern Kansas, which produced large quantities of Black Walnut and Bur Oak, have largely been cleared. (PI. XII, fig. 1.) Arkansas holds the greatest supply of valuable timber in the Middle West, but it is filled with sawmills, many of them of immense capacity, running day and night. The most valuable post and tie timbers of Arkansas are White Oak and Bur Oak, the supply of which is rapidly diminishing. There }^et remains a remnant of Red Juniper in southwest Missouri and eastern Indian Territory, but it can scarcely last a dozen years longer, as the regions are now penetrated by railroads, and it is being shipped out as fast as it can be cut. Originally, the Red Juniper grew in con- siderable abundance in northwest Oklahoma along the Canadian and Cimarron rivers. A few years ago posts could be bought for ± or 5 cents each. The supply is exhausted, and at the present time but a few posts can be obtained at even 12 or 15 cents each. The Red Juniper of the Platte Valley in Nebraska has gone in the same way. No natu- ral supply from either of these regions need be reckoned on in the future. Osage Orange as a native timber is exhausted. The consequence of this diminution of post, pole, and tie timber has been a general rise in prices. Good fence posts are now selling throughout the region at from 10 to 20 cents each. Ten years ago they could be bought at from 8 to 12 cents. Telegraph and telephone poles are worth 50 per cent more now than twenty years ago, and rail- road cross-ties 25 per cent more. In the Great Plains, where there was no natural timber, prices have always been high and are now not much higher than ten or twenty years ago. On extensive areas of the Great Plains and the Mississippi Valley, prices of posts, telegraph poles, and cross-ties much exceed the cost of growing them. This difference promises profit in timber growing. While prices are high enough for profits under present conditions, }Tet conditions are bound to improve. Every year finds the natural timber 148 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. supply scarcer and prices higher. Mr. J. Hope Sutor, general manager of the Ohio and Little Kanawha Railroad, after giving the matter care- ful consideration, estimates the value of a cross-tie fifteen years hence at 75 cents. Mr. Sutor also says uno material has yet been found as a substitute for the wooden tie, and no satisfactory economical method of preserving the life of the wood or prolonging its durability has yet been discovered; and, excepting the minor questions of properly season- ing and piling, the use of the tie plate, suitable ballast and perfect drainage, and incidentally climatic conditions, no serious consideration of the future tie supply has yet been had."1 What is here said of cross-ties is true of all other timbers used in contact with the ground. While no metallic su bstitute has been found, their durability has not been greatly prolonged. The use of these materials must continue and will grow rather than diminish. Mr. Sutor's estimate of 75 cents for a cross-tie fifteen years in the future allows for an increase of about 50 per cent over present prices. This is a conservative estimate, and it is not unlikely that posts will increase as much and telegraph poles much more in that time. From every reasonable point of view, it appears that great profits are to be made in the growing of forest trees in the next twenty -five years. Every condition is so favorable that the matter passes from probability to certainty. That operations should begin in the Middle West rather than in other regions is due to the fact that there the most favorable conditions exist; there the supply of natural products is most nearly exhausted, prices are highest, soil most fertile, and peo- ple most familiar with the processes of developing plantations. Opera- tions will not progress far in that region before they begin in regions of the extreme East and Wrest. SPHERE OF GENERAL PLANTING. It is necessary in this connection to point out the purposes for which timber may be grown, the sections for successful operations, and the extent to which planting may safely be carried. While it is easy to go from fact to assumption on such a theme, yet the argument goes no further than to cover such simple operations as we may be positive about, in regions of which we have personal acquaintance. PURPOSES FOR WHICH TIMBER MAY BE GROWN. FENCE POSTS. — The timbers best suited for this purpose are Osage Orange, Locust, Hardy Catalpa, Red Juniper, Mulberry, Black Walnut, Oak, and Ash. Osage Orange posts have been obtained from native timber and from old hedge rows, mostly from the latter source. This tree has been used Address delivered at the July meeting of the Central Association of Railroad Offi- cers at Louisville, Ky., and published in the Railway Age, July 27, 1900. Yearbook U. S Dept. of Agr.culture, 1900. PLATE XII. « = Yearbook U. S Dept. of Agriculture, 1900. PLATE Xlli. \::,on of Forestry University of California FOREST EXTENSION IN THE MIDDLE WEST. 149 extensively as a hedge plant in eastern Kansas, Missouri, Iowa, and Illinois. Hedge rows sometimes turn out as many as 25 posts to the rod. It has seldom been planted except in this way, but will grow well in plantations. Its durability in contact with the soil is greater than that of any other wood commonly used, and it justly ranks high as a post timber. It requires from twelve to fifteen years to reach suitable size for posts. Locust (Black Locust) is a well-known post timber. It grows rapidly, is well adapted to hard, stiff soils, and stands more drought than any other timber used for posts, These properties make it very popular in many parts of the West. The Hard}r Catalpa has been more abundantly planted as a post tim- ber than any other tree. It is especially popular, and deservingly so, in eastern Kansas and Nebraska, where several large plantations have been made. It does best on deep, porous soils. Its durability in the ground has probably been overestimated by some but not fully appreciated by the public generally. When cut at the proper season its durability nearly equals that of the Osage Orange, but if young wood be cut when full of sap it is subject to attack by a fungus which destroys it rapidly. If to its durability we add its rapid growth, good form, lightness, strength, elasticity, immunity from checking or becoming unduly hard, we have an arra}T of good qualities that to many men of experience place it first among post timbers. It requires from eight to twelve years to become large enough for use. Red Juniper (Red Cedar) is a durable and valuable post timber, com- manding good prices everywhere. Its main drawback is its slow growth, and it may never become popular as a domestic post timber except in limited areas. Twelve or fifteen years are required to grow it. Mulberry, especially the Russian type, has made a good record in some sections of the West. It grows rapidly, is usually more or less crooked, but lasts well in the ground. It does best in porous, sandy soils, and when grown thickly in the row. It can be used in ten years after planting. Black Walnut posts are used extensively in some localities. Posts from the old wood last a long time, but those from the young wood soon decay. It is of slower growth than Catalpa and Locust. (PI. XIII, fig. 2.) Oak, principally White Oak, Bur Oak, and Post Oak, has furnished more posts in the past than any other timber, the native trees being used. As the supply is exhausted in various sections its use will largely cease; it grows too slowly to be planted extensively. Ash, principally White Ash and Green Ash, has been planted throughout northern Nebraska and South Dakota. Its growth is rather slow, from twelve to fifteen years being required to produce a post of 150 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. good size. Its life in the ground is quite satisfactory, and for the region it seems to be the best post timber. The use of posts is now enormous, and on the increase. Fences requiring them are the only kind now being established in this region. No rail fences are being built, and no hedges planted, except a few in Oklahoma. This being true, a very great demand for posts must ensue and continue from year to year. Since posts sell for higher prices in regions remote from natural timber, on account of added transportation costs, it follows that such regions are the best in which to have an available supply, and, if the conditions are favorable to the growth of timber, plantations will there prove most profitable. But in ten or fifteen }^ears many regions which now have an abundant sup- ply will show a scarcity, and prices will be high, so that in such localities it would be profitable to be planting timber even now. TELEGRAPH, TELEPHONE, AND ELECTRIC POWER AND LIGHT POLES.— The timbers most used for these purposes are Tamarack, White Cedar, and Red Juniper. Their value is fully known, and if the supply could hold out nothing would displace them. Their life in the ground is about ten years, so that every decade sees one generation of poles worn out and another cut to replace it. To the poles required for renewal is to be added the number required for neAV lines and sj^stems. The total is very large. The telegraph lines of the country require nearly 600,000 poles annually, at a cost of not less than a million dollars, and the telephone and electric car lines and light systems use as many more. The price of poles for such uses varies immensely, ranging from $1 to $50 each. If an advance in the price of post timbers is to be expected in the next fifteen years, a much greater advance may be expected in timbers of this class. A post may be grown compara- tively quickly, and in an exigency almost anything can be used; but a telegraph pole must be long, straight, and of good quality. Timbers that fulfill these conditions are few, and a number of years are required to grow them. When the natural supply runs low, high prices will prevail. The man will be fortunate, then, who has a plantation of salable Red Juniper or Catalpa. Here again the Catalpa will show its excellence. RAILROAD CROSS-TIES. — The timbers most in use for this purpose at the present time are White Oak, Post Oak, Bur Oak, White Cedar, Red Juniper, and Chestnut, with White Oak preferred. Prices range from 30 to 60 cents each for standard sizes; 620,000,000 cross-ties are in use in the railroads of the country and 90,000,000 are required annually for renewals, taking the timber from an estimated area of 200,000 acres. Railroad officials realize that tie timber is becoming scarce, and assert that prices are rising rapidly. Street car and sub- urban lines are now using many million feet of lumber for cross-ties. It is certain that timber can be grown for railroad ties at a profit. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900. PLATE XIV. FOREST EXTENSION IN THE MIDDLE WEST. 151 Two extensive plantations of Catalpa at Farlington, Kans., established twenty years ago, have now some trees large enough for ties. The soil of the locality is not well suited to the Catalpa, and the manage- ment of the plantation has not been the best. Hardy Catalpa and Locust can be grown to the proper size for cross-ties in fifteen years under favorable conditions of soil and management. Only in certain localities of the West will the Oaks be planted for this purpose. The White Oak requires thirty or forty years to make the growth that the Hardy Catalpa makes in fifteen, whereas it is generally conceded that there is little difference in their value as tie timbers. GENERAL LUMBER PURPOSES. — When timber is large enough for cross-ties it is approaching readiness for other uses. There will always be great demand for this class of lumber for use in furniture, cars, implements, and vehicles. Whether it will be profitable to hold plantations for these uses rather than to sell them for the uses men- tioned can not as yet be determined. (PI. XIV.) SECTIONS OF SUCCESSFUL OPERATIONS. Two features must characterize the sections of the country that per- mit of successful work in forest growing: First, the natural conditions must be congenial to the species used; second, the section must lie in or near a territory of good demand. SPECIES AND SECTIONS ADAPTED FOR PROFITABLE PLANTING. — It is generally known that each of the species named above thrives best only in certain sections, and it has'already been stated that the demand is greater and prices higher in some sections than in others. The attempt is made below to point out for each of the species mentioned the sec- tions in which these two requirements are to be met. Some localities are omitted on account of minor area, others on account of lack of information concerning them, still others because one of the two requirements is not present, and only those which can be recommended with absolute assurance are mentioned for each species. Oxage Orange. — Valleys of the Red River, tributaries, and adjacent lowlands from western Arkansas to central Oklahoma; valleys of streams in eastern Indian Territory, eastern Kansas, and western Missouri. Locust (Black Locust). — Oklahoma, Indian Territory, southern Kan- sas to Arkansas River, uplands of eastern Kansas and western Missouri; also hillsides of southern Indiana and Ohio. Hardy Catalpa. — Valley of Arkansas River from west line of Arkan- sas to Garden City, Kans. ; valleys of other streams in central and eastern Kansas and Nebraska to Platte River; southern Iowa in local- ities having porous subsoil; also southern Illinois and western Indiana The Wabash River Valley is especially favorable. 152 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Red Juniper (Red Cedar). — Valley of the Platte River, eastern Nebraska, eastern third of South Dakota, central, western, and north- ern Iowa, hillsides of southern Ohio, portions of southwest Missouri. Russian Mulberry. — Sandy valleys of central Oklahoma, central Kansas, and southern part of central Nebraska. Black Walnut. — Valleys with rich, deep, well-drained soil in eastern Kansas, Missouri, eastern Nebraska, southern Iowa; also valleys of Wabash and Kankakee rivers in Illinois and Indiana. Bur Oak. — Valleys of Niobrara and Missouri rivers in Nebraska and South Dakota; immediate vicinity of Devils Lake, N. Dak. ; also valley of the Red River of the North. Post Oak and White Oak. — On waste land of gravelly or sandy nature in eastern Oklahoma, Indian Territory, western Arkansas, and on the same sort of land in Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. Ash (Green Ash and White Ash). — Northern Nebraska, eastern South Dakota, southeastern North Dakota, southwestern Minnesota, and western Iowa. Tamarack. — Lake and swamp district of Turtle Mountains, North Dakota; marsh districts of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan. Not likely to succeed where marshes have been drained in northern Illinois and Indiana. Of the trees considered, the Hardy Catalpa has better prospects for success, in its section, than any other. This is due to the ease with which it can be managed, its rapid growth, and its adaptability to a large category of uses. That it thrives in but a limited section is to be regretted. Nevertheless, its territory is large enough for great quantities of it to be produced. VALUABLE TREES OTHER THAN THOSE MENTIONED ABOVE. — It is freely admitted that there are many trees valuable for planting in the Middle West not included among those given above. All the Elms, Maples, Poplars, and Willows are omitted, and the writer knows well that they have a high silvicultural value; but in a system of forest operations instituted for profit and carried on under competition, such trees can as yet have little place. They have been widely planted and will continue to be planted for shade, shelter, and ornament, but not for profit. In their influence upon the country they have a high value, and as a class they are not to be lost sight of or disregarded in forest planting; but since this article concerns itself only with those elements that lend themselves readily to the immediate extension of forest opera- tions, a general discussion of these trees is not included. EXTENT TO WHICH PLANTING MAY BE CARRIED. The area for profitable tree planting ten years ago was thought to be limited to the Great Plains. It extends now to sections in the entire FOREST EXTENSION IN THE MIDDLE WEST. 153 Middle West. Since the profits of timber growing have become man- ifest, people have become imbued with the tree-planting spirit. There will be more trees planted in the spring of 1901 than have ever been planted before in a single year, but the number to be planted will fall short of the number required. If 500,000 acres of timber should be planted annually, well distributed throughout the Middle West, the production would yet be inadequate to meet the requirements of the country, and the planters could still hope for liberal profits. Ulti- mately this figure will no doubt be reached. METHODS OF PROCEDURE. PLANTATIONS ALREADY ESTABLISHED. The area of planted timber in the Middle West aggregates many hundred thousand acres. Some of this timber is on the decline, some at its best, and some growing into greater value each year. To the last class belong most of the plantations made for profit. Notable among these are the large Catalpa plantations of central and eastern Kansas. Nearly all of these plantations were established and maintained at first by careful and businesslike methods in the hands of skillful men. Such methods were continued three or four years, and, the young forests well established, the owners thought the battle won and remitted their attentions. The time came for thinning, but it was not done. The trees struggled with one another, and some of the most vigorous managed to thin for themselves by killing their neighbors, but at a great expense to their own growth and vitality. This is true of several of the well-known plantations. They need judicious thinning under the immediate direction of one who fully understands forest operations. Their management from this time on may make a differ- ence of thousands of dollars in their returns. It would be an act of wisdom on the part of the owners to seek the advice of practical for- esters in the future management of these plantations. A large number of plantations have been established within the last three years. From these, excellent returns may be expected, for in almost every case they are in the hands of men who appreciate their importance and know how to manage them properly for the object in view. Within the last year nearly one hundred plantations have been estab- lished in cooperation with the Division of Forestry under its plan of practical assistance to tree planters. In each case an expert of the Division has made an examination of the land, and, after consulting the owner on the objects to be attained, has prepared a plan for the establishment and management of the plantation. Profit has not been the sole object in all cases, but it is a leading feature in nearly all. The Division will direct the management of these plantations from 154 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. year to year, and it is believed to be possible in this way to make them fully successful and profitable to their owners. Most of them are small, ranging from 5 to 50 acres, but many will be extended over larger areas in the future. (PI. XV.) FUTURE PLANTATIONS. It may be expected that the plantations to be first established will be small. On individual farms such tracts will be planted to timber as can be spared from annual crops, usually from 5 to 20 acres. Some- times men of large farms and ample means will afforest 100 acres or more. Larger operations than can be handled with ease and thorough- ness should not be attempted. The main object of such plantations should be the production of materials required on the farm and in the immediate locality. While operations will be carried on generally in small plantations, the time has come when men of means can get large returns from the development of plantations on extended areas. There are reasons for believing that the work can be carried on more successfully by com- panies than by individuals. The long-time nature of the investment adapts it more especially to company control. The life of a company is permanent, while the life of an individual may cease at any time and throw the investment into hands that fail to carry it out. Com- panies are also likely to operate on a larger scale than individuals, and large operations will give better returns than small ones. All planta- tions of this class should be extensive enough to warrant the perma- nent employment of a resident forester of skill and ability, and should be carried on in sections most suitable to the work. To find such sections is the first step, to fail in which is to fail utterly. RAILROAD PLANTING. The question arises, Since the railroads will be large consumers of timbers that will have to be grown, why should the}r not establish plantations along their lines ? The question has been considered by a number of companies, and operations have been attempted by a few. There is no reason why they should not undertake the work and carry it out successfully. Most of them hold land that is well adapted to forest trees, and by planting tracts of sufficient size to meet their demands, they will greatly reduce their future expenses. It is as prac- ticable for railroads to produce their own timber as it is to mine the coal they use. WORKING SYSTEM. While men may be convinced of the profits in forest plantations, those not familiar with their nature and requirements will find many obstacles to surmount if they attempt, unaided, the work of develop- ing them. The subject is yet too new for men generally to have given Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900. PLATE XV. N° 81 Farm ofMr.dRandolph,iMileEa$tofWaterman,Parke Co.lndiana S.E.J/4 See. z andN.E.y* Sec. 11 T. trN:H. 9, Wz 1dPr. Mer. S.E & SEC 2 TOTAL AREA1 OF FARM *= 151,28 ACRES I 4? PROPOSED COMMERCIAL PLANTATION Planting Plan for Ornamental Plantation,, trees IK ft. x IK ft. T M T L M=£oft Maple = 7SlreesprAcre L =J3lack • Locus t= 75 •• - T =Tulip-lree =isi • * • for Commercial, Planter lion.- . frees 4ft. *4ft. C C C C c c c c c c c c c c c c C=HarctyCatnlpa =srza treespr.Acre DIAGRAM SHOWING A REPRESENTATIVE PLANTING PLAN FOR A SMALL FARM. FOREST EXTENSION IN THE MIDDLE WEST. 155 it thorough and exhaustive study. Even farmers have no clear con- ception of the adaptations of trees to soils or to particular sections of the country, and very few seem fully to understand the best methods of developing a forest plantation. For the individual, these are diffi- cult subjects, requiring both study and travel, but what is difficult for the individual in this case is easy for the Government, which, through the Division of Forestry, can readily investigate the entire subject and determine such matters as sections of adaptation, kinds of trees to be used, and soils and methods best adapted to each species. It is appropriate that this information be supplied free of charge to the person entering upon forest operations, and to this end the Division of Forestry instituted the plan of practical assistance to tree planters. Its purpose from the first has been "to give such aid to planters that wood lots, shelter belts, wind-breaks, and all other economic planta- tions of forest trees may be so well established and cared for as to attain their greatest usefulness and most permanent value to their owners." Under the provisions of this plan, the farms of applicants are vis- ited and examined by an expert of the Division, who makes a careful investigation of all conditions affecting tree growth. A planting plan is then prepared for the owner upon the basis of local conditions and requirements. The plan embodies complete and detailed instruc- tions concerning the location, establishment, and management of the plantation. In no case does the Division furnish seeds or trees, or participate in any degree in the expenses of planting and caring for the plantation, but the visit of inspection is always free, and the plant- ing plan is usually without cost to the planter. GENERAL RESULTS OF THE COOPERATIVE PLAN. A careful study of the conditions of the country in connection with this work is convincing that the time is at hand for great extension of timber growing by reason of the returns to be received from it. The sphere for planting is extensive and profits, under good methods, are certain. At the same time the Division of Forestry is able to give more efficient service than in the past, on account of more extensive study of the conditions, needs, and possibilities of the country. It stands ready to advise on choice of soils and kinds of trees, on local obstacles or advantages likely to affect success; to give opinions and advice on lines of forestry that have greatest prospect of profit, as well as to point out regions where such lines can be most propitiously carried out, and to prepare planting plans embodying methods to be followed in the establishment and management of such plantations. That planters will continue to seek Government cooperation is assured by the great favor which the work is meeting. The visit of the expert forester to an applicant usually has a salutary influence 156 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. upon the entire community in which he lives. Frequently several plans are made in a community where but one was anticipated. It seems reasonable to hope that the influence of the Division may be thus extended to almost every locality where trees can be profitably grown. Its influence will be not only that of stimulation, but of regulation and direction as well, in all planting operations. From such a system of forestry will arise maximum returns to the individual and greatest benefits to the community concerned. At the same time the people will become educated to a higher appreciation of the value of forests, and the country at large will gain a unique and valuable accession to its forest system. Issued August 30, 1910. United States Department of Agriculture, FOREST SERVICE— CIRCULAR 183. HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester. FOREST PLANTING LEAFLET. Division of Fore LOBLOLLY PINE (Pinus taeda) . University of Cali£< LOCAL NAMES. Loblolly pine is the largest and most rapid-growing pine indige- nous to the southeastern part of the United States, and one of the most desirable trees for planting in that region. On account of the many different conditions under which it grows, and the consequent differences in form, bark, grain of the wood, and the proportion of sapwood, it not only has many local names, but the different forms frequently pass under different names in the same locality. The names most commonly given to it are longleaf pine, used in eastern Virginia and in other places where the tree is associated with pines having short needles ; sJiortleaf- pine, applied when associated with longleaf pine; swamp pine and slash pine, used to designate the place of growth, the latter name restricted to the largest trees; old-field pine, indicating the place of growth; sap pine and blackbark pine, applied to second-growth trees. Lob- lolly pine is a name which originated in Mississippi and Louisiana, and which designates the place of growth, loblolly being the local name for a thicket swamp. Its lumber along the Atlantic coast is generally marketed under the trade name of " North Carolina pine." FORM AND SIZE OF TREES GROWN IN PLANTATIONS. There are no old plantations, but the trees will have about the same rate of growth in plantations as in the old-field stands and pro- duce the same quality of wood. The usual range of size of second- growth and old-field trees at 45 years of age is from 65 to 90 feet in height and from 14 to 24 inches in diameter, and trees in plantations can be expected to attain these proportions. In young trees the stem continues through the crown without dividing, but as the tree grows older the trunk usually divides into massive, spreading branches, which form the upper part of the oval thin-foliaged crown. Mature trees grown in old-field stands are characterized by slightly tapering trunks which are destitute of branches fo£ two-thirds of the height of the tree. The bark of rapid-growing young trees is very dark brown and furrowed; that of older trees is red-brown, broken into rectangular plates, which are from 2 to 3 inches thick near the ground, but much thinner above. 54479°— Cir. 183—10 PLANTING RANGE, The natural range of loblolly pine is largely restricted to the coastal plain region of the Southern States. It is suitable for planting from southern New Jersey through the coastal plain and Piedmont plateau region to western Tennessee, southeastern Kansas, and east- ern Oklahoma, and as far west as the line of the ninety-sixth merid- ian in Texas. It is not advisable to plant this species above an alti- tude of 1,200 feet. SOIL REQUIREMENTS. Loblolly pine adapts itself to both wet and dry soils. It is not exacting in regard to texture, and grows well on coarse sands and compact clays. Its best growth, however, is made on moist, sandy soils. GROWTH IN PLANTATIONS. The rate of growth of loblolly pine in plantations will vary with the soil and drainage, but on soils of good quality it is one of the most rapid-growing trees, especially in its youth. Dominant trees fre- quently make annual height growths of 3 feet for several years dur- ing the first and second decades of life; and the annual diameter increase may amount to one-half inch during the same period. The larger trees in stands in old fields on good soil have about the height, diameter, and yield shown in the following table : Height, diameter, and yields of larger trees in old fields. Age. Approxi- mate height. Approxi- mate diameter. Volume in board feet. Volume in cubic feet (including bark). Years. 20 feet. 50 Inches. 6 Board feet. Cubicfeet. 30 40 70 80 8 11 22 70 15 28 Plantations on good soils should yield as heavily as old-field stands. On very sandy soils or heavy red clays, or in very swampy or very dry situations, the growth would be slower and the yield lower than that given in the table. VALUE OF WOOD GROWN IN PLANTATIONS. The wood of loblolly pine grown in plantations will be of the same quality and suitable for the same uses as that grown in old-field stands. It is coarse-grained, knotty, and largely sapwood. Heart - wood seldom forms in trees less than 1 foot in diameter. It is only moderately resinous and holds paint well. The thick sapwood is fairly uniform in color, and, when free from knots, is desirable for interior woodwork of all kinds. The knotty lumber is used for framing, railroad ties, car stock, boxes, and slack cooperage stock. [Cir. 183] It decays rapidly in contact with the soil, but can be easily and cheaply made much more durable by impregnation with antiseptic materials. PLAN T ATIOX S . Plantations can be started either from nursery-grown stock or by direct seeding, the desirability of the method depending upon the character of the land. The use of seedlings is recommended only on land which is very foul, in which case planting will probably be more successful than direct sowing. If a large number of plants are to be used, it is cheaper to raise them, but if only a few hundred are needed they probably can be purchased as cheaply from a dealer. Stock, if purchased, should be secured a week or more before planting time, and should be inspected at once to ascertain if it has become heated. The roots should be puddled by dipping in thick mud, and the trees temporarily heeled in by planting in a shady place in a trench, one side of which slopes so that the tops of the trees lie toward the south. For raising seedlings the seed can be purchased or collected. A pound contains about 20,000 seed, enough to plant 300 feet of drill. About 30 per cent of fresh seed will germinate ; the percentage is smaller for old seed. Seed should be planted early in the spring before the earth gets warm ; in the extreme South, if the seed bed is protected from mice, the planting may be done early in the autumn. Seed beds should be on loose, loamy, moist soil. The beds should be about 10 feet long and 4 feet wide, and the drills 8 inches apart to give room for weeding. Seed should be covered about one-half inch with fine earth, Avhich should be lightly rolled or "firmed." The bed may be liberally watered before the seed germinates, but young plants should not be excessively watered for several weeks on account of the danger of damping off. A partial shade of slats 18 inches above the bed is desirable during the first summer, particularly on dry soils. Most of the seed will germinate in two or three weeks, but some of the autumn-planted seed will lie over until the following spring. Seedlings are subject to few diseases. Seeds should be collected as soon as the cones are ripe, in September or October. The maturity of the cones can be determined by cutting into several of them to ascertain if the seed is firm. Cones should then be gathered and dried either in the sun or in kilns at a low tem- perature. The heat causes them to open, upon which the seed will fall out or can be shaken out. Seed can be stored through the winter in a dry, cool place. One-year-old seedlings, which should be from 6 to 12 inches high, are large enough to plant; or if the seed is planted in the autumn the second spring will be the time for the permanent planting. Seed for direct planting and for the seed bed should be coated with [Cir. 183] a thick mixture of red lead and water if birds or mice are likely to be troublesome. One-year-old plants can be grown for less than $1 a thousand. Planting. — Seedlings should be planted in the permanent site during March or the first part of April, earlier in the South than farther north. The roots must be carefully protected from the sun and wind during planting, since the plants die if the roots become at all dry. A spacing of 6 by 6 feet is usually recommended, but on fertile soil 7 by 7 feet may be used. A plantation requires no cultiva- tion. On account of the rapid growth of loblolly pine, hardwoods can not be planted profitably with it. The cost of planting should be about $4 a thousand, or $4.80 an acre, if a spacing of 6 by 6 ieet is used. Direct seeding. — On ground prepared by harrowing, direct seeding can be done by broadcasting from 2 to 3 pounds of seed per acre and harrowing it in. The cost of such seeding will vary from $6 to $8.50 an acre, according to the price of seed. Grassy land can be harrowed until the mineral soil is well exposed and then planted by broadcast- ing and the seed covered by reharrowTing. Sowing and broadcasting without preparing the soil or covering is not successful. Seed-spot planting can be made on unprepared ground and is cheaper, and probably equally as successful as broadcast sowing. In seed-spot planting the soil should be loosened over an area 6 or 8 inches square, and 10 or 15 seeds planted and covered not deeper than one-half inch. Seed spots should be spaced 6 by 6 feet. When the seedlings are 1 year old it is often desirable to pull up all except one of the largest plants from each spot. Care of plantation. — It is not best to prune live branches, but dead branches should be removed when possible by breaking them off close to the trunk. When a stand is 15 or 20 years old it can be thinned of the smaller, the crooked, and the forked trees if the wood removed in the thinning can be used, and light thinnings can be repeated afterwards at intervals of five years or more. On account of the dan- ger of insect depredations, such thinnings should be made in the winter, since insects breed most abundantly in the wood of trees cut in the spring and summer and spread to live trees. Any tree infected by insects should be removed at once. For ten or twelve years fire must be kept out of the stands. Older stands are seldom damaged by winter fires, but early spring fires, fed - by a large amount of dry undergrowth, may be very destructive. Approved. W. M. HAYS, Acting Secretary of Agriculture. WASHINGTON, D. C., July 16, 1910. [Cir. 183] SEP -7 1914 Division of Forestry University of California Issued March 2, 1909. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, FOREST SERVICE— Circular 161. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. FOREST PLANTING IN WESTERN KANSAS. By K. S. KELLOGG, ASSISTANT FORESTEK. WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1909 CONTENTS. Page. Introduction 5 Territory covered 6 Physical features .» 6 Climate 8 Effect of forests on climate 10 Shelterbelts and windbreaks 11 Woodlots 12 Details of planting 13 Conifers 13 Broadleaf species 14 Cuttings 16 Raising from seed 16 Spacing 17 Cost 18 Where to plant 18 Cultivation 19 Pruning 22 Seed bearing 23 Species planted 24 Uses of different species 24 Upland species 24 Valley species 24 Hedge species 24 Commercial species 24 Street species 24 Planting plans 26. A northeast corner 26 A southwest corner 26 Planting the shelterbelts. . . -. 27 Planting the woodlots 28 Roadside planting 29 Notes and measurements 29 Honey locust 30 Osage orange 33 Russian mulberry 35 Green ash 37 Red cedar 38 White elm 39 Pines - 40 Black locust 41 Hackberry 44 Cotton wood 44 Boxelder 45 [Cir. 161.] (3) Notes and measurements — Continued. Page. Silver maple 46 Black walnut 47 Hardy catalpa 48 Ailanthus _._ 48 Bur oak 48 Poplars - 49 Wild China 49 Russian wild olive 49 Other species 49 Summary 50 Botanical names of trees mentioned 51 List of Forest Service circulars. . 51 LLUSTRATIONS. Page. FIG. 1. Western Kansas and adjacent regions 7 2. Planting plan for a farmstead on northeast corner of a section 25 3. Planting plan for a farmstead on southwest corner of a section 27 4. Row of Russian mulberry at Ashland, Kans., 10 years of age 34 5. Pruning an Osage orange hedge to produce fence posts 36 [Cir. 161.] SEP - 7 1914 Division of Forestry University of California FOREST PLANTING IN WESTERN KANSAS. INTRODUCTION. The investigations upon which this report is based were made for the purpose of determining the kinds of forest trees best adapted to western Kansas and the methods of treatment which have proved most successful. Since there is little likelihood that more than small local areas of the region can ever be irrigated, only the species which can be grown without irrigation are described. With an artificial supply of water better results can be obtained with these species, and others that could not be grown without it can be introduced. Whatever may be the reasons for the absence of natural forests on the Great Plains, a close study of established plantations proves that, with an intelligent selection of species and proper care, planted trees can. to some extent, be made to supply the deficiency. It is generally accepted that for the most successful agricultural conditions from 10 to 25 per cent of the land should be forested. There is little likelihood that this proportion wTill ever be attained in western Kansas. Yet the planting that will come as the State in- creases in age and wealth will be sufficient to. exercise a marked effect on the landscape, and to supply wood 'for many domestic purposes. In favored localities commercial returns may be expected; elsewhere the recompense to the planter will take the form of increased comfort and convenience. The American has in many regions ruthlessly destroyed his natural forests, but Avith characteristic energy he is creating woodland where none existed before. On the Plains the most extensive early plantings were made to secure title under the timber-culture law. They generally resulted in failure because of poorly chosen species and neglect. The man who made a timber-culture filing did so to get 160 acres of land, not be- cause he cared for trees, or had sufficient experience to grow them. If he could evade the law and " prove up " without any trees what- ever, he was altogether too likely to consider himself that much ahead. There were some well-planted and conscientiously cared-for claims, which now speak for themselves. The majority, however, amounted to little or nothing. After various modifications, the law was repealed in 1891. LCir. 161.] (5) The landowner now plants because he wants trees. Consequently he is careful in his choice, and gives more after attention than did his predecessors. TERRITORY COVERED. The region most closely examined for this report was that part of the State westward of the ninety-ninth meridian, which passes near Kearney, Nebr., along the western edge of Smith, Osborne, Russell, Barton, Stafford, Pratt, and Barber counties, in Kansas, and a few miles west of Alva, Okla. But since the State boundary is wholly artificial, the conclusions reached apply equally well to neighboring portions of other States. The study may therefore be said properly to cover the territory lying between the Platte and the Cimarron rivers, and between the ninety-ninth and one hundred and third meridians. It thus includes a little of northern Oklahoma, a con- siderable strip of eastern Colorado, and a portion of southwestern Nebraska. PHYSICAL FEATURES. This region is a part of the long eastward slope from the Rocky Mountains called the " Great Plains," and on the west includes much of the subdivision which geologists have named the " High Plains." The altitude runs from between 1,500 and 2,000 feet on the eastern border to 4,000 and over on the western. Although the rise is so uniform as to be scarcely perceptible, with the increasing elevation and diminishing precipitation fewer forest species can be grown suc- cessfully. The principal rivers are the Republican, Solomon, Saline, Smoky Hill, and Arkansas. Smaller tributary streams and creeks are quite numerous. The soil on the uplands is generally of the type named by Professor Hay " plains marl," and has great depth and fertility. Much of the soil in southern Nebraska is loess, the good qualities of which are well known. In Oklahoma and southern Kansas occur the strikingly red sands and clays of the Red Bed formation. Valley soils are fre- quently loamy sand or sandy loam along the main streams, and of heavier character in the minor creek bottoms. Correlated with this difference in soil between the main and tributary streams is the noticeable preponderance of natural timber along the latter. Along the south side of the Arkansas is a belt of sand hills, narrow in the upper part, but widening to some 30 miles south of Great Bend. Since soil conditions are very uniform, only the types of location based on relative situation, viz, valley and upland, are used in this report. Valley or lowrland areas are those along streams, where per- manent water exists at not more than 25 feet, a depth beneath the sur- [Cir. 161.] face not too great for trees to be benefited by it. The upland areas comprise the main part of the region. On them the tree roots never reach water, which is often 100 to 200 feet below the surface. A sandhill region has more in common with the valleys than the uplands, even when its situation is relatively high. Few people 103° 102? 100° FIG. 1. — Western Kansas and adjacent regions. realize how much moisture a sandhill soil contains. There is prac- tically no surface run-off; all the water which falls sinks into the ground. The soil never bakes, but is always in a receptive condition. The evaporation is less than from a clay soil, and a larger percentage of the moisture is available for plant use. The cottonwood and the [Cir. 181.] 8 sandbar willow are found growing naturally in the sandhills of Kansas and Nebraska, which is evidence that good conditions of soil moisture exist. The sandhills, therefore, are favorable localities for tree planting. CLIMATE. The climate of western Kansas is ordinarily classified as subhumid or semiarid. Its chief characteristics are those common throughout the Great Plains. The average annual precipitation is sufficient for paying crops. The distribution, ho.wever, is subject to great fluctua- tions. The summer rainfall comes mostly from local thunderstorms, whose erratic courses may or may not overlap. Consequently one locality often receives enough rain during the season, while another a few miles away suffers from drought. There is also a marked tendency to a succession of wet and dry sea- sons over the entire region. This is well illustrated by comparing the records at Dodge City for 1883 and 1884 with those for 1893 and 1804. It happens that there is a ten-year period in this case, but observations do not prove any regular periodicity. Annual precipitation at Dodge, Kans. Year. Inches. Departure from normal. 1883... 28.50 + 8 12 1884 30 36 + 8 98 1893 10.12 - 10. 26 1894 1° 60 7 78 The wet years of 1883 ancf 1884 were largely responsible for the " boom," which resulted in the rapid settling up of the country be- tween the years 1885 and 1887, while the dry seasons of ten years later caused wholesale depopulation. The average precipitation at the principal Weather Bureau sta- tions, with the number of years that the record has been kept, is given in the following table : Average annual precipitation. Station. Years. Inches. Station. Years. Inches. Wallace 22 17.42 Hays 10 20 HS Lakin 12 14 35 Achilles 10 '>0 9-1 Colby 11 17 49 11 21 89 Viroqua 10 18 83 Medicine Lodge 10 23 57 Eureka Ranch 12 18.92 Pratt 7 23 78 Garden City... g 18 92 Oberlin 10 23 80 Dodge City 28 19 84 Gove 13 20 37 Average ... 19 78 Englewood . 10 20 71 While the record at Dodge City is the only one covering a sufficient period to be considered approximately correct, the others are good [Cir. 161.] indications, and it may be assumed that the average for the entire region is not far from 20 inches. With this may be compared 26.32 inches, the average annual precipitation for the middle of the State, and 34.33 inches for the eastern part. It is noteworthy that most of the precipitation on the plains is dur- ing the growing season. Dodge City, for instance, with only 19.84 inches annually, has 15.5 inches in the six months from April 1 to October 1. Rochester, N. Y., with 35 inches annually, has but 17.5 during the same period. In other words, 78 per cent of the precipita- tion at Dodge City comes at the time when it is most needed, while Rochester receives but 50 per cent of its total in the same time. One of the most disagreeable characteristics of the climate of the Plains is the high winds, which sweep across them unhindered by either natural or artificial barriers. The prevailing direction is north- west in winter and southerly in summer, and soil moisture is absorbed with extraordinary rapidity, especially in the warm season. The dreaded " hot wind," which strikes growing crops with such deadly effect, is a hot, dry blast of air that takes water from the leaf sur- faces of vegetation faster than it can be supplied by the roots; con- sequently plants wilt, and even die, if the wind is long continued. The northerly winter w7inds, while causing much less evaporation, are hard upon stock and trying for men. The average wind velocity at Dodge City, Kans., is 12 miles per hour. In spring, however, it is considerably higher, especially in the afternoon hours, when an average speed of 20 miles an hour may be maintained for a month at a time. High winds are also quite fre- quent. In the ten years ending with 1903 there were eighty-one occasions on which the wind blew at the rate of 40 miles and upward an hour. As a result of these constant drying winds, taken in connection with other meteorological conditions which prevail in western Kansas, the annual evaporation from a water surface is about 54 inches. This means that if it were possible to have a lake in western Kansas whose level depended wholly upon direct precipitation and evaporation, its annual decrease in depth would be 34 inches. The relative humidity, according to the Dodge City record, averages 60 to 65 per cent. The following table is especially instructive: Annual precipitation and evaporation. Station. Precipi- tation. Evapo- ration. Excess of evapo- ration. Amarillo, Tex.. Inches. 21 94 Inches. 56 40 Inches. 33 46 Dodge City, Kans... 19 84 54 60 34 76 North Platte, Nebr . 18 27 41 30 23 03 St. Vincent, Minn 19 50 22 10 2 go 60616— Cir. 101—09 2 10 Thus it will be seen that the great wheat-growing district of the valley of the Red River of the North has a precipitation practically identical with that of western Kansas, and slightly less than the Staked Plains of Texas. The southern region, however, has more wind, higher temperature, greatly increased evaporation, and a more uneven distribution of rainfall. These are adverse conditions for planting and growing trees, and to overcome them requires an intel- ligent selection of species and a system of cultivation which reduces the evaporation of soil moisture to a minimum.0 EFFECT OF FORESTS ON CLIMATE. Many of the residents of the Plains region believe that increased cultivation of the soil, forest planting, and the building of reservoirs to catch storm waters will cause a permanent increase in the precipi- tation. But this theory is unsupported by proof. The records that have been kept long enough to warrant any general conclusions indi- cate simply wet and dry periods of variable length, which result in a fixed average precipitation. Much has been said concerning the effect of forests on climate, but little is known exactly, and most of what is known contradicts the popular beliefs. The most that can be said from the facts at hand is that an increase of precipitation by forests is not demonstrated. Even were it otherwise, planting suf- ficient to affect general climatic conditions would need to be on so large a scale as to be wholly impracticable. On the other hand, observations show that within the forest ex- tremes of both heat and cold are modified and that the evaporation from a water surface is less than one-half that in the open, while the evaporation from soil covered with forest litter is about one- eighth that from bare fields. Forests check the run-off to a great extent. The amount of water transpired by a forest is considerably less than that given off by a similar area of ordinary agricultural crops. These facts point to conclusions about which there is no doubt. Forests are conservers of moisture. They are the best natural means of saving the water that falls, and are of great utility for this rea- son, regardless of their problematical effect upon the amount of precipitation. The principal effect of tree planting on the climate of western Kansas will be to check the winds and lessen evaporation in the im- mediate vicinity of the plantation. a For a detailed discussion of the climate and geology, the reader is referred to publications of the U. S. Weather Bureau, and the paper, " The High Plains and Their Utilization," in Vol. IV of the Twenty-first Annual Report of the U. S. Geological Survey. [Cir. 101.] 11 SHELTERBELTS AND WINDBREAKS. The terms " shelterbelt " and " windbreak " are often used inter- changeably. When distinguished, shelterbelt is applied to trees planted in groups of considerable size, while one or two rows to check the wind is called a windbreak. Since this discussion applies equally well to both shelter-belts and windbreaks, the latter term is chosen for the sake of simplicity. In an open country of high winds, nothing adds more to the com- fort of existence than a protecting belt of trees about the home. Whether the wind be the hot one of summer or the snow-laden blast of winter, its force is spent on the trees, and the house within is not swept by every passing gust. Orchards need windbreaks to save them from injury in the gales that accompany summer storms as well as to protect them from ordinary winds throughout the year. Gardens are more successful when surrounded by trees. Wind- breaks benefit animals as much as their owners. Any species that is adapted to the region and suits the taste of the planter may be used for a windbreak. Where they will succeed, evergreens are desirable, since they afford better winter protection than the deciduous species. The man who wants a windbreak, how- ever, does not care to wait for slow-growing trees. The Austrian and Scotch pines grow quite rapidly and serve the purpose well. A windbreak consisting of a single row, to be effective, should be of a densely growing type that branches close to the ground. For low breaks of this character the Russian mulberry and Osage orange are excellent. The tamarix, while more like a large shrub than a tree, does well for low windbreaks around garden patches and similar areas. It is easily propagated by cuttings, grows rapidly, and is quite hardy. The cottonwood is the common tree used for wind- breaks in the valleys. One of the most important functions of the windbreak is the saving of soil moisture within the protected area. In the Monthly Weather Review for September, 1888, were published the results of experiments made by the United States Signal Service to determine the effect of the rate of wind on evaporation from a "water surface. The experi- ments were made with a Piche evaporometer, under constant condi- tions of humidity and temperature. The figures obtained are given in the following table, in which wind velocity is expressed in miles per hour and the unit of evaporation is that in a calm : [Cir. 161.] Wind. Evapo- ration. Wind. Evapo- ration. 5 2.2 20 5.7 10 3.8 25 6.1 15 4.9 30 6.3 12 A 25-mile wind is not uncommon on the Plains, and since it causes six times the evaporation that would occur in a calm at the same humidity and temperature, one can easily understand the rapidity with which the moisture from a summer shower disappears. Taken the year through, the wind averages more than 10 miles an hour, which is sufficient to cause four times the evaporation there would be in a calm. An experiment made by King0 furnishes some interesting infor- mation in regard to the checking of evaporation by a windbreak. He used a modified form of the Piche instrument, placed so as to give the evaporation from a water surface 1 foot above the ground at varying distances from an oak grove. Taking the evaporation at 20 feet from the grove as unity, the following results were obtained: Distance. Evapo- ration. Distance. Evapo- ration . 20 100 1.00 1.29 200 300 1.41 1.66 Neither the height of the grove nor the rate of wind is given, though the statement is made that a light wind was blowing. The table shows that the evaporation at 200 feet from the windbreak was 41 per cent more than at its base, and at 300 feet 66 per cent more. The evaporation from 300 feet onward was practically constant, showing that to be the limit of the influence of the windbreak in this experiment, While a few. accurate experiments have been made to determine how far a windbreak is effective, it is a safe practical assumption that it protects the ground for a distance equal to ten or fifteen times its height — some observers say a rod for every foot. If a large field were crossed by a series of windbreaks 30 feet high and 20 rods apart, there is no doubt that they would be very effective, since the wind would reach each succeeding break with diminished force. WOODLOTS. In many situations it will be a paying investment for the farmer to put out a small plantation, simply to produce his own wood for fuel and other purposes. It is true that some time must elapse be- fore the plantation begins to be productive, but by choosing rapid- growing species and planting closely the thinnings which will be necessary in a few years, even though the trees be small, will do for the wood pile and help make the owner independent of coal famines. °F. H. King, Bulletin No, 42, Agric. Exp. Sta., University of Wisconsin, October, 1894. [Cir. 161.] 13 One may well be thankful if, when the supply of fuel gets low, he can go into his woodlot and cut a load without expense instead of hauling high-priced coal from the distant town. The choice of species for a woodlot depends somewhat upon the location. Trees that grow rapidly, and at the same time produce good wood, are, of course, preferable. If they also sprout from the stumps, a little care will maintain the supply indefinitely. Where it succeeds, the black locust combines these desirable qualities in the highest degree, and, as mentioned further on, a proper method of handling will generally enable good results to be obtained despite the troublesome borer. The Osage orange also is an excellent tree for the woodlot. Its wood is exceedingly durable, and the sprout growth abundant. While it grows more slowly than the locust, it is hardier, and is free from borers, so that it can be given more time in which to develop. Green ash, Russian mulberry, and hardy catalpa are also good trees for the woodlot, though the range of the last is more restricted than that of the other species. A mixture of species is often advantageous. By its use differences in habits of growth and ability to withstand shade can be made to assist the development of trees of good form, and at the same time the owner can have both fast and slow growing trees and a wider choice of timber for varying needs. A mixed plantation of hardy catalpa and Osage orange or Russian mulberry has been found to be valuable, since the catalpa forces the Osage orange and mulberry to grow rapidly upward in order to obtain light, while itself shedding its lower branches in the denser shade of its neighbor sooner than it would if it grew by 'itself. DETAILS OF PLANTING. CONIFERS. The best time for the planting of forest trees is in the spring, just before growth starts. This is also the best time for pruning, which usually accompanies transplanting. Many people hold to the idea that evergreens should be set out in June or August. Evergreens can be successfully transplanted at any season of the year, provided sufficient care is taken. Coniferous trees transpire only one-tenth to one-sixth as much water as the broadleaf species; consequently their roots are not called upon to furnish such great quantities of water to the thirsty leaves before getting established in the new abode. For this reason pines and cedars do not require trimming back when set, and the time of the year is less important than with other species. Nevertheless, the best time for transplanting any tree is the dormant period. [Cir. 161.] 14 Great care must be taken, however, to keep the roots of conifers moist in transplanting. If the resinous liquids in them once dry out, the tree Avill not live, no matter how abundant the subsequent supply of wyater. A young cottonwood may be dug up, shaken free from dirt, and thrown down in the sunshine for several hours without killing it, if the roots are given a good soaking when it is set. The same treatment of cedar or pine would insure death. Nursery stock often dies, either because it dried out on the road or because it was not properly cared for on arrival. Trees that have been shipped should have their roots dipped in a puddle of water and earth, about the consistency of cream, and should be planted as soon as possible. If the conditions are not favorable for planting immediately, they should first be puddled and then heeled in. To heel in trees, a trench running east and west, and deep enough to hold the roots and about half the tops, should be dug, with its south bank making an angle of about 30 degrees with the surface of the ground. In this is put a layer of trees with the tops leaning to the south. The roots and lower part of the trunks are then covered with fine, firmly packed soil, and water is liberally poured on. In the same way successive layers may be put in until the trench is full. A temporary shade of some sort will lessen the danger of drying out. In the case of evergreens this is very important. It -is often asserted that the native red cedar is sure to die when transplanted, but such is not the case. The experience of a resident of McCracken, Kans., is instructive. He went to the bluffs of the Smoky Hill River, dug up a number of red cedars about a foot in height, immediately rolled the roots in a near-by mud puddle, and kept them moist until set. As a result every tree lived, and growth was scarcely checked. At the same time he received a shipment of cedar from a nursery, used equal care, and lost every tree. The nursery stock had dried out either before or during shipment, while the native trees had been properly handled. BROADLEAF SPECIES. For plantations of broadleaf species 1-year-old seedlings are best, because they are easier to handle and also much cheaper than older trees. They ordinarily run from 1 to 2 feet high, and have prac- tically no branches, so that little or no pruning is required. If the ground has been well prepared and is moist, the setting can be done very rapidly. A man and a boy can work together. The boy carries the trees and hands them to the man as wanted. The latter sets his spade full length in the ground, throws the handle forward, sticks a seedling in behind the blade, removes the spade, steps firmly with [Cir. 161.] 15 both feet on the ground around the tree, and the operation is com- plete, taking not more than half a minute in all. A number of seed- lings can be carried in a bucket partially filled with water, or in a basket \vith a wet cloth covering the roots. The remainder of the stock should be left heeled in until needed. By this method a thou- sand trees can be set much more quickly than by the orthodox method of digging a hole, spreading the roots out, filling in with fine dirt by hand, and finally mulching; and with good soil and moisture con- ditions it is very successful. The writer set out over 500 yearling honey locusts in this manner on March 31, 1903. They were nicely started when frozen back by the snowstorm of April 29, in spite of which all but three lived, and made an average height growth of 3 feet during the season. Similar results have been obtained with black locust, cottonwood, ash, elm, and mulberry. Another rapid method is to plow a furrow where the row of trees is wanted, lay them against the side of it, cover with a hoe, and tramp firmly. The remaining dirt may be thrown into the furrow with a cultivator. Of course it should be distinctly understood that these methods are only for common broadleaf seedlings when the right con- ditions exist, and are likely to fail elsewhere. For large trees much more care is necessary. Little top should be left — a heavy mass of foliage will transpire more Avater than the roots can supply at the start. Bruised or broken roots should be cut off clean. The roots should be well arranged in the hole and the dirt sol- idly tramped about them. Unless the earth comes into close contact with the roots the air will get in and dry out both soil and roots and the trees will die. If the setting is done in a dry time, water and pud- dling are necessary. A good way to water is to have the hole nearly filled with fine, firm dirt, then pour on the water and cover with dry soil. This prevents baking and evaporation. Trees should be set so that when the ground settles into permanent shape the roots will be covered to the same depth as before transplant- ing. This means setting 2 or 3 inches below the " collar." It is a good practice to set deep enough so that when the operation is completed the trees will stand in a shallow depression. This will catch the rain and materially increase the chances of success in a dry season. An essential requisite in planting is suitable weather. Occasionally there are springs in western Kansas when it is altogether useless to set trees unless water can be supplied whenever needed. The planter who raises his own seedlings can take advantage of favorable condi- tions, have his trees perfectly fresh, and set when he pleases, or even let them wait until another season. [Cir. 161.] 16 CUTTINGS. Willows and cottonwoods and other poplars are very easily propa- gated from cuttings. Cuttings should be of strong, healthy wood of the previous season's growth, which ripened well and did not shrivel during the winter. A good length is 8 to 12 inches, with the upper 'cut just above a bud. They may be made when wanted for planting and set with a spade or in a furrow, as described for seedlings. If the ground is mellow, they can be merely shoved into the soil until only one bud is above the surface, and then tramped. Better soil con- tact is secured if they are put in slanting; the growth will be upright in 4iny case. In favorable seasons cottonwood cuttings often make a height growth of 5 or 6 feet. RAISING FROM SEED. Such common species as ash, mulberry, Osage orange, black and honey locust, catalpa, and black walnut are easily raised from seed, and the person who intends planting a large area will find it both cheaper and more convenient to buy seed of some reliable house and raise his own trees. To insure prompt germination the seeds of the two locusts are treated with hot water before sowing. A leading Nebraska nursery- man who is very successful with his seedlings pours water, at a tem- perature of 175° F. for honey locust or 120° F. for black locust, on the seed, and allows it to stand for several hours. Boiling water should not be used, since it is likely to destroy the vitality of the seed. There is no doubt that a safe and reliable method for the honey locust is to use water at an initial temperature of 25° to 50° under the boiling point, and then let the seeds soak in lukewarm water until they swell. Seeds which have become very dry must soak longer than those which are fresh. Black locust seeds grow very well with- out any treatment, but the use of hot water causes more uniform germination. Heavy-coated seeds, like nuts and acorns, are best sown in the fall, so that they will be opened by the frost. Ordinary seeds may be sown in corn-planting time. The soil should be moist and well prepared. Only a shallow covering of earth is necessary. If the ground is dry, the sowing should be delayed until moisture comes. With a good season the little trees will be of suitable size to trans- plant the following spring, and will not require much pruning. The great advantage in having home-grown seedlings is, that they are at hand and ready to take up and set where wanted any favorable day with little danger of drying out. Handled properly they will begin [Cir. 161.] 17 the second season's growth promptly, and with scarcely any check from transplanting. Pine seeds germinate readily, but to avoid losing the young seed- lings requires so much care for light and moisture conditions that the ordinary planter will do well not to experiment with them. The ger- mination of the red cedar is one of the troublesome problems of nur- serymen; so much so that many prefer to buy 1-year-old seedlings, which they transplant and prepare for their own trade. SPACING. Spacing is largely a question of utility and taste, with some varia- tion for different species. In general, however, closer planting is advisable on the Plains than most people imagine or are willing to concede. A single tree or row of trees in the sod has little show for life. If an artificial forest is to succeed in the struggle against native vegetation, wind, sunshine, and dry weather, it must stand in a dense mass and present a solid front to its foes. Cultivation is the best method of conserving soil moisture, and if cultivation can be continued indefinitely and the abundant pruning required to produce the proper form where the trees are not crowded can be given, rather wide spac- ing is beneficial ; but the average planter will prefer a method which does not require so much time and work. The less care the trees are to have, the thicker they should be set. They must be close enough to establish forest conditions of shade, litter, and undergrowth when evaporation and weeds are no longer checked by cultivation. Shelterbelts should be close planted in order to give protection quickly. It is well to plant thickly enough to be able to thin as the growing trees need more room. In this way one can be certain of having good trees. If the ultimate object is to have spaces 4 by 8, or 8 by 8. and the trees are set 4 by 4, the poorer trees can be cut out and a final stand left of better individuals than if the wider spacing had been used at first. The crowding also prevents the trees from heading too low. The thinning will give fuel, posts, and stakes, always useful on a farm or ranch. The practical consideration is the spacing of the rows in a manner that will admit ready cultivation with the harrow, disk, or other tool for surface cultivation which the farmer possesses. The method of wide spaces between the rows with trees set closely in them is an excellent one, since it permits of cultivation for a much longer time than the 4 by 4 spacing, gives room for a team and wagon when thin- nings are made, and still allows a large number of trees to the acre. A 2 by 8 spacing gives the same number of trees per acre as a 4 by 4 spacing, and 3 by 8 the same as 4 by 6. 69616— Cir. 161- 18 The following table shows the number of trees per acre with various spacings : Number Number Number Spacing. of trees Spacing. of trees '\ Spacing. of trees per acre. per acre. per acre. Feet. Feet. Feet. 3 by 3.. 4,840 3 by 6.. 2,420 4 by 6.. 1,815 3 by 4.. 3,630 3 by 8.. 1,815 5bv5.. 2, 742 3 by 5.. 2,904 2 by 8.. 2,722 4bv8.. 1.361 4 by 4.. 2,722 4 by 5.. 2.178 i 8 by 8.. 680 The number required for any system is found by dividing the num- ber of square feet in an acre (43,560) by the product of the. two dimen- sions. For example, the last number in the table, 680, is the quotient obtained by dividing 43,560 by 64. COST. The cost of planting is not great. At ordinary prices $1.50 per acre will cover the expense of plowing and harrowing. After the ground is prepared the planting of small broadleaf trees will cost about $2.50 to $4 a thousand, according to the method used and the soil conditions. The planting of ground occupied by virgin sod is not only laborious and expensive, but is generally unwise. The treatment of such land requires the breaking of the sod, followed by a second plowing and the cultivation incident to the growing of cereal crops for two or three seasons, before the ground is in suitable condition for the plant- ing of trees. Soils containing a large amount of sand can frequently be put into condition for planting the year following the breaking of the sod. The price of broadleaf seedlings at the nurseries in Kansas and Nebraska runs from $1 to $6 per thousand. Some nurseries pack free and pay freight on orders amounting to $10 or more. The planter will do well to consult several catalogues before placing his order. Evergreens are more costly, since they are transplanted in the nursery to give better root development, and may be several years old when finally disposed of. It is possible to obtain red cedar seedlings as low as $4 per thousand, but transplanted nursery-grown cedar and pine of suitable size will cost 10 to 20 cents each and more. WHERE TO PLANT. In a naturally treeless region there is occasion for planting almost everywhere. Houses, sheds, corrals, and garden patches need pro- tection and ornament ; planted groves will yield timber for posts, fuel, [Cir. 161.] 19 and the numberless uses which a stick of timber supplies; in parks and along streets trees make a town " a good place to live in ; " school- house, church, and court-house yards require embellishment. A good plantation for commercial purposes w7ill afford a steady income, aside from much pleasure and convenience, while it is surprising how greatly a few trees improve the farmstead. Although general soil conditions vary little throughout western Kansas, there is abundant room for selection. Trees, like other forms of vegetation, respond quickly to good soil and moisture. The species which will grow on the uplands may be depended upon to do as wrell or better in the bottoms, because of the better conditions. Some trees which grow naturally along water courses do well under cultivation on the upland, while others found in company with the hardy species fail entirely when the change is attempted. Hundreds of failures in upland planting in Kansas and Nebraska have resulted because cot- tonwood, willow, silver (soft) maple, and boxelder were expected to thrive in dry situations. Experiment has proved, however, that there are species adapted to almost every locality. On the upland there are local depressions which catch considerable run-off, and so are suited to trees which need more than the normal precipitation of the region. In such a situation on the high upland in the extreme western part of Kansas the writer once found, to his surprise, a row of black walnut growing in the sod, yet looking well and bearing nuts, though the settler who planted the trees had long since moved away and of his sod house only a heap of dirt remained. A cattle trail and wheel tracks served to conduct the rainfall down the gentle grade to the trees, permitting water to collect occasionally at this point. That the original plantation had covered a larger area was shown by a few small stumps farther on, which were all that was left to show the effect of drought and neglect. Nearly every quarter section has an acre or more of depressed land which can be well utilized for tree planting. By putting the moisture- requiring species in the favored situations, and the hardy, drought- resisting ones elsewhere, the planter's range of choice is extended, greatly to his advantage. CULTIVATION. The object of cultivation is, first, to prevent the growth of weeds and grass, and, second, to conserve soil moisture. Cultivation is essential for the first few years after planting, and in many cases necessary for a long period. Before trees are set or seed is sown the ground should be put in good condition. Deep plowing, followed immediately by the harrow, saves moisture and prepares the soil for penetration by the roots. After the trees are set, cultivation should be shallow and frequent. An ideal method is surface cultivation as [Cir. 161.] 20 soon as possible after every rain. The nearer this ideal is approached the better the results will be. A dust mulch is the best of all mulches for saving the water already in the ground and keeping the soil receptive for more. The pulverizing harrow is an excellent tool for shallow cultivation, and, used frequently enough, it is all that is necessary most of the time.- Where weeds have made a good start, an ordinary cultivator may be put in, or a shallow disking given, but the disk should be followed by a harrow to produce proper surface conditions. After the trees are planted a plow should never be used. Too often the plantation is neglected until weeds have formed a dense mass 3 or 4 feet high, and then, in desperation, a plow is resorted to, with- out subsequent harrowing. This leaves the ground rough, increas- ing greatly the loss of soil moisture through evaporation, and forms a dead furrow between the rows, or throws the earth away from the base of the trees, and cuts many roots, both injuring the root system and causing the growth of sprouts. The man who is not willing to take proper care of his trees deserves to lose them, and probably will. The Rainbelt Experiment Station, at Cheyenne Wells, Colo., fur- nishes an excellent example of the extent to which cultivation can replace irrigation. This station was established in 1894 in a typical high plains region. The elevation is 4,200 feet, with water 260 feet below the surface. The annual precipitation is about 13 inches. An apple orchard was planted in 1895 with trees of the varieties common farther east, such as Ben Davis, Janet, Winesap, etc., which are in ex- cellent condition, and produce good fruit. The intention is to give two shallow cultivations monthly if possible. The tools used are a 5-tooth cultivator and a dagger-tooth harrow with the teeth set slanting. There are some green ash trees around the orchard a year older than the apple trees, which are thriving finely. Young honey locusts are also in promising condition. There is no doubt that under the same method of cultivation several forest species could be successfully grown. The Pomeroy Model Farm, at Hill City, Kans., which has been practicing the " Campbell system " of cultivation since 1900, is a valuable experiment. While the main object is the production of wheat and other crops, fruit trees, Russian mulberry, silver maple, and white elm have been set out. They are doing finely so far, although it is a very unfavorable situation for the maple, and only fair for the elm. Cultivation is given after every rain as soon as the ground can be worked. A pulverizing harrow is generally used, pre- ceded by a disk if the weeds are too large. Cultivation should not be continued too late in the fall, for it tends to produce a growth of young shoots after the normal period, which may be too tender to withstand the winter. The wood should have time to harden before cold weather sets in. There is more likelihood 21 of injury in this way to fruit trees, however, than to forest trees. If the ground has been previously kept clean, weeds will make little trouble after the middle of August. In river and creek valleys, where water is from 5 to 20 feet below the surface, cultivation is not ordinarily necessary after the trees get thoroughly established. The same is true on the upland where shallow basins catch the run-off from a considerable area. In ornamental planting a combination of trees and lawn is often desirable. Yet a single tree, or row of trees, has small chance for sur- vival in the struggle with the aggressive grass roots. Consequently a compromise is necessary. Before planting a single tree the ground should be dug up and thoroughly pulverized over a circular space 5 to 10 feet in diameter, and to a depth somewhat greater than that at which the tree will be set. Afterwards the surface may be stirred by hand or mulched. For a row of trees, a strip 5 to 10 feet wide should be given similar treatment. In much ornamental planting, however, it is advisable to put the trees in groups, so that they protect one another and may be culti- vated. A group system in landscape work gives an excellent effect, which is wholly lost if the trees are restricted to formal rows or scat- tered about promiscuously. Mulching with hay, straw, or manure is practiced to some extent. It is better to mulch than to let the weeds grow. The mulch also checks evaporation, prevents baking of the soil, and keeps it in good condition. The complaint is sometimes made, however, that long- continued mulching brings the roots too close to the surface, and then if it chances to be removed they are exposed. The mulch certainly furnishes a congenial harbor for all kinds of insects. The best mulch in all respects is the dust mulch secured by cultiva- tion, while the most suitable place for the one of hay or straw is around trees set in the sod where it is inconvenient or undesirable to cultivate. Occasionally field crops are planted between rows of young trees, but the person who has any regard for. their welfare will not do so. The trees need all the moisture, and should not be forced to divide with other vegetation. Corn is especially harmful. The roots will spread both down and out for 3 or 4 feet, and take much more soil moisture than the young trees. If any crop is to be planted, it should be potatoes or other short-lived vegetables. Their roots do not spread far and are soon gone, while the return from them will be sufficient to pay for the cultivation which should be given to the trees, even were they planted alone. A sure way to ruin a young plantation is to turn cattle into it. Even if the trees are too large to be broken by rubbing, every branch within reach will be destroyed, as will also the forest conditions of [Cir. 161.] 22 shade and undergrowth, so that weeds and grass can easily get a foothold. Large trees, however, are usually not much damaged where moisture is abundant, and the protection furnished to stock in such a case may be worth the loss. The principal injury to old trees is from trampling. A heavy soil becomes packed until it is nearly impervious to water, while sandy ground is worn away and the roots are left exposed. PRUNING. The necessity for pruning depends upon the purpose of the planta- tion. In windbreaks and shelterbelts the trees should be allowed to branch freely near the ground in order that the density may be in- creased. This will furnish better protection, and will also retard the growth of weeds and grass. Broadleaf species that are planted for ornamental purposes need more or less judicious pruning. Nature prunes heavily, as is shown by the multitude of small dead branches in the forest. Man aids in the development of a symmetrical tree by removing unnecessary or unsightly branches before they die. The removal of numerous laterals concentrates the growth more on the leading shoots, and increase their length. Slender growth should not be encouraged, however, unless in a well-protected situation. The natural habit of the Plains species is low and spreading, and nature is generally successful in evolving types suited to her needs. In a certain sense pruning accompanies cultivation ; care makes prun- ing more advantageous. Trees left to fight for life with weeds and grass should be allowed to do it in their own wray. But all the decidu- ous trees mentioned in this report will have a better form with prun- ing and care than otherwise. In the case of the Osage orange and Eussian mulberry in particular, severe trimming is necessary to force them into good proportions. In figure 5 is shown an Osage hedge that has been long neglected, which will now, by thinning and prun- ing, be made to produce posts. The results of the same treatment of a mulberry row are given in figure 4. A good method for securing straight, vigorous young trees is to cut them back to the ground one or two years after planting. The root system is so well established at this age that strong, rapidly growing sprouts are sent up. By removing all but the thriftiest one a tree is soon obtained which is better than the original. This method has given excellent results in catalpa plantations, 'and should be used with any young tree that is not developing properly, provided it is a species that will sprout. There is ordinarily no need of pruning conifers. A thriving pine or cedar develops symmetrically and appears better when untouched by the knife. The red cedar, however, may be cut down to a very good evergreen hedge. FCir. 161.1 23 Pruning may be done with success at any time, " whenever your knife is sharp," as is sometimes said ; but the best time seems to be late winter or early spring, just before growth starts. Wounds made then begin to heal quickly and have the whole growing season in which to recuperate. More important than the time of pruning is the kind of cut made. Branches should be severed close to the parent stem and in such a manner that the exposed surface conforms to its shape. The cut should always be clean and smooth. When the ends of twigs are removed, a slanting cut is best. Ragged wounds are almost as bad for trees as for human beings. In both cases they delay the healing proc- ess and are likely to have serious effects. A projecting stub left by ignorant or careless pruning dies before it can be covered by new tis- sue, and gives disease and insects easy access to the heart of the tree. Clean wounds made in pruning forest trees (except some conifers) heal quickly, and no treatment is necessary for them unless they are very large. A dressing aids healing only by keeping out water and fungous enemies; therefore it should be durable and antiseptic. Coal tar is a cheap and effective material for dressing the wounds of forest trees. Lead paint is recommended for all species. SEED BEARING. Persons who desire to plant trees often ask, " Do all trees of this species bear seed, or only part of them ? " It is a matter of common knowledge that the flowers of many kinds of trees are not perfect, but consist of staminate and pistillate forms, the latter of which only produce seed, and that only when fertilized by pollen from the former. Sometimes the same tree produces both kinds of flowers, but in many cases only pistillate or only staminate flowers. When the latter is true something like half of the trees wTill be seedless; nor will even those which bear pistillate flowers produce seed unless a tree with staminate flowers stands near enough for the pollen to reach them. In the following list the trees are placed on the first and second columns according as the individuals do or do not possess the power to fertilize their own flowers. Trees all of which may bear seed. Honey locust. White elm. Austrian pine. Scotch pine. Black locust. Hackberry. Black walnut. Hardy catalpa. [CM-. 161.1 Trees of which some individuals can not bear seed. Osage orange. Russian mulberry. Green ash. Red cedar. Cottonwoods. Willows. Boxelder. Silver maple. Ailanthus. Wild China. 24 Since cottonwoods fall in the second group, and are easily grown from cuttings, there need 'be little difficulty in getting trees that are free from the objectionable " cotton." All that is necessary is to propagate by cuttings from staminate individuals. A little observa- tion will show which trees have no cotton, and cuttings can be made from them the next season. SPECIES PLANTED. All of the trees in the list on page 23 have been planted more or less widely in western Kansas, except wild China and the willows. Other trees which have received some trial, though not very com- monly planted, are bur oak, white poplar, Lombardy poplar, Rus- sian olive, Chinese arborvita?, blue spruce, sycamore, and coffee- tree. The number of species which have been tried is an indication of the experience which the tree planting of thirty years has yielded. With the information thus gained to draw on, the planter is now in a position to avoid many past mistakes. USES OF DIFFERENT SPECIES. UPLAND SPECIES. For upland planting under ordinary conditions, the trees which have established their superiority are honey locust, Russian mulberry, Osage orange, and red cedar. Next in hardiness to these, and of good promise, are white elm, green ash, hackberry, Scotch pine, and Austrian pine. VALLEY SPECIES. All upland species are excellent for valley planting as well. To them may be added, in many localities, cottonwood, silver maple, box- elder, black walnut, and hardy catalpa. Several other species not suitable for general use may be grown in selected situations. HEDGE SPECIES. For hedges should be used, according to the style and purpose of the hedge desired, honey locust, Osage orange, Russian mulberry, or Russian olive. COMMERCIAL SPECIES. The best species to plant for posts and other timber are Osage orange, black locust, Russian mulberry, and hardy catalpa. STREET SPECIES. For street and roadway planting the most suitable trees are honey locust, green ash, white elm, and hackberry. [Cir. 161.] 25 J L Public Road Orchard and Garden 2. Acres* ,2 FIG. 2. — Sketch of plantation for a farmstead on northeast corner of a section. <>i)616— Cir. 161- 26 PLANTING PLANS. The following plans show the kind of planting best suited to the needs of the average farmer and ranchman in western Kansas. Two locations are given, one at the northeast corner of the farm and the other at the southwest corner. The object of these plans is to indicate methods whteh are practical and inexpensive. Their details may readily be modified to meet individual requirements. While most people are not in the habit of using 15 acres or more for their build- ings and grounds, it is believed that they will find it both convenient and profitable to use a greater area than they do at present. Ten acres of artificial timber would be a valuable addition to any farm, and would pay good interest on its cost in increased comfort and convenience, if in no other way. A NORTHEAST CORNER. Figure 2 gives a sketch of a farmstead on the northeast corner of a section or quarter section. The extreme dimensions are 75 rods north and south and 40 rods east and west. The total area is 16 acres. A woodlot 20 by 40 rods? containing 5 acres, extends across the north end and serves also as a shelterbelt. Another woodlot 22 J by 15 rods, or a little more than 2 acres, serves the same purpose on the south. The entire west side is protected by a belt of timber 5 rods in width. The orchard and garden are set next to the south woodlot, in order to be fully sheltered from the hot, dry southwest winds of summer. The barn and yards are placed so as to receive the most protection from the north and west, to secure warmth in winter. The residence is put in the open space, far enough from the trees to secure a good circulation of air, and yet close enough to be sheltered from heavy winds. It should be well back from the public road and at the same time some distance from the barn and sheds. Lanes and drive- ways 2 rods in width give ready access to the public road, fields, wood- lots, and orchard. Trees set along the road and driveways 2 rods apart improve the appearance greatly, and do not seriously obstruct the view. This plan calls for practically 7 acres of woodlots and 2 acres of shelterbelt. A SOUTHWEST CORNER. Figure 3 gives a sketch of a farmstead on the southwest corner of a section. It is 60 rods north and south and 40 rods east and west, and contains exactly 15 acres. As in the other case, a 5-acre woodlot extends across the north side, and one of a little more than 2 acres across the south. The west side is protected by a shelterbelt 1 acre, 5 rods wide and 32 rods long, leaving 8 rods on the public road open in front of the residence. Lanes and driveways are 2 rods wide, as before, and lined with trees 2 rods apart. This plan provides for [Cir. 161.] 27 7 acres of woodlot and 1 acre of shelter-belt, and has the advantage of being simpler and more compact than the previous one. 40 Rods Orchard and Garden 2 Acres + Public Road FIG. ;', — -Sketch of plantation for a farmstead on southwest corner of a section. PLANTING THE SHELTERBELTS. The rows of trees in the shelterbelts run north and south. They should be planted 4 by 8, and thinned to 8 by 8 .when the trees get [Cir. 161.] 28 larger. The original distance may be 4 by 4, if the planter wants to be certain of a dense stand and is willing to do more thinning. He will gain additional fuel by so doing. Cottonwood is the best shelter- belt tree for most valley situations, and honey locust for the upland. It is an excellent plan to have either cottonwood or honey locust for the primary shelterbelt tree, with provisions for eventual replace- ment by pine or red cedar. Cedar is the best to mix with cottonwood, since it is more shade-enduring than pine. The trees should be mixed in the following manner, C indicating cottonwood and R cedar : R C R C K C C R C R C R R C R C R C As the cedar needs more room, the cottonwood should be gradually removed until a pure stand of cedar is left. For an upland shelterbelt, honey locust and Austrian pine may be mixed in the same manner and with the same spacing. The final removal of the locust here gives a belt of pure pine. Red cedar may be substituted for the pine if preferred. PLANTING THE WOODLOTS. The rows in the woodlots run east and west. They should be 8 feet apart, with the trees 2,"3, or 4 feet apart in the rows, according to the species planted. In the valleys the trees used should be Russian mul- berry, Osage orange, black locust, green ash, or, in some situations, hardy catalpa. If planted exclusively to Russian mulberry or Osage orange, the spacing should be 2 by 8 to overcome the low-branching habit of these trees. If green ash or catalpa is used, a 4 by 8 spacing is best, as also for black locust if the planter will give good cultiva- tion, since in this way the tree will probably reach post size before the borers do much damage. A mixture of catalpa and Osage orange does well, since the Osage orange protects the delicate foliage of the catalpa from the wind to some extent, and at the same time aids the latter tree in shedding its lower limbs and making better form, while the greater height growth of the catalpa forces the Osage orange upward. For the north woodlot the planting should be as follows, the spac- ing being 4 by 8. The catalpa and Osage orange are indicated by C and O, respectively : NOETH. ooooooooo ococococo O O C O C O C O C ococococo [Cir. 161.] 29 The outside rows on the north and west sides are of pure Osage orange, to furnish a windbreak for the catalpa. For the south wood- lot the outside row on the south should be wholly Osage orange, for the same reason. In this case the west side is protected by the shelter- belt ; if it were not, the row on the west side should be Osage orange also. Kussian mulberry may be substituted for the Osage orange, either wholly or partially, as the planter chooses. On upland situations the best trees for the woodlot are Russian mulberry, Osage orange, green ash, and black locust, with the same spacing as in the valleys. Little except variety is gained by mixing these species, and the matter may be left to the individual taste of the planter. Since after a few years there wrill be constant cutting in the woodlot, thus affording an opportunity for weeds and grass to get a foothold, cultivation should be kept up as long as possible. The trees will be thriftier as a result, and reproduction from the stump will be stronger. The 8- foot space between the rows allows easy cultivation, and access for a wagon where cuttings are made. Cutting should be selective instead of clean, the object being to improve the condition of the plantation as well as to secure posts and wood. It is better to cut a scrubby tree and let it sprout up again than to try to help it by removing its healthier neighbors. A number of sprouts will start from the stump the first season after cutting. At the beginning of the second season all but the strongest one should be cut off, leaving it to form the newT tree. ROADSIDE PLANTING. Both plans call for trees 2 rods apart along the driveways and public road. These are a great improvement to the place, and are so few in number that they will make little extra expense or work. Whether the situation be valley or upland, the most suitable species are honey locust, white elm, and Austrian pine. These should not be mixed; a single row of trees appears better when it contains the same species throughout. A small area should be cultivated around each tree until it is thoroughly established. NOTES AND MEASUREMENTS. The material for the notes and measurements wrhich follow was secured from typical examples of planted trees now growing in west- ern Kansas and adjoining territory. The figures, however, should be regarded as approximate and suggestive rather than as accurately indicating what may be expected in any given case. Conditions dif- fer so widely that it is impossible to lay down any fixed standard or average rate of growth. The same species, which in one place planted in a single row, reaches large diameters, forms in another a dense [Cir. 161.] 30 plantation, with correspondingly small diameters for the same age. Cultivation likewise ranges from the best of care to total neglect. Nevertheless the best basis of classification is relative situation. In general, growth is more rapid in the valleys than on the uplands. This rule, it is true, is not without its exception. Good cultivation on the upland will often cause trees to grow as rapidly for a few years as those in the valleys which have received less care. Some kinds of trees also show very little increase in rate of growth in the more favorable situations, while others respond strongly. The red cedar measurements, for instance, are so nearly identical on upland and in the valleys that all are put in one table. On the other hand, the rate of growth of the upland Osage orange is but little more than 60 per cent of that in the valleys. Since the superiority of valley over upland situations consists in the better supply of water, upland plantations which are irrigated conform closely to the valley type. The measurements for each species are therefore arranged (except in the case of red cedar) under the two heads of " upland " and " valley or watered." In selecting trees for measurement, -examples have been sought which grew under something like average conditions of care and density, thus avoiding cases of exceptionally rapid or slow growth due to special circum- stances. The age of a tree in the natural forest can be determined by cut- ting it down and counting its annual rings. This liberty can seldom be taken with trees planted in yards, hedges, and shelterbelts. The owner's recollection of the date of planting is generally the sole source of information available. This is frequently inaccurate, and the investigator must make allowance accordingly. In the tables, the place where the measurements were made, or the nearest town, if in the country, is given in each case. The height, diameter breasthigh, and time required to grow 1 inch in diameter are obtained by averaging together trees of the same age and grow- ing under similar conditions. For example, the first entry under honey locust is Smith Center, Kans. The trees selected for measure- ment there were all planted at the same time, in the court-house yard, and had made about even growth. HONEY LOCUST. The honey locust, which grows naturally in the valleys of eastern Kansas and Nebraska, has proved to be one of the hardiest trees for planting on the uplands in the western part of both States, even where the precipitation is not more than half that of its native habitat. It is equaled in drought-resisting power by the Russian mulberry and [Cir. 161.] 31 the Osage orange, but both of them freeze back in winters which the locust endures uninjured. It can withstand even the climate of eastern Wyoming, having succeeded at Cheyenne. The red cedar is unsurpassed in ability to survive general adverse conditions, but the locust is more easily handled and, with care, grows twice as fast. It must have good soil, however ; it has failed conspicuously with plenty of rainfall on ground where pine and cedar do well. Unlike the black locust, which is often ruined by borers, the honey locust is usually free from insect enemies and so far has been a uniformly healthy tree. The value of the wood is not great, though it is sometimes used for fence posts, and has proven fairly satisfactory. Honey locust has a strong claim for preference over cottonwood and boxelder. It does well for hedges, shelterbelts, and ornament in a country where any tree growth is welcomed, and, moreover, makes a handsome, shapely tree, with a fine trunk, a spreading crown, and a foliage that is both delicate and attractive. The clusters of large thorns are occasionally objectionable, but as a general rule they are not excessive and may be easily removed by pruning, if desired. Many trees are partially or wholly free from thorns, and the nurseryman who will propagate a stable thornless variety will find a good market awaiting him. Some nurserymen are already taking this up. The natural habit of growth in the open is low, with heavy, spread- ing branches, so that a single closely set row forms a good windbreak if left unpruned. There is no trouble about sprouts from the roots unless they are cut in cultivation. After it is established, honey locust holds its own against grass and grows much faster than the Osage orange. It will also stand cutting down to a hedge, for which it is well adapted. Honey locust makes an excellent street tree, and is increasing in favor for this purpose. It has been much planted in many towns, but perhaps its best development is at Osborne, where it determines the whole aspect of the streets. Many are growing finely in Wakeeney, Spearville, and other places. On the high upland 25 miles southwest of Dodge City, in a region about as dry as any in the State, honey locust has done well during the variable seasons of the last fifteen years, and increased nearly one-third of an inch in diameter annually. At the State forestry station afe Dodge City, also on the upland, it is proving itself superior to all its associates, and has made an inch in diameter every three years for sixteen years, despite the fact that no recent cultivation has been given and though grass is coming in thickly, owing to wide planting. Among several species planted at the Kainbelt Experiment Station at Cheyenne Wells, Colo., the honey locust, though small at present, gives promise of the best ultimate results. [Cir. 161.] 32 Honey locust is easily propagated from seed, and those who wish to put out a plantation of any size will do wTell to raise their own seed- lings. For planting in yards or along streets where a few large trees are desired quickly, and expense is no consideration, the trees may be 2 to 4 inches in diameter when transplanted. They should be cut back to a height of 6 to 8 feet, with a few stubby laterals to form the base of the crown, and handled carefully. Treated in this manner, fine .trees can be secured in a few years. People who wish trees of this size to set out will do better to get them from some plantation in the neighborhood than to send to nurseries. Large trees are less easily shipped and more likely to suffer in the operation than small ones. The following table gives a few representative measurements of upland honey locust: Groirth of upland Itoncy locust. Place. How standing. A Average Age- height, Average diameter breast- high. Time re- quired to growl inch in diameter breasthigh. Number of trees meas- ured. Spearville Kans Grove Years. Feet. 10 15 Inches. 1.7 Year's. 5.9 30 Row 10 18 2.6 3.8 26 Spearville Kans Grove 10 15 3.9 2.6 20 do 11 16 4.4 2.5 20 Oberlin Kans Row . . . 12 20 3.5 3.4 25 Mullinville Kans do 13 14 3.5 3.7 20 Beaver City Nebr ...do 13 15 3.7 3.6 46 Grove 14 20 4.5 3.1 41 ROW 15 20 4.6 3.3 24 Dodge City Kans Grove 16 20 5.4 3.0 20 ROW 16 20 6.0 2.7 20 Grove 16 22 7.0 2.3 15 Phillipsburg Kans do 20 24 5.7 3.5 40 The following examples illustrate the increased rate of growth in valleys or watered situations : Growth of valley or watered lioney locust. Place. How standing. Age. Average height. Average diameter breast- high. Time re- quired to grow 1 inch in diameter breasthigh. Number of trees meas- ured. Syracuse Kans Grove Years. 6 Feet. 10 Inches. 1.9 Years. 3.2 10 Sharon Springs Kans Row 7 10 2.4 3.0 6 Gove Kans Grove 8 11 3.5 2.3 7 Garden City, Kans .... ...do 9 24 4.3 1.9 12 Spearville Kans Row . 10 17 6.4 1.6 10 Oberlin, Kans Grove 13 16 4.7 2.8 5 Grainfield Kans Row . 14 23 7.4 1.9 6 La Crosse, Kans Grove .. 15 18 5.9 2.5 20 Scott Kans do 15 18 6.3 2.4 17 Gove Kans Row 16 20 4.3 3.7 19 Ellis, Kans. ...do 32 45 8.3 3.9 7 [Cir. 161.] 33 OSAGE ORANGE. Osage orange is the common hedge tree of the Middle West ; in fact the name given to it in many places is simply " hedge," with no other designation. It is the slowest-growing tree in the list, but this is compensated for by its hardiness. Osage orange is one of the best species for upland planting, and when once started will live without cultivation almost anywhere in western Kansas. Like the red cedar, its tenacity is great, and it looks well even when the grass crowds it so that a dozen years are required for it to increase an inch in diameter. Favorable situations and good care bring corresponding results in the rate of growth, as will be noted in the table, which shows an increment varying from one-third to one-thirteenth of an inch in diameter a year. Osage orange adapts itself to a wide range of soil, and in this re- spect is somewhat superior to honey locust, but it winterkills in places in Nebraska where the latter does not. In sandy regions considerable complaint is made of damage to the roots by pocket gophers. The wood is extremely tough and durable, and is unsurpassed for fuel and fence posts. Because Osage orange is so generally planted for hedges it is only occasionally practicable to make measurements and estimate possible commercial returns. A good example was found, however, in southern Barber County, in the valley of a small creek, where perma- nent water is 10 feet below the surface, with a coarse sandy soil of the Red Bed type. Here an 18-year-old hedge has been kept pruned up 6 feet from the ground and forced to develop into good form. Twenty-five rods of the hedge contain 193 trees, averaging 25 feet high and ranging from 1.6 to 9 inches in diameter breasthigh, with an average of 3.7 inches. If cut, these 193 trees would make 340 stakes and 151 posts, worth 10 and 15 cents each, respectively, or a total of $56.65. As it is practicable in a like situation to grow 2,500 posts per acre in twenty years, it is evident that in favored localities com- mercial planting of the Osage orange would be profitable. The best method of treatment is to plant thickly, so that less pruning will be necessary, and then cut as soon as post size is reached. A new crop will quickly be made by the sprouts. Another case of excellent growth is at Hays. A 17-year-old hedge in the valley of Big Creek has been trimmed up like the one just mentioned, and though water is about twice as iar from the surface, the rate of growth is even better. Twenty trees taken consecutively in the row averaged 25 feet high and 6.4 inches in diameter, the best tree being 13.6 inches in diameter at breastheight. These 20 trees will make 22 stakes and 47 posts of the usual size. LCir. 161.] 34 A method of trimming is sometimes adopted by which full-sized trees are allowed to develop in a hedge every rod or two. In figure 5 is shown the operation of pruning up for posts, which will be ready to cut after a little more growth. [Cir. 161.] 35 Some measurements in upland situations are given, though it must be remembered that the hedge system is not very conducive to good growth. (iroirtli of Place. How standing. Age. Average height. Average diameter breast- high. Time re- quired to grow 1 inch in diameter breasthigh. Number of trees meas- ured. Burdette, Kans La ( 'rosso Kans- Grove ...do Years. 10 11 Feet. 12 12 Inche*. 2.3 2.0 Years. 4.3 5.5 25 20 Hays Kans Row . 15 16 4.7 3.2 15 Russell , Kans ...do... 19 14 2.4 7.9 30 Do ...do 19 15 3.4 5.6 25 Do do 20 15 3.6 5 6 40 Do ...do 26 20 4.8 5.4 71 Do do 27 12 2 1 12 9 100 Hoisington Kans do 27 18 3 7 7 3 30 RUSSIAN MULBERRY. This hardy variety of the white mulberry was brought into the Western States by the Russian Mennonites nearly thirty years ago. It is one of the hardiest trees planted on the Plains, and serves a num- ber of useful purposes. Mulberry hedges and shelterbelts are com- mon, and the fruit is often gathered for domestic use.. The wood is said to make as durable posts as that of the native red mulberry. The Russian mulberry grows quite rapidly, and endures almost any amount of drought and neglect. The leading shoots frequently win- terkill for a foot or two, however, and this increases still more the natural tendency toward low, bushy growth. It branches diffusely near the ground, and only severe priming can make it develop a respectable trunk. The Russian mulberry is well suited to form a low, dense wind- break around an orchard, and when so used the birds are likely to take its berries instead of the more valuable orchard fruit. It makes an excellent sheared hedge, some handsome examples of which are found in western Kansas. In the court-house yard at Phillipsburg are mulberries planted for both ornament and shelter. The trees were set approximately 10 by 10 in 1883 and cultivated about fifteen years, but stand in a dense sod at present. They average 15 feet in height and 4.5 inches in diameter in the better part of the yard, where there is a very slight depression. The court-house yard at Ashland is surrounded by a thickly set row of mulberry put out for shelter in 1893. After seven years the trees were pruned into the form shown in figure 4. When 10 years old all the trees in the row — 200 in number, extending for 20 rods — were measured and found to average 3 inches in diameter and 20 [Cir. 161.] 36 • feet in height. If cut, these 200 trees would make 142 posts worth 15 cents each, and 151 stakes worth 10 cents each, or a total of $36.40. A well-cared-for plantation at this place would evidently be a profit- able investment. The situation at Ashland is no more favorable than in many places on the upland, for, although in the shallow valley of Bear Creek, water is 40 feet below the surface and consequently beyond the reach of tree roots. A commercial plantation should be thickly set in order to diminish the lateral branches as much as possible. With good care the rate of FIG. 5. — Pruning an Osage orange hedge to produce fence posts. growth is sufficient to produce post timber almost anywhere in west- ern Kansas in ten years or less. Since most people have let their mulberries branch at will, satisfactory measurements are difficult to obtain. The average rate of diameter inc'rease on 400 trees in various places was found to be practically an inch in three years, ranging from 1.4 to 4.6 years. Mulberry has been used considerably for a street tree, but its habit of growth is not suitable for this purpose. It is an added objection that the berries fall upon the walks. [Cir. 161.] 37 GREEN ASH. Native green ash was used for timber-claim planting more exten- sively, perhaps, than any other one species. It grows slowly, but is hardy with respect to both drought and cold. The tough, straight- grained wood has considerable value and is frequently used for fence posts. Kanchmen say that a seasoned ash post will last about ten years. Green ash is a fine street tree. It is easily trained to excellent form, attains a good height, and has a neat, clean appearance. Borers are the principal drawback, with some trouble from leaf-aphis and heart- rot. The ash borer is not nearly so serious as the black-locust borer, but it has done much damage in some localities. The green ash is frequently called " white ash " by tree planters and even by nursery- men. Ash responds well to good care, and the slow average growth given in the table is due to the fact that many of the measurements were made in neglected plantations. In the valleys, under the most favor- able conditions, the tree may grow an inch in diameter in two years, while in neglected upland growths it sometimes requires nine years. The growth in plantations is generally much slower than in the case of well-cared-for rows and individuals in parks and along streets. It is doing well at Cheyenne Wells, Colo., thus showing that care is more important than climate. The following table gives upland measurements. Whole groves were not measured, but enough individuals were taken in each case to insure a fair estimate. Growth of upland green ash. Place. How standing. Age. Average height. Average diameter breast- high. Time required to grow 1 inch in diameter breasthigh. Number of trees meas- ured. Selden, Kans Grove Years. 10 Feet. 10 Inches. 2.0 Years. 5 0 20 Smith Center Kans do 12 10 3 0 4 o 20 Leoti, Kans ...do 13 11 2 6 5 0 15 Jetmore Kans .do 14 2 0 7 0 20 Scott, Kans Row 15 12 2.7 6.6 20 Pratt Kans Grove .... 16 18 2.2 7 3 20 Norton Kans do 16 10 2 5 6 4 20 Dodge City Kans do 16 15 3.9 4 1 10 Smith Center Kans do 16 15 5 6 2 9 10 Plainville, Kans . ...do 18 12 2.5 7.2 20 Herndon Kans do 18 16 2 6 6 9 20 Marvin, Kans ...do 20 10 2.2 9.0 20 Hillside Kans do 20 14 2 5 8 0 20 Smith Center Kans do 21 17 3 7 5 7 20 [Cir. 161.] 38 A few representative measurements in lowland or watered situa- tions follow : Growth of valley or watered j/rcen axlt. Place. How standing. Age. Average height. Average diameter breast- high. Time required to grow 1 inch in diameter breast high. Number of trees meas- ured. Greensburg, Kans Row Years. 11 Feet. 14 Inches. 4 0 Years. 2 8 24 St. John, Kans Grove 12 18 6 1 2 0 14 Leoti Kans do 13 16 3 5 3 7 20 Danbury, Nebr . .. do 17 27 6 6 2 6 18 Garden City Kans Row 17 27 6 7 2 5 7 Beaver Citv, Nebr Grove 20 22 3 9 51 18 RED CEDAR. Native red cedar occurs scatteringly throughout the State. It seems supremely indifferent to conditions of climate, soil, or moisture. It grows in limestone, sandstone, shale, or clay formations. Sometimes it is found on the face of a rock held only by a few roots penetrating the crevices, and, again, with cottonwoods and willows along a sandy stream where water is within 5 feet of the surface. It cares for neither cold nor heat; and, under like conditions of soil and moisture, grows nearly as fast without cultivation as with it. This extreme hardiness and adaptability fit it for planting anywhere on the Plains. It matters little how unfavorable the situation, the planter may feel confident that red cedar will live and make a tree some time, if he gets it transplanted successfully. The growth may not average more than 8 inches in height and one-fifth of an inch in diameter yearly, for the cedar seems to realize that it has centuries in which to make its sturdy way. It is the longest-lived tree in the list, and should be planted only where a permanent tree is wanted. So far, in western Kansas, red cedar has been used somewhat for ornament, but very little for any other purpose. It will make an excellent shelterbelt in time, equally good in winter and summer. It might well be one of the components of a mixed plantation, ready to attain its full development after its shorter-lived and more rapid- growing associates have served their purpose and been removed. It does well mixed with cottonwood, the shade of which is not too dense for it. In some of the old cottonwood groves of the Platte Valley red cedar is coming in by hundreds through the agency of birds. There is some danger, however, in planting the red cedar in the vicinity of an apple orchard. The ball of yellow fungus growth, the '" cedar apple," is one stage of the apple-leaf spot, and apple trees are likely to be infected from the cedar. The writer has heard no corn- car. 161.] 39 plaint from this source in western Kansas, but the fungus is common farther east, and may travel westward. In the court-house yard at Smith Center, Kans., is a thrifty double row of red cedars that have been set sixteen years. During that time the average growth has been 9 inches in height and a little more than one-fourth of an inch in diameter yearly. Reasonably good condi- tions will secure similar results anywhere. 'Although used nearly altogether as an ornamental tree, the cedar as it grows in western Kan- sas is not particularly handsome. It is often dingy in appearance as compared with the freshness of pine foliage or the delicate forms of some broadleaf species; but the planter on the plains must, choose trees with more consideration for hardiness than beauty. Red cedar will groAv where all else would fail, and it will give him service throughout the year. The red heart wood makes wonderfully durable posts, and is valu- able in many ways. Commercial planting has not been undertaken as yet. Owing to the high price of the trees and the care necessary in setting, the experiment would be costly. There is no doubt, how- ever, that a successful plantation would eventually bring good returns. The rates of growth were found to be practically identical for upland and valley situations, so no distinction is made in the table. As the planting is almost entirely in yards, only a few trees were found in a place, and the number of measurements is correspondingly small. Growth of u(>l - --• 19 2,740 21 1,985 So far the main objection to the general planting of conifers has been the excessive cost of the planting material. Experience, how- ever, has proved that coniferous stock can be grown in quantity at a cost which does not make its use prohibitive. SCOTCH PINE. Scotch pine is native to the mountains of Europe. It was probably first recognized in Scotland as a tree suitable for cultivation, hence the name "Scotch" pine. It is a large, long-lived tree, reaching a [Cir. 145] 19 height of 120 feet and an age of 200 years. It produces a stout tap- root, a trunk with smooth, yellow, papery bark and a crown with stout branches, and short, light-green foliage. It is remarkable for the rapidity of its growth and for its ability to resist heat, cold, drought, and storm, and to grow in various soils. On account of these quali- ties its range has been extended under cultivation over the greater part of Europe and parts of Asia. Often it is the leading forest tree. It is especially well adapted to the dry air and abundant sun- shine of the plains. Its northern range is given as TO0. The corre- sponding latitude in North America lies at a distance of 1,642 miles north of the northern boundary of North Dakota. This species has been introduced into the United States, and occasionally a grove is found growing upon the prairie with gratifying success. Its need for light is here supplied, its powers of endurance have been tried by the changing weather, and its rapid growth has been observed and measured. Scotch pine is 33.5 feet high when 20 years old, and has an average yearly height growth for that period of 1.68 feet as against a height growth of 1.36 and 1.39 feet in boxelder and green ash. The maximum annual height growth attained in any one grove of this species was 3.75 feet and occurred between the ages of 7 and 8 years. The trees were as high in two of the groves measured at 15 years as in another grove at 21 years. The difference in growth seems to be accounted for by the difference in character of the subsoil. In the former two it is sandy ; in the latter it is loam or clay. The yield for the Scotch pine groves is estimated to be equal to an annual net return of $13.35 upon the upland as against 13 cents in boxelder, $1.71 in green ash, $0.61 in silver maple, and $2.21 in cottonwood. Table 3 gives a comparison in rate of growth and yield between our available data and those for the same tree grown from the best quality of soil in European forests: TABLE 3. — Comparison of height, growth, and yield of Scotch pine in America and Europe. HEIGHT. Age. American.0 European. Difference. Tears. 5 Feet. 3.1 Feet. 3,1 Feet. 10 15 20 13.3 24.4 31.4 7.9 1S.2 25.4 5.4 8.2 6.0 YIELD. Years. 17 Cubic feet. 2,682 Cubic feet. Cubic feet. 20 2,349 334 •Since a single grove fs here compared lor growth and yield with more general figures taken from " Yield Tables for Pine," by Weise, the table should be taken relatively and as a sugges- tion rather than in an absolute sense. [Cir. 145] 20 Where a tree has a wide range like Scotch pine, different forms of the same tree are liable to develop under different climates, soils, and situations. Scrubby forms of this species are known to exist in cer- tain parts of Europe. Since the seeds have to be imported, care should be taken that they are from the most desirable forms. EUROPEAN LARCH. European larch is a tall, straight, and slender tree with a cylin- drical stem and a conical, pointed crown of scattered branches and short deciduous foliage. It is a native of the mountains of central Europe, but its range has been greatly extended under cultivation. It produces a strong taproot, and prefers a deep soil, though a moist soil is not necessary. It is one of the most light-demanding trees. When closely planted it soon prunes itself of branches and produces clear timber. Its wood is durable, and of admirable shape for poles, p6sts, stakes, and railroad ties. In height growth it is rapid and persistent. The height growth on the upland averages 1.80 feet per year for a period of twenty years. It produces an annual net return per acre of $11.93 where planted on the upland. Although this tree can be grown with profit in pure plantations, like other light-needing trees, the best results can be obtained from mixed planting. Spruce or Scotch pine are well suited for this pur- pose. In mixture the trees can assist and protect each other and shade the ground completely and continually. WESTERN YELLOW PINE. Western yellow pine is the most abundant and most widely dis- tributed tree occurring throughout the Rocky Mountains. It extends eastward into western Texas, north-central Nebraska, and western South Dakota. Outside of its demands for light it is one of the most inexacting trees, being able to grow in all kinds of climate, soils, and situations. Its drought-resisting qualities are well known. In the Black Hills it reaches a height of 100 feet and a diameter of 3 feet. It occurs in pure stand over large areas and often constitutes the only commercial tree. The wood is heavy ; hard, and highly resinous, but will soon rot when in contact with the soil. This is especially true of the younger sap wood j and is the greatest objection that can be made to the tree for general planting upon the prairie. This drawback can be largely re- moved, however, by using a preservative treatment of creosote. In growing plants the seedlings early produce a long taproot. They should be transplanted from the seedbed to the nursery at the end of the first year, and to the permanent site when 3 years old from seed. [Cir. 145] 21 WHITE SPRUCE. White spruce extends as far north on the American continent as any other commercial tree. It is the largest, hardiest, handsomest, and most valuable of the spruces of the North and East. In the region of the Black Hills it frequently reaches a height of 100 feet. It produces a single stem and a full, symmetrical crown, with a dense, bluish-green foliage. The wood is stronger, tougher, and more elastic than pine. It is used for pulp, lumber, posts, poles, and ties. While the other spruces usually grow in swamps, white spruce more often grows upon drier upland situations. In Manitoba it extends to the border of the treeless plains. On account of its dense foliage, its rapid growth, its hardiness, longevity, and usefulness for protective and commercial purposes, it is regarded as one of the most valuable trees for the prairie. Being a heavy shader and shade bearer, it can supply a long- felt want as a proper tree to mix with thin-foliaged, light-demanding trees. Groves which are maturing or deteriorating should be prompt- ly underplanted with this valuable tree instead of allowing weeds to grow. When the shorter-lived trees are removed, spruce is there to take their place. AUSTRIAN PINE. Austrian pine is native to southern Europe, where, under the most favorable conditions, it reaches a height of 100 feet and a diameter of 3 feet. More generally it does not exceed 75 feet in height. Its wood is light, highly resinous, and durable. It produces a straight stem, a strong taproot, and a dense crown of stout branches symmetrically arranged. Its foliage is darker, denser, and coarser than that of Scotch pine, and is often crowded toward the ends of the branches. In Europe it is considered the hardiest and most easily satisfied of forest trees. It is less light demanding than Scotch pine, but its growth is considerably slower, especially so during the early years of its life. Dry air and dry situations are preferred provided the soil is deep and porous. In this region it is frost hardy as far north as Montevideo, Minn. At Grand Eapids, where Scotch and Austrian pines were planted by the Division of Forestry in 1898, all but 5 per cent of the Austrian pines died from extreme cold, while none of the Scotch pines suffered in this way. OTHEB CONIFERS. Red cedar is also drought resistant, but its growth is slow and its foliage is liable to turn brown and die from the effects of "cedar apple " fungus. Arborvitse makes a dense, low windbreak, but its growth is exceedingly slow. The same is true of black spruce. [Cir. 145] 22 DETAILS OF PLANTING. Planting should be done in spring as soon as the frost leaves the ground. In this way the trees receive the benefit of the early rains and escape the danger of frost heaving. While the ground may be prepared by agricultural implements, planting must still be done by hand. Each plant should be set deeply and firmly and with as much care as if the success of the whole plantation depended upon it. PLANTING MATERIAL. Certain trees, like willows and cottonwood, are cheaply and suc- cessfully grown from cuttings. Cuttings should consist of 1 or 2- year-old twigs cut from vigorous trees. They should be of conven- ient length — about 10 inches — and should be as nearly uniform in | age, shape, and size as possible. They can be cut in fall after the j leaves have dropped, and kept in well-drained soil till spring, or they can be cut in early spring before growth begins and set out at once. If the area to be planted is low and wet, and the soil porous, the cuttings can be stuck in without any previous preparation of the ground. On drier sites, the soil should be broken up and pulverized. Vertical holes should be made with a spike or dibble to receive the cuttings. After the cuttings have been inserted, the earth should I be firmed down upon them. Not more than 2 inches of the top of a cutting should protrude from the ground. Care should be taken 'that the buds point upward instead of downward, that is, that the 'cuttings be planted right end up. If cuttings are taken from seed- bearing trees they produce seed-bearing trees again. If taken from staminate trees the resultant trees will be sterile. The best results with other species are obtained by planting small I trees with roots that are large in proportion to their leaf surface. i Nurserymen usually classify trees according to their height in inches. I This, however, gives the purchaser no idea of the quality of the stock. Seedlings may be tall and lanky, and have no roots, or they may be short and stout, and have a full, dense root system, according (to the way in which they were grown. Wild plants from the forest are not equal to carefully grown nursery stock. At the end of the first year coniferous seedlings can be transplanted from the seedbeds into nursery rows for two years more ; or they can be left in the seed- bed for two years and then transferred for another year to the nurs- ery rows. While nearly all conifers grow slowly for the first few years — they may be smaller at three years than some deciduous trees are at one — 3-year-old stock is large enough and strong enough to give good results. Older trees are more expensive and less success- fully handled. In case of broadleaved species transplants are not always necessary. [Cir. 145] 23 SOURCE OF PLANTS. Where a good deal of planting is contemplated it may be cheapest to raise the planting material in a local nursery.0 In most cases it will probably be safer to patronize some reliable nurseryman. Or- ders for plants should be placed early. It should be stated definitely what kind and character of material is wanted, and no substitutes should be accepted. Plants should be shipped by express, and notice of the shipment should be given to the purchaser by telegraph in order that he may promptly take them in charge when they arrive. They should come tied in bundles, and well secured in a strong box, with the roots wrapped in an abundance of moist sphagnum moss. Ke- sponsible nurserymen attend to this matter with great care. Fail- ures generally result from the drying out of the plants during shipment. When once killed in this way no amount of subsequent care and labor can save them. After the trees are received they should be kept cool, moist, and well shaded until planted. If planting can not begin at once, it is desirable to puddle and " heel in " the plants at some suitable place where they can be taken up as needed.* THE NECESSARY OPERATIONS. PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. Soil exposed for centuries to the beating of rain and the trampling of animals has become hard and compact. No planting should be attempted without a careful preparation. In new situations the prairie sod should be broken early in the summer and allowed to lie fallow. Late in the fall it should be turned again. This time plow- ing should be at least a foot deep; the deeper the better, since then the roots can penetrate into the subsoil and become independent of surface moisture. Where the subsoil is clay hardpan, deep plowing is doubly important. Disk harrowing should make the surface soft and fine. MIXING SPECIES. The majority of the trees of this region have thin crowns and demand a good deal of sunlight for their growth and development. Foremost among these are cottonwood, green ash, and willow. Spruce, red cedar, and boxelder have denser crowns, and are able to bear a large amount of shade. If light- demanding trees are set out in pure plantations, they must be so closely spaced that they interfere with each other's growth, or a For details on the establishment of nurseries see Extract 376 from Year- book of the Department of Agriculture. J For instructions for puddling and heeling in see Forest Service Circular 61. [Cir. 145] 24 grasses and weeds come in and rob them of the necessary soil mois- ture. A pure grove of such trees might require cultivation through- out its entire life. However, since this is impracticable, the best re- sults can be obtained by mixing the light- demanding with the shade- enduring kinds. A proper mixture brings about a more complete use of the soil, and produces a larger quantity and a better quality of material. A general mixture of a number of different kinds of trees without a knowledge of their requirements must, however, be discouraged. The fewer the number of species mixed the better, provided that one of them is able to shade the ground completely to an advanced age. The following arrangements of trees in plantations seem desirable : (a) For upland and bottomland. No. 1. No. 3. (4 feet by 4 feet.) (4 feet by 4 feet.) S S S S Wy W Wy W Wy s s s s B 8 8 8 S S S S W Wy W Wy W Wy W Wy W Wy W Wy W Wy W A No. 4. (3 feet by 4 feet.) A A A A A No. 2. (4 feet by 4 feet) S W S W W S WS AAAAAA SWSW AAAAAA WS WS AAAAAA No. 5. No. 6. ( 4 feet by 4 feet. ) (5 feet by 5 feet. ) BWEW CWCW WEWE WCWC EWEW CWCW WEWE WCWC S = Scotch pine. W = White spruce. E = European larch. Wy = Western yellow pine. A = Austrian pine. C = Cottonwood. [Clr. 145] 25 (6) For bottomland. No. 7. No. 8. ( 2 feet by 8 feet. ) (4 feet by 6 feet. ) WWWW OWCW WWWW WOWC WWWW OWCW WWWW WOWG No. 9. No. 10. (4 feet by 6 feet.) (4 feet by 4 feet.) eCCCC EBEB CCCCG BEBB CCGCO EBEB B E B E W = White willow. C = Cottonwood. E = White elm. B = Black cherry. SPACING. In this region wide spacing is undesirable in every respect. It not only necessitates repeated cultivation for a number of years, but it produces a scattered stand of low, branchy trees, with no provision for failures or accidents. On the other hand, trees planted closely and in proper mixtures will soon shade the ground completely and save the expense of cultivation. The formation of objectionable side branches is prevented and the trouble of pruning saved. Planted in this way trees grow more rapidly in height, become shapely, and make a better windbreak in a short time. When some of the trees are overtopped by their neighbors and begin to die they can be cut out and used for fuel. TREATMENT AFTER PLANTING. CULTIVATION. In order to prevent the choking of the young trees by the tall, rank weeds and grasses which spring up soon after exposing the ground, and to conserve the moisture of the soil, the plantation should be [Cir. 145] 26 cultivated until the trees are large enough to shade the ground. Cultivation should be shallow and frequent, and the ground should not be ridged up around the trees. The drier the season the more the need for cultivation. It is not advisable, however, to cultivate too late in the summer, since the trees may be inordinately stimulated, and their immature shoots injured by early frosts. Trees respond very readily to cultivation. This is especially true with such light and moisture-needing trees as cottonwood and green ash. Usually there is a marked decrease in the rate of growth of these trees after cultivation ceases. In groves properly formed, culti- vation should not be necessary or possible after a period of from three to five years. The crowns of the trees should then meet and com- pletely shade out all undergrowth. A mulch of hay, leaves, or manure is sometimes applied to young plantations to secure the same results. Such treatment, however, may stimulate the growth of superficial roots. At best it is but a substitute for cultivation and has no advantage over the latter except that it can be applied at any time of the year, while cultivating must be done during the growing season. In every other respect cultiva- tion is preferable. Late in fall young plantations of evergreens should be covered with hay or straw from 8 to 12 inches deep. Branches or poles can be used in keeping the straw from blowing off, or, where these are not available, earth can be shoveled here and there upon the straw between the rows. In spring the straw can be taken off. In from three to five years .the crowns of the trees should meet. PRUNING. Pruning consists in the removal of branches from living trees. It is usually done to secure more shapely trees than could otherwise be had. In groves of proper density this is seldom necessary, as the side branches are shaded out and fall before they reach a large diameter. The degree of natural pruning, however, depends largely upon the kind of tree planted. Light-demanding trees like European larch, cottonwood, black walnut, green ash, and white willow seldom require pruning, while such trees as box elder and silver maple often do. With evergreens, pruning should be limited to the dead branches. These can be knocked off, but cutting is best. Whenever it is neces- sary to remove green branches they should be cut off with a sharp knife or hatchet as close to the tree as possible without exposing more of the wood than necessary. If the wounds are large they [Cir. 145] 27 should be covered with paint or tar oil to prevent decay. Pruning should be done in winter or early spring. THINNING. Thinnings consist in the removal of some of the trees in a grove in order to give the remaining trees more room. The smaller and less- promising trees are usually the ones cut. In many cases thinnings are necessary, since the trees removed can be used for fuel, posts, stakes, etc., while the remaining trees are bene- fited by the larger growing space. However, in this region of sun- shine, with light- foliaged trees and rather wide spacing, thinnings are of doubtful value, especially since most of the groves are to serve as windbreaks. Farmers in renting their estates usually stipulate in the agreement " that none but dead trees shall be cut." Occasionally dense willow groves in moist situations have been thinned by their owners *with good results. Some of the river-bottom groves furnish all the fuel consumed, as well as other material. Thus the groves become a constant source of revenue in addition to their value as a protection. In general, thinnings are advisable so long as they do not make the growth of weeds and grasses possible. Grass in a grove is always a detriment, and indicates that the leaf cover is not dense enough. Light thinnings which interrupt the leaf canopy only temporarily may be beneficial where a heavy thinning would be positively harmful. Where thinnings are made a good rule is : " Be- gin early, thin lightly, and repeat frequently." REGENERATING GROVES. In woodlots and shelter plantations permanence is especially de- sirable. Whenever they begin to mature or deteriorate steps should be taken to renew them. The trees planted in this region usually are prolific seeders. All but willow and cottonwood are able to repro- duce themselves to some extent under partial shade. Especially is this true of boxelder and green ash. When trees of these species grow close to cottonwood groves their seedlings often come up in dense thickets as an understory. Russian mulberry, hackberry, red cedar, and other species are occasionally introduced into a grove by birds. However, instead of depending upon such chance or volun- teer reproduction, or allowing grasses and weeds to grow it is ad- visable to underplant. Underplanting is an operation which few have performed in the past treatment of their groves. It is a very practical method of re- newing them. Since a good many groves, particularly the older [Cir. 145] 28 cottonwood groves, are greatly in need of renewal, it is here especially recommended. Hardy long-lived species, preferably evergreen, should be planted in regular order among the trees of mature or deteriorating groves. Unless grass and weeds are very rank it will not be necessary to pre- pare the soil before planting nor to cultivate afterwards. When, however, the young trees of the understory expand and require more growing space, the mature trees of the upper story should gradually be removed. Approved : JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. WASHINGTON, D. C., January 25, 1908. [Cir. 145] Reprinted May 6, 1909. United States Department of Agriculture, FOREST SERVICE— Circular No. 37. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. FOREST PLANTING IN THE SAND-HILL REGION OF NEBRASKA, SPECIES SUITABLE FOR PLANTING. Experiments in growing pine trees in the sand hills of Nebraska have been attended with results which warrant the belief that they may be planted with success in this region. Western yellow and jack pine are the most promising species for the purpose. Seedlings of these species are being extensively planted by the Forest Service, Department of Agri- culture, on the Nebraska National Forest on Dismal River. In the spring of 1905 a number of ranchmen in widely scattered localities in the sand- hill country planted experimentally a small number of jack-pine seed- lings. Authentic reports from nearly all of these plantations show that the great majority of them have been successful. Only two failures have been reported, and it seems probable that these were due to unfavorable local conditions. The Bruner plantation, in the south- western part of Holt County, furnishes further proof of the adaptability of jack pine to the sandy soils of the region. The plantation was estab- lished in the spring of 1890, and the best trees are now from 18 to 30 feet high. The grove is free from insect pests and in general is in excellent condition. Western yellow pine (bull pine), although not as fast growing as jack pine, is longer lived and a more valuable tree when mature. For planting it is equally well adapted to the region. SECURING PLANT MATERIAL. Seedlings of jack pine and yellow pine of suitable size for planting in the sand hills can be obtained from several dealers. The Forest Service will furnish upon request a list of such dealers, with the prices at which plant material of the proper size is quoted. Planting leaflets, giving general directions for the planting and care of these trees, will also be sent without charge. Most of the jack pine seedlings sold are wild stock collected in Min- nesota or Wisconsin. They are usually 3 to 5 years old, and should be 5 to 10 inches high. The yellow pine is usually nursery grown, and should be not less than 2, and preferably 3, years old when planted. The trees should be ordered in March, with instructions to have them shipped as soon as possible after April 15. Seeds also can be obtained from dealers. Home production of seedlings is not advisable unless extensive planting is contemplated. WHERE TO PLANT. Experience shows that planting on north slopes gives the best results. South and southwest slopes are subject to a greater degree of heat, and the moisture conditions are not as good. Situations where the sod is very dense should also be avoided. The different exposures that may be planted are, in order of suitability, the north, northeast, northwest, east, west, and southeast exposures, and, finally, the more level situa- tions, such as valleys and crests of hills. The plan should be to plant blocks or belts of trees as windbreaks around the ranch house, barns, and yards. TIME TO PLANT. The best time to plant is in the spring, usually between April 20 and May 10, when rains have begun. Cloudy days should be chosen for such work. HOW TO HANDLE THE SEEDLINGS. When the seedlings are received at the railroad station they should be thoroughly moistened by pouring water into the boxes, which should then be wrapped in wet blankets and taken to the ranch without delay. If possible, the trees should be planted the same day they are received, but if it is necessary to hold them over they should be unpacked, pud- dled, and heeled-in. PUDDLING. Take clay or loam and mix with water to about the consistency of cream. Into this "puddle," as it is called, dip the roots of the plants just before they are heeled-in and again just before they are planted. In the puddling process a thin coating of soil is formed over the sur- face of the roots, serving as a protective cover. HEELING-IN. Select a cool, shaded spot where the surface soil is mellow and can easily be worked. Dig a trench of suitable length, say 6 feet, and of a depth which will allow the plants to extend above the ground about 2 inches. Have one side of the trench somewhat sloping. Against this sloping side spread out a layer of plants, roots down, and bank with earth to a level of the surface. Put about 2 inches of soil against the plants, pack well, and leave the outside again somewhat sloping, and against it place the next layer of plants. Continue this process until all the plants are heeled-in. The layer of soil between each two layers of plants should be kept a uniform thickness the entire depth, and should be wide enough to prevent the tops of the different layers of plants from crowding. Great care should be taken not to make the layers of plants over 6 to 8 layers deep. The soil in which the plants are heeled-in should be moist, but not wet, and once heeled-in, if the work is done with care, they will need no further attention until the time for planting. PLANTING. PREPARATION OF THE GROUND. The ground should never be plowed before planting, as this would cause it to blow and shift, and many of the young trees would be 3 buried, with the result that the planting would probably fail entirely. Where the growth of grass is rather scant, with many bare spots, as in the sand hills proper, the ground need not be given any previous preparation whatever. In this event, the seedlings may be set out in the open spots in the manner described below. If the grass cover is heavy, and the sod quite dense and tough, as in the valleys, single furrows should be run with a stirring or breaking plow at the distance apart (usually from 4 to 6 feet) which it is desired to have the rows of trees. On rather steep slopes it will be best to run the furrows on contour lines. SPACING. If only a small belt is planted, say from 1 to 4 acres, a spacing of 4 by 4 feet is recommended. In this case the furrows, if any are made, should be 4 feet apart and the trees set 4 feet apart in the furrows. This spacing will require 2,720 trees per acre. If a large plantation is established, a spacing of 5 by 5 or 6 by 6 feet is recommended. This will require either 1,740 or 1,210 trees per acre. There will naturally be some loss, and the trees which die during the first year should be replaced. By the close spacing recommended for a small grove the trees will furnish both better protection for one another and more effective shelter than if the spacing were wider. Where the plantation com- prises several acres in one body, these advantages are secured, in part at least, by the larger area. Then, too, the cost of planting will be con- siderably less. THE PLANTING CREW. The planters may be organized in crews of three men each. Two men with spades or grub hoes do the planting, working side by side in adjacent furrows or rows, while the third man, supplied with a pail partially filled with water, in which the plants are carried, walks between the two planters and hands them the trees as they are needed. It will be found advantageous for one of the planters to change with the car- rier every half hour. Thus each man would plant one hour and carry the trees one-half hour in each one and one-half hour period. If enough men are not available, a boy can carry the trees. A three-man crew should plant 3,000 trees per day. HOW TO PLANT. When all is in readiness for planting, the trees should be put in bundles of 75 or 100 plants each. Wrap each bundle with wet moss, if such material is at hand, and about the moss wrap a wet cloth of some kind. Pieces of gunny sack will answer splendidly. These bun- dles may then be put in boxes or tubs, covered with wet gunny sacks, and taken to the field. The greatest care should be taken never to expose the roots of the trees to the sun and wind. Even a very short exposure may kill them. The man who carries the trees should not undertake to carry more than 300 or 400 at a time and should keep the roots well submerged in a puddle in the bottom of the pail. To set the trees in furrows the planter puts his spade in the bottom of the furrow with the blade crosswise of it, and with his foot thrusts the blade into the ground the full length. By a few side motions of the blade as it is sinking into the ground an opening sufficiently large for the reception of the tree is made. Withdrawing the spade he places the tree in this opening with one hand while holding the spade with the other. Then, with the back of the spade toward the tree and about 2 inches from it, he thrusts the spade into the ground its full length and presses the slice of earth thus made firmly against the roots of the tree at the bottom as well as at the top. The earth should be tramped firmly about the tree as the planter moves forward. The men should be cautioned not to try to plant too fast, and none but the most careful and reliable men should be put at this work. If furrows are not used the trees may be set at proper intervals in the bare spots, the incisions being made with a spade in the way described above. It will not be possible to space the trees regularly, but they can readily be planted to average the desired distance apart. CARE OF THE PLANTATION. No cultivation of the planted trees is necessary. The grass which will grow up about them while they are still small will benefit them by the shade and protection it will afford. The plantation should be well fenced to exclude live stock and carefully guarded from fire. COST OF PLANTING. It is impossible to give an accurate estimate of the cost of planting, because the price of plant material and the wages paid for labor vary. Wild seedlings of jack pine are usually obtainable from Minnesota at a cost of about $5 per thousand delivered, but nursery stock is usually quoted at from $5 to $12 per thousand. Yellow pine usually sells at from $6 to $15 per thousand. With labor at $1.50 per day it would cost $1.80 to plant an acre, spacing the trees 6 by 6 feet apart each way, 1,210 per acre. If the furrows were plowed it would require a man and team one-sixth of a day, which, at $3, would amount to $0.50, or a total cost per acre, aside from the plant material, of $2.30. If the planting is done in connection with the regular ranch work this cost for labor can be disregarded. Approved : JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. WASHINGTON, D. C., May 1, 1909. Diviriiou of Forestry University of California Issued December 27, 190(5. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, FOREST SERVICE— Circular 45. GIFFORD PINCHOT Forester. FOREST PLANTING IN EASTERN NEBRASKA. By FRANK G. MILLER, M. F., FORE 8 T ASSISTANT, FOREST SERVICE. ORGANIZATION OF THE FOREST SERVICE. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. OVEETON W. PRICE, Associate Forester. GENERAL INSPECTION, FREDERICK E. OLMSTED, in Charge. LAW, GEORGE W. WOODRUFF, in Charge. PUBLICATION AND EDUCATION, HERBERT A. SMITH, in Charge. DENDROLOGY, GEORGE B. SUD WORTH, in Charge. GRAZING, ALBERT F. POTTER, in Charge. RECORD, JAMES B. ADAMS, in Charge. RESERVE ORGANIZATION, COERT DuBois, ) . *» ~. . ,, f alternately in Charge. R. E. BENEDICT, J FOREST MANAGEMENT. THOMAS H. SHERRARD, in Charge. FOREST EXTENSION, ERNEST A. STERLING, in Charge. FOREST PRODUCTS, WILLIAM L. HALL, in Charge. [Cir. 45] (2) CONTENTS. Page. Purpose of the study 5 The region 5 Topography, drainage, soil 5 Climate 5 Precipitation 6 Forest planting of the past 7 Present status of forest planting 7 Forest planting of the future 8 A survey of existing plantations 8 Cottonwood 12 Hardy catalpa 15 Green ash 17 Black walnut 19 Honey locust 23 Osage orange 24 White willow 27 Silver maple 28 Boxelder 28 Russian mulberry 29 White elm 29 Lombardy poplar 29 Black locust 29 Other broadleaf trees 30 White pine 30 Austrian pine 31 Jack pine 31 Western yellow pine 31 Scotch pine 31 Norway spruce 31 European larch 31 Red cedar. 32 Conclusions 32 [Cir. 45] (3) SEP 2 1 1914 Division of Forestry University of California FOREST PLANTING IN EASTERN NEBRASKA. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY. The study of forest plantations in eastern Nebraska upon which this report is based was made to ascertain the tree species best suited for planting in the region. To this end the species planted in the past were studied with reference to their silvical requirements, notes were made on the effect of different methods of planting, and typical plan- tations were measured to find the amount and value of the product. THE REGION. The region covered by this report includes that part of Nebraska east of the ninety-ninth meridian. TOPOGRAPHY, DRAINAGE, SOIL. Eastern Nebraska is a broad plateau sloping gently from the west toward the Missouri River. The surface is diversified by many val- leys and by large areas of bottomland. Away from the streams the topography is often marked by rolling hills and steep slopes. The entire region is drained by numerous small streams flowing into the Niobrara, Elkhorn, Platte, and Nemaha rivers, which, in turn, are tributary to the Missouri. The soil is well adapted to tree growth. For the most part it is a loess — that is, a fine sandy loam — mixt with a large quantity of silt and more or less calcareous matter. This absorbs water readily and retains it for long periods, especially where surface cultivation is given. Toward the sand hills the soil supports practically no natural forest growth, and the little tree planting done is confined chiefly to the valleys. Recent experiments, however, have demonstrated that some species of pine can be planted successfully on the sand hills proper. CLIMATE. The region is characterized by rather severe winters and warm sum- mers, sudden and extreme changes of temperature, wide seasonal and yearly deviation in precipitation, a clear, pure, moderately dry atmos- phere, and a high percentage of sunshine. [Cir. 45] (5) 6 The prevailing winds are from the south and southeast during the spring and summer and from the northwest in fall and winter. Their average velocity is high. The southerly winds of summer fre- quently come as hot waves, which, by causing excessive transpiration, injure tree growth. Moreover, the strong northwest winds of winter are more injurious to trees than is commonly supposed. Transpira- tion goes on at all seasons, and since the northerly winds blow when the ground is frozen, the trees are unable to secure the soil water and suffer or even die from drought as certainly as in summer. Occasional prolonged hot or cold periods occur, which are a very severe test to trees, and species which have been introduced from other localities sometimes die. In the unusually cold winter of 1898-99, for example, a large percentage of the Osage orange hedges were killed, not only in Nebraska, but thruout the central Mississippi Valley. PRECIPITATION. The following table shows for eastern Nebraska the total annual precipitation, the total for the growing season, and the ratio of the seasonal to the annual rainfall: Station. Elevation. Period of observa- tion. Average annual precipi- tation. Precipitation dur- ing growing season. April to August, inclusive. Ratio to annual precipi- tation. Feet. 1,040 1,100 1,585 2,809 1,206 Years. 27 24 21 29 20 Inches. 31.4 29.6 26.8 18.1 25.8 Inches. 20.8 19.3 17.9 13.4 17.9 Per cent. 66 65 67 74 69 Desoto Genoa North Platte Yankton, S. Dak Altho the average annual precipitation for Nebraska for the period from 1876 to 1904 was but 23.57 inches, the above table shows that more than two-thirds of the total falls during the growing season, thus giving the State a very favorable showing against States farther east, where the total annual rainfall is considerably greater but more equally distributed thru the different seasons. This fact explains, in large measure, the success which has attended tree planting. On the other hand, the wide deviation in the amount of precipitation from year to year is a factor which tends to restrict the number of species that can safely be recommended. For example, the precipita- tion in 1881 was 30.91 inches. In 1893 the precipitation was only 16.18 inches, and the years 1894 and 1895 also experienced a shortage in rainfall, making three consecutive dry years. This period was very severe on planted timber, and some species proved unadapted to cer- tain localities or situations where they hitherto had been successful. [Cir. 45] Much of the cottonwood and willow, for example, which had done well for several years on the upland, was either badly injured or killed. Thus it is clear that in selecting a species for a given locality, not only the average but the extremes of weather conditions must be taken into account. FOREST PLANTING OF THE PAST. Nebraska is essentially a prairie State. Only about 3 per cent of the total area was originally covered with natural timber, and no- where was the forest area large. Even in the eastern counties, where the greatest amount of timber is found, probably less than 10 per cent of the area wras originally occupied by forest. The scarcity of natural timber, together with the character of the climate, has led to an un- usual amount of forest planting. The average of the figures returned by the assessors for 1903 and 1904 shows that the entire State has 286,000 acres of planted timber. Of this amount, about 248,000 acres, or nearly 87 per cent, is in the territory east of the ninety-ninth meridian. The object in past planting was primarily to secure protection against the storms and winds that so frequently visit Nebraska prairies. Its commercial side was considered only incidentally. The tendency, therefore, was to select the quick-growing species, especially those near at hand, which could be had cheaply. Tho there has been a com- paratively large amount of planting done, the major part is in poor condition to-day. This may be accounted for in several ways. The trees chosen were often ill adapted to the conditions. Thus it frequently happened that a species adapted primarily to the bottomland soils was planted indiscriminately on the uplands, or that a species was planted on sandy land which could succeed on!}7 in a loam with a clay subsoil. Still another cause of failure has been lack of care and management. There is scarcely a plantations in Nebraska which has been managed with the same care that the enterprising farmer gives to his field crops. Instead, the vast majority of plantations have had little care or none at all. Almost invariably they have been made free range for live stock. In man}T cases they have been severely damaged by unchecked fires. Again, instead of improving the plantation by cutting out the dead, dying, and defective timber as material was needed, the better trees have usually been selected. PRESENT STATUS OF FOREST PLANTING. In general, the planted area in eastern Nebraska is decreasing, tho not uniformly so, for in some of the newer counties, particularly those in the northeastern part of the State, there is an increase. However, [Cir. 45] 8 with the rapid rise in the price of land, together with an increased tim- ber supply, due to planting- by the early settlers, the activity in for- est planting so characteristic of pioneer days has gradually declined, till in most parts of the State the planting done is more than offset by the cutting of the early plantations for fuel, posts, lumber, etc. Nur- serymen say that the demand for forest tree seedlings declined very rapidly from about 1894. All agree, however, that there is a revival of interest in tree planting at the present time. FOREST PLANTING OF THE FUTURE. In past planting commercial considerations were largely ignored, but in the future these should be especially emphasized. The farmer should plant trees primarily with a view to raising wood crops, and to this end only the better and more profitable species should be used. It is easily possible to secure all the advantages of shelter and orna- ment and at the same time to derive a revenue from the forest plantation. A SURVEY OF EXISTING PLANTATIONS. The plantations here given are fairly well distributed over the region of this report. In but few cases were two groves of the same species measured in the same locality. The study was not confined to the best plantations only. Those groves of a given species which were typical of actual conditions at the present time were selected and measured. With cottonwood, for example, the study includes both fairly good and rather poor plantations, growing under widely differ- ent conditions of soil, moisture, and management. The contents of any given plantation were determined by measuring a representative portion of it, called a sample plot, seldom less than one-tenth of the total area of the grove, often much more, and when the grove contained an acre or less, the entire area was measured. The sample plot in each case was selected to represent average conditions of the plantation. All trees on the sample plot were then calipered, and classified as dominant, intermediate, and overtopt. An average or sample tree for each class was then selected, felled, and analyzed. The stem was cut into T-foot lengths down to 1 inch, and the branch wood into 4-foot lengths down to 2 inches in diameter. Frequently nearly all the trees would class as dominant, and the cutting of one sample tree would be sufficient to determine the total contents of the plot, disregarding the few trees that might fall in some other class. Care was taken in each case, however, to select enough trees to deter- mine accurately the total volume of the plot. The volume of each sample tree, including the stump, stem, and [Cir. 45] 9 branch wood, was computed first in cubic feet.a Adding the volume of the group of trees on each sample plot, the total contents of the plot were obtained, and from this the total volume of the grove could be reckoned. In all cases the results were reduced to the unit of 1 acre. The volume in cubic feet was reduced to cords by using the factor 0.86 as the divisor. TABLE 1. — Comparative height of the principal sped.es for planting in eastern Nebraska. Age. Cotton- wood. Silver maple. Black walnut. Green ash. Hardy catalpa. Honey locust. Years. 5 Feet. 19 Feet. 10 Feet. 11 Feet. 11 Feet. 12 Feet. 11 10 33 22 18 19 19 18 15 46 33 24 24 23 23 20 ... 55 44 30 28 27 27 25 61 53 36 32 30 31 30 65 60 42 36 33 35 35 67 66 46 38 39 40 69 72 51 40 43 45 . 71 76 54 41 50 73 80 57 43 Number of trees measured . . 394 59 130 216 83 12 The table shows that all the species except silver maple make a bet- ter height growth during the first five years than for any other five- year period. Silver maple increases its rate of height growth over that of the first five years up to the twentieth year, and thereafter slowly declines. Cottonwood, green ash, and black walnut decline in height growth after the thirtieth year, the first two very rapidly. Black walnut maintains a very uniform growth up to that time. Hardy catalpa grows at a fairly uniform rate up to the twentieth year, and then gradually declines. Honey locust grows somewhat more slowly than hardy catalpa for the first ten years, but leads after that time, and its height growth up to the fortieth year is very uniform. TABLE 2. — Comparative diameter, breasthigh, of the principal species for planting in eastern Nebraska. Age. Cotton- wood. Silver maple. Honey locust. Black walnut. Hardy catalpa. Green ash. Years. 5 Inches. 2.3 Inches. 1.8 Inches. 2.0 Inches. 1 i Inches. 1 6 Inches. 1 i 10 5 1 3.1 3 6 2 6 2 8 2 1 15 7.5 4.0 4.6 4.0 3 7 2 9 20 9.4 5.1 5 3 5 2 4 9 3 6 25 11 0 6 5 6 1 6 1 5 9 4 4 30 12.2 7.5 6.7 6 7 6 4 5 0 35 12 9 8.4 7 3 7 1 5 3 40 13 3 9 0 7 5 5 4 45 13.6 7 6 5 5 50 13 8 7 8 5 g Number of trees measured 50 11 12 23 24 57 a The stump was considered as a cylinder and the stem and branches as paraboloids. The volume of the sample tree being known, the total volume of the group or class it represented was obtained by the use of the following formula: F=vx-, in which F=volume of the whole group or class; v=vol- ume of the sample tree; S= basal area of group or class represented by the sample tree; 8= basal area of the sample tree. 10067— No. 45—06 2 10 According to this table silver maple, honey locust, hardy catalpa, and green ash make their best diameter growth during the first five years. Cotton wood increases its rate of diameter growth from year to year up to the fifteenth, and black walnut up to the twentieth. The rate of diameter growth of the six species for the periods given is in the order named. Hardy catalpa declines rapidly in diameter growth after the twenty-fifth year, cottonwood and green ash after the thir- tieth, and black walnut after the fortieth. Honey locust and silver maple both show a fairly uniform diameter growth to the end of the periods for which figures are given. Heartwood composes the central portion of. the stem, and may be distinguished from the sapwood by a difference in color. It is harder and more durable in contact with the ground than sapwood. The pro- portion of heartwood to sapwood increases with the age of the tree. Hence, when durability is required, old trees are more valuable than young ones. The contents in fence posts were obtained by ocular estimates in the field. Experience proves this method to be accurate, especially where the trees run small in diameter, as in the great majority of the planta- tions measured. For example, in catalpa plantation No. 4 (p. 15) the survey gave $163 worth of first and second class posts, and the owner cut and sold $167 worth per acre from 4 acres a few months later. In all cases a post was reckoned as 7 feet in length. A second-class post varies from 3 to 3.9 inches and first-class from 4 to 5.9 inches in diameter at the small end. A log 6 to 7.9 inches in diameter at the small end was considered equal to two first-class posts, 8 to 9.9 inches as three first-class, and from 10 to 12 inches as four first-class posts. It will be seen that these dimensions are very liberal. To calculate the volume in board feet of cottonwood and black wal- nut, the saw-log length of each tree was determined with a top diameter limit of 6 inches. The standard lengths of logs in Nebraska are 12, 14, and 16 feet, with a few 10 and 18 feet, the preferences being in the order named. With these standards as a guide, the trees were divided into saw logs, according to the demands of the trade. From taper measurements curves were drawn, and from these a model tree was constructed by which it was possible to know the diameter of any tree at any height and the diameter of any log at the small end outside the bark. From another set of curves the thickness of the bark of any tree at any height could be determined; therefore the diameter of any log inside the bark. The logs were then scaled by the Doyle rule. As a guide in future planting, calculations were made on the cost of and returns from plantations of cottonwood, catalpa, green ash, honey locust, Osage orange, black walnut, and white willow. The figures in each case were based upon a typical example. All items of expense were carried with 5 per cent compound inter- [Cir. 45] 11 est from the year the plantation was established. Thus the costs given are a trifle higher than the actual, since some of the expenses, such as those for cultivating, except for the first year, and pruning, were not incurred at that time. However, it has not been possible to obtain data to show just when these expenses were incurred, so it is assumed that all were paid out the first year. The returns in each case are reduced to a net annual income with 5 per cent compound interest. In reckoning the returns for catalpa, Osage orange, black walnut, honey locust, and green ash, it is assumed that the stakes, or third-class posts, and fuel wood which can be obtained — products which are dis- regarded in the calculations — will pay the cost of harvesting the whole crop. Experience proves that they will do this. TABLE 3. — Amount of heartivood in trees of various diameters. Diameter breasthigh out- side of bark. Cottonwood. Black walnut. Hardy catalpa. Diameter inside bark 8 feet high. Diameter of heart- wood 8 feet high. Diameter inside bark 8 feet high. Diameter of heart- wood 8 feet high. Diameter inside bark 7.5 feet high. Diameter of heart- wood 7.5 feet high. Inches. 1 Inches. 0.7 1.5 2.4 3.3 4.1 4.9 5.8 6.6 7.5 8.3 9.2 10.0 10.9 11.7 12.6 13.4 14.3 15.1 Inches. Inches. 0.5 1.4 2.2 3.1 3.9 4.8 5.7 6.5 7.4 8.2 9.1 10.0 Inches. 0.2 .9 1.5 2.2 2.8 3.5 4.2 4.8 5.5 6.2 6.8 7.6 Inches. 0.8 1.7 2.5 3.2 3.9 4.7 5.5 6.2 6.7 7.2 Inches. 0.7 1.5 2.2 2 9 3.5 4.2 4.8 5.5 6.0 6.6 2 0.6 1.3 1.9 2.6 3.2 3.9 4.5 5.2 5.9 6.5 7.2 7.8 8.5 9.2 10.0 10.8 11.6 3 4 6 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Number of trees measured.. 4 9 23 2 T Diameter breasthigh out- side of bark. Silver maple. Green ash. Honey locust. Diameter inside bark 8 feet high. Diameter of heart- wood 8 feet high. Diameter inside bark 7.5 feet high. Diameter of heart- wood 7.5 feet high. Diameter inside bark 7.5 feet high. Diameter of heart- wood?^ feet high. Inches. 1 Inches. - 0.9 Inches. Inches. 0.7 1.4 2.2 3.0 4.0 5.1 6.4 Inches. Inches. 0.7 1.5 2.4 3.3 4.3 5.3 6.3 Inches. 0.1 .7 1.4 2.1 2.9 3.8 4.7 2 . 1.8 2.8 3.7 4.6 5.4 6.2 7.0 7.8 8.5 3 0.1 .2 .6 1.3 2.4 4 0.5 1.3 2.1 2.9 3.7 4.5 5.4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16... 17 18 Number of trees measured.. ] 1 58 12 [Cir. 45] 12 The preceding table shows that hardy catalpa has thruout a high percentage of heartwood. This is one of the many excellent qualities that make it so valuable as a post timber. Green ash develops no heartwood for some years, which accounts for the short life of posts from young trees. Honey locust begins to develop heartwood early, and the amount, tho small at first, increases rapidly with age. Black walnut, tho noted for its durability, does not develop enough heartwood to make a durable post until it is about 7 inches in diameter. Cotton- wood has a smaller proportion of heartwood than black walnut, but even the heartwood of cottonwood decays quickly. Heartwood is not formed in silver maple for some years, and then it develops more slowly than in cottonwood. COTTONWOOD. Cottonwood deserves a prominent place in Nebraska tree planting. It grows very rapidly and can be propagated easily and cheaply, and the wood is coming into wide use. It is planted principally for fuel and lumber, but in the sand hills, and sometimes elsewhere, it is used extensively for fence posts. A cottonwood post lasts about three years, or five in exceptional cases. Posts are usually set out when green, with the bark on, which in part accounts for their short life. The fuel value of cottonwood is . relatively low, but owing to its rapid growth it is doubtful whether any other tree adapted to Nebraska conditions will produce as many heat units per acre in a given time. Under average conditions a plantation, on bottomland, will produce 3 cords per acre annually for the first twenty-five or thirty years. The majority of the bottomland groves reported run below this figure, but a large amount of cutting had been done in them before these meas- urements were taken, and none has been under the most favorable management. Cottonwood grows best on rich, well -drained bottomlands. On uplands it will succeed in low situations, such as ravines and valleys, but on high, dry land is very apt to be killed by drought, and at best will yield considerably less than on bottomlands. The trees may do well for one, two, or several years, and then suddenly die. In the season of 1894, one of the driest in the history of the State, a very large pro- portion of cottonwood on the dry upland was either badly damaged or killed altogether. The yield table for cottonwood is of interest as showing the relative value of saw-log and fuel-wood products. The table shows a total yield of 53,514 board feet of saw logs. These saw logs contain 260.1 cords of fuel wood. The common stumpage value of saw logs is $10 per thousand, and of fuel wood $2 per cord. 53,514 board feet, at $10 per thousand $535.14 260.1 cords, at $2 520.20 Difference 14.94 [Cir. 45] 13 In other words, unless saw logs command at least $10 per thousand on the stump, it is more profitable to sell the wood at $2 per cord. Tho the average of saw-log yields is low, the growing of cotton wood lumber under proper management would pay good returns. It is coming more and more into use as a building material. From its tendency to warp, it can not be used where it is exposed to the weather, but for rough interior woodwork it is excellent. The lumber is also used locally for bridge planking, and gives excellent service. Else- where cottonwood is sold for the manufacture of paper pulp, boxes, furniture backs, and washboards. TABLE 4. — Yield of cottonwood. BOTTOM LAND. 1. -1 6 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 County. Area of grove. Age of grove. Dominant trees. Yield per acre. Aver- age di- ameter breast- high. Num- ber trees per acre. Saw- logs. Fuel wood in addition. Total. Aver- age an- nual. Colfax Acres. 2.50 2.70 .48 .60 2.40 5.00 40.00 1.60 .70 2.80 2.30 2.00 4.00 10.00 2.20 Years. 16 18 18 22 22 23 25 25 25 26 26 29 34 35 36 Inches. 6.6 9.8 8.5 11.4 10.8 13.8 12.1 12.4 11.2 11.7 14.2 12.0 11.0 16.7 13.8 268 290 413 280 201 180 185 240 338 250 96 220 137 134 120 Bd. ft. 284 Cu.ft. 1,566 4,147 4,109 3,709 2,842 5,016 3,544 3,440 2,139 6,747 1,774 4,820 3,201 4,361 2, 358 Cords. 18.2 48.2 47.8 43.1 33.0 58.3 41.2 40.0 24.9 78.5 20.6 56.0 37.2 50.7 27.4 Cu. ft. 1,679 4,147 4,109 3,709 3,561 7,083 4,809 4,362 3,193 8,171 3,638 6,152 3,594 5,324 4,812 Cords. 19.5 48.2 47.8 43.1 41.4 82.4 55.9 50.8 37.1 95.0 42.3 71.5 41.8 61.9 56.0 Cords. 1.2 2.7 2.7 2.0 1.9 3.6 2.2 2.0 1.5 3.7 1.6 2.5 1.2 1.8 1.6 Madison . Platte Hamilton Dodge 1,612 5,756 3,007 1,790 2,362 3,597 4,282 3,154 940 3,185 5,080 Dixon Pierce .... Wayne Jefferson Madison Merrick Stanton Colfax Lancaster Hall UPLAND. 16 Stanton 1 50 11 4 8 800 1 830 21 3 1 < 17 Pierce . 2.20 13 6 7 410 1,976 23.0 Li 18 Wayne 5 50 17 4 3 702 1, 214 14.1 j 19 90 Saunders Cuming 1.50 4.50 18 18 13.1 6.9 220 308 1, 593 3,388 39.4 4,102 2,047 47.7 23.8 2.' l.l 91 Colfax 1 75 20 5 4 612 2 034 23 7 1 5 22 23 94 Lancaster Madison Wayne 12.00 50.00 2 70 30 31 33 11.4 13.8 14 4 160 129 126 297 4,019 6 052 1,853 3,740 2 373 21.5 43.5 27 6 2,012 5,310 4 662 23.4 61.7 54 2 ..) 2.( 1 ( 25 Cuming . do . 2.50 12.00 33 33 11.6 9.9 181 173 2,167 763 3, 272 2 813 38.0 32 7 4,368 3 192 50.8 37.1 1,1 1 ] 97 Otoe 20 00 34 12 7 179 1 389 2 511 29 2 3 133 36 4 1 ] Plantation No. 2. — This plantation is situated on land that is subject to overflow in wet seasons, and for this reason is especially adapted to the growing of trees. The altitude is approximately 1,500 feet. The soil is a rich, sandy loam and very deep. The ground was put in a good state of cultivation just before it was planted, and the trees were set in furrows, 1 -year-old seedlings being [Cir. 45] 14 used. The spacing was 8 by 12 feet, thus requiring 454 trees per acre. A crop of corn was grown between the rows the first year, and the trees have never received any further cultivation. No data could be obtained on the returns from this crop, but it is safe to assume that it met the expense of the cultivation, which is therefore omitted in calculating the cost. The grove has never been pastured, and only the dead or dying trees have been cut out from time to time. The trees are tall, straight, and thrifty. Owing to wide spacing, the stems are branchy. Of the present stand of trees 77 per cent will class as dominant and the remainder as intermediate. The ground is covered with a fairly dense stand of weeds and grass. No data could be obtained on the cost of establishing this plantation, but the estimated cost is given below. The fuel wood would have a stumpage value of at least $2 per cord were it cut and sold. However, the wood is being consumed at home, thus saving the haulage, which would be at least 50 cents per cord. In reckoning the returns, there- fore, a stumpage value of $2.50 per cord is assumed. Preparation of ground $2.50 Trees, 454, at $2.50 per M 1.14 Planting 2.00 Cultivation (cost paid by corn crop). Total 5.64 Interest on $5.64 for eighteen years, at 5 per cent, compounded 7. 93 Total cost with 5 per cent compound interest at the end of eighteen years 13.57 48.2 cords, at $2.50 stumpage, farm value (value at end of eighteen years) ... 120. 50 Deducting the cost, $13.57, from the value, $120.50, leaves $106.93 as the net value, which is equivalent to an annual net income at 5 per cent compound interest of $3.80 per acre. This plantation affords an excellent example of what can be done by growing trees on land that is too wet for field crops. By planting it to trees, it furnishes a continuous supply of fuel, affords protection to the home, and yields a rental value above that of farm lands in the same locality during the same time. If the spacing had been closer and the plantation given good care, the returns would have been increased. The yield table for cottonwood shows that this plantation has given an annual yield of 2.7 cords per acre. Others made an equally good showing, and two furnish much higher yields. [Cir. 45] 15 HARDY CATALPA. A considerable amount of hardy catalpa and its hybrids has been planted in southeastern Nebraska. The hardy kind succeeds well in this part of the State, but most of the hybrid forms have failed, and on this account catalpa is in ill repute with many^ people. A study of the table, however, will prove that hardy catalpa will not only suc- ceed, but under right conditions will yield paying returns. Planta- tion 4 is now being harvested. Six acres were cut clear the past two winters, and the fence posts have yielded a gross return of $207 per acre. The owner values the additional fuel wood at $5 per acre. The cost of harvesting the crop was $25 per acre. The first-class posts sell for 14 cents, the second-class for 9 cents, the third-class, or stakes, for 4 cents. The value of the fence posts in No. 12 is $332 per acre, and material worth $52 per acre has been sold from this plantation in the past two years, making its gross value $383 per acre, to say noth- ing of the large number of posts that were previously cut from it. All the plantations herein reported are in the region south of the Platte River and east of Hastings. As a rule, the species has not done well west of York. It was not found in plantation form north of the Platte River, tho many single trees in good condition were noted. Successful plantations may be seen at Yankton and Viborg, S. Dak. Hardy catalpa can probably be grown on good soils thruout the region covered by this report, except in the sand hills. Wherever it will succeed, no other tree will pay so well. It requires a deep, fertile, porous soil, and the situation is still more desirable if the water table is within 10 or 15 feet of the surface. These condi- tions exist in many of the river bottoms, especially in the Platte River Valley. TABLE 5. — Yield of hardy catalpa. No. of plantation. County. Area of grove. Age of grove. Dominant trees. Yield per acre. ii II .* |x,d is* > (DA *t k J! £ Total. Posts. Average annual posts. Fuel wood. 1st. 2d. Total. 1st. 2d. Total. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Pawnee . . . do Acres. 13 8 .75 14.50 .75 .32 .50 2.50 1.70 2 .52 2.40 Yrs. 14 15 17 19 20 20 20 21 23 24 25 25 In. 4.3 3.1 2.9 3.7 3.3 3.3 6 4.7 5 5.6 6.7 6.6 1,583 2,571 2, 624 1,747 800 1,737 376 406 241 592 660 747 On. ft. 2,378 1.687 2,196 1,759 1,010 1,229 1,237 651 651 1,421 1,655 4,129 Cords. 27.7 19.1 25.5 20.5 11.7 14.3 14.4 7.6 7.6 16.5 19.2 48 No. 647 18 220 460 ""si" 721 242 326 702 931 1,829 No. 1,363 510 156 1,096 256 179 300 140 150 532 542 845 No. 2,010 528 376 1,556 256 213 1,021 382 476 1,234 1,473 2,674 No. 46.2 1.2 12.9 24.2 "i."?" 36.1 11.5 14.2 29.3 37.2 73.2 No. 97.3 34 9.2 57.7 12.8 9 15 6.7 6.5 22.2 21.7 33.8 No. 143.5 35.2 22.1 81.9 12.8 10.7 51.1 18.2 20.7 51.4 58.9 107 Cords. 2 1.3 1.5 1.1 .6 .7 .7 .4 .3 .7 .8 1.9 Richardson Butler Lancaster.. Adams Richardson York do do Lancaster . . Nemaha ... [Cir. 45] 16 Plantations Nos. 1 and %. — These plantations occupy adjacent grounds, belong to the same person, and have been given exactly the same care. They are treated together, therefore, in order to compare the returns. They are situated on upland prairie. The altitude is approximately 1,200 feet. The soil is a sandy loam with a small admixture of gravel. The subsoil is of clay. The land occupied by No. 1 was in virgin prairie sod till the spring of 1899, when it was broken out and allowed to stand idle till the following year. No. 2 is on land that was old and worn out when the trees were planted. Plantation No. 1 was established in 1890, No. 2 in 1889, their respective ages when measured being 14 and 15 years. In both cases the ground was put in a thoro state of cultivation immediately before the trees were planted. One-year-old stock was used, spaced 4 by 4 feet. The plantations were cultivated like corn the first two years, since when no further care has been given them, except that a few acres were pruned several years ago. The general health and appearance of the trees are good, and the plantations on the whole are thrifty. There is some decay noticeable, caused by fungus entering where the dead limbs have persisted. The plantations have always been protected against fire and live stock, and every opportunity has been afforded, therefore, for the building up of forest conditions. The crown cover, save for an opening here and there, is quite complete, and demonstrates that catalpa can be depended upon to form a canopy sufficiently dense to shut out weeds and grass. The owner has kept a strict account of all expenses incurred in establishing and maintaining these plantations, and the figures given on the cost are taken from his records. The cost is assumed to be the same for both plantations. Plantation No. 1. COST (ACTUAL). Plants, 2, 722, at $1 . 15 per M $3. 13 Preparation of the ground, cultiva- tion, and pruning 18. 46 Total 21.59 Interest on $21.59 for fourteen years, at 5 per cent, compounded. 21. 16 Total cost at the end of four- teen years 42. 75 RETURNS. First-class posts, 647, at 14 cents. $90. 58 Second-class posts, 1,363, at 9 cents .. . 122.67 Value at the end of fourteen years 213. 25 Deducting the cost, $42.75, from the value, $213.25, leaves $170.50 as the net income at the end of fourteen years, which is equivalent to an annual net income at 5 per cent compound interest of $8.69 per acre. [Cir. 45] 17 Plantation No. 2. COST (ACTUAL). RETURNS. Plants, 2,722, at $1.15 per M $3. 13 First-class posts, 18, at 14 cents ... $2.52 Preparation of the ground, culti- ! Second-class posts, 510, at 9 cents . 45.90 ration, and pruning 18. 46 Total 21.59 Interest on $21. 59 for fifteen years at 5 per cent compound interest. 23. 29 Total cost at the end of fif- teen years 44.88 Value at the end of fifteen years 48. 42 Deducting the cost, $44.88, from the gross returns, $58.42, leaves $3.54 as the net income at the end of fifteen years, which is equiva- lent to an annual net income at 5 per cent compound interest of 16 cents per year. This plantation would make a much better showing if measured in three or four years. Because of the impoverished condition of the soil, the trees are only just reaching post size. Most of them are sound and thrifty and will make fence posts in a few years. These two plantations make it clear that catalpa requires a good soil for its best development, and emphasize the fact that with trees as with other crops the highest returns are realized from the best soils. GREEN ASH. Next to cotton wood, green ash has been the most widely planted tree in eastern Nebraska. Its range for planting comprizes the entire region, except portions of the sand hills. It succeeds best on low land, yet no other tree, except possibly honey locust, is so well adapted to dry upland planting. In the sand hills it can not be planted on the upland, but does tolerably well in the valleys. In general, the timber of green ash is only slightly inferior to that of white ash, and the tree is much hardier. It should be planted mainly for posts and fuel. Its fuel value is relatively high, and under favorable conditions a yield of at least 1 cord per year per acre may be realized. As a post timber green ash is not among the best, but is widely used. When cut in the fall or winter and thoroly seasoned the posts are fully twice as serviceable as when set green. Its diam- eter growth is somewhat lower than that of catalpa. In good soil it will attain post size in from twelve to fifteen years, but since its heart- wood does not develop early, posts cut from young trees are not very durable. [Cir. 45] 18 TABLE 6. — Yield of green ash. ! 0. "c 1 1 a2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 i23 24 25 26 27 28 29 £ a 1 Area of grove. Age of grove. Dominant trees. Yield per acre. II •O o> (H V° ||| > O^H <4 ogj * 2 0> 85 .Q !H J& Total. Posts. Average annual. 1st. 2d. Total. Posts. Fuel wood. 1st. 2d. Total. Jefferson . . . Washington Nemaha ... Polk Acres. 1.30 2.50 1.00 .92 1.50 2.50 3.43 3.00 2.50 7.00 .99 1.20 1.04 .80 .95 1.56 1.10 1.70 6.60 4.24 .48 3.10 .38 5.30 1.50 1.10 1.50 .25 3.10 Yrs. 17 17 18 19 19 20 20 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 22 22 23 23 25 25 25 27 29 30 30 30 32 33 33 In. 3.1 4.7 3.7 4.2 2.9 2.4 4.2 4.5 4.2 4.2 3.7 4.9 6.2 4.3 5.1 4.8 5.3 4.7 3.8 5.7 5.3 6.2 4.9 6.8 6.1 7.4 4.6 4.6 7.0 540 1,083 1,054 965 844 1,304 1,446 744 932 714 928 725 805 1,192 492 446 496 835 517 345 497 309 950 352 368 236 553 530 383 Gu.fl. 275 1,326 1,582 840 523 722 963 1,014 1,011 1,004 973 1,263 1,611 2,063 640 648 1,339 1,492 343 1,067 1,269 1,001 1,735 860 1,662 2,273 1,106 1,272 1,623 Ords. 3.2 15.4 18.4 9.8 6.1 8.4 11.2 11.8 11.8 11.7 11.3 14.7 18.7 24.0 7.4 7.5 15.6 17.3 4.0 12.4 14.8 11.6 20.1 10.0 19.3 26.4 12.9 14.8 18.9 No. No. 35 430 494 365 172 28 232 464 312 502 294 317 504 584 312 188 280 410 155 111 240 208 480 184 370 486 330 420 420 No. 35 740 936 495 200 48 262 754 488 790 512 617 1,206 1,656 540 326 574 835 206 301 667 649 970 430 1,438 1,648 673 885 1,640 No. No. 2.1 25.3 27.4 19.2 9.1 1.4 11.6 22.1 14.9 23.9 14.0 15.1 24.0 27.8 14.2 8.5 12.2 17.8 6.2 4.4 9.6 7.7 16.6 6.1 12.3 16.2 10.3 12.7 12.7 No. 2.1 43.5 52.0 26.0 10.5 2.4 13.1 35.9 23.2 37.6 24.4 29.4 57.4 78.8 24.'5 14.8 25.0 36.3 8.3 12.0 22.7 24.0 33.4 14.3 47.9 54.9 21.0 26.8 44.2 Cords. 0.2 .9 1.0 .5 .3 .4 .8 .6 .6 .6 .5 .7 .9 1.1 .3 .3 .7 .8 .2 .5 .6 .4 .7 .3 .6 .9 .4 .5 .6 310 442 130 28 20 30 290 167 288 218 300 702 1,072 228 138 294 425 51 190 327 441 490 246 1,068 1,162 343 465 1,040 18.2 24.6 6.8 1.5 1.0 1.5 13.8 8.4 13.7 10.4 14.3 33.4 51.1 10.4 6.3 12.8 18.5 2.1 7.6 13.1 16.3 16.9 8.2 35.6 38.7 10.7 14.1 31.5 Colfax Hall Clay Otoe Hamilton . . York Fillmore . . . Polk Kearney . . . Richardson Johnson ... Saunders... Hamilton . . York Webster.... Fillmore . . . Lancaster.. Polk Butler Clay Saunders .. .... do do Cuming Saunders... a Bottomland. Plantation JVb. 13. — This plantation is situated on rolling upland, tho it is cut by a small draw. The soil is a deep, fertile, sandy loam. In the draw it is covered by humus to a depth of several feet. On the tops of the knolls it is lighter in color, and humus is lacking. The trees were planted in 1 883, one-year-old seedlings about 8 inches high being used. These were small and inferior in quality. Before planting, the ground was plowed and subsoiled to a depth of 18 inches, and afterwards thoroly harrowed. The spacing was 6 by 8 feet, re- quiring 908 trees per acre. Cultivation was given for the first seven years. The trees were pruned six or seven years ago to a height of 8 feet. The grove has always been protected from live stock. Forty dollars worth of posts, poles, and fuel per acre have been cut from the plantation. The trees are tall and straight, with bushy crowns. The old wounds caused by pruning are completely healed over. All the trees will fur- nish posts, some as many as six. The success of this plantation is remarkable, since it is located within a few miles of the ninety-ninth meridian, where the conditions are [Cir. 45] 19 semiarid. It is probable that this success is due to the deep plowing given the ground before it was planted, and the subsequent cultivation given the plantation until the trees were large enough to take posses- sion of the soil. The cost of establishing and maintaining this plantation is given in the owner's record. The prices assigned the posts are considerably lower than those which the owner savs he can obtain. COST (ACTUAL). Preparation of the ground $3. 50 Plants, 908, at $2 per M 1. 81 Planting 75 Cultivation, seven years 5. 00 Pruning 2.00 Fencing 1.00 Total 14.06 Interest on $14. 06 for twenty-one years, at 5 per cent, compound interest . . . 25. 11 RETURNS. First-class posts, 702, at 10 cents. . $70. 20 Second-class posts, 504, at 7} cents ........................ 37.80 Posts, poles, and fuel cut in the past ......................... 40.00 Total cost at the end of Value at the end of twenty-one twenty-one years 39. 17 years 148. 00 Deducting the cost, $39.17 from the value, $148, leaves $108.83 as the net income at the end of twenty -one years, which is equiva- lent to a net annual income, at 5 per cent compound interest, of $3.05 per acre. Anyone who knows the conditions that have prevailed in this part of the State and the reverses that farming has suffered for the period included in the life of the plantation knows that this would be a splendid showing for any sort of crop. Adding to the returns the value of the plantation as a windbreak to the farmstead, it has yielded the owner handsome profit on his investment, besides enhanc- ing the value of the farm of which it forms a part. With the same careful management green ash would give better returns farther east in the State. Several other plantations included in the yield table for this species show a yield in fence posts per year not far behind this one, and for No. 11 the returns are considerably better. In view of the showing made by green ash, particularly in the more unfavorable western counties, it is obvious that it should have a prominent place in future planting. BLACK WALNUT. Black walnut requires a rich soil for its best development. It is especially adapted to the river valleys, where the soil is fertile, moist, and well drained. It will succeed fairly well on the upland in the eastern counties, but it should be planted commercially only on the [Cir. 45] 20 bottomlands. Its growth in diameter is nearly equal to that of catalpa, and under favorable conditions it will reach post size in from ten to twelve years. Young timber, however, because of its large percentage of sapwood, does not make a first-class fence post, and the rotation should in consequence be not less than twenty-five years. Walnut makes good fuel, but its timber is too valuable to be used for this purpose. The greatest returns will be realized from this species when it is planted for lumber. The time required for the production of saw logs, however, is from seventy to eighty years, which is a longer rotation than the average planter could afford to adopt. Black walnut can not be depended upon to form a complete crown cover. It is very intolerant under Nebraska conditions, and shades itself out before it has formed a canopy anything like dense enough to shut out weeds and grass. The species therefore should be planted in mixture with some more heavily foliaged tree. For bottom soils a mixture of walnut and hardy catalpa, in the proportion of 1 to 3, according to the following diagram, is suggested: (4 feet by 4 feet.) w c w c c c c c w c w c c c c c W=black walnut; C= hardy catalpa. Number of trees required per acre. Black walnut 680 Hardy catalpa 2, 040 Total 2,720 The walnut should be planted two years in advance of the catalpa, since, if the two are planted at the same time, there is danger that the walnut will be overtopt. A field crop, such as potatoes, could be grown with the walnut for the first two years. The catalpa should be planted in the spring of the third year. After eight or ten years it may gradually be thinned out, and by the time the plantation is 25 years old three-fourths of the catalpa and all defective walnut trees should have been removed. This will leave most of the walnut trees, but only the best specimens of the catalpa, and at this time the stand will probably not exceed TOO to 800 trees per acre of both species. By the fortieth year the remaining catalpa should have been harvested, as well as all defective specimens of the walnut, leaving a probable stand of 400 trees, which by this time will have attained sufficient size to take care [Cir. 45] 21 of themselves. It is likety that in the openings a certain percentage of the catalpa stumps will sprout, and this sprout growth will still fur- ther assist the walnut. TABLE 7. — Yield of black walnut. BOTTOMLAND. Domi- nant trees. Yield per acre. d g 03 Posts. Average annual o A is posts. o3 County. | 0 i ** , « C be I ^5 Total. Fuel wood. •3 fs 1st. 2d. Total. 1st. 2d. Total. s o b d G £ 1 f 5 i I 1 Dixon Acres. 6.00 Frs. 15 /n. 6.6 Cu.ft. 817 Cords. 9.5 BAJt. 394 No. 154 No. 648 No. 26.3 No. 10.3 No. 36.6 Cords. 0.6 2 3 Washington Burt 2.17 4.70 30 3? 6.7 9.0 690 ?44 2,319 2,558 27.0 29.7 .9 .9 320 1,192 284 1,476 37.3 8.9 46.1 4 Johnson .50 83 8 2 2 382 27 7 1,240 368 1,608 38.8 11 5 50.3 .9 Douglas 74 12 1 97 2 628 30 5 1 500 .9 fi Otoe . .50 34 7.9 son 1,564 18.2 1,596 1666 2,262 46 9 19 6 66.6 .5 7 Burt 12.50 34 8.4 310 3,045 35.4 1,862 316 2,178 54.8 9.3 64.1 1.1 UPLAND. 8 9 in Richardson. Stan ton Caas 0.70 .59 1 40 18 19 93 4.3 5.2 6 7 901 532 510 1,803 1,117 1 140 21.0 13.0 13 3 734 488 740 535 358 494 1,269 846 1,234 40.8 25.7 32.2 29.7 18.8 21.6 70.6 44.5 53.7 1.2 .7 .6 11 T> Johnson Saunders 1.50 30 S1 7.2 6 7 264 %6 1,060 1 631 12.3 19 0 806 950 72 ?18 878 1,168 26.9 30.7 2.4 7.0 29.3 37.8 .4 .7 13 Cass 8.00 4? 11.2 ^00 3,688 42.9 1 720 1,637 98? 1,919 39 0 6 7 45.7 1.0 Plantation No. 7. — This plantation is situated on the Missouri River bottom. The soil is a rich black loam, 5 to 6 feet deep. It is fresh, porous, and exceedingly fertile. The site is traversed by a small stream, which occasionally overflows and courses out thru the grove, inundating a good part of it. Water does not stand on the surface more than a day or so. The plantation was grown direct from the seed. Cultivation had been given the land for two years previous to planting. The nuts were planted in the fall of 1869. After the ground had been plowed and harrowed as for corn, single rows, 4 feet apart, were marked off with a common marker. Furrows were then run 8 feet apart at right angles to the marks. The nuts were dropt at the intersection of the furrows with the marks, thus giving a spacing of 4 feet by 8 feet. One nut was planted at a place, making 1,360 nuts per acre. It required 25 bushels (" shucks" on) to plant the 12i acres. They were purchased from the Indians at 25 cents per bushel. After the nuts were dropt, they were covered by filling the furrows with a harrow. This covered them rather too deep, so that only about two-thirds of the number came up the first year. [Cir. 45] 22 In the spring of 1870 corn was planted in every other row, thus giving nearly a half stand. Both the corn and the trees were thoroly cultivated and a good half crop of corn was raised that year. In the spring of 1871 the land was sowed to oats and an excellent crop was raised. The oats were harvested with a sithe. The ground was left in the stubble and the plantation has received no further cultivation. In the spring of 1872, and again in 1875, the trees were pruned, at a total cost of $2 per acre. No further expense has ever been incurred in the care of the plantation. The practise has been to cut the sup- prest or otherwise inferior trees. These have furnished about 1,000 fence posts, or 80 posts per acre, and the additional firewood has paid for the cost of harvesting the posts. The plantation has been mod- erately pastured to hogs since the third year of its life. There is only a trace of humus. The litter consists of leaves and twigs and is from one-fourth to one-half an inch deep. Bluegrass and weeds cover the entire surface, though the sod is nowhere dense. An occasional clump of elderberry and a few gooseberry bushes con- stitute the only underbrush. The trees were pruned early and there is a large percentage of clear, straight boles. A few would make small saw logs. They have made an excellent height growth and are in a healthy, thrifty condition. The practise of making gradual thinnings to favor the best trees leaves the present stand comparatively free from disease or defects of any kind. The statement of the cost of this plantation is taken from the owner's record. The two field crops raised in the plantation paid for its entire cost, which is, therefore, not considered in calculating the final returns. COST (ACTUAL). Plowing the ground $0. 75 Harrowing and marking 25 Nuts, 2 bushels, at 25 cents 50 Planting 40 Pruning 2. 00 Total . . 3. 90 RETURNS. First-class posts, 1,862, at 12 £ cents $232.75 Second-class posts, 316, atScents. 25. 28 Posts sold in the past 80. 00 Value at the end of thirty- four vears . . 338. 03 Three hundred and thirty-eight dollars and three cents as the net income at the end of thirty-four years is equivalent to an annual net income at 5 per cent compound interest of $3.97. It is estimated that the rental value of the land as a hog pasture has been at least $1 per acre, which added to $3.97 gives nearly $5 as the total annual net income per acre above 5 per cent compound interest. [Cir. 45] 23 HONEY LOCUST. Honey locust is an exceedingly valuable tree for planting in Nebraska. It is hardy, enduring extremes of both heat and cold, is drought resist- ant, and fairly free from insect attacks and fungous diseases. Like green ash, it thrives best on well-drained bottomland soils, but it is unusually well adapted for upland planting in the dry sections. It should be widely planted in the western counties. The economic uses of the timber of honey locust are chiefly for fuel and fence posts. ^It will produce about 1 cord of fuel yearly per acre. Its rate of growth in diameter is somewhat more rapid than that of green ash, and it reaches post size earlier. Yield Table 8 shows that one plantation near Grand Island has produced 2,111 posts in twenty- nine years, or 73 posts per year; while another near Verdon, in Rich- ardson County, gave a yield in thirty-five years of 2,644 posts, or an average of 76 posts per year. The timber to be durable in contact with the ground must be well seasoned. TABLE 8. — Yield of honey locust and Osage orange. HONEY LOCUST. Dominant trees. Yield per acre. I 1. I Posts. Average annual posts. •j 8 "o o Total Fuel EH ia £) GO feb wood. "o I o |l P 1st. 2d. Total. 1st. 2d. Total. o I* bo 2 fc. * •4 fc Acres. Yrs. 7w. Cfc.A Cords. No. No. No. m. No. No. Cords. 1 Adams . . . 0.72 18 3.6 600 506 5.9 110 197 307 6.1 10.9 17.1 0.3 2 3 do Johnson . . . 1.70 .20 23 28 4.2 3.7 1,052 895 1,109 1,343 12.9 15.6 102 420 280 405 382 825 4.4 15.0 12.2 14.5 16.6 29.5 .6 .6 4 5 Hall .82 2.25 29 35 6.0 6.5 1,028 474 2,941 4,094 34.1 47.6 1,314 2,196 827 448 2,141 2,644 45.3 62.7 28.5 12.8 73.8 75.5 1.2 1.4 Richardson OSAGE ORANGE. 1 Nemaha ... 1.17 32 6.3 453 2,046 23.8 760 522 1,283 23.8 16.3 40.1 | 0.7 1 Plantation No. 4- — This plantation is situated in the Platte River Valley, and its relative altitude is only a few feet above the river. The absolute altitude is about 1,860 feet. The soil is a sandy loam, dark gray to blackish in color. It is deep, fresh, mellow, porous, and exceedingly fertile. The subsoil is a light- colored, porous, loamy sand, intermixt with small gravel. Only very meager data could be obtained on the history of this plan- tation. The original stand was 1 ,418 trees per acre, making the spacing [Cir. 45] 24 a little less than 4 by 8 feet. The present stand is 1,028 trees per acre. The loss is mainly due to natural thinning, since little cutting has been done. About 40 per cent of the present stand has become supprest, and many of these trees are dying. There should be an improvement cutting made, which would remove the deteriorating trees. The grove has been used as a hog pasture for many years. COST (ESTIMATED). Preparation of the ground ...... $2. 50 Plants, 1,400, at $3 per thousand. 4. 20 Planting ...................... 3.00 Cultivation, three years ___ ..... 5. 00 Total ................... 14.70 Interest on $14.70 for twenty- nine years, at 5 per cent com- pounded .................... 45. 80 Total cost at end of twenty- nine years ............. 60.50 RETURNS. First-class posts, 1,314, at 10 cents $131.40 Second-class posts, *827, at *l\ cents.. 62.03 Value at end of twenty- nine years 193. 43 Deducting the cost, $60.50, from the gross returns, $193.43, leaves $132.93 as the net income at the end of twenty -nine years, which is equivalent to an annual net income with 5 per cent compound interest of $2.13 per acre, disregarding the thinnings. To this there should be added the rental value of the land for pasture, since it has been used for this purpose. Furthermore, the plantation forms part of an extensive shelterbelt, which completely surrounds the farm buildings and thus assumes a value as a protection, tho it is impossible to express this in dollars and cents. OSAGE ORANGE. When the State was first settled, Osage orange was planted exten- sively for hedge fences, especially in the southeastern counties, tho but few such fences have been planted in recent years. This species has never been widely planted in groves. Only two or three planta- tions were noted in the course of the study. Osage orange is one of the valuable trees for forest planting, and should be more extensively used for this purpose. It is hardy south of the Platte River, but should be planted sparingly north of it, since it is likely to winterkill. To succeed commercially, Osage orange requires a moderately rich soil. It is fairly drought resistant, but unless moisture conditions are favorable its growth is slow. Planting will be most profitable in the river valleys, where the soil is fertile and moist. On uplands, espe- cially in poor soils, it fails. A notable example of such failure is a IT-acre plantation in Pawnee County established in 1889. The site is typical prairie upland, and the soil was old and worn when planted. [Cir. 45] 25 The trees have done very poorly. They are short, often not over 5 feet high, and very branchy, and will never be of much value. It is true that no tree could have made its best growth on this site, but if the ground had been planted to hardy catalpa the results would have been much better, as is evidenced by the fact that where catalpa and Osage orange are planted side by side on this tract the former is from 6 to 10 feet the taller, and is a much superior tree in every way. With the introduction of barb-wire fences, Osage orange as a fence material has gone out of favor, and its use for this purpose in Nebraska is probably a thing of the past. As a post timber, however, it is unex- celled, and it is chiefly for this that it is recommended for commercial planting. Under favorable conditions it will reach post size in from twelve to fifteen years. Because of the well-known durability of Osage orange in contact with the ground and its great strength, it always commands good prices. The fuel value of the tree is very high, and the cordwood from a plantation gives it an added value. For farm repairs, too, such as whiffletrees, plow beams, etc., it is exceed- ingly valuable. The windbreak value of Osage orange must not be overlookt. Its low-branching habit and ability to grow in close stands make it one of the most valuable of the broadleaf trees for this purpose. Plantation No. 1. — This plantation is situated on a prairie upland farm. The site is low and slopes gently to a ravine along the west side. The soil is a rich black loam, fresh, well drained, and deep. The subsoil is a clay, underlaid with limestone at a depth of from 10 to 12 feet. The ground was used at first as a seed bed for growing Osage orange plants for the market when this species was being planted so exten- sively as a hedge fence. When hedge fences went out of favor the demand for plants ceased and the seed bed was abandoned. The last crop of plants was sold in the spring of 1871, and the present stand has sprung up from the culls that were left at that time. The young plants were twice turned over in an effort to destroy them, but each time they came up from the roots again. The plan was then tried of grubbing them out, but even this heroic treatment was a failure. It was then decided to allow the plantation to stand. It has never had care of any sort. On the contrary, it has been very severely pas- tured by all kinds of live stock. Despite these adverse conditions it is a valuable plantation, as its products will show. The owner has sold 100 telegraph poles per acre from the plantation in the past two years. The poles ran from 16 to 20 feet in height, and would average 18 feet. It is estimated that 700 first-class and 500 second-class posts per acre have been cut from these groves in the past. This estimate is believed to be conservative, since the owner [Cir. 45] 26 states that the plantation has furnished a considerable part of the posts required in keeping his 450-acre farm fenced for twenty years. He has also cut more or less material, such as wagon reaches, tongues, whiffletrees, and windmill posts. This material, together with the additional fuel wood, it is estimated would meet the cost of cutting the posts. The heavy pasturing of the plantation for many years has prevented the development of forest conditions. There is only a trace of humus, and a very small amount of litter. Ground cover and underbrush are almost completely shut out by the live stock and shade. Reproduc- tion is prevented for the same reasons. With but few exceptions the trees are sound. A few have been scarred by the rubbing of stock, and there is some decay where limbs have been broken off. The trees tend to be branchy and rather crooked. Since the plantation sprang up voluntarily and has never received cultivation or other care, there was no expense in establishing and maintaining it. However, the estimated cost of establishing such a plantation at the present time is taken into account in calculating the net income, in order that the computation of returns may be of greater practical benefit to prospective planters. COST (ESTIMATED). Preparation of the ground $2. 50 Plants, 2,722, at $2 per thousand. . 5. 44 Planting 6. 00 Cultivation, three years 5. 00 Total 18.94 Interest on $18.94 for thirty -two years at 5 per cent compounded. 71. 31 Total cost at end. of thirty- two years . . . 90. 25 First-class posts, 760, at 15 cents. $114. 00 Second-class posts, 522, at 10 cents 52. 20 Poles cut in the past, 100, at 60 cents 60.00 First-class posts cut in the past, 700, at 15 cents 105. 00 Second-class posts cut in the past, 500, at 10 cents 50. 00 Net income at the end of thirty-two years 381 . 20 Deducting the cost, $90.25, from the present value, $381.20, leaves $290.95 as the net value, which is equivalent to an annual net income with 5 per cent compound interest of $5.06 per acre. This may be regarded as net profit, since the plantation has always been used to its full capacity as a part of the farm stock yards. It has afforded also ideal shade and shelter for stock for many years, tho the abuse from this cause has reduced materially the returns from the project. Had this plantation always been under good management it would have made a still better showing in the value of the returns. [Cir. 45] 27 TABLE 9. — Yields of other species. WHITE WILLOW. 1 Number of »°|-' 1 plantation. County. Area of grove. Age of grove. Dominant trees. Yield per acre. Average diameter breast- high. Number trees per acre. Total. Aver- age annual. Washington Acres. 1.20 1.60 Years. 16 22 Inches. 5.5 8.2 826 384 Oil. feet. 3,967 4,339 Cords. 46.1 50.5 Cords. 2.9 2.3 Dodge . . SILVER MAPLE. \ Otoe 1 00 14 4 6 340 949 11.0 0.8 9 Jefferson 2.70 16 2.9 1,668 1,879 21.8 1.4 ^ Richardson 66 18 4 2 1.418 3,120 36.3 2.0 4 Dodge 7.50 25 6.9 437 3,321 38.6 1.5 5 Cass . . . 1.50 27 7.0 403 2,546 29.6 1.1 6 Saunders 2 00 30 8 6 238 2 246 26.1 .9 7 Cass .81 32 8.4 518 3,628 42.2 1.3 g Saunders 2 10 33 7 9 303 2 639 30.7 .9 q Dodge 10.00 34 9.9 221 2,055 49.6 1.5 BOXELDER. 1 Lancaster 2.50 18 2.9 798 500 5.8 0.3 9 do 1.00 24 6.8 333 1,519 17.7 .7 3 Platte 30 24 5 9 666 3 218 37 4 1.6 4 York 1.50 25 8.7 302 3,443 40.0 1.6 WHITE PINE. 1 Otoe 1.80 12 4.6 916 1,489 17.3 1.4 WHITE WILLOW. In mentioning the trees suitable for planting in eastern Nebraska white willow must not be omitted. It is hardy thruout this region. It has been widely planted as a wind-break, for which purpose its quick growth, profuse branching habit, and hardiness especially com- mend it. Its fuel value is somewhat greater than that of cotton wood- tho in plantations it does not grow quite so rapidly. Like the cotton- wood, it is a moisture-loving tree, and on this account does not do well on dry upland. It is especially adapted for planting on low, marshy ground bordering the streams and ravines. White willow has been used to some extent for fence posts, and for this it is somewhat more durable than cottonwood. Its tendency to produce a crooked stem makes it difficult to grow a large percentage of straight trees per acre. Plantation No. 2. — This plantation is situated on the first bottom of the Platte River. The altitude is about 1,200 feet. The soil is a rich sandy loam. The plantation was established by planting 1 -year-old [Cir. 45] seedlings in rows 8 feet apart, and 2 feet apart in the row, thus requir- ing 2,722 trees per acre. It evidently has had very little care of any sort, and always has been used as a hog pasture. Heav}r thinnings have furnished fuel for years. Since the fuel value of white willow is about 15 per cent higher than that of cottonwood, it is worth at least 25 cents more per cord. The fuel wood from this plantation is being consumed at home, and hence is given a farm value. COST (ESTIMATED). RETURNS. Preparation of ground S2. 50 Trees, 2, 722, at $2. 50 per thousand . 6.81 Planting 6. 00 Cultivation two years.. 3.00 Total 18. 31 Interest on $18.31 for twenty-two years at 5 per cent compounded. 35. 25 Total cost at the end of twenty-two years 53. 56 50.5 cords, at $2.75 stumpage (farm value) $138. 88 Cut in the past, 15 cords, at $2. 75 41. 25 Value at end of twenty- two years 180. 13 Deducting the cost, $53.56, from the present value, $180.13, leaves $126.57 as the net value, which is equivalent to an annual net income of $3.29 per acre, not to mention the rental value of the land as a hog pasture. It will be noted that the annual yield of Plantation No. 1 is higher than that of No. 2. SILVER MAPLE. Silver maple ranks fourth in abundance among the planted trees in eastern Nebraska. It is hardy thruout the region, tho it attains its best development on the lowlands. It is, in fact, not well adapted for upland planting, but it succeeds there somewhat better than either cottonwood or willow. Silver maple should be planted mainly for shelter and firewood. There are better trees, however, for both purposes. Its fuel value is considerably higher than that of cottonwood or willow, but its yield is much less than either. BOXELDER. Among the planted trees, boxelder ranks third in abundance, yet its place in economic planting is more limited than that of silver maple. Usually, wherever it will succeed, some more valuable tree could be grown. It has been used for fence posts, and farmers and ranchmen say it is somewhat more durable in contact with the soil than either cottonwood or willow. However, on account of its branchy habit and tendency to crookedness, only a small percentage of the trees can be expected to make posts. Its fuel value is somewhat higher than that [Cir. 45] 29 of cottonwood and not as high as that of willow, but its yield per acre in a given time is considerably less than either. Perhaps the chief economic value of this species is for use as a nurse for some of the better trees, such as walnut, or for shelter and shade. Its rapid growth and branchy form are in its favor for windbreak planting, and as a shade tree it has commendable qualities. It is very hardy and easily propagated. RUSSIAN MULBERRY. Russian mulberry has a limited value in forest planting, especially on the dry uplands in the southwestern counties. It can not be planted with safety far north of the Platte River. On account of its low-branching habit it is one of the best of trees for windbreaks, either in belts or in single rows. Many orchardists prefer it, for the birds feed upon its fruit instead of the fruit of the orchard. As a post timber Russian mulberry is excellent, since the wood is exceedingly durable in contact with the soil. Its profuse branching habits, however, make it difficult to secure a large yield of posts. Its fuel value is relatively high, but the cordwood yield is low. WHITE ELM. White elm, tho one of the hardiest trees native to the State, does not have a very large place in economic planting, but in ornamental planting should have first rank. The chief value of elm in economic planting is as a filler with such more useful trees as black walnut, catalpa, ash, honey locust, etc. LOMBARDY POPLAR. A large amount of lombardy poplar has been planted in Cache Creek Valley to prove up timber claims. Frequently also it has been set out in single rows. The tree succeeds unusually well in this region, mak- ing a good growth and showing no inclination to become stagheaded, as in the plains States. It should be planted guardedly, however, since it is quite generally a failure elsewhere in Nebraska. BLACK LOCUST. On account of insect enemies, black locust is an absolute failure in the territory covered by this investigation. Not one successful plan- tation was noted, altho the species has been planted to some extent in most of the region, especially in the southern counties. On account of the ease with which it may be propagated, its rapid growth, and its great durability in the ground, it is one of the most valuable of trees for forest planting wherever it will succeed, but at present it can not be recommended in eastern Nebraska. In parts of western Nebraska [Cir. 45] 30 it succeeds fairly well. Near Paxton, in Keith County, are two splen- did young plantations that were put out about 1891. OTHER BROADLEAF TREES. Hackberry, basswood, .and bur oak are other species that are hardy for eastern Nebraska. The first two are rapidly coming into favor as street trees. Bur oak has high value both for posts and fuel, but on account of its slow growth its use in economic planting its limited. Wild black cherry may prove to be a useful tree for the region. It has made an unusually rapid growth on the station grounds at Lincoln in the eight or nine years it has been tried there, but whether it will be long lived is problematic. Coffeetree is a valuable species which may- be planted with safety. Russian golden willow is proving hardy under Nebraska conditions. For windbreaks it is one of the best trees that can be planted. It is also very ornamental. WHITE FINE. White pine succeeds fairly well on the hard soils in the eastern counties, where it has been planted sparingly. Its range for planting is not determined. It will thrive for a number of years in any part of the territory, with the possible exception of the sand hills. Plantation No. 1. — This plantation is situated on upland. The soil is a fertile prairie loam with a clay subsoil. The ground was thoroly prepared, and the young trees were planted in pure stand, 4 feet by 4 feet. Two or three open spots were left to give the grove a natu- ral appearance. The trees were cultivated until they became large enough to form a ground cover. Later they were pruned, and still more recently two-thirds of the stand were thinned out, so that there are at present 916 trees per acre. No other attention has been given them. Further thinning will soon be required, however, since the stand is becoming crowded. Excellent forest conditions for so young a grove have already been formed. The surface layer of humus is about 1 inch deep, and this is overlaid by a layer of litter 2 inches in depth, formed from the pine needles, twigs, and cones. There is no ground cover or underbrush within the body of the plantation. The trees have grown remarkably, both in height and diameter. The sample dominant tree was 23.5 feet high, and the diameter breast- high 4.6 inches. There are 68 trees per acre 6 inches in diameter, two 7 inches, and two 8 inches, and some are nearly 30 feet high. A height growth of 3 feet in a year is not uncommon. [Cir. 45] 31 AUSTRIAN PINE. Austrian pine has been planted only to a limited extent in eastern Nebraska, tho probably as much as any other conifer except red cedar. Its use has been almost entirely as a lawn tree, and its success makes it safe to recommend it for this purpose. JACK PINE. Jack pine is adapted especially to planting in the sand hills. It is being successfully grown on the Dismal River Forest Reserve and by a number of ranchmen in widely scattered localities in the hills. Experience shows that planting on north slopes gives the best results. South and southwest slopes are hotter, and the moisture conditions are not so good. Very dense sod should also be avoided. The different exposures that may be planted are, in order of suitability, the north, northeast, northwest, east, west, and southeast exposures, and, finally, the more level situations, such as valleys and crests of hills. The plan should be to plant blocks or belts of trees as wind- breaks around the ranch house, barns, and yards. WESTERN YELLOW PINE. Western yellow (bull) pine and its variety, rock pine, are also being extensively planted on the Dismal River Reserve. They doubtless will be important factors in restocking the sand hills. Both do well on hard soils, and may be planted with safety thruout the region. SCOTCH PINE. Scotch pine is hardy on the heavy soils in eastern Nebraska. It has been planted mainly for ornament, and can be planted with safety for this purpose. NORWAY SPRUCE. Norway spruce has had a limited use in ornamental planting, and for this it can be recommended. EUROPEAN LARCH. One of the most promising conifers for economic planting is Euro- pean larch. It has not been tested in Nebraska, but its success in Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, and the Dakotas, where it has been given a thoro trial, warrants its use. [Cir. 45] RED CEDAR. Red cedar is native to the region and has been planted rather more extensively than any other conifer, but has been chiefly for protection and ornament. No tree makes a more effective wind-break when planted as a single row. It grows fairly rapidly, is hardj^ and long lived, and is as effective in winter, when protection is most needed, as at any other time. Branching is low, very dense, and persistent. CONCLUSIONS. No attempt has been made to exhaust the list of the trees suitable for planting in eastern Nebraska. Of those named, hardy catalpa, Osage orange, black walnut, cottonwood, white willow, green ash, and honey locust can be grown with profit, as the history of a specific plan- tation for each species shows. Hardy catalpa, Osage orange, green ash, and honey locust should be planted chiefly for fence posts, white willow for fuel, black walnut for lumber, and cottonwood for fuel and lumber. All attain their best development in rich, well-drained val- leys. Cottonwood, white willow, and black walnut are essentially bottom-land trees. Osage orange should be planted on upland only in fertile soils in the southeastern counties. The range of hardy catalpa in upland planting is considerably wider, but it must have good soil. Green ash and honey locust are especially adapted for dry upland planting in the more western and southwestern counties. Doubtless experience will disclose other trees that may be planted with profit. European larch, for example, is deserving of a thoro trial. In the sand hills some of the conifers, such as western yellow pine and jack pine, undoubtedly may be planted with profit, since land values are certain to remain low. Approved, JAMES WILSON, Secretary. WASHINGTON, D. C., September 17, 1906. [Cir. 45] O Bui. 121, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I. Issued February 3, 1918. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, FOREST SERVICE— BULLETIN 121. HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester. FORESTATION OF THE SAND HILLS OF NEBRASKA AND KANSAS. BY CARLOS G. BATES, FOREST ASSISTANT, AND ROY G. PIERCE, DEPUTY SUPERVISOR. ml ' l^ OCT 29 1914 Division of Forestry University of Califoriii WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1913. FOREST SERVICE. HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester. ALBERT F. POTTER, Associate Forester. HERBERT A. SMITH, Editor. BRANCH OF SILVICULTURE. W. B. GREELEY, Assistant Forester in Charge. EARLE H. CLAPP, Forest Inspector. SILVICS. RAPHAEL ZON, Chief. S. T. DANA, Assistant Chief. DISTRICT 2. SMITH RILEY, District Forester. S. L. MOORE, Assistant District Forester in Charge of Silviculture. C. G. BATES, In Charge ofSilvical Investigations. NEBRASKA NATIONAL FOREST. R. G. PIERCE, Deputy Supervisor. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, FOREST SERVICE, Washington, D. C., September 3, 1912. SIR: I have the honor to transmit herewith a manuscript entitled "Forestation of the Sand Hills of Nebraska and Kansas," by Carlos G. Bates, in charge of investigative work, District 2, and Roy G. Pierce, Deputy Supervisor of the Nebraska National Forest, and to recommend its publication as Bulletin 121 of the Forest Service. Respectfully, HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester. Hon. JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. 3 CONTENTS. Page. Purpose of the bulletin 7 The sand-hill region 8 Location and area 8 Origin and structure 9 Climate 11 Precipitation 11 Temperature 13 Humidity 13 Wind 14 The important climatic features 14 Vegetation 15 Grasses 15 Herbaceous plants 15 Shrubs 15 Trees 16 Industries 17 Need for forests in the sand-hill region 19 Beginnings of forest planting in the sand-hill region 20 National Forests established 22 Nurseries established 22 The sand-hill nurseries 23 Garden City Nursery 23 Halsey Nursery 25 Location 25 Soil and moisture 25 Nursery operations : 27 Fertilizing 27 Seed sowing 29 Care of seed beds 31 Transplanting 32 Digging and packing 35 Field planting 35 Species 35 Species for the Nebraska sand hills 35 Species for the Kansas sand hills 37 Kind of stock 39 Conifers 39 Hardwoods 40 Methods of planting 40 The slit method 40 The square-hole method 41 The cone method 41 The trencher method 42 Planting after plowing 43 Field sowing 44 Effect of climate on time of planting 44 Enemies of plantations 45 Fire 45 Insects 45 Birds and rodents 46 Growth 47 Conclusions 49 5 LLUSTRATIONS. PLATES. Page. PLATE I. Young western yellow pines Frontispiece. II. Fig. 1. — The Halsey Nursey. Fig. 2. — A general view of the sand hills 8 III. Fig. 1.— A "blow out." Fig. 2.— Sand-hill willows on moist north slopes 12 IV. Fig. 1. — A small grove of hackberry. Fig. 2. — Young native western yellow pine 16 V. Fig. 1. — Jack pine on the Bruner plantation. Fig. 2. — The first planting of jack pine at Halsey, at four years 20 VI. Fig. 1. — The first planting of jack pine at Halsey, at eight years. Fig. 2. — A fine individual specimen of yellow pine 20 VII. Fig. 1. — Making the first transplant bed of jack pine. Fig. 2. — Trans- plant beds at Halsey in 1912 32 VIII. Fig. 1. — Digging seedlings with tree digger. Fig. 2. — Digging seed- lings with spades 32 IX. Fig. 1. — The slit method of planting in furrows. Fig. 2. — Results of the slit planting of 1903-4 40 X. Fig. 1.— Results of the trencher planting of 1911. Fig. 2.— Seed beds broadcasted in 1912 40 XI. Fig. 1. — Black-locust seedlings, showing development in one year. Fig. 2. — Hardy catalpa seedlings, showing development in one year 44 XII. Fig. 1. — Two-year-old seedlings of jack pine as grown at Halsey in 1905. Fig. 2. — Two-year-old seedlings of jack pine as grown at Halsey in 1912. Fig. 3. — Three-year-old transplants of jack pine. . 44 XIII. Fig. 1. — Two-year-old seedling of yellow pine as used for field plant- ing in 1905. Fig. 2. — Two-year-old seedlings of yellow pine as ""grown at Halsey nursery in 1912. Fig. 3. — Three-year-old trans- plants of yellow pine 44 TEXT FIGURE. PIG. 1. — The sand-hill regions of Nebraska and Kansas 8 OCT 29 1914 Division of Forestry University of California FORESTATION OF THE SAND HILLS OF NEBRASKA AND KANSAS. PUB-POSE OP THE BULLETIN. Not only lias the tree planting by the Forest Service in the Nebraska sand hills aroused a wide interest, but at present, under the provisions of the act of March 4, 1911, which permits the free distribution of trees within the area covered by the Kinkaid Homestead Act, there is within that region a decided increase in tree planting. Because of this impetus to tree growing, it is worth while to give a record of the work which has been accomplished and to show for the benefit of planters the mistakes which have been made and the successes which have been attained. The problem of foresting the sand hills is unique. It is not so difficult as some similar undertakings, and those who have followed the work closely have never had any doubt as to its ultimate success. Both in Europe,1 in the Netherlands, Gascony, Prussia, and Den- mark, and in this country, at Cape Cod, the fixation of coastal sand dunes has been accomplished, even where the sand had been con- stantly moving and where forest trees were introduced successfully only after grasses and other low plants had been used to bind the soil. In all of these regions the ultimate object has been the permanent fixation by means of forests, and except in immediate proximity to the sea, where wind and salt spray have made tree growth impossible, this object has usually been accomplished. Afforestation of interior, or continental dunes, however, is a differ- ent problem from afforestation of coastal dunes. It has been accom- plished most notably in Turkestan, where the dune region closely resembles the sand hills of Nebraska. The coastal regions have one advantage over interior sand hills in the greater moisture content of both soil and atmosphere, and this gives an opportunity to choose from a greater variety of suitable trees. On the other hand, the sand- hill regions of Kansas and Nebraska have very little shifting sand; the necessity for planting preliminary soil binders never arises, since native vegetation quickly takes possession of new dune formations if left alone. In fact it is sometimes thought that there is enough vegetation to present an obstacle to the forester. This difficulty is 1 Methods Used for Controlling and Reclaiming Sand Dunes, Bulletin 57, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agricluture, 1904. 8 FOKESTATION, SAND HILLS NEBRASKA AND KANSAS. so easily overcome, however, that there is no real obstacle to foresta- tion except fire. The damage through fire depends very largely on public sentiment; since sentiment has elsewhere been educated to consider fire a common enemy, it seems probable that the grass fires of the sand hills will cease to be treated as matters of no moment and will come to an end as they have in the prairies farther east. With the prairie fire controlled, forests may easily be grown in the sand hills. LEGEND AREA OF SANDHILLS PRESENT RANGE OF WESTERN YELLOW PINE ••• AREAS WHERE REMAINS OF YELLOW PINE HAVE BEEN FOUND FIG. 1.— The sand-hill regions of Nebraska and Kansas. THE SAND-HILL REGION. LOCATION AND AREA. The sand hills of Nebraska are mainly in the northwestern third of the State; they occupy an area of approximately 20,000 square miles north of the Platte Eiver and west of the middle line of Holt and Greeley Counties. Hall, Perkins, Chase, and Dundy Counties also contain sand-hill areas. (See Fig. 1.) Of the entire area of 76,840 square miles within the State they occupy approximately one-fourth. The line between sand hills and sandy ground of the Pine Eidge, Bui. 121, Forest Service, U S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. FIG. 1.— THE HALSEY NURSERY, AND A GENERAL VIEW OF THE SAND HILLS NORTH OF THE MIDDLE LOUP RIVER AT HALSEY, NEBR. FIQ. 2.— A GENERAL VIEW OF THE SAND HILLS SOUTH OF THE MIDDLE LOUP RIVER, IN THE LOUP DIVISION OF THE NEBRASKA NATIONAL FOREST. Hills overgrazed and especially fitted for forestry. THE SAND-HILL REGION. 9 which occupies the northwest corner of the State, is not clearly defined, since the Arikaree formation, which is the foundation of the Pine Ridge, outcrops within the sand-hill area, notably along the Niobrara, Snake, and north side of the Platte Rivers. The absolute elevation of the sand hills is 1,900 feet at the east and 3,900 feet at the west end. Their elevation, however, is not appreciably greater than that of the surrounding land of other formations. The Kansas sand hills are much less extensive. They occupy a strip of ground from 5 to 30 miles wide on the south side of the Arkan- sas River, from the west boundary of the State eastward to the vicin- ity of Great Bend and Hutchinson. At the eastern extremity, how- ever, these hills are not strictly dunes, but are agricultural in char- acter, and hence hardly come within the category of true sand hills. A second strip of sand hills is found south of the Cimarron River, in southwestern Kansas, and is even less extensive than the first. The total area of sand hills in Kansas is about 1,500 square miles, or not more than one-fiftieth of the area of the State. Their elevation increases from east to west and is from 2,500 to 3,500 feet. Of the entire area of Kansas and Nebraska it is safe to say that fully 15,000 square miles, or nearly 10 per cent, are sand hills not fitted for agriculture, and therefore of greatest value as forest lands. These areas lie in the semiarid belt, mainly west of the one hundredth meridian, where the rainfall is generally less than 22 inches per annum. ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE. The Nebraska sand hills have undoubtedly been formed 1 by the breaking down of the Arikaree, a Tertiary sandstone which still exists in the Pine Ridge and in various " toadstool parks" in the western and northwestern counties, and which outcrops along the Niobrara, Snake, and North Platte Rivers. The sand has been moved to the eastward by the action of wind and water, principally the former, forming a layer from a few feet to several hundred feet thick above the Pierre shale which underlies the entire region. This action has been very recent, in fact, has hardly yet ceased, and to some extent, as in Ouster County, the sand has covered the loess, or heavy clay-loam soil, which is also a recent formation. There is little evidence of the direct action of water in bringing this sand eastward. Probably the Niobrara has had a very potent influence in its imme- diate vicinity, but most of the sand must have been carried from this stream to the southeast by wind, or to the eastward by some large stream which does not now exist, in the southern part of the region. The Kansas sand hills have been similarly formed, but with mate- rial of different origin. Those near the Arkansas River,2 and probably 1 Nebraska Geological Survey, Report of the State Geologist, 1903, vol. 1. 2 Soil Survey of the Garden City Area, Bureau of Soils, U, S, Dept. of Agriculture, 1904. 63519°— Bull. 121—13 2 10 FORESTATION, SAND HILLS NEBRASKA AND KANSAS. those along the Cimarron also, have been formed by the breaking down of the Tertiary grit found in the immediate vicinity, and also by the weathering of the rocks on the mountain sides at the head- waters of the Arkansas River. The mineral composition of these dune sands shows them to be composed of quartz, feldspar, mica, iron oxide, and other constituents which are characteristic of the local grit and of the granites of the Rocky Mountains. While these sand dunes are composed * of almost pure sand, medium or fine, and with parti- cles more or less rounded, there are present certain constituents which are not found in the Nebraska sands and which give the particles greater cohesion. The most important of these is probably iron oxide. The Colorado sand, which is found in a few localities in the Kansas sand hills, is very little different from the dune sand either chemically or minerally, but it has a slightly larger percentage of very fine sand and silt, and hence coheres more strongly. While the Kansas sand hills are, because of the greater amount of silt, compact and now almost perfectly stable, the Nebraska sand hills are still being moved, in many instances by the wind. Like all "active" sand dunes, they have a rough topography, whereas the Kansas hills are low, and the topography of that region may be typified by the word "rolling." The Nebraska sand hills may be divided into three regions, to be called the "wet-valley region," the "dry-valley region," and the "choppy hill region." The wet-valley region is, generally speaking, the northern portion of the hills and is typified by long valleys with an easterly and westerly bearing, in the east end of which there are usually one or two small bodies of water. These bodies of water vary greatly in size from year to year. The valleys are sometimes valuable for agriculture, and, especially in the vicinity of the lakes, make excellent hay meadows. The dry-valley region occupies the southern half of the sand-hill region and differs from the wet-valley region mainly in having a better soil drainage, which prevents the formation of lakes and ponds. The topography is more rugged, and the hills are higher. At various places within both the wet and dry valley regions there are found areas of choppy hills, one of the largest of such areas being that lying between the Middle Loup and Dismal Rivers. While the general trend of the ridges and valleys in these localities is west- northwest and east-southeast, as throughout the region, here the ridges are short and frequently broken by round-topped hills, while the valleys are seldom more than a quarter of a mile long and are more frequently merely pockets. The underground drainage is com- i Six miles south of Garden City dune sand was found to be made up in the following proportions : Grave 1.1 per cent, coarse sand 8 per cent, medium sand 12.2 per cent, fine sand 56.2 per cent, very fine sand 16.6 per cent, silt 1 per cent, clay 4.6 per cent. THE SAND-HILL REGION. 11 plete, and there is no surface run-off. The hills are comparatively high and rise from 60 to 100 feet above the interior valleys and from 200 to 300 feet above the valleys of the main streams, such as the Middle Loup. Along such streams permanent springs are more or less common, which indicates that an impervious substratum under- lies the hills at no great depth. It is with these choppy hills that the forester is principally concerned, since they have no agricultural value whatever. They are evidently the youngest of the hills and have not yet ceased to be affected by the wind, though there is evidence that they have become a good deal more stable since the buffalo ceased to trample them. With overgrazing or any other influence which kills the vegetation the sand is released, " blow-outs" are formed, and in a few years a hilltop may change position appreciably. Since these least stable hills are so near to the agricultural land of eastern Nebraska their fixation is of great importance. While the dune sand of the hilltops, as shown by analysis of the soil at Halsey, is practically pure silica 1 and contains less than 1 per cent of organic matter, the soil of the valleys and pockets is usually very rich in humus. The continuous collection of this material is made possible by the lack of surface drainage. As a result of it the vegetation of the bottoms is very heavy, while that of the hilltops is correspondingly light. The heavy vegetation of the bottoms uses up a lot of the moisture, and this, in the absence of rains, makes these by all odds the most difficult sites for the introduction of new plant life. CLIMATE. PRECIPITATION. The rainfall of the sand-hill region varies from 15 to 26 inches per annum. It is well distributed to assist the ordinary forms of vegeta- tion, since it comes largely in the growing season, but because of the decided lack of snow young woody plants which need protection in their first years have great difficulty in getting started. The precipitation increases month by month from the beginning to the middle of the year and then decreases to the end of the year. Since May and June are moist, coniferous-tree growth seems to be especially favored. The dryness of the fall months permits proper ripening of woody growth, so that fall frosts seldom do any harm. Table 1 shows the precipitation at Halsey, Nebr., and Garden City, Kans., headquarters of the Nebraska and Kansas Forests, respec- tively. For comparison with a yellow-pine region the records for Fort Robinson, Nebr., are also given. 1 Analysis of soil from hilltop at Halsey Nursery showed 97.4 per cent of insoluble mineral matter. 12 FORESTATION, SAND HILLS NEBRASKA AND KANSAS. TABLE 1. — Precipitation by months, Halsey, Nebr., and Garden City, Kans.1' Month. Halsey, Nebr. 2 Garden City, Kans.3 Fort Rob- inson, Nebr. Lowest record. Highest record. Normal. Lowest record. Highest record. Normal. Normal. January February Inches. 0.08 Trace. .16 .13 2.17 .79 1.63 .82 .30 Trace. .05 Trace. 17.71 Inches. 0.68 1.04 3.32 6.37 6.53 5.64 5.28 5.84 4.62 4.81 1.19 1.78 28.44 Inches. 0.40 .45 .96 2.54 4.18 3.55 3.79 2.68 1.75 1.46 .45 .75 22.96 Inches. Trace. Trace. Trace. .06 .42 .60 .62 .15 .03 Trace. Trace. Trace. 8.92 Inches. 1.55 4.55 2.46 5.70 6.49 7.89 7.91 4.24 4.57 3.78 3.77 2.00 28.75 Inches. 0.32 .82 .84 2.06 2.34 3.51 3.25 1.79 1.78 1.08 .64 .62 19.05 Inches. 0.66 .57 1.16 1.65 2.69 2.91 2.04 1.57 1.08 1.32 .39 .69 16.73 March April . ... May June July. August September October November December Year 1 Data furnished by local offices Weather Bureau, Lincoln and Topeka. 2 Record nine years, 1903-1911. s Record 22£ years, 1889-1911. Both in Kansas and Nebraska the precipitation increases rapidly from west to east, which is contrary to the usual rule of greater precipitation with greater elevation. Table 2 shows this for a num- ber of stations in or adjacent to the sand-hill regions. TABLE 2. — Annual precipitation 4 of sand-hill region. Station. Longitude. Mean an- nual pre- cipitation. Length of record. NEBRASKA. Ewing 98 20 Inches. 23.01 Years. 21 Valentine 100 30 22.46 23 North Platte 100 45 18.86 38 Bridgeport .... 103 05 15.44 15 KANSAS. HntoninsoTi 98 00 28.44 12 Dodge 100 00 20.84 33 Ulysses 101 20 17.24 18 Coolidge 102 00 15.51 12 4 Data from Climatological Reports, Nebraska and Kansas Sections Weather Bureau, 1911. While the precipitation in Kansas is just about equal to that of points in Nebraska corresponding in longitude, it is important to remember that the same amount is less effective in Kansas because of the much higher rate of evaporation. The evaporation at Dodge, Kans., for example, was 54.6 inches per annum, while for the same period at North Platte, Nebr., it was only 41.3 inches per annum. While the precipitation in none of the sand-hill regions is great, and varies much from year to year as well as from month to month, the lowest quantity ever recorded at Dodge, Kans.,5 10.1 inches in 6 During a period of 33 years in which the drought period of the nineties is included. Bui. 121, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. .- - ..O^-T tmttr — FIG. 1.— A " BLOW-OUT" IN THE NORTHWEST FACE OF A HILL. FIG. 2.— SAND-HILL WILLOWS ON MOIST NORTH SLOPES WHERE PLANTING is MOST SUCCESSFUL AND EVEN DIRECT SEEDING is POSSIBLE. \XJ OCT29 1914 Division of Forestry University of California THE SAND-HILL KEGION. 13 one year, would, if applied to the receptive soil of the sand hills, undoubtedly be sufficient to sustain tree growth, if the trees were already well established. Only newly planted trees are likely to suffer. It is surprising how well the sand below the surface layer will hold water and how readily moisture is brought up from the lower depths by capillary action. While the quantity is less than in a heavy soil, it varies less from season to season. In the fall of 1911, after unusual drought for several months at Garden City, the very sandy soil of the hilltops was found to be dry to a depth of only 8 inches, while in some places the more compact soils were dry to a depth of 34 inches. In the Nebraska sand hills in 1911 the sand dried out to a depth of about 4 inches where there was no vegetation, but to a depth of from 14 to 18 inches under sod. Under these circum- stances trees of the previous year's planting suffered very little. TEMPERATURE. Table 3 shows the important features with respect to the tempera- ture at Halsey and Garden City. The mean temperatures at Fort Robinson are also given. TABLE 3. — Monthly temperatures at Halsey, Nebr., and at Garden City, Kans.1 Month. Mean temperature. Mean maximum temperature.2 Mean minimum temperature.3 Fort Robin- son. Halsey. Garden City. Halsey. Garden City. Halsey. Garden City. January 0 F. 23.4 23.2 34.1 46.4 55.1 65.3 71.0 70.1 60.9 48.1 35.0 27.4 46.7 o F> 23.0 26.8 38.6 48.6 57.6 68.0 72.5 72.6 65.0 51.1 38.2 27.5 49.1 o p 30.6 29.2 43.3 54.6 63.4 73.2 77.4 76.5 69.4 55.6 43.0 31.6 54.0 o p 36.2 41.0 ssre 64.4 72.1 81.8 86.8 87.6 81.1 67.5 52.3 40.0 63.7 o p 46 43 59 72 80 88 92 93 84 73 60 46 69.5 0 F. 9.9 12.7 23.7 32.7 43.0 54.1 58.2 57.7 48.8 34.7 24.1 15.0 34.6 0 F. 17 15 26 38 49 59 63 63 54 39 26 17 38.8 February . March April May June July August September October November. December Year 1 From data furnished by local Weather Bureau offices at Lincoln and Topeka. 2 Absolute maximum: Halsey, 107°; Garden City, 112°. 3 Absolute minimum: Halsey, —32°; Garden City, —32°. NOTE.— Length of the growing season (data from Weather Bureau Bulletin Garden City, 155 days. HUMIDITY. :Q"): Ilalsey, 132 days; The atmospheric humidity of the sand-hill region is rather low as compared with the East, but considerably higher than that of the Rocky Mountain region, where coniferous forests grow naturally. It can not, therefore, be said that the lack of atmospheric moisture explains the lack of forests in the sand hills. The mean annual humidity in the vicinity of Halsey is about 67 per cent and in the 14 FORESTATION, SAND HILLS NEBRASKA AND KANSAS. vicinity of Garden City about 65 per cent. While for short periods the humidity may be low, the variation by months is slight. January and February have the highest relative humidity. WIND. Both regions are decidedly windy, but the Kansas region has a mean wind velocity 8 per cent greater than the Nebraska region. While the south winds of summer are fairly desiccating, it has been shown at Halsey that the summer winds have very little damaging effect, unless the soil is extremely dry. The early spring winds from the northwest are damaging to both field and nursery, because they move the sand and dry out the plants. The winter winds, while not so high, dry out the plants because of the lack of protective snow covering. Trees which are well established do not suffer as much as those newly planted; fall planting, therefore, is almost certain to result in heavy losses or complete failure. Table 4 shows the velocity and direction of the wind at Valentine, Nebr., and Dodge, Kans., the stations where such records are obtain- able near the sand-hill planting areas. TABLE 4. — Direction and velocity of wind, by months. Month. Valentine, Nebr. Dodge City, Kans. Prevailing direction.1 Velocity per hour.2 Prevailing direction.2 Velocity per hour.2 January NW. NW. N. N. N. S. S. S. s. NW. NW. NW. Miles. 9.8 10.0 11.7 13.0 12.0 11.1 10.0 9.6 10.5 10.5 10.0 9.8 10.7 NW. NW. NW. SE. SE. SE. SE. SE. SE. SE. NW. NW. Miles. 10.1 10.9 12.7 13.8 13.2 12.7 11.3 10.6 11.2 11.0 9.9 10.1 11.5 February - March " April... May June . . July August September October November December Year 1 Data from Weather Bureau Bulletin "Q.'; 2 Data from local offices Weather Bureau, Lincoln and Topeka. THE IMPORTANT CLIMATIC FEATURES. The three most important features of the climates of both sand- hill regions are: (1) The lack of winter precipitation in the form of snow, to form a protective covering for young trees; (2) the great variations in precipitation from month to month, partly counter- balanced by the good water-storing properties of the hills; and (3) the winds of late winter and early spring. While the temperature extremes are not great, the Kansas region doubtless suffers most by reason of its constantly higher temperatures. Especially in summer THE SAND-HILL REGION. 15 these hasten the depletion of the soil moisture and, if young trees become covered with sand, cause them to be parched to crispness. Temperatures are higher at Halsey and Garden City than at Fort Robinson, Nebr., in the heart of the yellow-pine belt of northwestern Nebraska, where precipitation is proportionately less. VEGETATION. The sand hills of Nebraska and Kansas produce a great variety of grasses, herbs, and shrubs, and a few trees. GRASSES. The distinctive vegetation of the sand hills, as of most semiarid regions, consists of grasses. The most common and most widely distributed grass is the sand-hill bunch grass (Andropogon scoparius), which indicates a stable soil. The grasses which first come in on loose sand, and which are typical of "blow-outs" and south slopes, are the long-leafed reed grass (Calamovilfa longifolia), which is some- times 4 or 5 feet high, but forms a very light cover, the redfieldia (Redfieldia flexuosa), the eragrostis (Eragrostis tennis), and the prairie muhlenbergia (Muhlenbergia pungens). No less distinct is the switch grass (Panicum virgatum), which forms dense tangles in the rich soil of the dry-bottom situations and is frequently cut for hay. Only in the areas of harder ground, which occur throughout the sand hills, are the grama and buffalo grasses common; these are the most valuable of all the grasses for both summer and winter forage. HERBACEOUS PLANTS. Some of the most common herbaceous plants are the digitate psoralea (Psoralea digitata) , the prairie thistle (Carduus plattensis) , a broad-leafed cactus (Opuntia polycanfha) , several species of Euphor- bia (spurges, locally called " milkweed"), and the wild sweet pea (Lathyrus ornatus) . Of common weeds the sunflower and the squirrel- tail or tickle grass are the most widely distributed and the most persistent. Russian thistle gains a foothold in the Kansas sand hills wherever sod is broken. SHRUBS. Of the numerous woody undershrubs the yucca, or soap- weed (Yucca glauca), is probably the most striking plant of the sand-hill region and is least abundant where the soil is the most stable and firm. Other shrubs, most of which are more or less gregarious and form clumps or mats on the ground, are the sand-hill willow (Salix Tiumilis), very common on north slopes and indicative of good mois- ture conditions,1 the redroot or New Jersey tea (Ceanothus ovatus), 1 Even the sand-bar and the peach-leafed willows have been found with this smaller species, where the moisture conditions are especially good. 16 FORESTATION, SAND HILLS NEBRASKA AND KANSAS. typical of sandy hilltops; the sand cherry (Prunus besseyi), found in almost any site, but especially in the loose sand around blow-outs; and the shoe-string bush (Amorpha canescens). Wolf berry (Sym- phoricarpos occidentalis) , chokecherry, and wild plum frequently form thickets on the slopes of pockets facing the southeast, where they are favored by the moisture from snowdrifts. The first named seldom becomes more than 2J feet high, the other two frequently 15 feet. From the standpoint of forestry one of the most important of the woody plants is the low bearberry or kinnikinnik (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi). While this grows in only a few limited localities, on moist north slopes, it is thought to be indicative of conditions favorable for western yellow pine, since it is an almost invariable associate of that tree in the Rocky Mountains. Typical of the stream valleys in both Kansas and Nebraska are the false indigo (Amorpha fruticosa), the buffalo berry, peach-leafed willow, sand-bar willow, wolfberry, plum, and chokecherry. The diamond willow, one of the Nebraska sand hills' most valuable small trees, is not found in Kansas. On the whole, shrubby growth is much more typical of the Nebraska than the Kansas sand hills, which usually have a heavy grass sod that does not permit the growth of shrubs. TREES. In only a few localities in the Nebraska sand hills do actual trees grow; in the Kansas region they are still more rare. Of the hard- woods, green ash, hackberry, cottonwood, and aspen are the only ones which attain to tree size in the sand hills proper. While these species (except aspen) grow, for the most part, along the main watercourses, there are clumps of them in the sand hills proper. All of the trees so far found are less than 25 years old and have sprung from sprouts after the last general prairie fire, so that it is impossible to say what size the trees may attain at maturity. The largest are now no more than 25 feet high and 8 inches in diameter. Probably in the poor soil they will never attain large size. Western yellow pine, on the contrary, grows as large in the vicinity of the sand hills as elsewhere in its range. Practically, there is no yellow pine in the sand hills proper, it being confined to the Arikaree formation on the west, north, and south sides of the sand hills and to the loess soil of one or two canyons on the east. Under favorable moisture conditions in the Arikaree formation of the Pine Ridge yellow pine not infrequently reaches a height of 100 feet. There are also many fine specimens in this formation along the Niobrara and Snake Rivers and in the counties west of the sand hills. In consider- ing the possibility of growing yellow pine in the sand hills the fact 121, Forest Service, U. S Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. FIG. 1.— A SMALL GROVE OF HACKBERRY, IN THE SAND HILLS 4 MILES FROM NEAREST STREAM. Maximum height 25 feet, diameter 8 inches. FIG. 2.— YOUNG NATIVE WESTERN YELLOW PINE IN THE NEBRASKA SAND-HILL REGION NEAR THE NlOBRARA RlVER, NEBRASKA NATIONAL FOREST. THE SAND-HILL KEGION. 17 should not be lost sight of that the sand hills contain the same material as the sandstone of the Arikaree formation. Writing on information obtained in 1893, Kydberg 1 stated: Pine logs have at a few places been found buried in the sand. There is a canyon in Ouster County which still contains living pines. It is very hard to explain how pine seed could have been carried from the Pine Ridge in Dawes and Sheridan Counties to Ouster County, and none have been sown in the intermediate tract. * * * Very likely in former days the pines grew, if not all over the hills, at least in many places among them. The red cedar is at present not uncommon on the hillside along the Dismal River, and I myself found stumps and fragments of this tree at several places in the sand hills, where there was no vestige of living trees. It seems very likely that yellow pine was formerly common in all of the sand-hill region of Nebraska, as well as in the sandstone coun- try; that it has been driven out of the sand-hill, or " long-grass," region by the repeated destructive fires of the past; and that it has been able to survive in practically all of the " short-grass " sandstone region, because the fires there were much less destructive. It is a well-known fact that yellow pine is not killed by light grass fires. The same conditions have probably largely determined the present dis- tribution of red cedar. It is found now in Nebraska sand hills, mainly on the hard short-grass ground along the Dismal River, though it is well known that it will grow hi sand; and in Kansas it is, similarly, found only on the hard ground southwest of the Kansas Forest. To sum up the situation as to tree growth in the Nebraska sand hills it may be said that, while unfavorable natural conditions, assisted by fires, have prevented the natural growth of coniferous forests, the soil conditions are favorable for the growth of the pines, and the climatic conditions are not such as to prevent the successful growing of these species by artificial means. The Kansas sand hills, on the other hand, do not show any evidence of ever having supported pine forests, probably on account of their recent formation, their great distance from the nearest established forests, and the distinct lack of snow, which is essential to natural reproduction. But there is nothing in these facts to prevent the growth of forests in the Kansas hills. INDUSTRIES. The principal industry of the sand-hill region of both States is cattle raising. The sand hills furnish excellent summer feed,2 which, during the spring and summer, is succulent and productive of both beef and milk, but after freezing is much less valuable than the forage of the short-grass region. The hay makes good roughage, but lacks protein, and is not strengthening if fed without grain. Occasionally cattle 1 Flora of the Sand Hills of Nebraska, Bulletin of the Division of Botany, Vol. Ill, no. 3, 1895. 2 Forage Crops for the Sand-Hill Section of Nebraska, Cir. 80, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 63519°— Bull. 121—13, 3 18 FORESTATION, SAND HILLS NEBRASKA AND KANSAS. may be wintered in the hills. To be profitable the industry is depend- ent upon a supply of hay in connection with each summer range, except when steers are imported and grazed for the summer season only. For summer range alone from 10 to 25 acres are required to the head. The hills which are valuable only for this purpose, there- fore, do not produce a revenue to the stockman of more than 50 cents per acre, and the revenue to the Government for grazing use of National Forest land is only about one-tenth of this, or sometimes not more than 2 cents per acre. The development of water is necessary to the proper use of the sand hills for grazing, since there is no surface water, except in the wet valleys, and at times even this can not be reached by cattle without danger. Much of the sand-hill range would be more productive if more windmills were used, since cattle seldom use the grass more than 2 or 3 miles from water, and the ground near the water is therefore severely overgrazed, while good feed farther away goes to waste. In the wet valleys water is usually obtained at from 30 to 40 feet, and seldom in the driest situations at more than 125 feet. For pumping, windmills prevail, since they will operate for weeks without attention. The lower ground capable of producing natural or introduced hay crops has the highest value. It produces from 1 to 2 tons per acre, valued at from $3 to $5 per ton. Only a very small proportion of the sand-hill region, or that lying along the larger streams in some of the wide interior valleys, and the "hard ground" which occurs in small areas throughout, is fitted for agriculture. Potatoes and corn are the principal crops, though the nights are too cool for the best growth of corn. Much of the land which in past years has been considered agricultural has had to be abandoned because of the rapid impoverish- ment of the light soil and because of its movement by the mechanical action of the wind after the sod is destroyed by cultivation. On the other hand, much of this land has been profitably handled for forage crops such as alfalfa, and for such crops it is well fitted.1 Since the sand hills proper produce such a small revenue, and since either excessive grazing or agriculture may quickly destroy the pro- ductiveness of the land, the advantage of using the sand hills for the production of timber may readily be seen. Until the planting work has advanced much farther, however, and the rate of growth of the trees has been determined, it can not be stated with safety that forestry will bring a higher return on the land than conservative grazing. It is, however, quite certain that forestry will in time make possible much more extensive agriculture, both by protecting from wind and by changing the character of the soil by the addition of 1 Forage Crops of the Sand-Hill Section of Nebraska, Circular 80, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. NEED FOR FORESTS. 19 humus so that it will not blow.1 This is especially true of the low rolling hills of the Platte region of Nebraska and of the Kansas hills. Much of the sand-hill ground is too precipitous for agriculture. NEED FOB FORESTS IN THE SAND-HILL REGION. Nebraska and Kansas have about as small a proportion of forest area as any two States in the Union. The natural forests are con- fined to belts of hardwoods along the eastern borders of these two States and to the pine forests of northwestern Nebraska. The States produce practically no softwood lumber. While under present conditions lumber is imported from the Northwest more cheaply than it could possibly be grown in these States, the cheap supply of that region will ultimately be exhausted. With the depletion of the natural timber supplies in the Lake States and the Northwest, the prairie States will eventually have great difficulty in obtaining lumber. Therefore a supply of lumber for the future is one object of forest planting in the sand hills. A more important consideration, however, is the question of a local timber supply in connection with the stock-raising and agri- cultural industries of the sand-hill regions themselves. A large part of the demand from ranches is for fence posts and unsawed timber for other improvements. Since the native cedar has been largely exhausted it has been necessary to purchase timber at dispropor- tionately high rates. While it can not be said that forests are needed in the sand-hill regions to conserve water, since the hills themselves are perfect reser- voirs and the streams all drain to the east, where water for irrigation is not at present needed, still the planting of forests in the sand hills will check the wind locally and generally it will prevent the further encroachment of the sand dunes on the fertile land to the east and will ameliorate the dryness of the atmosphere so that the agricultural land to the east may receive a greater amount of precipitation. Of these influences the local effects of groves of trees acting as wind- breaks will be felt first, and for this reason the planting of trees by local residents after the Government has thoroughly experimented with species and methods should be strongly encouraged. Forests should not only help to make tillable those soils which are already fertile by reducing the exposure to wind, but planted extensively on poor soils, they should ultimately make them fertile enough and should so change the physical composition of the soil that they may be tilled with safety. Extensive forests on rough land are for timber and for general climatic effect. The less extensive, which will be planted on rolling land, are directly to benefit agriculture through their local effects on wind and soil. » The Control of Blowing Soils, Farmers' Bulletin 421, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 20 FOBESTATION, SAND HILLS NEBEASKA AND KANSAS. BEGINNINGS OF FOBEST PLANTING IN THE SAND-HILL REGION. It is thought that the first suggestion that the Federal Govern- ment should plant forests in the sand hills of Nebraska came from Dr. Charles E. Bessey, of the University of Nebraska, about 1890. Before this time settlers had made plantings in the sand hills, as throughout Nebraska and the other Middle Western States, under the timber-culture act (1878-1891). This planting did little to justify the purpose of the act, which was to stimulate the cultivation of tim- ber in the treeless region, and almost without exception the planta- tions of hardwood trees failed because of drought, light soil, and lack of protection from cattle. About the only successful plantations were those made with cottonwood in the low, moist swales where farmsteads were established. Some of these plantations have attained good size and the trees have been of inestimable benefit in protecting the ranch buildings. In many cases these groves of cottonwood have furnished the only shelter for herds of cattle in the most severe winters. In 1891 the Federal Division of Forestry adopted Dr. Bessey ;s suggestion and established a small plantation of jack and Norway pines on the ranch of the Bruner brothers, in Holt County, 4 miles west of Swan, Nebr., with trees collected in the woods of Wisconsin. Other species used to a limited extent were Scotch, Austrian, and western yellow pines, Douglas fir, and arbor vitae. The yellow pine was obtained from a commercial nursery. These species were mostly used in such small numbers as to make no showing, and the only species that are at present worth considering in the plantation are the jack, western yellow, and Scotch pines. Of all the others less than 3 per cent survive. Most of the trees used in this plantation were about 3 years old and 8 inches in height. Reports made on the plantation in 1896 and 1903, which show the survival and condition of the trees of the three suc- cessful species, are summarized in Tables 5 and 6. TABLE 5. — Number of trees planted on Bruner brothers' ranch, in Holt County, Nebr., and number that survived. l Species. Condition at time of planting. Number planted. Oct. 1, 1896, trees living. Dec. 1, 1903, trees living. Number. Per cent. Number. Percent. Jack pine Fair 2,362 1 350 2,055 87 1,729 484 141 73 35 46 Scotch pine Poor to fair Yellow pine Good 305 2139 45 1 From paper by Charles A. Scott, Nebraska Forestry and Park Association, January, 1904. 2 A few trees were probably overlooked, since later counts show a larger number alive. Bui. 121, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. FIQ. 1.— JACK PINE ON THE BRUNER PLANTATION 17 YEARS AFTER PLANTING, HOLT COUNTY, NEBR. FIQ. 2.— THE FIRST PLANTING OF JACK PINE AT HALSEY WHEN THE PLANTATION WAS 4 YEARS OLD; NORTHEAST SLOPE FACING MIDDLE LOUP RIVER. Bui. 121, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI. _J ^> i I co J2 en 3 ~3 H- ^Ci 0° 1^ SS 1^ BEGINNINGS OF FOREST PLANTING. 21 TABLE 6. — Relative rate of growth of the three species of pines on Bruner Bros.' ranch up to 1903. 1 Tallest height class. Middle height class. Shortest height class. Average height, all species Average diameter, all species . 19.4 feet 3 inches ... . 15.9 feet 2.1 inches. .. Less than 1 inch. Jack pines Number. 614 Number. 806 Number. 309 Scotch pines 12 9G 376 Western yellow pines 0 21 120 1 From paper by Charles A. Scott, Nebraska Forestry and Park Association, January, 1904. From Tables 5 and 6 it is apparent that jack pine has far outstripped the other species in the percentage of survival and that it has made much better height growth, there being a relatively small proportion of the Scotch pine in the tallest class, and no yellow pine. Yet it is also noteworthy that Scotch pine made good height growth and that there was no loss among the yellow pines between the years 1896 and 1903. In other words, once fairly established, yellow pine is quite certain to persist, and there can be little doubt but that, in the course of time, it will outstrip the jack pine, since the latter is a species which never attains a height of more than about 60 feet except in the very best soils which it occupies in the Lake States. Scotch pine also, if the proper variety is planted, is un- doubtedly a good tree for sandy soils and for this climate. The conditions in this miniature forest are entirely different from those in the surrounding hills, showing that the trees are perma- nently established. The grass has been killed out, the ground is covered with a light coat of needles, and, best of all, young seedlings of jack pine have appeared from time to time, from seed dropped by the planted trees. This is clear evidence of the adaptability of the species to the climate and soil of the region. Another example of coniferous planting is the Charles Arter planta- tion of western yellow, or "bull" pine at Kirkwood, in the northern part of Rock County, Nebr. This plantation is just at the edge of the sand hills, and is not strictly in sand-hill soil, but rather in the heavier soil of the Arikaree formation as it appears on both sides of the lower Niobrara River. The plantation was made in the spring of 1893, with trees 12 to 20 inches high, obtained on the Niobrara River. The trees were planted 16 feet apart each way and were thoroughly cultivated for the first 10 years, after which care was taken to exclude stock and fire. The careful attention given this small grove doubtless explains in a large measure its phenomenal success. Very few of the trees died. In spite of the wide spacing of the trees the crowns now fully meet, and the trees have attained an average diameter at breast height of 9 inches. 22 FORESTATION, SAND HILLS NEBKASKA AND KANSAS. The largast are about 12J, the smallest 6 inches in diameter. On a rough basis of calculation this plantation has had an increment of 85 cubic feet per acre per annum in the first 19 years of its existence. This represents remarkable productivity for a semiarid region. NATIONAL FORESTS ESTABLISHED. The success of this coniferous plantation of 1891 may be said to have formed the foundation for the establishment, in 1902, of the first National Forests, then known as forest reserves, in Nebraska. The Dismal River Reserve, lying between the Dismal and Middle Loup Rivers, comprised an area of 85,123 acres, and the Niobrara Reserve, lying between the Niobrara and Snake Rivers, comprised 123,779 acres. To these were added in 1906 the North Platte Re- serve, lying some distance north of the North Platte River and bounded on the north by the line of the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad in the vicinity of Hyannis, Nebr. This area com- prised 347,170 acres. The total area of about 556,000 acres, which was combined in 1908 into the Nebraska National Forest, covers less than 5 per cent of the Nebraska sand hills, a large portion of which are still in the public domain. The similarity of the Nebraska and Kansas sand hills led to the belief that forests could be grown in the Kansas hills; there were, moreover, successful hardwood plantations there. One is imme- diately southwest of Garden City, where a plantation of black locust and cottonwood, made in 1894 and covering 10 acres, was partially cut in 1910, at the age of 16 years. The locust yielded a large num- ber of 15 and 20 foot telephone poles, and posts at the rate of 3 per tree. The stumps are now producing vigorous sprouts, which in two years have attained a height of 14 feet and will soon produce a second crop. With the idea that timber to supply local needs could be grown in the region the Garden City Forest Reserve was established in 1903, with an area of 97,280 acres. This was increased to 302,387 acres in 1908, when the name was changed to the Kansas National Forest. The area occupies a narrow strip of ground on the south side of the Arkansas River, from the west boundary of the State east to Garden City. NURSERIES ESTABLISHED. In the fall of 1902 the town of Halsey, Nebr., was selected as the headquarters of the Dismal River Reserve, and a small nursery was laid out beside the Middle Loup River, where the growing of jack and western yellow pine from seed was immediately begun. Since the spring of 1904, when the first seedlings became large enough for planting, this nursery has been increasing steadily in size and effi- THE SAND-HILL NURSERIES. 23 ciency, so that now the output is about 1,000,000 young trees a year. The trees have been very largely used in planting the hills immediately to the south of the nursery, but some have also been used on the North Platte division of the Forest. The work at this nursery is discussed elsewhere in this bulletin. Similarly, after the Halsey nursery had become established, a small nursery was started at Garden City in 1907. Because it was intended to grow hardwood seedlings this nursery was laid out on the north side of the Arkansas River, where the soil is heavy and rich, and well adapted to that purpose. However, conifers have proved more desirable for the Kansas Forest, and various steps have been taken to prepare a soil suited to that class of stock; finally, in 1911, a small branch nursery was established on the south side of the Arkansas River, where the soil is sandy. The success of this nursery has not yet been thoroughly established. In 1903 the area of the Halsey nursery was about one-half acre; in 1911 the combined areas of the Halsey and Garden City nurseries was more than 6 acres. THE SAND-HILL NURSERIES. The Halsey nursery was established in connection with the Nebraska planting work for the primary object of raising coniferous trees; that at Garden City was expected to produce mainly hardwood or broad-leafed trees for the Kansas planting. Hence, while the Garden City nursery has lately begun to produce conifers, it has not developed far in that direction, and it is probable that, with a new nursery in sandy soil, the nursery practice of the future will be much the same as at Halsey. GARDEN CITY NURSERY. The Garden City nursery was on the north side of the Arkansas River, about 2 miles west of Garden City, and on leased land, since there was nothing but very sandy land within the Forest on the south side of the river. The situation is not more than 15 feet above the present river bed, and the soil is described as " Laurel loam," * a rather heavy, dark- brown loam, becoming lighter in color with depth. In some places the proportion of sand is rather large. The subsoil is much more sandy and gravelly than the topsoil. Pure sand is sometimes encountered at a depth of from 30 to 36 inches, and gravel nearly always at from 3 to 6 feet. The soil is made -up of material deposited by inundations of the river and by silt and clay washed in from 1 For this and subseauent data on the soil of the Garden City nursery, see Soil Survey of the Garden City Area, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1905. 24 FORESTATION, SAND HILLS NEBRASKA AND KANSAS. the adjoining uplands.1 It works rather stiff, is difficult to put in good tilth, and bakes after irrigating. Nevertheless, it is probably the richest soil in the entire Arkansas Valley. In preparing this ground for the seed of hardwood trees, of which black and honey locusts, osage orange, ash, catalpa, walnut, and cottonwood have been the principal species, it is first plowed very deep and harrowed, then leveled, then marked for rows. Drills about 4 inches deep are then gouged out and run full of water, which is allowed to soak the soil for about one day before seed is sown. After the sowing the drill is filled with 1 to 2 inches of soil, depending on the size of the seed, and as soon as possible the soil is cultivated. One or more irrigations may be necessary before the seed germinates, but the soil is retentive of moisture if properly cultivated, and, usually, water has been applied only a few times during a season. While the rows are 30 inches apart to permit the use of a 1-horse cultivator, there are from 1 to 15 trees per linear foot in the row. They develop very rapidly, and, in the fall of 1911, were mostly taken up, pruned, and heeled in for the 1912 planting. This practice permits the earliest possible planting when the ground thaws in the spring. The size of seedlings of various species after one year, is as follows : Inches. Black locust 27 Honey locust 16 Green ash 7 Box elder... 24 Inches. Osage orange 20 Catalpa 16 Black walnut.. 10 Because the soil is so heavy it is necessary, in preparing for conifers, to introduce some sand and to raise the beds above the surrounding ground to facilitate drainage. At first, watering was done by sprink- ling and surface irrigation, but in 1911 a system of subirrigation, using concrete tiles, was successfully introduced. A line of tile waters two lines of beds, each 4 feet wide. The water supply is obtained at no great depth and is pumped by windmill and gasoline engine into a storage basin. It has also been necessary, in order to protect from birds and , rodents, to use Pettis 2 frames very largely. These are simply wooden 1 Mechanical analysis of soil of same character, obtained just east of Garden City, showed the following proportions of different-sized particles : Stratum. Fine gravel. Coarse sand. Medium sand. Fine sand. Very fine sand. Silt. Clay. Soil Per cent. 1 0 Per cent. 2. 8 Per cent. 4 2 Per cent. 9 2 Per cent. 20 8 Per cent. 33. 0 Per cent. 28. 8 Subsoil 2.6 10 5 1& 4 28. 1 16.2 13.9 10.3 * See Forest Service Bulletin No. 76, "How to Grow and Plant Conifers in the Northeastern States," by C. R. Pettis. THE SAND-HILL NURSERIES. 25 frames, 18 inches high, which completely cover the seed beds, with the sides and tops covered with J-inch mesh wire netting. Except for these three things — the use of sand, of raised beds, and of frames, the handling of coniferous stock is much the same as at the Halsey nursery. HALSEY NURSERY. LOCATION. Although the Dismal River and Niobrara Forest Reserves were created at the same time, in 1902, the first named offered the greater inducement for planting, because of its nearness to the railroad and because of the poorer quality of its lands. The Niobrara reserve was 12 miles from the nearest railroad point. The Halsey nursery was established 2 miles west of Halsey, which is 48 miles northwest of Broken Bow and 200 miles from Lincoln. It was placed on the south side of the -Middle Loup River, for protection from fire which might originate from locomotives. The Middle Loup is a large stream for the region and gives an abundant water supply at all seasons. The nursery covers 5 acres on a second bench above the river at an elevation of 8 feet above the stream. The bench is 250 feet wide at this point, and at points above and below it is much wider. The ground desired for nursery purposes, like most of the second bottom of the Loup, was covered with a dense but not continuous thicket of plum and cherry brush. Since it was necessary to have perfectly workable soil, this brush was cleared, and all roots were taken out, though at considerable expense. SOIL AND MOISTURE. The presence of the shrubby, humus-making cover had built up a good nursery soil. The bench had evidently been deposited by the river when it last changed its bed and consists of almost pure sand, with enough humus to make it dark gray in color to a depth of 10 to 20 inches. Below this depth it changes rapidly to a white, coarse sand with occasional gravel. Were it not for the nearness of the water table this soil would doubtless be quite arid, since the subsoil is too coarse to hold water or to transmit it readily to a dry surface. While deep-rooted plants can reach the water, this fact is of no value to tree seedlings, because the effort is made to curtail deep-root development in the nursery. The problem of watering the nursery ground has never been difficult. At the outset sufficient water was easily pumped by a windmill for nursery as well as domestic use. It was stored in a cement-Lined reservoir and distributed to the houses and to all parts of the nursery through 2-inch mains. Later, however, with a larger area under 63519°— Bull. 121—13 4 26 FORESTATION, SAND HILLS NEBRASKA AND KANSAS. cultivation and the need for irrigation clearly shown, it has been necessary to pump directly from the river. A 5-horsepower gasoline engine does the work, and most of the water is pumped direct into ditches, with only a small reserve supply for emergencies. This river water, especially in the spring when it carries considerable silt, as compared with clean well water, has a value in maintaining the fertility of the nursery soil. It is also warmer than the well water. With irrigating a great deal of leveling had to be done, and this, together with deep plowing, has in most places mixed the soil and subsoil to a depth of 20 or 30 inches. While the need of watering depends on the weather, it is greatly increased by the extremely porous nature of the subsoil. Frequent applications are necessary, especially at midsummer and in crowded beds, where seedlings are badly blighted as soon as the moisture runs low. In dry, hot weather as much as 2 inches per week may be used. Originally all watering was done with hose and spray; later the beds of larger trees were irrigated by flooding; now even the seed beds are usually flooded before the seeds germinate. Water will not stand on the surface for an appreciable length of tune, so there is no danger of drowning young plants, and it is unnecessary to elevate the beds for drainage. There is a danger of excessive watering, which consists in developing plants which, when set out, will not be able to withstand the drought conditions of the sand hills. It is true that the proportion of loss in the field does increase with the quantity of water given the trees in the nursery,1 but, on the other hand, watering greatly reduces losses in the nursery. Hence it can not be said, without further experimentation, that it should be abandoned or materially decreased. This matter is now the subject of careful investigation. 1 The results of an experiment begun in 1910, when 1,000 transplants were watered in different manners and continued in 1911, when 500 survivors of each lot were planted in the field, are as follows: Trans- Frequency of watering. Average quantity per week. plants sur- viving in nursery, Trees sur- viving in field, 1911. Final survival. 1910. Inches. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. None 67 9 75 2 51 06 Biweekly 1 00 58 8 73 2 43 04 Daily 1 75 63 9 71 8 45 88 Weekly 2 00 68 0 65.4 44.37 The "final survival " is the product of the percentages of survival in field and nursery. This test, which appears conclusive, ought to be repeated before it can be said that the disadvantages of watering are thoroughly proved. NURSERY OPERATIONS. 27 NURSERY OPERATIONS. FERTILIZING. Although the soil of the nursery at first appeared to be abundantly fertile to support a good stand of small trees, its virgin fertility has been dissipated, first, by the mixing of the surface soil with the sterile subsoil; second, by watering, which has doubtless washed out a good deal of the mineral fertility; and third, by the action of the wind, which has to some extent moved the surface soil about. Within two or three years the lack of humus in the soil began to be felt, but it was not until 1908 that the use of manure for fertilizing was begun on a large scale. Prior to this time some experiments had been made with commerical fertilizers, such as dried blood, bone meal, and phosphate, but these had had no appreciable effect; possibly because they were quickly washed out of the sandy soil, more likely because they did not change its physical composition. Leaf compost has some advantage over manure, but is not obtainable at Halsey in large quantities. The effects of the lack of fertility, and more particularly of the lack of water-holding material in the surface soil, showed in several ways: The trees were small and slender; the roots ramified to great distances in order to obtain sufficient moisture and nutriment, and, in hot, dry weather, as a direct result of insufficient moisture, the trees were blighted. It was the physical composition of the soil that most affected tree growth. An analysis of the soil from a number of nursery beds, made at the University of Nebraska in 1905, showed that growth of the seedlings was but little influenced by the small quantity of humus in the soil, but that it was very directly controlled by the quantity of moisture-retentive clay.1 The object in using manure, therefore, is not so much to add to the quantity of plant food, which may or may not be deficient, as to increase the water-holding capacity of the soil by changing its physical composition. A small quantity of clay would doubtless have about the same effect, and would be of considerable value if it could be placed entirely below the depth of cultivation, but experience has shown that clay in the surface soil increases the difficulty of handling the trees. The extensive use of clay, therefore, has not seemed advisable. This matter, however, will be experimented with further. The proper quantity of manure to use depends, of course, on its state of decomposition and the length of time that the soil has been in use. At Halsey it has been the practice, when space would per- mit, to grow trees on the ground for one or two years, then to manure 1 Good growth was found where the percentage of alumina was from 2.05 to 2.76, and poor growth where the percentage was from 0.76 to 1.01. In the sand hills a sample showed 0.84 per cent of alumina. 28 FORESTATION, SAND HILLS NEBRASKA AND KANSAS. it with from 50 to 120 tons per acre and grow a soiling crop upon it for one season. The soiling crop, of course, not only nitrifies the soil, but breaks down the manure to a more usable form. Where seed must be sown on ground freshly manured there is the possibility that an excess1 of manure will cause the soil to dry out or that the plants will "burn" or will suffer from parasites. This latter danger, however, is not necessarily a result of fresh manure. No damage seems to have resulted from using manure just before transplanting. Cow manure free from straw is the most easily prepared for use, and is the least likely to cause drying of the soil. It is obtained mainly from feeding yards, and after being broken up may be applied directly to the nursery soil. Horse manure is invariably mixed with straw, and is not used until it has composted for a year with sand, during which time it is turned two or three times and watered as often as necessary to prevent heating. There is marked benefit from the use of stable manure followed by cowpeas as a soiling crop. In 1910 one bed which had had both manure and a soiling crop the previous year, and one which had only the soiling crop, were sown side by side. At the end of the first season the seedlings grown in the manured bed were from 1 to 2 inches taller than the others, and the difference still existed at the end of the second year in these beds. The sharply-defined increase in the average size of plants since manure began to be used is also clear evidence of the need for it in the sandy nursery soil, as shown in Table 7. TABLE 7. — Average sizes of 2 -year-old seedlings at the end of various years. Year. Height. Jack pine. Yellow pine. 1906 Inches. 3.9 3.7 8.0 7.5 Iiiches. 4.0 3.5 5.0 6.0 1907 .. 1910 1911 The aggregate benefits of the fertilizers show in the more stocky character of the transplants as they now become ready for field plant- ing. For example, the 1909 3-year-old yellow pine, transplanted after two years in the seed bed (2-1), were from 5 to 7 inches high and had, on the average, about four strong roots, from 14 to 16 inches 1 This is especially damaging to young seedlings, which may not be watered as heavily as transplants. The exact quantity of manure which may safely be used on seed beds directly or shortly before seeding is now being carefully investigated. Should it be found that enough manure to keep the soil in good con- dition and to produce strong plants can not be used, biennial fertilizing and rotation between transplants and seedlings will probably be necessary because of the restricted area of the nursery. NURSERY OPERATIONS. 29 long. Those used in 1912 were about 5 inches high and had, on the average, at least eight roots, seldom more than 12 inches long. These facts tend to show that better nourished, and hence more vigorous trees, are being produced by the use of manures. The more numerous roots, confined to a smaller space, are likely to increase the success of field planting, because, while deep roots are desirable, they can not be handled without damage, and a few long roots are less likely to secure soil moisture for the tree than many short ones. It is probable, also, that the greater size attained by trees in the enriched soil will also reduce from three years to two years the time required in the nursery. This practically reduces the costs by one- third and proportionately increases the capacity of the nursery. SEED SOWING. Seed beds are established each year where the ground has been well fertilized the previous year and, when possible, where a soiling crop has been grown in addition. After the ground has been graded so as to be irrigable from a single ditch it is flooded for settling and then staked out in beds 4 feet wide, with 20-inch paths between. The beds are grouped in sections. Each section is about 50 feet wide east and west and about 160 feet long north and south. The sec- tions are separated from one another by 5-foot windbreak fences designed particularly to check the winds from the west and north- west. In some places willows and other trees have been planted to take the place of the fence windbreaks, but as space in the nursery is becoming more and more precious, the wisdom of such planting seems doubtful. The surface of the beds is very carefully smoothed and firmed, in order that the seeds may all be covered equally. Before sowing the seed is coated with red lead to make it unattrac- tive to birds and rodents. Red lead is effective for small seed, but is less so with larger sizes. However, seed destruction seems to become less common each year. The seed is sown broadcast in sufficient quantity to make about 125 seedlings to the square foot. The quality of the seed, number of seed per pound, and expected losses affect, of course, the quantity used. One pound of yellow pine may be enough for from 30 to 60 square feet of bed, while one pound of Norway or Scotch pine seed may cover 100 square feet. As soon as it is sown the seed is covered as evenly as possible by sifting soil over it from a plasterer's sieve to a depth of from one-eighth to one-fourth inch. A light watering follows this covering, and if any seeds are uncovered by this sprinkling more soil is sifted onto them. As soon as a bed has been sown it is completely covered with burlap, pegged down at the edges of the bed, so as to be in close contact with the soil. This acts as a mulch to prevent drying of the surface soil 30 FORESTATION, SAND HILLS NEBRASKA AND KANSAS. and blowing out of the seed and insures the seed an equable supply of moisture, so that germination is rapid and even over the entire bed. Before germination shade frames allowing them only one-half of full sunlight are placed over the beds. These frames consist sim- ply of long strips of slat or lath fencing rolled out on a pair of hori- zontal bars which are parallel with the sides of the bed and extend its entire length. These frames, not permanently fixed, and easily rolled up, are much more convenient than permanent high shade frames, because they do not interfere with plowing and grading and may easily be rolled back in the event of particularly cloudy weather. Since they are from 22 to 24 inches high, they do not have to be rolled back for weeding, as all of the 4-foot beds can be reached from the sides. Broadcast seeding supplanted drill seeding in the Halsey nursery in 1909, when an attempt was made to increase the productiveness of the ground. Drill-sown seed germinates more slowly, but usually in the end more completely. The method, therefore, is more economi- cal of seed and has the further advantage of making weeding easier and of making cultivation possible. Broadcast seeding has the advantage where space is at a premium, because from 125 to 200 seedlings may be grown per square foot where all of the ground is occupied as against 60 to 100 in drills. With plenty of water culti- vation of seed beds is unnecessary. The time required for germination depends largely on the weather. Germination is much slower in early spring than at midsummer, and too much water retards germination by cooling the soil. The most rapid germination §ver recorded at Halsey was six days for yellow pine, in midsummer. In the unusually cool spring of 1912 yellow pine took 22 days; Scotch pine, 24 days; jack pine, 29 days; and Norway pine, 40 days. Practically all seed sowing has been done at Halsey in the spring, or just as soon as possible after the early field planting, transplanting, and preparation of the ground. Frequently seed sowing has not been completed before June 15, though it is quite certain that the earlier seeding produces the larger plants by the end of the season. Very early seeding, however, subjects the plants to more danger from damping off. Exhaustive experiments with fall seeding have not yet been made, but it seems to have good possibilities for both the Halsey and Garden City nurseries. Fall seeding of 1911, at Halsey, germinated just one month ahead of the earliest spring seeding of 1912, which could not be done until April 29. Should it prove as effective as it promises fall seeding will doubtless be adopted to relieve the work of the spring season and give the plants the longer growing season. The advantages and disadvantages of various seasons for seeding are now being determined. NURSERY OPERATIONS. 31 CARE OF SEED BEDS. During and after germination the surfaces of the beds are kept quite constantly moist. Formerly new seed beds were sprinkled once or twice each day, now all watering is done by flooding. The beds are weeded early in the season, because if weeds attain large size seedlings are almost certain to be damaged when the weeds are pulled. In broadcasted beds only hand weeding is possible. When seed was sown in drills it was possible to cultivate between the rows and to some extent remove weeds with a narrow rake. The greatest danger to young seedlings is from the disease known as "damping off/' which results from the attack of any one of several fungi, which enter the seed as soon as the coat is cracked in germina- tion. Many seedlings are killed before they push above the ground, while all are subject to attack until several weeks old. The small and comparatively weak seedlings of jack, Norway, and Scotch pine are more susceptible to damping off than those of western yellow pine. At Garden City, where damping off has been even more serious than at Halsey, Austrian pine suffered more than any other species, while Corsican pine was practically immune. This disease has been the subject of a great deal of study, but it appears that at Halsey it may best be controlled by treating the soil at the time of seed sowing with a solution of sulphuric acid, consisting of three-fourths fluid ounce of the acid in a gallon of water, applied at the rate of one quart per square foot. All the soil, both below and above the seeds, must be treated and the beds must be watered quite frequently until germination is complete, in order that the solution may not become concentrated. The treatment may injure some seedlings, but it effectively prevents the disease, and the loss from the acid is incon- sequental as compared with the loss from damping off. This acid treatment is not recommended for a different soil, but all of the com- mon preventives, such as dry and sterilized sand on the surface of the beds, and sowing at various seasons, have failed entirely, so that, if this treatment is effective elsewhere, it will greatly simplify the nursery procedure. The shade frames are kept over the seed beds during the entire first year, and many seedlings which otherwise would die from overheating or drought are saved. It seems probable that losses which were formerly supposed to be due to damping off are nothing more than the effects of drought. The shade frames make the moisture more equable and at least reduce the frequency of watering. The size of seedlings at the end of the first season is shown in Table 8. 32 FOKESTATION, SAND HILLS NEBRASKA AND KANSAS. TABLE 8. — Height of seedlings at the end of the first season. Species. Height. Western yellow pine Inches. 1 to 5 Austrian pine 1 to 2 Corsican pine i to H Jack pine 1 to 5 Norway pine $ to 1 Scotch pine 1 to 4 Until 1911 practically all transplanting was done with seedlings which had been two years in the original seed bed and were then retained in the transplant beds one year, making what is called a "2-1 transplant." Occasionally, trees have been transplanted at one year and kept in the transplant beds two years more; these are designated "1-2 transplants." Trees kept in seed beds two years require watering about once each week; yet, in spite of this generous use of water, it has not been possible wholly to prevent blight, due to insufficient moisture, or to prevent stunting, due to overcrowding. When blight occurs it can be accounted for only by the inability of the roots to take up the moisture as fast as it evaporates from the leaves. With greater root space this difficulty would probably be obviated. In general, shade frames were not used on second-year seed beds, but recent experiments where they have been used have shown that losses may be reduced. The whole question of the proper regulation of the shade will stand further investigation. The longer the regular shading is continued in the seed beds, the greater the losses in the transplant beds. This has been proved by experi- ments begun in 1911, which show that the extent of loss at any time from removing shade frames is about proportional to the length of time that the trees have been under shade. This points to the advisability of gradually reducing the quantity of shade and thereby hardening the trees. TRANSPLANTING. The first transplanting at Halsey was done in 1906, with the object of developing a more compact root system; that is, shorter and more numerous roots. The success of these first transplants in the field in 1907 was so great that practically no seedlings have been planted directly in the field since that time. Practically all transplants have been "2-1," or three years old from seed when used in the field after two years in the seed bed and one year in the transplant bed. Experi- ments with both younger and older stock showed this to be the best and most convenient size from all standpoints. However, progress in developing large trees from seed had been so good by 1911 that in that year 1-year seedlings were transplanted, and these, in turn, were planted out in 1912. Bui. 121, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE VII, FIG. 1.— MAKING THE FIRST TRANSPLANT BED OF JACK PINE AT HALSEY IN 1906. FIG. 2.— TRANSPLANT BEDS OF JACK PINE AT HALSEY IN 1912. Much more economical of space than those shown in figure 1. Shelter fences and willow- hedge windbreaks. Bui. 121, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VIM. FIG. 1.— DIGGING SEEDLINGS WITH TREE DIGGER, 1908. Seedlings temporarily heeled-in on the right. FIG. 2.— DIGGING SEEDLINGS WITH SPADES, 1910. The seedlings are carefully packed in baskets between layers of wet burlap. NUESEEY OPERATIONS. 33 Ground for transplant beds is prepared much the same as for seed beds, except that it may have been freshly fertilized. It is deeply plowed and carefully leveled, but the beds are 6 feet wide, with 20-inch paths between, instead of 4 feet, as in the seed beds. Paths and beds are on the same level. Seedlings are dug from their beds with spades. The Feigley tree digger has been tried at Halsey, and while it is cheap and effective for lifting seedlings, it has not always been possible to use it because of the scarcity of work horses. The contrivance does nothing more than lift the entire body of soil in which the roots are located and drop it again, thereby loosening the mass so that the trees are pulled out without much loss of fine roots. It is simply a horizontal, sharp- edged wedge which is run under the trees at any necessary depth down to about 12 inches, taking a strip about 1 foot wide for the entire length of the seed bed. Its disadvantages are that it is diffi- cult to guide accurately, and hence may come too near the surface and cut off the roots too closely. In so far as it cuts merely the tips of the roots it probably does no damage, since root pruning, while not. practiced at Halsey, has been used a great deal elsewhere. The digger also loosens the soil to such an extent that the trees must all be taken up very quickly, and since its economic rate of operation is considerably faster than transplanting, some extra labor is required to heel in the seedlings temporarily. Yet with these disadvantages it undoubtedly effects a saving in the cost of transplanting. After being loosened with the spade the seedlings are lifted, and the main body of soil shaken from the roots. Great care is taken, how- ever, to make sure that the fine soil particles are left adhering to the roots and that the finer roots are not broken. Formerly it was the practice to transport trees, not only between the nursery and field, but within the nursery, in buckets or tubs of water. This not only washed all soil from the roots, but also washed off the fine rootlets. At present trees are placed, even for short transportation, in baskets or boxes lined with burlap and moss. They are thus kept constantly moist, but are not washed. If seedlings can not be used at once in the transplant beds they are heeled in; that is, placed with their roots in a layer against the wall of a trench, which is then filled. If the seedlings are to be heeled in for some time their tops are covered with a mulch of straw. The transplant crew consists of five men; two of them "thread" seedlings, one makes trenches, and the other two plant the trees in the trenches. The threading process consists in fitting the seedlings into notches on a " transplant board." The board1 is 6 feet 3 inches long, with notches 1 or 1J inches apart and f-inch or more 1 Full description of this board, the threading table, trencher, and tamper may be found in Forestry Quarterly, vol. X, no. 1, March, 1912. 34 FOKESTATION, SAND HILLS NEBKASKA AND KANSAS. wide, according to the spacing desired and the size of the stems to be fitted into the notches. When all notches have been filled with seedlings the latter are held in place by a thin strip of wood fastened over the stems. The threading is all done on tables, which have shields to protect the trees from the drying wind. The trenches are made with a special tool, which has a heavy blade 26 inches long and 7 inches wide, and a handle. It is handled as a heavy spade would be in heavy soil; the weight of the worker is thrown on its upper edge, while the handle is moved back and forth and the blade worked into the soil, to a depth of from 6 to 10 inches, depending on the length of the roots of the seedlings. The transplant board is placed on the edge of the trench thus made, with the roots of all the seedlings hanging in the opening. The two men engaged in planting then break in the walls of the trench with a tamp which packs the soil against the roots. When this has been partly completed the transplant board is taken away, and the earth is brought up to the level of the surrounding ground. The trenches may be 5 or more inches apart, according to the space desired between rows in the transplant beds. The crew of five men may transplant 20,000 2-year seedlings per day or 16,000 1-year seedlings. The latter are more difficult to handle because they are smaller. For this reason it is doubtful that 1-1 transplants of such species as Norway pine are as cheap as older ones. Not only is a greater time required for transplanting, but some trees will be lost by being covered with soil at the time of transplanting or later. However, some economy for the nursery as a whole will have been gained if the plan of closer spacing, tried in 1912, is successful. A spacing of 1 by 5 inches was used experimentally for 1-year seed- lings, while in the past, with 2-year seedlings, 1J by 6 inches has seemed necessary. Transplant beds are weeded and watered .as carefully as seed beds. In addition, they are cultivated after each watering, a 2-toothed rake being used to scratch between the rows. Shade has not been used on transplant beds and probably will not be unless it is found neces- sary as a part of a gradual hardening process by which the water supply will be reduced somewhat, and the trees are given a very light shade. A year in the transplant beds does not materially increase the height of most species, but makes them much sturdier. Thus a 2-year seedling is taller and much more slender than a 1-1 transplant if given equal opportunities for growth. The transplant, however, has a much better proportion of roots to top. The breaking of the longer roots at the time of transplanting seems to have the effect of stimulating the growth of a number of short roots, just as damage to the leader of a tree's stem will induce the growth of a number of branches. FIELD PLANTING. 35 While the average of yellow pine and jack pine 1-1 transplants are large enough for field planting, it may be necessary at the time of transplanting to separate the smallest of the seedlings and to give these two years in the transplant beds. The largest of the transplants are not so weU proportioned as to tops and roots as the medium-sized ones and hence are less valuable for planting. The ideal tree for sand-hill planting has roots at least one-half longer than the top. DIGGING AND PACKING. Trees are removed from the transplant beds in the same manner as from seed beds, except that they are spaded up a row at a time, and as many of the long roots as possible are saved. As soon as they are loosened from the soil the trees are packed in planting baskets, in which there are several double layers of burlap padded with moss. Between each two layers a comparatively thin layer of trees is placed, so that, without making the pads very wet, all of the roots may be kept moist. By retaining the fine soil which naturaUy adheres to the rootlets a closer contact between the roots and the new soil of the hills is assured. For shipping, trees are now always packed in slatted crates. The roots are all placed at the center of the crate, with abundance of moss between layers, and the tops point outward and are freely aerated. This practically prevents any heating, and the only thing to be feared is the lack of moisture as a result of delayed shipments. FIELD PLANTING. SPECIES. SPECIES FOR THE NEBRASKA SAND HILLS. Following the establishment of the station and nursery at Halsey, in the fall of 1902, some jack pine was immediately planted. This species was selected because of its well-known adaptability to the sandy soils of the Lake States, and the success attained with it on the Bruner l plantation. Experience has shown that the first choice was a wise one. Some 70,000 seedlings were pulled in the forests of Minnesota and planted at Halsey in the spring of 1903. Of this number 15 or 20 per cent were living three years later. The trees were from 2 to 5 years old when planted, and it is probable that a greater degree of success would have been attained if only the younger ones had been used. As it is, the survivors of this group are now the leaders of the entire plantation. In nine years they have attained heights of from 6 to 11 feet. At the same time, 30,000 forest-pulled seedlings of western yellow pine, from the Black Hills, were planted. These failed entirely, and 1 Four miles west of Swan, Holt County, Nebr. 36 FORESTATION, SAND HILLS NEBRASKA AND KANSAS. the same fate befell extensive broadcast sowings of red cedar, jack pine, western yellow pine, and Colorado blue spruce. The first planting of the nursery-grown yellow pine in 1904 was partially successful, in spite of the very difficult sites which were selected. One-year-old seedlings planted in 1905, on steep, cool, moist, north slopes, have succeeded, though for several years it seemed a question whether they would rear their heads above the grass. Western yellow pine is slow in gaining a foothold, and small trees may not make any appreciable growth for two or three years, yet they will retain life. Then, if the roots have succeeded in making a place for themselves in spite of the grass, vigorous growth begins. Jack pine, on the other hand, always establishes itself quickly and soon obtains enough root and crown space to give it an advantage over the native vegetation in the struggle for moisture and light. By 1906 jack pine and western yellow pine had proved their worth. While no other species had been so thoroughly tested, Douglas fir, blue spruce, and other trees from the upper slopes of the Rockies had been tried in the nursery and, because of the little success in growing them from seed, they were abandoned. Scotch pine was first planted in 1907. The plantation was on the gentle north slope which bore a heavy stand of bunch grass and was not very successful; but the persistence of some of the trees, which were of imported stock, clearly indicated the value of the tree for sand-hill planting. In 1908 and 1909 this species was tried again with stock grown at Halsey, and each year promised greater success. Austrian pine was first tried in 1909 with seedlings brought from the east. It did not then, and has not since, shown any qualities that fit it for sand-hill planting. Possibly this is because all stock so far used has come from more humid regions. While the seedlings show great vitality and ability to resist drought, they are, even more than yellow pine, slow to gain a foothold. Norway pine, a tree of the sandy soils of the Lake States, was tried on a small scale in 1909, and more extensively in 1910, with Halsey grown stock. The 1910 plantation on north slopes was very successful, and the trees are now making rapid growth. An effort was made, in 1909, to systematize the arrangement of species in accordance with topographic features. Four sites are recognized — ridge, south slope, bottom, and north slope. The char- acteristics of the four main sites and the reasons for planting certain species on them are as follows: (1) The ridge type has a very sandy soil, is most exposed to wind, bears the lightest vegetation, and has a low but very even moisture supply. Yellow pine seems best adapted to the ridges, because experiment has shown that it does not suffer from summer winds. The evenness of the moisture supply favors the slow-growing seed- FIELD PLANTING. 37 lings, because some moisture is available, even after other sites have become dry. (2) The south slope is the warmest of the sites, because it receives the direct rays of the sun. The soil is usually a loose sand, very insecurely held by vegetation. The snow drifts to these slopes more than to any others, so that moisture conditions are good in the spring. Jack pine grows well here, because it starts earliest in the spring and is able to get established before the moisture is dissipated. (3) The bottom type has the heaviest soil and bears the heaviest vegetation, so that, although it collects some moisture from the slopes, this is soon lost unless the vegetative growth can be checked. Yellow pine succeeds well if planted in wide, shallow furrows. The problem of obtaining success here without too great expense in the preparation of the ground is one of the most difficult yet to be solved. On the whole, the reason for planting yellow pine rather than any other species is that the tree, if it succeeds at all, is capable of making the best use of the fertile soil and can stand the heat. If Austrian pine should be planted at all, this is the best site. Of the hardwoods, green ash would doubtless succeed if it could be kept free from borers. (4) The north-slope type is cool and moist, but usually carries a heavy cover of grasses and shrubs, and, not infrequently, belts of sand- hill willows where there is an imperceptible seepage from the soil. This site presents the least difficulty in planting. Almost any species is assured of a favorable start, and here yellow pine makes its most rapid growth. However, frost leaves the ground late, and since the soil is constantly cool it has been thought that a species demanding less heat might outstrip the yellow pine. Scotch pine, because of its northerly origin and known adaptability to coolness and moisture, has been chosen for this site. Its height growth in the past three years has considerably exceeded that of yellow pine. Norway pine, with characteristics similar to those of Scotch pine, has not been thoroughly tried on north slopes, but from present indications will have a place there if it can be successfully grown in the nursery. Generally speaking, however, these distinctions as to site are mat- ters of convenience rather than of necessity. Except that jack pine is by far the best tree for south slopes and that Scotch pine has suc- ceeded only on north slopes, it should be understood that the species may be planted where it is most convenient. SPECIES FOR THE KANSAS SAND HILLS. The conclusions as to the adaptability of various species to the Kansas sand hills are not as definite as those for Nebraska. In the first place, the planting there has been in progress for a much shorter time. 38 FOKESTATION, SAND HILLS NEBRASKA AND KANSAS. Planting was begun in the spring of 1906, with 2-year seedlings of yellow pine and 1-year seedlings of honey locust, osage orange, Rus- sian mulberry, and red cedar. Twenty-seven per cent of the yellow pine and 32 per cent of the honey locust survived the first season, but the other species failed. A number of these first yellow pines still persist and give clear evidence of having established themselves permanently, though they are so scattered that their struggle with native vegetation has been continuous, and they have, therefore, attained a height of only about 2 feet. Various experiments have been made with black locust, green ash, elm, and jack pine. Up to 1911 it appeared that the hardwoods held greater promise than the conifers, because of the greater ease with which they could be grown in the nursery, the smaller degree of care required in handling, and their more rapid establishment in the soil. However, an extreme drought in 1911 killed all but the most resistant of the newly planted trees. On the basis of these drought conditions the various species may be classified as reliable or unreliable, the trees in each group being named in the order of their value : Reliable species. Unreliable species. 1. Green ash. 1. Jack pine. 2. Yellow pine. 2 Black locust. 3. Honey locust. 3. Cotton wood. 4. Red cedar. 4. Osage orange. American elm.1 5. Hardy catalpa. Austrian pine.2 Only one hardwood, green ash, made^ a showing equal to that of yellow pine. Because there are no distinct ridges and valleys in the Kansas sand hills, the division of the planting area into types does not seem practicable. In general, however, the hardwoods .should be planted in the lower ground where the soil is heaviest, and the conifers in the lighter soil of the high ground. In the area now being planted even this differentiation is neither practicable nor necessary. The one striking feature of the planting in Kansas is the failure of jack pine. This may be attributed partly to damage by rodents, but is in a large measure due to the greater warmth of the region as com- pared with Nebraska, the more extreme drought conditions which may prevail, and the greater severity of the summer winds. Jack pine evidently does not resist these influences. Green ash, among the hardwoods, and yellow pine, among conifers, have shown, on the other hand, the most surprising resistance. Green ash survived the summer of 1911, even after most of the leaves had been completely desiccated. 1 Not yet tried in field planting. Value assumed from general knowledge. 2 Not yet tried with stock of suitable size. Exact value not determined. FIELD PLANTING. 39 KIND OF STOCK. CONIFERS. As already stated, the first planting of conifers at Halsey was with forest-pulled seedlings, which have never been successful except under the most favorable climatic conditions. The next planting was with 1 and 2 year old seedlings grown in the local nursery. These were obviously too small; there were not enough roots, and these were too long to be handled conveniently. The trees succeeded only in the most favorable situations, north slopes. However, the use of 2-year seedlings was continued through 1006, when the percentage of success on east and south exposures was from 18 to 41, and on northerly exposures from 50 to 68. Steady improvement ensued from the first use of transplants, in 1907. Tables 9 and 10 show the results of experimental planting in 1909, in which stock of various ages was used, and indicate the causes of earlier failures. TABLE 9. — Survival and growth of yellow pine of various ages, in bottom type. Age and treatment. Proportion of thrifty trees left. Average height, fall, 1911. Average current growth, season of 1911. 1909 1910 1911 3 1 transplants Per cent. 88 82 50 Per cent. 73 76 46 Per cent. 69 69 36 Inches. 7.7 7.1 5.5 Inches. 1.9 2.1 1.5 2-1 transplants 1-1 transplants TABLE 10. — Survival and growth of Scotch pine of various ages, on north slope. Age and treatment. Proportion of thrifty trees left. Average height, fall, 1911. Average current growth, season of 1911. 1909 1910 1911 2-1 transplants Per cent. 81 63 7 Per cent. 1 Per cent. 65 ¥ Inches. 12.0 7.9 10.3 Inches. 3.4 2.4 2.3 1-1 transplants 2-year seedlings. From these tables it is apparent that the 2-1 transplants are to be preferred as against the younger or untransplanted stock. While the oldest yellow pines give slightly better results, it is thought that this will not be apparent after two more years ; moreover, their addi- tional cost precludes their use. The use of 1-year seedlings such as have proved fairly successful, under favorable climatic conditions, in the white-pine planting in the East, is wholly out of the question. In the past, three years have been required at Halsey for the devel- opment of a suitable plant, but it is now thought that two years will 40 FORESTATION, SAND HILLS NEBRASKA AND KANSAS. suffice because of the steady improvement of the soil through ferti- lizing and because of the unstinted use of water. In Kansas, how- ever, it is possible that none of less age or less perfect root develop- ment than the 2-1 transplants can be used profitably. Even older stock may prove cheapest in the end, but this matter has not had a conclusive test. HARDWOODS. Practically all hardwoods used in both Nebraska and Kansas have been grown in the nursery only one year. The soil of the Garden City nursery produces such vigorous growth that even the 1-year seedlings of the locusts have to be pruned on both the stems and roots for convenient handling. It would be impracticable to use older seedlings, and, because the roots sprout readily in the field, it is wholly unnecessary to transplant hardwoods in the nursery for root development. METHODS OF PLANTING. Four methods of planting have been tried successively in both the Nebraska and Kansas sand hills. These are the "slit," "square- hole," "cone," and "trencher" methods. THE SLIT METHOD. The slit method of planting was the first to be tried in this work; it has been much used in forest planting because it is cheap. It seemed especially desirable in the sand hills because the soil is loose and light and free from stones. An ordinary spade, with 7 by 12 inch blade, is used, and may be light or heavy as the worker prefers. The blade is pushed straight down into the soil to its full depth, the handle is moved back and forth to open up a wedge-shaped hole, and the blade is then withdrawn. Taking a tree in the left hand, the planter whisks its roots into the hole, and with the right hand and right foot again inserts the spade parallel to the original insertion, and about an inch from it to close the original opening and to secure the tree in an upright position. While a new opening is made, it is readily closed by several successively shorter strokes with the spade and finally by pressing with the foot. The principal disadvantages of this method are: The inelastic depth of the slit; lack of spreading of the roots, which may lie in a cordlike or slightly flattened mass; and the danger, in rapid work, that the tips of the roots do not reach the bottom of the slit. Careless workmen actually have left the tips of the roots out of the ground and the whole root mass in the shape of the letter U. This is not, of course, an insuperable argument against the method, which has strong merits. Jul. 121, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IX. FIG. 1.— THE SLIT METHOD OF PLANTING IN FURROWS, KANSAS FOREST, 1906. The picture gives a good idea of the rolling character of the lands. FIG. 2.— RESULTS OF THE SLIT PLANTING OF 1903-4 AT HALSEY, WITH FOREST-PULLED SEEDLINGS; A SCATTERED STAND OF JACK PINE. Bui. 121, Forest Service, U. S. Dept of Agriculture PLATE X. FIG. 1.— RESULTS OF THE TRENCHER PLANTING OF 1911 AT HALSEY, WITH LOCALLY GROWN TRANSPLANTS. Fully 90 per cent of the jack pine is growing in every furrow. FIG. 2.— SEED BEDS BROADCASTED IN 1912. The surfaces of new beds are protected by burlap, and beds in which germination has begun are covered by low shade frames, and the burlap is removed. FIELD PLANTING. 41 It was used at Halsey for several years, and while a part of the early failures may be accredited to the method, not a little was due to carelessness of individual workmen, as shown by the differences between adjacent rows in the plantations. At any rate,, it did not appear to be adapted to sand-hill planting, because it did not give the roots enough opportunity to obtain moisture. The slit method was practically abandoned in 1908 for the square- hole method, which had first been tried the previous year. THE SQUARE-HOLE METHOD. The square-hole method of planting makes use of a hole a foot deep and 7 inches square. Because of the looseness of the soil the hole may be dug with from three to five strokes of the spade, the earth being piled on one side. A second man follows the digger, setting the trees by simply holding their stems at the proper height in the center of the hole and pulling the earth in around the roots with the other hand. This method, in the hands of the average workman, has all of the disadvantages of the slit method, except that there is little danger of the root tips being left near the surface of the ground. Since the digger has no knowledge of the actual size of the tree to be planted in any individual hole, he makes all holes of a certain depth. While many are deeper than necessary, not one is deep enough for those trees which, by good fortune, reach the field with long roots, which have to be coiled in the bottom of the hole. Furthermore, there is nothing to prevent all of the long roots being crowded together into a cordlike mass when the earth is thrown in around them. Therefore, in spite of the greater expenditure which was being made to give the trees careful planting, it was soon found that the square-hole method was not materially improving the results. THE CONE METHOD. As a result the cone method was tried, and with great success. It is similar to the square-hole method with this addition — after the hole has been dug the planter makes a mound or cone of earth in the bottom of the pit, spreads the roots around this cone, and weights them in place with a small quantity of earth before pulling in the larger mass. This keeps the roots separate and gives them access to greater soil space. There is a reduction of loss immediately after planting, but later, when the roots of grasses and other native vege- tation begin to crowd into the space needed by the tree, its advantages disappear, and if the tree is not firmly established nothing can save it. Table 1 1 compares the success attained with the three methods of planting in 1909. 42 FOKESTATION, SAND HILLS NEBRASKA AND KANSAS. TABLE 11. — Results of slit, square-hole, and cone methods of planting, Nebraska, 1909 Proportion of thrifty trees left. Average height of trees. Method. Fall, Spring, Fall, Spring, Fall, Fall, 1909. 1910. 1910. 1911. 1911. 1911. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Inches. Cone 70 51 47 45 40 6 4 Square hole . 36 26 25 17 15 5 6 Slit 42 36 36 36 33 5.4 The immediate advantage of the cone method is plainly shown. It is shown no less plainly that this does not prevent the trees from ultimately succumbing to the competition with native vegetation. Therefore, considering the much greater cost, the cone method does not appear to be justified. Making a definite calculation, with trees at $8 per thousand at planting tune, the relative cost of establishing a plantation to the age of 3 years is as follows: Slit method, $4.34; square-hole method, $10.70; and cone method, $7.20. The slit method involves greater expense than the others for trees alone. But in cost of trees plus labor it is the cheapest, and this must be the final basis of comparison. This pointed to the necessity of developing the slit method by trying to eliminate its bad features. THE TRENCHER METHOD. The trencher method, which is nothing more than a mechanical form of the slit method, has been developed since 1909. This con- sists in turning back a shallow furrow with an ordinary breaking plow or with a sidehill plow. In this furrow the trencher plow is run, to make a V-shaped trench from 8 to 10 inches deep and about 1J inches wide at the top. The trees are planted at intervals in this trench, much the same as in slits, using the heel or a spade to press the walls of the trench against the tree roots. The trench has one great advantage over the slit, because there is more space to whisk the roots to the bottom. Moreover, it is rapid and cheap; six horses with plow and trencher prepare the ground for from 10 to 12 planters. With a horse's labor calculated in the ratio of two-fifths of a man's labor, the average day's planting per man by the trencher method is 1,061 trees, as against 215 for the cone, 500 for the square-hole, and 1,038 for the slit method. The trencher planting of 1911 was highly successful and showed from 90 to 92 per cent of thrifty survivals at the end of the first year. While this was due in part to favorable seasonal conditions, there seems to be no doubt but that a cheap and efficient mechanical method of planting may be developed. The trencher method is certainly the least expensive. Where cost is not a consideration, the cone method is the one to use. FIELD PLANTING. 43 PLANTING AFTER PLOWING. As a result of the experience of farmers whose fields were literally blown away after one or two years of cultivation it was not con- sidered advisable to plow the ground completely before planting in the sand hills. Much of the original slit planting was, therefore, done in the sod, while some was done in single furrows, spaced from 4 to 6 feet apart, on contours. This furrow destroyed some native vegetation and gave the newly planted trees a little better opportunity for obtaining moisture, but allowed the trees to be covered by sand, which, when the sun shines directly on it, becomes so hot as literally to bake anything in contact with it. For some time, therefore, the desirability of furrows was in question. Now, however, it is proved that they are neither necessary nor desirable where the sand is loose and likely to be blown over the trees. On the other hand, they are desirable and perfectly safe where the sod is heavy and the soil firm. In 1909, for the first time, a small area was thoroughly plowed before planting. The area was selected in a bottom situation where the sod was very heavy. There was no blowing of the soil during the first year, though the ground was once cultivated during the summer. At the end of the season 92 per cent of the trees planted were living in this area, as against 80 per cent in furrows and 57 per cent where the sod had not been broken. By the end of 1911, how- ever, the proportion of survivals in the plowed ground was consid- erably less than in the other two situations. This was partly due to the destructive work of pocket gophers in the plowed ground, and partly due to the invasion of weeds which appeared to demand even more moisture than the native grasses and herbs. Until further tests are made on a large scale the exact effect of plowing for pine plantations can not be known. Even though plowing and subsequent cultivation have a distinct effect in in- creasing the proportion of survivals in Nebraska, it is doubtful if the expense will be warranted. In Kansas, on the other hand, experience indicates that only by thorough cultivation of the ground can young trees be brought through the first year, if that happens to be a dry one. Even there it is possible that double furrows, some distance apart, subsequently cultivated as with listed corn, may be effective and much safer, because of the smaller danger from blowing of the soil. It is quite certain that the ground should never be plowed except where the sod is dense and the soil heavy, and not even furrowed where the sand is loose on exposed ridges and south slopes. 44 FORESTATION, SAND HILLS NEBRASKA AND KANSAS. FIELD SOWING. As early as the spring of 1903 direct seeding, or the sowing of seed in the field where the trees are to stand, was attempted. The seed was simply broadcasted, and nothing came of it. Further sowing of yellow pine was tried in 1904, but with corn planters to get the seed into the soil. Little evidence of germination was found, and no trees grew. The total failure may be ascribed largely to the activities of field mice arid other rodents, which, in spite of the red- lead covering which was placed on the seed, had begun uncovering and devouring them within three days. The idea of poisoning these rodents had not at that time been developed. No success was attained with direct seeding on the Nebraska Forest until 1909, and then on such a small scale that it has had no practical influence. In that year seed of yellow, Scotch, and jack pines were broadcasted on the heavy litter under sand-hill willows and thoroughly raked in. Within a short time seedlings appeared, and while all species ger- minated, only the yellow-pine seedlings survived. These, at the end of the third summer, made a stand of about 850 seedlings per acre. Considering that five seeds were sown to the square foot, this is a very poor showing. However, conditions appear to be so favor- able under the willow clumps that the possibility of obtaining a stand by sowing in prepared seed spots is being investigated. So far, rodents and birds seem to be the chief agents of failure. In Nebraska direct seeding will never take the place of planting on any but the most favorable sites, and possibly not there. It holds no promise at all for the Kansas sand hills. EFFECT OF CLIMATE ON TIME OF PLANTING. Those climatic conditions of the sand hills which are unfavorable to tree planting can not be changed as a whole, though as planting progresses trees which are already established will temper the wind to those newly planted. On the other hand, the favorable climatic conditions of early spring can be used to advantage, and the trees can be well established in their new conditions before the sum- mer dry weather sets in. The' dry periods are usually of rather short duration, but are very trying. To take advantage of the spring season planting is begun just as soon as the frost is out of the ground, especially on south slopes, which dry out very rapidly. The effective- ness of early planting is shown not only by the generally greater success with it in the last two or three years, but particularly by the good results attained on south slopes, which, it was at first thought, would be impossible to plant at all. Fall planting has been abandoned because of the lack of snow, which leaves the newly planted trees exposed to drying winds for Bui. 121. Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, PLATE XI. Qo 1° II i! • ^ 2 Bui. 121, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XII. Z T3 * O -S < •> | °°j iai CO ^ "*""* ^ z "~ ° § CO r-.rj _i gT: < 3o I "*" tr t S- < ^ Bs "JQ c 2 >nr •r~' G ,« — ^~ LJ m w 60 UJ « «3 G co ^ e o o I •** I _l C 2= 9^ II ^^ §•- £! 1 I be OJ | S2 | L. S Si Q |_ »f ^ 3! ^ 9S I < M c 111 "* > uT • 2 i?£ S ^ > dLi- id _ O 03 LL 3ul. 121, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIII. z Q. cvj I-, ^" r^ o li O Q ENEMIES OF PLANTATIONS. 45 several months before they are able to begin taking up moisture. Even very early fall planting, which has given the trees opportunity for root growth before cold weather, has yielded unsatisfactory results. ENEMIES OF PLANTATIONS. Forest protection is everywhere recognized as one of the chief functions of forestry, and especially so in the United States with its virgin forests, but it is nowhere of greater moment than in the sand hills. Almost every kind of forest enemy has been encountered since planting was begun in Nebraska. Of the enemies of the embryo forest nothing can be considered of so great import as fire. FIRE. Probably for centuries the prairie fire has been the expected, and sometimes the desired, thing in the sand-hill region. Prairie fires temporarily improve grazing conditions by destroying the old grass, which has no forage value, and making room for a more vigorous growth of the new grass. But they undoubtedly have done the sand hills permanent injury by destroying the humus which other- wise would have collected in the soil and would have improved its composition and productivity. The most destructive prairie fires come in the early spring before new grass has sprouted. Even the lightest of fires destroys small coniferous trees, which burn readily, though jack pine at Halsey has sometimes recovered after a light scorching. To protect the plantations properly requires constant care during the danger season and the preparation each year of plowed fire lines. As with most fire lines, these are valuable principally as a basis for back-firing and can not be depended upon to check a fire. For complete safety from outside fires all of the plantations are sur- rounded by double guards, consisting of two strips of furrows with a grassy strip between them from 60 to 100 feet wide, which is burned off annually. Then, there is the additional problem of protecting from fires which may arise within the plantation, either as a result of lightning or through the carelessness of laborers and hunters. This internal protection is afforded to the plantation as a whole by divid- ing it into tracts of 40 acres or more, separated by fire lines. While absolute protection is hard to achieve, the fire danger will decrease somewhat as the trees become older and more resistant and as the grass is shaded out. As soon as the trees become so large that they will not be broken off or browsed stock may be used to keep the grass down. INSECTS. The only destructive insect which has appeared in the Nebraska plantations is the Nantucket pine-tip moth (Retinia frustrana) , which appeared in 1909. Similar insects had been noted in the Pine Ridge 46 FORESTATION, SAND HILLS NEBRASKA AND KANSAS. forests as early as 1901.1 Since 1909 it has increased very rapidly at Halsey, doing a great deal of damage to jack pine, and to a less extent to yellow pine. The larvae of this moth bore into the young succulent shoots at the ends of the branches, hollowing them out for a distance of from 2 to 6 inches and usually causing the death of the shoot as far back from the tip as the boring goes. New growth is usually made at once from buds below the affected tip, but the natural leader on the main stem or side branch of the tree is destroyed, and with it the possibility of symmetrical growth. On those trees which have been attacked for two or three years such a large number of shoots have been formed to take the places of those destroyed that a " witch broom" is made. Should the pest become less abundant soon, the damage so far done will not work any per- manent injury to the trees. Dr. A. D. Hopkins, of the Bureau of Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture, is authority for the statement that observations on this insect in the District of Columbia and vicinity since 1879 indicate that continued damage is prevented by natural enemies, and that only at comparatively long intervals is it very abundant and injurious. Two parasites have been found to attack this insect in the Nebraska plantation. The sawfly 2 which is destroying pine in the Pine Ridge has not yet appeared at Halsey. BIRDS AND RODENTS. Pocket gophers are probably the next most damaging enemies of the young forest and kill a good many trees. Most of the damage is done immediately after planting, since the stirring up of the soil seems to attract these animals. The gophers are everywhere present, and have done some damage in each plantation each year, taking trees of as great height as 6 feet. The poisoning of these animals is not impossible, but it is slow and expensive work. Sharp-tailed grouse and quail nip the buds, and rabbits cut off the tops of young trees. The harm from these injuries is that they retard growth, though in the Kansas sand hills so many trees were killed outright by rabbits in 1909-10 that it was necessary to pro- tect the small planting area by a rabbit-proof fence. In this case the bark of yellow pine was taken off almost completely. It becomes less attractive after the trees have been out one season. Corsican pine was started in the Garden City nursery in 1910, principally because it was immune from rabbit damage. i Forest Belts of Western Kansas and Nebraska, Bulletin 66, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 1901. a A New Sawfly Enemy of the Bull-pine in Nebraska, M. H. Swenk, 24th Annual Report, Nebr. Agr. Experiment Station. GKOWTH. 47 GROWTH. The growth of the jack pines planted in the Nebraska sand hills has been just about the same as that of the Bruner plantation, de- scribed in Table 6, though the planting of 1903, with forest seedlings about 3 years old at the time of planting, is the only one old enough to be comparable. At the end of 1910 — that is, after eight years in the hills — these jack pines had an average height of 7.54 feet and a maximum height of 10 feet. The trees have not been stimulated to height growth by crowding, as in the Bruner plantation, where they were spaced 2 by 2 feet, but since 1910 they have been making at least a foot a year in spite of insect damage. These facts indicate that the tree will, at least for a number of years, make good develop- ment. It can hardly be expected that jack pine will attain in the light soil of the sand hills more than its average height, about 60 feet. From the planting of 1909, when, for the first time, the several species were planted side by side at Halsey, with stock of the same age (2-1 transplants) it is seen that jack pine makes better height growth in the early stages than any of the other species. This earlier supremacy may not be maintained. It already appears that yellow pine is capable of fully as rapid growth when once established, and the tree normally attains a much greater height. The com- parative growth of the several species is shown by Table 13. TABLE 13. — Comparative growth of different species of pine in the Nebraska sandhills. Site. Species. Growth, 1911. Total end of 1911. Proportion of total height at- tained at sixth year. South slope Jack pine Inches. Inches. 18.1 Per cent. Do Yellow pine 6.3 Do Scotch pine 9.0 Do Norway pine 7.8 Do Austriari'pine l 6.4 Bottom . Yellow pine 6.4 North, slope ..do 7.6 Scotch pine 3.4 12.0 28 Do... Yellow pine 2.1 7.1 30 Ridge do . . 1.8 6.6 27 Do Austrian pine 1 1 6 6 9 26 1 Austrian pine trees were 2-year seedlings at time of planting, hence are 1 year younger than trees of the otner species. Yellow pine is barely getting under way at six years, while jack pine is growing much more vigorously. Table 14 gives figures for older plantations of yellow pine and those for some of slightly greater age than in the Halsey plantations, grown naturally in the Pine Ridge region.2 a From "Forest Belts of Western Kansas and Nebraska," Bulletin 66, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 48 FORESTATION, SAND HILLS NEBRASKA AND KANSAS. TABLE 14. — Height growth of yellow pine at various ages. Propor- Situation. Ageoi stock when planted. Time in planta- tion. Present age of trees. Growth in last year. Total height. tion of total height attained in last year. Years. Years. Years. Inches. Inches. Per cent. Bottom 2 3 5 1 5 6 5 27 Do 4 2 6 1.4 8 2 17 Do 3 3 6 2 1 7 1 28 Do 4 3 7 1.9 7.7 16 North slope 2 6 g 5 7 16 6 34 Do 1 7 g 8 3 27 8 30 Flat 1 g g 8 2 36 6 i 22 West slope 1 g g 10 0 38 4 2 26 North slope 1 g 9 10 5 41 2 325 Crawford Pine Ridge 10 4 5 28 8 16 Bordeaux, Pine Ridge .. ... 10 5 5 33 6 16 Belmont Pine Ridge 12 8 0 37 2 21 1 76 per cent of leaders attacked by pine-tip moth in 1911. 2 45 per cent of leaders attacked by pine-tip moth in 1911. 3 25 per cent of leaders attacked by pine-tip moth in 1911. It is thus quite evident that yellow pine is going to make excellent height growth hi the sand hills when once established. The deep- green color of the trees and the long needles are other evidences of thriftiness. The well-established trees have more the appearance of those growing in the moist Black Hills region than of those in the Rocky Mountains proper. The few examples given are sufficient to indicate the feasibility of growing forests in the sand hills. It is impossible to foretell the size that will be attained by yellow pine, or at what age the trees will produce merchantable timber. While the jack pine, because of its habitually scrubby character, may never attain to a size sufficient for saw timber, there can be little doubt but that the yellow pine will, and possibly, the Scotch pine. YeUow pine might well be grown as the major product, with jack pine as a secondary tree, in mixture to stimulate the height growth of yellow pine, and to be cut at an early age for fence posts and other small material. Jack pine, in 20 years, should make one first-class and one second- class post per tree. These may safely be valued at 8 and 4 cents, respectively, or 12 cents per tree. Suppose, then, that 2,500 trees are planted per acre, at a cost of $8 per thousand. Of these, 80 per cent are jack pine and 20 per cent yellow pine. Suppose again, that 80 per cent of the jack pines and 60 per cent of the yellow pines succeed. The 1,600 jack pines, cut at 20 years, give a gross income of $192 per acre. This is sufficient to cover the cost of plantation, with 4 per cent interest, and protection at 10 cents per acre per year, and leave a net annual income of $4.87. The 300 yellow pines per acre are left, and being freed from interest-bearing debt, may be grown to almost any age with reasonable assurance of profit. While these are rough calculations and subject to error, it is not difficult to see that CONCLUSIONS. 49 the growing of timber on the sand hills, both for minor and major products, may be on a perfectly safe financial basis and may be put- ting the land to a considerably higher use than for grazing. CONCLUSIONS. In summing up the sand-hill planting it may be said that the 85 or 90 per cent of success attained in 1911, as compared with 5 or 10 per cent in the first planting, is due largely to improved methods in the nursery. Seedlings pulled in the forest should never be used in an arid climate, and even those which have been grown in near-by nurseries may not be sturdy enough to survive unless they have been once transplanted. The inauguration of transplanting has had as much to do with progress as anything else. Sturdier trees are now being grown as the result of the generous use of organic fertilizers and the applica- tion of plenty of water to the seedling and transplant beds at the right time. Reduction in the amount of shading has also prepared the trees more fully for the sand-hill conditions. Undoubtedly some of the first planting by the slit method did not sufficiently take into account the struggle which the trees would have for moisture. The improved results to-day, however, can not in any large measure be ascribed to new methods of planting, since the best results ever attained on a large scale have foUowed the use of the trencher, a mechanical means for making slits. The better stock now available may safely be planted with the trencher, in furrows, much as the first planting was done, but more rapidly and yet more carefuUy. Where small lots of trees are to be planted, and the ques- tion of initial expense is not so important as the obtaining of imme- diate success, the cone method of planting should undoubtedly be used. Greater care in handling the trees, with the elimination of the water bucket as a transporting vessel, and the avoidance of long storage, either in storehouses or boxes, have assisted the work. Undoubtedly, the most important single factor is earlier spring planting, which also makes possible earlier transplanting and earlier seed sowing. The conditions in the sand hills at the time when the frost leaves the ground are usually favorable. The soil is moist, and the trees are ready to grow. With each day the moisture is dis- sipated, the heat becomes greater, and the danger that the tree will become dried out before its roots can establish themselves in the new site, is greatly increased. With these facts recognized, it is cer- tain that only exceptional and unusually damaging conditions can bring failure. O ORGANIZATION OF THE FOREST SERVICE. GIFFOBD PINCHOT, Forester. OVEBTON W. PRICE, Associate Forester. P. P. WELLS, Law Officer. HERBERT A. SMITH, Editor. GEORGE B. SUDWOBTH, Dendrologist. Grazing — ALBEBT F. POTTEB, Assistant Forester, in Charge. Operation — JAMES B. ADAMS, Assistant Forester, in Charge. Maintenance — HEBMON C. METCALF, Chief. Accounts — GEOBGE E. KING, Chief. Organization — C. S. CHAPMAN, Chief. CLYDE LEAVITT, Assistant Chief. Engineering — W. E. HEBBING, Chief. Lands — GEOBGE F. POLLOCK, Chief. Silviculture — WILLIAM T. Cox, Assistant Forester, in Charge. Extension — SAMUEL N. SPBING, Chief. Silvics — RAPHAEL ZON, Chief. Management — E. E. CABTEB, Chief. W. G. WEIGLE, Assistant Chief. Products — WILLIAM L. HALL, Assistant Forester, in Charge. Wood Utilization — R. S. KELLOGG, Chief. Wood Preservation — CABL G. CRAWFORD, Chief. Publication — FINDLEY BURNS, Chief. [Cir. 100] (2) CONTENTS. Page. The region . 5 Advisability of forest planting 5 Cut-over lands 5 Worn-out agricultural land 6 Sand dunes and barrens 6 Watershed protection 6 The woodlot 7 Methods of planting 7 Protection 8 Species for planting 9 White pine 9 Red pine 10 Scotch pine 10 European larch 11 Tamarack _—..—_ 12 Norway spruce 12 Chestnut 13 Red oak 14 Sugar maple 14 ILLUSTRATION. Page. FIG. 1. Heeling in young trees 8 [Cir. 100] (3) SUGGESTIONS FOR FOREST PLANTING IN THE NORTH- EASTERN AND LAKE STATES. THE REGION. The suggestions contained in this circular are applicable to the New England States, New York, New Jersey, all of Pennsylvania except the western portion, Michigan, Wisconsin, and eastern Minnesota. ADVISABILITY OF FOREST PLANTING. While the need for tree planting has not been felt in New England and the Lake States as keenly as in the treeless West, large areas of land within this region are fit only for forest growth. From an economic standpoint it is important that these lands should be put into a state of productiveness. Extensive forest planting has thus far been somewhat discouraged by present methods of taxation and in part of the region by the difficulty in securing adequate protection from fire. The true value of forest land and its rightful place among the permanent resources of the State are, however, becoming recognized, and an enlightened public sentiment is rapidly making this form of investment safe and profitable. CUT-OVER LANDS. Throughout the Northeastern States and the Lake Region are large areas of forest land which have been lumbered and afterwards swept by successive fires. Repeated burnings have destroyed all young trees of valuable species, and these have been succeeded by stands of aspen, wild red cherry, scrub oak, red maple, and shrubs. Such land presents to the tree planter a difficult problem, because not only will the expense of the initial planting be rather high, owing to the dense growth already on the ground, but the young trees are likely to be overcome in competition with it. Added to these difficulties is the great danger from fire. This is especially true in the Lake States and Pennsylvania. The land is, however, worthless in its present condition, and where adequate fire protection can be provided forest planting is strongly recommended. [Cir. 100] (5) On recently cut-over areas which have not been burned tree plant- ing is seldom necessary, for the more valuable species will usually come in without artificial aid. Cut-over lands which have recently been burned, so that the growth of worthless species is checked, offer exceptionally good opportunities for planting. Lands on which sprout or seedling growth is scarce or poorly distributed may be reforested by planting the bare areas. WORN-OUT AGRICULTURAL LAND. There is a large amount of land, particularly in New England and Michigan, which was cleared for farming, but which afterwards deteriorated in value, principally through loss of fertility. Through- out Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Hampshire, many of these abandoned farms and old pastures grew up to white pine. This crop is rapidly being removed, and because no seed trees are being left, little natural reproduction is taking place. Such lands, because of their nearness to market and their freedom from brush cover, offer exceptionally fine opportunities for forest planting. SAND DUNES AND BARRENS. There are large areas of barren sand plains, notably in Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Michigan, which can not be tilled and which are a source of expense to their owners. These sandy lands are suited to the requirements of several hardy conifers, and, in many instances, will even support a good growth of white pine. As in the case of sand dunes, the problem is not one of purely commercial planting, but of preventing drifting sand from encroaching on valuable property. WATERSHED PROTECTION. Many large towns and cities store their water supply in lakes or reservoirs. Streams from bare watersheds flow in muddy torrents. Floods occur in the spring, and the water soon becomes exhausted in time of drought. As a result, there is likely to follow not only a water famine, but also an epidemic of disease, the germs of which find perfect conditions for development in the stagnant pools that are left by the shrunken streams. After the first heavy rain, these dis- ease germs are washed into the reservoir below, contaminating the entire water supply. Water from slopes covered by forest is pure. Forests regulate the flow, prevent erosion and turbidity, and make waste areas beautiful and productive. Wherever natural reproduc- tion can not be depended upon to cover the pastures and bare lands [Cir. 100] of reservoir watersheds with forest growth, tree planting should be practiced. While the immediate object of this forest planting will be protective, timber crops will eventually be produced which will yield good profits. THE WOODLOT. Nearly every farm has at least a few acres which are of little value for growing agricultural crops. This land should be set aside for a woodlot and devoted to the production of fuel, fence posts, and tim- ber for farm uses. Large open spaces in existing woodlots can be restocked with valuable species, thus making every part of the land productive. This is best done on lands from which the trees have recently been cut. In addition to producing wood material, the farm woodlot may, in some instances, be made to serve as a shelterbelt to protect the buildings or orchards from wind or snow. METHODS OF PLANTING. The best method of establishing a forest plantation is by the use of nursery stock. It is usually advisable to purchase plant material from a commercial nursery. In extensive operations, however, it may prove more profitable to produce the planting stock in a home nur- sery. Such a nursery, however, will demand the careful supervision of one experienced in growing young trees. Advice in regard to nursery practice is contained in Extract 376 from the Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture for 1905, which can be had upon ap- plication to the Forester. Forest planting must be done by simple and cheap methods. Prep- aration of the planting site by plowing and harrowing is not essential, but is best if the land has been previously utilized for crops. Such preparation and cultivation improve the early growth of the trees, but add to the initial cost of the plantation. Trees should be planted with the least possible exposure of the roots. The rootlets of the plant will dry out if exposed to the air for even a short time. This is especially true of conifers. Some of the broadleaf species may, with proper attention, live even after the roots have dried out, but conifers are far less likely to survive. When the seedlings are received, they should be unpacked at once and their roots dipped into a pail containing thin mud. Until time for planting in the field the trees should be " heeled-in " according to the following method : Dig a trench deep enough to bury the roots and part of the stems. The trench should run east and west, with its south bank at a slope of about 30° to the surface of the ground. A layer of trees should be placed in the trench on its sloping side, the tops toward the south. The roots and stems should be covered with fresh earth dug from the second trench, in which a second layer of [Cir. 100] trees is put and covered in the same way. The digging of the parallel trenches is repeated and layers of trees are put in until all have been heeled-in. (See fig. 1.) In the case of conifers care should be taken not to bury the foliage, and either to choose a shady place for the young trees or to construct a shade over them with brush or laths. The best time to plant trees is in the early spring, before the growth begins. In general, planting should be done as soon as possible after the frost is out of the ground. The trees should be carried to the planting sites roots downward in a pail containing several inches of water. They should be set in holes dug with a mattock. The width and depth of the holes will depend on the character and size of the plant's root system. In all tree planting it is of the greatest impor- tance to press the earth firmly about the roots so that all air spaces are filled. The soil should not, however, be packed so hard as to be im- pervious to water, nor should the earth be raised in a mound about the stem. Information re- g a r d i n g general nursery practice and planting may be obtained from publications of the Forest Serv- ice, which will be forwarded upon request addressed to the Forester. PROTECTION. Protection to forest plantations must be assured before success is possible. Fire must be guarded against;, otherwise the investment is likely to be a total loss. Local conditions must be such that the danger from fire is reduced to a minimum. Cattle must be rigidly excluded from the area planted, since grazing is decidedly injurious. Plantations should be carefully watched to detect the presence of injurious insects. Insect damage should be reported promptly, and specimens of insects which attack the seedlings should be mailed to the Bureau of Entomology of the United States Department of Agri- culture, which will identify them and suggest measures for their control. [Cir. 100] FIG. 1. — Heeling in young trees. SPECIES FOB PLANTING. In general, conifers are best adapted for planting in the region, since lands which are to be devoted to forest are usually too poor to grow hardwoods profitably. Conifers produce a variety of material which is in great demand. They also are far superior to deciduous trees for protective planting. To supply special demands in certain localities, it is sometimes desirable to grow crops of a particular species. Thus, willows may be planted for basket material or fine grades of charcoal ; basswood and cottonwood may be grown for wood pulp, and black locust for fence posts. Species which are well suited for planting in the region are white pine, red (Norway) pine, Scotch pine, jack pine, Norway spruce, European larch, tamarack, chestnut, sugar maple, and red oak. WHITE PINE (Pinus strobus). White pine is suitable for planting on nonagricultural lands throughout the region. Much of the abandoned farm land in the New England States may profitably be planted with white pine, and the tree is well adapted to burned and cut-over forest lands and to watersheds. White pine grows best on a fresh, light, deep, and sandy soil with a porous subsoil. It will succeed, however, on a variety of soils, from fresh, medium-heavy clay and loam to dry sands. It will endure windy and cold exposures, but should not be planted near the seacoast, since it will not endure strong sea breezes. Plantations of white pine are best established by the use of 3-year- old transplants. The trees should be planted 6 feet apart each way. They may be planted either pure or in mixture with shade-enduring hardwoods or conifers. It is essential, however, that the associated species should be of slower growth, since otherwise they will overtop and kill the planted pine. There are also certain light-demanding species of rapid growth which may be mixed with white pine. These, while they may overtop the pine, cast so light a shade that its development will not be retarded. The more important species for planting in mixture with white pine are chestnut, European larch, Norway spruce, red oak, and sugar maple. Ordinarily, white pine and the associated species should be planted alternately, so that the white pine will make up half the stand. In mixture with chest- nut and European larch, however, white pine should constitute at least two-thirds of the stand. Commercial plantations of white pine should be cut when from 40 to 70 years old. At this time the trees will be from 50 to 80 feet high and from 12 to 18 inches in diameter. The larger trees will [Cir. 100] 10 furnish saw timber, while the bulk of the plantation will find ready sale as box boards, pail staves, match blocks, wooden ware, and straight cooperage. Where there is a demand for small material, the stand may be profitably thinned at the age of 20 to 30 years. Because of its thin bark young white pine is very susceptible to injury by fire. Between the fifth and twentieth years, however, the greatest cause of injury to the white pine is the weevil, which, in the grub stage, mines in the terminal shoot and causes a crooked stem. Repeated attacks make the tree unmerchantable. RED PINE (Pinus resinosa). Red pine may be planted on situations similar to those recom- mended for white pine. In form and rapidity of growth it is very similar to white pine, and because of its freedom from insect injury may sometimes profitably be substituted for it. The wood is val- uable for all kinds of house lumber, and when chemically treated makes good posts and ties. It is somewhat stronger than white pine, and in the coal regions will be valuable for mine props. In most of its qualities it is somewhat similar to the shortleaf pine of the South. Three-year-old transplants should be used and the trees planted 6 feet apart each way. Red pine is well adapted to pure plan- tations, but it may be mixed with European larch, chestnut, red oak, and sugar maple. The tree is very light demanding, and it is essential that associated species should not suppress it. To prevent this the other species should, in general, be of slower growth. European larch, however, though it grows faster than red pine, is a very desirable tree in mixture, since its crown casts little shade. When planted with red pine it should never exceed a proportion of one to three in the plantation. In all other mixtures red pine and the associated species should be planted alternately, so that red pine will make up half the stand. SCOTCH PINE (Pinus sylvestris). Scotch pine is native to Europe, though it has been planted to some extent throughout the northern United States. It resembles red pine, and although inferior to our white pine in many respects will often prove an excellent substitute. It is indifferent to soil requirements and is wrell adapted to planting on sterile sands and in exposed situations. In this country, except for fuel, no practical use has ever been made of Scotch pine. Abroad it is one of the most important woods of commerce and furnishes the famous " red " and " yellow " deals of the ICir. 100] 11 British timber trade. Although the wood is not durable in contact with the soil, large quantities are used for cross-ties and pit props, its value for such uses often being increased by impregnation with wood preservatives. Small-sized material is widely used for staves, heading, box boards, etc., but the largest use of the timber is for gen- eral construction purposes. In planting, the trees may be spaced from 4 to 6 feet apart each way. The exact distance will depend upon the site. On somewhat unfavorable situations the closer spacing is advisable, but usually 5 by 5 feet apart is best. To secure proper form development the trees require considerable crowding while young ; hence wide planting should never be practiced. Although for favorable situations younger plant material may be suitable, the use of 3-year-old transplants is advised. Scotch pine may be grown either pure or mixed, but should never be associated with heavy foliaged trees of equal or more rapid growth. Suitable associates are European larch, Norway spruce, white pine, and red pine. EUROPEAN LARCH (Larix europcea). The European larch is not indigenous to the United States. It is a deciduous conifer similar in form and size to our native tamarack. Small plantations of larch have been made throughout the Northern States, and it is undoubtedly the most rapid-growing conifer suit- able for planting in the region. Larch requires favorable soil conditions. The soil should be deep, light, moderately fertile and fresh, and well drained both in the upper layer and subsoil. When the land is wet the tree may start vigorously, but it will soon become spongy at the base and rot. It will grow on comparatively poor soil. The wood of larch is heavy, hard, strong, flexible, and very durable in contact with the ground. When grown on good soil it is yellowish white, but in cold, elevated situations it is reddish brown and much harder. Because of its strength and durability it is very valuable for posts, poles, cross-ties, etc., and is largely used in shipbuilding. Plantations may be established by the use of 2-year-old seedlings. The planting should be done very early in the spring, since the buds start early. The trees should be spaced 6 feet apart each way. Mixed plantations are most desirable, since European experience shows that pure plantations of larch do not thrive for any length of time. Chestnut and larch and red pine or white pine and larch are admirable for planting on a large scale. In such mixtures the larch should be in the proportion of one to three or more. [Cir. 100] 12 TAMARACK (Larix laricina). Tamarack is a straight, slender, rapid-growing tree. Under favor- able conditions it has been known to attain a height of 45 feet in thirty years, and at forty-five years after planting should be about 60 feet high, with a diameter of at least 18 inches. No large commercial plantations of the tamarack are known to exist, and its use has thus far been limited to ornamental planting. The tree is well worth a trial, however, and plantations should prove profitable in many localities throughout the region. The wood resembles that of re0 6.00 5.00 3.00 3.00 1.25 1.00 .75 .50 .50 5.50 .50 7.85 2.00 2.00 1.50 2.00 1.00 .50 1.50 .25 6.00 5.00 3.00 1.00 5.00 3.00 3.00 2.00 .35 .35 1.25 do do Slit method do do Yellow clay silt Sand . do do do .... Wild stock 5 to 6 inches high. Seedlings Holes dug Black loam do do do do 3-year seedlings Slit method . . . do . . do 1-year transplants. . .do Yellow clay silt Black loam do 2-year seedlings Furrow plowed Black walnut Seed... Small hole dug ...do.... do .do Dropped in intersec- tions made by corn marker. Pressed into ground. . . Dropped into old corn hills. Like cabbage plants.. . Furrow plowed .do do do do .do ...do do do Seed sprouted Black sandy loam. . . .do do Seed White ash 3-year seedlings 6 to 8 feet tall. 1-year seedlings Holes dug Sand do Slit method. Black loam. do do .do Sand do do do do do do Furrow . . Black loam Green ash do Slit method do do Seed Broadcast. Yellow clay loam Sand Cottonwood 1-year seedlings Slit method ..do Cuttings Furrow Black loam... Norway spruce European larch do 2-year transplants. . . 2-year seedlings Holes dug do ... .do ...do.... . .do Slit method. .do do do do do Scotch pine... Seedlings Holes dng. .do. .. do 2-year seedlings 4-year transplants. . . 1-year seedlings Slit metho'd do .do Furrow plowed ...do.... Soft maple do .do do Seed Hoe do Bur oak .do . .. .do . . .do.... White spruce 1-year transplants. . . Furrow do Table 1 is based largely on estimates of cost made by actual planters. Since in most cases no exact records were kept the figures are only approximate, though they show very closely the relative costs of the different methods of planting. In order of cheapness the four princi- pal methods rank as follows: Direct sowing of seed; planting in fur- row; slit method; digging a hole for each tree. Apparent discrep- ancies in the table are due to the special conditions of each case, such as topography and soil, and the care exercised by individual planters. MERITS OF THE DIFFERENT METHODS. For those species to which it is adapted, direct sowing has the advantages of rapidity and cheapness. On the other hand, the seed may be eaten by birds or rodents, or it may be defective. Again, the small size of the trees during the first year makes proper cultivation difficult, nor can the method be relied upon in unfavorable sites or seasons. In spite of these objections, however, it has p roved success- 60370°— Bull. 153—15 2 10 BULLETIN 153, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. fill with walnut, butternut, ash, silver maple, red and bur oaks, black cherry, and white, Scotch, red, and pitch pines. The seed of the nut trees (walnut, butternut, the hickories, and black and red oaks) should either be planted in the autumn or, what is better, buried in a shallow, rodent-proof pit out of doors during the winter, and then planted on the permanent site in the folio whig spring. Seed thus buried during winter is said to be "stratified." Silver maple seed must be gathered during the spring in which it is planted. Seed of the remaining species mentioned in the preceding paragraph should be gathered during the fall or winter previous to planting and stored away until spring. Pine seed is best stored in a sealed fruit jar or other air-tight container, though it, and also cherry seed, may be stored in cloth sacks hung out of the reach of rodents in a cool, well- ventilated room. Stables, however, should not be used for storage purposes. Ash seed is best stored with an equal volume of moist sand in boxes kept in some cool place. Planting in furrows is rapid and is the least expensive of all meth- ods for seedlings, transplants, or cuttings. It has proved successful with both hardwoods and conifers, but there is danger that the trees will not be set deeply enough in the ground. The method of covering the roots — simply plowing a second furrow toward them — is very likely to result in either covering the young trees or leaving the roots exposed. Frequently the earth is not well firmed over the roots, though this may be done after the plow has passed. The method can be practiced, of course, only where the ground permits of plowing. Because of its low cost it is recommended, if carefully done, for small seedlings or transplants without a pronounced taproot system, on good soil, and also for cottonwood and willow when propagated by cuttings. The slit method of planting has proved very successful, and is fairly rapid and cheap. It may be recommended for small stock of nearly all species unless the soil is very poor or uncommonly dry at the time of planting, or unless the stock used is exceptionally high priced or in poor condition. Digging a hole for each tree is necessary under such conditions as those just cited. This is an expensive operation, however, and should not be used where any other method would prove successful. In case 16 in Table 1 the stock used consisted of 3-year-old seedlings between 6 and 8 feet tall. As compared with the other cases the cost of plant- ing was very high. The soil was almost a pure sand, which made digging easy, but a hole 2 feet deep had to be dug for each tree. The trees grew so poorly at first that after a couple of years the owner cut them back to the ground. Sprouts have come up from the stumps, but these are only a little larger than some 1 -year-old seedlings set out three years later on the same site. Large stock is only to be rec- ommended where hogs are to run among the trees soon after planting. FOREST PLANTING IN THE EASTERN UNITED STATES. 11 TIME OF PLANTING. Practically all of the plantations examined in the region have been started in the spring, which seems the best season for setting out seedlings on the permanent site. As compared with autumn plant- ing, spring planting has at least two distinct advantages — the stock has a whole growing season in which to become established before being subjected to the rigors of winter, and it is not subject to the immediate danger of being heaved out of the ground by alternate freezing and thawing. On the other hand, a dry season immediately after the trees are set out in the spring may prove fatal to the planta- tion. In the case of direct sowing, the tune of planting is best determined by some characteristic of the seed to be planted, particularly the time of ripening. Silver maple and elm seed, for example, lose then1 vital- ity soon after they ripen in the spring and must be sown at the latter time. Walnut, butternut, hickory nuts, and red oak seed must be kept moist for a considerable period before they will germinate well; hence they must either be planted in the autumn or else stored over winter in some place where they will come in contact with damp soil. Any freezing which occurs during this period will be helpful in opening the hard shells. Cloudy days should be selected for planting, especially in the case of conifers. Exposure to the sun, even for a short time, will kill the young roots, and thus the plantation will fail at the very start. The roots of the young trees, whether hardwoods or conifers, should be kept moist up to the very moment when they are planted on the permanent site. The stock may be carried to the field in a bucket, with the roots immersed in water, or the roots of a bunch of trees may be wrapped in wet burlap, one tree being drawn out at a time and planted. PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. Plowing and harrowing the planting site before setting out the trees is a wise practice. It puts the soil in good tilth, facilitates planting, conserves soil moisture, increases the proportion of success- ful trees, and induces rapid initial growth. On very sandy soils which do not support a heavy sod of grass, however, preparation is not necessary; and on very steep slopes and among rocks or large roots may be too expensive. Fall seems to be the best time to prepare the ground, since the soil is thus exposed to the action of the whiter frost, and has time to settle before receiving the young trees. The trees in a 5-year-old plantation of black locust hi southern Michigan, on fall-plowed ground, were fully as large as those in a 6-year-old plantation set on an adjoining strip plowed in the spring. 12 BULLETIN 153; U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SPACING. The proper spacing for trees in a plantation depends largely on the habit of the species and the character of the site. In general, the more tolerant the trees and the more unfavorable the site the closer should be the spacing. White pine is so tolerant that it must be planted as closely as 4 by 4 feet, in order to have the lower branches killed by shading at an early age. Close-spaced stands must be thinned sooner than open-spaced ones, and if the owner does not intend to make such a thinning when needed he should use a wider spacing. With practically all species close spacing requires a thin- ning before the stand is 20 years old, and in the case of some, especially intolerant or rapid-growing trees, such as cottonwood, by the time it is 10 years old. The trees removed in the early thinnings required by close spacing would usually be unmerchantable; hence, if the site is favorable, a wider spacing is usually best. Wide spacing, more- over, reduces initial cost and will give larger trees than can be grown in the same time in a closely spaced plantation in which early thin- nings are not made. On the less favorable sites, however, close spacing is best. The greater number of trees per acre offsets the higher mortality among the young plants on poor situations and also gives a thicker crown cover, and hence better protection of the soil. The relatively large amount of falling leaves and litter, moreover, mixes with the soil, thus actually improving it. Close spacing gives clearer but comparatively slender boled trees; wide spacing results in more or less branchy trees of comparatively large diameter. This is well illustrated in the case of two plantations of white pine near Clermont, Iowa, on very similar sites. In one of them the trees were originally spaced 1 by 6J feet and in the other 16 by 16 feet. When 43 years old the trees planted 1 by 6J feet had reached an average diameter of 7J inches and an average height of 53 feet; the lower branches were dead to a height of from 20 to 30 feet and were falling off. At the same age the trees planted 16 by 16 feet had reached an average diameter of 12.3 inches and an average height of 60 feet, and though the lower branches were dead to a height of from 20 to 30 feet they were still persisting. Of two plan- tations of European larch near Sac City, Iowa, on similar sites, one spaced 8 by 8 feet has, after 28 years, reached an average diameter of 7.6 inches and a height of 47 feet, with the lower branches dead to a height of from 20 to 30 feet. The other, spaced 10 by 12 feet, at the same age shows an average tree diameter of 9.2 inches and a height of 43 feet, the trees having been pruned artificially to a height of 20 feet. Old plantations have done much to indicate the relative spacings to which different species are adapted. These spacings are given under the discussions of the respective species. FOREST PLANTING IN THE EASTERN UNITED STATES. 13 CARE OF PLANTATIONS. CULTIVATION. Most forest plantations should be cultivated for two or three years after being set out. On the heavy soils of the treeless and hardwood regions cultivation becomes almost necessary. Though even on these latter soils the trees will survive without cultivation, they take a number of years to become well established, and meantime make very little height growth. If cultivated, however, they become well established during the first or second season and grow vigorously in height during this time. This contrast is brought out by two plan- tations of green ash, one in Iowa and one in Ohio. The soils in the two regions, though somewhat different in character, are both con- ducive to the growth of the species. In the Iowa plantation the trees were well cultivated and had reached an average height of 9 to 10 feet when only 4 years old. Cultivation was impossible in the Ohio plantation, because the soil was full of old roots; in consequence a heavy growth of grass came in and the trees, when 8 years old, had reached a height of only 8 feet. Cultivation serves several purposes. It conserves soil moisture, keeps out grass and weeds which would ordinarily compete with the trees for moisture, hastens the establishment and growth of the seed- lings, lessens mortality among the planted stock, and shortens the rotation. This last point is of special importance in commercial plantations of the fence-post trees, such as hardy catalpa, Euro- pean larch, black locust, Russian mulberry, and Osage orange, grown on a rotation of from 15 to 25 years on soil with an annual rental value of $4 to $6 per acre. On poor sandy or rocky soil, where trees of commercial value can not be produced in less than 50 years, cultivation is generally not advisable. On such soils the growth of grass and weeds is usually insufficient to interfere very much with the growth of the trees, and the expense of cultivation, when figured at compound interest for 40 or 50 years, more than offsets the value of the resulting increased growth. In cultivating a plantation there is always the danger of con- tinuing the operation too late in the season. Forest trees, like fruit trees, are subject to damage by heavy, early frosts, and, if then- wood is particularly succulent at the tune when these occur, may be severely injured. Late cultivation is conducive to this condition of the wood, and no work of the kind should be continued beyond the first or middle of July. The grass or other vegetation coming in after this serves a good purpose in drying out the soil, thus checking the growth of the trees and hardening their wood. The danger of late cultivation can not be emphasized too strongly, since young 14 BULLETIN 153, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. plantations, even of the hardy black walnut, have been killed back to the ground by severe early frosts and winter freezing when culti- vation was continued too late in the growing season. It is not necessary that the entire cost of cultivation be borne by the plantation. Field crops of corn; potatoes, or beans may be grown between the rows for the first one or two years. These will not only yield a revenue to the owner, but their cultivatiion will benefit the young trees. Sometimes all of the cost of cultivating can be charged against the field crop, making a considerable difference in the final cost of the plantation. The number of years in which cultivation is necessary and the amount of it each year will depend, of course, upon the rapidity of growth of the species planted and the spacing of the trees in the plantation. Some planters have found two cultivations a year for three years sufficient, except under unusually trying conditions. A three-year period should be ample, with possibly three or four cultivations during each of the first two seasons. The work may be done at first with a two-horse cultivator, and later, when the trees become larger, with a one-horse cultivator. THINNING. Every forest plantation reaches a condition after a few years when some of the standing trees should be cut out. The removal of undesirable trees is called a thinning. The principle is the same as that applied by truck gardeners to vegetable crops which are thinned out in order to get the best development of a portion of the crop rather than a meager development of the whole. The struggle for existence between the trees of the stand first induces rapid height growth and kills the lower branches, but, if allowed to continue, the more vigorous trees are prevented from making their best diameter growth by the presence of the less vigorous ones. Where there is a poor market for the product from thinnings the operation will scarcely pay for itself; where the market is good, however, thiimings have been made at a net gain of from 10 cents to. $2 per cord.1 In the more widely spaced plantations thinnings will not be necessary until the product is of merchantable size. The future, moreover, promises a better market for small-sized material than exists at present, which will make thinnings profitable in stands in which now they would not be. In small plantations thiiinings may be carried on by the owner at odd tunes at no cost other than his own labor. When poles are cut for some farm use a little care in their selection looking to the betterment of the stand will insure a crude form of thinning. 1 Bulletin No. 2, State Forester's Office, Massachusetts. FOKEST PLANTING IN THE EASTERN UNITED STATES. 15 The presence of dead or dying trees in the stand, a very dense crown cover, or an apparent stagnation in the growth of the living trees indicates that a thinning is needed. The usual practice is to thin when the product is of sufficient size to pay for the operation and to repeat the process thereafter as often as the material has accumulated in sufficient quantity to again pay for the cost. Many plantations, however, need their first thinning before they reach this state. Silver maple, black locust, and other species have a decided tendency to grow toward openings in the crown canopy, and in their efforts to reach these the trunks become crooked. Under such conditions a thinning should be made whether the operation will pay for itself or not. The first thinning may be needed by the time the stand is 10 years old. As a rule, trees of the least potential value should be the ones removed in a thinning. In the early life of a stand the trees range themselves into several crown classes — dominant, codominant, in- termediate, suppressed, and dead. The dominant trees are the tallest ones, whose crowns receive almost complete sunlight; co- domiiiant trees are those of slightly less height, with relatively narrow crowns which are not fully exposed to sunlight; intermediate trees are considerably smaller than those of the first two classes, but still healthy, because their crowns continue to occupy open spaces in the canopy; suppressed trees are those hopelessly behind in height growth, and which will eventually be killed by the shade of the other treos. The trees which remain after a thinning should, as a rule, bo those which are most vigorous, of the best form, and presumably of the highest final market value. This does not mean that no codominant or dominant trees should ever be cut, or that no interme- diate and suppressed trees be allowed to remain. High-grade trees must sometimes be cut to obtain the proper opening of the crown canopy, and inferior trees may serve the useful purpose of shading the soil, thus tending to retard evaporation and prevent the growth of harmful vegetation on the forest floor. Except where needed for soil shading, however, suppressed and intermediate trees should generally be thinned in preference to the larger trees of the first two classes. When it can be done cheaply dead trees should be removed in order to rid the stand of material likely to increase the danger from fire. The extent to which the crown of a stand may be opened depends largely upon the rate of growth of the species and their demand for light. In general, openings should not be so large that they will not close again within from three to five years by the growth of the remain- ing crowns. Rapid-growing trees, such as cottonwood or silver maple, should have their crowns opened to a much greater extent than 16 BULLETIN 153, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. stands of slower growing species, such as ash, oak, or walnut. Intol- erant trees, such- as cottonwood, European larch, black locust, or black walnut, require large openings in the crown cover. Cottonwood and European larch in particular die for no apparent cause except insufficient light, even when apparently receiving an abundance. For white pine and Norway spruce the openings need not be large. There are no instances in this country where thinnings have been systematically carried on, and for this reason it is not possible to cite examples of their effect. The comparative size of trees grown in open-spaced and close-spaced stands, however, is something of an indication of the results to be expected from thinning, and a few exam- ples of this sort are given in Table 2. Comparisons should be made, of course, only between stands or rows of nearly the same age. TABLE 2. — Size of trees in open and close spaced stands. European "larch. White pine. Cottonwood. Aver- Aver- Aver- Nature of stand. Age. Spac- ing. age di- ameter breast Nature of stand. Age. Spac- ing. age di- ameter, breast Nature of stand. Age. Spac- ing. age di- ameter breast high. high. high. Yrs. Feet. Inches. Yrs. Feet. Inches. Yrs. Feet. Inches. Grove.. . 28 8x8 7.6 Grove 35 6x7 8.8 Grove . 12 5£x8 8.4 Do.. . 28 :iox 12 9.2 Do. 37 8x9 9.7 Do. . 13 4 x5 3.9 Row... . 28 0) 10.6 Do. 39 4x4 8.1 Do. 35 8Jx8J 13.3 Grove.. . 35 8x8 10.0 Do. 43 16x16 12.3 Row. 35 (3) 19.3 Do.. . 35 7^x7* 11.2 Do. 43 1x6* 7.5 Grove 36 £x 10 13.4 Do.. . 37 8x8 10.0 Row. 53 (2) 14.1 Do. 40 2x36 17.6 Do.. . 35 3x7 7.4 Grove 53 6x7 11.1 Do. 41 6x6 12.3 Do.. . 39 3|x3| 7.0 Do.. .. 40 4x4 8.3 i 5 feet apart in row. 2 Trees 6 ieet apart. PRUNING. 3 2 to 4 feet apart in row. Pruning is the removal of living or dead branches from a tree. The purpose is to improve the tree's form; to increase growth in its leading shoot by eliminating some of the lateral shoots and to improve the quality of the lumber by getting rid of the source of knots. Most trees in forest plantations, especially those closely spaced at the start, will prune themselves; the additional value gained by pruning them by hand is usually not sufficient to pay for the opera- tion. The cost, therefore, would have to be reckoned as a fixed charge, to run at interest, against the final cost of the plantation. In small plantations, however, it may be possible for the owner him- self to do the pruning at odd times, and thus avoid an additional charge. Side branches can not well be pruned to a greater height than a man can reach from the ground with an axe, and this amount of pruning will scarcely have much effect in increasing the stumpage value of the timber. FOREST PLANTING IN THE EASTERN UNITED STATES. 17 Another objection to pruning is the danger of overdoing it. If 'a tree is pruned too far up it may become top heavy and be broken off in a severe wind. Catalpa, ash, and black cherry are particularly susceptible to injury in this way. The stems of young black cherry and ash, when pruned far up, bend over by their own weight nearly at right angles. Sucker sprouts then shoot up from the bent stems, making a deformed tree. In a stand of black cherry 8 year£ old in Indiana, where the trees were pruned to a whip, 11 per cent had been broken off by the wind. Pruning also reduces the amount of leaf surface, the food-making part of the tree, and hence reduces its rate of growth. Especially valuable species and trees with very persistent branches should be trimmed at least of their dead branches and sometimes of their living ones. Of the species commonly planted, white pine, black walnut, hardy catalpa, and black locust sometimes need pruning. The lower branches of white pine are large and persist for many years after dying. Sometimes, but not as a rule, it will be profitable to prune the best trees in the stand by simply knocking off the limbs with an axe after they are dead and have become brittle. Black walnut seldom needs pruning, though occasionally dead branches persist for a number of years which are likely to form loose knots in the lumber. Such branches should be removed. Hardy catalpa has very persistent branches, though the presence of knots in fence posts, the chief product of catalpa plantations, scarcely impairs their value. The dead branches are objectionable, however, because they become loose and allow the entrance of wood-rotting fungi. Since, therefore, these branches are a menace, they should be removed. Catalpa, moreover, does not form a terminal bud, but ordinarily develops three buds at each node. From those at the node nearest the tip of the last year's shoot three new shoots arise, any one of which may develop into a leader. In order to increase the devel- opment of one of these shoots and thus control the tree's form, one or both of the other two shoots on the node should be removed. An effective and cheap way of doing this is to pinch off these shoots just as they are developing from the buds. Black locust ordinarily prunes itself readily, but when widely spaced the mam stem often forks into two or more main branches. In one young plantation of black locust in Illinoic, spaced 8 by 11 feet, fully 43 per cent of the trees showed this fault. Such trees should if possible be pruned of all but one of their leaders. The lower branches of Norway spruce are very persistent, but not very large; hence for ordinary purposes the tree requires no pruning. The ashes ordinarily prune themselves of their lower 60370°— Bull. 153—15 3 18 BULLETIN 153, 17. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. branches, but the leader from year to year seems to develop as commonly from one of the lateral buds as from the terminal one, resulting in a crooked bole. The ash plantations examined have grown too slowly to make pruning a profitable operation, but if especially straight stuff is desired it can be obtained either by very close spacing or by pruning. Ash will grow fairly straight if spaced closely, and pruning should accomplish the same result as close spacing. One method of pruning is to cut off each year the lateral shoots which threaten to compete with the leader; another is to pinch off the lateral buds formed near the tip on the terminal shoot. The branches of European larch die early, but are very persistent. Pruning this tree does not pay, however, because the products of the plantation (chiefly posts and poles) are almost, if not fully, as valuable when somewhat knotty as when clear. Cottonwood prunes itself exceptionally well, and soft maple, black cherry, and Scotch pine also lose their branches readily. The oaks, as a rule, are not good self-pruners, but they grow so slowly that pruning is not a profitable operation. MIXTURES. Comparatively few plantations of mixed species have been set out in the region under discussion, and in the few cases where this has been done the mixture has usually proved unsuccessful. This has been due, however, more to the planters' ignorance of the require- ments of the species planted than to any essentail defect in the method itself. A mixture of two or more species is often desirable. Some trees, such as cottonwood and European larch, need to be spaced widely, while others, like black walnut and black locust, have such a scant foliage that they do not shade the ground com- pletely enough to prevent the growth of a heavy sod of grass. In such cases a mixture will more completely utilize the area planted, thus increasing the yield, and at the same time will bring about better forest conditions in the plantation. Mixtures are desirable for other reasons. Planting stock of such species as white pine and European larch is expensive, and a less valuable species mixed with the main crop, and removed later in thinnings, will keep down the first cost. If a species to be planted is susceptible to serious insect or fungous attack, as is white pine or black locust, the mixture of another species not susceptible will provide for a stand of trees on the area in case the pine or locust is killed. When such species as European larch, white pine, or black walnut are widely spaced, in order to promote the most rapid growth, it may be advisable to interspace the area with some more tolerant and slower-growing species. A number of mixtures are given below which should prove suc- cessful on soils adapted to both species of the mixture, and which FOKEST PLANTING IN THE EASTERN UNITED STATES. 19 are likely to have one or more of the advantages cited. The prin- cipal species in each mixture is named first; and where they take equal rank the fact is indicated by an asterisk (*): 1. Cotton wood and silver maple. 2. Cotton wood and Norway spruce. 3. Cotton wood and white spruce. 4. Cotton wood and green ash. 5. 10. * European larch and white pine. * European larch and red oak. European larch and white spruce. * European larch and Norway spruce. Whi te pine and Scotch pine. * White pine and Norway pine. 11. White pine and hard maple. 12. White pine and red oak. 13. Black walnut and white spruce. 14. Old open stands of black walnut underplanted with white pine. Many of the old groves, particularly in Iowa, are of soft maple. These may be gradually replaced by underplanting with white spruce and removing the maple. PROTECTION. INSECTS. The locust borer has completely destroyed many plantations of black locust; the white-pine weevil kills the leading shoot of white pine; the gipsy and brown-tail moths defoliate the hardwoods, par- ticularly the oaks, and in some cases have attacked conifers; while the sawfly has defoliated and killed much of the native larch and has attacked also the European larch. Before setting out any trees the prospective planter should communicate with the Bureau of Ento- mology of the Department of Agriculture, or with the State experi- ment station, hi order to find out whether insect enemies of the species he proposes to plant are prevalent in the neighborhood. At the first sign of insects in an established plantation the owner should likewise communicate with the Bureau of Entomology to ascertain the best methods of combating them. FIELD MICE AND RABBITS. Young trees are sometimes girdled by field mice and rabbits. Where these pests are numerous it is almost impossible to prevent them from eating the bark of trees during the whiter when green food of other kinds is absent. If the grass around the tree is killed by cultivation there will be less danger from field mice, since these work largely under the grass covering. Poisoning is not always an efficient method of getting rid either of mice or rabbits; and poisoned food may kill some valuable domestic animal. WIND, SNOW, AND FROST. High winds often break or twist off the trees hi a plantation. Such damage may be avoided to some extent by planting wind-firm species around the edge of the plantation, or by spacing the trees more closely on the windward sides. 20 BULLETIN 153, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Snow and frost may also cause considerable damage; the former weighs down and breaks off branches and leaders; the latter, when occurring late in spring or early in autumn, may kill the succulent wood. Damage from snow is less likely with hardwood trees than with conifers, because the bare branches of the former do not permit as much of it to accumulate. Frost damage may be partly avoided by planting hardy species or by utilizing sites on north, northeast, or northwest slopes, where growth begins comparatively late in spring and stops early in the fall. Low sites on which there is poor circu- lation of air should be avoided. GRAZING ANIMALS. Sheep, cattle, or horses should never be allowed in a young planta- tion. They browse upon leaves and tender shoots and trample the trees, which become crooked, branchy, and dwarfed. If pasturing is continued the trees will eventually be killed. Bulletin 200 of the Wooster (Ohio) Agricultural Experiment Station, sums up, for Ohio, the damage from this source : The acres of young forest which have been needlessly destroyed within the State foot up into the millions. Their value, had they been protected from live stock, would to-day amount to double the sum which has been realized from the pasture. This is demonstrable, for the investigations of the experiment station have shown that the value of young forest- tree growth exceeds the value of woodland pasture more than two to one. There is no such thing as profitable woodland pasture. The combination of grass and forest is incompatible. Cattle derive but little, if any, benefit from brows- ing or from the shaded innutritious grasses, but they do damage the trees. The losses from this practice are larger to-day than ever before because of the constantly increas- ing value of the trees which are destroyed. In a plantation of green ash at Kanaw^ha, Iowa, trees which had been protected from cattle were from 10 to 17 feet high, while others of the same age which had been browsed by cattle were for the most part only 4 feet high. In a 5-year-old plantation of black locust in Michigan, grazed by both sheep and cattle, ungrazed trees had reached an average height of from 8 to 14 feet, when those browsed by the stock were only from 2 to 3 feet high. In a 10-year-old plan- tation of black walnut in Indiana, grazed by cattle, 25 per cent of the living trees had been broken by stock, and averaged from 5 to 6 feet in height; the unbroken trees were from 19 to 25 feet high. The owner stated that the trees were pretty well tramped out at one time, which accounts for the fact that of the trees originally planted 78 per cent are now missing. In older plantations the damage done by stock consists largely in packing of the soil. As a result of the stock running at large, the humus is destroyed and the roots of the trees exposed and perhaps wounded, while the soil becomes impervious to water. The stand, of course, suffers accordingly. Moreover, fungi may enter the trees through wounds around the base or in the roots. FOREST PLANTING IN" THE EASTERN UNITED STATES. 21 Hogs root up the soil and expose the tree roots to the air, or even devour the roots themselves. In Iowa hogs completely destroyed one plantation of European larch in this way. Young trees are very likely to be rooted completely out of the ground. If shade and protection for stock can be obtained in no other way, the animals can be admitted to one portion of a plantation and excluded entirely from the other portions, which should be devoted exclusively to the growing of timber. FIRE. Whenever there is any danger from fire, definite steps should be taken to guard against it. Most of the smaller plantations already established are located near the owner's residence, where they can be kept under observation, but in some of the larger plantations, where a close watch has not been kept, fires have done considerable damage. The owner of a large plantation should certainly make some provision to protect it, especially if it is near a railroad or is likely to be visited by picnic parties. Fire lines might be constructed, and a general watch should always be kept. Roads often make good fire lines, and when so used should be kept free from grass. Where no roads pass through the tract, fire lines from 6 to 8 feet wide may be plowed around the area, or else a strip of this width burned or otherwise kept cleared of all inflammable material. A fire line ceases to be a fire line wherever it becomes covered with litter or a heavy growth of grass. DISEASES. The diseases to which the different kinds of trees are subject and the methods of combating them can best be ascertained by consulting with the Office of Forest Pathology, Bureau of Plant Industry, Wash- ington, D. C., or the State experiment station. Prospective planters are strongly advised to do this before purchasing their trees. Nursery stock, particularly that from abroad, is often diseased. MISTAKES IN TREE PLANTING. Forest plantations have too often been started by those with little knowledge of the requirements of the trees set out, and who were often influenced in their choice of species by advertisements of tree agents. It is little wonder, then, that mistakes have been made. Planting operations should not be undertaken until a thorough inquiry has convinced the owner as to which species is best adapted to his pur- pose and which will succeed on the planting site selected. Advice and aid can be obtained by prospective planters from their respective State foresters, a list of whom is given in the Appendix. The Forest Service of the United States Department of Agriculture also gives advice in regard to the best species to plant and methods of planting. 22 BULLETIN 153, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. To enable planters to avoid errors made by other planters in the past, some of those observed in the course of the study are described : (1) Planting European larch and silver maple in mixture killed the larch, which is the more valuable tree of the two. (2) Planting black walnut under green ash killed the walnut, which must have full sunlight in order to succeed. (3) Catalpa planted under black locust grew very slowly. Catalpa requires full sunlight for good growth. (4) European larch planted under catalpa did not live. Larch requires full sun- light. (5) Box elder planted in mixture with green ash at first grew more rapidly than the other species and shaded out much of it, though ash is the more valuable tree. (6) Cottonwood planted on a gravel knoll did not live. The situation was too dry for it. (7). The roots of cottonwood planted in a "blowout" in sandy soil were exposed by the shifting of the sand; the trees, when observed, were very scrubby and dying. (8) Catalpa planted on a gravel knoll was only about 2 feet tall after 7 years. Such soil is not suited to catalpa. (9) Catalpa trees planted in soil with a hardpan about 8 inches below the surface were only 3 or 4 feet high after 7 years of growth. Catalpa requires a deeper, well- drained soil. (10) Ash planted in a " blowout ' ' in pure sand, while still alive after 5 years, was not much larger than when set out.' A pure sandy soil is not suited to ash. (11) Black walnut and green ash planted in low wet ground made a scrubby growth. The soil was not well enough drained for either of them. (12) Osage orange planted in pure sand failed to survive. Osage orange requires a fairly good soil. (13) Three-year-old ash stock, which cost a good deal in the first place, and had to be set in by the most expensive methods, grew so poorly that it was necessary to cut the trees back to the ground after a couple of years. The stock was too large when planted to succeed well. YIELDS AND RETURNS. The yields in products and the money returns to be expected from plantations are given in the tables for individual species (pp. 24 to 32) . Existing plantations do not, as a rule, afford a good basis for estimating possible yields and returns from plantations started now, for species have often been planted on inhospitable sites, spacing has been too wide or too close, almost no attention has been given to proper thinnings, and live stock has been allowed to run among the trees. Moreover, the cost of planting stock has often been excessive; $20 a thousand for European larch and $20 to $25 a thousand for hardy catalpa is unduly high. It has been practically impossible to obtain wholly reliable cost data for a given plantation or the exact amount of products secured from it prior to the time when it was exam- ined. In many cases the original planters have died or moved away, or have kept no accurate record of costs or returns. In reckoning the cost of an income from plantations, interest has been calculated at 3 per cent, compounded annually. The land values and tax rate assumed are undoubtedly lower than those now in effect, but it should be remembered that neither averaged as high during the FOEEST PLANTING IN THE EASTERN UNITED STATES. 23 life of the plantation as the present figure. In estimating future returns from plantations started to-day, the land values assumed should be as high as those at present in effect, and even somewhat higher if the general trend in land values of the region is upward. Even at the low interest rate of 3 per cent growing trees on land worth $100 to $150 an acre for the sole purpose of obtaining lumber and other products will not, at the present stumpage prices, prove a profitable undertaking. But if the plantation serves also as a pro- tection against wind such planting should pay very well. It has been found that due to the protection afforded by the most efficient grove windbreaks the yield in farm crops is increased to the extent of that grown on a strip three times as wide as the height of the tr^es.1 The protection afforded by his grove of ash and maple has been estimated by one farmer in Iowa to save him $300 per year in feed for his stock. In view of advancing stumpage prices, it seems safe to estimate the yields from future plantations as being equal at least to the highest yields from plantations made in the past on similar sites. Timber products, moreover, will almost certainly advance in value, though it is open to question whether this advance will be sufficient to offset the rapidly increasing value of the land. INDIVIDUAL SPECIES. COMMON COTTON WOOD (Populus deltoides Marsh.). The common cottonwood is the most rapid growing of the trees commonly planted. It is not exacting in regard to soil, but requires an abundance of moisture. It is very hardy and is especially adapted for planting on poor, sandy river-bottom sites where the water table is within from 4 to 6 feet of the surface. When 30 or 40 years old the trees begin to die in the tops and the stand to deteriorate. For its best development cottonwood requires an abundance of sunlight, and, if planted in groves, a wide spacing of 12 by 12 to 12 by 15 feet is needed. Closer spacing not only adds to the initial expense but results in the death of many trees from crowding before they are large enough to be of much value. When planted in groves, however, cottonwood should be underplanted with some such species as silver maple, in order fully to utilize the ground. This would insure better forest conditions than are generally found in open groves of pure cottonwood, and would promote the production of clear timber of a fairly high value. The main product derived from cottonwood is lumber, and from maple, cordwood. A stumpage value for cottonwood of $8 per thousand board feet is considered low. In Iowa it brings from $10 to $12. For inside dimension timbers cottonwood is as good as higher priced material. The timber has been used for corncribs and barns. Heavy cotton- wood planks, because of their toughness when seasoned, are especially desirable for the sides of horses' stalls. Forest Service Bulletin 86, "Windbreaks." 24 BULLETIN 153, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Cottonwood cordwood is difficult to split after it becomes dry, but considerable quantities, in addition to lumber, are produced in groves or in rows. A value of $2.50 per cord on the stump is considered a fair average for the tree throughout the region in which it has been planted most extensively. Cottonwood is easily propagated from cuttings. It has done well in Iowa, and probably would thrive throughout the whole eastern region, ev^en to the New England States. Table 3 gives the yield and value of cottonwood in Iowa. In this table and in the tables for the other species the total costs to date are determined by means of the formula, Cost = (S + E + C) 1.0pn— (S + E), where S = average value of land per acre, E = capi- talized value of taxes= xnnila'. ,axes^, C = cost of initial operations rate 01 interest (preparation of soil, cost of stock, planting, and cultivation), and 1.0pn = amount of $1 compounded annually at 3 per cent for a period equal to the age of the plantation. Total profit or loss per acre equals the amount by which the present value of products per acre exceeds or falls below the total amount of costs to date when com- puted at 3 per cent compound interest. Positive amounts are an excess profit above 3 per cent; negative amounts indicate the sums by which the profit fails to equal 3 per cent. Annual profit or loss per acre equals the total profit or loss per acre divided by the amount of $1 per annum at 3 per cent compound interest for a period equal to age of plantation. TABLE 3. — Yield and value of cottonwood (Populus deltoides) in Iowa. 1 4* Yield per acre. as 1 f 1 Profit (+) or £ 2 Tj'ft p TO •0 > loss (— ) per •g F *-" x-i. So Q acre. rf 1 . ^ lf^ o c5 o* 1 1 . Age. Soil. I fl- ap. f bjO 1 III If I amount acre to < O rH V3 Iff I O I ! ! 1 Igl |sa 1 EH I15 1 1 Yrs. Ft. Ins. Ft. Ed. ft. Cords. 12 Sandy black loam. . . 372 8.4 54 3,900 23.79 $70.00 $39.90 $90. 68 +$50. 78 +$3.58 17 Black loam 5x8 291 9.2 66 10,350 16.37 70.00 63.24 123. 72 + 60.48 + 2.78 28 .do 5x6 204 11.4 56 12,320 17.38 65.00 100.32 199. 33 + 99.01 + 2.30 29 do 2*x 3 370 10.0 58 10,800 29.17 60.00 102.09 159. 80 + 57.71 + 1.27 30 do 64 x 7i 66 13.9 68 6,400 7.19 60.00 113.00 69.18 - 43.82 - .92 34 do 6 x 7i 126 14.5 87 23,850 12.20 50.00 103. 70 221. 30 + 117.60 + 2.04 34 Clay loam 7x7 ( 245 \3273 } 14.0 85 10,850 59.07 20.00 55.49 234. 48 +178.99 + 4.06 35 Loamy sand 01 -v- Cl 137 13.3 77 24,500 9.34 40.00 87.77 456. 8-5 +369. 08 + 6.10 35 Black loam 8x8 160 12. 1 72 10 850 17.69 50.00 119. 92 131. 03 + 11.11 + .18 36 do 5 x 10 125 13 4 74 15^820 6.35 60.00 144.25 142. 43 — 1.82 — .03 40 Quite sandy loam . . . 2 x36 233 17.6 100 49,926 55.47 40.00 116- 88 538. 07 +421. 19 + 5.58 41 Black sandy loam. . . 6x6 193 12.3 93 14,700 7.74 30.00 92.50 136.95 + 44.45 + .57 43 Black loam 8x8 74 15.9 71 12,600 C 00 40.00 135. 67 115.25 - 20.42 - .25 50 Black sandy loam. . . 8x8 89 13.9 65 15,500 30.00 136. 73 124.25 - 12.48 - .11 4 OK Black loam . . . 137 19.3 82 32,900 29. ii 50.00 106.33 336. 50 +230. 17 + 3.81 440 ... .do 83 17.1 71 16,000 3.83 40.00 107. 54 137. 60 + 30.06+ .40 1 In additior to the board feet shown in preceding column. 2 Cottonwood. 3 Maple. 4 Single rows reckoned as 50 feet wide by 871 feet long= 1 acre. FORESTRY COLLEGE or A AGRICULTURE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Bui. 153, U. S. Dept of Agriculture. PLATE II. Bui. 153, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Z LU Og . z Is — oc - o z u- o co . Ill omn. FOBEST PLANTING IN THE EASTERN UNITED STATES. 25 SILVER MAPLE (Acer saccharinum Linn.). Silver maple is a rapid-growing tree, probably ranking next to cottonwood in this respect among the species discussed. It is also very hardy and comparatively free from serious insect or fungous attack. The tree, which reaches maturity in from 35 to 40 years, forms a rather crooked, twisted bole, and so yields very little lumber. Its chief value is for cord wood, or to insure a windbreak in a short time. Silver maple is occasionally used for posts for temporary fences, but is not durable in contact with the soil, and unless treated with a preservative, will not last more than two or three years. Since silver maple is easily and cheaply propagated, it is a good tree to plant for the production of cordwood in the Middle Western States, and probably also in any part of the Northeast, provided the plantation is made on well-drained soils which are not subject to excessive drying out. A spacing of 6 by 8 feet is close enough. In Table 4 $2.50 per cord has been assumed as the average stump- age value for the species. TABLE 4. — Yield and value of silver maple (Acer saccharinum). co i « "0*° • "S"® £ T-jS Profit (+) or . s Q £ oC ,2.«8 8» §L2^ loss (— ) per 0 _cg • fH II 3 'o'bo o-o -|I acre. /*^ * * (H 0' ^ 'Sn O-M ° Q Age. Location. Soil. nal 0 03 o'S 8 si 2 II j§£jj $ o> 60 c§ <£ "00 2s3 2533 1 I > 2^ a «H J3 1 §o^^ •g P<05 •3 4) e I iss ii iif 3^ Pil 3 | * f^ ^ >H ^ g AH tj Yro Ft. Ins. Ft Cords. 9 Illinois Black loam 5x8 1 018 4 0 36 16 2 $125 00 $42 60 S40 50 $2 10 SO 20 •12 Iowa Black sandy loam . . . 4x5 1,060 4.1 41 19.8 70.00 54.92 49.50 - 5.42 - .38 18 do Black loam 34X 41 979 4 4 43 (?) 60 00 50 73 /*j>\ /?\ 20 ...do.... do 5x9" 376 6.2 46 20.1 60.00 58.93 50.25 - 8.68 - .32 20 do . do 4x4 530 6 1 46 29 5 60 00 70 56 72 75 + 2.19 + .08 26 ..do Quite sandy loam . . . 3Jx 7 323 7.1 51 34.7 60.00 96.54 141.39 + 44.85 + 1.16 i 27 do . Black loam 6 x 8i 267 8.3 58 31.1 50.00 76. 65 422. 75 +346. 10 + 8.50 34 do do . 8x8 328 6 8 53 19 0 40 00 90 14 47 50 — 42 64 — .74 34 do. . .do 3x5 294 8.9 60 46.9 50.00 110. 53 117.25 + 6.72 + .13 35 do . Clay loam 8 x 14 166 10 8 55 36.7 50 00 112 90 91 75 — 21. 15 — .35 35 ...do.... Black loam 4x7 274 8.1 74 38.0 40.00 90.58 95.00 + 4.42 + .19 35 do . do. . 6x8 177 10.4 52 32.8 50.00 118. 92 82 00 — 36.92 — .61 35 ...do.... do 240 11.8 71 91.8 50.00 118. 92 229.50 +110.58 + 1.83 40 do.. . Black sandy loam. . . 8x8 298 8.5 66 40.4 50.00 144.68 101.00 - 43.68 - .58 EUROPEAN LARCH (Larix europaea deC.). European larch has been planted quite extensively in Illinois and Iowa, and to some extent in Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Massa- chusetts. Results, however, do not bear out the claims made for it (see Table 5). This is in part because plantations in this country have not been made in situations similar to the native habitat of the species which is in the higher, cooler altitudes; the trees have not always been properly spaced, and the cost of planting stock has often been excessive (in one case $51 per thousand and in several 1 The complete record kept of the amount of cordwood cut each year accounts for the large value of the products for this plantation. 26 BULLETIN 153, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. others $20). Probably the most important reason for the poor returns, however, has been the lack of market for European larch telephone or telegraph poles, claimed to be the most valuable form of product. For this reason the owners have been unable to realize any profit from their plantations. In one instance in Iowa the owner secured from a local farmer's telephone company $1 each for poles 6 inches in diameter at the butt and 20 feet long, and $1.50 forslightly larger ones. As a rule, however, there is no demand for the poles, and lumber dealers do not handle them. They are considered as no more durable than white cedar poles, are much heavier than the latter, and the wood is so hard that it is difficult for a lineman to force his climbing irons into it. The values assumed for European larch poles are much less than those ordinarily received for similar-sized poles of other species: 15-foot poles, 20 cents; 20-foot, 30 cents; 25-foot, 50 cents; 30-foot, 75 cents; 35-foot, $1.25; 40-foot, $2; 45-foot, $3; and 50-foot, $4.50. First-class posts 4 to 6 inches in diameter at the small end and 7 feet long have been valued at 10 cents each, and cordwood at $1 per cord of 90 solid cubic feet. European larch is exceedingly intolerant; closely spaced stands rapidly thin themselves, and thus do not fully utilized the ground. It seems advisable, therefore, to use a wide spacing of 10 by 10 or 12 by 12 feet, and fill in with some tolerant, slightly more slowly growing species, such as white pine, white spruce, or red oak. This wider spacing is especially desirable, since larch stock is expensive and the initial cost may be considerably reduced by filling in with a cheaper species. Larch requires a fresh, well-drained, moderately heavy soil. It does not do well in light, very sandy soils, or in very poorly drained, heavier ones, It is not advisable to plant European larch in the New England States, because old plantations are now beginning to be attacked by the sawfly. In the Middle West it is questionable whether European larch would be as profitable if planted on the good soils (on which the present plantations stand) as some other species. It does not grow as rapidly as certain hardwoods which furnish fully as good post material, and it lacks their capacity to send up sprouts. Nothing excells it, however, in producing straight timber, and a few larch trees trees should be planted on every farm in the Middle West, in order to produce sticks for hay poles, braces, beams, scantlings, or other general utility purposes. Larch starts growth very early in the spring, and it is difficult to get stock for planting at that time which has not already started growth in the nursery. FOKEST PLANTING IN THE EASTERN UNITED STATES. 27 TABLE 5:- --- Yield and value of European larch (Larij;. Age. Yn. I 1 1 31 35 35 35 35 35 37 39 39 40 41 41 50 60 228 Loca- tion. Soil. Original spacing. Present number of trees per acre. Average diameter breast high. •< Yield per acre. Average value of land per acre during life of plan- ! tation. H i o ^ n ca ^ ^'^ . a X fe 02 ^ .2 C 5 C3 OT <3 ^ j-JgO _ § "c3 g ^2 a £J M 2 ^ t> •S fe O rH t> ^ O ^ c3 -*-* o O ° AM <5 ^ ^ O ^ EH ft EH Yr*. Ft. r*t. Ft. Bd.ft. (7ords. 37 39 Iowa. . ...do... Black loam. ...do 4x4 4x 8 884 497 6.4 8.4 49 44 2,478 6,971 60.00 31.11 $40.00 50.00 J127. 67 179.58 1139. 82 117.99 +$12. 15 - 61.59 +$0. 18 - .85 40 do do. . 8x11 362 9.6 44 7 943 24 43 50 00 183 80 112 40 71 40 — 95 41 111 ...do 375 8.5 41 5,781 26.74 80.00 233.72 99 73 —133 99 — 1.70 40-50 Mass.. Poor sand . . . 6x 6 521 6.8 29 10.00 1 In addition to the board feet shown in preceding column. WHITE PINE (Pinus strobus Liniu). White pine seems well suited to the climate of the whole eastern portion of the country from New England to Iowa. It is not par- ticularly exacting as to soil, but requires good drainage. It flourishes on the worn-out pasture lands of New England, on the almost pure sands of Cape Cod, and on the good agricultural soils of the Middle West. It will also undoubtedly thrive on some of the poor, sandy farm lands of the Indiana and Ohio region. White pine is fairly tolerant, and in order to secure a clear bole very close spacing, 4 by 4 feet or 4 by 6 feet, is necessary. In practice, however, a spacing of 6 by 8 feet to 8 by 8 feet is usually close enough. In a stand 50 years old, spaced 6 by 8 feet, the branches die to a height of 40 to 50 feet, and though they persist, the knots are usually sound and the timber of fairly good quality. In a three-row wind- break in eastern Iowa, 52 years old and spaced 6 by 7 feet, the owner cuts timber which, although somewhat knotty, sells as lumber for from $36 to $38 per thousand feet board measure. White pine is recommended for windbreak planting in the Middle West, since it is an excellent t^ee for the purpose and produces a large amount of timber of good quality. Bui. 1 53, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. Bui. 153, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. FIG. 1.— SCOTCH PINE PLANTATION, CAPE COD, MASS., 35 YEARS OLD, ON VERY SANDY SOIL. FIQ. 2.— TWENTY-THREE-YEAR-OLD PLANTATION, IOWA. SCOTCH PINE ON RIGHT, WHITE PINE ON LEFT. SHOWS CHARACTERISTIC APPEARANCE OF SCOTCH PINE IN THIS REGION AFTER AGE OF 20 YEARS. FOREST PLANTING IN THE EASTERN UNITED STATES. 29 Where white pine grows well there is no object in planting it in mixture with other species. In certain regions, however, particularly in New England, the tree is subject to attack by the white pine weevil (Pissodes strobi Peck), which kills the top of the leading shoot through a year or two of its growth. A new leader is ordinarily formed by one of the side shoots, which in turn is subject to attack. The result is a crooked, unsightly tree, whose value for timber is considerably impaired, especially in stands grown on a short rotation, when there is not sufficient time for the crooks to be covered through growth of the bole. Wherever the weevil has appeared it would be better to plant Norway pine with the white pine than to plant the latter species alone. Young Norway pine grows as rapidly in height as the white, and though its lumber is less valuable, it is less subject to attack by the weevil. In Table 7 the white pine plantations listed are all in the Middle West. Similar figures for New England plantations appear in other publications of the Forest Service and of various New England States. For the Middle West white pine stumpage has been given a value of $10 per thousand feet for stands with an average diameter under 11 niches, and of $12 for stands 11 inches and over, both of which are very conservative. White pine is usually cut by small portable sawmills, and the felling and sawing together do not cost more than $12 per thousand feet board measure for lumber which brings from $36 to $38 per thousand. TABLE 7. — Yield and value of white pine (Pinus strobus). I 1 1 jj| & -2 11 •Q f> Profit (+) or loss (— ) per *> "3 « 8 1 a s .a "S be •I If n. acre. Age. Loca- tion. Soil. 1 II ''3 ! 08 *> 12,031 25.00 75.67 120.31 + 44 64 + 74 37 do . Black loam 8x9 549 9.7 50 22, 513 40.00 113. 96 225.13 +111. 17 + 1.68 39 Ill do 371 8.5 39 7 380 80.00 272. 59 73.90 —198 69 — 2. 75 39 Iowa.. Black sandy Jnam 4x 4 788 8.1 47 16, 136 40.00 173.73 201.36 + 27.63 + .38 Ml ...do.. Black loam ^ 8x 8 408 /29. 4 \3 10. 1 SI 16, 748 30.00 113.00 260.81 +147. 81 + 1.89 42 .do ..do.., 1 x 6J 850 7.5 53 15,206 30.00 107. 73 152.06 + 44.33 + .54 42 do do . 16 x 16 158 12.3 60 13,175 30.00 98.21 158. 10 + 59. 891+ .73 52 .do. .do 6x 7 374 11.1 59 26,400 20.00 137. 59 316.80 + 179. 21 + 1. 47 * 48 .do do . 4 560 16.0 60 86, 640 30.00 127. 93 346.56+218.63 +2.09 * 52 do ...do...... 6 435 14.1 59 50,500 30.00 108.58 202.00+ 93. 42!+ .77 ! 1 Mixture of white pine and European larch. Larch products are included in the returns. 2 Pine. 3 Larch. * Single rows reckoned as 25 feet wide by 1,742 feet long=l acre. 30 BULLETIN 153, U. S. DEPARTMENT OK A S> ft'o^ Si^ § c3 "* 'a « "3 °C 1 1 1 Its syi 3 £0,0 3 | 0 AH < '•< >< *^ r PH ? ? Yn. Feet. Ins. Ft. Cords. 12 25 Indiana . Iowa Black sandy loam. . Black loam 41 x 6 8x8 512 359 3.8 6.3 27 4? 7.5 14.8 $70.00 60.00 $39.97 79.77 $30.00 59.20 -$9. 97 —20.57 -$0.70 - .56 28 do do 8x8 548 5.5 49 17.9 60.00 91.67 71.60 —20.07 — .47 28 .. do.... do Hx 7 708 4.1 ?6 8.6 60.00 97.16 34.40 -62. 76 - 1.46 28 31 do Black sandy loam. . Black loam 4x4 4x5 342 492 7.0 7.0 41 20.0 34.6 60.00 50.00 96.02 93. 12 80.00 138 40 -16.02 +45. 28 - .37 + .91 do 32 . do. ....do 5 x!3 239 8.3 54 24.2 50.00 95.99 96.80 + .81 + .02 35 37 do Black sandy loam. . Black loam... 8x9 8x8 149 136 8.7 7.7 46 44 12.4 9.1 50.00 60.00 109.80 135.81 49.60 36.40 -60.20 -99.39 -1.00 -1.50 ...do.... 38 Illinois ... do 8x8 303 8.6 55 33.8 80.00 205.95 135. 20 —70. 75 - 1.02 40 Iowa do 4x4 321 8.3 31.8 40.00 114. 92127. 2n +12. 28 + .16 42 ...do do 7 x!2 138 12.3 66 39.6 40.00 120.62 158. 49 +37. 87 + .46 ASH (GREEN AND WHITE) (Fraxinus lancecolata Borkh. and Fraxinus americana Linn.). Green ash has been planted to some extent in Iowa and Illinois, while east of these States white ash has been given preference. In the Prairie States green ash withstands more trying conditions, especially drought, than white ash, but with suitable soil conditions either species should succeed in any part of the eastern region. Both species prefer good, fresh, well-drained clay or sandy loam soil, but both also give promise of growing well on the poor, worn-out clay, or rocky clay farm soils of the central hardwood region. This fact may make them valuable trees for planting on those lands, since the lumber of mature trees has a high value and may be closely utilized for handle material. Ash, moreover, may be easily and cheaply propagated simply by sowing the seed on the permanent planting site. Ash is intolerant and sheds its lower branches well, and consid- ering this reason alone it would seem that a rather wide spacing should be used. But on account of its habit, discussed on page 18, of com- 32 BULLETIN 153, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. monly forming its leader from one of the side shoots, it seems best to use a closer spacing, 4 by 4 feet to 4 by 6 feet, in order, if possible, to correct the habit. The stand should then be thinned as soon as needed. Green ash has come up naturally under cottonwood, and should prove a good tree for underplanting old stands of that species. In the plantations examined ash has not grown as rapidly as in natural stands. Lack of knowledge regarding the tree's requirements is probably responsible for this, and both green and white ash should be given a further trial on various kinds of soil, though it would not pay to plant them on good agricultural land. Young green ash trees are inclined to be somewhat crooked, but the timber is strong and can be used for many purposes on a farm. A valuation of $4 per cord has been put upon cordwood (Table 9), since most of the timber so classed can in fact be put to more valuable use. TABLE 9. — Yield and value of green ash (Fraxinus lanceolata). I 1 °1~ &i03 g CO O Profit ( + ) or £ s % °£! i— i W o 5 loos ( — ) per 0 £. o II. § J-3 §3 ii acre. to <3 g "S • ^ «? \*s "o.-a "8 -3 "o|^ Age. Location son. I 11 if 1 PI c? r~< ill «3 13 * i i 11 g ||| Is |i| 1 H 1 > i 1§7 ||j "o |&0 * 1 | 0 PM by 0 feet) yields the best results where early thinning can not be practiced. Wide spacing (8 by 8 feet) should never be practiced unless the object be protection, for the result is usually a low, dense, bunchy tree, of little or no timber value. (7) Protective planting may usually, with careful management, be made as inexpensive as commercial planting. The two may often be combined. PLANTED FOREST OF MB. ISAAC ADAMS, MOTILTONBOBO, N. H. LOCATION. Moultonboro, Carroll County, N. H., is situated at the head of Lake Winnepesaukee, and lies between Ked Hill and the Ossipee Range, foothills of the White Mountains. Bordering the lake, hemlock and hardwoods, including yellow and gray birch, sugar and red maple, and white and scarlet oak, are the more important native trees. On the lower slopes of the mountains white pine is the most prominent tree, mainly in mixture with yellow birch and hemlock. The plantation of Mr. Adams is in two parts, which are located, respective^, one-half mile and 3 miles south of Moultonboro, on the Wolf boro highway. The location is comparatively low, bordering the western base of the Ossipee Mountains. The soil varies from almost pure sand to a rich sandy loam, but in no place has it displayed any drifting tendency. INVESTIGATIONS IN WHITE PINE PLANTATIONS. 19 OBJECTS. In general the objects of the planter were as follows: (1) To demonstrate the practicability of forest planting in a for- ested region. (2) To improve and utilize land which because of its remoteness from market was of little agricultural value. (3) To make use of a large quantity of white pine seedlings which had sprung up from a natural seed year. HISTOKY. In May, 1868, planting was begun on the larger and more southerly of the two areas. The plantation was then extended westerly toward Lake Winnepesaukee and south along the Wolf boro highway. Yearly planting continued until 1874, when the small area one-half mile south of Moultonboro was planted. In all, about 75 acres were planted during this time, the greater part to white pine. Seedlings were collected from Mr. Adams's land, mostly from the immediate neighborhood of the plantation, by a collector who guaran- teed that the trees would grow or be replaced, and received $10 per 1,000 for his work. Each seedling was to be carefully lifted from the ground with a spade, taking several inches of sod. They were spaced about ± by 4 feet apart. The average number of trees set per day by one man was 300. Extreme care was taken to make the trees succeed. One dry season two men were employed for two weeks at $1.50 per day to water the young trees. As a commercial forest the plantation is a failure, the outlay having, with interest, amounted to more than the probable return from the timber, but it teaches some very important lessons on the handling of pine plantations. CONDITION OF THE FOREST. A very noticeable feature of this forest is the extreme slimness of the trees. This is due to thick planting. As a consequence the branches died while still small, most of them having attained a diam- eter of less than one-half inch. The entire plantation was pruned to a height of 6 feet, but the work was carelessly done, the branches having been cut at about 1 inch from the tree. (See PI. XIII, figs. 1 and 2. Fig. 1 illustrates the way pruning has been done on the Adams estate and many others. Fig. 2 shows the same tree properly pruned.) The trees have grown better and larger where the land is low and moist, forming so dense a shade as almost completely to bar under- growth. Where the soil is heavier the white pine, while not so tall, holds its crown better and is more healthy in appearance. 20 PLANTING OF WHITE PINE IN NEW ENGLAND. In the midst of this forest is a small grove of red (Norway) pine which was planted at the same time as the white pine. The trees are larger than the white pine, and they seem better adapted to growing close planted, as they do not afford such heavy shade. The trees have pruned themselves well, even better than the white pine. The main area of the plantation is level, and extends from the Wolf- boro highway westerly toward Winnepesaukee Lake, in a narrow strip, for over half a mile. The land is quite low, and the soil is a rich, deep, sandy loam, underlaid with gravel. A scattered and irreg- ular mixture of red pine occurs throughout. Here is noticed more than elsewhere the great difference between the growth of white pine and that of red pine in close mixture. While the white pine averages less than 4 inches in diameter and 25 feet in height, red pine averages 6 to 7 inches in diameter and 30 to 35 feet in height. Red pine has developed larger branches than white pine, and hence has a greater crown surface. The former seems also better able to heal over wounds than the latter. Dead branches of red pine decay and fall, while those of the white pine adhere tenaciously to the trees. One-half mile southeast of the post-office of Moultonboro is the youngest portion of the forest, planted in 1874. The land had been cropped and was in good condition for planting. This portion has succeeded better than any of the others, mainly because thinning was practiced when needed, thus giving opportunity for the development of a large crown. The first thinning was made when the trees were 21 years old. The crowns are in excellent health and the trees tall and straight, having made a height growth of from 40 to 55 feet. MEASUREMENTS. In Mr. Adams's planted forest over 40,000 white pine were meas- ured. Measurements of red pine were also taken to find its growth in comparison with white pine. The following is the rate of growth for the whole plantation: TABLE Q.— Growth of planted white and red pine, Moultonboro, N. H. PLANTATION OF ISAAC ADAMS. Age. Species. Average height. Average diameter breast- high. Number of trees meas- ured. Years. [White pine Feet. 43.5 Inches. 5.2 1,758 27 [Red pine . 48.0 6.6 19 [White pine 26.6 3.7 40,758 30 [Red pine . 35.4 5.9 4,548 The much better showing of the 27-year-planted trees in comparison with the 30-year-planted is due partly to better soil conditions and partly to the beneficial effect of thinning. Bui. 15, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI. Bui. 45, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII. TERMINAL SHOOT OF WHITE PINE, SHOWING EXCELLENT GROWTH AND SEED PRODUCTION. INVESTIGATIONS IN WHITE PINE PLANTATIONS. 21 The following tables present the results of measurements of white pine and of red pine made on representative areas: TABLE 7. — Growth of planted white pine, Moultonboro, N. H. PLANTATION OF ISAAC ADAMS. [Based on 695 trees 30 years planted.] Num- ber of trees. Average height. Average diame- ter breast- high. Average annual height growth. Average annual diame- ter growth. Num- ber of trees. Average height. Average diame- ter breast- high. Average annual height growth. Average annual diame- ter growth. Feet. Inches. Feet. Inch. Feet. Inches. Feet. Inch. 6 15 2.8 0.5 0.09 47 28 4.6 0.9 0.15 5 16 2.4 .5 .08 48 29 4.8 .0 .16 13 17 2.2 .6 .07 44 30 4.9 .0 , .16 24 18 2.6 .6 .09 30 31 5.1 .0 .17 17 19 2.7 .6 .09 34 32 5.4 .1 .18 30 20 3.1 .7 .10 26 33 5.2 .1 .17 41 21 3.5 .7 .12 17 34 5.7 .1 .19 68 22 3.7 .7 .12 9 35 5.8 .2 .19 42 23 4.1 .8 .14 5 36 6.6 .2 .22 51 24 4.1 .8 .14 2 37 5.3 .2 .18 36 25 4.4 .8 .15 1 38 5.0 .3 .17 43 26 4.7 .9 .16 1 39 6.0 .3 .20 55 27 4.7 .9 .16 Table 7 presents measurements which illustrate the general rate of growth of the plantation. The average height rate is a little less than 1 foot per year, and the diameter rate about 1 inch in 7 years. Table 8 following shows the growth of 30-y ear-planted red pine on a representative area. TABLE 8. — Growth of planted red pine, Moultonboro, N. H. PLANTATION OF ISAAC ADAMS. [Based on 61 trees 30 years planted.] Num- ber of trees. Average height. Average diame- ter breast- high. Average annual height growth. Average annual djame- ter growth. Num- ber of trees. Average height. Average diame- ter breast- high. Average annual height growth. Average annual diame- ter growth. 1 Feet. 20 Inches. 2.0 Feet. 0.7 Inch. 0.07 4 Feet 35 Inches. 4.6 Feet. 1.2 Inch. 0.15 1 28 3.0 .9 .10 3 36 5.0 1.2 .17 3 29 3.5 1.0 .12 7 37 5.2 1.2 .17 4 30 3.8 1.0 .13 8 38 5.8 1.3 .19 3 31 4.3 1.0 .14 4 39 6.3 1.3 .21 10 32 4.2 1.1 .14 2 42 7.8 1.4 .26 6 33 4.3 1.1 .14 1 44 7.5 1.5 .25 4 34 4.1 1.1 .14 To determine the rate of annual growth of the planted in compari- son with the native trees, a large number of measurements were taken in and near the Moultonboro plantation. The results are presented in the two following tables. Table 9 shows the annual height growth of 22 PLANTING OF WHITE PINE IN NEW ENGLAND. planted white pine for twenty-eight years, and Table 10 of native white pine for eighteen years in the same region and under similar conditions. TABLE 9. — Growth of planted white pine, Moultonboro, N. H. PLANTATION OF ISAAC ADAMS. [Based on 25 trees 28 years planted.] Age. Average annual height growth. Age. Average annual height growth. Age. Average annual height growth. Age. Average annual height growth. Years. Feet. Years. Feet. Years. Feet. Yean. Feet. 1 0.4 8 2.1 15 2.0 22 1.3 2 .5 9 2.3 16 2.1 23 1.2 3 . 7 10 2.4 17 1.9 24 1.2 4 .9 11 1.9 18 1.8 25 . 1.2 5 1.4 12 1.9 19 1.6 26 1.1 6 1.8 13 1.8 20 1.6 27 1.0 7 2.0 14 2.1 21 1.5 28 .9 TABLE 10. — Growth of native white pine, Moultonboro, N. H. OWNED BY ISAAC ADAMS. [Based on 50 trees 12 to 18 years planted.] Age. Average annual height growth. Age. Average annual height growth. Age. Average annual height growth. Age. Average annual height growth. Years. Feet. Years. Feet. Years. Feet. Years. Feet. 1 0.4 6 0.7 11 0.9 16 0.9 2 .3 7 .9 12 .9 17 1.1 3 .4 8 .8 13 1.0 18 1.2 4 .5 9 .7 14 .8 5 .6 10 .8 15 1.3 A comparison of the above tables discloses several suggestive facts. In the first place, the growth of the planted pine during its first eighteen years was more than double that of the native pine for the same period. The ratio of increase, however, is by no means uniform. On the contrary, there is a well-defined difference in the way in which the tree has made its height growth under the two sets of conditions, which the continuation of the table for planted pine through the twenty -eighth year makes still more evident. The planted pine made its maximum growth (29.1 inches a) in the tenth year. It began to grow rapidly in the fifth year, and continued to do so pretty uniformly until the seventeenth year had passed. From that point, however, the rate declines gradually, until in the twenty-eighth year the growth is aThe corresponding figures in the table, being given in feet and carried out only to the first decimal place, makes the growth for this year appear the same with that for the ninth year. Similar apparent discrepancies between the text and the tables are due to the same cause. INVESTIGATIONS IN WHITE PINE PLANTATIONS. 23 only 10.7 inches. The native pine, on the other hand, increased its height at a steadily accelerating rate during the entire eighteen years, the List, your showing the greatest increase of all except the fifteenth. There are other differences between the planted and native forests in this particular case which do not appear in the tables. The present condition of the native is better than that of the planted; the crowns are larger, and the last growth is more vigorous. But the stems of the planted portion are freer of large branches and hence will make better timber. Again, the average diameter of the native tree was considerably greater than that of planted trees of the same age on most of the tract. The crowded condition of the planted trees explains these facts. In parts of the plantation where thinning relieved this condition a very different state of things appeared. Here the diameter of trees several years younger was greater than that of either the planted or the native trees measured foi; Tables s and 0, and the height growth also was proportionately improved. IMPORTANT FACTS ILLUSTRATED IN THE ADAMS PLANTATION. Some of the more important points brought out in the planted forest of Mr. Adams are as follows: (1) Seedlings collected from the forest, when properly treated, grow successfully. a ('2) Ten dollars per 1,000 is too high a price to pay for trees when planting for commercial purposes. (3) Watering seedlings is impracticable. (4) Unless the demand for small timber is great, it is not advisable to plant so closely as 4 by 4 feet, for the first thinning can not be made except at an expense which it is unwise to incur. (5) If 3- or 4-inch stuff can be sold for fuel or other purposes at a price that will pay for the cutting, close planting may be advan- tageous. ((>) The growth of planted pine is considerably greater than that of native pine under similar conditions for at least the first twenty years, and probably for several years longer, where the trees are not greatly crowded. (7) Planting at 4 by 4 feet causes a decrease in growth between the fifteenth and the thirtieth year. Shortly after that time the best trees become dominant, and resume a rapid growth, while a large percent- age become suppressed and die. (8) Closely planted trees produce the straightest and cleanest boles, and hence timber of the finest quality. a Experience elsewhere shows that it is not necessary to leave a portion of sod a* 1 1 1 < Ting to each seedling. If the earth he carefully shaken off, and the roots puddled in u mixture of rich earth and water to prevent drying, as good results are obtained, and at much less expense. 24 PLANTING OF WHITE PINE IN NEW ENGLAND. PLANTATION OF MBS. FREDERICK BRUNSON, GREENFIELD HILL, CONN. A short distance west of Greenfield Hill, Fairfield County, Conn., is located a plantation of about 30 acres of white pine and European larch. The planting- was done in the spring of 1886 with T-inch white pine and European larch seedlings bought from a western nursery. The land had been plowed and was in good physical condition, and the work was performed at the rate of nearly an acre a day for each man employed. The trees were set 4: by 6 feet apart, and the cost for labor was $48, with labor at $1. 50 per day. The arrangement was as follows, P indicating white pine and L European larch: P L P L P L P L P L P L P L P L P L P L P L P L P L P L P L P L P L P CONDITION OF THE FOREST. The forest floor consists of an evenly distributed mat of leaves and pine needles, which is in good condition and acts as a mulch. The edge of the plantation has been shaded by native deciduous trees, which have cleared the pines of side branches. The interior is composed of trees of remarkably gopd size and form for so young a grove, several trees measuring 8 inches in diameter. The lower branches to a height of 15 to 20 feet have been dead from two to five years. This shows that in a larch-pine mixture, where the trees are set 4 by 6 feet, when the growth is vigorous the density is sufficient to kill the lower branches at about the tenth year. GROWTH. For the first two years the height growth of white pine was slightly over 3 inches per year. The third year it was from 13 to 24 inches. From the fourth to the ninth year the trees grew from 24 to 30 inches per year. After the ninth year this growth diminished, and has since averaged little more than 1 foot per year. The European larch has grown more rapidly than the pine, and averaged 10 feet taller when measured. Nevertheless, it does not retard the growth of the pine, for its form is conical and the foliage is light; the pine, however, kills the side branches of the larch. The dead branches form an extremely dense, bushy thicket from the base to a height of 15 to 25 feet. They cling tenaciously to the stems, but are gradually decaying and will shortly fall. The diameter of the pine is greater than that of the larch. Bui. 45, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agricultur PLATE VIII. A GOOD SEEDBED FOR NATURAL REPRODUCTION. Bui. 45, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IX. Two WHITE PINES, EACH 9 YEARS OLD. The larger tree was grown in the open; the smaller one in rather dense shade. INVESTIGATIONS IN WHITE PINE PLANTATIONS. 25 MEASUREMENTS. Table 11 represents the most thrifty and fastest growing planted white pine known to the writer. The grove is only 15 years old, yet most of the trees range from 21 to 36 feet in height. The rate of growth in height has varied from an average of 1 foot to 2.4 feet per year for the entire period of growth. Table 12 shows the relative growth of the European larch when planted in mixture with white pine in alternating rows. TABLE 11. — Growth of planted white pine, Greenfield Hill, Conn. PLANTATION OF MRS. FREDERICK BRUNSON. [Based on 545 trees 15 years planted.] Num- ber of trees. Average height. Average diame- ter breast- high. Average annual height growth. Average annual diame- ter growth. Num- ber of trees. Average height. Average diame- ter breast- high. Average annual height growth. Average annual diame- ter growth. Feet. Inches. Feet. Inch. Feet. Inches. Feet. Inch. 8 15 2.4 .0 0.16 34 26 4.9 1.7 0.33 1 16 2.0 .1 .13 49 27 5.0 1.8 .33 4 17 3.1 .1 .21 51 28 5.2 1.9 .35 13 18 2.2 2 .15 42 29 5.3 1.9 .35 9 19 2.5 .3 .17 40 30 5.1 2.0 .34 28 20 3.0 .3 .20 17 31 5.3 2.1 .35 18 21 3.1 .4 .21 16 32 5.1 2.1 .34 42 22 3.7 .5 .25 14 33 5.4 2.2 .36 40 23 4.0 .5 .27 3 34 6.2 2.3 .41 51 24 4.2 .6 .28 7 35 5.6 2.3 .37 55 25 4.7 .7 .31 3 36 5.2 2.4 .35 TABLE 12. — Growth of planted European larch, Greenfield Hill, Conn. PLANTATION OF MRS. FREDERICK BRUNSON. [Based on 519 trees 15 years planted.] Num- ber of trees. Average height. Average diameter breast- high. Average annual height growth. Average annual diameter growth. Num- ber of trees. Average height. Average diameter breast- high. Average annual height growth. Average annual diameter growth. Feet. Inches. Feet. Inch. Feet. Inches. Feet. Inch. 1 15 2.0 1.0 0.13 31 31 4.2 2.1 0.28 1 17 3.0 1.1 .20 46 32 4.2 2.1 .28 7 18 2.3 .2 .15 38 33 4.3 2.2 .30 3 19 2.0 .3 .13 21 34 4.5 2.3 .30 11 20 2.4 .3 .16 16 35 4.6 2.3 .29 7 21 2.5 .4 .17 15 36 4.7 2.4 .31 15 22 2.6 .5 .17 17 37 4.9 2.5 .31 16 23 2.5 .5 .17 14 38 5.0 2.5 .32 19 24 3.0 .6 .20 8 39 5.1 2.6 .35 24 25 3.1 .7 .21 16 40 5.2 2.7 .34 20 26 3.3 .7 .22 ' 4 41 5.3 2.7 .36 38 27 3.6 .8 .24 5 42 5.3 2.8 .41 41 28 3.6 .9 .24 2 43 5.4 2.9 .37 38 29 3.9 1.9 .26 1 45 5.5 3.0 .33 44 30 3.9 2.0 .25 , 26 PLANTING OF WHITE PINE IN NEW ENGLAND. The average heights of the trees are, white pine, 20 foot; European larch, 30 feet. IMPORTANT FACTS ILLUSTRATED IN THE BRTJNSON PLANTATION. The groves at Greenfield Hill illustrate the following conclusions: (1) Previous preparation of the soil makes possible more rapid plant- ing, and for a number of years insures a more rapid growth. (2) Good soil, while not essential to favorable growth, gives better results than poor. (3) Four by six feet is a good distance for planting in mixture with larch when it is proposed to remove larch within 20 years. (4) The planting of larch in mixture with white pine is of no advan- tage to the pine, for the larch is the less shade-enduring of the two. (5) Trees planted at a distance of 4 by 6 feet in a larch-pine mixture will sufficiently prune themselves. A REPRESENTATIVE PLANTED WHITE PINE WOODLOT. As an example of the growth of planted white pine in other sections of the East than New England, a brief description is here given of the plantation of Mr. Burnet Landreth at Monaskon, Va. HISTORY. In 1873 an area of 0.2 acres was planted to nursery-grown, trans- planted white pine trees about six inches high, by Mr. Burnet Lan- dreth, at Monaskon, Ya. The young trees were planted 4 by 5 feet (2,178 trees per acre.) The soil is of poor qualit}^ It is gra}dsh in color and of the con- sistenc}^ of cla}^, but contains some sand, which improves the physical character. The plantation is located on the tidewater plateau near the Rappahannock River. CONDITION. The white pine, though in the southern part of its range and in poor soil, has done far better than in many plantations farther north. The trees have made good growth, continuing without a break to the pres- ent time, and are now in good condition. The lower branches are dead; some have fallen, but most of them still cling to the trunks. Some of the less vigorous trees have been overtopped and have died, owing to lack of light. MEASUREMENTS. Table 14 gives the measurements of 208 trees, 27 years planted, at Monaskon. The trees have made regular and normal growth, and show a pretty even distribution . through the different height classes from 24 to 00 feet. Their growth in diameter has kept fairly uniform INVESTIGATIONS IN WHITE PINE PLANTATIONS. with the height growth, and varies from about 1 inch in five jrears for (he ;><>-foot class to 1 inch in a little more than two years for the 59-foot class. TABLE 13. — Growth of planted white pine, Monaskon, Va. PLANTATION OF BURNET LANDRETH. [Based on 208 trees 27 years planted.] Num- ber of trees. I Average height. Average //. Inch. Feet. Inches. Feet. Inch. 4 24 3.8 0.9 0.14 4 43 7.5 1.6 0.28 4 26 4.0 1.0 .15 6 44 8.1 .6 .30 8 27 4.3 1.0 .16 12 45 7.9 .7 .29 6 29 5.0 1.1 .19 7 46, 8.5 .7 .31 4 30 5.2 1.1 .19 23 47 8.5 .7 .31 7 31 5.6 1.1 .21 2 48 8.0 .8 .30 3 32 5.3 .2 .20 5 49 9.0 .8 .33 7 33 6.0 .2 .22 4 50 9.5 1.9 .35 2 35 6. r> .3 .24 2 52 8.7 1.9 .32 12 36 6.4 .3 .24 5 53 9.5 2.0 .35 4 37 6.9 .4 .26 10 54 10.5 2.0 .39 7 38 6.5 .4 .24 3 55 12. 5 2.0 .46 21 39 6.9 .4 .26 1 57 12.5 2.1 .46 10 40 6.7 1.5 .25 1 59 12. 5 2.2 .46 15 41 7.4 .5 .27 5 60 13.5 2.2 .50 5 42 7.5 .6 .28 GROWTH. The average rate of growth of 21 white pines in the plantation at Monaskon was as follows: TABLE 14. — While pine plantation of Burnet Landreth, Monaskon, Va. - Average annual Age. Height. growth per 5-year period. Years. Feet. Feet. 5 2.5 0.5 10 9.7 1.4 15 23.3 2.7 20 34.7 2.3 25 41.1 1.3 27 42.8 .85 Iii most of the planted white pine groves of New England the cover has been too dense to permit of much reproduction. Good reproduction ma}^ be found at Bridgewater, Mass., where groves of Mr. Wood and Mr. Adams were planted forty to fifty 28 PLANTING OF WHITE PINE IN NEW ENGLAND, years ago and are now fairly open. In the plantation of Mr. Wood a strip 12 by 198 feet, extending throughout a representative portion of the grove, was laid off, and all the young pines were counted. (See below, Plat I.) The ground covered consists of about 3 inches of pine needles. Most of the plantation of Mr. Adams is still too dense to allow of reproduction; but a spot containing 1.5 square rods, where an opening allowed partial sunlight, was selected for a count, with the results given below. This represents the part where reproduction is best. There is a good mat of pine needles, in some places covered with moss. The number of seedlings, with their ages, was found to be as follows: TABLE 15. — Reproduction of white pine planted forest, Bridgewater, Mass. Age. Plat I. Area, 8.72 square rods. Plat II. Area, 1.5 square rods. Number of seedling's. Number of seedlings. 1 year 261 70 2 years 1 227 212 3 years 25 4 years 9 5 years 4 6 years 6 7 years 1 8 years 2 Total 1 535 282 Total per acre 28, 229 30 080 At Plymouth, Mass. , the late Nathaniel Morton encouraged natural reproduction in an old pine grove by removing the scrubby oak which had followed annual fires. Reproduction counts made on blocks one- half rod by 60 rods in representative portions gave the following results: TABLE 16. — Reproduction of white pine, Plymouth, Mass. Height. Number of trees. Block I. Block II. Block III. Block IV. 0. 1 to 0. 5 foot 187 141 61 33 16 5 5 160 38 15 8 2 2 9 393 276 56 4 1 2 14 78 88 39 18 16 3 8 0. 6 to 2 feet 3 to 6 feet 6 to 10 feet 11 to 20 feet 21 to 35 feet 36 to 50 feet Total 448 2,389 234 1,248 746 3,979 250 1,333 Total per acre Bui. 45, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE X. Bui. 45, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XI. SOIL OF SUITABLE CHARACTER FOR FIRST-RATE GROWTH OF WHITE PINE. The plantation shown in the frontispiece stands on similar soil. MIXTURES USED AND THEIR COMPARATIVE VALUE. 29 Near Winchester, N. H., in a 2-acre cut-over area which is sur- rounded by old pines, 596 seedlings were found on a strip 200 feet long by s£ feet wide, or at the rate of 15,8-13 to the acre; and on a second strip 250 feet long by 8J feet broad, 109 seedlings, or at the rate of 8,725 per acre. In places the undergrowth was so dense that repro- duction was not possible. The young trees vary from 1 inches to 7 feet in height, and form a most excellent stand. While it is to be said that the above counts represent better than average conditions, the fact remains that with a little care, provided there are seed trees, a stand of white pine, whether native or planted, may be reproduced at little expense. MIXTURES USED AND THEIR COMPARATIVE VALUE. In early planting a great variety of mixtures were used. Some of these proved successful, but others were not suited to the growth of white pine. The pure white pine plantation has usually made a satis- factory growth, but its use, at least when nursery stock has to be bought, involves a greater outlay than is necessary. A less expensive tree may be used in mixture with it, and if properly chosen will not diminish the products of the plantation. EUROPEAN LARCH. The European larch has been frequently used with the white pine, and in some cases satisfactorily. It is more rapid in height growth than the pine, but less rapid in diameter growth. In the very excel- lent plantation of evenly mixed white pine and European larch at Greenfield Hill, Conn., the white pine reached in fifteen years an average height of 28 feet and a diameter of 1.2 inches, while in the .same time the larch grew 32 feet in height and only 3.5 inches in diameter. The larch in New England is liable to attacks from insects. Its intolerance permits the dense, shade-enduring branches of the pine to shade out its side branches. This is advantageous to the larch, but is a service which the latter can not reciprocate. The mixture benefits the larch, but is of no material value to the pine. OAKS. The red and scarlet oaks grow at about the same rate as white pine, and are well adapted to planting with it. The}^ are sufficiently tol- erant to aid in clearing the pine of its branches, and as they are valuable for some purposes when quite young they can generally be utilized when it becomes desirable to remove them. Oaks are trans- planted with difficulty, owing to the long tap root, and in raising them from seed it is necessary to protect the acorns from rodents.05 f Acorns or chestnuts may be planted in pastures by simply making a hole with a cane or stick. The best protection in such a case is to stamp the sod firmly against the acorn with the heel. 30 PLANTING OF WHITE PINE IN NEW ENGLAND. When this has been done acorn planting has usually been successful on open ground. But where other species spring up naturally it has, as a rule, been unsuccessful. White oak, though a more valuable tree than either red or scarlet oak, is not adapted to mixture with white pine, owing to its slow growth. Red and scarlet oak may be used in mixture with white pine throughout its entire range. CHESTNUT. Chestnut is a valuable tree for use with white pine. While the oaks are slightly slower than pine in growth, chestnut is a little more rapid. It has the advantage, too, of being valuable for fence posts, even when young, so that when it begins to overtop the pine it may be cut out profitably. It takes from fifteen to twenty -five years for pine to become sufficiently large to completely shade the ground; the chestnut may then be cut and used for posts, telegraph poles, or railroad tics. Chestnut may be used in mixture with white pine throughout the New England States, New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia, and in the Appalachian region south to Georgia and Alabama. SCOTCH PINE. The mixture of Scotch pine Avith white pine is satisfactory so far as the growth of each species is concerned. There is little advantage gained, however, for it is as expensive to plant Scotch pine as white pine, and the result is a tree of a smaller timber value. The Scotch pine is not a native of America, but its range for economic planting extends throughout the range for white pine, and west as far as the Plains. Scotch pine is hardy under a great variety of conditions, but in almost every case is of less value than some other species. BED PINE. In several plantations red pine has been used with white pine. The result is rather unsatisfactory, for in most cases it grows more rapidly than the latter, and, when planted in equal quantity with it, shades it too heavily with its broad, spreading crown. In New England the differencs in growth is accentuated by the dwarfing effect of the white- pine weevil. The result is that the white pine is gradually superseded. In a 27-year-old forest of these two species, white pine showed an average height growth of 27. 5 feet, and red pine of 34. 9 feet. Their relative growth is well shown in the plantation of Mr. Isaac Adams, in Moultonboro, N. H., where the red pine invariably overtops and is usually detrimental to the growth of the white pine. In one respect the mixture of red and white pine behaves like that of larch and white pine. White pine is more tolerant than red, and consequently shades out the side branches of the latter, forming -i clear bole, while the branches of the white pine continue, so that the STARTING A WHITE PINE PLANTATION. 31 tree is almost valueless for timber. Probably no better tree could be used as a nurse for red pine than white pine, but when white pine is desired such a mixture is not advisable. The range of red pine for economic planting extends throughout the Northern States as far west as eastern North and South Dakota. NORWAY SPRUCE. In many cases there is no tree better suited to growth with white pine than Norway spruce. This tree is valuable because of its early maturity and the quality of its wood. In East Greenwich, R. I., where both were planted on poor, sandy land, the white pine grew 28 feet in twenty-seven years and the Norway spruce 32 feet. The con- ical shape of the spruce prevents its slightly more rapid height j*rowth from injuring the white pine. Both spruce and pine are shade en- during, so that the mixture is good for both. Norway spruce may be planted throughout the region of the white pine. SUGAR, MAPLE. For economic forest planting there is probably no other tree which can be used in mixture with white pine to greater advantage than sugar maple. Its shade-enduring quality, its relative growth, and the readiness with which it may be obtained are all in its favor. The main disadvantage in planting pure white pine forests is the large initial outlay. Sugar maple seedlings may be obtained for one-half what Avhite pine costs, and the mixture makes it necessary to plant only just enough pines to form the future stand. For the first twelve A^ears the annual height growth of the two species is about equal. Then the maple begins to spread out, while the pine continues to grow rapidly until, by the time it is 20 years old, it has secured a substantial lead. Meanwhile the thick and spreading crown of the maple has killed out the lower branches of the pine. It has now fulfilled its part, and may be removed if use can be made of it. If not, it will gradually be killed by the rapidly advancing growth of the pine, which will by this time form a complete forest cover. STARTING A WHITE-PINE PLANTATION. SEED AND SEED YEARS. The white pine is reproduced from seed. The cones, which average about 6 indies in length, bear from 50 to 75 seeds each. There are about 28,800 seeds to the pound, or 1,800 to the ounce. The percent- age of germination in fresh seed is 70 to 90. If the seed is sown care- fully in drills on suitable soil and cared for in a proper manner subse- quently, 50 per cent may be expected to produce seedlings which will live to the transplanting stage. If, however, seed be sown broadcast on soil not properly cared for, a frequent result is not more than 2,000 to 32 PLANTING OF WHITE PINE IN NEW ENGLAND. 5, 000 seedlings from the pound. At this rate it would pay the planter better to buy two-or three-year seedlings from a nursery or collect them from the forest. White-pine seed costs from $1.50, when the seed is plentiful, to $3 or $4 per pound during the period between good seed years. "Seed years" occur once in four to seven years. Seed-bearing cones are found usually in small numbers on scattered trees in the inter- vals between seed years, and in some cases seed years occur locally in the interval between general seed years. In such instances collectors may take advantage of the local crop to secure large quantities. Since white pine seed requires two years for development, it is possible to predict a seed year twelve months previous to the time for collection. Ample opportunity is thus given to prepare for planting when seed may be obtained at the smallest cost to the planter. COLLECTING AND STORING SEED. The white pine cone opens and throws its seed before it falls from the tree, consequently it is necessary to collect the cones before they open. Different methods of collecting have been used in various parts of the country. Until recent 3^ears, where the timber was abundant, some collectors chopped the trees down; others lopped off branches. In regions of less supply seed has been collected by the use of "climbers" similar to those used by telegraph linemen. The cones are then picked by hand, or the small branches bearing them are cut with long-handled pruning shears. The quickest method is that of chopping the trees and picking the cones by hand from the fallen trees; but this should never be resorted to unless the trees are mature and can immediately be used for lumber. In such instances it is sometimes advisable to wait for a seed year before harvesting a crop of timber. Lopping off large branches should never be resorted to unless the branches be cut close to the stem, in which case the pruning benefits the future timber, provided the crown is not robbed. Where trees have large crowns the tips of the lateral branches may be removed with pruning shears without injury to the trees, but the upper part of the crown should never be disturbed except by hand picking. A long pole, with a sharp, curved steel knife at the end, may be used to advan- tage in picking cones which can not be reached readily by hand. It is usually possible to obtain seeds most easily from trees which are grown in open fields or along roadsides, for in such places the crowns have a better opportunity for development, the trees are lower and more dense, and they bear more and frequently better seed. Seed should be stored in a cool, dry place, in small bags suspended in the air. Light freezing is not injurious, but heavy freezing should be guarded against. 3ul 45. Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept of Agriculture. PLATE XII. TWO-YEAR-OLD WHITE PINE SEEDLINGS. GOOD SIZE FOR PLANTING. Bui. 45, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agricul PLATE XIII. STARTING A WHITE PINE PLANTATION. PREPARATION OF SEEDBED, SOWING, AND SHADING. One of the first considerations in starting a seedbed of white pine is the choice of a suitable situation. The most important requirements are as follows: (1) A deep, porous, sandy loam soil. — It is not necessary that the seedbed be particularly fertile, unless it is to be used for many years, so long as it has a good admixture of humus. It is important that the soil be sandy or light, for in such soil there is less danger of "damp- ing off," which is the result of a fungus caused by excessive moisture, and of "heaving'- from frost action. (2) Good drainage. — This is necessary no matter what the soil. There must be no spots where the Avater will stand either on the sur- face or in the soil even for a few hours. (3) New soil. — Where possible, land should be used which has not been recently cropped. It is also desirable that the nursery should be some distance from any cropped field. The advantage of such land is that it will contain few or no weeds, and hence will require far less hoeing and expensive hand weeding. Some of the most successful nurseries in this country have been made in the midst of scrubby woods. The brush and trees were ' ' grubbed" out, and the soil (sandy loam) completely pulverized with plow and harrow. The cost of pre- paring such a nursery will range from $20 to $100 per acre, according to the condition of the land and the cost of labor. For the home woodlot, however, a small plot may be prepared at no expense except a few hours' work. (4) Convenient location. — In selecting the location of the seedbed, nearness to the house of the care-taker, to the land which it is pro- posed to plant, and to a water supply are all worth consideration. The location having been chosen, it should be completely cleared of stumps and debris and brought to an even surface. The land should be plowed moderately deep, and harrowed until thoroughly pulverized. Seedbeds do not need to be raised above the general level unless the soil is wet. They are preferably laid out on the level ground in beds 4 feet wide and any multiple of 6 feet long, as 24, 60, or 120. The rows in the seedbed may be laid out 6 to 12 inches apart, 6 inches being sufficient when a single drill is to be sown, 10 inches when two drills are made in each row, and 12 inches when three drills are made. The marker (see fig. 1) is made of triangular strips of wood (a). The strips may be from one-half to 1 inch in thickness and from 12 to 18 inches long, as desired; but the size should be uniform. Should the planter desire only one drill in each row, single triangular strips should be set 6 inches apart against cross strips -(b) near either end. The whole can be made firm by a diagonal strip. (c). For the two-drill row two triangular strips should be placed 1 to l£ inches apart, and the sets 20279— Xo. 45—04 3 34 PLANTING OF WHITE PINE IN NEW ENGLAND. 10 inches apart. For the three-drill row three strips should be placed 1 to 1^ inches apart, and the sets 12 inches apart. In use, the marker is simply pressed gently against the soft, fine earth of the seedbed so that the sharp edges of the strip will sink about one-fourth of an inch into the soil. It may then be lifted and set again in another place, or it may be slowly pulled along, making two rows of drills at a time. The seed should be planted immediately after using the marker, so that the soil may not become dry. Seeds should be dropped one-half to 1 inch apart in the row. Should there be more than one drill in a row, the latter distance is preferable. Seeds may be conveniently dropped from a small-necked bottle by nil i u^/. n "i /* holding the thumb over the opening and v^ ~^a ~^-a avowing the seeds to drop out rapidly one by one. When the seed has been planted, tine moist soil should be sprinkled in the drills to a depth of one-fourth of an inch. The soil should then be made firm by rolling the beds with a light hand roller. If this is not available, a smooth board may be pressed firmly against the soil with the foot. It is better to sow the seed when the weather is moderately cloud}T, but not wet. The seed of white pine does not need much moisture for germination, and an oversupply is injurious. Growth for the first year is slow, and the young plants are very tender. The}r therefore require shade and care. The frame may be constructed of cloth, like the ordinary tobacco frame, or it may be a half shade of lath frames (fig. 2). These frames are usually most convenient in 6-foot lengths and for beds 4 feet wide. The 6-foot strips to which the laths are nailed may be conveniently 1 by 3 inches or 1 by 4 inches. Posts 2 by 2 inches or 2 by 4 inches, and sufficiently long to protrude 12 inches above the surface, should be placed accurately every 6 feet, so that the sections may rest upon them. Under favorable conditions germination takes place in from ten to fifteen days, and three weeks from the date of planting should see many seedlings above ground. Weeds should be carefully removed and the soil kept continually loose. and porous. Excess of water should be excluded. This may be accomplished by using the shade as a partial roof. Should continued rains occur, one side of the shade should be FIG. 1.— Marker. STARTING A WHITE PINE PLANTATION. 35 lifted and propped 12 to 16 inches above the other. This will turn off a portion of the water. Should u damping off" take place, or should the beds become overwet, as soon as the rains cease the shades should be removed, and should remain off until the sun endangers the seed- lings. From the time of the appearance of seedlings above ground they should be carefully watched, weeded, and cultivated. In cultivating, the 6-foot shade sections may be conveniently removed. The cost of End Elevation Side Elevation 6ft i ij; El x 3~ Vertical projection looking down Frame without the laths FIG. 2. — Detail of shade frame. weeding is heavy, hence the importance of choosing land which is as free from weeds as possible. Cultivation should continue through the second season. The shades may be removed some time in August of the second season, after the greatest heat of the summer is past. THE PLANTATION. The variation of climatic conditions throughout New England is not sufficient to be of importance, except for the effect of continued salt winds near the coast. Either hilly, level, gently undulating land or low, moderately dry land is suitable for white pine planting, provided the ground cover be not too dense. Low land which is wet or marshy is entirely unsuited for planting; on such land the roots decay and the trees fall before they are big enough to use. Cleared land is best adapted for pine plantations. Land with scattering brush growth may 36 PLANTING OF WHITE PINE IN NEW ENGLAND. generally be used without any cutting. Land where the brush growth is dense should be partially cleared before planting is attempted. Cut- over land, where heavy sprout growth follows cutting, may have open spaces where pines may be inserted to advantage, but as a rule it is useless to plant such lands; it costs too much to give the young and tender seedlings enough light. Cut-over lands, where the tendency to sprout is slight and where natural reproduction is of inferior species, may frequently be planted to advantage in whole or part, such planting depending upon the present stand of valuable seedlings or sprouts and the density of shade. Burnt land usually shows a ten- dency to support rapid-growing, worthless species. Planting may frequently be practiced the season after a tire, or on land where the growth is not very dense. Where the site chosen is moderately clear of brush growth, seedlings may be used. Should it consist wholly or in part of areas of burnt- over land, sprout land, or brush land, the plants should be once trans- planted in the nursery. As transplants cost twice as much as seedlings it is readily seen that such planting is more expensive than planting on open land. The cheaper cost of brush land may, however, some- times overweight this difference. The cost of plowing the site is gen- erally prohibitive, and is, moreover, unnecessary. TRANSPLANTING. The young seedlings should be transplanted in the late fall, after the summer's growth has become completely hardened, or in the early spring, just as the growth is read}T to start. When trees are taken up in the fall for spring planting they should be stored over winter in a protected place, such as a cellar or barn, the roots being covered with moist sand or earth. The purpose of burying the trees is to allow the half-dormant vital functions opportunity to act slowly during the winter season, and to protect the roots from the drying influence of the air and from extreme cold. Trees kept in moist soil in a cellar over winter will form calluses over their wounded surfaces. Fall planting is sometimes advisable in the North, but spring plant- ing is usually best. Trees planted in the fall are subjected to the heavy frosts of winter, and unless the soil is peculiarly well adapted to hold them the plants are likely to be heaved out. If stored over winter, and protected from the sun in early spring, the period of planting may be much lengthened, for as the buds will not start so soon when the trees are in storage as when exposed to the revitalizing influence of the sun's rays. Trees may be transplanted in the spring direct from the nursery rows to the permanent site, and, if care is used and circumstances are favorable, 95 per cent should grow. Whether the removal of the plants from the nursery be in fall or spring, the process is the same. The}^ may either be dug with a spade or thrown out by a plow set 6 to 8 inches deep. The trees should then STARTING A WHITE PINE PLANTATION. 37 be carefully lifted, and the clinging earth gently shaken from the roots. Great care should be used to prevent injury to the tender young rootlets. As the plants are removed from the nursery rows the roots should be immersed in a "puddle" composed of rich earth and water, mixed to the consistency of thin mud. If the trees are to be transported a long distance, clear water should be used instead of the puddle, and the trees carefully packed for shipment. When the trees are shipped some distance the}7 should be tied in bunches of 100 and the roots wrapped in moist sphagnum moss. Rather small, well ventilated boxes should be used for shipping. Care should be used to pack the trees firmly together in the box, so that bruising will not take place. To prevent shaking it is frequently wise to nail a 1- by 3-inch board, as long as the box is wide, in such a manner that the plants are held firmly in place in the box. It is important that transportation be rapid, and necessary that the roots be kept moist, but not wet, for if kept too wet they will mold. If it is desired to defer final planting after the trees are received, they should, after puddling, be carefully heeled in, in a shady place. The method of planting will depend upon the condition of the ground, the object of the forest, and the trees with which the white pine is to be mixed. In general, plowing is impracticable in New England and should not be attempted, though where the soil is free from rocks, comparatively level, and in sod, single furrows m&y fre- quently be plowed to advantage, each furrow being the line of a row of trees. Planting the trees in these furrows at the desired distance apart is then a simple matter. Each planter should carry a hoe and a bucket containing seedlings, with a little water in it to keep the roots constantly moist. In setting in furrows the roots should be spread evenly over the furrow bottom, and the loose earth from the ridge should be filled in with the hoe and pressed with the foot firmly against the roots. When it is not practicable to plow furrows, an economical method of procedure is to set up double rows of guide stakes down the sides of the area to be planted, and also, if necessary to enable the planter always to have two stakes in sight ahead of him, an additional row or rows through the middle. By keeping in line with these and planting at every two paces, if the usual 6-foot interval is that desired, the trees will be set with sufficient accuracy. The diagram for working is as follows: OXXOXXXXXXXXOXXXXXXXXO X X O oxxox o oo o o o o o 00 O 00 00 O 00 In planting, either spade or mattock may be used; the latter, how- ever, is usually preferred. Three or four strokes of the mattock (or 38 PLANTING OF WHITE PINE IN NEW ENGLAND. after some practice, only one or two) or an edgewise thrust with the spade, is sufficient. Two men can work to advantage in each row, one digging the holes and the other planting. The man with the spade or mattock, after turning up the earth, should at once go ahead the re- quired distance and make another hole, using- care that the earth be not scattered but be as nearly as possible a cube, and placed close to the edge of the cavity. The planter should follow immediately behind. The planter should carry in a bucket several hundred young trees. the roots of which have just previously been puddled. At each hole he should with one hand place the roots of the tree in the cavity, while with the other he lifts the portion of earth which has been removed and brings it down upon the edge of the cavity opposite the tree with sufficient force to break the sod. This process tines the soil and scat- ters it about the roots of the tree. With the same movement the sod should be replaced, and the planter should then with his heel firmly press the soil about the roots of the tree. By following the above instructions two common laborers should plant from 1,200 to 1,800 two or three year old seedlings per day, provided the soil conditions are favorable. In planting it is advised that occasional strips 12 feet wide be left- open, to be used as fire lines in case of emergency, and also to be used as driveways and wood roads. TREATMENT AFTER PLANTING. PRUNING. Many of the existing plantations have been pruned, but seldom in the most advantageous manner. At East Greenwich, R. I. , the larger trees have been carefully pruned, but at a cost which shows the opera- tion to have been such as to make it impracticable from an economic standpoint. At Bridgewater, Mass., in a plantation not described in this report, stubs an inch or two long were left protruding from the stem. Such pruning is most harmful; the rough surfaces give an excellent opportunity for borers or fungi to work from the limb-butt into the stem. Correct pruning is of great value. It changes inferior to first-class lumber. It should be done about ten years after the trees have been planted, before the limbs have died. The trees will then average from 10 to 15 or 20 feet in height. They should be trimmed as high as can readily be reached with a hand ax. Pruning should be done in July or August, when there is just enough secretion of pitch to cover the wounds, preventing the access of air and excluding fungi. The cut should be made close to the stem, to insure a thorough cover- ing of pitch and the more rapid healing of the wound. The healing over and complete disappearance of the wound is then very rapid. In AGE FOR PROFITABLE LUMBERING. 39 lost cases it will be practically completed in. two or three years. Pruning may be done veiy cheaply by using- a sharp hand ax and cutting each limb close to the bark with a single stroke. THINNING. In plantations where trees are i by set trees. With the fruit trees the difference was not more than 3 inches on an average. FRUIT TREES. In the spring of 1890 there was set out on the experiment station grounds about 85 varieties of apples, 35 varieties of pears, 25 varieties of plums, 27 varieties of cherries, 35 varieties of peraches and =; varieties of apricots. In most cases 2 of each variety were planted. So far the apples all seem hardy and have made a fair, though not a big growth. None of them have yet fruited. Following is a list of varieties: Alexander, Arkansas Black, Autumn Bough, Autumn Strawberry, Babbitt, Baldwin, Bradford's Best, Brightwater, Charlotten Thaler, Chenango Strawberry, BULLETIN No. 18. Cole's Quince, Dickinson, Duchess of Oldenburg, Early Ripe, Early Trenton, Fall Pipen, Fulton, Golden Russett, Haas, Jonathan. Kinnard's Choice Landsberg Reinette, Lansingburg, Longfield, Mclntosh Red, Mammoth Black Twig, Marshall Red, Minkler, Newton Pippin (yellow), Pickard's Choice, Rawle's Janet, Red Beitigheimer, Romanite Gilpin, Boxburry Russett, Scarlet Cranberry, Stark, Tolman, Thaler, Walbridge, White Pippin, Wine Sap, Yellow Transparent. Crawford, Dominie. Early Harvest, Early Strawberry, Everbearing, Fameuse, Golden Reinette, Grimes Golden, I sham Sweet, King of Tompkins County, Lady Apple, Lankford, Lawver, Loy, Maidens Blush, Mann, Melon Apple, Northern Spy, Pewaukee, Porter, Red Astrachan, Rhode Island Greening, Roman Stem, ^ Rubicon, Shanon Pippin, Summer Rambo, Tetofski, Titus, Wealthy, Willow, Yellow Belleflower. Although the foregoing list of apples has sustained no injury from cold weather, it does not follow that they would be hardy in all situations. The college grounds are located some 200 feet or more above the main part of the valley, and the air is therefore warmer and dryer than that which settles in the valley below, and the io BULLETIN No. 18. canyon wind, of which we receive the full benefit, keeps off the frosts for several days after everything in the valley has felt its effect, thus giving a longer time for the ripening of the wood and a corresponding advantage in enduring the cold later on. PEARS. No injury has yet been sustained on account of the severity of the climate ; all the varieties have done fairly well, but the following are making the best growth: Flemish Beauty, Winter Bergamy, Sugar, Bartlett, Seckel, Glou-morceau, Garber, Howell, White Doyenne, Jones' Seedling, Mt. Vernon, Butter, Bousock, Bessenmianka. The following varieties are fruiting this year, carrying from one to seven specimens each : Beurre Clairgeau, Bartlett, Margaret (dwarf), Kieffer (dwarf), Mikado. Below is the full list of varieties planted : I Bartlett, Beurre Clairgeau, \ Beurre Easter, Bessemianka, Bousock, Buffum, Butter, Clapp's Favorite, Duchess, Duchess d'Angouleme, Duchess De Jersey, Flemish Beauty, Fred Clapp, Garber, Glou-morceau, Howell, Idaho, Jones' Seedling, Kieffer (standard and dwarf), Le Conte, Mikado, or Hubbard's Japan, Margaret (standard and Mt. Vernon, (standard and dwarf), dwarf), Seckel, Sapienganka, Summer Doyenne, Sugar, Victor, Tyson (standard and dwarf )- Winter Bergamy, White Doyenne. BULLETIN No. 18. 1 1 PLUMS. A few varieties are fruiting this year, but the trees are small and most of them without fruit. The following varies ties are growing in the experimental orchard : Cheney, De Soto, Forest Garden, Forest Rose, Free Damson, Garfield, Gen. Hand, Green Gage, Hawkeye, Lombard, Maquoketa, Miner, Pond Seedling, Poole's Pride, Prairie Flower, Primus Simoni, Quaker, Rolling Stone, Shropshire Damson, Silver Prune, Wild Goose, Wolf, World Beater. All are making a fine growth excepting Prunus Simoni which does not seem to be in healthy condition. It has four fine specimens of fruit, however. Two Wolf plum trees are full of fruit. They will ripen more fruit than all the others combined. Next to the Wolf, Quaker has the best showing of fruit. De- soto and Lombard are both carrying a few fine specimens. The Silver Prune has killed back both winters since it' has been growing here. All the others named above seem to be perfectly hardy. CHERRIES. All the trees seem to be healthy and in good condition. All are making a good strong growth, and some of them had a few scattering cherries last spring. The varieties planted are as follows: Abbess, Belle de Choisey, Belle De Montreal, Bessarabian, Black Eagle, Black Tartarian, Carnation, Brusseler Braum, Double Natte, De Ostheim, 12 BULLETIN No. 18. Early Richmond, Early Purple, George Glass, Galopin, Grotte Du Nord, Grotte Precoll, King's Amarelle, Keeper, Lieb, Late Duke, Mt. Large, Lutooka, 24 Orel, 23 Orel, 27 Orel, 26 Orel, Rockport, Red Muscatell, Spate Amarelle, Skanka, Vilne Sweet. Shadow Amarelle, PEACHES. Peach trees have stood the past two winters with vary- ing degrees of success and failure. As difference in hardiness is distinguishable in different varieties, notes will be given on each separate variety showing its present condition and past injury. Beer's Smock winter-killed the first winter in orchard. The trees in this case and all cases following, where all the trees of a variety died, were on rather lower land than the others, and con- sequently the ground was wetter and probably was the cause of the loss. . BELYEU'S LATE. — One tree alive and one died the first win- ter ^tfter planting ; the new growth on the remaining one killed back about sixteen inches last winter. BOKAK. — This variety was planted a year later than the others; young" growth killed back from one to six inches. BRANT'S MEL. — New growth ail killed back the first winter, the second winter killed back about six inches. BRAY'S R. R. — Only the ends of the limbs were injured by the cold, from two to six inches being killed. The two trees have about three dozen peaches on them, CHRISTIANA. — From i to 2 inches of the new growth winter- killed; they have no fruit on them. CRAWFORD'S EARLY — Seems to be very tender, the young growth killed back for about 18 inches; is bearing no fruit. CRAWFORD'S LATE. — New growth winter-killed 2 to 6 inches, no fruit. BULLETIN No. 18. 13 » CRIMSON BEAUTY. — Was doing well until hooked down by cattle. EARLY DELAWARE. — From 2 to 10 inches of new wood winter-killed; has no fruit on it. EARLY RIVERS. — One tree died the first winter in orchard, the other one killed back the past winter about 6 inches and is fruiting this year. EAKLY ST. JOHN. — New wood killed back from 3 to 15 inches last winter, the tree is fruiting this year. Fox's SEEDLING. — Stood the first winter but was killed to the ground the second. GEARY. — Both trees are yet alive but the new wood is killed almost entirely back each winter and it is bearing no fruit. GLOBE. — One tree winter-killed and the other one was hooked down by cattle. HEATH FREE. — New wood killed back last winter from i to 10 inches, is bearing a few peaches this year. HEATH CLING. — Is only slightly injured by last winter's cold ; has a few peaches on. HYNES' SURPRISE. — Both trees dead, winter-killed. LA GRANGE. — One tree died the first winter in orchard, the other passed through last winter without any injury. LAST OF SEASON. — One tree winter-killed the first Wji>\ter, the other killed back about 6 inches last winter ; has a few pehches this year. LORD PALMERTON. — From 3 to 6 inches of the new growth killed back last winter; is a fine tree, but has no fruit this year. MRS. BRETT. — One tree winter-killed, the other injured 2 or 3 in. in the new growth; is fruiting this year. McNsiL. — One or two inches of the new wood injured; is fruiting this year. MT. ROSE. — Both killed the first winter. NORTH AMERICAN APRICOT. — Three or four inches of new wood killed last winter; no fruit. NORTH CHINA. — Nearly all the new wood winter-killed. OLD MIXON FREE.— Killed back from 6 to 12 inches last winter; is bearing no fruit. H BULLETIN No. 18. POOLE'S ISLAND.— One Wee dead and one alive; last winter only injured it slightly; no fruit. PRESIDENT. — One to six inches of new wood injured last winter; is fruiting this year. PRINCESS R. R.— One tree died first winter; 15 to 18 inches of the remaining one winter-killed last winter; is not fruiting. REEDING.— Injured very slightly; is bearing no fruit. RIVER BANK.— Killed back from i to 12 inches; a^few specimens of fruit. SCHUMAKER.— Both trees winter-killed the first year. STARK.— Only slightly injured on the ends of the branches; is bearing fruit. STEVEN'S R. R.— Only injured to a small extent: is fruiting- well. WATERLOO.— Both trees winter-killed the first winter. BUDD, Gibb, Alexander and Catharine apricots are doing well; none of them fruiting yet. B0ricultural College Experiment Station. Bulletin mo. 62. Gree plantino In IDttab* THE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF UTAH, BOARD OF TRUSTEES. HON. WILLIAM S. McCORNICK, President, .... . Salt Lake City HON. EMILY S. RICHARDS, - - Salt Lake City HON. MARRINER W. MERRILL, Richmond HON. D. C. ADAMS, ----- . Salt Lake City HON. LORENZO HANSEN, Wellsville HON. ROSINA N. BAGLEY, Ogden HON. JOSEPH MORRELL, Logan OFFICERS OF THE BOARD. W. S. McCORNICK, President, JOSEPH E. WILSON, Secretary, ALLAN M. FLEMING, Treasurer, Salt Lake City Logan Logan EXPERIMENT STATION STAFF. JOSEPH M. TANNER, - LUTHER FOSTER, F. B. LINFIELD, - "JOHN A. WIDTSOE, U. P. HEDRICK, G. L. SWENDSEN, - JAMES DRYDEN, LEWIS A. MERRILL, - JOHN STEWART, JOHN A. CROCKETT, - JAMES C. THOMAS, President of the College Director Dairy Husbandry Chemist Horticulturist Irrigation Engineer Meteorologist and Poultry Mgr . Assistant Agriculturist First Assistant Chemist Assistant Dairyman Second Assistant Chemist The Bulletins will be sent free to any address in the State on written application to the Experiment Station. Log-an, Utah. *Absent on leave. TREE PLANTING IN UTAH. GENERAL REMARKS. This bulletin is an account of the behavior of forty species of timber and shade trees now growing- on the grounds of the Utah Experiment Station. The experiment, of which this is a report, was started in the spring of 1890, by Prof. E. S. Rich- man, then Station Horticulturist, with the object of testing the adaptability of various species of trees for this region, and of demonstrating the best method of planting and caring for them. In the account here given, the aim of the experiment, as stated above, has been first in mind at all times, but the writer has branched out, more or less, to give some facts re- garding the qualities and characteristics of various species, hoping thus to aid the grower in choosing an assortment to plant, and to help him to identify species of which he is not sure. Some information regarding the propagation of such trees as can be easily propagated on any farm, is given. Numbers 18, 25 and 37, preceding this bulletin, contain brief accounts of the experiment from which the information herein set forth is drawn, so that this is the fourth report of an experiment now in its ninth year. The reader should look up the bulletins mentioned above. It is well to understand at the outset, that the pages to follow, deal with tree-planting, and not at all with forestry, be- tween which there is a wide difference. Since so much is being written and said to the people of the treeless region about 218 BULLETIN NO. 62. forestry, oftentimes when tree-planting is meant, it may be well to distinguish between it and the more humble but not less im- portant tree-planting. Forestry, in brief, is the growing and caring for trees for crops of timber. To inhabitants of the sub-arid region, and to those of the Great Basin in particular, it is apparent at once, that this industry can have but a small place with them. The difficulties in getting the timber crop to the producing state are too great. In tree-planting we deal with trees individually, rather than in numbers, as in forestry, and with the object of securing shade and shelter, and timber for fuel, and the minor uses to which wood is put. Tree-planting is of secondary or incidental importance to the farmer, from the standpoint of money making; while a forest, rightly handled, receives coequal attention with other crops as a source of income to its owner. A distinction between forestry and tree-planting does not hold g-ood as regards the influence of trees upon climate, moist- ure, soil and sanitary conditions. In relation to all these, and other effects1, trees are of worth largely in proportion to their number, whether planted in forests, on lawns, or along road- sides. But since a forest, because of its area, can exert a so much greater influence than can a small assemblage of trees, a discussion of the significance of timber to our environment, belongs properly to forestry rather than to tree-planting, and hence is not found in this report, though the value of tree- planting in this respect might well warrant such a discussion, if space permitted. THE STATION EXPERIMENTS. The Utah Station is now conducting two experiments in tree-growing. The origin and object of the one under con- sideration, the older of the two, were stated in a previous para- graph. The new plantation, as it is called, was started in the spring of 1897, under the supervision of the Division of Forestry of the Department of Agriculture, at Washington, D. C. The object of this experiment, as stated by Mr. C. A. Keffer, under whose direction the first installment of trees was set, and in whose charge the work has been until recently, is: "the determination of the adaptability of our principal economic species to the plains, and successful methods and after treatment that shall be within the range of the farmer." TREE PLANTING IN UTAH. 219 This experiment, it will be seen from the above statement, is along- the same lines as the older one, but is far more extensive and much better planned. The location of both plantations is upon a high bench, a part of the delta of the Logan river, but now two hundred feet or more above the level of the flowing- water. This bench was made by deposits from the river, and consists of strata of coarse gravel and rocks, clay and sand. The surface varies from a gravelly clay to a coarse, pebbly sand, and is not an ideal soil for any purpose. The hardpan is from two to four feet from the surface, and, being- composed of firmly cemented coarse gravel, trees are prevented from sending- their roots as deep in the ground as they should g-o. From this description the reader may well surmise, that trees growing- in our soil will grow as readily in most of the cultivated land in Utah. Chemical analyses show that the land is rich in lime and poor in potash. The canyon of the Logan River, which forms the southern boundary of the Station grounds, exerts a strong influence on the atmospheric conditions of the locality. The canyon forms a drainage place for cold air from the benches above, and this, with the winds that follow the river down the mountains, and the elevation of the bench, give a temperature at the Experi- ment Station that will average in the winter several degrees higher than in the greater part of the valley below. This may mean that two or three species in our experiments, as the Oatalpa, Ailanthus and English Walnut, will not grow in the colder parts of this, and, perhaps, of several other valleys in the State. But, in general, trees that are hardy at Logan will stand the winter's cold and the summer's heat and drouth in most parts of Utah, where tree-planting is attempted. How- ever, to give more definite knowledge of the temperature and rainfall of different parts of the State as compared with that of the Experiment Station, and thus secure a safe guide, the two following figures, taken from Bulletin 47 of this Station, are given: — Fig. 1 Is a diagram showing the average amount [of rain- fall in twelve localities in Utah, for a period of five years, end- ing with 1895. 220 BULLKTIN NO. 62. ANNUAL PRECIPITATION _ o O 5 LJ ui co £ S 5 X 1 2 rn L> 00 UJ S 8 o d! 09 CO GO Fig. 1. TREE PLANTING IN UTAH. 221 Fig. 2. Is a graphical diagram showing* how high the tem- perature goes in summer and how low in winter, at eleven different points in Utah. The diagram is based upon data taken for five years, ending- with 1895. CORINNE. RLLMORE FT DUCHESNE HEBER LOA. LOGAN. MOAB. OGDEN. PAROWAN. Si GEORGE. SALTLAKECITY Fig. 2. When the trees were set, there were from ten to fifteen in- dividuals in each of the forty species, placed in rows nine feet apart, with a distance between trees in a row of .nine feet; but in the struggle for room and soil a number of the trees have died, and the distances apart are now much farther than those named. The planting-, cultivating- and irrigating- have been about the same as would be given an orchard, except that the cultivation ceased at the sixth summer. This experiment covers about two acres. While it is not the intention to deal much in this bulletin with the last experiment started, yet it is in place to briefly in- troduce it, for references will be made to it farther along- in discussing- the various species; and, in the future, all work in tree-planting- will be done in this plantation. The experiment covers five acres, each acre forming a plat which is divided into two equal parts. The plats and their divisions are arranged 222 BULLETIN NO. 62. with reference to species and the distance apart of rows and trees. The species number eighteen, and at the first setting- there were 22,010 individuals. The stock first set was composed mostly of hardwood trees a year old. Unfortunately the young- trees came from the nurseries in poor condition, and about thirty-five per cent of the whole number of plants died the first year. The dead trees were replaced in the spring- of 1898, with conifers, so that now the number of hardwood and conifers is about equal. The trees at this time, the beginning- of their third year, are thrifty and the whole experiment looks promising1. SPECIES TESTED. No satisfactory arrangement of the species herein described comes to mind, and the order in which the descriptions appear is simply that of the note-book, in which the species are placed with reference to their position in the experiment plat. The nomenclature, both scientific and vernacular, is larg-ely that of Sud worth's Check List of the Forest Trees of the United States. The measurements given were made in June, 1899. The cir- cumferences were taken, uniformly, at two feet and a half from the ground. The heights are from the ground to the tips of the trees. A description of the wood, including- its weig-ht per cubic foot, is thoug-ht to be of value and is given where possible, the data for which comes mostly from Sargent's Silva of North America. THE POPLARS. Out of the great number of species of the poplar to be found in this country, wild and cultivated, we have but nine on the Station grounds. The nine, however, include most of the kinds that are of much value for planting- in the sub-arid region. The poplars are not considered by tree-planters at large to "be especially useful or beautiful trees, but in this part of the west some of them, judiciously employed, are of very great value. The several qualities that commend the poplars to the planters of this region, are: that they are hardy, standing cold and heat and drouth; that they thrive in most soils and situations; grow very rapidly; and are easily propagated and endure transplant- ation well. In no other trees are these qualities so well combined. TREE PLANTING IN UTAH. 223 While as a class they cannot be called beautiful, yet from the different kinds that can be easily grown, it is not difficult to select sorts of varied form, color and foliage, that, properly arranged, make very pleasing landscape effects. The timber for domestic use, as for cheap fuel, cheap posts, etc., is of considerable value, especially when time in growing is the great factor. Many of the poplars make good wind-breaks, and some of them are very g-ood shade trees. In enumerating their good qualities, their numerous bad Figj. 3.— A ?-ow of ten year old Carolina Poplars a few miles from the Experiment Station. ones have not been forgotten. Several species have qualities the very opposite of most of those mentioned above. Almost all of them sprout badly; most of them are short lived; the female trees of some species are intolerable nuisances because of their cot- tony seed which every breeze scatters broadcast; their wood is generally so soft that the trees are easily misshapen and broken by the wind; and, lastly, the texture of the timber of most of them is such that it is of little or no value for lumber. Careful thought as to the desirability of planting poplars will bring most tree-planters to the conclusion that where quick 224 BULLETIN NO. 62. growth, or a supply of cheap wood for domestic use, is the object, or where location prevents the planting- of less hardy and less thrifty trees, poplars may be well set out. If too closely fol- lowed, this deduction, in pioneer planting-, leads to the use of poplars almost exclusively, and this we find has been the case in many parts of the States of the Plains and of the Great Basin. Here a mistake is made. The far-seeing- husbandman will mix with the poplars the slower growing-, but far more valuable elms, ashes, maples and other thrifty hardwoods, with some conifers, , 4. — An acre block of Carolina Poplars, "four years old, from which several cords of wood per annum can be taken for a number of years. perhaps, that he may cut out the make-shift poplars when the better trees are large enough to answer his purpose. Carolina Poplar. (Populus deltoides Marsh.) This is the Cottonwood of the States to the east of the Rocky Mountains, in most of which it is a native. Nurserymen sell it as Carolina Poplar, and, under cultivation, it is almost universally known by this name. The tree is distinguished by its very large, triangular leaves which have truncate bases, long, pointed apices, coarsely toothed margins, and are thin and of a bright, glossy color. The branches are comparatively large and are spreading, making an open-headed tree, but are always subordinate to the central stem which may be traced to the summit of the tree. It is grown TREK PLANTING IN UTAH. 225 easily from cutting's, and thrives where a tree of almost any kind can be grown. In this experiment the Carolina Poplar has proved to be per- fectly hardy, very thrifty, and is a fairly handsome tree. In their nine years of growth the trees have reached an average height of 39 feet, and have attained a circumference of 40 inches. The wood is soft, dark brown in color, and weighs 24 pounds per cubic foot. Fig-. 3 and the row of trees at the left in the cut on the front cover, show the character of the Carolina Poplar very well. This is probably the best species of poplar for gen- eral planting- in this region. To farmers living- where coal is expensive, or must be hauled a great distance, and where timber for fuel is getting scarce, a matter of paramount importance is to plant trees of some sort in such quantities that a supply of timber for fuel can be had. Though the wood does not make the best fuel, yet, all things considered, no tree is better adapted for this purpose in Utah, than the Carolina Poplar. Its qualities, as given above, fit it pre-eminently for this purpose. In growing the trees in a wood- lot, cuttings, either rooted or unrooted, should be set in rows eight or ten feet apart and half that distance from each other in the row; the trees to be thinned when poles large enough for firewood are produced. The young forest will require careful attention in tillage and watering the first year. Fig. 4 shows a two-acre wood -lot of this description that will produce fuel enough to keep a farmer in firewood for ten or twelve years. Bolleana Poplar. {Populus alba bolleana Lauche.) Known also as Bolle's Poplar. This poplar has proved itself to be quite as hardy and almost as thrifty as the Carolina. In growth, during the same number of years, it has reached a few feet greater stature, — 43 feet, — but not quite so great a circumfer- ence,— 29 inches, — as the preceding poplar. In shape, the Bol- leana is much like the more common Lombardy, but differs much from it in color of foliage and trunk, being in respect to color of foliage more like the Silver Poplar and having a hue dis- tinctive to itself for its trunk. It makes a cleaner growth, a more symmetrical, spire-like top, sprouts less, and lives longer than the Lombardy, with which it is so often compared. Its narrow top makes it a poorer shade tree than the Carolina, and ts white foliage and greenish-white shoots and shaft, are a 226 BULLETIN NO. 62. little too striking- to allow of its being- planted extensively as art ornamental. Nurserymen find it diffcult to propagate the Bol- leana from cuttings, and, I believe, must bud or graft it on some species, the cuttings of which form roots more readily. The wood is white and quite heavy, weighing 38 pounds per cubic foot. The lumber is of more value than that of most poplars. Everywhere easily grown. Lombardy Poplar. (Populus nigra italica Du Roi.) This poplar is too well known to need an extended description. A glance at the cut on the front cover, or at the view shown in the frontispiece, recalls its familiar aspect. The Lombardy is the classic poplar of Rome and Athens. A half century ago it was- a favorite everywhere for roadsides and avenges, and was ex- tolled far beyond its merits, but has now fallen into neglect and is to be found only on ancient homesteads in the older parts of the country, or newly planted in the West, where, because of its rapid growth, and the ease with which its numbers are mul- tiplied, it is still grown. Its faults are many. A native of sunn}/ Italy, it is not perfectly hardy in this climate, a fact well shown on these grounds; it becomes old prematurely , and in its decline, shows all the marks of old age; it suffers much from diseases; its narrow top and fastigiate habit make it illy fitted for wind break or shade; and its air of stiffness and formality is inap- propriate about homes, while along roadsides and avenues it is wearisomely monotonous. With all these imperfections, un- shared by several other poplars, there is now but little reason for planting the Lombardy, except for the sake of variety. In our experiment the average height of the trees of this- species is 46 feet, with an average circumference of 40 inches. The wood is soft, weak and light. It should be said, in passing, that there need be no fear of annoyance from down or cotton on the Lombardy poplar; for, as the male and female flowers are seldom borne upon the same tree in the various species of poplar; and, as the cottony substance comes from the seed-pods from the female trees, no cotton is produced, as only the male sex of the Lombardy has been introduced into this country. Silver Poplar. {Populus alba nivea (Wild.) Loud.) Known also as Silver Maple, Snowy Poplar and White Poplar. The Silver Poplar is an old time door-yard favorite, like the Lom- bardy, now deservedly but little planted. At best it was never TREE PLANTING IN UTAH. 227 of value except for shade, and it but poorly served this pur- pose, because of a scarcity of small branches, the straggling- growth of the larger ones, and the sparsity of its foliage. Its. 5 — -A fifteen-ye tr old Silver Poplar standing in a Logan door-yard. ever obtrusive suckers make it a perpetual nuisance in a door- yard; and its branches are whipped about and broken by every gale of wind. The Silver Poplar may be distinguished from several of its. 228 BULLBTIN NO. 62. varieties by its wide extending-, loosely formed branches, which -are nearly horizontal; by its three to five lobed, maple-like leaves, light green on the upper and white on the lower sur- faces. The tree has the good qualities of retaining- its leaves in full verdure to the very end of autumn, of having- a firmer wood than most other poplars, and of living- long-er than any other. Our specimens averag-e 40 inches in circumference and 30 feet hig-h. The wood is somewhat firm, whitish, and rather heavy, weighing- 38 pounds per cubic foot. A fifteen year old Silver Poplar, standing- in a Logan door-yard, is shown in Fig. 5. Balm of Gilead or Balsam* (Populus bahamifera candi- -cans (Ait.) Gray). The Balm of Gilead is a free growing, hardy tree, with an undivided, central shaft, which bears long, .spreading branches. Its leaves are heart-shaped, bright glossy green above and whitish beneath. The buds are large and are covered with a resin, which diffuses a peculiar but agreeable fragrance. The species gets its name from this resin or balm, which is esteemed as a domestic remedy for a number of ail- ments. The Balm of Gileads on our grounds are older than the trees in the experiment proper, so that a comparison of their growth cannot, with fairness, be made with that of the other poplars. In Logan, and in many other towns in Utah, an ordi- nance imposes a fine on citizens who allow Balm of Gilead trees to stand on their premises. The ordinance is an unwise one, in that it does not specify cotton-bearing Balm of Gileads; for only the female tree bears the cotton, and the other sex alone need be propagated and planted. It has many good qualities, and among the poplars this species is our second choice for planting, as a quick growing shade or a roadside tree. It is easily propagated from cuttings, and, while it thrives best on moist, rich lands, it is yet an admirable tree in most soils and situations. Aspen Poplar, (Populus treniuloides. Michx.) Known also -as Aspen, Quaking Asp, White Poplar, Popple and Trem- bling Poplar. This species is a native of the State, but is not -commonly cultivated. Our specimens were brought from the mountains near by. The Aspen is one of the most widely dis- tributed of our American forest trees. In lower altitudes and TREE PLANTING IN UTAH. 229- richer soils than in our mountains, where it is found mostly in Utah, it attains the dimensions of a large forest tree; but, as found here, it is seldom more than sixty feet in height, and a foot in diameter. Transplanted to the Station grounds, it has not proved to be especially thrifty, and is unattractive, lacking symmetry, being too open-headed, and having a paucity of spray and foli- age. The leaves indi- vidually, however, are pp unrivalled in beauty. They are small, very thin, heart-shaped, fine- ly toothed, and are sup- ported by long slender leaf-stocks which are flattened laterally so that the foliage is put in motion by the slight- est breeze, and the rust- ling of the leaves can be heard and their trembling can be seen in the stillest summer weather — a charm in- deed, to any lover of trees. The Aspen is usually transplanted from the mountains, though it grows readily from cuttings. The specimens aver- age, in this experiment, 36 feet in height and 23i inches in cir cumference. The wood is light brown in color, soft and weak; weight 25 pounds per cubic foot. Though a pleasing tree in its wild state, it is hardly to be recommended for transplantation. Narrow-leaved Cotton wood. (Populus angustifolia James.) This Poplar has received no attention in the experiment under consideration, but opportunity offers to give a cut, Fig. 6., showing three trees growing in a neighboring village, and since the species is frequently found under cultivation in the State, . 6 — Narrow-leaved Cottonwoods transplanted fourteen years. 230 BUIXKTIN NO. 62. it may be mentioned here with propriety. It is a native of all this part of the West. The trees shown in the cut have been transplanted fourteen years, and are as fine specimens of the species as are often found, the tree seldom attaining- so great a size as these. The habit of growth is uprig-ht and somewhat pyramidal. The leaves in outline are somewhat like those of the willows, thoug-h larg-er and more lance-shaped, the leaf margins are finely toothed, and the color is a clear, soft green. The Narrow- leaved Cottonwood deserves to be planted much more than does the oftener found Aspen Poplar, especially if the trees can be planted in g-ood rich soil. It is not, however, of nearly so much worth as are some of the preceding sorts. RUSSIAN POPLARS. In recent years a number of poplars have been introduced into America from Russia, several of which are hig-hly recom- mended for the cold and wind-swept Western and North- western States, as well as for the hot and severely dry parts of the country to the south of the above regions. Professor S. B. Oreen,of the Minnesota Experiment Station, in bulletin 9 of that Station; Professor L. H. Bailey, in Bulletin 68 of Cornell, New York, Experiment Station, and Professor J. L. Budd,in various publications of the Iowa Experiment Station, have given attention to these poplars, and what they have written concern- ing- them, is well worth careful reading- by the tree-planters of Utah. Unfortunately but two of these poplars are found in our collection. I have followed Bailey as to the scientific names of these. No record remains as to where the trees on our grounds were obtained, but I suspect they came from the Iowa Experi- ment Station. The following- are the two: Siberian Poplar. {Populus bahamifera intermedia Loud.) This tree, as it grows here, is of close but rather spread- ing- habit. The leaves, in texture and shape, somewhat re- semble those of the Narrow-leaved Cottonwood, common in this State and described above, their outline being- a little more oval, however; they are rather long1, oval-pointed, thick and leathery, finely toothed, white beneath and with a yellowish ting-e on the new wood. It is a pretty tree, has hard, strong- wood; is very resistant of drouth and of extremes of heat and TREE PLANTING IN UTAH. 231 cold; is said to attain a large size and to live long-, and has con- siderable merit for ornamental planting-. With these qualities, the Siberian Poplar can be recommended as a valuable tree to plant. The specimens in the collection here, average 37 feet hig-h and 29 inches in circumference. Its heavy foliage gives it an air of durability that any other poplar, which we know, lacks. It grows from cuttings. Petrovski Poplar. (Popukts laurifolia Led.) Known also as the Certinensis Poplar. Bailey and Green give this poplar credit for being the best of the Russian introductions. But on our grounds, its merits are not so apparent as are those of the Siberian Poplar. It is a more rapid grower, but its habit and foliage do not fit it nearly so well for the shade and shelter for which these trees would be largely planted, and we doubt if there is much difference in the value of the timber of the two species. Both sorts endure extremes of heat and cold per- fectly, and both resist drouth better than any other poplars in our plantation, a fact well shown last season, when they suffered least of all when irrigation was withheld. In form it differs much from the Siberian, having a more upright habit. The leaves are thick and heavy, broadly ovate in form, dark green in color, with a finely toothed margin, and with short, thick, stiff leaf-stocks. The small shoots are covered with down. Our specimens average 40 feet in height and 41| inches in cir- cumference. This poplar, like the preceding one, deserves to be introduced and thoroughly tried on the farms of this region. Eastern nurserymen, and possibly some of the local ones, offer several Russian poplars. THE WILLOWS. For a general purpose, all-around, useful tree, the willows have more merit by far than they are given credit for having. Their dense, tough growth especially fits them for wind breaks; their tenacious roots serve well to hold the soil on banks of rivers, canals, ditches and railway embankments; the wood is light, tough and elastic and serves for many purposes about the farm, for which that of no other tree will answer so well. The wood of some species is highly esteemed for turnery, cooper- age, bats, in carriage making, handles for tools, etc. For all these purposes, willows can be grown in Utah. Osier willows for basket-making and tying purposes, are now being grown some- 232 BULLETIN NO. 62. what in the State, and their acreage could be considerably in- creased with profit. Some species make fine specimens for lawn and for roadside planting-. As a class of trees for general planting, they need much more attention than they have had or are now getting. We have but six species in our experimental plat; all but one of these are importations from Europe. Several of the American Willows are as well worth planting as those described here. Bulletin 9, of the Minnesota Experiment Station, by Professor S. B. Green, contains the best description of European Willows of which we know. The names of the species described are mostly those used by the nurserymen, who offer nearly all of them for sale, and are more than likely somewhat confused. The writer has no means at his command for determining accurately, foreign species of the very per- plexing genus to which the willows belong. Laurel-leaved Willow. (Salix lauri folia L.) Of the for- eign willows on our grounds, the Laurel-leaved seems to be the best. It can be easily made to take the tree form, and when so grown, rapidly makes a good head and a fine, straight trunk. It has, probably, the largest and most beautiful leaves of any of the willows; the foliage has a bright, shiny appearance, as if polished, and seems not to be attacked by fungi or insects. The species is very thrifty, perfectly hardy, and the wood, in its native land, is considered valuable, and will, we think, prove so here. Our specimens have attained an average height of 25 feet and an average circumference of 18 inches. The wood is light in weight, but strong and durable. Fragile Willow. (Salix fragilis L.) The Fragile Willow is a native of Europe, but has escaped from cultivation in many parts of this country. It receives its name from the brittleness of the twigs at their juncture with the larger mem- bers. Crack Willow and Brittle Willow are other names for the same species. In Europe this willow is much valued for its reddish wood, which is said to possess to a hig-h degree, the qualities ascribed to the willows in the preceding paragraph, and to make, besides, splendid fuel; all of which ought to com- mend it to tree-planters of this State. Its bark is said to be of value for tanning fine leather, and charcoal made from its wood is much used in manufacturing gunpowder. The trees are free growing, and eventually become medium-sized forest trees. TREK PLANTING IN UTAH. 233 The average height of our specimens is 20 feet, and the average circumference 18 inches. The leaves are lance-shaped, rather small, with long points, and narrow bases, and have finely saw- toothed margins. The Fragile Willow is very easily propa- gated from cuttings. Golden Willow. (Salix aiirea.} Our specimens of this spe- cies have been allowed to take the bush form, though in Europe they grow as trees, and are, it is said, easily made to take that form in this country. Our bushy specimens would make a splendid wind-break, and, judging from their roots, could be used well for binding the soil of ditches and canals. The leaves of this species are much like those of the Fragile Willow. The bark is of a bright golden color, especially noticeable in the winter, and much admired by some, but quite too conspicuous for extensive ornamental planting. Our bushy specimens average about 16 feet in height. Rosemary-leaved Willow. (Salix rosmarinifolia.) I doubt whether this willow can be used in this region for any purpose excepting as an ornamental, or for a bushy screen or wind- break, as its straggling habit of growth is so pronounced that it would be difficult to make a good tree out of it. It is a rather small willow, and in taking on its bushy form, suckers most vigorously. The leaves are oblong and quite large; they are blue on the underside and always very bright and clean, both from growth and because of immunity from disease and in- sects. The maximum growth in our specimens is 15 feet. Black Willow. (Salix nigra Marsh.) The Black Willow is a native of Utah, and in favored localities reaches the magni- tude of a fair-sized tree. The specimens on our grounds are not growing in the Station arboretum and*are not a part of this experiment, but there are several specimens on the College campus, and the tree has merit enough to deserve to be men- tioned in connection with the other willows. The leaves of the Black Willow are long, narrow, lance-shaped and bright green on both surfaces. This species is one of the largest of the willows; it has a thick set trunk and branches, the latter being spreading and rather upright, forming a handsome, open head. The branchlets are slender and like those of the Fragile Willow, very brittle at the base. The wood is light, soft and weak and checks very badly in drying; weight, 27^ pounds per cubic foot. From the description given above, it can be seen 234 BULLBTIN NO. 62. that the species is of most value for ornamental planting. In most of the towns in Utah, fine specimens of this native Black Willow may be found as dooryard or street trees. NUT TREES. Black Walnuts, English Walnuts, Butternuts, Pecans and Filberts, are the nut trees in the experiment under discussion.' Black Walnut. (Jnglans nigra L.) This species is too well known to need an extend- ed description. The trees are large, with rough, brown fragrant bark; spreading bran- ches; and long, compound lea- ves which have lance - shaped leaflets of a warm, mellow green color, an aromatic odor when crushed, with saw-tooth- ed margins, and are very pubescent un- derneath. The wood of the walnut is our most valuable native wood for cabinet work ; it is of a rich brown mahoga- ny color, very hard and strong The fruit is familiar to all and by all appreciated, the fine flavor of the nuts being considered by many, superior . 7. — A Black Walnut ten years from planting. TKKE PLANTING IN UTAH. 235 to that of any other walnut. The Black Walnut is much liked by lovers of trees, and where it has an abundance of room to attain its full amplitude, and express all its grandeur, majesty and grace, it is inferior to no tree that the landscape gardner can employ. The Black Walnut is a comprehensive feeder and grows well in any rich, moist soil in a temperate climate. It is not a matter of surprise, then, that, transplanted to the rich soil of Utah, and under irrigation, the trees thrive. In Cache Valley, where it is probably as cold as in any other extensive tract of cultivated land in the State, the Black Walnut never winter- kills, and there are to be found very fine specimens of this species twenty -five or more years old which bear, fine crops of nuts. They seem to be able to endure an alkali soil as well or better than any other trees unless it be the Ashes. Fig1. 7 shows a good representative of the Black Walnut ten years from planting, as it grows in this valley. Trees of this species are hard to transplant successfully, because of their long tap-roots, and the operation is best done when the trees are quite young; or, better than resetting, plant the nuts where the trees are wanted. Prune severely in transplanting. The cutting of tap-roots the season before transplanting, by using a sharp spade while the trees are in the ground, is a good practice. The specimens in our plantation have attained an average height of 20 feet, and an average circumference of 15 inches. A market for the nuts of this tree can always be found. Butternut. {Jughms cinerea L.) In general aspect, the Butternut resembles the Black Walnut; it is a smaller tree and not so handsome, as it is often ill-shaped and awkward in habit of growth ; the bark is more of a gray than the brown of the Walnut. While the leaves of the two species are very similar, they differ in those of the Butternut, being darker in color, with fewer leaflets, and in the leaflets being smaller and nar- rower. The nuts of the Butternut are elongated instead of globular, and are not as well flavored as are those of the Wal- nut. While the color of the wood of the Butternut is nearly as good as that of the Walnut, the wood itself is much softer and weaker, and therefore of less value. The Butternut is less hardy and thrifty than the Walnut. The trees in our collection have attained an average height 236 BULLETIN NO. 62. of 18 feet and a circumference of 13^ inches. This species, while not nearly so valuable as the preceding- one, is well worthy a place, judging- from its behavior on our grounds, about homes and along- roads. Like the Walnut, it will stand a large amount of alkali in the soil. English Walnut- (Juglans regia L.) There are a score or more varieties of this and of related species cultivated in America, some of which are of considerable commercial value. Several varieties, the names of which have been lost, were planted in the Station collection, but a high degree of success has not attended the growth of any of them. Nearly every winter the new growth is killed back, and our largest speci- men, nine years from transplantation, now measures but 12 feet in height. In the valleys to the south of here, and in lower alti- tudes, the English Walnut stands the winter very well and bears crops of nuts. In such localities, the varieties of this species should be well tested, both as a tree for home and for commercial planting. The English Walnut is not as valuable either for shelter or for timber as is the Black Walnut. The Hickories. The writer has not seen a Hickory tree growing in Utah; but, judging from the thriftiness of the Wal- nuts, closely related trees, and of similar habit as to growth and environment, the hickories will do well in this State, and can be recommended at least for trial. The hickories, as a class, are fine trees of the first magni- tude; their tops expand into lofty domes of such beauty that they command the admiration of everyone. The timber is exceedingly valuable for many purposes, and can be made use of from the time the saplings are large enough for hoop-poles; it is heavy, strong, elastic and durable, and is unsurpassed for handles of tools, axletrees and other purposes requiring the qualities it possesses. The hickories, like the walnuts, are hard to transplant, and are best reared from the nuts where the trees are to grow. We think a farmer would make no mis- take in trying to grow trees of this species for either ornament or for timber. The Pecan. (Hicoria pecan (Marsh) Britton.) Several Pecan trees were planted with the present collection, but all have been killed by the cold. It is doubtful if this tree can be made to grow in any part of Utah, unless it be in some of the warmest valleys; in such localities it would be well worth try- TREE PLANTING IN UTAH. 237 Ing-; and, if the experiment proved a success, not only would a valuable tree be added to our list, but there would be the addition of another commercial product in the nuts. Filbert. (Corylus avellana L.) Several Filbert bushes are growing- in our collection and are doing- well — making- fine, larg-e plants, that have at various times borne crops of nuts. The Filbert in this country is always grown in bush form, and while not g-enerally considered an ornamental plant, yet it is fairly pretty and is well adapted for a bushy screen. There are several species, most of them more commonly known as Hazel Nuts, but, all thing's considered, the species given above, or one of its horticultural varieties, is the best. Our bushes have attained a heig-ht of 10 feet, and a circumference, as a shrub, of 20 feet. The nuts have a commercial value, and, if not grown in sufficient quantities for the market, are a welcome addition as a product of the soil to the home bill of fare. Young- plants are easily grown from seed, suckers or cuttings; grafting- and budding- are easily effected. AILANTHUS. Tree of Heaven- {Ailanthus glandulosa Desf.) The trees of this species in our collection were grown from seed, and the largest one is now 16 feet high and 144 inches in circumference. The Ailanthus is considered a tender tree as to cold, but, so far, it has withstood our winters without injury, except a little winter-killing- at the tips of the new growth. They have had much protection from other trees, however, and we cannot un- qualifiedly recommend them as hardy for the cold valleys of the State. It may be said that the Ailanthus will stand any climate in which the peach is cold-proof and will bear fruit. The Ailanthus is a native of China, where it is a large tree. In habit, it is quite stately, and for this, and for the beauty of its large, compound leaves, which are bright and verdant throughout the whole summer, it is much admired. The flowers are small, greenish in color, and are borne in upright clusters; they last for some time, and emit an odor that is very disagreeable to most people and is nauseating to some. For this reason the tree should not be planted near the house. Our specimens are very irregular in size and sprout badly from the roots. The wood is close grained, and when polished, has a fine 238 BULLETIN NO. 62. lustre, and I judge would be of some value for cabinet wood. The tree will grow in the most meagre or barren soil. CATALPAS. Hardy Catalpa. (Catalpa speciosa Warder.) Two species of the Catalpa are grown in this region; these are the one under consideration, and the Common Catalpa (Catalpa calalpa (L.) Karsten). The former is by far the more common one, and is the only one we have on our grounds. Though it is much the hardiest of the two catalpas, yet it kills back somewhat in this valley. During- the nine years of tjieir existence, alternate growth and winter killing-, have prevented our trees becoming- very fair specimens of the species. They have attained an aver- age heig-ht, however, of 18 feet, and a circumference of 22 inches. The trees are in an exposed part of the plantation, and not in the best soil; and, since there are, in this locality, a number of specimens of this Catalpa sufficiently thrifty and hardy, per- haps our experience in this experiment should not be taken as conclusive. We are trying a large number of Hardy Catalpas in the new plantation, where their value will be better tested. The large, heart-shaped, yellowish-green leaves of the Catalpa, are generally much admired. The flowers, too, are thought to be beautiful by most people. The latter come in large clusters, are snowy white in color, and are borne so abun- dantly as to nearly hide the foliage of the tree. Both leaves and flowers appear late in the spring, the latter not coming until nearly midsummer. The Hardy Catalpa is easy to propa gate, easy to transplant, grows rapidly, and suffers but little from the onslaughts of insects and diseases; it is, therefore, well adapted for timber plantations in this region, in localities where it does not winter-kill. A good guide in the matter of climate is the peach; where this tree will grow, it is safe to plant the Catalpa. The wood is soft, weighs 26 pounds per cubic foot, and is brown in color; it is said to make good fence posts, being very durable. The tree is not a long lived one, and the trunk, in old age, is liable to be decayed at the center. The Catalpa grows best in a rich, moist bottom-land. THE BIRCHES. It is to be regretted that more of the birches, and greater numbers of the species we have, were not planted in the ex- TREE PLANTING IN UTAH. 239 periment under consideration. For, with our present limited experience with them, it cannot be said that they are a success, and yet I hesitate to say they are a failure. We have but the two following" species : Canoe or Paper Birch. (Betula papyrifera Marsh.) This species, in its habitat, reaches the magnitude of a true forest tree, and is, perhaps, the thriftiest of all the birches. It is a noble tree, having- a tall, straight shaft, which bears a massive canopy of bright green leaves; the bark, though white, has not the snowiness of a true white birch. Its wood is red- dish brown, is strong- and hard, and weighs 37 pounds per cubic foot. We have now but four specimens of this species; these have made a very slow growth; their average height is 18 feet, and their average circumference 13£ inches. From its behavior in this experiment, the Canoe Birch seems to have but few qualities to recommend it for this region. White Birch. (Betula populifolia Marsh.) There are no trees to which the terms white, black, red and yellow are so well applied as to the various species of the birch which bear these names. In every case, the color so plainly demonstrates the propriety of the name, that no person could mistake the species to which the epithet is applied. Of the one under con- sideration, this is particularly true. The White Birch is a small, slender tree, seldom reaching a greater height than 50 feet, having smooth, snowy white bark. It grows best on a light, dry soil. Our specimens are growing on the lawn as ornamentals, a purpose for which they are hardly surpassed, if planted as specimen trees. On the College cam- pus, it cannot be said they have done particularly well; but near by in the park surrounding the Logan Temple, and about several homes in the city of Logan, are a number of white birches, and better specimens could hardly be found. This, and its horticultural varieties, have finely divided branches, which incline to a drooping habit, or assume that habit, and bear slender, feathery sprays of small, tremulous leaves, some- times cut, which make them, altogether, remarkably elegant and graceful trees. Poets call it "the lady of the woods." It looks best planted as a specimen tree, where it can have a back ground of tall shrubs or small trees. 240 BULLETIN NO. 62. THE ALDKRS. European Alder. (Alnus glntinosa (L.) Gaertn.) Closely related to the birches are the alders, one of which, the Narrow- leaf Alder (Alnus tenuifolia Nutt.) is found in Utah. The European Alder promises to do well here. Our specimens are shapely, thrifty trees, 22 feet in height, and 21-J- inches in cir- cumference. In its habitat, this tree reaches a maximum height of 75 feet, and has a trunk diameter of 2i feet; the branches of the tree are nearly horizontal ; its bark is smooth ; and its foliage is glutinous; in appearance, much like that of the birches. It is a plain, homely tree; not well suited for ornamental planting, but of considerable value for several utilitarian purposes. In Europe, the alder is much used to strengthen the banks of streams and ditches, its roots forming a strong subterranean net work. It may prove to be valuable in this region for the same purpose. Its thriftiness commends it also. This far north and in this high altitude, it suffers a little from winter- killing, and perhaps ought to be tested more thoroughly for hardiness, before it is planted largely in any locality, where it might be winter-killed. It likes an abundance of moisture and a rich soil. It can be reared from seed or from cuttings. THE ELMS. The American and the European Elms in this part of Utah, make a steady, thrifty growth, and as they near maturity, become fine trees. There are on our grounds a great number of American Elms and a few European Elms; and, all things considered, they are as satisfactory, and perhaps the most satisfactory, of any trees we have. From their behavior here and in the surrounding country, we think they deserve to be planted more generally than any other hard-wood tree. It is possible that the Cork Elm, which I am told does well in some parts of Nevada, might be as desirable in this State as are the two species named above. In the East, the Cork Elm is one of the hardiest and one of the most vigorous growers of all orna- mental trees. It thrives in almost every soil. This, and its rich, dark green foliage, which hangs long after frost, recom- mend it to tree-planters. White Elm. (Ulmus Americana L.) Our trees of this species, in the experiment under consideration, are planted on a TREE PLANTING IN UTAH. 241 gravelly knoll, about the poorest soil in the plantation, and the trees, as could be expected, are not at their best. Nevertheless they have made a fair growth and now average 24 feet in height and 'Z\Y\ inches in circumference. They are exposed to a strong canyon wind, and have had some branches broken, and lean strongly away from the wind current. Their liability to be deformed by the wind, and to suffer from the at- tacks of the green aphis, are the chief objections to planting this elm. The spe- cies is easily grown from seed ; it readily recovers from transplanting, as it scarcely has a tap root; and it thrives in most Utah soils, though it prefers a deep rich one, and will grow with greater luxuri- ance if there •u A **iff- &-—An Eight-year-old American Elm Growing in Logan. oe an aDiinci- ance of moisture. In transplanting, Elms should be well cut back. The wood of the Elm is heavy, weighing 40 pounds per cubic foot, is close grained, and dark-brown in color; it is not especially valuable. Figure 8 shows an eight- year-old American elm growing near the Station. European Elm. (Ulmus camestris L.) The European 242 BULLETIN NO. 62. elms on our grounds are small, not being- included in the trees- planted nine years ago, hence it is not fair to compare the growth they have made with the other trees here described. In the city of Logan and some of the nearby towns, handsome specimens of this elm can be seen frequently. By some planters it is thought to be a better tree than its American cousin, being- more sturdy in habit, thus resisting- the winds better, and not suffering- at all from the attacks of the aphis. But the elms should be planted largely for their beauty and the European one is not nearly as handsome as the American tree. In many respects the two species are similar, the chief dif- ferences being- in the sturdiness of the European Elm and the drooping- and more graceful habit of the native species. It is said that the leaves of the European tree show a week or ten days earlier and continue that much later than do those of the American FUm — a strong- point in favor of the foreign tree. The timber of the European Elm is more valuable than is that of the American. There are several fine varieties of this species sold by nurserymen, all of which are worthy of trial. THE SYCAMORES. The Sycamore, Buttonwood or Plane-tree. (PI a tan us occi- dentalis L.) Several plants of this species grown from seed planted where the trees now stand, are growing slowly but steadily. The trees are yet small, having only attained the height of 17 feet and a circumference of 13 inches. The forestry records show that several Sycamores were set in the plantation, but these have disappeared, and it is further stated that these trees suffered severely from winter-killing, it is probable that the)7 have succumbed to the cold. The Sycamore, then, is not perfectly hardy in the colder parts of Utah. At a lower altitude, or a little farther south, the species, no doubt, is hardy. The Sycamore is a well known tree in the states east of the Mississippi. In this region it is counted the largest forest tree. It is remarkable not only for its size, but for its thin bark which it sheds, leaving a smooth white surface, the tree thus becom- ing a conspicuous figure in any landscape. The foliage is sparse and the rusty green leaves resemble those of the grape in color and outline. Nurserymen claim that the following species is better than this one for planting in Utah : TREE PLANTING IN UTAH. 243 European Sycamore- (Platamts oriental i:s L.) This spe- cies is said to surpass the native Sycamore in rapidity of growth and in thriftiness, though it is not thought to be as beautiful. The botanical differences between the two are chiefly in the size and shape of the leaves, those of this species being- smaller and more deeply lobed than those of the former. The wood of the sycamores is not of particular value, be- ing- weak and hard to work. It is rather heavy, weighing- 35 pounds per cubic foot. The sycamores are recommended for planting- in this State only to secure variety. Their behavior here does not at all correspond with their reputation in the East as trees for gen- eral planting-. THE MOUNTAIN ASH. Mountain Ash. (Pyrus Americana Marsh.) There are two mountain ashes commonly cultivated in Utah. One is a native of the State, the Elderleaf Mountain Ash, (Pyrus sam- Inici folia Cham & Schlecht), and the other is the Eastern species. All the specimens of the species under consideration have been removed from the Station grounds to the College campus. The transplanted trees have made a good growth and are fine trees; as this is pretty generally true wherever the trees have been planted in this Valley, it is safe to say the Mountain Ash will thrive in most parts of the State. The Mountain Ash is a small tree: the native one, in most cases, can only be classed as a shrub. As a tree it is very at- tractive, whether for its large clusters of flowers, its scarlet fruit hanging until winter, or for its neat, elegant, bright green foliage. The wood is of little or no value, and the only purpose for which the tree can be planted is as an ornamental, for which it is quite a favorite and deservedly so. It is well adapted for a small collec- tion of plants, as it takes but little room and thrives in almost any soil or situation. The Mountain Ash is easily propagated from seed, which, in all cases should be sown in the fall. The best specimens are obtained by grafting it on roots of the Pear or Hawthorn. THE MAPLES. The maples are probably the most important forest trees growing on this continent. They are of value for their wood,. 244 BULLETIN NO. 62. for the production of sugar, are unsurpassed as trees for shade and shelter, and find almost any soil or situation in a temperate climate congenial. Yet, strang-e to say, they have been planted but little in Utah, if we except the Box Elder, which, from a botanical standpoint, must be called a maple. Their superior merits for general planting- consist of a strong-, steady growth, beauty of form and verdure, freedom from pests, and the ease with which they are transplanted. The high esteem in which maples are held wherever trees are planted in temperate cli- mates is a great testimonial of their worth. It would be hard to say why they are not better thought of in this State. The cur- rent objection that they are slow in growing-, applies to all other trees in this region that are worth having. The forcing of their sale by nurserymen would do much in aiding a more general distribution of them, which they certainly deserve. There are several European maples, as well as nearly all that are natives of this continent, that will thrive in Utah, but we can give attention only to the three representatives found on our grounds. In parts of the State where the climate is a little milder than here, some of the Japanese maples, probably, can be grown and would make beautiful ornamentals. Sugar Maple. (Acer saccharum Marsh.) This tree hardly needs to be described, so frequently is it to be found. It is the commonest and largest of the maples in this country, and among them all furnishes the best timber and the densest shade. The foliage appears early in the spring and hangs long after the drop- ping of the leaves of most other trees, displaying all through the autumn a great variety of autumnal tints, making the Sugar Maple at this season the most beautiful objectof natural scenery. These qualities make this species one of the best of shade and road-side trees. The Sugar Maple needs to be transplanted when young and should be cut back severely, otherwise it suffers from the change. For the first few years after it is transplanted its growth is slow. Our trees, nine years from transplanting, average 23 feet in height, and 15 inches in circumference. They are iron-clad as to cold but suffer from lack of water, and greatly dislike alkali. The wood is hard, strong and heavy; weight per cubic foot, 43 pounds. Black Sugar Maple* (Acer saccharinum nignim (Michx.) Britton. ) This tree is distinguished from the former by its TREK PLANTING IN UTAH. 24S rough, blackish bark, slightly smaller size, and a few other un- important differences. The wood is about the same as that of the Sugar Maple. It is thought by most people to be a prettier tree than the former. As an ornamental it is most valuable. There are but three specimens of this tree on our grounds, not enough to make the mentioning of their measurements worth the while. The local nurserymen think it is a better tree for general planting than the Sugar Maple. Silver Maple. (Acer saccharinum L.) The most grace- ful of maples is the Silver, a name given it from the shining white- ness of the under surface of the leaves, which forms a striking contrast with the green of the upper surface, and from the white- ness of the trunk of the older trees. While it grows to be a large tree it has a much more slender habit of growth than that of most other maples. Its branches are long and in full grown trees droop considerably. The silvery hue of the leaves, their pretty shape and gracefulness in hanging, make it an admirable ornamental. Both this and a horticultural variety of it, Weir's Cut-leaved Silver Maple, are to be recommended for trees about homes. Our specimens average 24 feet in height and 13 inches in circumference. The timber, I judge, is not of as much value as is that of some of the other maples. The Sycamore Maple* (Acer pseudoplatanus L.) and the Norway Maple, (Acer platanoides L.) the latter in particular, have many good qualities and in some locations seem to do bet- ter than the species named above. These two are the finest of the foreign maples offered by nurserymen, and are highly esteemed in Europe. The former, as its name indicates, resembles the Sycamore, but the leaves are smoother and more like those of the maples in general. It grows with a large open head composed of widely spreading branches. The leaves of the Norway Maple also resemble those of the Syca- more somewhat. The bark of the trunk of the latter tree is rough, brown in color, looking much like that of the native maples. The tree is free and spreading in its growth. Box Elder* (Acer negundo L.) For the people of this- region the Box Elder needs no description whatever. It is planted more than any other one species. The qualities that, have commended it for this general planting, are: its rapidity of growth, hardiness, and its extra value for shade and shelter, It is also a better tree for timber and domestic use, having a. 246 BULLETIN NO. 62. tougher and more valuable wood, than have most others of the rapidly growing" trees. It makes, too, a good live fence post. Added to these qualities, it may be grown from seed very readily and is transplanted easily. Fig. 0.— The Box Elder. The Box Elder has made the best growth of any tree in our experiment. The average height of the specimens is 35 feet, and the average circumference, 40 inches. A bad quality TREE PLAN! ING IN UTAH. 247 •of the Box Elder is that their seed litter the ground, and, by hang-ing- on the trees throug-h the winter, give them an unkempt appearance. Insects infest them more than they do any other of our shade trees, and they often become a nuisance from this source. The wood is not as valuable as that of other maples, being- softer and weaker ; weight per cubic foot, 27 pounds. Fig-. 9 shows the dense, symmetrical dome of a Box Elder growing a few miles from the Station grounds. THE LOCUSTS. The Black Locust and the Honey Locust, commonly so called, are here grouped tog-ether, more because of the similarity of their common names than because of relationship; for, as their scientific names indicate, they do not belong- to the same g-enus. Black Locust. (Robiiiia pseudacacia L.) Considering its rapid growth, its hardiness, the ease with which it is multi- plied and transplanted, its adaptability to various situations, .and its value for fuel, fence posts and other minor uses about the farm, the Black Locust is a valuable tree for the pioneer in this region. It mig-ht well be planted in wood lots for the uses named above, in place of the poplars that are now more com- monly planted. The tree is given this recommendation, not alone from its behavior on the grounds here, where it is one of the most satisfactory trees in the plantation, but after a care- ful inquiry as to its status at large in the State. Our nine-year old trees are good healthy specimens, averaging- 23 feet in height, and 22 inches in circumference. For ornamental plant- ing, the Black Locust is not to be so hig-hly recommended as it is for timber planting. The trees are entirely devoid of beauty for a large part of the year, in fact they are quite unsightly, being unsymmetrical and scragly in habit, and bearing- the withered seed pods and leaves throug-hout the winter and until June, at which late date, long after most other trees are in full foliage, it puts forth its leaves, to remain, however, but for a brief period, as they fall earliest of all in the autumn. Clothed in verdure, and all its deformities hidden, it is a fairly beautiful tree, its beauty being heightened in early summer by an abun- danceof pendulous clusters of white, sweet-scented flowers. The foliage dropping- on the ground, fertilizes it, and spots of lawn, shaded by this tree, are g-enerally fresh and luxuriant. The 248 BULLETIN NO. 62. trees sprout badly and are rather short lived. It is easily propa- gated from seed, suckers or cuttings, though the first is by far the best method of propagation. It likes best a deep, rich, sandy soil, where its growth is wonderfully vigorous; in such a soil, an immense number can be planted on a small area of ground. The wood is greenish brown on the outside, but the sap wood is yellow. The timber !js strong, heavy, very durable, and reaches a large size; weight per cubie foot, 46 pounds. Fig. 10 shows an eight-year old black locust. Honey Locust* {Gleditsia triacanthos L.) This species bears considerable resemb- lance to the Black Locust, and belongs to the same family; unimportant botanical differ- ences placing the two in differ- ent genera. Its leaves and leaflets are of a brighter green than those of the former; and its flowers, while borne the same, are inconspicuous in comparison, and are greenish instead of white. All in all,, it has a much finer appearance than the other species. Its branches spread out and form a fine, broad, dome-like head; and, though it is verdure-cov- ered but little longer than the Black Locust, it has none of the dead, scragly and un- sightly limbs, always to be found on that tree. It suck- ers but little, and is seldom a nuisance in that respect. The branches of this tree are thickly armed with strong, Fig. IQ.-An Eight-Year-Old Black Locust. n>, three-branched thorns. The Honey Locust is not so rapid a grower as the Black Locust, but eventually becomes a larger tree and lives longer; its wood is TRKE PLANTING IN UTAH. 249 not so valuable. Planted thickly, it makes a good hedge, for which it is oftentimes used. The trees on our grounds have reached a height of 21>2 feet, and a circumference of 19 inches. They resist the cold perfectly, and seem to be free from pests of any description. The wood weighs 42 Ibs. per cubic foot, is brownish in color and of du- rable quality. Both this and the above spe- cies should be severely prun- ed in transplan- ting. The Hon- ey Locust likes moisture and a rich soil, but will grow in most situations suitable for tree-planting in Utah. It is best 11. — The Honey Locust, eight years from transplanting. p r opagat e d from seed. Three-thorned ^acia, Sweet Locust, Thorny Locust, Honey Shucks, and Thorn Tree are common syno- nyms for the Honey Locust. THE ASHES. Trees of the first magnitude, of quick growth, iron-clad as to cold, free from insects and diseases, their wood most valuable, and easily transplanted and cared for, the ashes have much to commend them for planting in this region. The roots of the trees of this class are found near the surface; and this probably accounts for the fact, that no commonly planted trees grow as well in an alkali or mineral soil as the ash, the mineral sub- stance generally being considerably below the surface. There are several species of ashes sold by dealers in trees, and all of these can be. recommended for trial planting. We have but 250 BULLETIN NO. 62. two species growing in ourplat, the English Ash and the White Ash, both doing- well. A third, the Green Ash (Fraxinus lan- ccohita Borck.),isa native of the State. Of these three, of which we can speak with certainty, the White Ash is much the best. White Ash. (^Fraxinus americana L.) The cut accom- panying this paragraph, Fig. 12, shows well the general charac- terof the White Ash. It has a compact, hand- some top, not formal and stiff but with long, flowing leaves, disposed in ir- regular masses, the whole tree having a pleas- ing air of grace and lightness. In winter, how- ever, the stiff, blunt branches give the tree an appearance not at all in keeping with its sum- mer elegance. The ashes are all apt to be tardy in leafing in the spring, and premature in dropping their leaves in the autumn, facts very noticeable in our plan- tation. The wood is hard, strong and heavy; weight per cubic foot, 41 pounds. For all purposes, where strength and elas- ticity are wanted, as for the various implements of husbandry, the wood of the ash, after that of the hickory, is most gener- ally used. The trees in the Station plat have had their branches badly Fig. 12.— A White Ash, five years old. PLANTING IN UTAH. 251 deformed by a strong- prevailing- wind; this, perhaps, should be noted against all ashes, and care be taken not to plant them in a location constantly exposed to a strong wind current. English Ash. ( _F-ntxmus excelsior L.) Some nurserymen in the State prefer the English to the American Ash, claiming- that it makes a more rapid growth, and that it is a prettier tree. While from experience at the Station the first is not true, yet, from other trees in the neighborhood, it seems probable that it may be, but the second , with equally well grown trees, most people will not admit. The leafing period of the English tree is shorter than that of the American tree, and both leaves and branches are more affected by the prevailing winds. The leaves of the English Ash are larg-er and greener than those of the American, and the leaflets are sessile and serrated, while those of our trees are not; the foliage and branches, as a whole, lack much of the elegance and trimness of the latter. While either tree can be recommended for planting, the native species can be most highly recommended. • Green Ash, (Fraxinns lanceolata Borck.) The Green Ash is a native of Utah, and most of our readers are. familiar with its general characteristics. Under cultivation on our grounds, it is much inferior to the preceding species in growth and beauty. The same report comes from other parts of the State; yet, as a rule, a tree thrives best near its habitat, and, as a well grown Green Ash is a fine tree, the species ought to find some favor in Utah. THE LINDENS OR BASSWOODS. There are two species of the Linden, commonly cultivated, the American and the English, the latter of which has a num- ber of horticultural varieties, worthy a far more general dis- semination than they now have. Both species are growing on our grounds, and both are to be seen frequently in different parts of the State, and, always making a g-ood record for them- selves. American Linden, ( Tilia americana L.) The trees of this species in our plantation have not had a fair chance, and the record of their growth here given, does not do them justice. The trees stand in an outcrop of gravelly cement, which would have meant death to a less thrifty plant long- before this. As grown here, the tree is entirely hardy , and will prove to be so in 252 BULLETIN NO. 62. any part of the State. The habit of the Linden makes it especially well adapted for street planting-. It is of large size, with much spreading- branches, covered with a fine mass of rather large, heart-shaped, whitish leaves. In the spring- it bears clusters of small, fragrant, yellow flowers which contain much honey and make the tree a g-ood one to have about bee yards. It likes a deep and fertile soil, into which it readily en- dures transplanting-. The wood, unless grown in quantities sufficiently great to allow of its use in paper mills, or for manu- facturing into woodenware, is of small value, being weak and light; weight, 28 pounds per cubic foot. The inner bark of the Linden is used for a number of purposes, as for mats, tying, etc. European Linden. (Till a curopaea L.) The European Linden differs from the former species in making a more com- pact and erect growth, but not so large a one; its leaves are smaller, less glabrous and more cordated; a more specific dif- ference is that of the absence of scales at the base of the petals in the foreign species. The tree as grown on our grounds, and in this locality, is hardy and thrifty and of much merit for general planting. Our nine-year old trees are 19 feet in height, and 15 inches in circumference. The timber of this species is of the same quality and value as that of the former. The texture of the wood of both species is such that the branches are easily deformed by the wind. Both are easily grown from seed, or increased from layers or suckers; in transplanting they should be well shortened in. They stand trimming re- markably well. THE MULBERRIES. We have two Mulberries growing in the tree plantation, the White Mulberry and its variety, the Russian. The former may be found growing in several localities in the State, having been widely planted as food for the silk-worm, the rearing of which has been an embryonic industry in this State for some years. The Russian Mulberry is also planted for the same purpose, and for hedges and as an ornamental. Both well can be, and perhaps are, grown for fence posts and other uses about the farm. The fruit, while recommended by some horti- culturists, is unappreciated by the people of Utah, and is con- sidered a nuisance so great because of its littering the ground, TREE PLANTING IN UTAH. 253 that it often debars the use of the tree for ornamental planting-. I believe, however, that the Black Mulberry, of which I have riot seen a tree in the State, is the only species that produces fruit of much merit. The Red Mulberry, like the Black, is not found, to my knowledge, in the State. White or Silk Mulberry, (Morns alba L.) This tree is a native of China, where it has been cultivated for ages for its leaves, which are used as food for the silk-worm. It is not known when the tree was introduced in America, but nursery- men have offered it for sale for at least a half century. Many of the trees sold by nurserymen are seedling's, and, since all trees that have escaped from cultivation are such, it is not to be wondered at that scarcely any two specimens of the species to be found are alike, and that their great variation can be so com- monly remarked upon. At its best the Mulberry reaches the magnitude of most forest trees, but is more often found attaining- a height of from 40 to 60 feet, and a diameter from 1 to 2 feet. The timber is of first-class quality and very lasting. Some of the trees make fairly pretty ornamentals, though, to my mind, they are never really handsome. Nurserymen offer several horticultural varieties of this species, some of which possess merits quite superior to the type-plant, either for ornamental planting, or as food for the silk-worm. The following is one of these: The Russian Mulberry* (Mortis alba tartarica (L.) Loud.) This tree does not differ in any important botanical characters from the former. It is usually not so large, with a bushier top, smaller and morelobedleaves, with smaller fruit which varies from white to violet, red or black, and is insipid to the taste. The trees are hardier than those of the above, and the wood is said to be firmer, and hence better for posts, etc. The variety grows rapidly and makes a good screen or hedge. Our trees average 22 feet in height, and 18 inches in diameter. PROPAGATION OF THE MULBERRY. Mrs. Margaret Caine, President of the State Silk Com- mission, tells me that many people are deterred from rearing silk-worms because of not being able to get suitable mulberry trees upon which to feed the worms; and that she thinks that some individual trees of a species are better than others for this purpose. She asks that directions be given in this Bulletin. 254 BULLETIN NO. 62. for the propagation of young- trees from these particularly good specimens. To produce plants from a desirable mulberry is not at all difficult. It may be done as follows: Take cuttingssevenor eight incheslongof the current year's growth late in the fall, tie them in bundles, and store in damp sawdust, or damp sand, in the cellar, or bury them out of doors under the frost line; as soon as the weather is settled and before the leaves expand the following- spring-, set the cuttings half their length in a sunny, well tilled part of the garden. A large per cent of them will grow. The cuttings will strike root somewhat better in a hot bed or greenhouse than they will out of doors. Nurserymen can easily graft or bud desirable scions on seedling roots, thus making a good and cheap tree. Some enterprising nurseryman should propagate and sell a good strain of the White Mulberry to those desiring trees for silk- worm rearing. THE OAKS. Originally there were three species, of several specimens each, of oaks in the plantation ; the Burr Oak )Querms macro- carpa Michx.), the Swamp Oak (Quercus bicolor Willd.), and the English Oak (Qiiercus rolmr}, but of all these not one remains. It is impossible for the writer to say, having taken charge of the experiment since their disappearance, what caused the death of the trees. The records show that some specimens of each species lived and made a fair growth for the first few years and then perished. None, according to the records, seemed to have been injured by cold or disease, and since a number of young oaks now growing near by in the new arboretum seem to thrive in similar soil, it is probable that their deaths may be attributed to drouth and heat, both of which are disastrous to these trees; a likely supposition from the fact that the plantation has at different times suffered much from lack of water. In the new forestry experiment there are a dozen specimens each ot twenty species of oaks all of which seem to be doing well. By cutting the tap roots a year beforehand these have been transplanted without the loss of a plant, and, with this precaution, and a little extra care, oaks may be readily removed; the difficulty of transplanting eliminated, they can be grown as readily as can other hardwoods. There seems to me to be no reason why the oaks, trees TREE PLANTING IN UTAH. 255 without compeer for utility and beauty, — the grandest, most beautiful, and most picturesque of all deciduous trees, — shotild not be planted in Utah. Let every lover of trees try them. It is certain that among the many kinds offered by nurserymen, natives of our land and foreign lands, some will be found adapted to Utah's climate and soil. They should be transplanted when very young or reared from seed sown where they are to stand. CONIFEROUS TREES. I doubt whether any of the conifers can be grown in Utah for other purposes than for that of an ornament unless it be for windbreaks, and even here the quick growing poplars and the Box Elder are preferable. But no one having an assemblage of trees for ornamental purposes can afford not to have some con- ifers. The shade and shelter they afford, the sentiment which their various forms of beauty inspire, the healthful and pleas- ant aroma which they diffuse in the atmosphere about them, and their uniqueness in contrast with the commoner deciduous tree, especially in that they are evergreen, make it almost indispensible that there be some evergreens about ou.r homes. That they are not more commonly planted is accounted for by the reputation they have in the severely dry region of the West, of being hard to transplant and slow in growth. The first need not be true, and the following paragraph, we hope, will suggest how some of the difficulties may be avoided: TRANSPLANTING CONIFERS. First of all, to be rightly transplanted, a conifer must be taken out of the ground, with its system of roots entire. Thus removed, with proper after-treatment, and carefully replanted, the tree need not suffer the loss of the smallest twig, and need scarcely feel its removal. But a great deal depends on the after-treatment. Nurserymen generally understand the dig- ging, packing and shipping of their trees very well, and send them out, as a rule, in good condition; it is safe to say that the majority of trees are lost through neglect and bad treat- ment after having been received by the planter. When trees reach their destination from the nursery they should be at once unpacked and "heeled in" tightly, so that moist, mellow earth 256 BULLETIN NO. 62. will come in contact with all the roots. In handling- the trees, carefully avoid all unnecessary exposure to the air. If the evergreens are small, dip the root in a thin puddle of clay and water before "heeling- in". In planting-, dig the hole a little larger than the roots require so that the ground be well loosened to provide for good drainage, the growth of young roots, and a mellow feeding ground. Take but a few trees at a time to the place of setting, being careful not to expose the roots even for a minute to the sun or wind; if any roots are broken, cut them off with a sharp knife, leaving a smooth wound which will quickly callus over. Set each tree a little deeper than it was in the nursery. Fill in the hole care- fully, with fine, mellow soil, and pack it as closely as possible with a good stout rammer. Newly transplanted conifers are much benefited by shading as the evaporation from the leaves is a serious tax on the injured roots which must supply as much moisture at this time as when the root system is in good health. Hence, besides the necessity of supplying a generous quantity of moisture for the roots, it is well to retard the influence of the sun and dry air on the tops as much as possible. This shading can be done with canvas, coarse bagging, lath screens, etc. The heat on the roots, espec- ially with young evergreens, is injurious also, and should be prevented by mulching with straw or litter of some kind. Trees brought from the forest have usually grown in the shade and are more tender and are in greater need of protection from the sun and wind than those grown in the nursery. Evergreens that have been several times transplanted demand less care in the matter of shading, and in most other operations of resetting, than do those from seed-beds or the forest. "White Pine, (JPinus strobns L.) Unfortunately, for this is one of the prettiest of America's native trees, the White Pine seems not to thrive in Utah. The tree makes a slow and uneven growth and its foliage is sparse, of poor color, and drops if the trees have the least ailment. The above is particularly true of our own trees, and from observation I believe it to be pretty generally true throughout the State. The White Pine is distinguished from other pines by its leaves being five in a bundle, three to five inches long, slender, pale green in color, and glaucous; the branches are horizontal TREE PLANTING IN UTAH. 257 and verticillate; the bark is nearly smooth; the cones are cyl- inderic, long", and generally slightly curved. The average size of the few specimens we have remaining in the experimental plat is: height, 14 feet; circumference, 12 inches. All of them have an unthrifty look and it is only a ques- tion of a few years when all will be dead. From our experience in the new forest plantation, the White Pine, among several species of several thousand specimens each, is the hardest to successfully transplant. The wood of the White Pine, as every one knows, is one of the most valuable of timbers; it is nearly white, soft, but com- pact; weight per cubic foot, 24 pounds. Scotch Pines* (Piints sylvestris L.) The behavior of the Scotch Pines is far more satisfactory than that of the White. Their growth has been much more rapid and robust, and their appearance is much thriftier. Where both trees thrive, this species is not so handsome as the former; it has harsher, coarser foliage, which is of a less pleasing color, the leaves being of a silvery shade, while those of the White Pine are light blueish green. The Scotch Pine, is, too, less regular in habit of growth, and specimens of the species vary much in appearance. But, for this region, there is no question as to which is the better of the two. The Scotch is far and away superior to the other in almost all respects. In the plant- ing of the young conifers mentioned in the preceding para- graph, the Scotch Pines proved to be the most easily trans- planted of any, and up to the present time have been the least aifected by drouth and heat of any — a splendid quality for this climate. The chief botanical characters of the Scotch Pine are: leaves, two in a bundle, short and coarse, silvery green, and borne in abundance; the bark is rather rough; the branches are ascending and clustered, with a tendency to die out at the bottom of the tree. In habit it is inclined to grow tall and ro- bust. The cones are short, pyramidal in shape, with loose scales. This is the common pine of Northern Europe, where it is much valued for timber and for park planting. Our speci- mens average 18 feet in height, and 16 inches in circumference. All of the nurserymen of the State with whom I have talked, think more highly of the Scotch than of the White Pine, but some prefer the Austrian (Pinus austriaca L.) to either. 258 BULLBTIN NO. 62. While, unfortunately, we have no old specimens of the latter species on the grounds, yet in the new experiment the Scotch Pines have proved much the easier to handle and are more re- sistant of drouth. They are, too, far more rapid growers and more robust trees. To the eye of the cultivator, the Austrian differs from the Scotch Pine, in having- a more spreading- habit of growth, and coarser, longer, darker green needles. So far as our new plantation now shows, the Austrian is next best to the Scotch Pine for this region. A fuller trial may prove the Bull Pine to be equal of either. Blue Spruce. (Picea pungens Engel.) A native of Utah known in the State as Parry's Spruce and Colorado Blue Spruce. For an ornamental evergreen, this is, perhaps, the best of all for this State. In its natural environment, thriving in any moist, well drained soil, exceedingly beautiful and attrac- tive, it would be hard indeed to find for this region an ornamen- tal that would surpass or equal it. Our specimens have attained an average height of 15 feet and a circumference of 12 inches. Fig. 11, shows a Blue Spruce removed from the experimental plat last winter to the College campus; as the cut shows, it is a very handsome tree for the lawn. The Blue Spruce at maturity reaches a height of 100 feet, is very tall in proportion to its circumference, and is spire-like in shape, with very short branches. The foliage has a beautiful, blueish tint which gives the tree its name. This fine coloring is especially noticeable in young specimens and in these it is apt to be somewhat variable; in older trees the foliage assumes a deeper green and a less variable cast. The bark is thin, except at the base of the tree, and of a brownish color; the twigs vary from brown to yellow, depending on their age. The cones are about three inches long and half as wide, cylindric in shape, and light yellow in color. The wood is of value for lumber and paper. This tree is a favorite one in Utah, and in the Eastern States and in Europe as well, for ornamental planting, and well deserves its popularity. Judging from experience on these grounds it is not at all a difficult tree to transplant, and when young can easily be brought down from its home in the moun- tains. Its greatest defect is, that with old age it becomes ragged and unkempt, showing all the marks of old age. Norway Spruce* (Picea excelsa L.) While of all the PLATE //. A nine-year-old Blue Spruce removed, after attaining its present size, from the Station Grounds to the College Campus. TREE PLANTING IN UTAH. 259 spruces planted in this country, this one is the most favorably known, yet it is doubtful if it is wise to plant it largely in Utah. Its great merits elsewhere, are, that it is very hardy and makes a rapid growth, but in this State it is not more hardy than the native Blue Spruce just described, and in the plantation here has not made nearly so rapid and thrifty a growth ; moreover, the former has far more beauty as would be apparent to any one who could see them growing- side by side. Eventually, perhaps, the Norway would make the larger tree, as it is des- cribed by European writers as one of the tallest of the forest trees of that continent. In old ag-e it is probable that it will equal and possibly surpass the native tree in beauty. The Norway, if planted in numbers, creates far too gloomy an aspect, lacking1 entirely the air of cheerfulness that the Blue Spruce possesses. The tree is sold by nurserymen every- where and is so common as not to need description here. Our specimens averag-e 13>^ feet in heig-ht and 11 inches in circum- ference. White Spruce. (Picea canadensis (Mill.) B. S. P.) Of the several specimens of this tree on our grounds, all are so scrawny and unthrifty as to be unworthy of notice here, except to say that they have proved a failure; yet, the tree in other locations in this region has shown so many g-ood qualities that it would be unfair to condemn it outrig-ht; moreover, in the new forestry experiment several thousand young- trees are making so fine a start that it seems probable that the opinion one would form of the trees in the old experiment will be reversed. Un- suitableness of the soil, or some accident in handling the trees, may be the source of the backward and stubby growth in the old plantation. The White Spruces now average in size but 8 feet in height and 10^4 inches in circumference. The White Spruce is less commonly planted as an orna- mental than the Norway, the latter being considered more rapid in growing, and its stately habit of growth is preferred by many. The first quality named is one much in favor of the imported species, but the points of difference in appearance seem to me to be in favor of the White Spruce. The aspect of the Norway Spruce is stiff and formal and if there be more of them than a few specimens in an assemblage of trees these qualities tire one. The habit of growth of the native spruce is more sturdy, picturesque and variable, and quite more generally to be pre- 260 BULLKTIN NO. 62. ferred. What is here said of the superiority of the White Spruce over the Norway is also true of the Black Spruce, (Picea mar- iana (Mill) B. S. P.) a native of this country much like the White Spruce in manner of growth, but differing- in color and in some minor botanical characters. Both of these spruces have a number of horticultural varieties most of which are well worthy of trial as ornamentals. Arborvitae* (Thuja occidental} s L.) The behavior of the trees of this species has been very satisfactory, indeed. All have made a steady, rapid growth and their average height is now 15 feet and 'their circumference, 14 inches. Three of the largest specimens were transplanted without much trouble from the Station grounds to the College campus last winter, and seem to have suffered but little from the change; trees of this age could hardly have been moved successfully without so planning that a large ball of earth, weighing in this case more than a ton, and frozen solid, could incompass and so retain the entire root system. Smaller trees in the new plantation have been moved without the loss of a twig. This is a common ornamental in most parts of the country. Frequently we hear it called Cedar or Juniper. There are a great many varieties of this species offered by nurserymen some of which are to be preferred to the tree in question; this is nota- bly true of the Siberian Arbor vitae, a variety with foliage much superior to that of the common tree, which is hardly ever to be seen without a mixture of yellow leaves interspersed with its green foliage, and which in the winter turns a brownish color as if seared — bad qualities not found in the variety named. For particular purposes other varieties have much merit. Nearly all of the Arborvitaes make fine hedges as they stand trimming remarkably well. Some of these trees should find a place on the -premises of all who are planting for ornament. • UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY